THE  UNIVERSITY 


OF  ILLINOIS 

LIBRARY 

0  3  0 


>)ow  to  take  out  the  Old 
Pages  and  put  in  tiae  New 


^  Willi  .^  (uu■  key  you  loosen  the  nut  at 
the  top  and  bottom  of  the  Vokimo  and  lift 
tho  front  cover. 


ert  the  prong-s  into*  the  post  of  the  Vo 
lie;  Blide  the  pag-es  from  the  Volume  r 

the  transfer  frame;  remove  theoldpag-f 
id  substitute  tlie  new. 


I -After  the  new  pag-e.o  have  been  in- 
•  rted,  the  old  pag-es  can.be  thrown  awa\ 
and  the  Volume  locked.  To  lock  the  Vol 
ume  fit  the  pins  of  the  upper  cover  into 
the  posts  as  shown  in  first  illustration,  close 
the  Volume,  press  it  down  tig-ht;  with  your 
left  hand  and  tigrhten  the  nut  at  the  top 
and  bottom.    THAT'S  ALL. 


NELSON 


EDITOR 

WILLIAM  M.  SCHUYLER 


THOMAS    NELSON    AND  SONS 

LONDON    EDINBURGH    NEW  YORK    PARIS   TORONTO  MELBOURNE 


FIRST    PUBLISHED   AND    COPYRIGHTED  I905 
BY   THOMAS    NELSON    &    SONS,    NEW  YORK 
THIS    EDITION    REVISED   AND    COPYRIGHTED  I932 
COPYRIGHTED    RENEWAL    PAGES  ISSUED 
SEMI-ANNUALLY   FOR   SUBSEQUENT  YEARS 


PRINTED   IN  THE    UNITED   STATES   OF  AMERICA 


LIST  OF  CONTRACTIONS  USED 


IN  THIS  WORK. 


ac,  acres. 

agric,  agricultural, 

Ala.,  Alabama. 

alt.,  altitude. 

Alta.,  Alberta. 

Amer.,  America  or  American. 

anc,  ancient. 

ann.,  annual. 

Ar.,  Arabic. 

Aram.,  Aramaic. 

Ariz.,  Arizona. 

Ark.,  Arkansas. 

arr.,  arrondissement. 

A.  S.,  Anglo-Saxon. 

A.  v.,  Authorized  Version, 
aver.,  average. 

b.  p.,  boiling  point, 
bor.,  borough. 

Brit.,  Britain  or  British. 

B.  C,  British  Columbia, 
bur.,  burgh. 

c.  (circa),  about. 

C.  centigrade. 
Cal.,  California, 
cap.,  capital, 
cf.,  compare. 
CO.,  county. 
Colo.,  Colorado. 
Com.,  Commission, 
comm.,  commune. 
Conn,,  Connecticut, 
cub.  ft.,  cubic  feet. 
Dan.,  Danish. 

D.  C,  District  of  Columbia. 
Del.,  Delaware. 

d«p.,  department, 
dist.,  district, 
div.,  division. 
Du.,  Dutch. 

E.  ,  east. 

eccles.,  ecclesiastical. 

ed.,  edition;  edited. 

6.  g.,  for  example. 

Eng.,  England  or  English. 

episc,  episcopal. 

et.  seq.,  and  the  following. 

F.  ,  Fahrenheit. 
Fla.,  Florida, 

fort,  tn.,  fortified  town. 
Fr.,  French, 
ft.,  feet. 
Ga.,  Georgia. 
Ger.,  German. 

gov.,  government, 
r,,  Greek. 


Heb.,  Hebrew. 
I.,  isl.,  island, 
la.,  Iowa, 
ibid.,  the  same, 
i.  e.,  that  is. 
111.,  Illinoia. 
in.,  inches. 

Ind.  T.,  Indian  Territory. 

Ind.,  Indiana. 

Ire.,  Ireland  or  Irish. 

Ital.,  Italian. 

Kan.,  Kansas. 

Ky.,  Kentucky. 

1.,  lake. 

La.,  Louisiana. 

Lat.,  Latin. 

lat.,  latitude. 

1.  bk.,  left  bank. 

lit.,  literally. 

long.,  longitude. 

m.,  miles. 

Man.,  Manitoba. 

Mass.,  Massachusetts. 

Md.,  Maryland. 

Me.,  Maine. 

M.  E.,  Methodist  Episcopal. 

Meth.,  Methodist. 

Mich..,  Michigan. 

Minn.,  Minnesota. 

Miss.,  Mississippi. 

Mo.,  Missouri. 

Mont.,  Montana. 

m.  p.,  melting  point. 

mrkt.  tn.,  market-town, 

Mt.,  mts.,  mount,  mountain,  -s. 

munic,  municipal. 

N.,  north. 

Neb.,  Nebraska. 

N.  B.,  New  Brunswick. 

N.  C,  North  Carolina. 

N.  Dak.,  North  Dakota. 

Nev.,  Nevada. 

N.  H.,  New  Hampshire. 

N.  J.,  New  Jersey. 

N.  Mex.,  New  Mexico, 

N.  S.,  Nova  Scotia. 

N.  T.,  New  Testament. 

N.  W.  T.,  Northwest  Territories. 

N.  Y.,  New  York. 

0.,  Ohio. 

Okla.,  Oklahoma. 
Ont.,  Ontario. 
Ore.,  Oregon. 
0.  T.,  Old  Testament, 
■^ar.,  parish. 


pari.,  parliamentary. 

Pa.,  Pennsylvania. 

P.  E.,  Protestant  Episcopal. 

P.  E.  I.,  Prince  Edward  Island. 

Per.,  Persian. 

P.  I.,  Philippine  Islands. 

pop.,  population. 

Port.,  Portuguese. 

P.  R.,  Puerto  Rico. 

Presb.,  Presbyterian. 

prom.,  promontory. 

prov.,  province. 

pueb.,  pueblo. 

Que.,  Quebec. 

q.  v.,  which  see. 

R.,  riv.,  river. 

r.  bk.,  right  bank. 

R.  C,  Roman  Catholic. 

R.  R.,  or  ry.,  railroad  or  railway 

R.  I.,  Rhode  Island, 

R.  v..  Revised  Version, 

R.  R.  jn.,  railroad  junction. 

S.,  south. 

Sans.,  Sanskrit. 

Sask.,  Saskatchewan. 

S.  C,  South  Carolina. 

Scot.,  Scotland  or  Scottish. 

S.  Dak.,  South  Dakota. 

seapt.,  seaport. 

Sp.,  Spanish. 

sp.  gr.,  specific  gravity. 

sq.  m.,  square  miles. 

stn.,  station. 

S.  v.,  under  the  word. 

Syr.,  Syriac. 

temp.,  temperature. 

Tenn.,  Tennessee. 

terr.,  territory. 

Tex.,  Texas. 

tn.,  town. 

trans.,  translated. 

trib.,  tributary, 

JJ.  S.,  United  States  of  America. 

Va.,  Virginia. 

vil.,  village, 

vol.,  volume, 

Vt.,  Vermont, 

W.,  west. 

Wash.,  Washington, 
wat.-pl.,  watering-place, 
W.  Va.,  West  Virginia. 
Wis.,  Wisconsin, 
Wyo.,  Wyoming, 
yds.,  yards. 


^92487 


I 


NELSON'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Saxophone,  a  brass  musical 
instrument  invented  by  Adolphe 
Sax.  It  consists  of  a  conical 
brass  tube,  curved  forward  and 
upwards  at  the  bottom,  and  hav- 
ing a  short  section  bent  back- 
ward at  the  top,  upon  which  a 
mouthpiece  and  reed  resembling 
those  of  the  clarinet  are  fitted. 
The  instrument  contains  twenty- 
lateral  holes,  which  are  covered 
by  keys  and  studs,  and  manipu- 
lated by  the  first  three  fingers  of 
each  hand  of  the  player.  Saxo- 
phones, like  saxhorns,  are  made 
m  a  variety  of  keys  and  sizes,  but 
all  are  fingered  in  a  similar  man- 
ner. Saxophones  are  seldom  used 
in  the  orchestra;  but  in  many 


Saxophone. 


brass  bands  their  rich  and  tell- 
ing tone  is  employed  with  great 
effect. 

Saxton,  Joseph  (1799-1873), 
American  inventor,  born  in  Hunt- 
ingdon, Pa.  In  1817  he  estab- 
lished a  watch-making  business 
in  Philadelphia,  and  invented 
machinery  for  making  the  wheels 
and  gearing  of  watches.  In  1828 
he  went  to  London,  and  met 
several  scientists  connected  with 
the  Royal  Institution,  before 
whom,  in  1833,  he  demonstrated 
the  operation  of  his  magneto- 
electric  machine.  In  1834  he 
raceived  the  Scott  medal  of  the 


Franklin  Institute  for  his  reflect- 
ing pyrometer.  In  1837  he  was 
appointed  curator  of  the  standard 
weighing  apparatus  of  the  U.  S. 
Mint  in  Philadelphia,  and  super- 
intendent of  construction  of  bal- 
ances and  apparatus  for  branch 
mints.  He  also  invented  a  deep- 
sea  thermometer  used  by  the  U.  S. 
Coast  Survey. 

Say,  Jean  Baptiste  (1767- 
1832),  French  writer  on  pohtical 
economy,  born  at  Lyons.  He 
popularized  political  economy  in 
France,  and  was  a  disciple  of 
Adam  Smith,  whose  method  he 
closely  adopted.  In  1799  he  was 
given  a  seat  in  the  tribunate,  but 
retired  when  Napoleon  assumed 
the  throne.  His  works  are  as  fol- 
lows: Traite  d'Economie  Poli- 
tique (1802;  Eng.  trans.  1821); 
Catechisme  d'Economie  Politique 
(1815;  Eng.  trans.  1816);  Letters 
a  Malthus  sur  Dijjerents  Sujets 
d'Economie  Politique  (1820;  Eng. 
trans.  1821) ;  Cours  Complet 
d'Economie  Politique  Pratique  (6 
vols.  1829).  He  also  wrote  De 
I'Angleterre  et  des  Anglais  (1815; 
Eng.  trans.  1816). 

Say,  Leon  (1826-96},  French 
financier,  grandson  of  the  above, 
was  born  at  Paris.  He  was 
president  of  the  Senate  in  1880- 
81,  and  minister  of  finance  in 
1882.  Among  his  works  are  Tur- 
aot  (Eng.  trans.  1888)  :  Bconomic 
Sociale  (1891)  ;  Contre  le  Socia- 
lismc  (1896)  ;  and  Les  Finances 
de  la  France  sous  la  Troisieme 
Republique  (4  vols.  1898-1901). 
He  also  edited  Dictionnaire  des 
Finances  (2  vols.  1883-94)  and 
Nouvcau  Dictionnaire  d'Econo- 
mie Politique  (2  vols.  1891-2). 

Say,  Thomas  (1787-1834), 
American  naturalist,  born  in 
Philadelphia.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia 
(1812).  He  was  author  of /^mcr- 
ican  Entomology  (3  vols.  1824- 
8),  and  American  Conchology 
(1858). 

Sayana,  or  Syana.  a  Hindu 
scholar  of  the  14th  century.  In 
conjunction  with  his  brother, 
Madhava  or  Madhavacharya,  he 
is  noted  for  a  commentary  on  the 
Rigveda,  which  has  been  much 
discussed,  the  result  being  de- 


structive of  its  authoritative  and 
its  representative  character.  By 
some  writers  Sayana  and  Mad- 
hava are  regarded  as  one  person, 
identical  with  the  latter. 

Saybrook,  town,  Connecticut, 
Middlesex  county,  on  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
Railroad ;  about  7  miles  from 
Long  Island  Sound  and  29 
miles  east  of  New  Haven.  It 
manufactures  small  metal  arti- 
cles, ivory  goods,  augers,  gimlets, 
and  boxes.  Its  town  hall  con- 
tains in  its  archives  the  early  rec- 
ords of  the  original  settlement 
established  in  1635  by  the  young- 
er John  Winthrop  at  Saybrook 
Point  and  named  in  honor  of  the 
Puritan  noblemen,  Lord  Say  and 
Lord  Brooke.  The  town  was 
united  with  the  colony  of  Con- 
necticut in  1644.  It  was  the  seat 
of  the  collegiate  School  of  Con- 
necticut, now  Yale  University, 
from  1701  to  1716.  The  Say- 
brook Platform  was  adopted  here 
in  1708  by  a  synod  of  the  Congre- 
gational Church.  Saybrook  was 
originally  on  both  river  and 
sound,  and  included  also  Ches- 
ter, Old  Saybrook,  Essex,  and 
Westbrook.  Pop.  (1930)  2,381  ; 
(1940)  2,332.  Old  Saybrook,  in 
the  same  county,  is  on  Long  Is- 
land Sound  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Connecticut  river  and  is  served 
by  New  Haven  and  Shore  Line 
buses.  It  took  its  present  name 
in  1854  when  Deep  River  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Saybrook. 
Fenwick  is  the  borough  of  the 
town.    Pop.  (1940)  1,985. 

Sayce,  Archibald  Henry 
(1845-1933),  English  philologist, 
born  at  Shirehampton,  near  Bris- 
tol. In  1870  he  became  tutor  of 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  in 
1876  deputy  professor  of  com- 
parative philology  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford :  professor  of  As- 
syriology  in  1891.  He  was  on 
the  committee  for  the  revision  of 
the  Old  Testament  (1874-84). 
Among  his  many  works  are  :  The 
Principles  of  Comparative  Phi- 
lology (1875)  ;  Introduction  to 
the  Science  of  Language  (4th 
ed.     1900)  ;     The  Monuments 


Sayre 


KFN 


2 


Scala 


(1845-1933),  English  philologist, 
born  at  Shirehampton,  near  Bris- 
tol. In  1870  he  became  tutor  of 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  in 
1876  deputy  professor  of  com- 
parative philology  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  ;  professor  of  As- 
ryriology  in  1891.  He  was  on 
the  committee  for  the  revision  of 
the  Old  Testament  (1874-84). 
Among  his  many  works  are  :  The 
Principles  of  Comparative  Phi- 
lology (1875);  Introduction  to 
the  Science  of  Language  (4th  ed. 
1900)  ;  The  Monuments  of  the 
Hittites  (1881);  Herodotus 
(  1883)  ;  The  Ancient  Empires  of 
the  East  (  1884);  the  Hibbert 
Lectures  on  'Babylonian  Reli- 
gion' (1887);  The  Hittites 
(1889)  ;  The  Higher  Criticism 
and  the  Verdict  of  the  Monu- 
ments (1894)  ;  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians  (1900)  ;  Records  of 
the  Past  (1874-77,  1888-92); 
Egyptian  and  Babylonian  Reli- 
gions (1903)  ;  Archarology  of 
Cuneifornv  Inscriptions  (1907). 

Sayre,  borough,  Pennsylvania, 
Bradford  county,  on  the  _N. 
branch  of  the  Susquehanna  Riv- 
er, and  on  the  Lehigh  Valley, 
Erie,  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna 
and  Western  railroads;  17  miles 
s.E.  of  Elmira,  N.  Y.  It  is  lo- 
cated in  an  agricultural  region 
adjacent  to  the  coal  fields.  It 
possesses  the  Robert  Packer  Hos- 
pital and  two  parks.  Its  indus- 
tries include  the  Lehigh  Valley 
railway  shops,  stamping  works, 
machine  shops,  metal  works,  and 
manufactories  of  car  wheels. 
There  is  a  trade  in  lumber  and 
coal,  and  in  the  cereals,  dairy 
products,  vegetables,  and  poultry 
raised  in  the  surrounding  district. 
The  place  was  first  settled  in 
1876  and  incorporated  in  1891. 
Pop.  (1930)  7,902;  (1940)  7,- 
569. 

Sayre,  Lewis  Albert  (1820- 
1900),  American  surgeon,  born 
in  Madison,  N.  J.  He  graduated 
at  the  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons,  New  York,  in  1842, 
began  to  practise  in  New  York, 
and  in  1853—73  was  surgeon  to 
Belkvne  Hospital.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Bellevue 
Hosp'"ta]  Medical  School  (1861), 
and  wri'-'  a  mem1)er  of  the  faculty 
until  1898,  when  the  school  be- 
came a  part  of  New  York  Uni- 
versity. He  was  also  founder 
of  the  New  York  Academy  of 
Me(b"cine  and  the  New  York 
Pathok)gical  Society,  and  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  American 
Medical  Association.  He  was  a 
specialist  in  diseases  of  the  hip 
and  spine,  and  invented  many  in- 
struments to  deal  with  them.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  surgeons  to 
use  plaster  of  Paris  in  spinal 
complaints. 

Sayre,  Stki'ukn  (1734-1818), 
American  patriot,  born  at  South- 
ampton, Long  Island,  N.  Y.  He 


became  a  banker  in  London,  Eng- 
land. Owing  to  his  outspoken 
sympathy  for  the  revolted  colo- 
nies, he  was  accused  of  treason 
and  was  imprisoned  for  a  time 
in  the  Tower.  Upon  his  release, 
he  became  active  as  a  self-ap- 
pointed agent  in  endeavoring  to 
secure  assistance  for  the  colonies, 
and  vainly  endeavored  to  per- 
suade Frederick  the  Great  to  rec- 
ognize the  colonies.  For  his 
services  in  this  capacity  he  ob- 
tained partial  payment  from  Con- 
gress. In  1783  he  returned  to 
America  ;  was  later  engaged  for 
a  time  in  business  in  Havre, 
France  ;  acted  as  an  agent  of  the 
Revolutionists  in  1792.  He  pub- 
lished The  English  Deceived 
(1768),  and  a  Menvorial  setting 
forth  his  claims  to  Congress 
(1808). 

Sayreville,  town.  New  Jer- 
sey, Middlesex  coimty,  on  the 
Raritan  River  ;  6  miles  from  New 
Brunswick.  It  is  located  in  the 
rich  clay  fields,  and  has  manu- 
factures of  bricks,  soda  water, 
cigars,  and  powder.  Pop.  (1930) 
8,658  ;  (1940)  8,186. 

Sbarretti,  Donatus  (1856- 
1939),  Roman  Catholic  prelate 
born  in  Montefranco,  Italy  ;  took 
his  theological  course  at  the  Col- 
lege of  St.  Appollinaris,  Rome ; 
was  for  several  years  professor 
of  speculative  and  moral  philoso- 
phy at  the  College  of  the  Prop- 
aganda, Rome ;  was  ordained 
(1879)  while  holder  of  that 
chair  ;  had  charge  at  the  Propa- 
ganda of  Affairs  of  the  Church 
in  the  United  States ;  became 
private  chamberlain  to  Pope  Leo 
XIII,  first  auditor  of  the  apostolic 
legation  in  the  United  States 
(1893-1900),  bishop  of  Havana 
(1900),  apostolic  delegate  ex- 
traordinary to  the  Philippines 
and  titular  archbishop  of  Ephe- 
sus  (1901),  and  apostolic  dele- 
gate to  Canada  (1902-10).  He 
became  a  cardinal  priest  in  1916 
and  a  cardinal  bishop  in  1928. 

Sc.  {scilicet),  namely;  under- 
stood. 

Scabies.    See  Itch. 

Scabious,  a  genus  of  hardy 
herbaceous  plants  belonging  to 
the  order  Dipsacese.  They  bear 
terminal  heads  of  white,  rosy, 
purple,  or  yellowish  flowers,  and 
many  are  desirable  garden  plants. 
S.  succisa,  the  primrose  scabious, 
is  a  common  European  plant, 
which  bears  purplish-blue  flow- 
ers. The  sweet  scabious  {S.  atro- 
purpurea)  is  a  common  garden 
plant,  with  quaint  flowers  of 
many  tints  on  tall  stems. 

Scaevola,  a  family  of  the  Mu- 
cian  clan  at  ancient  Rome.  (1.) 
Gatus  Mircni.s  Scvicvola,  who  is 
said  to  have  won  the  name  Scae- 
vola ('left-handed')  by  his  attempt 
to  murder  Porsena,  in  which  he 
lost  his  right  hand.  For  the  story, 
see    Porsena.      (2.)  Quintus 


Mucins  Sc^vola,  known  as  the 
augur,  was  praetor  and  governor 
of  Asia  in  121  B.C.,  and  consul  in 
117.    He  lived  to  about  88  b.c, 


Scabious  succisa. 


1,  Flower ;  2,  f rait ;  3,  section  of  frait. 

and  Cicero  was  his  pupil  in  law. 
(3.)  Quintus  Mucius  Sc^ola, 
son  of  No.  2,  was  consul  in  95 
B.C.,  and  afterwards  governed 
Asia  with  great  justice.  Event- 
ually he  became  pontifex  max- 
imus ;  but  he  was  murdered  in 
82  B.C.,  after  being  proscribed  by 
the  Marians.  He  was  famous  for 
his  equity,  his  eloquence,  and  his 
knowledge  of  law  ;  he  first  made 
a  system  of  the  civil  law. 

Sea  Fell,  mountain,  Cumber- 
land, England,  near  head  of  Wast 
Water.  Its  summit,  Scafell  Pike 
(3,210  ft.),  is  the  highest  emi- 
nence in  England. 

Scagliola,  stucco,  or  imitation 
stonework,  for  interior  decora- 
tion, columns,  pilasters,  invented 
in  Italy  (1600-50),  is  formed  by 
a  combination  of  pure  white  plas- 
ter and  glue  applied  to  a  pre- 
pared surface.  Gypsum,  finely 
powdered  and  calcined,  is  mixed 
with  glue  and  isinglass  to  imitate 
the  whiteness  of  marble,  the  vein- 
ing  being  reproduced  by  coloring 
of  metallic  oxides,  and  the  whole 
polished  with  pumice-stone  ;  with 
tripoli,  charcoal,  and  linen  ;  with 
felt,  tripoli,  and  oil ;  and  finally 
with  pure  oil,  till  a  perfect  sur- 
face has  been  formed.  Breccias, 
granite,  porphyries  are  imitated 
by  cutting  into  the  stucco  and 
filling  tlie  cavities  with  appro- 
priately ccilored  paste. 

Scaia,  Della,  a  distinguished 
Italian  family,  the  members  of 
which,  as  'Vicars  of  the  Holy  Ro- 
man Empire,'  erected  an  illegal 
authority  on  the  basis  of  impe- 


^cala  Sants 


KFN 


3 


Scapula 


rial  right  in  Verona,  The  fam- 
ily attained  its  greatest  height 
under  Can  Grande  della  Scala, 
who  was  the  (imperiahst)  Ghibel- 
hnes'  greatest  general,  and  his 
nephew  Mastino,  whose  epoch 
embraced  the  first  half  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  The  decay 
of  the  house  began  immediately 
after  the  death  of  the  latter,  and 
in  1387  its  ruin  was  finally  accom- 
plished by  Gian  Galeazzo  of 
Milan.  The  Scali  were  munifi- 
cent patrons  of  literature,  Can 
Grande  being  the  patron  of 
Dante.  Consult  Sismondi's 
tory  of  the  Italian  Republics  and 
Symonds'  Renaissance  in  Italy. 

Scala  Santa.  See  Santa 
Scala. 

Scalchi,  skal'ke,  Sofia  (1850- 
),  Italian  contralto  singer, 
was  born  in  Turin.  She  became 
a  pupil  of  Boccabadati  and  made 
her  debut  at  Mantua  in  1866, 
afterwards  singing  with  great 
success  in  London,  vSt.  Peters- 
burg, Vienna,  and  other  Euro- 
pean capitals.  In  1883  she  went 
to  the  United  States,  and  for  the 
next  ten  or  twelve  years  was 
exceedingly  popular.  Her  voice 
had  a  peculiar  clarinet-like  qual- 
ity, and  exceptional  range  and 
power,  and  her  performance  of 
the  leading  contralto  parts  in 
Mignon,  Semiramide,  Faust,  The 
Huguenots,  A'ida,  Linda,  and 
Martha  won  her  great  fame.  She 
retired  from  the  stage  in  1896. 

Scalds.  See  Burns  and 
Scalds, 

Scale,  in  mUvsic.  See  Music. 

Scale  Insects.  See  Coccid^. 

Scales  are  outgrowths  of  the 
skin  especially  characteristic  of 
reptiles  and  fishes.  The  scales 
of  reptiles  are  folds  of  the  epi- 
dermis, corresponding  to  the 
feathers  of  birds  and  the  hairs 
of  mammals.  Such  scales  also 
occur  on  the  legs  of  birds,  on  the 
tail  of  the  rat,  and  over  the  body 
of  the  pangolins.  The  scales  of 
fishes,  on  the  other  hand,  belong 
to  the  dermis,  or  deeper  layer  of 
the  skin.  In  elasmobranchs 
there  is  a  special  type,  with  a 
basis  of  bone,  known  as  dermal 
denticles  or  placoid  scales. 

Scales,  weighing-machines. 
See  Balance. 

Scaliger,  skal'i-jer,  Joseph 
Justus  (1.540-1609),  French 
scholar,  son  of  Julius  Caesar 
Scaliger  (q.  v.),  was  born  in 
Agen.  By  his  editions  of  the 
classical  authors  and  his  De 
Emendatione  Temporum  (1583), 
wherein  he  once  for  all  fixed  the 
chronology  of  many  of  the  lead- 
ing events  in  the  ancient  world, 
he  placed  himself  in  the  front 
rank  of  European  scholars.  Sum- 
moned to  the  University  of 
Leyden  in  1593  as  the  successor 
of  Justus  Lipsius,  for  the  next 
sixteen  years  he  labored  there; 
but  during  his  last  years  he  be- 
came embroiled  with  the  Jesuits, 
and  by  his  overbearing  insolence 


brought  down  on  himself  the 
invectives  of  Scioppius.  Besides 
his  recensions  of  the  Roman 
poets,  he  edited  Eiisebius  (1606), 
Manilius  (1579),  and  other 
works  in  a  style  unsurpassed  for 
critical  acumen  and  practical 
sagacity.  His  love  of  truth  was 
a  passion,  but  he  was  at  times 
obstinately  dogmatic  in  the 
defence  of  positions  afterwards 
discovered  to  be  untenable. 

Scaliger,  Julius  C^sar  (1484- 
1558),  Italian  humanist,  was 
born  in  the  castle  of  Riva  on 
Lake  Garda,  Italj^  He  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  the 
classics  and  medicine,  and  prac- 
tised the  latter  at  Agen  in  Gui- 
enne  from  1528  until  his  death. 
His  first  notable  works  were 
two  orations  in  reply  to  the 
Ciceronianus  of  Erasmus,  full  of 
venomous  abuse.  Scaliger  was 
a  vomminous  author,  and  was 
perpetually  engaged  in  contro- 
versy, his  chief  works  being  De 
Causis  Linguce  Latince,  Poetices 
Libri  Septem  ad  Sylvium,  Com- 
mentarii  de  Causis  Plan  tar  um 
Theophrasti,  Aristotelis  Historia 
de  Animalibus,  Commentarii  in 
Hippocratis  Librum  de  Insom- 
niis.  Consult  Lives  by  Laffore 
and  Magen. 

Scallop.    See  Pecten. 

Scalp,  the  outer  covering  of 
the  skull,  composed  of  (1)  the 
skin  over  the  vault  of  the  crani- 
um; (2)  the  underlying  subcu- 
taneous fatty  tissue;  and  (3)  the 
occipito-frontalis  muscle  and  its 
aponeurosis.  From  the  peri- 
cranium, or  periosteum  of  the 
skull,  it  is  separated  by  a  layer 
of  loose  connective  tissue,  which 
allows  of  free  mobility.  The 
skin  of  the  human  scalp  is  thicker 
than  that  of  any  other  part  of 
the  body.  Owing  to  its  great 
recuperative  power,  large  flaps 
of  the  scalp  may  be  separated 
from  the  periosteum  below  with- 
out a  tendency  to  slough.  See 
also  Hair  and  Hair,  Diseases 

OF. 

Scalping,  a  practice  known  to 
many  tribes  of  North  American 
Indians  in  which  a  trophy  of  vic- 
tory was  secured  by  removing  a 
part  or  all  of  the  skin  from  the 
head  of  a  fallen  foe.  This  trophy 
usually  served  two  purposes:  it 
was  a  guarantee  that  the  bearer 
killed  or  was  present  at  the  killing 
of  an  enemy;  and  it  was  the 
chief  object  and  occasion  of  the 
scalp  dance,  an  important  cere- 
mony performed  by  the  female 
relatives  of  the  warrior  bringing 
in  the  scalp. 

Scaly  Ant  Eater.  See  Pan- 
golin. 

Scaman'der,  river  of  antiquity, 
flows  from  Mt.  lua  through  the 
plain  of  Troy,  and  after  uniting 
with  the  Simois  falls  into  the  sea 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Hellespont. 
It  is  now  .called  the  Menderez. 

Scam'mony,  a  gum  resin  ob- 
tained from  the  root  of  Convol- 


vulus scamm,onia,  a  plant  of 
Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  The 
root  is  either  dried,  when  it 
occurs  in  shrivelled,  cylindrical, 
brownish  portions,  with  a  pale 
fibrous  fracture  and  faint  odor, 
or  is  incised  when  growing, 
when  a  brittle  gum  resin  exudes, 
of  dark-brown  color  and  peculiar 
odor.  vScammony  resin,  which 
is  extracted  by  alcohol  and  pre- 
cipitated by  water,  is  a  powerful 
purgative,  and  vermicide. 

Scan'derbeg — i.e.  Iskander 
(Alexander)  Beg — (1407-67),  Al- 
banian chieftain,  whose  real 
name  was  George  Castroit,  was 
the  son  of  an  hereditary  prince 
of  Epirus.  He  was  taken  to 
Constantinople  as  a  hostage  at 
seven  years  of  age,  was  forced  to 
embrace  Mohammedanism, 
eventually  entered  the  Turkish 
army,  and  became  a  favorite  of 
Murad  ii.  But  the  Sultan  hav- 
ing taken  possession  of  his 
principality  on  his  father's  death, 
Scanderbeg  deserted  (1443),  re- 
nounced Mohammedanism,  and 
proclaimed  the  independence  of 
Albania.  For  a  quarter  of  a 
century  he  successfully  resisted 
all  the  efforts  of  the  Turks  to 
conquer  him.    See  Albania. 

Scanderoon.  See  Alexan- 
dretta. 

Scandina'via,  name  applied  in 
a  restricted  sense  to  the  penin- 
sula of  Norway  and  Sweden, 
and  more  broadly  to  the  lands 
occupied  by  the  Scandinavian 
people — Denmark,  Iceland,  and 
Norway  and  Sweden. 

Scandinavian  Mythology.  See 
Mythology:  Northern. 

Scan'dium,  Sc,  45.1,  is  a  metal 
of  the  'rare  earths.'  It  has  not 
been  isolated  in  the  elementary 
state,  but  forms  colorless  salts, 
derived  from  an  oxide  SC2O3, 
that  do  not  exhibit  an  absorp- 
tion spectrum. 

Scania,  ska'nia,  ancient  prov- 
ince of  Sweden,  now  comprised 
in  the  counties  of  Malmohus  and 
Kristianstad. 

Scapa  Flow,  an  expanse  of 
water,  in  the  southern  Orkneys, 
Scotland,  15  miles  in  length  by 
about  8  miles  broad.  It  was  the 
chief  British  naval  base  during 
the  First  World  War,  and  here 
the  German  fleet  was  interned 
after  its  surrender. 

Scapegoat.    See  Azazel. 

Scaph'oid  Bones,  four  some- 
what boat-shaped  bones,  one  in 
each  wrist  and  one  in  each  ankle. 
The  former  lie  in  the  upper  row 
of  carpal  bones;  the  latter  are 
situated  at  the  inner  side  of  the 
ankle  joint,  between  the  astra- 
galus behind  and  the  cuneiform 
bones  in  front. 

Scap'ula,  or  Shoulder  Blade, 
one  of  the  two  bones,  the  other 
being  the  clavicle,  which  form 
the  pectoral  arch  or  shoulder 
girdle.  It  is  embedded,  apex 
downwards,  in  the  muscles  of  the 
back,  and  its  mobility  allows  of 


Scarab 


KFN 


4 


Scarlet  Fever 


corresponding  freedom  in  the 
movements  of  the  arm  and  the 
shoulder.    In  its  glenoid  cavity 

C 


Scapula,  or  Shoulder  Blade 
1.  Outer  surface.     2.  Inner  surface:  a. 
acromion  process;  c.  coracoid  process;  cb. 
coracoid  border;  s.  spine;  g.  glenoid  cavity. 

the  head  of  the  humerus  is  re- 
ceived. The  clavicle  articulates 
with  the  acromion  process. 

Scar'ab,  or  Scarab^us,  a 
beetle  held  as  sacred  by  the  an- 
cient Egyptians,  and  reproduced 
by  them  in  metal,  stone  or 
faience,  as  amulets,  which  were 
worn  as  a  protection  against  the 
evil  eye  and  were  placed  also 
upon  the  breast  of  the  dead. 
In  the  true  scarab  amulet  the 
insect  original  is  reproduced  with 
faithful  and  often  beautiful  de- 
tail; but  a  number  of  these  amu- 
lets ('scarabaeoids')  only  faintly 


Egyptian  Scarab 
1.  Stone  scarab  with  wings,  sun  and  asps 
of  silver.  2.  The  sacred  beetle  (Scarabwus 
sacer).  3.  Scarab  (British  Museum).  _  4. 
Scaralj  seal  from  the  tomb  of  Maket  (time 
of  Thothmes  iii.).  5,  6.  Scarabs  from 
monuments. 

suggest  a  beetle,  and  bear  other 
designs.  Scarabs  were  also  used 
as  seals.    See  Scarabwus. 

Scarabseus,  skar-a-be'us,  a 
genus  of  dung-eating  lamellicorn 
beetles.  The  most  famous  species 
in  S.  sacer,  the  sacred  beetle  of 
the  Egyptians  (see  Scarab), 
which  also  occurs  in  southern 
Europe.  According  to  Fabre, 
the  female  detaches  a  portion  of 
the  droppings  of  cattle  or  other 
animals,  and  rolls  it  up  into  a 
ball.  Having  excavated  a  hole, 
she  then  bviries  herself  with  the 
ball,  and  remains  buried  until 
the  dung  is  completely  con- 
sumed;  when  she  again  emerges 


in  search  of  a  fresh  supply.  It 
was  probably  this  emergence 
after  a  period  of  quiescence 
underground  which  led  the  Egyp- 
tians to  regard  the  beetle  as  a 
type  of  immortality.  It  ap- 
parently remains  entirely  quies- 
cent underground  through  the 
hot  weather,  coming  forth  again 
in  autumn.  The  egg  is  laid  in  the 
middle  of  the  dung  in  the  autumn 
and  the  chamber  carefully  closed. 
The  American  dung  beetles  are 
of  numerous  species  and  similar 
habits. 

Scarborough,  skar-bro',  sea- 
port and  fashionable  watering- 
place,  England,  in  the  North 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the 
North  Sea,  21  miles  northeast  of 
Malton.  The  town  is  divided 
into  two  parts  by  a  bold  promon- 
tory called  the  'Scaur'  (300  ft.), 
on  which  stand  the  ruins  of  an 
ancient  castle.  Seaward  are 
precipitous  cliffs,  and  on  the 
land  side  a  narrow  causeway 
across  the  moat  leads  to  the  plat- 
form. The  old  town  rises  in  tiers 
below  the  castle,  and  is  bounded 
on  the  south  by  a  picturesque 
ravine,  the  Ramsdale  valley, 
crossed  by  two  bridges,  affording 
communication  with  the  more 
fashionable  district  beyond.  The 
steep  slopes  of  the  cliff  have  been 
converted  into  ornamental 
grounds,  and  at  the  foot  is  the 
Spa,  now  serving  chiefly  as  a 
lounge  for  visitors  and  a  centre 
of  amusements.  The  present 
buildings  were  opened  in  1880. 
A  fine  promenade  overlooks  the 
sea.  South  of  the  castle  is  the 
harbor,  frequented  by  fishing 
boats.  The  part  of  the  town 
north  of  the  castle  is  fronted  by 
the  North  Cliff,  on  the  slopes  of 
which  are  the  Clarence  Gardens; 
and  along  the  base  extends  the 
Royal  Albert  Drive,  continued 
around  the  foot  of  the  castle 
promontory  by  the  Marine  Ex- 
tension Drive.  The  church  of 
St.  Mary  is  ancient;  a  new  town 
hall,  adapted  from  St.  Nicholas 
Mansion,  was  opened  in  1903. 
Pop.  (1931)  79,372  (with  Whit- 
by), During  the  First  World 
War  the  town  was  raided  by  a 
German  cruiser  squadron  (1914) 
and  shelled  by  a  submarine  (1917). 

Scarlatina.  See  Scarlet 
Fever. 

Scarlatti,  ska-lat'te,  Ales- 
sandro  (1659-1725),  Italian  mu- 
sical composer,  was  born  in  Tra- 
pani,  Sicily.  For  some  years  he 
was  attached  to  the  court  of 
Christina,  queen  of  Sweden,  at 
Rome,  and  in  1694  was  ap- 
pointed director  to  the  viceroy 
of  Naples.  Subsequently  he  be- 
came a  teacher  in  three  of  the 
four  conservatories  in  Naples. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  mod- 
ern school  of  Italian  opera,  and 
a  prolific  composer  in  nearly 
every  branch  of  music.  The 
compositions  of  his  son  Dome- 
nico    (1683-1757),   one  of  the 


first  composers  for  the  harpsi- 
chord, did  much  to  develop  the 
technique  of  pianoforte  playing. 
See  Music;  Opera.  Consult 
Life  by  E.  J.  Dent. 

Scarlet  Fever,  or  Scarlatina, 
an  acute  contagious  disease  char- 
acterized by  sudden  onset  with 
fever,  sore  throat,  vomiting,  and 
a  generalized  eruption  followed 
by  desquamation.  It  may  at- 
tack individuals  at  any  age  above 
infancy,  but  is  commonest  in 
young  children,  50  per  cent,  of 
the  cases  occurring  between  the 
ages  of  two  and  ten  years.  Until 
very  recently  the  causative  or- 
ganism was  unknown,  but  due  to 
the  work  of  G.  F.  and  G.  H. 
Dick,  A.  R.  Dochez,  and  others 
(1923-4),  it  has  been  shown  that 
there  occur  in  the  throats  of 
scarlet  fever  patients  hemolytic 
streptococci  which,  inoculated 
into  the  throats  of  susceptible 
persons,  produce  the  disease 
clinically. 

An  important  outgrowth  of 
this  discovery  is  the  so-called 
Dick  test  for  determining  im- 
munity to  the  disease.  This  is  a 
skin  test  involving  the  intra- 
dermal inoculation  of  minute 
quantities  of  the  toxic  filtrate. 
A  characteristic  skin  reaction, 
comparable  to  the  Schick  diph- 
theria reaction,  occurs  in  sus- 
ceptible persons. 

The  greatest  number  of  cases 
of  scarlet  fever  occur  between 
the  second  or  fifth  day  following 
exposure.  The  eruption  appears 
within  twelve  to  forty-eight 
hours  of  the  onset  of  symp- 
toms, though  its  appearance  is 
sometimes  delayed.  It  is  most 
marked  on  the  neck,  back,  chest, 
groins,  abdomen,  inner  surface 
of  the  thighs,  and  buttocks.  It 
is  composed  of  minute  points, 
at  first  more  or  less  separated, 
but  later  coalescing  so  as  to  give 
the  appearance  of  a  uniform 
coloration.  The  temperature 
rises  abruptly,  reaching  from 
100  to  105°,  remains  at  its  height 
while  the  eruption  is  coming  out, 
and  declines  in  a  stair-like 
fashion,  reaching  normal  in 
about  a  week  or  ten  days.  The 
pulse  rate  increases  with  the 
temperature.  The  throat  is 
reddened  and  sore;  the  glands 
below  the  ears  are  more  or  less 
tender  and  swollen.  The  tongue 
is  heavily  furred,  with  bright 
red  spots  (white  strawberry 
tongue)  where  the  papillae  pro- 
ject. Later  it  becomes  fiery  red 
(red  strawberry  tongue).  The 
eruption  generally  lasts  for  four 
or  five  days  and  fades  away 
from  the  different  parts  in  the 
order  that  it  appeared  on  them. 
Desquamation  or  peeling  begins 
on  the  tongue.  On  the  external 
skin  it  makes  its  appearance 
usually  after  the  first  week,  al- 
though it  may  occur  earlier  or 
be  longer  delayed.  It  is  usually 
complete  by  the  third  v^^eek. 


Scarlet  Fever 


KFN 


5 


Scepticism 


No  other  common  infectious 
disease  is  so  frequently  accom- 
panied or  followed  by  compli- 
cations as  scarlet  fever,  and  it  is 
these  which  cause  it  to  be  so 
dreaded.  They  include  adenitis, 
otitis  media  and  mastoid  disease, 
febrile  albuminuria,  acute  neph- 
ritis, arthritis,  noma  or  cancrum 
oris,  and  heart  lesions.  The  dis- 
ease is  highly  fatal  in  infants 
(death  rate  of  20  to  30  per  cent 
or  more)  but  the  reath  rate  falls 
rapidly  after  the  third  year. 
Toxic  or  malignant  cases  are  al- 
most invariably  fatal. 

Treatment, — The  first  pre- 
caution is  to  isolate  both  patient 
and  suspected  persons,  the  latter 
for  ten  days.  Quarantine  should 
last  for  four  to  six  weeks,  until 
all  discharges  from  the  throat, 
ears,  and  nose  have  ceased. 
Desquamating  scales  are  of  no 
importance  as  carriers  of  the 
disease.  In  outbreaks  suspected 
to  be  due  to  milk,  the  milk  sup- 
ply should  be  shut  off,  or  all  milk 
boiled  before  use. 

All  scarlet  fever  patients 
should  remain  in  bed  for  at  least 
three  full  weeks  from  the  time 
of  onset,  or  until  the  probable 
time  of  occurrence  of  late  com- 
plications has  passed.  The 
bowels  must  be  kept  open  by 
enemas  or  cathartics.  During 
the  period  of  fever  the  diet 
should  be  restricted  to  fluids — 
milk,  fruit  juices,  and  liberal 
amounts  of  water.  The  surface 
of  the  body  should  be  kept 
thoroughly  clean  by  sponging 
once  or  twice  daily  with  warm 
water.  Carbolated  vaseline  is 
useful  for  allaying  itching. 

Where  there  are  much  con- 
gestion and  soreness  of  the 
throat,  gargles  or  sprays  of  mild 
astringent  antiseptics  or  plain 
warm  salt  solution  may  be  used. 
In  severe  cases  douching  the 
nose  and  throat  with  hot  saline 
solution  is  helpful.  Complica- 
tions call  for  special  treatment. 

In  1902  Dr.  Paul  Moser  of 
Vienna  reported  the  use  of  an 
antistreptococcic  serum  in  scar- 
let fever,  which  he  claimed  ex- 
ercised a  favorable  influence  on 
the  course  of  the  disease,  and 
various  others  workers  from  time 
to  time  have  prepared  sera  of 
this  type.  Dochez,  by  inoculat- 
ing a  horse  with  living  germs  and 
products  of  their  growth,  has 
produced  an  immune  servim 
which,  used  therapeutically  a 
short  time  after  the  appearance 
of  the  disease,  causes  a  rapid 
fall  in  temperature,  clears  up 
the  toxic  symptoms,  causes  the 
rash  to  disappear,  and  rapidly 
improves  the  condition  of  the 
throat.  The  Dicks  have  pre- 
pared a  concentrated  antitoxin  by 
immunizing  horses  with  sterile 
scarlet  fever  toxin,  with  which 
they    claim    excellent  results. 


They  have  also  used  scarlet 
fever  toxin  for  the  immuniza- 
tion of  susceptibles.  Some  writ- 
ers have  reported  very  good  re- 
sults from  administration  of 
sulfa  drugs. 

Scarlet  Tanager.    See  Tan- 

AGER. 

Scarpa,  skar'pa,  Antonio 
(1747-1832),  Italian  anatomist 
and  surgeon,  was  born  in  Motta, 
near  Treviso.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Modena 
(1772),  and  at  Pavia  (1784),  and 
acquired  a  European  reputation 
by  his  researches  and  treatises 
on  the  anatomy  of  the  ear,  the 
organs  of  smell,  and  the  nerves 
of  the  heart.  He  was  appointed 
surgeon  to  Napoleon  (1804). 

Scarpanto,  skar'pan-to  (anc. 
Carpathus) ,  mountainous  island 
in  the  ^gean  Sea,  northeast  of 
Crete.  Formerly  Turkish,  it  was 
occupied  by  Italy  in  1912,  and 
has  since  been  under  Italian  rule. 
The  chief  town  is  Aperi.  Pop. 
5,000. 

Scarpe,  river,  France,  in  the 
departments  of  Pas  de  Calais 
and  Nord,  a  tributary  of  the 
Scheldt.  Its  length  is  62  miles. 
The  Scarpe  basin  was  the  scene 
of  important  action  in  the  First 
World  War.  See  Europe,  Great 
War  of. 

Scarron,  ska-r6ri',  Paul 
(1610-60),  French  dramatist, 
poet,  and  novelist,  was  born  in 
Paris.  At  nineteen  he  became  an 
abbe  and  received  a  benefice  at 
Le  Mans,  but  lived  in  Rome, 
where  he  was  known  as  some- 
thing of  a  libertine.  From  1638 
until  his  death  twenty-two  years 
later  he  was  helplessly  crippled. 
Having  lost  his  benefice,  he  took 
up  his  residence  in  Paris,  where 
his  house  became  a  rendezvous 
for  the  wits  and  literati  of  the 
age.  In  1644  he  published  Ty- 
phon,  ou  la  Gigantomachie ,  and 
the  next  year  made  a  still  greater 
hit  with  his  laughable  metrical 
comedy,  Jodelct,  on  le  Maitre 
Valet.  In  1648  appeared  the 
popular  comedy,  L'Heritier  ridi- 
cule. In  1651  he  published  the 
first  part  of  his  famous  work 
Le  Roman  comique  (2d  part, 
1657),  intended  as  a  reaction 
against  the  euphuistic  and  in- 
terminable novels  of  Mile,  de 
Scudery  and  Honore  d'Urfe, 
then  at  the  height  of  popular 
favor.  Other  works  that  de- 
serve mention  are  the  comedies 
Don  Japhet  d'Armenie  and  La 
precaution  inutile ;  his  Nouvelles 
tragicomiques ;  and  the  poem 
Relation  des  parques  et  des  po- 
etes  sur  la  mort  de  voiture.  He 
married  Frangoise  d'Aubigne, 
who  later  became  Madame  de 
Maintenon. 

Scarron's  Works  were  col- 
lected in  1737,  and  by  Baumet 
(2  vols.  1877).  An  English 
translation    appeared    in  1892. 


Consult  Life,  in  French,  by 
Morillot. 

Scartazzini,  skar-tat-tse'ne, 
Giovanni  Andrea  (1837-1901), 
Swiss  author  and  Dante  scholar, 
was  born  at  Bondo  in  the  canton 
of  Grisons,  and  labored  as  a  pas- 
tor at  various  places.  Among 
his  books  are  A  Handbook  to 
Dante  (Eng.  trans.  1887),  A 
Companion  to  Dante  (Eng.  trans. 
1893),  and  Enciclopedia  Dan- 
tesca  (2  vols.  1895-8).  He  edit- 
ed La  Divina  Commedia  (text 
and  commentary,  4  vols.  1874- 
90  ;  new  ed.  1900),  Tasso's  Gcru- 
salemme  Liber ata  (1871),  and 
Petrarch's  Canzoniere  (1883). 

Scaup,  skop  {Marila  marila) , 
a  duck  known  also  as  the  Blue- 
bill,  Widgeon,  Troop  Fowl, 
Broadbill,  and  Blackhead.  It  is 
found  in  the  northern  part  of 
both  hemispheres  ;  in  America  it 


Scaup  Duck 


breeds  from  the  northern  United 
States  to  Alaska,  and  summers 
in  southern  New  England  and  the 
Middle  States.  It  measures  from 
17H  to  21  inches  in  length.  In 
the  drake  the  head,  neck,  and 
chest  are  greenish  black,  the 
back  marked  with  black  and 
white,  the  wings  and  tail  dusky, 
and  the  under  parts  white. 

Scawfell.    See  Sca  Fell. 

Scepticism,  the  philosophical 
doctrine  that  the  human  mind  is 
incapable  of  attaining  true  knowl- 
edge. Agnosticism  is  generally 
used  to  denote  that  form  of 
partial  scepticism  which  relates 
to  religious  knowledge,  and 
phenomenalism  that  form  of 
partial  scepticism  which  denies 
our  knowledge  of  anything  out- 
side the  circle  of  phenomena. 
Scepticism  in  its  broader  sense 
is  doubt  as  to  the  possibility  or 
validity  of  human  knowledge 
generally. 

Of  sceptical  philosophers,  the 
most  notable  was  Pyrrho  of  Elis. 
According  to  him,  man  could 
never  penetrate  beyond  the  sub- 
jective affections  which  things 
produced  in  him  to  the  nature 
of  the  things  themselves ;  his 
true  attitude  was  one  of  indif- 
ference to  all  that  happened. 
To  justify  this  extreme  doctrine, 
one  of  the  later  Pyrrhonists — 
Sextus  Empiricus — made  a  col- 


Sceptre 


KFN 


6 


Schamir 


lection  of  all  the  arguments 
which  had  been  employed  against 
the  validity  of  human  knowledge. 

A  milder  form  of  scepticism, 
which  recognized  various  de- 
grees of  probability  available  for 
the  practical  guidance  of  life, 
prevailed  during  that  period  of 
the  Platonic  school  which  is 
known  as  the  Middle  Academy. 
This  milder  scepticism  found  a 
famous  exponent  in  the  Roman 
Cicero,  though  his  importance  is 
literary  rather  than  philosophi- 
cal. Through  him  it  exercised 
an  influence,  long  afterward,  on 
the  revival  of  classical  learning, 
over  humanists  like  Montaigne. 

In  modern  times  scepticism 
has  been  of  the  partial  rather 
than  of  the  universal  kind.  One 
characteristic  modern  type  has 
been  that  which  depreciates  the 
claims  of  scientific  knowledge  in 
order  to  favor  those  of  religious 
faith  and  revelation — a  type  of 
which  Pascal  is  an  early  repre- 
sentative. It  has  its  anti-religious 
counterpart  in  the  sceptical  doc- 
trine of  the  twofold  truth,  which 
had  already  been  enunciated  in 
the  scholastic  period,  and  which, 
under  a  sometimes  serious,  some- 
times ironical,  profession  of  the 
ultra-rational  character  of  reli- 
gious doctrines,  really  under- 
mines all  belief  in  them.  The 
other  characteristic  type  of  mod- 
ern scepticism  is  that  which  takes 
its  stand  on  physical  science,  and 
advocates  a  sort  of  naturalistic 
positivism  to  the  exclusion  of  any 
higher  knowledge.  The  sensa- 
tionalistic  philosophy  on  which 
such  a  position  is  apt  to  be  based 
had  its  greatest  representative  in 
Hume. 

Sceptre,  a  ruler's  symbol  of 
authority.  In  Greece  it  was  often 
lance-shaped ;  in  Egypt,  tipped 
with  a  plough  or  stork  ;  in  Rome, 
of  ivory,  straight  or  curved.  In 
France  it  was  mounted  with  a 
ball  or  flcur-de-lis.  Famous 
sceptres  are  that  of  Charles  v — 
called  the  sceptre  of  Charle- 
magne— in  the  Louvre  ;  that  of 
Stephen  of  Hungary,  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle ;  that  of  Napoleon  i. 
The  English  sceptre  royal  is  of 
gold,  surmounted  by  a  cross  and 
richly  adorned  with  gems.  It  is 
placed  in  the  sovereign's  hand 
at  the  coronation. 

Schadow,  sha'do,  Johann 
Gottfried  (1754-1850),  Ger- 
man sculptor,  was  born  in  Berlin. 
He  was  director  of  the  Berlin 
Academy  of  Arts  from  1816  until 
his  death.  He  is  known  for  his 
statues  of  Frederick  the  Great  in 
Stettin,  Bliicher  in  Rostock,  the 
monument  of  Luther  at  Witten- 
berg, the  chariot  over  the 
Brandenburg  gate  at  Berlin,  and 
a  great  number  of  royal  portraits 
and  busts.  He  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  that  modern 
German  school  of  sculpture  in 


which  classical  influences  were 
strong. 

Schadow-Godenhaus,  go'- 
d(?n-hous,  Friedrich  Wilhelm 
(1789-1862),  German  historical 
and  portrait  painter,  was  born  in 
Berlin.  He  studied  at  Rome 
under  Cornelius  and  Overbeck, 
and  in  1819  became  professor  in 
the  Berlin  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 
In  1826  he  succeeded  Cornelius 
as  director  of  the  academy  at 
Dtisseldorf.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  The  Four  Evangelists, 
in  the  Werder  church  in  Berlin, 
and  an  Ascension  of  Mary,  in 
St.  Paul's  church  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle. 

Schafer,  sha'fer,  Sir  Edward 
Albert  Sharpey-  (1850-1935), 
English  physiologist,  was  born 
in  London.  In  1874  he  was  made 
assistant  professor  of  physiology 
at  University  College,  London, 
and  was  afterward  Jodrell  pro- 
fessor (1883-90).  In  1899  he  be- 
came professor  of  physiology  in 
Edinburgh  University.  He  was 
president  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  in  1912.  He  was  a  fel- 
low of  the  Royal  Society  and  was 
awarded  the  Royal  and  Copley 
medals.  His  works  include  A 
Course  of  Practical  Histology 
(2d  ed.  1897),  Text-book  of 
Physiology  (2  vols.  1898-1900)  ; 
Essentials  of  Histology  (11th  ed. 
1920)  ;  Qiiain's  Anatomy ;  Ex- 
perimental Physiology  (1910)  ; 
The  Endocrine  Organs  (2d  ed. 
1924).  He  was  also  editor  of 
the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Experi- 
mental Physiology. 

Schaff,  shaf,  Philip  (1819- 
93),  German- American  divine, 
was  born  in  Chur,  Switzerland, 
and  received  his  education  there 
and  at  the  universities  of  Tubin- 
gen, Halle,  and  Berlin,  taking  his 
degree  in  divinity  at  Berlin. 
After  lecturing  at  the  University 
of  Berlin  on  exegesis  and  church 
history  from  1842  to  1844,  he 
was  called  to  the  professorship 
of  theology  in  the  Mercersburg 
(Pa.),  German  Reformed  Iheo- 
logical  Seminary.  He  removed 
to  New  York  City  in  1863,  was 
appointed  professor  of  theologi- 
cal cyclopaedia  and  Christian 
symbolism  in  LTnion  Theological 
Seminary  in  1870,  was  trans- 
ferred to  other  professorships  in 
1874  and  1887,  and  remained 
with  the  institution  until  his 
death.  He  was  president  of  the 
American  Bible  Revision  Com- 
mittee of  1871,  and  edited  several 
important  theological  works,  in- 
cluding the  English  translation 
of  Lange's  Commentary  on  the 
Holy  Scriptures  (24  vols.,  1864- 
86).  He  was  a  founder  and 
honorary  secretary  of  the  Amer- 
ican branch  of  the  Evangelical 
Alliance,  was  first  president  of 
the  American  Society  of  Church 
History,   and  with   tongue  and 


pen  devoted  himself  to  the  har- 
monizing of  Christian  belief  and 
feeling  the  world  over.  His 
principal  work  was  his  History 
of  the  Christian  Church  (1858- 
90),  and  secondary  in  importance 
was  his  editing  of  the  Schaff- 
Hersog  Encyclopedia  of  Reli- 
gious Knowledge  (1882;  latest 
ed.  1911).  Consult  Life,  by  his 
son. 

Schaffhausen,  shaf-hou'zcn, 
Swiss  canton,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  with  an  area  of 
115  square  miles.  The  surface 
is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile, 
and  agricultural  interests  are 
predominant.  Schaffhausen  was 
admitted  to  the  Swiss  confeder- 
ation in  1501.  Pop.  (1941)  53,- 
772,  mainly  Protestant  and  Ger- 
man-speaking. 

Schaf¥hausen,  town,  Switzer- 
land, capital  of  the  canton  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  just  above  the  famous 
falls.  Of  special  interest  is  the 
Romanesque  cathedral  (1101) — 
now  a  Protestant  church — whose 
ancient  bell  (replaced  in  1898) 
suggested  to  Schiller  his  Song 
of  the  Bell.  A  sixteenth-century 
castle  commands  the  town.  Pop. 
(1941)  22,498. 

Schaffle,  shef'le,  Albert 
(1831-1903),  German  political 
economist,  was  born  in  Nur- 
tingen,  Wurtemberg.  He  stud- 
ied at  Tubingen,  was  editor  of  the 
Schwdbischer  Merknr  at  Stutt- 
gart from  1850  to  1860,  and  was 
professor  of  political  economy  at 
Tubingen  (1860-8),  and  at  Vi- 
enna (1868).  He  was  Austrian 
minister  of  commerce  for  a  few 
months  in  1871,  and  then  re- 
turned to  Stuttgart,  to  engage 
in  literary  work.  Among  his 
more  important  publications  are : 
Die  N ationaldkonomie  (1861)  ; 
Kapitalismus  und  Sosialis'nvus 
(1870);  Das  Gcscllschaftliche 
System  der  mcnschlichen  IVirt- 
schaft  (1867);  Qiiintessenz  des 
Sozialismus  (1874)  ;  Bau  und 
Leben  des  socialen  Korpers 
(1896)  ;  Die  Stenern  (1895-7)  ; 
Die  agrarische  Frage  (1902), 
Alls  meinem  Leben  (1904). 

Schall,  schal,  Johann  Adam 
VON  (1591-1669),  German  Jesuit 
missionary,  was  born  in  Cologne. 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus 
at  Rome  (1611),  and  was  sent  as 
a  missionary  to  China  (1628), 
where  he  studied  astronomy,  re- 
vised the  Chinese  imperial  cal- 
endar, and  introduced  the  divi- 
sion of  the  day  into  hours,  min- 
utes, and  seconds.  In  1664  he 
was  imprisoned,  and  died  after 
a  long  confinement.  He  wrote 
a  Latin  narrative  of  Chinese 
Missions  (1655). 

Schamir,  sha'mer,  a  mythical 
Eastern  worm,  small  as  a  barley- 
corn, but  of  mysterious  power, 
able  to  shatter  rocks,  reveal  hid- 
den treasure,  and  give  or  para- 


Schamyl 


KFN 


7 


Scheidemaim 


lyze  life.  It  was  reputed  to  have 
been  used  by  Solomon  to  shape 
the  temple  stones.  Consult  Curi- 
ous Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
second  series,  by  Baring-Gould. 

Schamyl.    See  Shamyl. 

Schandorph,  shan'dorf,  So- 
PHus  (1837-1900),  Danish  nov- 
elist, whose  proper  name  was 
Skamdrup,  was  born  in  Ringsted. 
Beginning  as  a  writer  of  the  ro- 
mantic school,  he  found  his  true 
vocation  only  after  listening  to 
the  lectures  of  Georg  Brandes, 
and  henceforth  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  delineator  of  actual  life 
in  small  provincial  towns.  His 
novels  and  tales  include  Fra 
Provinsen  (1876),  Uden  Midt- 
punkt  (1878),  Smaafolk  (1880), 
Thomas  Fris's  Historie  (1881), 
Det  Gamle  Apothek  (1885), 
Poet  og  Junker  (1891),  Tre 
Appelsiner  (1894),  Frigjort 
(1896),  Gamle  Billeder  (1899), 
and  Helga  (1900). 

Scharf,  John  Thomas  (1843- 
98),  American  historian,  was 
born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and 
served  in  the  Confederate  army 
and  navy.  He  was  subsequently 
editor  of  the  Baltimore  Telegram 
and  of  the  Baltimore  Morning 
Herald,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1874,  and  served  in  the  Mary- 
land State  legislature.  He  gave 
much  study  to  the  history  of  his 
city  and  state,  and  published 
Chronicles  of  Baltimore  (1874), 
History  of  Maryland  (3  vols., 
1879-80),  History  of  Western 
Maryland  (2  vols.,  1882),  be- 
sides a  History  of  the  Confed- 
erate States  Navy  (1887)  and  a 
History  of  Delaware  (1888). 

Scharnhorst,  sharn'horst, 
Gerhard  Johann  David  von 
(1755-1813),  Prussian  soldier, 
was  born  in  Bordenau,  Hanover. 
He  served  in  the  army  against 
France  in  1793,  and  in  1801 
became  director  of  the  military 
academy  in  Berlin.  He  was  en- 
gaged in  the  campaign  of  1806-7 
and  following  that  began  the 
reorganization  of  the  Prussian 
army,  by  which  he  laid  the 
foundations  of  Prussian  military 
power.  In  1812  he  accompanied 
Bliicher  to  the  front  as  chief  of 
his  staff.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  Grossgorschen  in 
May,  1813. 

Scharwenka,  shar-ven'ka, 
Xaver  (1850-1924),  German 
composer  and  pianist,  was  born 
in  Samter,  near  Posen,  Prussia, 
and  was  a  pupil  of  Kullak  and 
Wiirst  in  Berlin.  In  1880  he 
founded  the  Scharwenka  Con- 
servatory in  Berlin,  and  in  1891 
established  a  similar  institution 
in  New  York  City.  In  1898  he 
returned  to  Germany,  to  take 
charge  of  the  Klindworth-Schar- 
wenka  Conservatory,  which  he 
conducted  unlil  1914,  when  he 
opened  a  new  Meister  Schule. 
His  compositions  include  an  op- 


era, Mataswintha,  a  symphony, 
three  pianoforte  concertos,  much 
chamber  music,  and  many  popu- 
lar pianoforte  pieces.  He  edited 
works  of  Schumann  and  Chopin. 

Schaumburg-Lippe,  shoum  - 
burk-lip'p^,  state  of  (Germany, 
lying  within  a  loop  of  the  Weser, 
between  Westphalia  and  Han- 
over. It  has  an  area  of  340 
square  kilometres,  for  the  most 
part  included  in  the  North  Ger- 
man plain.  Agriculture  is  the 
principal  occupation,  but  coal 
is  mined  and  linen  is  manufac- 
tured. The  capital  is  Biickeburg. 
Schaumburg-Lippe  was  consti- 
tuted a  principality  in  1807,  en- 
tered the  North  German  Confed- 
eration in  1866,  and  the  Empire 
in  1871.  It  was  proclaimed  a  re- 
public in  November,  1918.  Pop. 
(1939)  54,162. 

Schechter,  shek'ter,  Solomon 
(1849-1915),  Jewish  scholar  and 
educator  was  born  in  Focsani, 
Rumania,  and  was  educated  in 
the  Universities  of  Vienna  and 
Berlin.  He  made  a  study  of 
divinity  and  Semitics,  became 
reader  in  Talmudic  and  Rabbinic 
literature  at  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity in  1892,  and  from  1899  to 
1901  was  professor  of  Hebrew  in 
University  College,  London.  He 
discovered  in  the  oldest  syna- 
gogue in  the  world  in  Cairo, 
Egypt,  a  priceless  store  of  books, 
scrolls,  and  mss.  of  great  an- 
tiquity. This  collection  he  se- 
cured for  the  Cambridge  library, 
and  many  of  its  most  precious 
parts  he  translated.  In  1902  he 
became  president  of  the  newly 
established  Jewish  Theological 
Seminary  of  America  in  New 
York.  His  published  works  in- 
clude Abot  de  Rabbi  Nathan 
(1887)  ;  Studies  in  Judaism 
(1896-1908);  Wisdom  of  Ben 
Sir  a  (1899)  ;  Saadyana  (1902)  ; 
Sotne  Aspects  of  Rabbinic  The- 
ology (1909);  Documents  of 
Jewish  Sectaries  (1911). 

Scheele,  sha'le,  Carl  Wil- 
helm  (1742-86),  Swedish  chem- 
ist, was  born  in  Stralsund.  In 
1775  he  settled  as  a  chemist  in 
Koping,  and  devoted  himself  to 
chemical  research,  being  much 
influenced  by  Bergman.  His 
principal  work  includes  discov- 
eries of  chlorine,  oxygen,  man- 
ganese, barium,  and  a  host  of 
compounds,  among  which  are 
ammonia,  hydrochloric,  hydro- 
fluoric, arsenic,  prussic,  oxalic, 
and  other  acids.  He  also  in- 
vented many  new  methods  of 
preparation  and  analysis  ;  a  green 
pigment  and  a  solution  of  prus- 
sic acid  are  still  called  after 
him. 

Scheer,  shar,  Reinhard 
(1863-1928),  German  admiral, 
was  born  in  Hesse-Nassau.  He 
commanded  the  German  High 
Fleet  in  the  battle  of  Jutland 
(1916),  an  account  of  which  he 


has  given  in  his  book  Deutsch- 
lands  Hochseeflotte  im  Welt- 
kriege  (1920).  In  1918  he  suc- 
ceeded Von  Holtzendorff  as  chief 
of  the  Admiralty  staff,  but  re- 
tired after  a  few  months. 

Scheffel,  shef'el,  Joseph 
Viktor  von  (1826-86),  German 
poet,  was  born  in  Karlsruhe,  and 
studied  in  Munich  and  Berlin. 
His  first  book,  which  he  never 
surpassed,  was  Der  Trompeter 
von  Sdckingen  (1854),  a  metrical 
tale  of  the  time  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  which  attained 
great  popularity.  He  devoted 
himself  to  early  German  and 
folklore  studies,  the  fruits  of 
which  were  seen  in  his  next  tale 
(in  prose),  Ekkehard  (1857), 
likewise  exceedingly  popular. 
His  later  volumes  were  largely 
poetry — Gaudeamiis  (1867)  ; 
Frau  Aventiure  (1863)  ;  Berg- 
psalmen  (1870)  ;  Waldeinsam- 
keit  (1880)  ;  with  two  romances, 
Juniperus  (1881)  and  Hugideo 
(1884). 

Scheffer,  shef-far',  Ary 
(179571858),  French  portrait 
and  historical  painter,  was  born 
in  Dordrecht,  Holland,  studied 
under  Guerin  in  Paris,  and  in 
1836  became  art  instructor  to  the 
Orleans  family.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution  of  1848  he  as- 
sisted the  King  in  his  escape  from 
Paris  and  himself  went  to  Hol- 
land and  England.  In  1857  he 
returned  to  France,  where  he 
died.  Between  1835  and  1848 
Scheffer  produced  his  greatest 
works,  Christus  Consolator, 
Christus  Remmierator,  Francesca 
da  Rimini  and  the  Mignons.  The 
Scheffer  Museum  at  Dordrecht 
contains  much  of  his  work. 

Scheffler,  Johann.  See  An- 
gelus  Silesius. 

Scheideck,  shi'dek,  or  Schei- 
degg.  Great  and  Little,  Alpine 
passes  in  Switzerland  limiting  on 
the  northeast  and  southwest,  re- 
spectively, the  valley  of  Grandel- 
wald,  in  the  Bernese  Oberland. 
The  Little  Scheideck  (6,772  ft.) 
in  the  southwest  is  crossed  by  a 
mountain  railway  from  Lauter- 
brunnen  to  Grindelwald.  The 
Great  Scheideck  (6,434  ft.)  in 
the  northeast  is  traversed  by  a 
mule  path. 

Scheidemann,  Philipp 
(1865-1939),  German  politician, 
was  born  in  Kassel.  On  Novem- 
ber 10,  1918,  with  two  other 
majority  socialists,  he  formed 
the  first  Provisional  Government 
of  the  German  Republic.  The 
Constituent  Assembly  at  Weimar 
elected  him  president  of  the  first 
republican  ministry  of  the  Reich 
on  February  8,  1919.  He  re- 
signed on  June  20  when  a  ma- 
jority of  the  government  voted 
to  sign  the  Treaty  of  Versailles. 
His  reminiscences  were  pub- 
lished as  Dcr  Zusammenbruch 
(1921). 


Scheldt 


KFN 


8 


Schiavone 


Scheldt,  skelt,  or  Schelde 
(French  Escaut),  river  of  Bel- 
gium, 270  miles  long,  rises  in  the 
department  of  Aisne,  France, 
flows  north  and  then  northeast 
through  Belgium  and  enters 
the  North  Sea,  near  Antwerp, 
through  the  East  and  the  West 
Scheldt.  The  river  passes  Cam- 
brai  and  Valenciennes  in  France, 
and  Tournai,  Oudenarde,  Ghent, 
Dendermonde,  and  Antwerp  in 
Belgium.  Its  chief  tributaries 
are  the  Lys  (on  the  left)  and  the 
Dender  and  Rupel  (on  the  right). 

Schelling,  Felix  Emmanuel 
1858-  ),  American  educator, 
author,  and  editor,  was  born  in 
New  Albany,  Indiana,  and  was 
graduated  from  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1881.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  Philadelphia 
bar  in  1883  and  in  1889  became 
assistant  professor  and  in  1893 
John  Welsh  Centennial  professor 
of  English  literature  at  his  alma 
mater.  He  lectured  at  Johns 
Hopkins  University  in  1908-10. 
He  published  Literary  and  Verse 
Criticism  of  the  Reign  of  Eliza- 
beth (1891);  The  English 
Chronicle  Play  (1902)  ;  History 
of  Elizabethan  Drama  (1907)  ; 
English  Literature  during  the 
Lifetime  of  Shakespeare  (1928)  ; 
The  English  Lyric  (1913);  A 
History  of  English  Drama 
(1914)  ;  Foreign  Influences  in 
Elizabethan  Plays  (1923)  ;  Eliz- 
abethan Playzvrights  (1925). 

Schelling,  Friedrich  Wil- 
HELM  Joseph  von  (1775-1854), 
German  post-Kantian  philoso- 
pher, was  born  in  Leonberg, 
Wiirttemberg,  and  became  (1798) 
a  university  teacher  at  Jena.  He 
occupied  chairs  in  a  number  of 
the  German  universities,  his 
longest  terms  being  at  Munich 
(1808-20,  1827-40),  and  his  last 
at  Berlin.  His  earlier  philosophy 
is  on  the  whole  a  continuation 
and  development  of  the  ideal- 
ism of  Fichte.  But  whereas  in 
Fichte's  philosophy  nature  is 
wholly  subordinated  to  the  hu- 
man or  spiritual  side  of  experi- 
ence, Schelling  seeks  to  do  equal 
justice  to  nature,  and  to  conceive 
the  absolute  principle  as  one  of 
which  nature  and  spirit  are 
equally  necessary  though  opposed 
expressions.  This  common  prin- 
ciple is  neither  nature  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  spirit,  nor  spirit  to  the 
exclusion  of  nature — but  the 
identity  in  which  their  difference 
di.sappears.  It  can  be  adequate- 
ly apprehended  neither  by  the 
theoretical  philosophy  which  is 
concerned  with  nature,  nor  by 
the  practical  philosophy  which  is 
concerned  with  human  action, 
but  only  by  some  mode  of  thought 
which  transcends  this  antithesis, 
and  which  is  described  by  Schel- 
ling as  a  sort  of  intellectual 
intuition.  It  is  in  art  that 
Schelling  sees  the  truest  illustra- 


tion of  such  intellectual  intuition. 
In  science  and  morality,  form 
and  matter  are  in  different  ways 
opposed  to  each  other,  but  in  art 
they  are  completely  fused.  His 
chief  works  include  :  Ideas  for  a 
Philosophy  of  Nature  (1797); 
System  of  Transcendental  Ideal- 
ism (1800)  ;  Lectures  on  Phi- 
losophy of  Art  (posthumous)  ; 
Lectures  on  the  Method  of  Aca- 
demic Study  (1803)  ;  Nature  of 
Hum<an  Freedom  (1809).  His 
Sdmtliche  Wcrke  (14  vols.)  were 
issued  by  his  son  in  1856-61. 

Schemnitz,  shem'nits,  city, 
Czecho-Slovakia,  is  situated  in 
a  narrow  mountain  gorge ;  65 
miles  north  of  Budapest.  There 
are  a  ruined  castle,  a  seminary, 
and  an  academy  of  mining  and 
forestry.  The  mines,  which  are 
famous,  yield  gold,  silver,  lead, 
and  copper.    Pop.  15,185. 

Schenck,  skenk,  Robert 
Gumming  (1809-90),  American 
soldier  and  public  official,  was 
born  in  Franklin,  Ohio,  and  was 
graduated  from  Miami  Univer- 
sity in  1827.  He  served  in  the 
state  legislature,  was  a  member 
of  Congress  (1843-51),  and 
Minister  to  Brazil  (1851-53). 
In  1861  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers,  and  saw 
service  in  West  Virginia  and 
Virginia,  reaching  the  rank  of 
major-general  and  resigning  in 
1863.  He  was  a  member  of 
Congress  from  Ohio  in  1863-71 
and  in  1871  was  on  the  Joint 
High  Commission  which  drew 
up  the  Treaty  of  Washington. 
From  1871-6  he  was  Minister 
to  England. 

Schenectady,  ske-nek'ta-di, 
city.  New  York,  county  seat  of 
Schenectady  county,  on  the  Mo- 
hawk River,  and  on  the  Dela- 
ware and  Hudson,  and  the  New 
York  Central  railroads  ;  1 5  miles 
northwest  of  Albany.  It  has  also 
railroad  connections  with  the 
Boston  and  Maine,  and  the  West 
Shore  Railroads,  and  there  are 
bus  lines  to  Troy,  Albany,  Sara- 
toga Springs,  Amsterdam,  Fonda, 
Johnstown,  Gloversville,  and 
other  towns.  Schenectady  is 
the  seat  of  Union  College  (1795), 
and  has  a  Public  Library,  City 
Museum,  Historical  Society  Mu- 
seum, the  Ellis  Hospital,  Chil- 
dren's Home,  Old  Ladies'  Home, 
Old  Men's  Home,  theatres,  and 
a  state  armory.  The  First  Re- 
formed Church  and  St.  George's 
(P.  _  E.)  are  both  of  colonial 
origin.  Important  manufactur- 
ing interests  include  the  chief 
plant  of  the  General  Electric 
Company,  and  the  American  Lo- 
comotive Works.  Other  impor- 
tant manufactures  are  sporting 
goods,  pharmaceuticals,  and  var- 
nish. Radio  stations  WYG  and 
WSNY,  also  television  studios, 
are  located  here. 

Schenectady  was  founded  in 


1661  by  Arendt  Van  Corlear 
(q.  v.).  Letters  patent  were 
granted  in  1684.  In  1690  French 
and  Indians  from  Canada  massa- 
cred all  but  60  of  the  inhabitants 
and  burned  the  town.  It  was  in- 
corporated as  a  borough  in  1765 
and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1798. 
Pop.  (1930)  95,692;  (1940)  87,- 
549. 

Schenkel,  shenk'el,  Daniel 
(1813-85),  German  liberal  theo- 
logian, was  born  in  Dagerlen, 
Ziirich,  and  after  a  pastorate  at 
Schaffhausen  (1841-9),  became 
professor  at  Basel,  and  at  Hei- 
delberg (1851).  He  published 
Das  Wesen  des  Protcstantiswus 
( 1 846-5 1 ) ,  Dcr  Unionsberuf 
des  evangelischen  Protestantis- 
mus  (1855),  Christliche  Dogma- 
tik  (1858-9),  Grundlehren  des 
Christenthums  (1877),  and  a 
biography  of  Schleiermacher. 

Scherer,  sha-rar',  Edmond 
Henri  Adolphe  (1815-89), 
French  critic,  was  born  in  Paris. 
He  entered  the  Protestant  min- 
istry at  Strassburg  (1836),  be- 
coming professor  of  exegetical 
theology  at  Geneva  in  1845.  As 
his  faith  in  the  essentials  of 
Christianity  weakened,  however, 
he  retired  from  the  church  to 
devote  himself  to  literature.  He 
acted  as  Paris  correspondent  to 
the  Daily  Neivs  and  after  the 
establishment  of  the  Republic 
was  elected  to  the  National  As- 
sembly (1871)  and  to  the  Senate 
(1875).  He  is  chiefly  remem- 
bered by  his  tildes  critiques  sur 
la  litt  erature  contcmporaine 
(1863-95)  ;  Melange  de  critique 
religieuse  (1860)  ;  Diderot 
(1880)  ;  f^tudes  sur  la  litterature 
du  XVI lie  siecle  (1891);  La 
critique  et  la  foi  (1850)  ;  Lettres 
d  mon  cure  (1853), 

Scherzo,  sker'tso  (Italian), 
a  term  in  music  employed  in  par- 
ticular movements  of  light  and 
dainty  character ;  playful. 

Scheveningen,  ska'ven-ing- 
en,  seaside  resort  and  fishing 
port,  Holland,  now  a  suburb  of 
The  Hague.  It  has  a  large  har- 
bor. Off  the  coast  was  fought 
the  great  sea  battle  between 
Dutch  and  British,  July  29,  1653, 
in  which  Admiral  Tromp  was 
killed. 

Schiaparelli,  ske'a-pa-rel'le, 
Giovanni  Virginio  (1835- 
1910),  Italian  astronomer,  was 
born  in  Savigliano.  He  studied 
at  Turin,  Berlin,  and  Pulkova 
and  became  assistant  director, 
1859,  and  director,  1862,  of  the 
observatory  at  Milan.  In  1861 
he  discovered  the  planetoid  Hes- 
peria,  and  in  1877  markings  on 
the  surface  of  Mars,  which  he 
called  canals,  and  to  which  his 
name  was  given. 

Schiavone,  skya-vo'na,  An- 
drea (1522-82),  Italian  painter, 
was  born  at  Sebenico  in  Dal- 
matia.    His  real  name  was  Me- 


Schiedam 

dola,  and  his  identity  with  Mel- 
doUa,  the  engraver,  has  been 
estabhshed.  In  his  youth  he  was 
a  house  decorator,  and  had  no 
special  training.  Titian,  under 
whom  he  studied  at  Venice, 
befriended  hira.  His  best  works 
are  cabinet  pictures.  Among 
others  are  Adoration  of  the  Shep- 
herds, Holy  Family,  and  Death 
of  Abel. 

Schiedam,  tn.,  Netherlands, 
prov.  S.  Holland,  near  r.  bk.  of 
Maas,  3  m.  by  rail  w.  of  Rotter- 
dam; the  centre  of  gin  distilla- 
tion.   Pop.  (1900)  27,126. 

Schiehallion,  isolated  moun- 
tain (3,547  ft.),  Perthshire,  Scot- 
land, 11m.  W.N.w.  of  Aberfeldy, 


9 


table  and  educational  institu- 
tions. He  assisted  in  the  founding 
and  became  president  of  the  N.  V. 
Montefiore  Home  for  Chronic 
Invalids,  and  was  a  founder  of 
the  N.  Y.  Jewish  Theological 
Seminary,  for  which  he  erected  a 
building.  In  1903  he  presented 
to  Harvard  the  first  Semitic  Mu- 
seum founded  in  the  U.  S.,  and 
he  made  many  lesser  benefac- 
tions. 

Schiller,  Johann  Christoph 
Friedrich  von  (1759-1805),  Ger- 
man poet,  was  born  at  Marbach 
in  Wiirtemberg.  He  wished  to 
study  for  the  church;  but  the 
Duke  of  Wiirtemberg  had  estab- 
lished a  military  school  (Carls- 


Schlllet 

drama  was  received  with  greai" 
applause,  though  its  language  is 
often  wildly  rhetorical.  Yet  the 
charm  of  romance  hangs  round  the 
story,  which  is  rendered  with  dra- 
matic power  and  inspired  by  the 
great  idea  of  freedom.  Theatre- 
director  Dalberg  put  the  play 
upon  the  Mannheim  stage  (June 
13,  1782^;  but  this  involved  Schil- 
ler in  difficulties  with  the  court 
of  Wiirtemberg.  Finally  he  fled 
from  Stuttgart  in  disguise  (Sept. 
22,  1782).  Frau  von  Wolzogen 
received  him  in  her  house  at 
Bauerbach,  near  Karlsruhe  in 
Baden,  till  in  June,  1783,  he  was 
appointed  poet  to  the  theatre  at 
Mannheim.    Here,  in  the  foUow- 


was  in  1774  the  scene  of  experi- 
ments by  Dr.  Nevil  Maskelyne 
to  ascertain  the  mean  density  of 
the  earth. 

Schiff,  Jacob  Henry  (1847), 
American    banker    and  philan- 
thropist,  born   at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main,    Germany,   and  edu- 
o  cated  in  the  schools  of  that  city. 
^  He   early   entered   the  banking 
-  business,    came   to    New  York 
ujcity  in  1805,  achieved  success  in 
financial    circles,    and  became 
■^head  of  the  banking  firm  of  Kuhn, 
y  Loeb  &  Co.   He  became  director 
in  many  important  corporations, 
-Tin eluding  the  N.  Y.  National  City 
Rank,  trie  Equitable  Life  Assur- 
"ance  Society,  and  the  Union  Pa- 
cific Railroad  Co.    As  he  grew 
wealthy  he  gave  freely  to  chari- 


Scheveningen — the  Kurhaus. 

schule)  for  the  sons  of  his  officers, 
and  he  decreed  that  Schiller 
should  study  jurisprudence.  Two 
years  later,  when  the  school  was 
removed  to  Stuttgart,  Schiller  de- 
serted law  for  medicine.  The 
military  discipline  of  the  acad- 
emy was  exceedingly  galling  to 
Schiller's  sensitive  mind;  and  it 
was  only  in  secret  that  he  could 
peruse  such  books  as  Gotz  von 
Berlichingen  and  Werther,  Klop- 
stock's  Messias,  Shakespeare,  Os- 
sian,  Rousseau,  and  Plutarch.  In- 
spired by  these  great  models  he 
wrote  the  play  of  Die  Rduher, 
into  which  he  breathed  all  his 
passionate  and  tumultuous  hatred 
of  tyranny.  It  was  not  published 
till  1781,  when  he  had  been  ap- 
pointed an  army  surgeon.  The 


ing  year,  appeared  his  next  two 
dramas,  Fiesco  (January  11)  and 
Kahale  und  Liehe  (April^  15).  The 
scene  of  Fiesco  is  laid  in  Genoa. 
It  is  a  dark  picture  of  Italian  in- 
trigue; Kahale  und  Liebe  is  a 
tragedy  of  court  life  in  Germany. 

After  leaving  Mannheim  in 
1785,  Schiller  resided  for  about 
a  year  in  Leipzig  and  the  neigh- 
boring village  of  Gohlis,  where 
he  wrote  his  Lied  an  die  Freude. 
He  was  at  this  time  in  great 
poverty,  and  lived  at  Dresden 
on  the  hospitality  of  Christian 
Gottfried  Korner,  the  father  of 
the  poet  of  the  War  of  Libera- 
tion, till  July,  1787.  In  the  mean- 
time the  Rheinische  Thalia,  a 
literary  journal  founded  in  1785 
was   carried  on  as   Thalia  till 


1791,  and  as  Neue  Thalia  till 
1793.  In  the  issues  for  1787-89  ap- 
peared Schiller's  Philosophische 
Briefe,  and  the  unfinished  novel 
Der  Geisterseher.  In  1787  Schiller 
published  his  Don  Carlos,  a 
tragedy  in  blank  verse,  based  on 
the  historical  novel  of  the  Abbe  St. 
Real.  The  story  is  powerfully 
told,  but  after  all  the  hero  is  not 
Don  Carlos,  but  the  Marcjuis  Posa, 
who  in  vain  sacrifices  his  life  for 


his  master,  and  into  whose  mouth 
Schiller  puts  his  own  thoughts 
on  cosmopolitan  freedom  and 
happiness.  These  are  much  more 
calmly  expressed  than  in  the 
early  dramas;  Schiller  has  now 
passed  beyond  the  influence  of  the 
'storm  and  stress'  period.  In  this 
very  year  he  removed  to  Weimar, 
and  immediately  in  Die  Cotter 
Griechenlands  and  Die  Kilns  tier 
proclaimed  his  conversion  to  the 
classical  ideal,  as  represented  by 
Herder,  Wieland,  and  Goethe. 
The  composition  of  Don  Carlos 


10 

had  turned  Schiller's  attention 
to  history,  and  in  1788  appeared 
the  first  volume  of  his  Geschichte 
des  Ab jails  der  vereinigten  Nie- 
derlande.  In  the  following  year, 
through  the  influence  of  the 
Weimar  court,  Schiller  obtained 
the  post  of  professor  of  history 
at  Jena.  His  introductory  lec- 
ture. Was  heisst  und  zu  welchem 
Ende  studiert  man  Universal- 
geschichte?    delivered   May  26, 


1789,  shows  the  philosophical 
and  humanitarian  point  of^  view 
from  which  he  regarded  history. 
His  greatest  achievement  in  this 
field  was  the  Geschichte  des  dreis- 
sigjdhrigen  Kriegs  (1791-3).  These 
historical  labors  were  cut  short 
by  a  severe  illness.  After  he 
recovered  he  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  Kant,  particularly 
the  aesthetic  side  of  his  philosophy; 
and  under  this  influence  he  com- 
posed several  excellent  aesthetico- 
critical  writings,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  are  on  Anmut 


Schiller 

und  Wiirde,  Naive  und  senti- 
mentale  Dichtung,  Die  tragische 
Kunst,  and  Die  asthetische  Erzie- 
hung  des  Menschen. 

In  1794  Schiller  began  to  draw 
nearer  to  Goethe  in  personal  and 
literary  sympathy.  Both  con- 
tributed to  the  Horen  (1795-7)  and 
to  the  Musenalmanach  (1796-8), 
which  superseded  it.  In  the  lat- 
ter journal  appeared  the  Xenien 
(1797),  a  series  of  keen  satires  on 
the  mediocre  literati  of  the  day. 
They  were  followed  in  1798  by  a 
number  of  splendid  ballads,  the 
most  famous  of  Schiller's  being 
Der  Taucher,  Der  Ring  des  Poly- 
crates,  Die  Kraniche  des  Ibykus, 
and  Der  Kampf  mit  dent  Drachen. 
These  are  worthy  of  a  place  beside 
the  best  ballads  of  any  literature. 
In  the  Musenalmanach  appeared 
also  after  1796  a  series  of  poems 
of  a  more  philosophical  character, 
expressing  Schiller's  mature  ideas 
on  religion,  education,  human 
life,  and  happiness.  The  most 
famous  of  these  are  Der  Spazier- 
gang,  Das  Gliick,  Ideal  und 
Leben,  and,  above  all,  the  famous 
Lied  von  der  Glocke  (1800). 

In  1798  appeared  Wallensteins 
Lager,  the  herald  of  that  splendid 
series  of  plays — Die  Piccolomtni 
and  Wallensteins  Tod  (1800), 
Maria  Stuart  (1800),  Die  Braut 
von  Messina  (1803),  Die  Jung/rau 
von  Orleans  (1802),  and  Wi'lhelm 
Tell  (1804).  These  works  reveal 
dramatic  power  of  an  exception- 
ally high  order.  The  weakest  of 
the  series  is  the  Braut  von  Mes- 
sina, in  which  Schiller  attempted 
to  combine  romantic  elements 
with  the  Greek  chorus.  Joan  of 
Arc  is  more  successful  as  a  heroine 
than  Queen  Mary,  though  both 
enlist  our  warmest  sympathy. 
The  greatest  of  the  series  are 
Wallenstein  and  Wilhelm  Tell. 
The  latter  drama  had  been  re- 
modelled for  the  Weimar  stage 
in  1797. 

Schiller  is  one  of  the  most 
sympathetic  figures  in  literature. 
A  man  of  singular  purity  of 
character,  with  a  mind  ambitious 
of  reaching  the  highest,  he  strove, 
in  spite  of  bodily  weakness  and 
the  frowns  of  fortune,  to  attain 
the  ideal  in  life  and  art.  In  his 
most  successful  dramas  (Tell, 
Wallenstein,  and  Nie  R'duber) 
the  interest  lies  in  the  questions 
of  great  national  moment — libera- 
tion, revolt  against  authority,  the 
struggle  for  individual  freedom. 
Into  these  he  breathed  all  the 
warmth  of  his  own  passion,  and 
thus  transformed  philosophy  and 
history  into  poetry.  In  his  sub- 
limity he  sometimes  neglected  to 
work  out  the  details  of  character, 
was  usually  dead  to  the  effects  of 
humor,  and  too  much  devoted 
to  needless  rhetoric.  In  later 
life  he  manifested  the  same  long- 
ing for  the  artistic,  the  same  love 
of  Greek  art  as  Goethe.  Thereby 


Johann  Christoph  Friedrick  von  Schiller. 


Schilling 


KFP 


11 


Schists 


he  overcame  his  former  faults. 
In  his  ballads  and  some  of  his 
later  poems,  as  Die  Erzvartung, 
he  shows  lyric  power  of  the  high- 
est quality.  He  is  great  in  his 
moral  earnestness,  in  his  ideal- 
ism, in  his  youthful  freshness, 
in  his  enthusiasm  for  the  cause 
of  art  and  humanity.  Schiller's 
collected  works  were  issued  by 
his  friend  Korner  (12  vols.  1812- 
15).  The  most  complete  editions 
are  by  Goedeke  (17  vols.  1868- 
76),  and  bv  Boxberger  and  Bir- 
linger  (13  yols.  1882-95) .  Selec- 
tions are  given  in  the  editions  of 
Boxberger  (6  vols.  1894)  and 
Bellermann  (12  vols.  1896/.). 
The  poet's  correspondence  is 
fully  given  by  F.  Jonas  (7  vols. 
1892-6).  We  may  mention  also 
his  letters  to  Dalberg  (1819).  to 
Korner  (2d  ed.  1874),  to  Wm. 
von  Humboldt  (2d  ed.  1876),  to 
his  wife  Lotte  (3d  ed.  1879), 
to  Fichte  (1847),  and  to  Cotta 
(1876).  English  translations  in- 
clude Poems  and  Ballads,  by 
Lord  Lytton  (1887)  ;  Poems  and 
Plays,  by  Lord  Lytton  and  oth- 
ers (1889);  the  Complete 
Works,  by  Coleridge,  Lord  Lyt- 
ton, Bohn,  Churchill,  and  others 
(1870)  and  the  Historical  and 
Dramatic  Works  and  Essays, 
Aesthetical  and  Philosophical 
(1846,  in  Bohn's  Library).  See 
also  G.  H.  Calvert's  Translation 
of  the  Correspondence  betzveen 
Goethe  and  Schiller  (2  vols. 
1877-79).  Schiller  biographies 
have  been  written  by  H.  Diint- 
zer  (1881;  trans,  by  P.  Pinker- 
ton,  1883),  by  Karoline  von 
Wolzogen  (6th  ed.  1884),  by  O. 
Brahm  (1888-92).  by  J.  Minor 
(1890 #.),  by  R.  Weltrich  (1899), 
by  E.  Palleske  (13th  ed.  1891; 
trans,  by  Lady  Wallace,  1860), 
and  by  C.  Berger  (1905  #.).  In 
English  we  have  the  famous  bi- 
ography by  T.  Carlyle  (1825), 
and  those  by  Lord  Lytton  (1844), 
James  Sime  (1842;  in  Classics 
for  English  Readers  Series), 
H.  Nevinson  (1889;  in  Great 
Writers  Series),  and  T.  Calvin 
(1902).  For  criticism  the  follow- 
ing are  of  importance — E.  Dow- 
den,  Schiller's  Friendship  zinth 
Goethe  (in  Fortnightly  Reviezv, 
Ivi),  F.  Werner,  The  Charac- 
teristics of  Schiller's  Dramas 
(1859),  E.  Fischer,  Schiller's 
Works  illustrated  by  the  Great- 
est German  Artists  (4  vols. 
1883),  G.  Hauff,  Schillcrstudien 
(1880),  H.  Viehoff,  Schillers 
Gcdichte  erldutert  (6th  ed.  1887), 
Bellermann,  Schillers  Dramen 
(2  vols.  1888-91),  Diintzer, 
Schillers  Lyrische  Gedichte  (3d 
ed.  1891).  Kuno  Fischer,  Schil- 
ler als  Philosoph  (2d  ed.  1892), 
and  Robertson,  Schiller  after  a 
Hundred  Years  (1905).  For  a 
complete  Schiller  bibliography, 
see  Goedeke,  Grundriss  (2d  ed. 
vol.  V,  1884-92). 


Schilling,  Johannes  (1828- 
1910),  German  sculptor,  born  at 
Mittweida,  Saxony.  He  studied 
under  Rietschel.  In  1853  he  vis- 
ited Italy,  and  in  1868  was  ap- 
pointed professor  in  the  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Art  at  Dresden. 
His  works  include  Schiller,  the 
JVounded  Achilles,  The  Four 
Seasons,  and  Germania ;  the  last, 
the  national  monument  on  the 
Niederwald  beside  the  Rhine,  is 
his  masterpiece  (1877-84). 

Schimmel,  Hendrick  Jan 
(1824-1906),  Dutch  poet  and 
novelist,  born  at  Graveland,  N. 
Holland ;  entered  the  Dutch 
Treasury  at  Amsterdam,  and 
finally  became  a  director  of  the 
Amsterdam  Credit  Association. 
His  chief  plays  are  Tzvee  Tudors 
(1847),  Napoleon  Bonaparte 
(1851),  Jiiffroiizv  Bos  (1857). 
and  Struensee  (1878)  ;  his  no- 
blest work,  Zege  na  Strijd 
(1878).  The  plots  of  his  princi- 
pal novels  are  laid  in  England — 
Mary  Hollis  (1860;  Eng.  trans. 
1872),  My  Lady  Carlisle  (1864), 
De  Vooravond  der  Revolutie 
(1866).  Sinjeur  Semeyns  (1875), 
De  Kaptein  van  de  Liifgarde 
(1888;  Eng.  adaptation,  1896). 
Schimmel's  chief  characteristics 
were  dramatic  intensity  and 
great  knowledge  of  stagecraft, 
while  the  personages  of  his 
works  are  portrayed  with  great 
truth  to  life.  A  collected  edition 
of  his  dramas  appeared  in  1885, 
and  of  his  novels  in  1892.  See 
Life  by  Jan  ten  Brink. 

Schinkel,  Karl  Friedrich 
(1781-1841),  German  architect, 
was  born  at  Neu-Ruppin  (Bran- 
denburg), and  in  early  life  was 
a  landscape  painter.  In  1806  he 
was  appointed  architect  to  the 
king,  and  erected  the  Royal 
Museum  and  theatre.  In  1820 
he  became  a  professor  at  the 
Royal  Academy,  Berlin.  His  de- 
signs are  classical  in  spirit.  See 
Life,  in  German,  by  Dohme 
(1882)^. 

Schinus,  a  genus  of  tropical 
American  shrubs  and  trees  be- 
longing to  the  order  Anacardi- 
aceae.  They  bear  small,  white, 
dioecious  flowers,  followed  by 
oily,  globose  fruits ;  after  rain 
the  leaves  of  some  of  the  species 
exude  a  resin,  often  of  consid- 
erable fragrance.  S.  molle,  the 
Peruvian  mastic-tree,  is  known 
in  California  as  the  'pepper 
tree,'  and  was  formerly  much 
cultivated  in  the  warmer  dis- 
tricts there ;  but  the  tree  har- 
bors the  black-scale,  and  is  be- 
ing removed  as  dangerous  to  or- 
ange groves.  It  has  long  leaves, 
with  many  leaflets,  and  droop- 
ing panicles  of  rose-tinted  fruits. 
The  tree  is  evergreen,  with 
pendulous  branches,  and  dome- 
shaped  head. 

Schipka.  See  Shipka. 

Schipperke,  a  small  tailless 


dog,  originally  bred  in  Belgium, 
and  only  lately  introduced  into 
N.  America.  It  is  exceedingly 
vivacious,  inquisitive,  and  alert, 
and  makes  a  most  excellent 
watchdog.  The  points  are  as  fol- 
lows : — Color,  black  ;  head  foxy  ; 
nose   small  ;    eyes   dark  brown, 


Schipperke. 


small,  oval,  lively,  and  keen ; 
ears  quite  erect,  small,  triangu- 
lar, and  set  on  high,  very  mobile, 
and  thick  ;  neck  strong,  fuU,  and 
carried  upright ;  shoulders  slop- 
ing, chest  broad ;  back  straight 
but  supple ;  fore-legs  straight, 
fine,  and  set  well  under  body ; 
feet  small,  round,  and  well 
knuckled  ;  body  short  and  thick- 
set ;  tail  absent ;  coat  dense  and 
harsh  ;  smooth  on  the  ears,  short 
on  the  head,  but  profuse  round 
the  neck,  and  forming  a  mane 
and  a  frill  on  the  chest.  Weight, 
from  12  to  20  lbs. 

Schism,  the  formal  separa- 
tion from  the  unity  of  a  church. 
The  great  schism  is  the  division 
between  the  Greek  or  Eastern 
and  the  Roman  or  Western 
Churches.  The  Western  schism 
(also  called  the  great  schism) 
arose  out  of  a  disputed  claim  to 
the^  papal  _  chair  (1378-1417), 
during  which  there  were  two, 
sometimes  three,  popes. 

Schists,  fine  grained  rocks  of 
foliated  character  consisting  of 
thin  films  or  folia  of  various 
minerals.  They  belong  to  the 
metamorphic  series,  and  are 
found  mostly  in  regions  com- 
posed of  very  ancient  and  much- 
disturbed  strata,  such  as  the 
Lake  Superior  district,  the  Green 
Mountains,  the  Blue  Ridge, 
southeastern  N.  Y.,  Canada, 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  Nor- 
way, and  the  Alps.  The  schists 
are  given  specific  name  by  in- 
dicating the  mineral  that  gives 
schistose  character  to  the  rock. 
The  commonest  variety  is  mica- 
schist,  consisting  of  layers  of 
mica,  alternating  with  quartz 
and  feldspar,  often  contorted  or 
crumpled ;  it  is  frequently  an 
altered  form  of  slate.  Chlorite- 
schi.st,  hornblende-schist,  talc- 
schist,     graphite-schist,  and 


Schizanthus 


KFP 


12 


Schleicher 


quartz-schist  are  also  common. 
The  schists  differ  from  the 
gneisses  in  being  more  finely 
foliated  or  banded.  Extremely 
fine  mica-schists  are  sometimes 
called  phyllites.  They  practically 
never  contain  any  fossils. 

Schizanthus,  a  genus  of  an- 
nual, herbaceous  Chilean  plants, 
belonging  to  the  order  Solana- 
ceae.  Most  of  the  species  are  de- 
sirable garden  plants,  and  .9.  pin- 
natus  is  widely  cultivated  for  its 
varicolored  'butterfly'  flowers. 

Schizomycetes.  See  Schizo- 

PHYTA. 

Schizophyta,  or  Fission 
Plants,  division  of  Thallo- 
phytes,  comprising  forms  of  the 
simplest  structure,  which  are 
single-celled,  or  aggregations  of 
such  cells.  Multiplication  takes 
place  by  fission,  or  by  means  of 
spores  formed  within  a  cell,  and 
liberated  by  the  rupture  of  the 
walls.  This  division  includes  the 
Cyanophyceae,  or  blue-green 
algae,  and  the  Schizomycetes, 
or  bacteria. 

Schlagintweit,  a  family  of 
German  travelers  and  natural- 
ists. Herman,  Baron  Schla- 
gintweit (1826-82),  born  at 
Munich,  explored  the  Alps  with 
his  brother  Adolf  (1829-57) 
from  1846  to  1-853,  when  they 
made  the  first  ascent  of  Monte 
Rosa  (1851),  publishing  the  re- 
sults in  Untersuchungen  ilher 
die  physikaUsche  Geographie  der 
Alpen  (1850),  in  which  work 
Humboldt  assisted,  and  Neue 
Untersuchungen  (1854).  After- 
wards Herman,  with  his  broth- 
ers Adolf  and  Robert,  was  en- 
gaged by  the  king  of  Prussia  and 
the  East  India  Company  to  carry 
on  scientific  explorations  in 
Asia.  Together  or  separately 
they  explored  India,  the  Hima- 
layas, Tibet,  Sikkim,  Bhutan, 
Kashmir,  Ladak,  Nepal,  and  the 
Karakoram  and  Kuenlun  Moun- 
tains (1855-7).  Their  travels 
were  published  as  Results  of  a 
Scientific  Mission  to  India  and 
High  Asia  (1860-6)  and  Reisen 
in  Indien  und  Ilochasien  (1869- 
80).  Adolf,  who  was  killed  in 
Kasbgar  by  Yakub  Beg  (1857), 
himself  wrote  Ueber  die  Oro- 
graphische  und  Geologische 
Struktur  der  Gruppe  des  Monte 
Rosa  (1853).— Robert  (1833- 
85),  who  was  appointed  (1863) 
professor  of  geography  at  Gies- 
sen,  is  known  by  many  excellent 
geological  studies  and  by  the 
records  of  his  travels.  He  visited 
the  U.  9).,  where  he  traveled  ex- 
tensively in  1868-9,  and  again 
in  1880,  and  published  Die  Pa- 
cific-PAsenhahn  (1870);  Kali- 
fornirn  (1871);  Die  Mormoncn 
(2d  cd.  1877);  Die  Prarien 
(1876)  ;  anrl  Die  Santa  Pe  und 
Siidpacifichahn  (1884).  The 
fourth  brother,  Erx)iJAKi)  (1831- 
66),  wrote  an  account  of  the 


Spanish  invasion  of  Morocco,  in 
which  he  served ;  and  the  fifth, 
Emil  (1835-1904),  was  the  au- 
thor of  Buddhism  in  Tibet 
(1865),  Die  Berechnung  der 
Lehre  (trans,  from  Tibetan, 
1896),  and  Die  Lebensbeschrei- 
bung  von  Padma  Sambhava 
(1899). 

Schlatter,  Francis  (1856- 
1922),  American  'divine  healer,' 
born  in  the  village  of  Elser  in 
Alsace-Lorraine.  He  emigrated 
to  the  U.  S.  in  1884,  and 
worked  for  a  time  as  a  cobbler  ; 
but  in  1892,  while  at  Denver,  he 
believed,  or  affected  to  believe, 
that  he  had  received  a  'call'  to 
give  up  his  worldly  possessions 
and  become  a  healer  of  the  sick. 
He  walked  from  one  city  to  an- 
other in  the  southwest,  and  great 
crowds  assembled,  to  be  healed 
by  him.  In  July,  1895,  he  re- 
turned to  Denver,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing November  disappeared, 
leaving  behind  him  a  note  to  the 
effect  that  his  mission  was  end- 
ed. What  became  of  him  is  un- 
known, but  it  is  thought  by  some 
that  he  perished  in  the  wilder- 
ness. 

Schlegel,  August  Wilhelm 
von  (1767-1845),  German  critic, 
translator,  and  author,  was  born 
at  Hanover.  He  studied  at  Got- 
tingen,  where  Heyne  persuaded 
him  to  take  up  literature,  and 
where  he  wrote  songs,  sonnets, 
and  romances,  as  the  favorite 
disciple  of  the  poet  Burger.  In 
1795  he  wrote  a  careful  appre- 
ciation of  Dante's  Divina  Corn- 
media,  and  gave  evidence  of  his 
remarkable  gifts  as  a  translator 
and  as  a  literary  critic  after  the 
manner  of  Herder.  In  1796  he 
went  to  Jena,  and  became  inti- 
mate with  Schiller,  under  whose 
influence  he  wrote  his  best  bal- 
lads (Arion,  1798).  The  first  col- 
lection of  his  Gedichte  appeared 
in  1800.  He  did  a  good  deal  of 
critical  work  at  this  period,  the 
most  noteworthy  being  his  dis- 
cussion of  Goethe's  Hermann 
und  Dorothea  and  of  Voss' 
translation  of  Homer.  His  mo.st 
valuable  achievement  was  the 
singularly  faithful  and  happy 
translation  of  seventeen  of  the 
plays  of  Shakespeare  (1797— 
1810).  An  attempt  to  do  for 
the  Ion  (1802)  of  Euripides  what 
Goethe  had  done  for  the  Iphi- 
genia  was  unsuccessful.  Wil- 
helm Schlegel  had  joined  his 
brother  in  editing  the  Athe- 
ndum  (1799-1800),  the  organ  of 
what  soon  came  to  be  known  as 
the  romantic  school.  Wilhelm 
Schlegel  won  many  adherents  by 
his  public  lectures  on  literature 
(1801-4),  published  (1808-1  1  ) 
as  IJrbcr  drama tische  Kunst  und 
l.ittcratiir  (Eng.  trans.  1815). 
In  1803  Schlegel  traveled  with 
Madame  de  Stael  in  Italy,  Den- 
mark, and  Sweden,  and  in  1814 


he  rejoined  her  at  Coppet  on  the 
Lake  of  Geneva.  After  her  death 
(1817)  he  received  a  call  to  the 
University  of  Bonn,  and  there 
devoted  the  rest  of  his  life 
1818-45)  chiefly  to  Oriental 
studies.  His  complete  works 
were  edited  by  E.  Bocking  in  12 
vols.  (1846-7)  ;  a  brief  selection 
has  been  edited  by  O.  Walzel  in 
Kiirschners's  Deutsche  National- 
Litteratur. 

Schlegel,  Friedrich  von 
(1772—1829),  German  romantic 
writer,  brother  of  the  above,  was 
born  at  Hanover.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral articles  on  Greek  poetry  and 
kindred  subjects.  His  style  was 
peculiar,  hazy  and  brilliant  in 
turn,  and  never  without  some 
affectation.  His  Geschichte  der 
Poesie  der  Griechen  und  Romer 
(1798)  deals  mainly  with  Ho- 
mer, and  shows  the  influence  of 
Wolf's  Prolegomena.  Like  his 
brother  he  went  to  Jena ;  but  his 
impetuous  and  rather  conceited 
manner  estranged  him  from 
Schiller.  In  1797  he  proceeded 
to  Berlin.  In  1799  he  published 
the  novel  Lucinde,  a  literary 
manifesto,  and  also  avowedly  a 
series  of  confessions.  Three 
years  later  his  tragedy  Alarcos 
was  performed,  and  was  as  much 
a  failure  as  his  brother's  Ion. 
Perhaps  his  most  valuable  work 
is  his  treatise  Ueber  die  Sprache 
tmd  Weisheit  der  Inder  (1808). 
His  conversion  to  Roman  Ca- 
tholicism paved  the  way  for  a 
political  career  in  Austria,  where 
he  gained  the  confidence  of  Met- 
ternich.  His  lectures,  Ueber  die 
neuere  Geschichte  (1811;  Eng. 
trans.  1879),  contain  the  pro- 
gram of  the  reactionary  party 
after  1815;  and  his  Geschichte 
der  alien  und  neuen  Litteratur 
(1815;  Eng.  trans.  1840)  is  re- 
plete with  original  and  often  bi- 
ased and  eccentric  estimates.  Of 
two  works  there  are  English 
translations — The  Philosophy  of 
History  (1835),  and  The  Philos- 
ophy of  Life  and  the  Philosophy 
of  Language  (1847).  His  com- 
plete works  appeared  in  10  vols, 
in  1822-5  (2d_  ed.  in  15  vols. 
1846).  There  is  an  edition  of 
selected  works  by  O.  Walzel  in 
Kiirschners's  Deutsche  National- 
Litteratur.  See  also  the  books 
quoted  under  Schlegel,  A.  W. 

Schleicher,  August  (1821- 
68),  German  philologist,  born  at 
Meiningen,  was  appointed  (1850) 
to  the  chair  of  Slavic  languages 
at  Prague,  and  afterwards  (1857) 
at  Jena,  where  he  became  an 
authority  on  the  Tndo-Germanic 
languages  by  his  Compendium 
of  the  Comparative  Grammar  of 
the  Indo-P'Uropcnn.  Sanskrit, 
Greek,  and  Latin  Grammar 
(Eng.  trans.  1874-7)  Indogcr- 
manische  Chrestomathie  (1869), 
Darwinism  Tested  by  the  Sci- 
ence of  Language  (Eng.  trans. 


Schleiden 


KFP 


13 


Schley 


1869),  Formenlehre  dcr  Kir- 
chcnslaunschen  Sprachc  (1852), 
and  Handbiich  der  Litauischen 
Sprachc  (1856-67),  the  last  two 
of  especial  importance  for  the 
languages  named.  See  Lefmann's 
August  Schleicher  (1870). 

Schleiden,  Matthias  Jakob 
(1804-81),  German  physician 
and  botanist,  born  at  Hamburg; 
became  professor  at  Jena  (1839) 
and  at  Dorpat  (1863).  He  wrote 
a  number  of  botanical  works,  in- 
cluding Grundzuge  der  Wissen- 
schlaftlichen  Botanik  (1842-3; 
trans.  1849),  and  Grundriss  der 
Botanik  (1846).  He  made  im- 
portant contributions  to  the  cell 
theory  in  botany. 

Schleiermacher,  shllVr- 
maK-fr,  Friedrich  Ernst  Dan- 
iel (1768-1834),  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Breslau.  At 
an  early  age  he  showed  an  un- 
usual combination  of  delicate 
sensibility  and  a  keen  spirit  of 
scientific  inquiry ;  and  while  still 
under  the  care  of  the  Moravian 
Brethren  at  Barby  (1783-5)  he 
began  to  strike  out  an  independ- 
ent line,  which  caused  him  to  re- 
move to  the  University  of  Halle, 
where  he  studied  from  1787  to 
1789.  In  1795  he  was  appointed 
Reformed  preacher  at  the  Char- 
ite  in  Berlin.  From  1804  to  1806 
he  was  professor  at  Halle,  and 
then  preached  and  delivered  pa- 
triotic addresses  to  large  audi- 
ences in  Berlin.  During  this  pe- 
riod he  began  his  translation  of 
Plato  and  also  wrote  a  treatise 
on  I  Timothy.  With  Wilhelm 
von  Humboldt  and  Fichte  he  was 
instrumental  in  founding  the 
University  of  Berlin,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  theology, 
and  took  up  his  permanent  resi- 
dence in  Berlin  in  1810. 

Schleiermacher  puts  aside  all 
dogmatic  theology,  and  sets 
about  constructing  a  religion  in 
which  Kant,  Spinoza,  and  Chris- 
tianity shall  be  reconciled.  His 
discourses,    Ueher  die  Religion 

(1799)  ,  are  an  attack  upon  the 
rationalism  then  in  vogue.  He 
separates  religion  from  meta- 
physics and  morality,  explaining 
it  (after  the  manner  of  Spinoza) 
as  an  intuition  of  the  universe, 
as  the  action  of  the  universe 
upon   man.    In   his  Monologen 

(1800)  Schleiermacher  antici- 
pates some  objections  which  may 
be  raised.  He  himself  described 
the  book  as  a  'lyrical  extract 
from  his  private  diary' — lyrical 
indeed,  for  the  thoughts  are  ex- 
pressed in  poetic  language  of 
singular  beauty  and  eloquence. 
His  most  important  work  was 
the  Glaubenslehre  (1821),  a 
treatise  on  the  Christian  faith. 
His  Complete  Works  (30  vols.) 
v/ere  published  in  1834-64,  his 
Correspondence  (4  vols.)  in 
1860-3. 

Schleswig,  schlaz'vic/i,  town, 


Germany,  capital  of  the  Prussian 
province  of  Schleswig,  lies  at  the 
head  of  the  Baltic  inlet,  the 
Schlei,  86  miles  north  of  Ham- 
burg by  rail.  The  castle  of  Got- 
torp,  now  a  barracks,  was  the 
residence  of  the  dukes  of  Schles- 
wig. There  is  a  Gothic  cathedral 
(rebuilt  after  1440).  In  Viking 
times  it  was  a  famous  trading 
town  under  the  name  of  Heida- 
by.  Pop.  20,687. 

Schleswig-Holstein,  schlaz'- 
\\ch  hol'stin,  prior  to  the  First 
World  War  a  Prussian  province, 
consisting  of  the  former  duchies 
of  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and 
Lauenberg.  Schleswig,  the  north- 
ern portion,  was  transferred  to 
Denmark  as  the  result  of  a  pleb- 
iscite in  February  1920.  _ 

Schleswig-Holstein  lies  be- 
tween the  North  Sea  and  the 
Baltic  and  extends  from  Den- 
mark to  Germany,  having  a 
total  area  of  7,338  square  miles. 
Along  the  east  coast  it  is  diver- 
sified by  the  Baltic  Ridge,  and  is 
penetrated  by  numerous  deep 
narrow  inlets — e.g.,  the  bays  of 
Keil  and  Eckernforde,  the  river 
Schlei,  and  the  fiords  of  Flens- 
burg,  Apenrade,  and  Haders- 
leben.  The  western  coast  is  low 
marshland,  in  part  protected  by 
artificial  dikes.  The  interior  is 
mostly  geest  or  heath-clad  moor 
lands.  On  the  Baltic  side  there 
are  two  islands,  Alsen  and  Feh- 
marn  ;  the  west  coast  is  fringed 
by  the  north  Frisian  islands — 
e.g.,  Sylt,  Fohr,  Amrum,  Pell- 
worm,  and  Nordstrand.  The 
Elbe  borders  the  province  on  the 
south  for  75  miles  ;  other  rivers 
are  the  Eider,  which  separates 
Schleswig  from  Holstein,  and 
which  empties  into  the  North 
Sea  at  Tonning  after  a  course  of 
117  miles,  and  the  Trave,  which 
enters  the  Baltic  through  Lti- 
beck  Bay.  The  Kiel  Canal, 
known  also  as  the^  North  Sea- 
Baltic  or  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal, 
runs  from  Holtenau  in  Kiel 
Harbor,  to  Brunsbiittel,  in 
the  estuary  of  the  Elbe  (61 
miles). 

The  predominant  industries 
are  agriculture  and  the  breeding 
of  cattle.  The  most  important 
crops  are  oats,  rye,  wheat, 
barley,  potatoes,  and  turnips. 
There  is  considerable  industrial 
activity  at  the  naval  port  of 
Kiel  and  at  Altona,  notably  in 
shipbuilding  and  the  trades  de- 
pendent thereon.  Altona  has  also 
glass,  chemical,  and  margarine 
manufactures,  timber  yards,  and 
saw  mills.  Shipbuilding  is  car- 
ried on  at  some  of  the  smaller 
towns  and  there  are  textile  mills 
at  Neumunster  and  elsewhere. 
The  province  is  also  the  center 
of  an  extensive  fishing  in- 
dustry. 

The  population  numbers 
1,589,824,   of  Danish,  Frisian, 


and  German  blood.  The  people 
are  almost  universally  Protes- 
tant. Public  education  is  organ- 
ized along  Prussian  lines. 

History, — Schleswig  and  Hol- 
stein were  for  many  centuries 
wholly  or  in  part  under  Danish 
dominion.  The  whole  of  the 
duchy  of  Schleswig  was  united 
to  the  Danish  crown  in  1721,  and 
Holstein  about  half  a  century 
later.  Lauenberg  was  added  as 
a  part  of  the  European  adjust- 
ment in  1815.  In  1848  the  de- 
mand of  the  duchies  for  an  inde- 
pendent constitution  led  to  the 
outbreak  of  hostilities.  Prussian 
troops  came  to  the  support  of  the 
insurrectionaries,  and  the  First 
Schleswig  War  followed.  This 
finally  resulted  in  an  under- 
standing (1852)  with  Prussia 
and  Austria  whereby  the  Danish 
king  agreed  to  a  complete  sepa- 
ration of_  the  duchies,  engaged 
not  to  incorporate  Schleswig 
with  Denmark,  and  promised  to 
secure  to  both  German  and  Dan- 
ish elements  'complete  equality 
of  rights.'  The  proclamation  of 
a  common  constittition  for  the 
whole  Danish  monarchy,  in  1855, 
practically  incorporating  Schles- 
wig-Holstein in  Denmark,  led 
to  further  difficulties.  It  was 
eventually  withdrawn,  but  a 
new  constitution  for  Denmark 
and  Schleswig  was  enacted.  War 
with  Germany  followed,  Den- 
mark was  defeated,  and  by  the 
treaty  of  Vienna  (1864)  Schles- 
wig, Holstein,  and  Lauenburg 
came  into  possession  of  Prussia. 
At  the  close  of  the  First  World 
War  (1914-18),  by  the  terms  of 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  the  po- 
litical status  of  Schleswig  was 
made  subject  to  a  plebiscite, 
which  in  February,  1920,  voted 
overwhelmingly  in  favor  of  Den- 
mark. 

Schley,  sll,  Winfield  Scott 
(1839-1911),  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  near  Frederick, 
Md.  He  was  graduated  from  the 
Naval_  Academy  in  1860,  and 
had  his  first  service  on  the  Ni- 
agara in  Asiatic  waters.  In  July, 
1862,  he  became  lieutenant,  and 
was  attached  to  the  West  Gulf 
Blockading  Squadron  under  Far- 
ragut.  From  1862  to  1866  he 
served  in  the  Pacific  Squadron, 
and  after  his  promotion  to  lieu- 
tenant commander  in  1866,  he 
was  on  duty  at  the  Naval  Acad- 
emy as  assistant  to  the  com- 
mandant for  three  years.  Next 
he  was  assigned  to  the  Asiatic 
Squadron,  and  showed  great 
bravery  in  the  attack  on  Korean 
forces  which  had  captured  an 
American  ship.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  modern 
languages  at  the  Naval  Academy 
in  1872,  became  commander  in 
1874,  and  saw  service  in  Euro- 
pean, Asiatic,  and  South  Ameri- 
can waters.  In  1884  he  volun- 


Schley 


KFP 


14 


Schmerling: 


teered  for  the  relief  of  the  polar 
expedition  under  A.  W.  Greely 
(q.  V.)  and,  after  a  hard  strug- 
gle with  the  elements,,  succeeded 
in  rescuing  Greely  and  six  of  his 
men  at  Cape  Sabine.  From  1885 
to  1889  he  was  chief  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Recruiting  and  Equip- 
ment. From  1892  to  1898  he  was 
chiefly  engaged  in  the  care  and 
inspection  of  lighthouses  and 
was  chief  of  the  Lighthouse 
Board,  1897-8. 

In  February,  1898,  Schley 
reached  the  rank  of  commodore ; 
soon  afterward  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  command  the  Flying 
Squadron,  and  on  May  13  he 
left  Hampton  Roads  and  began 
the  search  for  the  Spanish  fleet. 
Reaching  Cienfuegos,  he  was 
ordered  to  proceed  to  Santiago, 
Some  of  his  ships  had  not  re- 
ceived a  full  supply  of  coal,  but 
after  some  delay  he  started,  and 
took  position  outside  of  Santi- 
ago, where  the  Spanish  ships 
were  discovered  May  29.  On  the 
arrival  of  Admiral  Sampson's 
fleet  June  1,  that  officer  took 
chief  command,  but,  when  Ad- 
miral Cervera  attempted  to  es- 
cape July  3,  Sampson  was  seven 
or  eight  miles  from  the  mouth 
of  the  harbor.  Commodore 
Schley  in  his  flagship,  the  Brook- 
lyn, was  in  the  thick  of  the  bat- 
tle, though  a  sudden  turn  or 
'loop'  made  by  his  vessel  was 
afterwards  criticized.  The  report 
of  Admiral  Sampson  upon  the 
action  did  not  mention  Schley's 
name,  and  strong  popular  sym- 
pathy with  the  latter  as  a  vic- 
tim of  supposed  injustice  devel- 
oped. President  McKinley,  on 
Aug.  10,  1898,  recommended 
that  both  be  made  rear  admirals 
and  that  Sampson  should  be  the 
ranking  officer,  but  the  contro- 
ver.sy  over  their  merits  prevent- 
ed the  confirmation  of  either. 
Both  officers,  however,  reached 
the  grade  afterwards,  and  Ad- 
miral Schley  was  retired  for  age 
in  1901.  In  July  of  that  year 
vol.  Ill  of  a  History  of  the 
American  Navy  by  E.  S.  Maclay 
(q.  V.)  appeared.  In  this  work, 
the  proofs  of  which  had  been 
read  by  Admiral  Sampson,  the 
conduct  of  Schley  both  before 
and  during  the  battle  was  se- 
verely condemned.  Admiral 
Schley  immediately  asked  for  a 
court  of  inquiry,  which  Avas 
granted.  The  court  consisting 
of  Admiral  Dewey  and  Rear 
Admirals  Benham  and  Ramsey, 
organized  Sept.  21,  and  an- 
nounced its  verdict,  Dec.  13, 
1901.  Admirals  Benham  and 
Ramsey  found  that  Schley  had 
exhibited  'vacillation,  dilatori- 
ness,  and  lack  of  enterprise.' 
Admiral  Dewey,  though  con- 
demning the  'loop'  and  some 
other  actions,  found  the  delays 
justifiable    under    the  circum- 


stances, and  added  his  personal 
opinion  that  Schley  was  in  actual 
command  in  the  battle. 

Admiral  Schley  published  The 
Rescue  of  Greely  (1886),  with 
J.  R.  Soley,  and  Forty-five  Years 
Under  the  Flag  (1904). 

Schliemann,  shle'man,  Hein- 
RICH  (1822-90),  German  ex- 
plorer and  archaeologist,  was 
born  at  Neu-Buckow  in  Meck- 
lenburg-Schwerin.  In  1841  he 
shipped  as  cabin-boy  to  South 
America  but  the  vessel  was 
wrecked  and  he  succeeded  in 
getting  to  Amsterdam.  From 
there  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg, 
where  he  engaged  in  commercial 
pursuits  until  1863,  meanwhile 
acquiring  a  large  fortune  as  well 
as  an  excellent  education.  Dur- 
ing a  trip  to  California  in  1850, 
he  was  present  when  that  state 
was  received  into  the  Union  on 
July  4,  and  thus,  by  accident, 
became  a  citizen  of  the  U.  S. 
After  traveling  in  India,  China, 
Japan,  and  Greece,  he  published 
(1869)  an  account  of  these 
travels  as  Ithaca,  The  Pelopon- 
nesus, and  Troy,  which  ex- 
pounded the  chief  theories  which 
led  him  to  success  in  his  excava- 
tions. These  excavations  began 
at  Troy  in  1870,  and  were  con- 
tinued, with  breaks,  until  1882. 
In  1876  he  explored  Mycenae, 
bringing  to  light  an  enormous 
quantity  of  treasure.  His  book 
Mycenae  appeared  in  1878,  and 
Ilios  in  1880  (Eng.  ed.  1881  ; 
revised  ed.,  Troja,  1883).  In 
1884  he  excavated  the  site  of 
Tiryns,  and  discovered  the  foun- 
dation of  the  palace ;  his  book 
Tiryns  appeared  in  1885.  Con- 
sult Autobiography,  published 
With  Ilios  (1880);  Schuchhardt's 
Schlieman's  Excavations. 

Schliisselburg,  town,  Russia, 
near  Leningrad,  on  Lake  Ladoga 
at  the  point  where  the  Neva 
river  flows  from  the  lake.  Two 
islands  are  part  of  the  town,  and 
on  the  larger  island  is  a  fortress 
built  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1702. 
Later  it  became  a  prison  for 
political  oflFenders.  It  changed 
hands  several  times  in  the  wars 
between  Russia  and  Sweden. 
Pop.  6,000. 

SchlUter,  .shloo'tcr,  Andreas 
(1664-1714),  German  sculptor 
and  architect,  was  born  in  Ham- 
burg. He  was  for  a  time  archi- 
tect to  the  Sobieskis,  and  worked 
at.  Warsaw.  In  1694  he  was  ap- 
pointed court  architect  at  Berlin 
and  in  1695  co-director  of  the 
academy.  He  was  summoned  to 
St.  Petersburg  by  Peter  the 
Great  in  1713  and  died  there  the 
following  year.  His  finest  works 
are  the  decorations  in  the  royal 
palaces  at  Charlottenburg  (1695) 
and  Berlin  (1697-1708),  Heads 
of  Dying  Warriors  on  the  arse- 
nal at  Berlin,  the  Great  Elector 
in  Berlin,  and  the  bronze  statue 


of  the  Elector  Frederick  iii  at 
Konigsberg. 
Schmalkaldic  League, 

shmal-kal'dik,  formed  in  Decem- 
ber, 1530,  by  the  Protestant 
princes  and  city  deputies  at 
Schmalkalden,  its  object  being 
the  defense  of  the  Protestant 
faith  and  the  maintenance  of  po- 
litical independence  against  the 
Emperor  Charles  v.  In  1532,  by 
the  Peace  of  Nuremburg,  the 
Protestants  were  granted  reli- 
gious peace,  but  in  1546  war 
broke  out  between  Charles  v  and 
the  League,  which  resulted  in 
the  defeat  of  the  Protestants  at 
Miihlberg,  1547.  In  1552,  Mau- 
rice, Elector  of  Saxony,  who  had 
treacherously  deserted  the  Prot- 
estant cause,  returned  to  it, 
defeated  Charles,  and  compelled 
him  to  sign  the  Treaty  of  Passau 
whereby  religious  toleration  was 
secured  to  the  Lutherans. 

Schmauk,  shmauk,  Theo- 
dore Emanuel  (1860-1920), 
American  clergyman  and  editor, 
was  born  at  Lancaster,  Pa.  He 
was  graduated  (1880)  from  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
from  the  Philadelphia  Lutheran 
Theological  Seminary.  He  made 
his  permanent  residence  at  Leb- 
anon, Pa.,  and  became  literary 
editor  of  the  The  Lutheran  in 
1889,  and  editor-in-chief  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  Rcviezv  in 
1895.  In  1903  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  Lutheran  Gen- 
eral Council  of  North  America, 
and  in  1911  became  professor  of 
Christian  faith,  apologetics  and 
ethics  in  the  Lutheran  Evangeli- 
cal Seminary.  Among  his  nu- 
merous works  are :  The  Nega- 
tive Criticism  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (1894)  ;  History  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  in  Pennsyl- 
vania from  the  Original  Sources 
(1903)  ;  The  Christian  Kinder- 
garten (1906)  ;  In  Mother's 
Arms:  Child  Training  (1911); 
Christianity  and  Christian  Un- 
ion (1913). 

Schmerling,  shmer'ling,  An- 
ton VON  (1805-93),  Au.strian 
statesman,  was  born  in  Vienna. 
He  represented  Austria  at  the 
Frankfort  Parliament  (1848-9), 
and  was  elected  to  the  National 
Assembly.  Appointed  minister 
of  foreign  affairs  and  of  the  in- 
terior by  the  vice-regent.  Arch- 
duke John,  he  soon  resigned.  He 
became  (1849)  Austrian  minis- 
ter of  justice,  and  then  for  some 
years  was  president  of  the  pro- 
vincial Court  of  Appeals.  Be- 
coming Austrian  premier  in 
1860,  he  promulgated  a  new  con- 
stitution on  a  liberal,  but  cen- 
tralistic,  basis.  The  opposition  of 
the  Hungarians  to  his  policy 
brought  about  his  resignation  in 
1865.  He  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  Supreme  Court,  and 
in  1867  became  life  member  of 
the  Austrian  House  of  Peers. 


Schmidt 


KFP 


15 


Schofield 


where  he  led  the  liberal  opposi- 
tion to  the  measures  of  TaafTe. 

Schmidt,  shmit.  Henry  Im- 
MANUEL  (1806-89),  American 
Lutheran  clergyman  and  educa- 
tor, was  born  in  Nazareth,  Pa. 
He  studied  at  the  Moravian 
Seminary  there,  but  in  1829  he 
severed  his  connection  with  the 
Moravian  Church,  and  became  a 
Lutheran  clergyman.  He  was 
pastor  at  Bergen,  N.  J.,  from 
1833  to  1836.  In  the  latter  year 
he  was  made  assistant  professor 
at  Hartwick  Seminary,  N.  Y., 
and  from  1836  to  1838  was  a 
pastor  in  Boston.  He  became 
professor  of  German  and  French 
in  Pennsylvania  College,  Gettys- 
burg, Pa.,  in  1838,  and  filled  the 
chair  of  German  in  the  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  in  the  same  place 
from  1839  to  1843.  He  became 
professor  of  German  at  Colum- 
bia College  in  1848,  where  he 
remained  until  1880.  He  wrote 
a  History  of  Education  (1842)  ; 
Inaugural  Address  (1848)  ; 
Scriptural  Character  of  the  Lu- 
theran Doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  (1852)  ;  and  A  Course 
of  Ancient  Geography  (1860). 

Schmidt,  Nathaniel  (1862- 
1939),  American  Hebrew  schol- 
ar and  educator.  He  was  born  at 
Hudiksvall,  Sweden,  and  studied 
at  Stockholm,  Colgate,  and  Ber- 
lin Universities.  He  was  profes- 
sor of  Semitic  languages  and  lit- 
eratures at  Colgate  University 
from  1888  to  1896,  when  he  ac- 
cepted the  same  chair  at  Cornell. 
In  1904-05  he  was  director  of 
the  American  School  of  Archae- 
ology' in  Jerusalem.  He  contrib- 
uted largely  to  the  Jewish  En- 
cyclopaedia and  other  reference 
works,  and  published  Biblical 
Criticism  and  Theological  Belief 
(1897),  several  histories  of  Ori- 
ental countries,  and  The  Proph- 
et of  Nazareth  (1905). 

Schmucker,  Beale  Mel- 
ANCHTHON  (1827-88).  Ameri- 
can Lutheran  liturgical  scholar, 
son  of  Samuel  S.  Schmucker.  He 
was  born  at  Gettysburg,  Pa., 
graduated  at  Pennsylvania  Col- 
lege, and  took  his  course  in  di- 
vinity at  the  Gettysburg  Theo- 
logical Seminary.  'He  was  or- 
dained in  1847,  and  was  pastor 
of  Lutheran  churches  in  Va.  and 
Pa.  until  his  death.  He  edited  the 
Liturgy  of  the  Ministerium  of 
Pennsylvania  (1860),  Collection 
of  Hymns  of  the  Ministerium  of 
Pennsylvania  (1865),  and 
Church  Book  of  the  General 
Council  (1868),  and  was  co- 
editor  of  the  American  edition 
of  the  Hallesche  Nachrichten 
(1882-84). 

Schmucker,  Samuel  Simon 
(1799-1873),  American  Luther- 
an theologian,  born  at  Hagers- 
town,  Md.  He  studied  for  two 
years  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  in  1820  graduated 


from  the  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary.  In  the  same  year  he 
became  a  pastor  at  Frederick, 
Ind.,  where  he  remained  until 
1826.  From  1826  to  1864  he  was 
chairman  of  the  faculty  of  the 
Gettysburg  Theological  Serni- 
inary,  and  for  four  years  was  its 
only  instructor.  In  1846  he  was 
largely  instrumental  in  estab- 
lishing ecclesiastical  connection 
between  the  Lutheran  Church  in 
the  U.  S.  and  Europe.  He  was 
the  author  of  the  formula  for  the 
government  and  discipline  of  the 
Lutheran  Church,  adopted  in 
1826.  His  publications  include: 
Elements  of  Popular  Theology 
(1834)  ;  Portraiture  of  Luther- 
anism  (1840)  ;  and  The  Ameri- 
can Lutheran  Church  Histori- 
cally, Doctrinally,  and  Practi- 
ly  Delineated  (1851). 

Schneekoppe,  highest  peak 
(5,265  ft.)  in  the  Riesengebirge, 
Germany ;  has  a  meteorological 
station. 

Schneidemiihl,  tn.,  Ger- 
many, Prussia,  prov.  Posen,  52 
m.  n.  of  Posen ;  manufactures 
bricks  and  glass.  It  suffered  se- 
verely from  floods  in  1888  and 
1893  (caused  by  an  artesian 
well,  one  of  the  deepest  in  the 
world).  Pop.  43,184. 

Schnitzler,  Arthur  (1862- 
1931),  Austrian  playwright  and 
novelist,  was  born  in  Vienna 
and  was  imbued  with  the  charm- 
ing Viennese  spirit  of  his  day. 
He  was  a  practicing  physician 
for  a  time  but  soon  took  up  writ- 
ing. His  first  work  was  Anatol 
(1893),  a  series  of  dramatic 
sketches  of  a  young  man's  love 
adventures.  Other  plays  are 
Liebelei  (1895),  Freiwild  (1896), 
and  Reigen  (1900).  He  wrote 
one  long  novel,  Der  Weg  ins 
Freie,  which  served  mainly  to 
emphasize  that  Schnitzler's  best 
talent  lay  in  the  play  and  short 
story.  He  also  wrote  some  bril- 
liant verse.  Several  of  his  stories 
and  plays  were  translated  into 
English.  Consult  Specht,  Arthur 
Schnitzler  (1922). 

Schnorr  von  Carolsfeld, 
Julius,  Baron  (1794-1872), 
German  painter  of  pre-Raphael- 
ite  school  (chiefly  famous  for 
frescoes),  born  at  Leipzig.  At 
Vienna  (1801)  he  prodttced  Con- 
test of  Three  Christian  and 
Three  Heathen  Knights,  after 
Ariosto,  a  Holy  Family,  and  St. 
Roch  Giving  Alms.  Passing  to 
Italy  in  1817,  he  spent  that  year 
at  Florence,  but  lived  thereafter 
at  Rome,  where  he  decorated  the 
Villa  Massimi  with  frescoes,  be- 
ing associated  with  Cornelius, 
Overbeck,  and  Veit  in  his  artis- 
tic aims.  He  also  painted  in  oils 
The  Marriage  in  Cana,  Ruth 
and  Boas,  Jacob  and  Rachel, 
Madonna  and  Child,  Flight  into 
Egypt,  Suffer  Little  Children, 
and    The    Annunciation.  Sum- 


moned to  Munich  by  King  Louis 
I  (1827),  he  commenced  to  dec- 
orate the  new  palace  with  Ni- 
belungen  scenes,  turning  aside 
at  the  king's  request  (1833-45) 
to  frescoes  of  Charlemagne, 
Barbarossa,  and  Rudolph  of 
Hapsburg.  Appointed  (1846)  di- 
rector of  the  gallery  and  acad- 
emy of  Dresden,  he  thenceforth 
divided  his  time  between  that 
city  and  Munich.  At  Leipzig 
(1852-60)  appeared  his  Illus- 
trated Bible.  He  also  painted  in 
oils,  for  the  Munich  Museum, 
Luther  at  the  Diet  of  Worms; 
contributed  glass  for  St.  Paul's, 
London,  and  for  Glasgow  Ca- 
thedral ;  and  wrote  a  treatise 
against  Kaulbach's  theory  of  his- 
torical philosophical  painting. 

Schoffer,  Peter.  See  Fust, 
and  Printing. 

Schofield,  John  McAllister 
(1831-1906),  American  soldier, 
born  in  Gerry,  Chautauqua  co., 
New  York.  He  graduated  at  the 
U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  1853  ; 
entered  the  army,  and  was  pro- 
moted first  lieutenant  in  1855. 
He  taught  natural  _  and  experi- 
mental philosophy  in  the  acad- 
emy during  1855-60;  and  in 
1860-61,  while  on  leave  of  ab- 
sence, was  professor  of  physics 
in  Washington  University,  Mo. 
When  the  Civil  War  began,  he 
was  appointed  a  major  in  the 
First  Mo.  volunteers,  and  served 
as  Gen.  Lyon's  chief  of  staff  at 
Dug  Springs  and  at  the  battle 
of  Wilson's  Creek,  where  Lyon 
was  killed.  He  participated  in 
the  conflict  of  Frederickstown 
in  October,  1861  ;  was  commis- 
sioned brigadier  general  of  vol- 
unteers in  November ;  and  com- 
manded the  militia  of  Mo.  until 
November,  1862,  when  he  was 
promoted  major  general  of  vol- 
unteers. With  the  'Army  of  the 
Frontier'  he  then  performed 
some  valuable  service  in  Mo.  and 
Ark.,  and  in  April,  1863,  took 
command  for  a  time  of  a  division 
in  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland. 
In  the  following  January  he  was 
assigned  to  command  the  Army 
of  the  Ohio  under  Gen.  Sher- 
man, and  participated  in  the  con- 
flicts at  Buzzard's  Roost,  Resa- 
ca,  Dallas,  and  Kenesaw  Moun- 
tain, and  in  the  operations 
against  Hood  around  Atlanta. 
When  Gen.  Sherman  started  on 
his  'march  to  the  sea.'  he  sent 
Gen.  Schofield  with  the  Twenty- 
third  Corps  to  report  to  Gen. 
Thomas  at  Nashville.  Term. 
Schofield  commanded  the  Union 
forces  at  the  battle  of  Franklin 
(see  Franklin,  Battles  of), 
fought  on  Nov.  30,  1864,  and 
two  weeks  afterwards  assisted 
in  the  destruction  of  Hood's 
army  at  Nashville.  He  was  then 
transferred  to  N.  C,  captured 
Wilmington  and  other  places, 
and  served  under   Sherman  in 


Scholarship 


KFP 


16 


Scholasticism 


the  final  operations  against  Gen, 
ohnston.  He  was  promoted 
rigadier  general  of  regulars  for 
his  services  at  Franklin  in  1864  ; 
attained  the  rank  of  major  gen- 
eral of  regulars  in  1869,  and  of 
lieutenant  general  in  1895  ;  and 
was  commander  in  chief  of  the 
armies  of  the  U.  S.  during  1888- 
95.  In  1865  he  was  sent  on  a 
special  mission  to  France  to  in- 
sist upon  the  withdrawal  of  the 
French  troops  from  Mexico,  and 
he  was  Secretary  of  War  dur- 
ing the  last  eight  months  of 
President  Johnson's  administra- 
tion. He  published  Forty-six 
Years  in  the  Army  (1897). 

Scholarship.  The  term  used 
of  the  financial  provision  made 
for  the  tuition  and  support  of 
students  in  American  colleges. 
As  distinguished  from  fellow- 
ships (q.  v.),  scholarships  are 
granted  to  undergraduate  stu- 
dents. Scholarships  are  of  vari- 
ous kinds,  and  may  carry  with 
them  remission  of  the  tuition  fees 
in  whole  or  in  part,  a  sum  suffi- 
cient to  defray  the  student's  cost 
of  living,  or  both.  They  may  also 
be  granted  for  a  single  term  or 
for  the  whole  course.  The  funds 
are  derived  either  from  the  re- 
sources of  the  institution  or  from 
private  foundations.  The  schol- 
arships are  usually  assigned  on 
the  basis  of  tests,  generally  com- 
petitive, of  merit,  but  are  also 
apportioned  to  various  individ- 
uals,_  bodies,  and  state  or  local 
districts.  In  all  cases  the  holder 
of  a  scholarship  is  required  to 
maintain  a  fixed  grade  of  attain- 
ment, failure  in  which  generally 
entails  the  forfeiture  of  the 
scholarship. 

Scholasticism,  a  general 
name  for  the  theological  and 
philosophical  thought  of  western 
Europe  from  about  the  9th  to  the 
15th  century  a.d.  The  scholastics 
accepted  as  authoritative  the 
dogmas  which  had  been  built  up 
by  the  fathers  of  the  church  out 
of  Scripture  and  Greek  philoso- 
phy. In  the  first  period  of  scho- 
lasticism (prior  to  the  13th  cen- 
tury) the  work  consisted  mainly 
in  systematizing  the  dogmas  of 
the  fathers  and  making  them  in- 
telligible to  untrained  minds.  In 
its  second  period  (from  the  13th 
century  onward)  scholasticism 
endeavored  to  demonstrate  the 
dogmas  of  the  church  by  show- 
ing their  harmony  with  the  peri- 
patetic philosophy,  or  the  philos- 
ophy of  Aristotle,  as  it  was  at 
that  time  understood.  The  exal- 
tation of  philosophy  which  this 
involved  led  immediately  _  to 
the  decadence  of  scholasticism, 
through  the  assertion  by  some 
writers  of  the  supremacy  of  rea- 
son over  faith,  and  by  others  of 
the  supremacy  of  faith  over  rea- 
son. This  conflict  was  inevitably 
present  in  germ  from  the  begin- 


ning of  the  movement ;  the  de- 
velopment of  thought  made  it 
acute,  and  scholasticism  ended 
in  a  variety  of  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts to  overcome  it.  The  ap- 
parent artificiality  of  scholasti- 
cism is  due  to  the  fact  that  its 
work  was  not  that  of  free  spec- 
ulation and  extension  of  knowl- 
edge, but  of  the  systematization 
of  accepted  beliefs  in  theology 
and  philosophy.  In  the  writings 
of  Joannes  Scotus  Erigena,  who 
is  generally  regarded  as  the  fa- 
ther of  scholasticism,  reason  and 
faith,  philosophy  and  theology, 
are  regarded  as  in  perfect  har- 
mony. For  him  reason  is  author- 
ity and  authority  is  reason. 
Among  the  earliest  of  the  great 
scholastics  was  Anselm  (1035- 
1109),  who  held  that  belief  must 
precede  the  establishment  of 
doctrine,  while  on  the  other 
hand,  all  who  are  capable  of 
understanding  ought  to  discover 
purely  rational  grounds  for  their 
belief.  He  was  the  first  writer  to 
state  the  ontological  proof  of  the 
existence  of  God ;  and  he  was 
also  the  founder  of  scholastic 
realism,  the  theory  (derived  ul- 
timately from  Plato)  that  uni- 
versal {e.g.  man  in  general, 
iron  in  general)  are  real  arche- 
types of  the  particular  things 
{e.g.  individual  men,  particular 
pieces  of  iron),  and  that  the  par- 
ticulars are  merely  copies  of 
these  universals.  He  held  this 
view  in  opposition  to  the  nomi- 
nalism of  Roscellinus  (born 
about  the  middle  of  the  1 1th  cen- 
tury), who  maintained  that  in- 
dividual things  alone  are  real, 
and  that  universals  are  mereh^ 
names  or  abstractions  made  by 
the  mind.  The  conflict  between 
realism  and  nominalism  was 
maintained,  in  various  forms, 
through  a  great  part  of  the  scho- 
lastic period.  Nominalism,  in  the 
form  that  universals  are  ideas  of 
the  mind  and  not  real  things, 
came  to  be  called  conceptualism. 
The  most  extreme  of  the  realists 
was  William  of  Champeaux  ;  and 
realism  was  also  supported  by 
Albertus  Magnus  (called  Doctor 
Universalis) ,  Thomas  Aquinas 
{Doctor  Angelicus),  and  Duns 
Scotus  (Doctor  Subtilis),  al- 
though these  latter  writers  en- 
deavored to  harmonize  the  real- 
ist, nominalist,  and  conceptualist 
views.  The  chief  nominalist 
among  the  later  scholastics  was 
William  of  Ockham  {Doctor  In- 
vincibilis),  famous  on  account 
of  the  logical  rule  known  as 
'Ockham's  razor.'  Abelard 
(1079-1142,  the  romantic  figure 
of  scholasticism,  took  a  middle 
position,  holding  the  doctrine  of 
universalia  in  rebus.  During  the 
first  period  of  scholasticism,  aft- 
er the  time  of  Abelard,  the  op- 
position between  reason  and 
faith   began  to  develop.  Some 


■writers,  such  as  Gilbert  de  la 
Porree,  devoted  themselves  to 
metaphysics  and  dialectic ;  oth- 
ers, such  as  Hugh  and  Richard 
of  St.  Victor,  laid  stress  upon 
faith  (either  the  content  of  faith, 
the  things  to  be  believed  in,  or 
the  act  of  faith,  mystic  contem- 
plation). Among  those  who  em- 
phasized the  content  of  faith 
were  the  authors  of  the  Summce 
Sententiarum,  collections  of  the 
opinions  of  the  greatest  church 
teachers,  the  best  known  of 
which  is  that  of  Peter  Lombard. 
John  of  Salisbury,  whose  inter- 
ests were  practical  rather  than 
speculative,  summed  up  in  an  ec- 
lectic spirit  the  opinions  of  the 
earlier  scholastics. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  13th 
century  a  large  portion  of  Aris- 
totle's own  works  became  acces- 
sible in  translations  from  the 
Arabic,  with  the  commentaries 
of  such  Mohammedan  philoso- 
phers as  Avicenna  and  Aver- 
rhoes.  The  earliest  results  of 
this  new  influence  appeared  in 
the  works  of  two  great  Francis- 
cans, Alexander  of  Hales  (d. 
1245),  and  Bonaventura,  called 
Doctor  Seraphicus  (1221-74), 
and  soon  afterwards  scholasti- 
cism bore  its  finest  fruit  in  the 
systems  of  two  Dominicans, 
Albert  Magnus  (1193-1276), 
and  Thomas  Aquinas  (1227- 
74),  whose  great  work  was,  with 
the  aid  of  Aristotle,  to  demon- 
strate philosophically  all  the  doc- 
trines of  the  church.  The  'Thom- 
ist'  philosophy  endures  as  the 
traditional  metaphysics  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  The 
most  interesting  expression  of  it 
is  in  the  works  of  Dante.  Op- 
posed to  the  Thomists  was  Roger 
Bacon  (1214  P-1294),  a  Francis- 
can, who  claimed  to  be  a  purer 
Aristotelian  than  they,  and 
whose  work  was  philosophical 
and  scientific  rather  than  theo- 
logical. In  many  respects  he  is 
the  most  modern  of  the  scholas- 
tics. His  writings  alarmed  the 
church ;  and  Duns  Scotus 
(1265  P-1308  ?),  also  a  Francis- 
can founded  the  school  of  the 
'Scotists,'  which  emphasized 
practice  as  'against  theory,  and 
theology  as  against  philosophy, 
Scotism  led  directly  to  the  nom- 
inalism of  William  of  Ockham, 
still  further  emphasizing  the  di- 
vision between  philosophy  and 
theology,  and  finally,  in  the  ec- 
lectic system  of  Nicholas  of 
Cusa,  scholasticism  came  to  an 
end,  and  the  beginning  of  modern 
philosophy  was  foreshadowed. 

See  C.  D.  Bulaeus,  Hist.  Uni- 
versit.  Parisicnsis  (1665-73), 
Rousselot,  Etudes  sur  la  Phi- 
losophie  dans  le  Moyen-Age 
(1840-2),  Haureau,  De  la  Phi- 
losophic Scolastique  (1850), 
Kaulich,  Gesch.  der  Scholast. 
Philosophic      (1863),  Stockl, 


Scholiast 


KFP 


17  School  Administration 


Gesch.  dcr  Philosophic  des  Mit- 
telaltcrs  (1864),  Maurice.  Me- 
diccval  Philosophy  (1870),  R.  L. 
Poole,  Illustrations  of  the  His- 
tory of  Mediceval  Thought 
(1884),  and  Sighart,  Alhertus 
Magnus  (1857). 

Scholiast,  an  ancient  coni- 
mentator  or  annotator  of  classi- 
cal texts  or  scholia,  who  gener- 
ally made  his  notes  on  the  mar- 
gins of  the  MSS. 

Schomberg,  shom'berk, 
Frederick  Hermann  Schom- 
BERG,  Duke  of  (1615-90),  Ger- 
man soldier  of  fortune,  was  born 
in  Heidelberg,  and  fought  first 
in  the  army  of  the  Prince  of  Or- 
ange, and  then  in  the  Swedish 
army  against  the  imperialists  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  War.  He  con- 
ducted a  successful  campaign 
for  France  against  Spain  and 
was  made  marshal,  but,  being  a 
Protestant,  was  compelled  by 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  to  flee  from  France.  He 
then  re-entered  the  service  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  England  in  1688. 
He  was  appointed  commander  in 
Ireland,  and  met  his  death  in  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne. 

Schomburgk,  shom'boork, 
Sir  Robert  Hermann  (1804- 
65),  German  traveler,  was  born 
in  Freiburg  in  Silesia.  He  emi- 
grated to  America  in  1829,  and 
settled  in  Virginia,  but  having 
failed  in  business,  rem.oved  to 
the  West.  Indies  the  following 
year.  He  was  sent  to  South 
America  by  the  (English)  Royal 
Geographical  Society  to  explore 
the  river  Essequibo,  and  during 
the  expedition  (1831-5)  discov- 
ered the  magnificent  lily  Victo- 
ria rcgia.  In  1840  he  was  sent  by 
the  British  government  to  sur- 
vey the  boundaries  of  British 
Guiana,  and  established  the  line 
known  as  the  Schomburgk  Line, 
of  which  so  much  was  heard 
during  the  Venezuelan  imbroglio 
in  1896  (see  Venezuela,  His- 
tory). Schomburgk  was  knight- 
ed in  1844. 

Schonbein,  sh^n'bm,  Chris- 
tian Friedrich  (1799-1868), 
German  .  chemist,  was  born  in 
Metzingen,  Wiirttemberg.  He  oc- 
cupied the  chair  of  chemistry  in 
Bale  from  1828  till  his  death. 
He  is  noteworthy  for  his  discov- 
ery of  ozone,  his  investigations 
on  hydrogen  peroxide,  and  his 
invention  of  gun-cotton. 

Schonberg,  sh<?n'berk,  Mah- 
RiscH  ('Moravian'),  town, 
Czechoslovakia,  in  Moravia,  29 
miles  northwest  of  Olmutz.  It 
has  linen  and  silk  factories.  Pop. 
13,400. 

Schonbrunn,  .shf?n-broon', 
former  Austrian  royal  residence, 
southwest  of  Vienna,  was  begun 
under  Leopold  i,  and  completed 
by   Maria   There.sa  (1744-50). 


Within  its  walls  the  treaty  of 
Vienna  (1809)  was  signed. 

Schonebeck,  shc'ne-hek, 
town,  Germany,  Saxony,  Prus- 
sia, on  the  Elbe,  9  miles  south- 
east of  Magdeburg.  The  chief 
product  is  salt  (75.000  tons  an- 
nually exported).  It  also  manu- 
factures chemicals,  machinery, 
and  percussion  caps.  Pop.  34, 
737. 

Schonefeld,  shi?'n^-felt,  Hen- 
ry (1857-1936),  American  pian- 
ist and  composer,  was  born  in 
Milwaukee,  Wis.  He  was  a  pu- 
pil, first  of  his  father,  and  then 
of  Reinecke  and  Grill  in  Leip' 
zig.  Afterwards  he  studied  with 
Edward  Lassen  at  Weimar, 
meantime  winning  a  prize  with 
an  orchestral  and  choral  work 
performed  at  one  of  the  (je- 
wandhaus  concerts  in  Leipzig. 
In  1879  he  settled  in  Chicago, 
where  he  was  director  of  the 
Germania  Mannerchoir  for  11 
years.  He  then  conducted  vari- 
ous choruses  and  orchestras  in 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  Los 
Angeles,  settling  in  the  latter 
city  in  1904,  where  he  conducted 
the  Woman's  Symphony  Orches- 
tra. Of  his  orchestral  works,  the 
Rural  Symphony  received  a 
$500  prize  offered  by  the  New 
York  National  Conservatory. 
Other  compositions  are :  Drei 
Indianer,  ode  for  chorus  and  or- 
chestra ;  an  overture,  In  the 
Sunny  South  ;  a  Suite,  for  string 
orchestra,  that  has  been  fre- 
quently played  in  Europe  ;  a  so- 
nata for  violin  and  piano  that 
won  a  prize  offered  by  the 
French  violinist,  Henri  Mar- 
teau  ;  American  Rhapsody;  con- 
certos for  piano,  violin  and 
cello  ;  overtures  ;  a  grand  opera 
on  an  Indian  theme,  and  several 
piano  pieces. 

Schonfeld,  .sh^'n'felt,  Eduard 
(1828-91),  German  astronomer, 
was  born  in  Hildburghausen, 
and  was  appointed  by  Arge- 
lander,  in  1853,  assistant  at  the 
Bonn  Observatory,  where  he  co- 
operated in  the  preparation  of 
the  Durchmustcrung .  Promoted 
in  1859  to  be  director  of  the 
Mannheim  Observatory,  he 
measured  and  catalogued  489 
nebulae  (pub.  1862  and  1875), 
and  pursued  the  investigation  of 
variable  stars,  issuing  two  stand- 
ard catalogues  of  them  in  1866 
and  1875.  The  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  awarded  Schonfeld 
the  Watson  medal  in  1869  for 
his  work  in  cataloguing  the 
stars.  In  1875  he  succeeded 
Argelander  as  director  of  the 
Bonn  Observatory,  and  devoted 
ten  years  to  the  extension  of  the 
Durchmustcrung  to  —23°  decli- 
nation. The  resulting  enumera- 
tion of  133,659  stars  appeared 
in  1886. 


Schongauer,  sh6n'gou-^r, 
Martin  (1445-88),  German 
painter  and  engraver,  was  born 
in  Kolmar.  He  learned  the  trade 
of  goldsmith,  and  studied  art  un- 
der Van  der  Weyden,  whose  in- 
fluence appears  in  Schongauer's 
masterpiece.  The  Madonna  of 
the  Rose  Garden  (1473).  No 
other  picture  can  be  authenti- 
cated as  his  work,  although 
many,  such  as  two  Holy  Fami- 
lies and  Adoration  of  the  Shep- 
herds, are  ascribed  to  him.  His 
engravings  are  more  notable 
than  his  paintings. 

School  Administration. 
Though  marked  by  wide  varia- 
tions, school  administration  in 
the  United  States  is  usually — 
and  tends  increasingly  to  be — 
exercised  by  administrative  ofii- 
cers  employed  by  small  boards 
of  laymen  directly  responsible  to 
and  usually  elected  by  the  peo- 
ple. These  boards  are  com- 
monly known  as  school  boards, 
boards  of  education,  or  school 
committees.  Continuity  in  pol- 
icy is  usually  insured  by  pro- 
vision that  the  terms  of  only  a 
fraction  of  the  membership  (usu- 
ally a  third)  shall  expire  at  each 
election.  The  administrative  of- 
ficers whom  they_  employ  are 
known  as  superintendents  of 
schools  or  superintendents  of  ed- 
ucation. 

The  development  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  from  scattered  colo- 
nies, varying  widely  in  social, 
political,  economic  and  geo- 
graphic conditions,  has  resulted 
in  a  high  degree  of  local  control 
with  close  adaptation  to  local 
conditions  as  contrasted  with  the 
system  in  all  European  coun- 
tries. It  has  resulted  also  in  neg- 
lect of  those  functions  which,  by 
their  nature,  require  state  or 
Federal  control.  The  U.  S.  Com- 
missioner of  Education  is  a  sub- 
ordinate official  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  and  has  no 
power  except  such  as  results 
from  voluntary  cooperation  of 
state  and  local  authorities.  The 
Federal  Board  for  Vocational 
Education,  created  by  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act,  is  a  body  entirely 
independent  of  the  Commission- 
er ;  it  exercises  some  power  in 
administering  the  distribution  to 
the  states  of  Federal  aid  for  vo-  ' 
cational  education.  Efforts  spon- 
sored by  the  National  Education 
Association  to  bring  together  in 
a  Federal  Department  of  Educa- 
tion under  a  Secretary  in  the 
President's  Cabinet  all  educa- 
tional activities  of  the  Federal 
government  have  thus  far  failed. 

With  the  exception  of  New 
York,  the  states,  like  the  Federal 
Government,  have  for  the  most 
part  little  power  except  in  mat- 
ters of  routine.  The  tendency, 
however,  is  increasingly  to  vest 


School  Administration  KFP 


18 


Schools  of  Art 


in  them  such  authority  as  can  in 
this  way  be  exercised  more  ef- 
fectively without  interfering 
with  local  initiative.  The  title  of 
the  state  administrative  officer  in 
29  states  is  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction.  In  other 
states  he  is  known  as  Superin- 
tendent of  Common  (or  Public) 
Schools,  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, or  similar  title. 

Functions  exercised  by  prac- 
tically all  state  administrative 
authorities  include  collection  and 
publication  of  statistics,  certifi- 
cation of  teachers,  distribution 
of  state  school  funds,  and  ad- 
judication on  appeal  of  certain 
types  of  local  disputes.  Func- 
tions exercised  in  some  states, 
and  tending  to  be  more  generally 
assigned  to  state  boards  and  su- 
perintendents, include  general 
supervision  of  elementary  and 
secondary  school  standards,  for- 
mulation of  courses  of  study,  ac- 
crediting of  secondary  schools, 
adoption  of  textbooks  (adoption 
is  now  commonly  made  by  a 
board  appointed  by  the  state 
board,  superintendent,  governor, 
or  other  authority),  control  of 
reading  circles  for  teachers  or 
pupils  in  rural  states,  conduct  of 
an  employment  office  for  teach- 
ers and  employing  officials,  con- 
trol of  university  extension 
courses,  and  supervision  of  state 
universities,  colleges,  and  nor- 
mal schools  (such  supervision^  is 
now  commonly  exercised  by  in- 
dependent boards  of  trustees, 
usually  .appointed  by  the  gover- 
nor, legislature  or  other  author- 
ity, of  which  the  state  superin- 
tendent is  usually  an  ex-officio 
member). 

The  units  of  local  administra- 
tion are  cities  (and,  in  New  Eng- 
land, towns — ^which  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes  are  merely  small 
cities),  townships,  and  districts. 
The  district,  developed  in  New 
England  as  an  administrative 
unit  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
17th  century,  has  been  wiped  out 
there  because  of  its  recognized 
inefficiency  and  is  gradually  be- 
ing eliminated  in  other  states  to 
which  it  was  carried  by  migra- 
tion. Although  in  cities  the 
sphool  board,  board  of  educa- 
tion, or  school  committee  exer- 
cises both  administrative  and 
supervisory  functions,  in  only  15 
states  do  the  units  of  local  ad- 
ministration and  supervision  in 
rural  sections  coincide.  Recog- 
nition of  the  undesirability  of 
this  separation  is  rapidly  effect- 
ing changes,  usually  the  adoption 
of  the  county  unit  for  both. 

See  Education  ;  Educational 
Systems,  National  ;  Schools. 
Consult  Annual  Reports,  U.  S. 
Commissioner  of  Education ; 
Cubberley,  Public  School  Ad- 
ministration (1916),  and  Public 


Education  in  the  United  States 
(1919)  ;  Keith  and  Bagley,  The 
Nation  and  the  Schools  (1920)  ; 
Reisner,  Nationalism  and  Edu- 
cation Since  1789  (1922)  ;  Mor- 
rison, Legal  Status  of  the  City 
School  Superintendent  (1922)  ; 
Frasier,  The  Control  of  the  City 
School  Finances  (1922)  ;  Koop- 
man  and  others,  Democracy  in 
School  Adminstration  (1943)  ; 
Otto,  Elementary  School  Organ- 
ization and  Administration 
(1945)  ;  Douglass,  Organisation 
and  Administration  of  Secon- 
dary Schools  (1945). 

SchooFcraft,  Henry  Rowe 
(1793-1864),  American  ethnolo- 
gist, was  born  in  Watervliet, 
N.  Y.  He  was  educated  at  Union 
College,  was  a  member  of  Gen- 
eral Cass'  exploring  expedition 
to  Lake  Superior  in  1820,  and 
in  1822-36  was  Indian  agent  at 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  and  Mackinaw. 
In  1828-31  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Michigan  territorial  legisla- 
ture, and  in  1832  led  an  explor- 
ing expedition  to  the  source  of 
the  Mississippi.  By  means  of  a 
treaty  which  he  executed  with 
the  Indians,  16,000,000  acres  of 
Indian  lands  became  the  proper- 
ty of  the  U.  S.  Government.  In 
1837-41  he  was  superintendent 
of  Indian  affairs  and  disbursing 
agent  on  the  Northwest  frontier. 
He  made  a  census  of  the  New 
York  Indians  in  1845,  and  of  the 
Six  Nations  in  1845-47.  In  1847 
Congress  authorized  him  to  col- 
lect and  edit  information  relat- 
ing to  the  Indians,  and  he  was 
engaged  in  this  work  to  the  end 
of  his  life.  He  was  author  of : 
Journal  of  a  Tour  in  the  Inte- 
rior of  Missouri  and  Arkansas 

(1820)  ;  Travels  from  Detroit  to 
the  Source   of  the  Mississippi 

(1821)  ;  Travels  in  the  Central 
Portions  of  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley (1825)  ;  Indian  Melodies 
(1830)  ;  Narrative  of  a  Voyage 
Through  the  Upper  Mississippi 
to  Itasca  Lake  (1834)  ;  Oneota, 
or  Characteristics  of  the  Red 
Race  of  America  (1844-5)  ;  The 
Red  Race  of  America  (1847); 
Notices  of  Antique  Earthen  Ves- 
sels from  Florida  (1847)  ;  Life 
and  Character  of  General  Lewis 
Cass  (1848)  ;  Bibliography  of 
Indian  Books  Published  in  the 
United  States  (1849)  ;  Personal 
Memoirs  of  Thirty  Years'  Resi- 
dence with  Indian  Tribes  on  the 
American  Frontier  1812—42 
(1851)  ;  Historical  and  Statisti- 
cal Information  Respecting  the 
History,  Conditions,  and  Pros- 
pects of  the  Indian  Tribes  of  the 
U.  S.  (6  vols.  1851-7)  ;  The 
Myth  of  Hiawatha  (1855)  ;  The 
Indian  Fairy  Book  (1855). 

Schools  of  Art.  Originally 
the  painter  or  sculptor  was 
trained  like  any  other  craftsman. 
The   would-be   painter  entered 


the  studio  of  some  recognized 
artist,  and  there  began  to  pre- 
pare colors  and  to  ground  can- 
vases, learning  all  that  his  mas- 
ter had  to  teach  him,  and  even- 
tually even  taking  part  in  the 
production  of  the  great  frescoes 
or  paintings  for  which  his  mas- 
ter was  known.  Later,  academies 
of  art  were  founded  and  in  con- 
nection with  them  art  classes 
were  formed,  which  were  con- 
ducted by  certified  instructors. 

The  ficole  des  Beaux  Arts, 
Paris,  was  founded  in  1648,  and 
now  offers  instruction  in  draw- 
ing, painting,  sculpture,  archi- 
tecture, and  gem  cutting.  Its 
classes  are  free  and  are  open  to 
foreigners,  but  only  French  stu- 
dents may  compete  for  the  Prix 
de  Rome  (q.  v.). 

In  England,  one  of  the  first 
efforts  in  the  direction  of  system- 
atic art  training  was  made  by 
Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  who  in 
1711  founded  an  institution  for 
giving  professional  instruction 
in  design.  In  1724  Sir  James 
Thornhill  established  a  similar 
academy,  but  these  and  subse- 
quent schools  were  superseded 
by  the  schools  instituted  by  the 
Royal  Academy  after  its  foun- 
dation in  1768  (see  Academy, 
Royal,  of  Art).  In  1835  a  se- 
lect committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  recommended  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  normal  school 
of  design,  and  in  1852,  through 
the  recons  truction  '  of  this 
scheme,  the  South  Kensington 
Department  of  Science  and  Art 
arose,  under  the  management  of 
the  Board  of  Trade.  In  1856  the 
Council  on  Education  took  over 
the  control,  and  there  is  now, 
under  the  Science  and  Art  De- 
partment, a  large  number  of 
schools  of  art,  in  which  exarni- 
nations  are  held  and  grants  giv- 
en. Teachers  and  students  alike 
are  trained  at  the  Royal  College 
of  Art. 

In  the  United  States,  the  old- 
est art  school  is  that  of  the  New 
York  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign (q.  v.),  which  was  founded 
in  1825.  It  maintains  classes  in 
drawing,  painting,  composition, 
and  coin  and  medal  designing, 
taught  by  members  or  associates 
of  the  Academy.  In  New  York 
also  are  the  Art  Students' 
League,  organized  in  1880  by  a 
number  of  young  painters  who 
found  the  Academy  methods  too 
conservative,  and  the  New  York 
School  of  Applied  Design  for 
Women.  The  free  art  classes  of 
the  Cooper  Union  offer  instruc- 
tion in  painting,  modeling,  de- 
signing, and  architecture.  Im- 
portant art  schools  are  main- 
tained by  the  Philadelphia  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts,  the  Boston 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  and  the 
Chicago  Fine  Arts  Academy,  the 


Schools  of  Engineering 


19 


Schools  of  Engineering 


latter  having  an  attendance  in 
ail  its  classes  of  about  800  stu- 
dents. Smaller  schools  are  main- 
tained in  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis, 
Washington,  and  elsewhere.  In 
addition  to  regular  art  schools 
there  are  institutions  in  New 
York,  Boston,  and  Chicago  which 
teach  design  in  connection  with 
bookbinding,  wall-papers,  tex- 
tiles, wood  carving,  and  similar 
subjects.  Of  such  schools  one  of 
the  most  flourishing  is  that 
maintained  by  the  Young  Wom- 
en's Christian  Association  in 
New  York  City. 

Schools  of  Engineering,  in- 
stitutions in  which  the  teaching 
of  engineering  in  all  its  branches 
is  made  the  prime  object.  Al- 
though the  practice  of  engineer- 
ing in  a  number  of  its  branches 
is  nearly  or  quite  as  old  as  civ- 
ilization itself,  the  engineering 
school  as  now  known  is  of  mod- 
ern creation.  The  discoveries  in 
science,  beginning  chiefly  in  the 
18th  century  have  made  the  prac- 
tice of  modern  engineering  possi- 
ble, and  concurrently  with  the  ex- 
tension of  that  practice  there  has 
arisen  a  demand  for  the  suitable 
education  of  those  following  the 
calling  of  engineering.  Schools 
of  engineering  have  always  cov- 
ered two  fields,  one  of  civil  en- 
gineering and  the  other  of  mili- 
tary engineering;  the  schools  of 
civil  engineering  only  will  be 
considered  here.  The  term  'civil 
engineering'  is  used  in  this  con- 
nection in  its  broad,  historical 
sense,  covering  all  engineering 
not  military  or  naval. 

Probably  no  school  of  engineer- 
ing, properly  speaking  at  the 
present  time,  existed  much  prior 
to  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. At  about  that  time  the 
practical  applications  of  science 
to  useful  industries  had  begun 
to  create  a  demand  for  corre- 
sponding educational  training  in 
a  number  of  European  localities. 
Among  the  earliest  European  en- 
gineering schools  was  the  School 
of  Mines  at  Freiberg,  Saxony. 
Others  followed  soon  after  and 
gradually  grew  into  the  engineer- 
ing schools  of  Europe  now  so  well 
known. 

Among  the  prominent  schools 
of  engineering  of  the  middle  of 
the  19th  century  was  the  depart- 
ment of  civil  engineering  at  Glas- 
gow University,  where  Professor 
W,  J.  M.  Rankine  practically 
founded  engineering  science  and 
wrote  his  works  upon  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  civil  engi- 
neering, which  are  now  among 
the  classics  of  engineering  litera- 
ture. These  foreign  schools  of 
engineering  were,  during  that 
period,  attended  by  many  Amer- 
ican engineering  students,  but 
the  practice  of  seeking  engineer- 
ing education  abroad  disappeared 
during  the  last  quarter  of  the 


19th  century  in  consequence  of 
the  establishment  and  rapid 
growth  of  engineering  schools  in 
America. 

The  first  school  of  civil  engi- 
neering, using  that  term  in  its 
broad  historical  sense,  was  the 
Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute 
at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  founded  in  1824 
as  a  school  of  natural  science  by 
Stephen  Van  Rensselaer  of  Al- 
bany, the  eighth  and  last  of  the 
Dutch  patroons.  This  school, 
like  the  great  majority  and  per- 
haps all  of  the  earlier  technical 
schools  both  in  Europe  and 
America,  was  founded  to  meet 
the  industrial  needs  of  its  local- 
ity. Stephen  Van  Rensselaer 
was  one  of  the  earliest  advocates 
of  the  Erie  Canal  in  the  State  of 
New  York,  besides  being  much 
interested  in  the  manufacturing 
and  other  industrial  enterprises 
of  the  central  part  of  that  State. 
His  purpose  in  founding  the 
Rensselaer  School,  as  it  was  first 
named,  was  the  'application  of 
science  to  the  common  purposes 
of  life.  My  principal  object  is 
to  qualify  teachers  for  instructing 
the  sons  and  daughters  of  farm- 
ers and  mechanics  by  lectures  or 
otherwise  in  the  application  of 
experimental  chemistry,  philoso- 
phy, and  natural  history  to  agri- 
culture, domestic  economy,  the 
arts  and  manufactures.  .  .  .'  He 
was  so  deeply  interested  in  these 
practical  applications  of  science 
that  he  naturally  and,  indeed, 
inevitably  so  shaped  the  instruc- 
tion at  the  Rensselaer  School  as 
to  develop  it  into  an  engineering 
school,  conferring  the  profession- 
al degree  of  civil  engineer  (c.e.) 
within  ten  years  from  its  estab- 
lishment. In  1849  the  Rensse- 
laer School  'was  reorganized 
upon  the  basis  of  a  general  poly- 
technic institute.'  The  course 
of  study  was  extended  to  four 
years.  It  was  intended  among 
other  things  to  attract  young 
men  who  should  desire  to  secure 
their  professional  educational 
training  subsequent  to  a  preced- 
ing college  course  or  general 
education. 

While  the  Rensselaer  Poly- 
technic Institute  was  thus  the 
pioneer  by  quite  a  period  of  time 
of  the  engineering  schools  of 
America,  in  1847  both  the  Shef- 
field Scientific  School  of  Yale 
University  and  the  Lawrence 
Scientific  School  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity were  organized  for  the 
technical  educational  training 
which  they  were  intended  to  af- 
ford. Although  the  first  of  these 
schools  was  started  in  applied 
chemistry  the  endowment  given 
to  it  in  1860  by  Joseph  E.  Shef- 
field of  New  Haven  enabled  it  to 
broaden  its  purpose  and  begin  its 
succevssful  career  as  an  engineer- 
ing school.  Similarly  the  bene- 
factions of  Abbott  Lawrence  en- 


abled the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School  to  undertake  its  work  as  a 
school  of  engineering,  which  has 
since  grown  into  a  great  technical 
department  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. The  engineering  depart- 
ment of  Union  College  at  Sche- 
nectady, N.  Y.,  established  in 
1845,  was  also  an  early  school  of 
engineering. 

In  1864  the  School  of  Mines 
of  Columbia  College,  probably 
the  most  prominent  school  of 
mining  engineering  in  the  United 
States,  was  established  primarily 
by  the  efforts  of  Professor 
Thomas  Egleston.  This  famous 
school  was  intended  to  meet  the 
demands  for  a  technical  education 
devoted  to  mining  subjects,  to 
metallurgy,  and  to  applied  chem- 
istry. At  the  time  of  its  estab- 
lishment the  development  of  the 
mineral  resources  of  the  United 
States  was  attracting  much  at- 
tention and  the  creation  of  many 
valuable  mining  properties  gave 
rise  to  a  strong  demand  for  min- 
ing engineers.  The  well  consid- 
ered mining  course  given  by  the 
School  of  Mines  through  the  ef- 
forts of  a  number  of  prominent 
instructors  attached  to  its  faculty 
soon  placed  it  among  the  fore- 
most technical  schools  of  the 
country.  Within  a  few  years 
after  its  establishment  courses 
in  civil  engineering  and  other 
branches  of  applied  science  were 
established,  geology  and  archi- 
tecture being  included  among 
them.  A  course  in  electrical  en- 
gineering was  added  in  1889,  and 
in  1894  a  department  of  mechan- 
ical engineering  was  first  created. 
Through  a  reorganization  of  the 
technical  schools  of  Columbia 
University  in  1896  the  School  of 
Mines  was  restored  as  an  organ- 
ization to  its  original  purposes  of 
mining  and  metallurgy.  The 
School  of  Engineering  was  cre- 
ated at  the  same  time,  including 
courses  in  civil,  mechanical,  and 
electrical  engineering.  All  these 
courses  of  study  extend  over  a 
period  of  four  years. 

The  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology  was  also  among 
the  earlier  established  schools 
of  engineering.  It  was  incor- 
porated in  1861,  but  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Civil  War  delayed  the 
beginning  of  instruction  until 
1865.  Since  that  date  it  has 
grown  with  phenomenal  success. 
At  the  present  time  it  is  devoted 
to  a  wide  range  of  instruction 
in  applied  science  including 
courses  in  civil,  mechanical,  min- 
ing, electrical,  chemical,  and 
sanitary  engineering  and  naval 
architecture,  as  well  as  archi- 
tecture, chemistry,  metallurgy, 
biology,  physics,  and  geology. 
It  possesses  extensive  laborato- 
ries, museums,  and  library  which 
are  used  to  give  the  educational 
training  afforded  in  it  a  strong 

Vol.  XL— March  '28 


Schools  of  Engineering 


20 


Schools,  Private 


trend  toward  the  useful  arts  and 
sciences.  There  are  also  courses 
in  the  social  sciences  and  modern 
languages. 

The  technical  department  of 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
originally  known  as  the  Towne 
Scientific  School,  established  in 
1852,  was  also  among  the  earlier 
schools  of  engineering.  Origin- 
ally professorships  were  created 
in  geology  and  mineralogy,  civil 
engineering,  and  mining.  Me- 
chanical engineering  and  electri- 
cal engineering,  as  well  as  other 
courses  of  study  in  applied  sci- 
ence, have  since  been  added  until 
it  has  reached  a  position  of  much 
prominence  among  the  schools  of 
engineering  of  the  United  States. 

The  Worcester  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute at  Worcester,  Mass.,  was 
incorporated  in  1865,  and  offered 
courses  of  engineering  study  im- 
mediately thereafter.  This  in- 
stitution was  equipped  to  begin 
its  educational  work  chiefly 
through  the  liberality  of  Hon. 
Emory  Washburn  and  John 
Boynton,  one  a  successful  manu- 
facturer and  the  other  a  success- 
ful merchant  of  Massachusetts. 
It  extended  the  field  of  its  in- 
struction until  it  now  offers 
courses  in  civil  engineering,  me- 
chanical engineering,  sanitary 
and  industrial  chemistry,  elec- 
trical engineering,  and  general 
science.  A  marked  peculiarity  of 
the  instruction  given  in  engineer- 
ing study  in  this  institution  is  the 
shop  practice,  which  constitutes 
a  necessary  part  of  its  educational 
training.  Although  other  insti- 
tutions offer  instruction  in  shop 
work  there  is  no  other  school  of 
engineering  in  which  shop  work 
has  been  more  prominent. 

These  accounts  of  some  of  the 
earlier  schools  of  engineering  in 
America  are  typical  of  the  devel- 
opment of  all.  They  may  be 
divided  into  two  general  classes, 
although  members  of  each  class 
may  have  distinct  features  and 
variations.  In  one  of  these 
classes  are  found  the  schools  of 
engineering  standing  by  them- 
selves as  independent  centres  of 
instruction,  such  as  the  Rensselaer 
Polytechnic  Institute,  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology, 
and  the  Worcester  Polytechnic 
Institute;  while  in  the  other  class 
are  found  those  schools  of  engi- 
neering which  are  integral  parts 
of  university  systems,  such  as 
engineering  schools  of  Columbia 
University,  the  Lawrence  Scien- 
tific School  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, and  the  engineering  schools 
of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Both  of  these  general 
classes,  have  been  developed  with 
characteristics  or  features  pe- 
culiar to  themselves,  although 
the  subject  matter  of  the  courses 
of  instruction  have  been  prac- 
tically the  same  in  all.  The 

Vol.  XL— March  '28 


main  difference  between  the 
two  is  probably  that  due  to  the 
broadly  cultivating  influence  of 
the  university  environment  of 
those  schools  existing  as  parts  of 
university  systems. 

The  rapid  growth  and  expan- 
sion of  the  engineering  profession 
during  the  past  fifty  or  sixty 
years  has  created  correspondingly 
developed  conditions  for  its  suc- 
cessful practice.  These  include 
not  only  a  large  and  much  wider 
range  of  advanced  applications 
of  science  to  the  constantly  in- 
creasing fields  of  engineering 
work  but  also  much  more  exact- 
ing requirements  of  general  cul- 
tivation, for  the  reason  that  engi- 
neering has  become  one  of  the 
learned  professions.  A  logical 
consequence  of  these  conditions 
has  been  the  constant  tendency 
to  place  the  schools  of  engineer- 
ing upon  the  same  educational 
plane  as  the  older  professional 
schools  of  law,  medicine,  and  the- 
ology. The  more  recent  devel- 
opments, therefore,  of  the  educa- 
tional training  of  engineers  in  the 
United  States  have  been  in  the 
direction  of  making  a  college 
course  precede  the  engineering 
school.  As  already  stated,  an 
attempt  to  gain  this  end  at  least 
partially,  was  made  over  fifty 
years  ago  when  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  course  of  study  at  the 
Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute 
was  completed.  Similar  attempts 
have  also  been  made  in  other 
institutions  such  as  the  Thayer 
School  of  Civil  Engineering  of 
Dartmouth  College,  which, 
founded  in  1867,  is  one  of  the  six 
oldest  schools  of  engineering  in 
the  United  States.  Complete 
courses  of  engineering  study  in- 
cluding a  prior  college  course 
leading  to  the  bachelor's  degree 
have  now  been  established  in  a 
number  of  institutions.  Promi- 
nent among  these  are  the  six-year 
courses  of  civil,  mechanical,  elec- 
trical, and  mining  engineering  at 
Columbia  University,  which 
cover  three  years  in  the  college 
and  then  three  years  in  the  pro- 
fessional schools  of  engineering. 
Such  a  complete  course  of  engi- 
neering study  has  now  come  gen- 
erally to  be  looked  upon  as  what 
may  be  termed  the  standard  edu- 
cational training  for  all  branches 
of  civil  engineering. 

Instruction  in  a  wide  range  of 
testing  laboratories,  power  lab- 
oratories for  steam,  hydraulic 
and  electrical  power,  hydraulic 
laboratories  and  laboratories  for 
electrical  engineering  work  are 
required  parts  of  every  advanced 
course  in  engineering  study. 
Work-shop  practice  is  not  so 
general,  although  there  is  much 
of  it  in  many  courses  in  mechani- 
cal engineering  and  in  some 
courses  in  civil  engineering. 

The  practice  in  awarding  de- 


grees for  the  successful  comple- 
tion of  courses  of  study  is  far 
from  being  uniform  among  the 
engineering  schools  of  the  United 
States.  Many  give  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  science  at  the  end  of 
the  course,  usually  prescribed  to 
cover  four  years,  and  in  some 
cases,  such  as  those  of  the  Shef- 
field Scientific  School  and  the 
Thayer  School  of  Civil  Engineer- 
ing of  Dartmouth  College,  the 
professional  engineering  degree  is 
received  at  the  end  of  an  addi- 
tional course  of  study,  usually 
prescribed  to  be  two  years.  On 
the  other  hand,  many  others, 
like  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic 
Institute,  the  School  of  Civil  En- 
gineering at  Cornell  University, 
and  the  Schools  of  Engineering 
at  Columbia  University  give  the 
professional  degrees  on  the  suc- 
cessful completion  of  the  four 
years'  course. 

In  1866  there  were  but  six 
schools  of  engineering  in  America, 
but  at  the  present  time  there  are 
about  140,  counting  all  of  the  uni- 
versities, colleges,  and  schools 
of  technology  which  give  courses 
of  engineering  study.  Some  of 
the  older  and  more  prominent 
of  these  are  the  Rensselaer  Poly- 
technic Institute,  the  Lawrence 
Scientific  School  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, the  Sheffield  Scientific 
School  of  Yale  University,  the 
Engineering  Schools  of  Colum- 
bia University,  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology,  the 
Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute, 
the  Stevens  Institute  of  Hobo- 
ken,  N.  J.,  the  Schools  of  Engi- 
neering of  Cornell  University, 
the  Schools  of  Engineering  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  the 
John  C.  Greene  School  of  Science 
of  Princeton  University,  Lehigh 
University,  the  Thayer  School  of 
Civil  Engineering  of  Dartmouth 
College,  Washington  University, 
St.  Louis,  the  Virginia  Polytech- 
nic at  Lexington,  Va.,  the  Schools 
of  Engineering  at  the  State  Uni- 
versities of  Michigan,  Illinois, 
Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Minnesota, 
Colorado,  and  California.  For 
Canadian  Schools  of  Engineering, 
see  Universities,  Canadian. 

The  State  schools  of  engineer- 
ing are  supported  chiefly  by  ap- 
propriations from  public  funds, 
although  they  receive  some  in- 
come from  tuitions.  Others  se- 
cure income  from  endowment 
funds,  individual  gifts,  and  tui- 
tions. See  Technical  Educa- 
tion. 

According  to  the  Report  of  the 
U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education 
for  1924,  there  were  at  that  time 
not  less  than  57,000  students  in 
the  United  States  schools  of 
engineering. 

Schools,  Private,  institutions 
of  learning  under  private  control 
in  distinction  to  the  free  public 
schools.    Private  schools  have, 


Schools,  Private 


21 


Schools,  Private 


during  pioneer  conditions,  pre- 
ceded public  schools,  but  as  soon, 
however,  as  the  public  school,  in 
the  American  sense,  has  been 
established,  the  private  school 
has  become  the  school  of  those 
families  in  a  community  who 
possess  larger  means  or  higher 
aspirations  for  their  children. 
These  statements  indicate  that, 
pioneer  conditions  having  passed, 
the  private  school  to  some  degree 
has  become  a  class  school,  an 
aristocratic  school.  In  spite  of 
these  facts  it  would  be  misleading 
to  represent  the  private  school 
as  the  enemy  of  democracy,  or 
as  the  nurse  of  aristocratic  feel- 
ing. In  its  incipiency  the  Amer- 
ican college  included  its  own  pre- 
paratory school.  As  the  college 
developed  and  limited  itself  to 
strictly  collegiate  work,  schools 
for  the  preparation  of  students 
for  college  became  a  necessity. 
In  its  infancy  the  public  high 
school  made  no  attempt  to  relate 
itself  to  the  college  or  university, 
and  therefore  made  no  provision 
for  the  preparation  of  its  students 
to  enter  these  higher  institutions; 
hence  private  secondary  schools 
originated  in  the  necessity  for 
making  private  provision  for  the 
college  preparation  of  students. 
Besides  offering  opportunities  for 
such  preparation,  the  private  sec- 
ondary school  offers  the  oppor- 
tunity to  acquire  a  good  academic 
education.  The  third  condition 
inducing  private  secondary  in- 
struction was  found  in  the  secu- 
lar character  of  the  public  school. 

The  most  ardent  friends  of  de- 
mocracy have  been  the  most  en- 
thusiastic supporters  of  the  sepa- 
ration of  church  and  state.  The 
larger  section  of  the  public  is  so 
sensitive  to  anything  looking  to 
their  union,  that  gradually  the 
reading  of  the  Bible,  and  all 
attempt  at  religious  instruction, 
indeed  of  direct  appeal  to  the 
spiritual  nature  of  the  child,  has 
been  dropped  from  the  curricu- 
lum of  the  public  school.  This 
fact,  coupled  with  the  strong 
sectarian  feeling  which  until 
within  a  recent  period  has  char- 
acterized American  society,  led 
to  the  establishment  of  private 
secondary  schools  under  the  pro- 
tection of  every  leading  denom- 
ination. While  secularism  as  op- 
opposed  to  sectarianism  seems  to 
have  experienced  a  more  rapid 
growth,  still  as  late  as  1923,  more 
than  90  per  cent,  of  the  private 
high  schools  in  the  United  States 
were  under  denominational  con- 
trol. 

The  later  secular  secondary 
schools  have  originated  in  the 
defects  of  public  secondary 
schools.  Chief  of  these  defects 
is  the  relatively  large  number 
of  pupils  under  the  care  of  one 
single  teacher,  which  fact  forbids 
individual  tuition  and  that  close 


personal  relation  which  is  neces- 
sary to  the  best  guidance  of  any 
student. 

In  1923-4  there  were  approxi- 
mately 3,500,000  students  re- 
ceiving secondary  instruction,  of 
whom  250,000  were  in  private 
schools.  This  indicates  a  great 
growth  since  1890  in  the  number 
of  both  high  schools  and  high- 
school  students.  The  last  pub- 
lished statistics  show  that  public 
high  schools  have  increased  al- 
most sevenfold,  and  students  in 
attendance  more  than  twelvefold 
since  that  date.  Private  high 
schools  on  the  other  hand  have 
increased  only  about  30  per  cent, 
in  number  while  their  population 
has  increased  roughly  130  per 
cent.  The  progress  made  in  pub- 
lic secondary  education  since 
1890  has  been  remarkable.  The 
relatively  great  increase  in  the 
public  school  system  might  be 
accounted  for  as  follows:  The 
progress  of  the  public  secondary 
school  has  necessarily  increased 
the  school  tax.  The  larger  the 
tax  that  is  imposed  upon  people 
for  the  support  of  public  educa- 
tion, the  less  ready  are  they  to 
add  to  this  the  cost  of  private 
schools  for  their  own  children. 
Moreover  the  improvement  of 
the  public  secondary  school  has 
diminished  the  need  of  the  pri- 
vate secondary  school  for  pupils 
of  corresponding  age.  On  the 
other  hand  the  improvement  of 
the  public  secondary  school  is  di- 
rectly due  to  the  fact  that  the 
superiority  of  the  private  sec- 
ondary school  made  an  impera- 
tive demand  for  its  improvement. 
The  tendency  may  be  summed 
up  thus:  At  this  date  (1928)  there 
is  a  tendency  toward  the  equali- 
zation of  advantages  offered  by 
public  and  private  secondary 
schools.  The  latter  have  in- 
creased the  number  of  students 
to  each  teacher,  and  to  that  de- 
gree reduced  the  individualism  of 
their  tuition.  On  the  other  hand 
the  growing  support  of  the  public 
secondary  schools  has  diminished 
the  number  of  pupils  to  each 
teacher  and  relatively  has  in- 
creased the  sense  of  individual 
relation  between  pupils  and 
teacher  in  such  schools.  How- 
ever, the  disproportion  between 
the  average  number  of  pupils  to 
each  teacher  in  the  two  classes  of 
institutions  still  gives  the  advan- 
tage to  the  private  school.  Sta- 
tistics published  for  1923-4  show 
the  number  of  students  per 
teacher  in  the  public  high  schools 
to  be  22  as  contrasted  with  14  in 
the  private  high  schools  and 
academies. 

Effect  of  Private  Schools  on 
Educational  Advancement. — Pri- 
vate schools  have  initiated  peda- 
gogical reforms  in  all  classes  of 
schools,  from  infant  schools  to 
universities.    For  example,  there 


is  probably  no  community  where 
the  kindergarten  has  not  started 
as  a  private  venture,  and  in  many 
of  our  largest  cities  it  has  become 
a  part  of  the  public  school  system 
only  after  the  private  kindergar- 
ten, sustained  by  the  better 
classes  for  their  own  children, 
and  the  free  kindergarten,  main- 
tained by  the  charity  of  the  rich 
for  the  benefit  of  the  children  of 
the  poor,  have  demonstrated  the 
efficacy  of  this  kind  of  infant 
education. 

The  latest  development  in  the 
education  of  young  children  has 
been  that  which  from  its  similar- 
ity to  the  English  system,  might 
be  referred  to  as  nursery  schools. 
These  establishments — usually 
privately  owned — are  concerned 
with  children  from  two  to  five 
years  old.  The  teachers  and 
nurses  are  highly  trained  persons; 
and  the  schools  themselves  are 
equipped  with  apparatus  and 
fittings  most  suitable  to  the 
needs  and  limitations  of  children 
of  tender  years.  The  children 
are  trained  in  self-help,  social 
service,  and  sound  habit  forma- 
tion. The  methods  of  instruc- 
tion are  of  the  most  satisfactory 
kind  that  modern  pedagogy  has 
been  able  to  devise. 

In  private  schools,  also,  have 
been  inaugurated  many  features 
of  what  is  called  'The  New  Edu- 
cation'— music,  drawing,  calis- 
thenics, the  more  serious  physical 
culture  of  the  formal  gymna- 
sium— as  well  as  sewing,  cooking, 
wood-carving,  and  other  prac- 
tical applications  of  the  trained 
hand. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  func- 
tions of  the  private  school  has 
been,  and  still  is,  experimenta- 
tion. A  school  conducted  by 
an  individual  who  has  founded 
it,  either  as  a  private  venture 
or  under  the  auspices  of  a  board, 
enjoys  an  independence  and  an 
ease  of  action  quite  impossible 
to  the  public  school.  The  found- 
er of  a  private  school  may  an- 
nounce, as  he  frequently  has 
done  in  the  United  States,  that  he 
has  opened  a  school  in  order  to 
try  certain  experiments,  to  in- 
troduce certain  particular  sub- 
jects or  certain  new  methods  of 
pursuing  old  ones.  By  an  an- 
nouncement of  this  sort  he  ap- 
peals to  two  classes  of  people: 
First,  to  those  who  are  sympa- 
thetic with  his  aims;  and,  second, 
to  those  who,  dissatisfied  with 
existing  institutions,  welcome 
any  announcement  of  change. 
By  such  an  announcement  he  has 
established  his  freedom,  since  he 
has  a  right  to  assume  that  those 
coming  to  his  school  intend  to 
conform  to  its  requirements  and 
to  enter  into  his  plans,  cooperat- 
ing with  him  to  attain  what  he 
has  pronounced  desirable. 

The  objection  most  strongly 

Vol.  XI. — March  '28 


Schooner 


22 


Schottlsche 


urged  against  private  secondary 
instruction  is  that  it  tends  to  in- 
duce false  social  ideals,  and  to 
develop  class  feeling  which  will 
have  its  outcome  in  the  assump- 
tion of  pseudo-aristocracy.  On 
the  other  hand,  its  advocates 
point  to  the  proportion  of  stu- 
dents whose  education  has  been 
received  in  private  institutions, 
who  after  their  graduation  have 
either  immediately,  or  subse- 
quently to  their  graduation  from 
some  higher  institution,  devoted 
themselves  to  some  form  of  social 
service.  The  second  objection 
urged  against  private  secondary 
instruction,  especially  against  the 
private  secondary  schools  for 
girls  and  young  women,  has  been 
that  the  education  received  was 
narrow,  one-sided,  and  super- 
ficial. As  against  this  it  may  be 
urged  that  of  the  pupils  enrolled 
in  private  secondary  schools  a 
large  proportion  of  these  prepar 
ing  for  college  consists  of  girls 
In  addition  to  these  there  is  a 
large  number  besides  who  go  for- 
ward beyond  the  education  of  the 
secondary  school  into  special 
schools,  particularly  schools  of 
music,  of  the  fine  arts,  and  of  ap- 
plied arts.  The  special  art 
schools,  music  schools,  and  the 
like  are  fed  in  much  larger  de- 
gree by  private  secondary  schools 
than  by  public  secondary  schools, 
although  exact  statistics  upon 
this  point  cannot  be  obtained. 
It  is  undeniable  that  many  of  the 
secondary  schools,  of  the  type 
called  'finishing  schools,'  have 
little  to  recommend  them  except- 
ing their  expensiveness,  which  in 
itself  appeals  to  a  relatively  small 
class  of  people  who  measure  the 
education  of  their  children  by 
the  money  they  have  invested  in 
it.  A  large  proportion  of  private 
secondary  schools  provide  for 
boarding  pupils  as  well  as  day 
pupils. 

Schooner,  a  sailing  vessel  with 
two  or  more  masts,  fore-and-aft- 
rigged,  whose  main  and  fore  sails 
are  extended  by  gaffs  and 
stretched  out  below  by  booms. 
Some  small  schooners  have  no 
boom  for  the  foresail.  Within 
recent  years  it  has  been  found 
profitable  to  construct  huge 
schooners  of  wood  or  steel  with 
from  four  to  six  masts.  These 
usually  have  steam  engines  for 
working  the  sails  and  hoisting 
the  cargo  in  and  out  of  the  holds. 

Schopenhauer,  sho'pen-hou'- 
er,  Arthur  (1788-1860),  Ger- 
man philosopher,  the  leading  ex- 
ponent of  modern  pessimism,  was 
born  in  Danzig.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  Hamburg  and  in  Paris, 
and  spent  a  short  time  in  a  clergy- 
man's school  in  London.  In 
1807  he  began  seriously  to  devote 
himself  to  study  and  his  first 
work.  The  Fourfold  Root  of  the 
Principle   of  Sufficient  Reason, 

Vol.  XL— March  '28 


was  published  in  1813.  At  the 
instigation  of  Goethe  he  tu/ned 
his  attention  to  the  theory  of 
colors,  and  in  1816  published  an 
essay  on  Vision  and  Colors. 
Three  years  later  his  great  work. 
The  World  as  Will  and  as  Idea, 
failed  to  attract  attention,  and 
it  was  not  till  late  in  life  that  he 
began  to  win  disciples,  and  to 
achieve  a  prominent  position  in 
the  philosophical  world.  In  1820 
he  essayed  lecturing  at  the  Ber- 
lin University,  but  failed  to  gain 
a  sufficient  audience.  In  1831 
he  settled  down  at  Frankfort-on- 
Main  to  a  solitary  and  uneventful 
life,  and  during  this  time  pub- 
lished a  work  on  The  Will  in 
Nature  (1836),  another  on  The 


Schooner 


Two  Fundamental  Problems  oj 
Ethics  (1841),  and  finally  a  col- 
lection of  essays  entitled  Parerga 
and  Paralipomena  (1851). 

Accepting  from  Kant  the  dis- 
tinction between  phenomena  and 
the  thing  in  itself,  and  agreeing 
with  him  in  regarding  the  world 
which  science  exhibits  to  us  in 
terms  of  space,  time,  and  causal- 
ity as  wholly  phenomenal,  Scho- 
penhauer diverges  from  him  in 
regard  to  the  thing  in.  itself,  or 
reality  behind  the  phenomena. 
This  cannot  be  known  by  science, 
for  science  is  concerned  only  with 
its  phenomenal  manifestations; 
but  it  is  revealed  to  us  through 
that  in  us  in  which  we  are  at  one 
with  it — viz.  in  our  experience  of 
will.  Will,  however,  is  under- 
stood by  Schopenhauer  in  a  wide 
sense,  as  being  expressed  not 
merely  in  the  motived  and  con- 
scious volition  of  man,  but  in 
the  universal  striving  by  which 
all  things  are  animated.    And  it 


is  in  this  conception  of  a  cease- 
lessly striving  will  as  the  inner 
nature  of  reality  that  furnishes 
the  metaphysical  ground  of  Scho- 
penhauer's pessimism,  though  he 
also  enforces  his  adverse  estimate 
of  human  life  by  more  empirical 
reasonings.  According  to  Scho- 
penhauer, the  final  solution  of  the 
problem  of  life  is  to  be  found  in 
ethics,  or  better,  in  asceticism. 
It  is  not  in  the  practical  life,  even 
when  moralized,  that  man  can 
hope  fully  to  rid  himself  of  the 
misery  of  unsatisfied  desire. 
Only  in  the  highest  forms  of 
purely  disinterested  contempla- 
tion, such  as  are  opened  up  to  us 
in  science,  and,  above  all,  in  art, 
does  Schopenhauer  see  the  possi- 
bility of  any  full  and  final  victory 
over  the  striving  and  misery 
which  is  the  portion  of  all  life. 
The  end  of  his  philosophy  is  the 
complete  extinction  of  Will,  and, 
as  a  natural  consequence,  of  life 
itself  in  all  human  beings,  which 
is  therefore,  the  ultimate  goal  of 
existence.  The  World  as  Will 
and  as  Idea  has  been  translated 
(1883-6).  Other  English  trans- 
lations are  The  Art  of  Literature 
(1891);  The  Wisdom  of  Life 
(1891);  Counsels  and  Maxims 
(trans,  by  Saunders,  1891).  Con- 
sult Caldwell's  Schopenhauer's 
System  in  its  Philosophical  Sig- 
nificance; Colvin's  Schopenhauer's 
Doctrine  of  the  Thing-in-itself. 

Schorl  Bock,  an  intermixture 
of  schorl  (black  tourmaline)  and 
quartz,  which  sometimes  contains 
also  white  mica,  felspar,  topaz, 
and  tinstone.  It  is  a  frequent 
associate  of  tin-bearing  veins  in 
all  parts  of  the  world,  and  is 
found  mostly  in  fissures  in  gran- 
ite and  slate.  LuxuUianite  is  a 
particular  type. 

Schott,  Charles  Anthony 
(1826-1901),  American  scientist, 
was  born  in  Mannheim,  Ger- 
many. He  was  graduated  as  a 
civil  engineer  from  the  Karlsruhe 
Polytechnic  in  1847  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  became  an  assistant 
in  the  United  States  Coast  Sur- 
vey. In  1855  he  was  placed  in 
charge  of  the  magnetic  work  of 
the  survey,  and  in  1855  until 
1899  was  in  charge  of  the 
computing  division.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  and  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Washington 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  His  publications 
include  Magnetic  Observations  in 
the  Arctic  Seas  (1858);  Astro- 
nomical Observations  in  the  Arc- 
tic Seas  (1860);  Tables  and  the 
Results  of  the  Precipitation  in 
Rain  and  Snow  in  the  United 
States  (1872)  ;  Tables,  Distribution 
and  Variations  of  Atmospheric 
Temperature  in  the  United  States 
(1876),  and  numerous  magnetic 
charts. 

Schottlsche,  a  form  of  round 


Schools,  Private 


21 


Schools,  Private 


possess  larger  means  or  higher 
aspirations  for  their  children. 
These  statements  indicate  that, 
pioneer  conditions  having  passed, 
the  private  school  to  some  degree 
has  become  a  class  school,  an 
aristocratic  school.  In  spite  of 
these  facts  it  would  be  very  mis- 
leading to  represent  the  private 
school  as  the  enemy  of  democracy, 
or  as  the  nurse  of  aristocratic 
feeling.  In  its  incipiency  the 
American  college  included  its 
ovpn  preparatory  school.  As  the 
college  developed  and  hmited 
itself  to  strict  collegiate  work, 
schools  for  the  preparation  of 
students  for  college  became  a 
necessity.  In  its  infancy  the 
public  high  school  made  no  at- 
tempt to  relate  itself  to  the  col- 
lege or  university,  and  therefore 
made  no  provision  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  its  students  to  enter 
these  higher  institutions*  hence 
private  secondary  schools  origi- 
nated in  the  necessity  for  making 
private  provision  for  the  college 
preparation  of  students.  Besides 
offering   opportunities   for  such 

S reparation,  the  private  secon- 
ary  school  offers  the  opportunity 
to  acquire  a  good  acaoemic  edu- 
cation. The  third  condition  in- 
ducing private  secondary  instruc- 
tion w^as  found  in  the  secular 
character  of  the  pubUc  school. 
The  most  ardent  friends  of  de- 
mocracy have  been  the  most  en- 
thusiastic supporters  of  the  sepa- 
ration of  church  and  state.  The 
larger  section  of  the  public  is  so 
sensitive  to  anything  looking  to 
their  union,  that  gradually  the 
reading  of  the  Bible,  and  all 
attempt  at  religious  instruction, 
indeed  of  direct  appeal  to  the 
spiritual  nature  of  the  child,  has 
been  dropped  from  the  curricu- 
lum of  the  public  school.  This 
fact,  coupled  with  the  strong 
sectarian  feeling  which  until 
within  a  very  recent  period  has 
characterized  American  society, 
led  to  the  estabhshment  of  pri- 
vate secondary  schools  under  the 
protection  of  every  leading  de- 
nomination. While  secularism  as 
opposed  to  sectarianism  has  ex- 
perienced a  rapid  growth  in  the 
last  two  decades,  still,  so  late  as 
1904  (the  latest  date  for  obtain- 
ing statistics),  more  than  50  per 
cent,  of  the  private  schools  in 
the  United  States  were  under 
denominational  control. 

The  later  secular  secondary 
schools  have  originated  in  the 
defects  of  pubhc  secondary 
schools.  Chief  of  these  defects 
is  the  relatively  large  number 
of  pupils  under  the  care  of  one 
single  teacher,  which  fact  forbids 
inoividual  tuition  and  that  close 
piersonal  relation  which  is  neces- 
sary to  the  best  guidance  of  any 
student. 

Number  and  Proportion  of 
Pupils    in    Private  Secondary 


Schools. — In  1907-8  there  were 
954,720  students  receiving  sec- 
ondary instruction,  of  whom 
163,808  were  in  private  schools. 
This  indicates  a  great  growth 
since  1890  in  the  number  of  both 
high  schools  and  high-school 
students.  The  last  published 
statistics  show  that  public  high 
schools  and  students  in  attend- 
ance have  more  than  trebled  since 
that  date.  Private  high  schools 
increased  in  number  and  in  sup- 

Eort  up  to  1895,  while  in  num- 
er  such  schools  have  decreased 
since  1895,  so  as  to  bring  the 
actual  number  of  such  schools 
below  that  existing  in  1890, 
though  the  number  of  students 
has  almost  remained  stationary. 
In  1890  there  were  1,632  private 
schools,  which  in  1895-6  had 
increased  to  2,106,  but  in  1908 
had  decreased  to  1,320,  of  which 
527  were  in  the  comparatively 
small  section  of  the  country  known 
as  the  North  Atlantic  division.  A 
curious  fact  is,  that  whereas  in 
1890  only  94,931  students  were 
registered  in  the  1,632  private 
schools,  in  1907  91,652  students 
were  registered  in  the  1,320  private 
schools.  The  progress  made  in 
public  secondary  education  since 
1890  has  been  remarkable.  Its 
progress  accounts  both  for  the 
actual  decrease  and  for  the  still 
larger  apparent  decadence  of  the 
private  secondary  school.  The 
progress  of  the  public  secondary 
school  has  necessarily  increased 
the  school  tax.  The  larger  the 
tax  that  is  imposed  upon  people 
for  the  support  of  pubhc  educa- 
tion, the  less  ready  are  they  to 
add  to  this  the  cost  of  private 
schools  for  their  own  children. 
Moreover  the  improvement  of 
the  public  secondary  school  has 
diminished  the  need  of  the  private 
secondary  school  for  pupils  of 
corresponding  age.  On  the  other 
hand  the  improvement  of  the 
public  secondary  school  is  di- 
rectly due  to  the  fact  that  the 
superiority  of  the  private  sec- 
ondary school  made  an  impera- 
tive demand  for  its  improvement. 
The  tendency  may  be  summed 
up  thus:  At  this  date  (1910)  there 
is  a  tendency  toward  the  equah- 
zation  of  aavantages  offered  by 
public  and  private  secondary 
schools.  The  diminished  num- 
ber of  the  latter  has  increased 
the  number  of  students  to  each 
teacher  in  the  private  school, 
and  to  that  degree  reduced  the 
individualism  of  its  tuition.  On 
the  other  hand  the  growing 
support  of  the  public  secondary 
schools  has  diminished  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  to  each  teacher  and 
relatively  has  increased  the  sense 
of  individual  relation  between 
pupils  and  teacher  in  such 
schools.  However,  the  dispro- 
portion between  the  average  num- 


ber of  pupils  to  each  teacher  in 
the  two  classes  of  institutions 
still  gives  the  advantage  to  the 
private  school. 

Effect  of  Private  Schools  on 
Educational  Advancement. — Pri- 
vate schools  have  initiated  peda- 
gogical reforms  in  all  classes  of 
schools,  from  infant  schools  to 
universities.  For  example,  there 
is  probably  no  community  where 
the  kindergarten  has  not  started 
as  a  private  venture,  and  in  many 
of  our  largest  cities  it  has  become  a 
part  of  the  public  school  system 
only  after  the  private  kindergar- 
ten, sustained  by  the  better  classes 
for  their  own  children,  and  the 
free  kindergarten,  maintained  by 
the  charity  of  the  rich  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  children  of  the  poor,  have 
demonstrated  the  efficacy  of  this 
kind  of  infant  education. 

In  private  schools,  also,  have 
been  inaugurated  many  features 
of  what  is  called  'The  New 
Education' — music,  drawing,  cal- 
isthenics, the  more  serious  physical 
culture  of  the  formal  gymna- 
sium— as  well  as  sewing,  cooking, 
wood-carving,  and  other  prac- 
tical applications  of  the  trained 
hand. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  func- 
tions of  the  private  school  has 
been,  and  still  is,  experimenta- 
tion. A  school  conducted  by 
an  individual  who  has  founded 
it,  either  as  a  private  venture 
or  under  the  auspices  of  a  board, 
enjoys  an  independence  and  an 
ease  of  action  quite  impossible 
to  the  public  school.  The  founder 
of  a  private  school  may  announce, 
as  he  frequently  has  done  in  the 
United  States,  that  he  has  opened 
a  school  in  order  to  try  certain 
experiments,  to  introduce  certain 
particular  subjects  or  certain  new 
methods  of  pursuing  old  ones. 
By  an  announcement  of  this  sort 
he  appeals  to  two  classes  of  people: 
First,  to  those  who  are  sympa- 
thetic with  his  aims;  and,  second, 
to  those  who,  dissatisfied  with 
existing  institutions,  welcome  any 
announcement  of  change.  By 
such  an  announcement  he  has  es- 
tablished his  freedom,  since  he 
has  a  right  to  assume  that  those 
coming  to  his  school  intend  to 
conform  to  its  requirements  and 
to  enter  into  his  plans,  co-operat- 
ing with  him  to  attain  what  he 
has  pronounced  desirable. 

The  objection  ^  most  strongly 
urged  against  private  secondary 
instruction  is  that  it  tends  to  in- 
duce false  social  ideals,  and  to 
develop  class  feeling  which  will 
have  its  outcome  in  the  assump- 
tion of  pseudo-aristocracy.  On 
the  other  hand,  its  advocates  point 
to  the  proportion  of  students 
whose  education  has  been  re- 
ceived in  private  institutions,  who 
after  their  graduation  have  either 
immediately,  or  subsequently  to 
their  graduation  from  some  higher 


Schooner 


22 


Schottlsche 


institution,  devoted  themselves 
to  some  form  of  social  service. 
The  second  objection  urged 
against  private  secondary  instruc- 
tion, especially  against  the  private 
secondary  schools  for  girls  and 
young  women,  has  been  that  the 
education  received  was  narrow, 
one-sided,  and  superficial.  As 
against  this  the  following  consid- 
erations may  be  urged:  Of  the 
91,652  students  enrolled  in  pri- 
vate secondary  schools  in  1907-8, 
25,61 1  were  preparing  for  col- 
lege, of  whom  almost  one-third 
were  girls;  thus  more  than  27 
per  cent,  of  the  students  enrolled 
m  such  private  schools  were  pre- 
paring for  college  as  against  less 
than  10  per  cent,  of  the  students 
enrolled  in  public  schools.  In 
addition  to  the  students  making 
preparation  for  college,  there  is  a 
large  number  besides  who  go  for- 
ward beyond  the  education  of  the 
secondary  school  into  special 
schools,  particularly  schools  of 
music,  of  the  fine  arts,  and  of  ap- 
plied arts.  The  special  art  schools, 
music  schools,  etc.,  are  fed  in 
much  larger  degree  by  private 
secondary  schools  than  by  pub- 
lic secondary  schools,  although 
exact  statistics  upon  this  point 
cannot  be  obtained.  It  is  un- 
deniable that  many  of  the  sec- 
ondary schools,  of  the  type 
called  'finishing  schools,'  have 
little  to  recommend  them  ex- 
cepting their  expensiveness, 
which  in  itself  appeals  to  a  rela- 
tively small  class  of  foolish  people 
who  measure  the  education  of 
their  children  by  the  money  they 
have  invested  in  it.  A  very 
large  proportion  of  private  sec- 
ondary schools  provide  for  board- 
ing pupils  as  well  as  day  pupils. 
It  IS  perhaps  by  the  service  which 
they  render  the  former  that  they 
best  serve  the  state. 

Schooner,  a  vessel  with  two 
or  more  masts,  fore  -  and  -  aft- 
rigged,  whose  main  and  fore  sails 
are  extended  by  gaffs  and 
stretched  out  below  by  booms. 
Some  small  schooners  have  no 
boom  for  the  foresail.  Within 
recent  years  it  has  been  found 
profitable  to  construct  huge 
schooners  of  wood  or  steel  with 
from  four  to  six  masts.  These 
usually  have  steam  engines  for 
working  the  sails  and  hoisting 
the  cargo  in  and  out  of  the  holds. 
These  vessels  are  found  to  be 
economical  for  coastwise  trans- 

Eortation,  and  are  being  built 
oth  in  the  U.  S.  and  Germany. 
Schopenhauer,  Arthur  (1788- 
1860),  German  philosopher,  was 
born  at  Danzig.  His  first  work. 
The  Fourfold  Root  a)  the  Principle 
o}  Sufficient  Reason,  was  published 
in  1813.  At  the  instigation  of 
Goethe  he  turned  his  attention 
to  the  theory  of  colors,  and  in 
1816  published  an  essay  on  Vision 
and   Colors.    Three   years  later 


there  appeared  his  great  work, 
The  World  as  Will  and  as  Idea; 
but  it  failed  to  attract  attention, 
and  it  was  not  till  late  in  life 
that  he  began  to  win  disciples, 
and  to  achieve  a  proniinent  posi- 
tion in  the  philosophical  world. 
In  1820  he  essayeci  lecturing  at 
the  Berlin  University,  but  failed 
to  gain  a  sufficient  audience.  In 
1831  he  settled  down  at  Frankfort- 
on-Main  to  a  solitary  and  un- 
eventful life,  and  during  this 
time  published  a  work  on  The 
Will  in  Nature  (1836),  another 
on  The  Two  Fundamental  Prob- 
lems of  Ethics  (1C41),  and  finally 
a  collection  of  essays  entitled 
Parerga  and  Paralipomena  (1851). 
Accepting  from  Kant  the  distinc- 
tion between  phenomena  and  the 
thing  in  itself,  and  agreeing  with 
him  in  regarding  the  world  which 
science  exhibits  to  us  in  terms 
of  space,  time,  and  causality  as 
wholly  phenomenal,  Schopen- 
hauer diverges  from  him  in  regard 
to  the  thing  in  itself,  or  reality 
behind    the    phenomena.  This 


Schooner. 


cannot  be  known  by  science,  for 
science  is  concerned  only  with  its 
phenomenal  manifestations;  but 
it  is  revealed  to  us  through  that 
in  us  in  which  we  are  at  one  with 
it — viz.  in  our  experience  of  will. 
Will,  however,  is  understood  by 
Schopenhauer  in  a  very  wide 
sense,  as  being  expressed  not 
merely  in  the  motived  and  con- 
scious vohtion  of  man,  but  in 
the  universal  striving  by  which 
all  things  are  animated.  And  it 
is  in  this  conception  of  a  cease- 
lessly striving  will  as  the  inner 
nature  of  reality  that  we  see  the 


metaphysical  ground  of  Schopen- 
hauer's pessimism,  though  he  also 
enforces  his  adverse  estimate  of 
human  life  by  more  empirical 
reasonings.  Intellect,  according 
to  Schopenhauer,  comes  into  ex- 
istence as  the  servant  of  will; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  through 
intellect  in  the  higher  forms  of 
its  exercise  man  finds  a  way  of 
escape  frora  the  tyranny  of  will, 
for,  by  means  of  it,  he  is  able  to 
rise  above  the  perpetual  unrest 
and  dissatisfaction  of  pai:sion  and 
desire  into  a  wider  and  more 

feaceful  outlook  upon  the  world, 
n  the  feeling  of  sympathy,  the 
individual  transcends  nis  selfish 
isolation,  and  sympathy,  accord- 
ingly, is  for  Schopenhauer  the 
foundation  of  all  morality.  But 
it  is  not  in  the  practical  life,  even 
when  thus  moralized,  that  man 
can  hope  fully  to  rid  himself  of 
the  misery  of  unsatisfied  desire. 
Only  in  the  highest  forms  of 
purely  disinterested  contempla- 
tion, such  as  are  opened  up  to  us 
in  science,  and,  above  all,  in  art, 
does  Schopenhauer  see  the  possi- 
biHty  of  any  full  and  final  victory- 
over  the  striving  and  misery 
which  is  the  portion  of  all  life. 
The  World  as  Will  and  as  Idea 
has  been  translated  (1883-6). 
Other  Eng.  translations  are:  The 
Art  of  Literature  (1891);  The  Wis- 
dom oj  Life  (1891);  Counsels  and 
Maxims,  trans,  by  Saunders 
(1891).  See  also  Wallace's  Scho- 
penhauer (Great  Writers  Series, 
1890);  Caldwell's  Schopenhauer's 
System  in  its  Philosophical  Sig- 
nificance (1896),  and  Colvin's 
Schopenhauer's  Doctrine  of  the 
Thing-in-it-self  (1897). 

Schorl  Rock,  an  intern  ixture 
of  schorl  (black  tourmaline)  and 
quartz,  which  sometimes  contains 
also  white  mica,  felspar,  topaz, 
and  tinstone.  It  is  a  very  fre- 
quent associate  of  tin-bearing 
veins  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  is  found  mostly  in  fissures  in 
granite  and  slate.  Luxullianite 
is  a  particular  type. 

S  c  h  o  1 1 ,  Charles  Anthony 
(1826-1901),  American  scientist. 
He  was  born  in  Mannheim,  Ger- 
many, and  graduated  as  a  civil 
engineer  in  the  Karlsruhe  Poly- 
technic in  1847.  In  1848  he  be- 
came an  assistant  on  the  U.  S. 
Coast  Survey.  In  1855  he  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  magnetic 
work  of  the  survey,  and  in  1855- 
99  he  was  in  charge  of  the  com- 
puting division.  He  published: 
Magnetic  Observations  tn  the  Arc- 
tic Seas  (1858);  Astronomical  Ob- 
servations in  the  Arctic  Seas  (1860); 
Tables  and  the  Results  of  the  Pre- 
cipitation in  Rain  and  Snow  in 
the  United  States  (1872);  Tables, 
Distribution  and  Variations  of 
Atmospheric  Temperature  in  the 
United  States  (1876),  and  numer- 
ous magnetic  charts. 

Schottlsche,  a  form  of  round 


Schouler 


KFP 


23 


Schubert 


dance  which  resembles  a  polka. 
Its  music  is  usually  written  in 
time,  but  what  is  termed  a 
Highland  schottische  is  often 
danced  to  strathspey  tunes. 

Schouler,  James  (1839- 
1920),  American  lawyer  and  his- 
torian, born  in  Arlington,  Mass. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1859  ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1862,  and  practiced  in  Boston. 
He  served  in  the  Union  army  in 
1862-63  ;  was  for  a  time  profes- 
sor of  law  in  Boston  University 
and  lecturer  at  the  National  Law 
School,  Washington ;  and  also 
lectured  on  American  history  in 
Johns  Hopkins  University.  His 
legal  works  include :  The  Law 
of  Domestic  Relations  (1870)  ; 


born  in  Berlin.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Schadow  at  Diisseldorf.  In 
1845  he  visited  Italy,  and  was 
afterwards  appointed  professor 
at  the  Berlin  Academy.  He  was 
strong  in  color,  in  the  treatment 
of  which  he  was  influenced  by 
the  Belgian  school  of  Gallait  and 
De  Biefre.  Among  his  works 
are  Cenci,  Surrender  of  Calais, 
Milton  and  His  Daughters,  and 
Esther. 

Schreckhorn,  Grosses,  sum- 
mit (13,386  ft.)  of  the  Bernese 
Oberland.  It  rises  s.e.  of  Grin- 
delwald,  n.w.  rises  its  miniature 
double^  the  Kleines  Schreckhorn 
(11.474  ft.). 

Schreiner,  Olive  (Mrs.  S. 
C.  Cronwright-Schreiner) 


ner  Temple,  London  (1882)  ; 
appointed  legal  adviser  to  the 
High  Commissioner  of  S.  Africa 
(1887),  then  attorney-general  in 
the  second  ministry  of  Cecil 
Rhodes  (1893),  finally  becoming 
premier  of  Cape  Colony  (1898). 

Schreyer,  Adolf  (1828-99), 
German  painter  of  battle  scenes 
and  animals,  born  at  Frank- 
fort-on-Main.  In  1862  he  was 
appointed  court  painter  to  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Mecklenburg. 
The  experience  he  gained  in  the 
Crimean  and  Franco-German 
wars  afforded  him  material  for 
his  battle  scenes.  His  paintings 
are  popular  in  the  U.  S.,  many 
of  his  pictures  being  in  private 
collections,  among  them  Arabs 


©  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 


The  Law  of  Personal  Property 
ri873-76);  The  Law  of  Bail- 
ments (1880)  ;  The  Law  of  Hus- 
band and  Wife  (1882)  ;  The  Law 
of  Executors  and  Administrators 
(1883)  ;  and  The  Law  of  Wills 
(1887).  His  chief  work,  how- 
ever, is  a  History  of  the  United 
States  under  the  Constitution  (6 
vols.  1880-99).  This  history 
covers  in  great  detail  the  period 
from  1783-1865,  and  takes  high 
place  in  historical  literature.  In 
addition  he  published :  Life  of 
Thomas  Jefferson  (1893);  His- 
torical Briefs  (1896)  ;  Constitu- 
tional Studie  (1896)  ;  Alexan- 
der Hamilton  (1901);  Eighty 
Years  of  Union  (1903)  ;  and 
Americans  of  1776  (1906). 

Schrader,  Julius  (1815- 
1900),  German  historical  painter, 


Arabs  on  March 
From  the  painting  by  Adolf  Schreyer 

(1859-192(3),  English  South  Af- 
rican novelist,  was  born  in  Basu- 
toland.  In  her  books,  life  on  the 
veld  and  the  peculiarities  of  the 
Dutch  character  are  portrayed. 
Under  the  pseudonym  of  'Ralph 
Iron'  she  also  contributed  largely 
to  Boer  journalism.  Her  chief 
works  are  Story  of  an  African 
Farm  (1883);  Dreams  (1891); 
Trooper  Peter  Halket  of  Masho- 
naland  (1897)  ;  An  English 
South  African's  View  of  the  Sit- 
uation (1899)  ;  and  Woman  and 
Labour  (1911)  which  is  part  of 
an  earlier  manuscript  that  had 
been  lost  by  fire  in  the  South 
African  War.  See  Life  by  Cron- 
wright-Schreiner. 

Schreiner,  W.  Philip  (1857- 
1919),  South  African  politician, 
was  called  to  the  bar  of  the  In- 


Resting,  Watering-Placc,  Dan- 
ger, Wallachian  Teamsters, 
Arabs  on  March. 

Schubart,  Christian  Fried- 
rich  Daniel  (1739-91),  Ger- 
man poet  and  musician,  was  born 
at  Obersontheim,  in  Swabia.  He 
is  chiefly  memorable  as  having 
greatly  influenced  Schiller  when 
young.  He  wrote  Todcsgesdnge 
(1767),  Zaubcreicn  (1766).  Ge- 
dichte  (1785).  See  Atitobiogra- 
phy  (1791-3). 

Schubert,  Franz  (1797-1828), 
Austrian  musical  composer  and 
the  greatest  of  song  writers,  born 
near  Vienna.  His  musical  studies 
were  insignificant,  although  as  a 
choir-boy  in  the  Vienna  Court 
Chapel  he  heard  much  good  music 
and  before  he  was  eighteen  he  had 
composed  more  than  100  songs 


Schubert 


KFP 


24 


Schumaim 


and  short  pieces,  many  of  them 
still  in  MS.    When  nineteen  years 
old  he  set  to  music  Goethe's  Erl- 
konig,   Wanderer,  and  Heiden- 
rdslcin,  perhaps  his  most  famous 
songs,  and  during  the  rest  of  his 
short  life  he  poured  out  more 
than  500  songs  as  incomparable 
for  their  melody  and  descriptive 
power  as  for  the  ease  and  rapid- 
ity with  which  they  were  written. 
For  years  they  were  ignored  ex- 
cept by  a  small  coterie  of  rnusic 
lovers,   the  composer  receiving 
but  a  pittance   for  them.  He 
would  have  starved  had  it  not 
been  for  the  assistance  of  a  fel- 
low-student at  the  University  of 
Vienna,  Franz  von  Schober,  and 
for  Count  Esterhazy.     In  1823 
some  of  his  best-known  songs  were 
published  and  he  undertook  an 
opera,  Alfonso  und  Estrella,  which 
was  not  heard  until  Liszt  produced 
it  without  success  in  Weimar  in 
1854.  From  the  same  period  dates 
the  Unfinished  Symphony,  an  or- 
chestral work  brimming  oyer  with 
melody  and  sunshine,  which  was 


« 


FRANZ  SCHUBERT 
not  heard  in  public  until  nearly 
forty  years  after  the  composer's 
death.  His  symphony  in  C,  his 
greatest  orchestral  work,  dates 
from  the  last  year  of  his  life.  He 
died  in  Vienna  of  typhoid  fever. 
Among  his  most  famous  songs  in 
addition  to  those  already  men- 
tioned are:  the  Junge  Nonne,  the 
Doppel ganger,  Ganymed,  Du  Bist 
die  Ruh,  Im  Walde,  Set  mir 
Gegriisst,  Am  Meer,  Standchen, 
Ungeduld,  and  Auf  dem  Wasser 
zu  Singen.  He  set  to  music  72  of 
Goethe's  poems  (the  poet  making 
no  acknowledgment  of  the  honor 
during  the  composer's  lifetime),  54 
of  Schiller's,  48  of  Mayrhofer's,  6 
of  Heine'5,  and  3  of  Shakespeare's. 
Consult:  Life  bv  Von  Hellborn 
(Englishtrans.  1869),  Niggli  (1881), 


Frost's  Schubert  (London,  1888). 
and  Heuberger  (1902). 

Schuchardt,  Hugo  (1842- 
1927),  German  philologist,  was 
born  at  Gotha ;  began  to  lecture 
on  Romance  philology  at  Leipzig 
in  1870,  and  became  professor  in 
the  same  subject  at  Halle  in 
1873,  and  at  Graz  in  1876.  From 
the  latter  post  he  retired  in  1900. 
His  studies  display  exceptional- 
ly keen  and  brilliant  linguistic 
gifts.  They  include  researches 
in  the  vocalism  of  Vulgar  Latin 
(perhaps  his  most  important 
work,  3  vols.  1866-8),  and  in 
Romance,  Basque,  Celtic,  and 
Creolese  philology,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  Gypsy  jargons.  He  also 
wrote  on  the  question  of  Volapiik 
and  of  a  universal  language. 

Schultz,  Sir  John  Christian 
(1840-96),  Canadian  statesman. 
He  was  born  at  Amherstburg, 
Ontario,  and  was  educated  at 
Oberlin  College,  Ohio,  and  at 
Victoria  College,  Coburg,  where 
he  received  the  degree  of  M.D.  in 
1860.  The  same  year  he  emi- 
grated to  the  Northwest,  and 
settled  at  Fort  Garry,  where  he 

Practiced  his  profession.  In  1869 
e  was  sentenced  to  death  by 
Louis  Kiel  for  his  defence  of  the 
British  flag,  but  he  escaped  to 
the  U.  S.  whence,  after  many 
hardships,  he  reached  Ottawa.  He 
served  in  the  Dominion  Parlia- 
ment, in  1871-82,  when  he  was 
appointed  to  the  senate.  He  was 
lieutenant-governor  of  Manitoba 
from  1888  to  1895. 

Schulze -Delitzsch,  Franz 
Hermann  (1808-83),  German 
economist,  was  born  at  Delitzsch 
in  Prussia,  his  family  name  being 
Schulze.  In  1851  he  began  to 
devote  himself  to  the  formation 
of  co-operative  societies,  both 
for  consumption  and  for  credit. 
As  a  most  enthusiastic  and  prac- 
tical believer  in  self-help,  he 
came  into  controversy  with  Las- 
salle.  His  co-operative  credit 
institutions  are  generally  known 
as  people's  banks.  In  Germany 
alone,  just  before  the  close  of  his 
career,  there  were  3,481  credit 
and  other  co-operative  associa- 
tions in  a  flourishing  condition. 
He  wrote  Vorschuss  und  Kredit- 
Vereine  als  Volksbanken  (5th  ed. 
1876),  and  Die  Entwickelung  des 
Genossenschaftswesens  (1870).  See 
Life,  by  Bernstein  (1902). 

Schumann,  Clara  Josephine 
(1819-96),  German  pianist,  born  in 
Leipzig,  was  early  recognized  as 
one  of  the  greatest  pianists  of  her 
generation.  She  became  the  wife 
of  Robert  Schumann  in  1840,  and 
during  her  frequent  concert  tours 
on  the  Continent  and  in  Great 
Britain  did  much  to  familiarize 
the  public  with  her  husband's 
compositions.  In  1878  she  was 
appointed  professor  of  piano  in 
the   Conservatorium,  Frankfort, 


and  many  celebrated  pianists  of 
the  present  day  were  ner  pupils. 
See  Life  by  Litzmann  (1903). 

Schumann,  Robert  (1810-56), 
one  of  the  greatest  of  German 
composers.  He  was  born  at 
Zwickau,  Saxony,  and  altl^ough 
he  began  to  compose  small  pieces 
at  the  age  of  eleven,  his  first 
serious  instruction  in  composi- 
tion was  in  1831  from  Heinrich 
Dorn  of  Leipzig.  In  accord- 
ance with  his  parents'  wishes  he 
studied  law  and  matriculated  at 
Leipzig,  but  his  acquaintance 
with  Friedrich  Wieck,  a  musician. 


ROBERT  SCHUMANN 
whose  daughter  Clara  he  mar- 
ried in  1840,  led  him  to  adopt 
music  as  a  profession.  His  early 
work  shows  the  germs  of  a  ro- 
mantic, poetic  spirit,  and  a  free- 
dom of  form  so  opposed  to  the 
pedantic  style  of  the  day  as  to 
puzzle  pianists  and  the  public, 
although  several  noted  virtuosi, 
such  as  Liszt,  Tausig,  and  es- 
pecially Clara  Schumann,  even- 
tually made  his  piano  works 
famous.  In  1834  he  took  part  in 
the  establishment  of  the  Neue 
Zeitschrift  fiir  Musik,  the  organ 
of  the  Neo-romantic  school  in 
music,  and  until  1853  he  was  a 
constant  contributor  to  this  and 
other  musical  journals,  his  criti- 
cal writings  showing  remarkable 
acumen  in  discerning  the  new 
drift  in  music  and  the  coming 
men,  notably  Brahms;  and  he 
greatly  helped  the  fame  of  Schu- 
bert, Franz,  and  Berlioz,  to 
whose  Fantastic  Symphony  he 
gave  enthusiastic  praise.  An 
injury  to  one  of  his  fingers  caused 
him  to  abandon  playing  for  com- 
position, and  his  love  for  Clara 
Wieck,  an  attachment  opposed 
by  her  father,  is  reflected  in  a 
score  of  minor  works,  such  as  the 
Noveletten,  the  Nachtstiicke,  the 
series  of  songs  known  as  'Lieder- 


Schumaim-Heink 


KFN 


25 


Schurz 


kreis,'  the  'Dichterliebe,'  the 
'Frauenlieb  und  Leben,'  all  now 
recognized  as  of  matchless  beau- 
ty. In  1834  he  wrote  the  Sym- 
phonic Studies,  which  with  the 
great  A  minor  concerto  and  two 
sonatas  remain  among  the  most 
admired  of  all  compositions  for 
the  piano.  Although  chiefly  fa- 
mous for  his  piano  works  and  his 
songs,  the  symphonies  in  C  major 
(Op.  61)  and  D  minor  (Op.  120) 
and  much  of  his  chamber  music 
are  notable.  His  only  opera, 
Genoveva  (Op.  81),  was  a  fail- 
ure, but  his  cantata,  Paradise  and 
the  Peri,  is  still  heard  with  pleas- 
ure. Most  of  his  life  was  passed 
in  Dresden  and  Leipzig.  In  1850 
he  settled  in  Dusseldorf  as  con- 
ductor, a  post  for  which  he  was 
ill-fitted  by  nature,  and  soon  af- 
terward the  melancholia  which 
had  poisoned  his  life  became 
insanity.  In  1854  he  tried  to 
drown  himself  in  the  Rhine,  and 
two  years  afterward  he  died  in 
an  asylum  near  Bonn.  His  wid- 
ow, Liszt,  Rubinstein,  Tausig, 
and  other  pianists  have  helped  to 
make  his  works  appreciated  as 
among  the  most  beautiful  and 
significant  of  the  century  for 
concert  purposes,  while  his  songs 
are  treasured  wherever  music  is 
known.  See  his  Life  by  Wasie- 
lewski  (English  trans.  1871), 
and  a  Life  by  Fuller-Maitland  in 
the  Great  Musicians  series 
(1884). 

Schumanii-Heink,  Ernest- 
ine (1861-1936),  German  con- 
tralto singer,  born  (Roessler)  at 
Lieben,  near  Prague,  and  a  pupil 
of  Marietta  von  Leclair  at  Gratz. 
She  made  her  debut  at  Dresden 
in  1878,  sang  in  opera  there  for 
the  next  four  years,  and  in  1896 
appeared  at  Bayreuth.  In  1898 
she  came  to  the  U.  S.,  and  speed- 
ily became  most  popular,  both  in 
opera  and  in  concert. 

Schiirer,  Emil  (1844-1910), 
German  historical  theologian, 
was  born  at  Augsburg,  and  began 
to  lecture  at  Leipzig  (1869)  ;  was 
professor  there  (1873),  at  Gies- 
sen  (1878),  and  at  Gottingen 
(1895).  His  great  work  is  his 
Geschichte  des  Jiidischcn  Volkes 
im  Zeitalter  Jesu  Christi  (3d  ed. 
1898-1901),  published  originally 
as  Lehrbiich  der  Neutestament- 
lichen  Zcitgeschichte  (1874),  and 
translated  (2d  ed.)  as  History  of 
the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of 
Jesus  Christ  (1886,  et  seq.).  He 
was  also  editor  of  the  Theolo- 
gischc  Littcratiirzeitung  (with 
Harnack  since  1881). 

Schurman,  Jacob  Gould 
(1854-1942),  American  educator, 
born  at  Freetown,  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island.  He  .studied  at 
Acadia  College,  received  his  de- 
gree at  the  University  of  London 
in  1877,  and  afterward  attended 
the  universities  of  Edinburgh, 
Heidelberg,  Berlin,  and  Gottin- 


gen. He  was  professor  of  psy- 
chology, political  economy,  and 
English  literature  at  Acadia  Col- 
lege in  1880-82,  professor  of 
English  literature  and  philosophy 
at  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  in 
1882-86,  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Cornell  University  in  1886-91, 
and  in  1891  was  made  president 
of  the  university.  In  1899- 
1900  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Philippine  Commission.  His  ad- 
ministration at  Cornell  was 
marked  by  great  material  pros- 
perity for  that  university.  His 
publications  include :  Kantian 
Ethics  and  the  Evolution  (1881), 
The  Ethical  Import  of  Darzvin- 
ism  (1888),  Belief  in  God  (1890), 
Agnosticism  and  Religion  (1896), 
and  Philippine  Affairs:  A  Retro- 
spect and  an  Outlook  (1902). 

Schurz,  Carl  (1829-1906), 
German-American  statesman,  or- 
ator, and  journalist,  born  in  the 
village  of  Liblar,  Rhenish  Prus- 
sia. He  was  a  student  at  the 
University  of  Bonn  when  the 
revolutionary  movement  which 
culminated  in  the  upheaval  of 
1848  was  gathering  force,  and 
under  the  influence  of  Professor 
Gottfried  Kinkel  attached  him- 
self to  the  revolutionary  party, 
serving  as  adjutant  to  Gen. 
Tiedeman.  Upon  the  surren- 
der of  the  latter,  in  July,  1849, 
Schurz  fled  to  Switzerland, 
whence  he  returned  to  Berlin  in 
the  following  year,  in  order  to 
bring  about  the  escape  of  Kinkel, 
who  had  been  tried  for  treason 
and  sentenced  to  life  imprison- 
ment. Having  succeeded  in  this 
project,  he  made  his  way  to 
London ;  and  in  the  two  years 
following  lived  in  that  city  and 
in  Paris.  Disheartened  by  the 
strength  of  the  reactionary  move- 
ment in  Europe,  he  decided,  in 
1852,  to  remove  to  America. 
After  three  years'  residence  in 
Philadelphia,  he  settled  in  Water- 
town,  Wis.  He  soon  attained 
prominence  in  the  politics  of  that 
state  by  his  able  speeches  in  be- 
half of  the  newly  formed  Repub- 
lican party,  which  was  regarded 
with  distrust  by  foreign  born  cit- 
izens in  consequence  of  its  affilia- 
tion with  the  anti-foreign  Know- 
Nothing  party.  As  a  member  of 
the  Republican  Convention  of 
1860,  Schurz  was  successful  in 
pledging  the  party  to  resist  all 
attempts  to  abridge  the  rights  of 
foreign  born  citizens.  He  took 
an  active  part  in  the  presidential 
campaign  of  that  year ;  and  in 
recognition  of  his  services  re- 
ceived from  President  Lincoln 
the  post  of  Minister  to  Spain. 
This  position  he  resigned  in  De- 
cember, 1861,  and  returned  to  the 
United  States  to  serve  in  the 
Union  army.  He  was  commis- 
sioned brigadier-general  in  April, 
1862,  and  the  following  year  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  major- 


general.  Upon  the  collapse  of 
the  Confederacy  in  1865  he  re- 
turned to  Washington  and  re- 
signed his  commission.  In  the 
summer  of  the  same  year  he  was 
appointed  by  President  Johnson 
to  make  an  investigation  into  the 
condition  of  the  conquered  states 
of  the  South,  with  a  view  to  se- 
curing information  upon  which  to 
base  plans  for  the  reconstruction 
of  the  territory.  After  thorough 
study  of  the  subject,  Schurz  rec- 
ommended an  exhaustive  investi- 
gation into  local  conditions  by  a 
congressional  committee,  as  a 
preliminary  to  reconstruction. 
His  report,  however,  failed  to  re- 
ceive the  consideration  which  it 
merited,  owing  to  the  conflict  be- 
tween the  President  and  Con- 
gress. 

In  1866  Schurz  became  editor 
of  the  Detroit  Post;  in  1867,  of 
the  St.  Louis  IVestlichc  Post.  In 
1869  he  was  elected  United 
States  senator  from  Missouri, 
and  as  such  he  identified  himself 
with  the  movement  for  the  re- 
sumption of  specie  payments  and 
with  civil-service  reform.  He 
was  an  active  opponent  of  the 
scheme,  espoused  by  many  of  the 
leaders  of  his  party,  for  the  an- 
nexation of  Santo  Domingo. 
Dissatisfied  with  the  policy  of  the 
first  Grant  administration  in  re- 
gard to  the  South,  and  disgusted 
with  the  widespread  corruption 
in  the  Federal  service,  he  took 
part  in  the  Liberal  Republican 
movement  which  resulted  in  1872 
in  the  nomination  for  the  presi- 
dency of  Horace  Greeley.  From 
that  time  his  position  was  that  of 
an  independent  in  politics.  He 
supported  Hayes  in  1876,  believ- 
ing that  the  election  of  Tilden 
would  endanger  the  cause  of 
sound  money  and  of  civil-service 
reform.  He  was  appointed  sec- 
retary of  the  interior  by  Presi- 
dent Hayes,  and  effected  a  thor- 
oughgoing reform  of  that  depart- 
ment. He  introduced  the  merit 
system  of  appointment  and  pro- 
motion, and  laid  the  foundations 
for  a  liberal  and  enlightened  pol- 
icy in  the  treatment  of  the  Indi- 
ans and  in  the  administration  of 
the  public  domain.  In  1884  he 
gave  his  support  to  Cleveland  be- 
cause of  the  latter's  steadfast  ad- 
herence to  the  principles  of  civil- 
service  reform.  The  adoption  of 
a  free  silver  plank  by  the  Demo- 
cratic party  in  1896  forced  him 
to  take  the  field  in  behalf  of 
the  Republican  nominee.  His 
speeches  in  behalf  of  sound 
money  are  recognized  as  among 
the  ablest  and  most  efifective 
brought  out  by  the  campaign. 
The  expansionist  policy  adopted 
by  the  McKinley  administration 
met  with  vigorous  opposition 
from  Schurz.  Ill  health,  how- 
ever, prevented  him  from  taking 
active  part  in  politics  after  1896, 


Schuyler 


KFN 


26 


Schwab 


though  he  spoke  in  the  campaign 
of  1900  against  imperialism. 

The  published  writings  of  Carl 
Schurz  consist  for  the  most  part 
of  pamphlets,  speeches  and  mag- 
azine articles.  His  most  impor- 
tant work  is  a  Life  of  Henry 
Clay,  published  in  1887,  which 
presents  an  admirable  survey  of 
the  history  of  American  politics 
in  the  first  half  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. 

Schuyler,  city,  Nebraska, 
county  seat  of  Colfax  county,  on 
the  Platte  River  and  Shell  Creek, 
and  on  the  Union  Pacific,  and  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy 
railroads;  58  miles  w.n.w.  of 
Omaha.  It  is  in  a  farming  dis- 
trict. Pop.  (1930)  2,588;  (.1940) 
2  808 

'  Schuyler,  Eugene  (1840-90), 
American  diplomat,  born  in 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1859  and  at  the  Colum- 
bia Law  School  in  1853;  entered 
the  diplomatic  service,  and  be- 
came consul  to  Moscow  in  1867  ; 
and  while  secretary  of  legation  at 
St.  Petersburg  traveled  in  Cen- 
tral Asia.  In  1876  as  consul- 
general  to  Constantinople  and 
secretary  of  legation  he  investi- 
gated the  Bulgarian  massacres. 
After  several  transfers  he  was, 
during  1882-84,  minister  resident 
and  consul-general  to  Greece, 
Servia,  and  Rumania.  After  re- 
turning to  the  United  States,  he 
engaged  in  literary  work  and  lec- 
turing. He  published :  Turke- 
stan, Notes  of  a  Journey  in  Rus- 
sian Turkestan,  Khokard,  Bo- 
khara, and  Kuldja  (1876)  ;  Peter 
the  Great  (2  vols.  1884)  ;  and 
American  Diplomacy  and  the 
Furtherance  of  Commerce 
(1886).  He  also  translated  Tur- 
genieff 's  Fathers  and  Sons  (1867), 
and  Tolstoy's  The  Cossacks 
(1878),  and  edited  Porter's  Selec- 
tions from  the  Kalevala  (1867). 
In  1901  his  essays  were  collected 
in  Italian  Influences  and  Selected 
Essays  with  a  Memoir  by  Evelyn 
Schuyler  Schaeffer. 

Schuyler,  Peter  (1657-1724), 
soldier  and  official  of  colonial 
New  York,  was  born  at  Bever- 
wyck  (Albany),  and  was  early 
engaged  in  public  affairs  in  a  pe- 
riod of  incessant  border  warfare. 
He  was  a  lieutenant  of  cavalry 
in  the  Albany  militia,  later  colo- 
nel, and  in  1686  became  the  first 
mayor  of  Albany  under  the  char- 
ter granted  that  year  by  Gover- 
nor Dongan,  at  the  same  time  be- 
coming head  of  the  Board  of  In- 
dian Commissioners.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  wars  with  the 
French  and  their  Indian  allies, 
and  invaded  Canada  several 
times.  In  1710  he  visited  Queen 
Anne's  court,  taking  several  Mo- 
hawk chiefs  with  him.  He  is 
said  to  have  declined  a  knight- 
hood on  this  occasion.  As  presi- 
dent of  the  New  York  Council, 


Schuyler  served  as  acting  gover- 
nor in  1719-20.  He  exercised 
a  remarkable  influence  over  the 
Iroquois  Indians  by  whom  he  was 
known  as  Quidor  (Iroquois  for 
Peter),  and  it  was  through  this 
influence  that  Schuyler  became 
the  chief  protector  of  the  New 
York  colonial  frontier.  He 
owned  numerous  land  grants, 
mainly  in  the  Saratoga  patent. 

Schuyler,  Philip  John 
(1733-1804),  American  soldier, 
son  of  John  Schuyler,  born  at  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.  At  an  early  age  he 
inherited  the  landed  estates  of 
his  father  ;  received  a  good  edu- 
cation at  New  Rochelle ;  and 
when  about  the  age  of  twenty 
acquired  great  influence  among 
the  Irocjuois.  He  participated  as 
a  captain  in  the  battle  of  Lake 
George  in  1755,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  served  as  commissary 
in  Bradstreet's  expedition  to  Os- 
wego. He  resigned  from  the 
army  in  1757,  but  re-entered  it 
again  in  1758  as  major,  and  acted 
as  deputy  commissary  to  Brad- 
street,  and  in  1760-61  made  a 
trip  to  England  to  settle  Brad- 
street's  accounts.  In  1764  he 
was  appointed  a  commissioner  to 
settle  the  boundary  dispute  be- 
tween N.  Y.  and  Mass.  After- 
ward he  also  played  an  active 
part  in  the  troubles  arising  over 
the  controversy  between  N.  Y. 
and  N.  H.  regarding  Vt.,  and 
gained  for  himself  in  New  Eng- 
land a  dislike  that  was  subse- 
quently to  prove  a  source  of  great 
embarrassment.  In  1768  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  colonial 
assembly,  and  became  the  leader 
within  it  of  the  patriot  party. 
He  was  one  of  the  representatives 
from  N.  Y.  in  the  second  Conti- 
nental Congress,  and  shortly  af- 
ter the  outbreak  of  hostilities  was 
appointed  one  of  the  four  major- 
generals  of  the  patriot  forces. 
He  was  given  command  over  the 
Northern  Department,  and  there 
entered  upon  the  difficult  task  of 
allaying  jealousies  between  the 
officers,  and  of  raising  and  equip- 
ping an  army  for  the  invasion  of 
Canada.  Owing  to  ill-health,  he 
was  forced  to  give  over  the  active 
command  of  this  army  to  Gen. 
Montgomery,  but  was  active  in 
endeavoring  to  forward  supplies, 
and  in  trying,  as  Indian  commis- 
sioner, to  counteract  the  intrigues 
of  the  Tory  Johnsons  among  the 
Iroquois.  After  the  death  of 
Montgomery  before  Quebec  (Dec. 
31,  1775),  Congress,  partly  be- 
cause of  the  hostility  felt  by  New 
Englanders  toward  Schuyler, 
sent  Gen.  Thomas  to  take  active 
command,  but  continued  to  per- 
mit Schuyler  at  Albany  to  exer- 
cise certain  authority  and  to  man- 
age the  commissary  department. 
Thomas  died  within  a  short  time 
of  smallpox,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Gen.  Horatio  Gates  (q.  v.), 


who  soon  came  into  conflict  with 
Schuyler.  Early  in  1777  Schuy- 
ler was  sent  to  the  Continental 
Congress,  but  in  June  returned 
to  meet  the  invasion  under  Bur- 
goyne.  The  first  operations  of 
the  campaign  resulted  very  unfa- 
vorably for  the  Americans,  and 
after  the  loss  of  Fort  Ticonder- 
oga,  Schuyler,  whose  enemies 
had  all  the  while  been  active,  was 
superseded  by  Gates  in  command 
of  the  Northern  Department. 
He  continued,  however,  to  render 
all  the  assistance  in  his  power, 
and  to  him,  more  than  to  Gates, 
is  due  the  ultimate  success  of  the 
Americans  and  the  capture  of 
Burgoyne.  In  the  following  year 
a  court-martial  found  him  blame- 
less for  the  loss  of  Ticonderoga, 
but  he  resigned  from  the  army  in 
April,  1779.  He  continued,  how- 
ever, to  be  active  in  the  patriot 
cause,  and  was  one  of  Washing- 
ton's most  trusted  advisers.  Dur- 
ing 1779-81  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Continental  Congress ;  dur- 
in  1781-84,  1786-90,  and  1792- 
97,  a  state  senator ;  and  during 
1789-91  and  1797-98  one  of  the 
U.  S.  senators  from  N.  Y.  In 
politics  Schuyler  was  a  Federal- 
ist. His  daughter  Elizabeth  be- 
came the  wife  of  Alexander 
Hamilton.  See  Lossing's  Life 
(2  vols.  1872),  and  by  Bayard 
Tuckerman  (1903). 

Schuylkill  Haven,  borough, 
Pennsylvania,  Schuylkill  county, 
on  the  Schuylkill  River,  and  on 
the  Reading,  Pennsylvania  and 
Lehigh  Valley  railroads  ;  4  miles 
s.  by  E.  of  Pottsville.  It  has  ma- 
chine shops,  underwear  mills, 
parachute,  shoe,  dress,  pajama, 
and  robe  factories,  and  manufac- 
tures paper  boxes.  Pop.  (1930) 
6,514;  (1940)  6,518. 

Schuylkill  River  rises  in 
Schuylkill  county,  Pennsylvania, 
10  miles  n.e.  of  Pottsville,  flows 
s.E.  to  Kittatinny  or  Blue  Mt., 
through  which  it  passes  at  Port 
Clinton,  takes  a  s.  course  to 
Reading,  flows  through  Berks 
county,  and  between  Chester  and 
Montgomery  counties,  and  passes 
through  Philadelphia,  for  which 
it  furnishes  a  great  part  of  the 
water  supply,  to  its  junction  at 
League  Isl.  with  the  Delaware  R. 
Phcenixville  and  Norristown  are 
on  the  Schuylkill,  and,  with  the 
other  towns  on  its  banks,  obtain 
from  it  power  for  manufacturing 
purposes.  It  is  about  130  miles 
long  and  is  navigable  by  means 
of  locks  and  dams  to  the  coal 
mines  of  Schuylkill  county. 

Schwab,  Charles  M.  (1862- 
1939),  American  capitalist,  born 
at  Williamsburg,  Pa.  He  was 
educated  at  the  village  school  of 
Loretto  and  at  St.  Francis  Col- 
lege. He  entered  the  service  of 
the  Carnegie  Steel  Company  as 
a  stake  driver  in  an  engineering 
corps;  rose  rapidly,  became  su- 


Schwab 


KFN 


27 


Schweidnitz 


perintendent  of  the  great  works 
at  Homestead  in  1887,  and  the 
president  of  the  Carnegie  Steel 
Company  in  1896  ;  and  upon  the 
formation  of  the  United  States 
Steel  Corporation  in  1901  he  be- 
came its  president.  He  resigned 
this  position  in  1903,  but  con- 
tinued one  of  its  directors  and  a 
member  of  its  finance  committee. 

Schwab,  GusTAv  (1792-1850), 
German  poet,  born  at  Stuttgart, 
where  he  became  professor  of 
ancient  literature  (1817)  ;  he  also 
held  various  ecclesiastical  ap- 
pointments. He  was  one  of  the 
chief  representatives  of  the 
Swabian  school  of  poets.  He 
wrote  an  excellent  Life  of  Schil- 
ler (1840)  ;  published  Gedichte 
(1828-9;  new  ed.  1882)  ;  edited 
the  collections  Deutsche  Volks- 
hiicher,  Filnf  Bilcher  dcutschcr 
Lieder  und  Gedichte  {l^ZS),  Die 
deiitsche  Prosa  (1843),  and 
Hauff's  Sdmmtlichc  Schriften 
(1830).  See  Lr/t?,  in  German,  by 
his  son  (1883). 

Schwab,  John  Christopher 
(1865-1916),  American  econo- 
mist, born  in  New  York.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1888,  and 
received  the  degree  of  ph.d.  from 
the  University  of  Gottingen  in 
1 889.  In  1 893-8  he  was  assistant 
professor  of  economics  in  Yale, 
and  in  1898  became  professor  of 
that  science.  His  publications 
include :  History  of  the  New 
York  Property  Tax  (1890)  ;  and 
The  Confederate  States  of  Amer- 
ica (1901). 

Schwabe,  Samuel  Heinrich 
(1789-1875),  German  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Dessau  ;  began  ob- 
serving the  sun  in  1826,  and 
recorded,  day  by  day,  for  forty- 
two-years,  the  spots  visible  on 
its  surface.  Their  periodicity  in 
about  ten  years  was  provisional- 
ly announced  by  him  in  1843 ; 
and  a  tabular  statement  of  his 
results,  published  in  1851  (vol. 
iii)  in  Humboldt's  Kosmos,  defin- 
itively established  the  sun-spot 
cycle.  Schwabe  was  also  a  bota- 
nist, and  compiled  the  valuable 
repertory  Flora  Anhaltina  (2 
vols.  1838-9). 

Schwabisch-Hall,  Germany. 
See  Hall. 

Schwann,  Theodor  (1810- 
82),  German  histologist,  born  at 
Neuss,  near  Diisseldorf  ;  was  as- 
sistant to  Johannes  Miiller  in  the 
anatomical  museum  of  Berlin 
(1834-8)  ;  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Louvain  (1838-48),  and  at 
Liege  (1848).  In  1839  he  put 
forth  his  famous  cell  theory  (see 
Embryology  and  Evolution), 
which  marks  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant epochs  in  the  develop- 
ment of  biology.  The  work  in 
which  he  maintained  his  theory 
was  Microscopic  Investigations 
on  the  Accordance  in  the  Struc- 
ture and  Growth  of  Plants  and 
Animals  (1839), 


Schwanthaler,  Ludwig  von 
(1802-48),  German  sculptor,  born 
in  Munich  of  a  family  of  sculp- 
tors. On  the  suggestion  of  Cor- 
nelius, through  whom  he  was 
brought  to  the  notice  of  King 
Ludwig,  he  was  commissioned  to 
do  work  for  the  Glyptothek, 
Pinakothek,  and  the  Konigsbau 
in  Munich,  and  for  the  Walhalla 
near  Ratisbon.  He  became  pro- 
fessor at  Munich  Academy 
(  1835).  His  works,  which  suf- 
fered from  enforced  overproduc- 
tion, include  Bavaria,  Goethe, 
Jean  Paul  Richter,  and  others. 

Schwarz,  or  Schwartz, 
Christian  Friedrich  _  (1726- 
98),  German  missionary  in  India, 
was  born  at  Sonnenburg  in 
Brandenburg,  and  ordained  as  a 
missionary  (1749)  for  the  Dan- 
ish mission  of  Tranquebar,  In- 
dia. From  Tranquebar  he  moved 
(1766)  to  Trichinopoli.  His 
goodness  and  piety  gained  him 
great  influence,  not  only  with  the 
natives,  but  also  with  Europeans. 
Haidar  AH  of  Mysore  insisted 
upon  his  appointment  to  arrange 
terms  with  the  British.  In  1769 
he  gained  the  confidence  and 
friendship  of  the  rajah  of  Tan- 
jore,  in  whose  capital  he  resided 
from  1778  till  his  death.  See 
Life,  by  H.  N.  Pearson  (1855). 

Schwarzburg  -  Rudolstadt, 
former  principality,  Ciermany, 
consisted  of  three  portions,  on 
northern  face  of  Thuringian  For- 
est and  in  the  Prussian  prov.  of 
Saxony.  Area  was  363  sq.  m. 
Agriculture,  grazing,  forestry, 
and  manufacturing  (porcelain 
and  glass,  mathematical  and  mu- 
sical instruments,  toys,  sawmill- 
ing)  are  the  chief  occupations  in 
this  region.  The  Kylfhauser 
(1,545  ft.),  which  figures  in  the 
legends  of  the  Emperor  Fred- 
erick Barbarossa,  is  in  the  north- 
ern division. 

Schwarzburg  -  Sondershau- 
sen,  former  principality,  Ger- 
many, consisted  of  three  portions, 
the  largest  almost  surrounded  by 
Prussian  prov.  of  Saxony,  the 
other  two  farther  south  in  the 
Thuringian  Forest.  Area  was 
333  sq.  m.  In  the  largest  divi- 
sion agriculture  predominated  ; 
in  the  two  smaller,  forestry  and 
manufacturing  industry  (glass 
and  porcelain,  machinery,  colors, 
boots  and  shoes,  linen,  and 
gloves). 

Schwarzenberg,  Adam, 
Count  von  (1584-1641),  Ger- 
man statesman,  was  chief  min- 
ister (1619)  of  George  William, 
elector  of  Brandenburg  ;  opposed 
the  Reformation,  .and  refused  to 
join  the  Protestants  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War. — Karl 
Philipp,  Prince  of  Schwarzen- 
berg  (1771-1820),  AiLstrian  field- 
marshal,  was  present  at  Hohen- 
linden  (1800)  ;  served  under 
Mack   (1805),  also  against  the 


Turks  and  the  French  republic ; 
was  ambassador  to  St.  Peters- 
burg (1808)  ;  fought  at  Wagram 
(1809)  ;  negotiated  the  marriage 
of  Maria  Louisa  with  Napoleon 
I,  in  whose  army  of  invasion  in 
Russia  (1812)  he  commanded  the 
Austrian  forces.  In  1813  he  led 
the  allies  at  Leipzig,  and  occu- 
pied Paris  (1814).  He  was  an 
excellent  cavalry  leader. — His 
nephew,  Felix  Ludwig  Johann 
Friedrich  (1800-52),  Austrian 
diplomat,  was  sent  to  London 
(1826)  ;  became  ambassador  at 
Naples  (1846-8);  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Italian  campaign 
(1848)  ;  and  as  Austrian  premier 
called  in  the  aid  of  Russia  against 
Hungary.  He  was  an  absolutist 
in  policy.  For  Karl  Philipp,  see 
Life,  by  Prokesch-Osten  (1861)  ; 
for  Felix,  Life  by  Berger  (1853). 

Schwarzwald.  See  Black 
Forest. 

Schwatka,  Frederick  (1849- 
92),  American  explorer,  born  at 
Galena,  111.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1871  as  a  lieuten- 
ant of  cavalry,  and  continued  in 
the  army  until  1885,  when  he  re- 
signed his  commission.  In  1878 
he  conducted  an  expedition  in 
search  of  relics  of  the  Sir  John 
Franklin  expedition,  lost  in  1847. 
In  1879-80  he  performed  the  re- 
markable feat  of  a  journey  of 
over  2,800  miles  in  sledges  from 
Chesterfield  Inlet  to  King  Wil- 
liam Land,  thoroughly  exploring 
the  coast  line  between  those 
points,  and  on  King  William 
Land  found  six  skeletons  and 
many  relics  of  the  ill-fated  expe- 
dition. The  party  suffered  ter- 
rible hardships.  In  1883  and 
1886  he  was  engaged  in  explora- 
tions in  Alaska,  and  in  1889  in 
Mexico.  He  wrote  Nimrod  in 
the  North  (1885),  Along  Alaska's 
Great  River  (1885),  and  Children 
of  the  Cold  (1886).  See  Gilder, 
Schzvatka's  Sear-ch  (1881). 

Schwegler,  Albert  (1819- 
57),  German  author,  theologian, 
and  philosopher,  was  born  at 
Michelbach  in  Wiirtemberg.  At 
Tubingen  he  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Hegel,  Strauss,  and 
Baur.  The  objections  raised 
against  his  writings  led  him  to 
abandon  theology,  and  in  1848  he 
became  professor  of  classical  phi- 
lology, and  later  professor  of 
history,  at  Tiibingen.  His  Ge- 
schichte  der  Griechischen  Phi- 
losophic, in  which  he  abandons 
his  early  Hegelianism,  was  pub- 
lished in  1859.  His  best-known 
works,  Geschichte  der  Philoso- 
phic (1848),  was  translated  into 
English  by  J.  H.  Seelye  (1856). 

Schweidnitz,  town,  province 
of  Silesia,  Prussia,  28  miles  by 
rail  s.w.  of  Breslau.  It  manu- 
factures woolen  goods,  linens, 
gloves,  machinery,  and  furniture 
Its  beer  was  famous  as  far  back 
as  the  16th  century.  Formerly 


Schweinfurt 


KFN 


28 


Science 


fortified,  the  town  has  been  sev- 
eral times  captured.  In  1807  it 
was  taken  by  the  French.  Pop. 
(1933)  34,152. 

Schweinfurt,  town,  province 
of  Lower  Franconia,  Bavaria,  on 
the  Main  ;  16  miles  n.e.  of  Wiirz- 
burg.  Its  town  hall  dates  from 
1570.  Ruckert,  the  poet,  was 
born  here.  Machinery,  paint, 
sugar,  malt,  vinegar,  and  soap 
are  manufactured.  Pop.  (1933) 
40,145. 

Schweinfurth,  Georg  Au- 
gust (1836-1911),  German  trav- 
eler, was  born  at  Riga.  After 
arranging  the  collection  of  plants 
brought  from  the  Nile  region  by 
Von  Barnim  and  Hartmann,  he, 
between  1863  and  1888,  made 
many  journeys  in  Egypt  and  the 
adjacent  countries,  his  most  im- 
portant expedition  being  that  of 
1868-71,  in  the  Nile-Congo  re- 
gion, when  he  discovered  the 
Welle,  and  established  the  exist- 
ence of  the  Akka  dwarfs.  In 
1872  he  founded  the  Egyptian 
Geographical  Society,  and  in 
1880  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Egyptian  museums  and  col- 
lections in  Cairo.  In  1889  he 
settled  in  Berlin.  The  Heart  of 
Africa,  a  narrative  of  the  expedi- 
tion of  1868-71,  was  published 
first  in  English  in  1874  ;  Artes 
Africaner  in  1875  ;  and  Emin 
Pascha  (1888).  He  also  prepared 
a  series  of  maps — Aufnahmen 
in  der  dstlichen  Wi'tste  von 
Aepypten  p899,  etc). 

Schweinitz,  Edmund  Alex- 
ander _de  (1825-87),  American 
Moravian  bishop,  son  of  Lewis 
D.  von  Schweinitz,  was  born  at 
Bethlehem,  Pa.,  and  graduated  at 
the_  Bethlehem  Moravian  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  continuing  his 
studies  at  Berlin.  He  was  pastor 
of  Moravian  churches  in  Lebanon 
and  other  towns  and  cities  of  Pa. 
from  1850  until  his  consecration 
as  bishop  of  the  Moravian  Church 
in  1870.  He  was  a  delegate  to 
the  general  synod  of  1857  at 
Hernhut,  Saxony,  and  president 
of  that  of  1879.  He  founded  and 
edited  The  Moravian  from  1856 
to  1866,  and  from  1867  to  1884 
he  was  president  of  the  Moravian 
Theological  Seminary.  His  writ- 
ings include  The  Moravian  Man- 
ual (1859),  The  Moravian  Epis- 
copate (1865),  The  Life  and 
Times  of  David  Zeisherger 
(1870),  and  The  History  of  the 
Church  Known  as  the  Unitas 
Fratrum  (1885).  See  the  Mem- 
oir published  at  Bethlehem  in 
1888. 

Schweinitz,  Emil  Alexan- 
der DE  (1866-1904),  American 
bacteriologist  and  chemist,  born 
in  Salem,  N.  C.  He  graduated 
PH.D.  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina, 1882,  and  University  of 
Gfittingen,  Germany,  1886.  In 
1894  he  received  the  m.d.  degree 
from  the  Columbian  University, 


Washington,  D.  C.  In  1890  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the 
Biochemic  Laboratory  of  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  in  1894  became  professor  of 
chemistry  in  Columbian  Univer- 
sity. He  was  author  of :  The 
Production  of  Immunity  to 
Swine  Plague  (1891)  ;  Artificial 
Media  for  Bacterial  Cultures 
(1893)  ;  Serum  for  the  Treat- 
ment of  Tuberculosis  (1896)  ; 
War  with  Microbes  (1897)  ;  and 
Further  Studies  in  Tuberculosis 
(1902). 

Schweinitz,  Lewis  David 
'von  (1780-1834),  American  bot- 
anist, born  in  Bethlehem,  Pa. 
He  was  educated  in  Germany  for 
the  ministry  of  the  Moravian 
Church.  He  did  much  original 
work  in  fungi,  and  described 
more  than  1,200  species.  He  was 
author  of  :  Conspectus  Fungorum 
Lusatice  (1805)  ;  Synopsis 
Fungorus  Carolina?  Superioris 
(1818)  ;  and  Synopsis  Fungorum 
in  America  Boreali  Media  De- 
gen  tium  (1832). 

Schwenkfeld,  K  as  par  von 
(1490-1561),  German  theologian, 
born  at  Ossig,  near  Leignitz,  who 
founded  a  sect  which  was  called 
after  his  name,  and  who  was  ban- 
ished in  1548.  In  their  treatment 
of  the  Eucharist  the  Schwenk- 
feldians  transposed  the  words 
'This  is  my  body'  to  'My  body  is 
this.'  Their  views  on  the  sacra- 
ments were  peculiar,  and  they  dis- 
pensed altogether  with  baptism. 
After  Schwenkfeld's  death  the 
sect  was  persecuted  by  the  Lu- 
theran party,  but  increased  not- 
withstanding. In  1725  they 
moved  to  Saxony,  and  in  1733 
emigrated  to  the  tj.  S.  and  settled 
in  Montgomery  and  Berks  coun- 
ties in  Pennsylvania,  where  they 
may  still  be  found  at  Montgom- 
ery. In  doctrine  they  now  much 
resemble  the  Friends,  or  Quakers. 
Schwenkfeld's  views  are  ex- 
pounded in  Bekenntniss  nnd 
Rechenschaft  von  den  Haupt 
Punkten  des  Christlichcn  Glan- 
bens  (1547).  See  Kadelbach, 
Ausfilhrliche  Geschichte  K.  von 
Schwenkfelds  und  der  Schwenk- 
f elder  in  .  .  .  Amerika  (1861). 

Schwenkfeldians,  named 
from  Count  Kaspar  von  Schwenk- 
feld, a  Silesian  reformer,  hold- 
ing views  respecting  the  Lord's 
Supper  which  differed  from  those 
of  Luther.  After  the  death  of 
the  leader  they  formed  a  sect 
which  met  opposition  and  perse- 
cution from  Protestants  and 
Catholics  alike,  and  were  scat- 
tered in  the  eighteenth  century, 
some  going  to  Denmark  and 
thence  coming  to  the  U.  S.  and 
settling  in  Pennsylvania.  They 
are  Congregational  in  polity,  re- 
semble the  Friends  in  their  man- 
ner of  life,  pay  little  attention  to 
the  sacraments,  exalt  the  human 
nature  of  Christ,  and  hold  a  year- 


ly festival  in  memory  of  their  ar- 
rival in  America. 

Schwerin,  town,  capital  of 
the  former  republic  of  Meck- 
lenburg-Schwerin  and  former 
grand-duchy  of  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin,  Germany,  situated  at 
the  s.w.  end  of  the  lake  of 
Schwerin;  58  miles  e.n.e.  of 
Hamburg.  There  are  two  pal- 
aces, a  14th-15th  century  cathe- 
dral, museums,  and  picture  gal- 
leries. The  town  manufactures 
dyes,  varnish,  soap,  musical  in- 
struments, furniture,  and  bricks. 
The  grand-ducal  palace,  an  early 
Renaissance  edifice,  was  com- 
pleted in  1857.    Pop.  (1933)  53,- 

Schwind,  Moritz  von  (1804- 
71),  Austrian  painter,  was  born 
at  Vienna.  In  painting,  he  sums 
up  the  romantic  era  in  Germany, 
as  Schubert  represented  it  in  mu- 
sic. He  had  a  fine  sense  of  the 
magic  of  the  sagas  and  Northern 
legends,  and  depicted  them  with 
harmonious  grace.  His  finest 
work  is  in  the  Schack  Gallery  in 
Munich  and  in  the  Imperial  Op- 
era House,  Vienna.  See  Life,  in 
German,  by  Pecht  (1877). 

Schwyz,  Swiss  canton,  350 
sq.  miles  in  area,  with  a  popula- 
tion (1941)  of  66,555,  practical- 
ly all  German-speaking  and  Ro- 
man Catholic.  It  gave  its  name 
to  Switzerland,  as  it  took  the 
lead  in  the  struggle  for  independ- 
ence, and  was  one  of  the  three 
original  cantons.  It  extends 
along  the  n.e.  shore  of  the  Lake 
of  Lucerne,  and  is  mainly  agri- 
cultural and  pastoral.  Capital, 
Schwyz  (pop.  8,139). 

Sciacca,  town,  province  of 
Girgenti,  Sicily,  Italy,  4  miles 
n.e.  of  Cape  San  Marco.  Its  ca- 
thedral dates  from  the  11th  cen- 
tury. It  has  hot  mineral  springs. 
Pop.  (1936)  22,713. 

Sciatica,  pain  in  the  sciatic 
nerve  or  in  one  of  the  branches 
into  which  it  divides  and  sub- 
divides. It  may  be  felt  almost 
anywhere  on  the  foot,  ankle,  leg 
below  the  knee,  knee-joint,  and 
the  back  of  the  thigh.  It  is  some- 
times dull  and  almost  continuous, 
at  other  times  in  sharp  attacks, 
which  last  for  hours  or  days,  and 
then  departs  altogether.  Sciatica 
is  encouraged  by  a  damp,  cold 
climate,  and  many  disorders  are 
thought  to  be  exciting  causes — 
e.g.  gout,  rheumatism,  syphilis, 
the  pressvire  of  tumors  on  the 
nerve,  nerve  injuries.  Treatment 
must  first  of  all  be  constitutional. 
Local  treatment  is  by  application 
of  heat,  acupuncture,  nerve- 
stretching,  or  excision  of  por- 
tions. Various  surgical  inter- 
ventions and  injection  treatments 
are  recommended,  while  some 
writers  still  advocate  conserva- 
tive measures. 

Science,  a  term  very  com- 
monly   used,    especially  when 


Science 


29 


Scilly  Islauds 


standing  alone,  to  denote  only 
the  physical,  or  at  any  rate 
the  natural,  sciences.  But  it  is 
also  applied,  with  the  addition  of 
a  quahfying  epithet,  to  studies 
of  a  quite  different  nature,  as 
when  we  speak  of  the  'mental 
sciences,'  or  the  'moral  sciences,' 
or  of  'political'  or  'economic 
science.'  A  distinction  may  be 
drawn  (c/.  H.  Sidgwick's  Scope 
0}  Philosophy,  1902,  pp.  6-8)  be- 
tween science  or  the  sciences 
as  dealing  with  general  truths, 
and  studies  such  as  history  and 
geography,  which  are  concerned 
with  particular  facts.  Even  this 
distinction,  however,  between 
'scientific'  and  'historical'  knowl- 
edge may  be  regarded  as  fall- 
ing within  a  still  wider  use  of  the 
term;  for  we  speak  of  history 
as  being  pursued  in  a  scientific 
spirit  and  by  a  scientific  method, 
and  we  can  hardly  deny  to  the 
product  of  scientific  method  the 
title  of  science.  It  seems  best, 
therefore,  to  regard  the  term  as 
applicable,  not  merely  to  a  part 
or  division  of  knowledge,  but  to 
all  or  any  knowledge  which  pos- 
sesses the  character  of  order, 
method,  or  system.  Science, 
then,  will  simply  mean  system- 
atized knowledge  of  any  kind; 
and  the  sciences  will  be  inter- 
mediate between  the  vague, 
loose,  or  unsystematized  knowl- 
edge of  the  plain  man  on  the 
one  hand,  and  philosophy  as  the 
scientia  scientiarum,  or  compre- 
hensive svstem  of  knowledge, 
which  seeks  to  embrace  the  re- 
sults of  the  special  sciences  in  a 
single  world-view,  on  the  other. 
For  a  scientific  man's  views  about 
science,  see  K.  Pearson's  Gram- 
mar 0}  Science  (2d  ed.  1900). 

Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  classify  the  sciences.  The 
most  important  of  these  schemes 
in  ancient  thought  was  Aristotle's 
division  of  philosophy,  which 
was  then  used  as  practically 
equivalent  to  our  science,  into 
theoretical  and  practical.  The 
former  was  subdivided  into  mathe- 
matics, physics-,  and  metaphysics 
(first  philosophy  or  theology  in 
his  own  terminology);  the  latter 
into  practical  science  in  a  nar- 
rower sense  (ethico  -  political 
science),  and  art  or  production 
(this  last  being  subdivided  again 
into  useful  and  fine  or  imita- 
tive). But  Aristotle  was  not 
merely  classifying  already  exist- 
ing sciences;  he  was  to  a  large 
extent  the  founder,  or  at  least 
the  organizer,  of  many  of  the 
sciences,  whose  distinct  provinces 
he  recognized  and  defined.  And 
the  leading  distinctions  which  he 
established  have  remained  as  per- 
manent landmarks  in  the  intel- 
lectual world.  The  celebrated 
classification  which  Bacon,  at  the 
outset  of  modern  philosophy,  pro- 
posed  in   his   Advancement  of 


Learning,  makes  three  funda- 
mental divisions  into  philosophy 
or  science  proper  (subdivided  ac- 
cording as  it  deals  with  God, 
nature,  or  man),  poetry,  and  his- 
tory (civil  and  natural).  But  this 
division,  apart  from  matters  of 
detail,  was  based  upon  the  quite 
false  principle  of  a  division  of 
mental  faculties — history  being 
referred  to  memC»ry,  poetry  to 
imagination,  and  philosophy  to 
reason.  Of  the  more  modern 
classifications  perhaps  the  best 
known  is  that  of  Comte,  who  rec- 
ognizes six  fundamental  sciences 
in  an  ascending  order  of  com- 
plexity— viz.  mathematics,  as- 
tronomy, physics,  chemistry,  bi- 
ology, and  sociology.  Of  these 
fundamental  and  abstract  sciences 
the  rest  are  the  concreted  develop- 
ments and  applications.  This 
scheme  depends,  however,  for  its 
interest  on  its  connection  with 
Comte's  general  conception  of 
positive  philosophy.  The  main 
use  of  a  classification  is  to  indi- 
cate relationships,  and  the  vari- 
ous departments  of  knowledge 
are  apt  to  be  related  in  ways  so 
complex  that  no  single  scheme  is 
likely  to  do  equal  justice  to  the 
various  possible  and  important 
rioints  of  view.  Nor  are  we  likely 
to  obtain  much  agreement  once 
we  go  beyond  the  main  groupings 
of  obviously  kindred  sciences. 
See  Flint's  Philosophy  as  Scientia 
Scientiarum  (1904). 

Scilla,  a  genus  of  Old  World 
bulbous  plants  belonging  to  the 
order  Liliaceae.  They  bear  ra- 
cemes of  blue  or  rosy  flowers  on 
articulated  pedicels,  and  have 
more  or  less  linear  radical  leaves. 
S.  festalis  is  the  wild  hyacinth,  or 
bluebell   of    England.    Two  of 


varieties  prcBcox  and  taurica;  and 
S.  sibirica,  with  its  intense,  vivid 


Scilla. 
1,  Sepal  and  stamen ;  2,  fruit. 


blue  color.  Later,  larger,  and 
sturdier,  though  scarcely  so  valu- 
able, are  the  light-blue  Spanish 
scilla  [S.  Hispanica)  and  the 
numerous  varieties  of  the  wild 
bluebell  {S.  nutans). 

Scillitan  Martyrs,  Acts  of 
THE,  a  document  giving  details 
of  the  conviction  and  execution 
of  twelve  Christians  of  Scilla  in 
Numidia,  who  were  slain  at  Car- 


The  Scilly  Islands. 

the  species,  which  are  especially  thage   on   July    17,    180.  See 

worth  growing  on  account  of  their  Lightfoot's   Ignatius   and  Poly- 

beauty  and  extreme  earliness,  are  carp  (vol.  i.  1885). 

the  dark-blue  S.  bijolia,  with  its  Scilly  Islands,  belonging  to 


Scinde 

Cornwall,  England,  25  m.  w.s.w. 
of  Land's  End.  These  islands 
have  been  the  scene  of  numer- 
ous wrecks  {e.g.  Sir  Cloudesley 
Shovel,  1707;  the  Schiller,  1875). 
St.  Mary's  has  a  small  fortified 
peninsula,  The  Hugh,  with  Star 
Castle  {temp.  Elizabeth).  Here 
too  is  the  capital,  Hugh  Town. 
Tresco  has  the  residence  of  the 
lord  proprietor,  surrounded  by 
beautiful  gardens,  and  some  ves- 
tiges of  a  10th-century  abbey. 
Samson  is  the  scene  of  Walter 
Besant's  Armor  el  of  Lyonesse. 
The  climate  is  very  mild  and 
equable.  Narcissi  and  other  spring 
flowers  are  grown  for  the  London 
and  Bristol  markets.  Area, 
4,000  acres.    Pop.  (1901)  2,096. 

Scinde.   See  Sind. 

Scintillation,  a  twinkling  of 
the  stars  due  to  distnarbances  in 
the  earth's  atmosphere.  Irregular 
refraction  occasions  momentary 
displacements  of  the  image  as  a 
whole,  while  chromatic  effects  are 
produced  by  successive  or  casual 
deviations  of  the  variously  tinted 
rays  into  which  it  is  dispersed 
through  the  normal  action  of  the 
air.  The  scintillation  of  the 
planets  (except  Mercury)  is  im- 
perceptible, because  its  effects 
at  each  point  of  their  discs 
are  mutually  compensatory.  A 
'scintillometer'  was  devised  by 
Montigny  in  1864,  for  the  purpose 
of  analyzing  the  rapid  changes 
integrated  to  the  eye  as  twink- 
ling. 

Scio.   See  Chios. 

Scioppius,  or  Schoppe, 
Kaspar  (1576-1649),  German 
classical  scholar,  was  born  at 
Neumarkt  in  the  Palatinate.  In 
1598  he  renounced  the  Protestant 
religion,  and  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life  bitterly  attacked  those 
who  held  his  former  faith.  Among 
these  were  Scaliger  the  Younger, 
Henry  iv.  of  France,  and  James  i. 
of  England.  Lord  Digby,  Eng- 
lish ambassador  at  Madrid,  gave 
Scioppius  a  severe  castigation, 
and  procured  his  expulsion  from 
Spain.  He  fled  to  Ingolstadt, 
from  which  he  issued  his  Legatus 
Latro  (1615),  directed  against  Lord 
Digby.  He  passed  his  later  years 
at  Milan  and  Padua.  Among  his 
most  valuable  books  are  De  Arte 
Critica  (1597),  Elementa  Philoso- 
phice  StoiccB  M oralis  (1606),  Para- 
doxa  Literaria  (1628),  and  Rudi- 
menta  Grammaticce  PhilosophiccB 
(1628). 

Scioto  River,  Ohio,  right  bk. 
trib.  of  the  Ohio,  which  it  joins  at 
Portsrnouth.  Its  length  is  225  m., 
of  which  one-half  is  navigable. 
The  Ohio  and  Erie  Canal  extends 
along  it  from  Portsmouth  to 
Columbus.  Chillicothe  and  Cir- 
cleville  are  on  its  banks. 

Scipio,  a  patrician  family  of 
the  Cornelian  clan  at  ancient 
Rome.  In  1780  the  family  tomb 
was  discovered  on  the  Appian 


30 

Way,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from 
the  gate  of  St.  Sebastian,  Rome. 

(1.)  Lucius  Cornelius  Scipio 
Barbatus  was  consul  in  298  B.C., 
and  fought  against  the  Samnites; 
in  297  and  295  he  served  as  legate 
in  the  war,  and  again  in  293  in 
the  final  campaign.  He  was  also 
censor. 

(2.)  Lucius  Cornelius  Scipio, 
son  of  Barbatus,  was  consul  in 
259  B.C.,  and  expelled  the  Car- 
thaginians from  Sardinia  and 
Corsica.    He  was  censor  in  258. 

(3.)  PuBLius  Cornelius  Scipio, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  consul 
in  the  first  year  of  the  second 
Punic  War,  218  B.C.  It  was  his  task 
to  prf.vent  Hannibal's  invasion  of 
Italy,  but  he  reached  Gaul  too 
late.  However,  by  creating  a 
diversion  in  Spain,  he  made  it 
impossible  for  the  Carthaginians 
to  support  Hannibal  in  Italy. 
Meanwhile,  he  himself  encoun- 
tered Hannibal  near  the  river 
Ticinus,  but  was  defeated  and 
severely  wounded.  He  and  his 
brother  Gnaeus  kept  a  hold  on 
Spain  until  211  B.C.,  when  their 
armies  were  defeated  by  Hasdru- 
bal,  Mago,  and  Hasdrubal  Gisco, 
and  both  of  them  perished. 

(4.)  PuBLius  Cornelius  Scipio 
Africanus  Major  (234  to  about 
183  B.C.).  was  son  of  the  above. 
He  savea  his  father's  life  at  the 
battle  of  the  Ticinus.  He  fought 
at  Cannae,  and  was  one  of  the 
few  officers  who  escaped.  In 
210  B.C.  he  was  given  proconsular 
power  in  Spain;  he  captured 
New  Carthage,  and  in  three  years 
drove  the  Carthaginians  out  of 
Spain,  though  he  failed  to  pre- 
vent Hasdrubal  from  marching 
to  Italy  in  207.  In  206  he  re- 
turned to  Rome,  and  was  elected 
consul  for  205.  In  204  he  in- 
vaded Africa  and  in  the  following 
year  he  destroyed  the  armies  of 
Hasdrubal  Gisco  and  Syphax  by 
a  night  attack.  Thereupon  the 
Carthaginians  recalled  Hannibal 
and  Mago.  The  decisive  battle 
was  fought  at  Zama,  Oct.  19, 
202  B.C.,  the  result  being  a  com- 
lete  victory  for  Scipio,  followed 
y  the  surrender  of  Carthage. 
In  199  Scipio  was  censor,  and  con- 
sul again  in  194;  in  193  he  acted 
as  one  of  three  commissioners 
between  Carthage  and  Masinissa, 
and  in  the  same  year  went  as  am- 
bassador to  Antiochus  at  Ephesus, 
where  he  met  Hannibal.  In  190 
he  served  under  his  brother  Lu- 
cius against  Antiochus.  On  their 
return  Lucius  was  successfully 
prosecuted  for  having  been  bribed 
to  give  Antiochus  too  easy  terms. 
The  success  of  this  prosecution 
encouraged  the  accusers  to  attack 
Africanus  himself.  However,  on 
the  day  of  the  trial,  he  reminded 
the  people  assembled  in  the 
Forum  that  it  was  the  anniver- 
sary of  his  victory  at  Zama,  and 
summoned  them  to  accompany 


Scipio 

him  to  the  Capitol  and  return 
thanks  to  the  gods.  He  after- 
wards retired  to  his  country 
estate,  and  the  prosecution  was 
dropped.  He  claimed  to  be  the 
favorite  of  the  gods,  and  de- 
clared that  his  successes  were  due 
to  their  inspiration.  He  was  one 
of  the  earliest  students  of  Greek 
culture;  and  these  studies,  with 
his  personal  refinement  and  lux- 
ury, distinguished  him  from  the 
nobles  in  general  and  made  him 
unpopular.  Daring,  vigor,  ra- 
pidity of  execution,  based  on 
careful  preparation  of  his  forces, 
mark  his  enterprises  rather  than 
deep-laid  strategy  or  brilliant 
manoeuvring. 

(5.)  Lucius  Cornelius  Scipio 
AsiATicus  was  the  brother  of 
Africanus,  under  whom  he  served 
in  Spain.  In  193  he  was  praetor 
and  in  190  consul,  when  he  com- 
manded the  Roman  armies  against 
Antiochus  in  Asia,  winning  the 
battle  of  Magnesia;  on  his  return 
to  Rome  he  was  given  the  title 
of  Asiaticus,  but  was  condemned 
for  taking  bribes. 

(6.)  PuBLius  Cornelius  Scipio 
^milianus  Africanus  Minor 
(from  about  185  to  129  B.C.)  was 
a  Scipio  only  by  adoption,  being 
in  fact  a  younger  son  of  Lucius 
i^^milius  Paulus,  the  victor  of 
Pydna.  He  accompanied  his 
father  Paulus  in  his  Macedonian 
campaign  of  168  B.C.,  and  served 
in  Spain  in  151.  and  again  in 
Africa  during  the  third  Punic 
War,  in  149.  Returning  to  Rome 
in  148,  he  was  elected  consul, 
and  entrusted  with  the  command 
against  Carthage.  After  his  cap- 
ture of  Carthage  in  146,  that 
city  was  utterly  destroyed.  In 
142  he  was  censor;  afterwards 
he  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
Egypt  and  Asia,  and  in  his 
absence  was  elected  consul  for 
134,  to  subdue  Numantia  in 
Spain,  which  had  resisted  the 
efforts  of  Rome  for  twelve  years. 
Numantia  fell  in  133,  and  Scipio 
returried  to  Rome  in  132,  to  find 
the  state  divided  by  Tiberius 
Gracchus's  attempts  at  reform. 
Scipio  had  married  Gracchus's 
sister  Sempronia,  jet  he  opposed 
the  execution  of  his  agrarian  law. 
In  129,  after  a  violent  altercation 
with  the  commissioner  appointed 
to  execute  the  law,  he  was  found 
dead  in  bed  the  next  morning. 
Scipio  was  famous  for  his  patron- 
age of  literature  and  philosophy: 
he  was  a  devoted  student  of 
Greek;  in  this  study  he  was  aided 
by  the  historian  Polybius,  his 
friend  and  companion  for  nianv 
years.  He  was  intimate  also  with 
the  poets  Lucilius  and  Terence, 
and  with  the  philosopher  Panae- 
tius.  His  friendship  with  Laelius 
became  proverbial.  He  was  a 
man  of  high  character,  refine- 
ment, and  ability. 

(7.)  PuBLius  Cornelius  Scipio 


Scire  Facias 


KFP 


31 


Scissors 


Nasica  Serapio  belonged  to  an- 
other branch  of  the  family.  He 
was  consul  in  138  B.C.,  and  in 
133  killed  Tiberius  Gracchus. 
He  became  so  unpopular  for  this 
that,  though  he  was  pontifex 
maximiis,  and  as  such  forbidden 
to  leave  Italy,  the  senate  sent 
him  on  a  mission  to  Asia, 
whence  he  never  ventured  to  re- 
turn, but  died  at  Pergamum. 


feet,  and  while  they  were  so  en- 
gaged kicked  them  over  the  Sci- 
ronian  cliffs  into  the  sea.  The- 
seus put  an  end  to  his  career 
by  inflicting  on  him  the  same 
fate.  _ 

Scirpus,  a  genus  of  water  and 
marsh  plants  belonging  to  the 
order  Cyperaceae.  The  bulrush 
or  bast,  6".  lacustris,  is  the  best- 
known  species.  It  is  much  used 


rays.  It  is  common  in  shallow 
ponds  and  streams. 

Scirrhiis,  a  class  of  cancer, 
distinguished  by  its  hardness  of 
texture.  Its  most  frequent  seat 
is  in  the  female  breast.  It  may, 
however,  be  found  in  the  stomach 
and  elsewhere.  When  in  the 
breast,  there  is  great  danger  of 
its  spreading  along  the  lymphatic 
vessels  and  secondary  growths  in 


Bust  of  Scipio  Africanus  (234-183  B.C.) 


Scire  Facias  (Lat.  That  you 
make  known').  The  name  of  a 
writ  and  the  proceeding  com- 
menced thereby,  founded  upon  a 
public  record.  It  is  still  employed 
in  some  states  to  revive  judg- 
ments which  are  about  to  expire, 
to  enforce  the  forfeiture  of  char- 
ters of  corporations,  enforce 
recognizances,  etc.  It  is  super- 
•seded  by  statutory  actions  in 
some  code  states. 

Sciron,  in  ancient  Greek  leg- 
end, was  a  robber  who  frequent- 
ed the  frontiers  of  Attica  and 
Megara.  After  robbing  travelers 
he  compelled  them  to  wash  his 


for  mat-making  and  for  the  seats 
of  chairs.  This  gigantic  rush, 
growing  9  ft.  high,  and  called 
'tule,'  is  an  important  plant  in 
the  economy  of  the  southwestern 
Indians.  Its  pollen  enters  large- 
ly into  their  ceremonial  observ- 
ances, and  is  made  into  mush  ; 
the  root-stocks  also  serve  as  food. 
The  leaves  and  stems  are  used 
for  making  coarse  fabrics,  and, 
tied  together  into  bundles,  make 
clumsy  boats.  The  'wool-grass' 
(S.  Cypcrinus),  some  6  ft.  tall, 
has  slender,  outcurved  leaves, 
and  immense  umbels  of  tiny, 
brown    spikelets    on  drooping 


the  lymphatic  glands  in  the  arm- 
pit and  near  the  collar-bone, 
whence  there  may  be  still  further 
development.  Among  many  forms 
of  treatment,  mentioned  under 
Cancer,  perhaps  the  most  hope- 
ful is  that  of  early  and  complete 
removal  of  the  diseased  parts. 
Treatment  with  the  roentgen 
rays  after  excision  has  some- 
times proved  successful,  and 
aided  in  preventing  recurrence. 

Scissors.  Scissors  blades  are 
either  forged  by  hand  or  made 
out  of  a  bar  of  steel  in  a  machine. 
Each  blade  is  forged  from  one 
piece  of  steel,  the  bows  or  finger- 


Scitaminaceae 


KFP 


32 


Scoresby 


holes  being  formed  out  of  it 
without  a  weld.  The  'setting'  of 
the  blades  is  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  thirty  processes  of 
scissors-making,  as  it  causes  the 
blades  to  cut  from  point  to  rivet. 
After  'setting,'  the  blades  are 
finished,  bows  and  shanks  filed 
smooth  and  burnished,  and  then 
fastened  together.  Formerly 
bows  and  shanks  were  sometimes 
decorated  in  elaborate  lace  pat- 
terns. All  this  ornamentation 
was  effected  with  a  file,  the  de- 
sign being  cut  out  from  the  solid 
steel.  Tailors'  shears  consist  of 
a  blade  of  crucible  steel  welded 
upon  a  shank  and  bows  of  iron. 

Scitaminaceae,  a  natural  or- 
der of  herbaceous  plants,  with 
creeping  rhizomes,  which  in- 
cludes plants  of  economic  im- 
portance producing  ginger,  ar- 
rowroot, cardamoms,  and  ba- 
nanas. Among  the  genera  are 
Canna,  Musa,  Maranta,  and 
Zingiber. 

Scituate,  tn.,  Massachusetts, 
Plymouth  co.,  24  m.  s.E.  of  Bos- 
ton, on  the  North  R.  and  Massa- 
chusetts Bay,  and  on  the  N.  Y., 
N.  H.  and  H.  R.  R.  It  is  a  resi- 
dential town  and  summer  resort. 
Features  of  interest  are  a  public 
library,  water  tower,  a  light- 
house famous  from  Revolution- 
ary days,  and  the  ancient  First 
Church,  a  landmark  for  sailors. 
It  is  the  birthplace  of  Samuel 
Woodworth  (q.  v.),  author  of 
Old  Oaken  Bucket.  The  sur- 
rounding country  has  a  pictur- 
esque rolling  surface,  the  farms 
being  chiefly  given  to  raising 
vegetables  for  the  Boston  mar- 
ket and  cranberries.  The  town 
was  first  settled  about  1631,  and 
received  its  present  charter  in 
1636.  Pop.  (1940,  est.)  4,873. 

Scleroderma,  or  Addison's 
Keloid,  a  skin  disease  in  which 
the  skin  becomes  tightly  stretched 
owing  to  excessive  formation  of 
fibrous  tissue  in  and  under  it. 
Two  well-marked  forms  are  rec- 
ognized— the  circumscribed  and 
the  diffuse.  The  circumscribed 
form  may  show  in  patches,  dis- 
tributed apparently  indiscrimi- 
nately over  body  and  limbs,  or 
following  the  course  of  some 
nerve.  In  the  diffuse  form  the 
greater  part  _  of  the  trunk  and 
head  may  be  implicated.  The  dis- 
ease may  undergo  a  spontaneous 
cure,  or  it  may  go  on  to  atrophy 
of  underlying  parts  through 
pressure,  and  eventual  death  ei- 
ther of  a  part  or  of  the  body  as 
a  whole.  It  is  more  common  in 
women  than  in  men,  and  is  be- 
lieved to  be  of  a  nervous  origin. 
Treatment  (not  satisfactory)  has 
been  mostly  in  the  direction  of 
inunctions  and  special  attention 
to  general  nutrition.  Good  re- 
sults have  been  claimed  for  ad- 
ministration of  thyroid  gland. 
Also  sex  hormones  are  used  in 


the  treatment  of  this  disease. 
Surgical  measures  yielding  en- 
couraging results  in  some  cases 
include  parathyroidectomy  and 
sympathectomy. 

Sclerosis,  in  medicine,  a  term 
which,  strictly  speaking,  may  be 
applied  to  the  induration  or  hard- 
ening of  any  tissue  ;  but  of  late 
it  has  been  reserved  more  for  ar- 
terial degeneration  or  particu- 
larly for  a  diseased  condition  of 
the  spinal  cord,  in  which  certain 
of  its  constituents  undergo  de- 
generation and  hardening  by 
reason  of  overgrowth  of  con- 
nective tissue.  The  general  tend- 
ency is  towards  increasing  pa- 
ralysis and  ultimate  death,  al- 
though the  disease  may  last  over 
many  years. 

Sclerostomum,  a  genus  of 
Nematode  worms,  including  S. 
armatum,  a  parasite  of  the  horse. 
To  this  genus  was  formerly  re- 
ferred also  the  worm  which 
causes  'gapes'  in  fowls,  now 
known  as  Syngamus  trachealis. 

Sclerotia,  peculiar  little, 
hard,  tuber-like  bodies  produced 
by  certain  fungi.  These  resting 
forms  of  mycelium  are  able  to 
remain  for  a  long  time  in  a  dor- 
mant state,  to  withstand  the  ef- 
fects of  desiccation,  and  then 
under  favorable  conditions  to 
enter  on  a  further  course  of  de- 
velopment. From  them  are  de- 
veloped the  ergot  of  grasses  and 
other  fungus  disease  of  plants. 

Sclerotic,  in  anatomy,  the 
dense  coat  or  layer  of  fibrous 
tissue  which  covers  all  the  back 
of  the  eyeball,  coming  forward 
to  the  cornea  in  front.  It  is  the 
white  of  the  eye,  and  is  covered 
outside  by  the  thin  glistening 
conjunctiva,  and  loosely  lined 
within  by  the  choroid.  It  is 
subject  to  various  inflammatory 
conditions,  and  may  also  suffer 
from  bulging  due  to  intraocular 
tension,  or  may  be  the  seat  of 
tumors. 

Scollard,  _  Clinton  (1860- 
1932),  American  poet,  was  born 
at  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  and  graduated 
(1881)  at  Hamilton  College,  con- 
tinuing his  studies  at  Cambridge 
University,  England.  From  1888 
to  1893  he  was  assistant  profes- 
sor of  rhetoric  at  Hamilton  Col- 
lege, occupying  the  chair  of 
English  literature  from  1893  to 
1896.  His  books  of  poems  in- 
clude: Pictures  in  Song  (1884)  ; 
With  Reed  and  Lyre  (1886)  ; 
Giovio  and  Giulia  (1891)  ; 
Skenandoa  (1896)  ;  The  Clois- 
tering of  Ursula  (1902)  ;  and 
Odes  and  Elegies  (1905). 

Scone,  tn.,  Scotland,  Perth- 
shire, on  1.  bk.  of  Tay,  2  m.  n. 
of  Perth;  has,  1^  m.  to  the 
W.N.W.,  the  fine  old  market  cross 
of  the  extinct  hamlet  of  Old 
Scone,  the  capital  of  Pictavia  in 
the  8th  century.  The  abbey  of 
Scone,  founded  by  Alexander  i 


in  1114,  stood  to  the  west  of  Old 
Scone.  The  abbey  and  the  old 
palace  were  destroyed  by  a  Perth 
mob  in  1559.  The  new  palace, 
begun  by  the  Earl  of  Gowrie, 
lodged  the  Chevalier  de  St. 
George  in  1716,  and  Prince 
Charlie  in  1746.  The  present 
palace  of  Scone  was  erected 
1803-8.  Scone  was  a  royal  resi- 
dence, and  a  place  of  coronation 
for  Scottish  kings  from  1153  to 
1488.  The  Stone  of  Destiny  or 
coronation  seat  was  removed  to 
London  by  Edward  i  in  1296, 
and  is  now  underneath  the  coro- 
nation chair  in  Westminster  Ab- 
bey. Pop.  2.559. 

Scopas,  ancient  Greek  sculp- 
tor, was  a  native  of  Paros,  and 
flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the 
4th  century  b.c.  He  was  em- 
ployed to  rebuild  the  temple  of 
Athena  Alea  at  Tegea,  which 
was  burned  in  395  b.c,  and  he 
also  shared  in  the  decoration  of 
the  mausoleum,  which  was  not 
finished  until  after  349  B.C.  The 
distinguishing  characteristic  of 
his  work  was  his  expression  of 
strong  emotion,  even  of  passion. 
No  works,  undeniably  his.  sur- 
vive. Fragments  of  the  pediment 
sculptures  at  Tegea  were  discov- 
ered in  1879,  and  works  resem- 
bling his  style,  as  shown  in  these, 
are  the  Meleager  of  the  Vatican 
and  a  statue  in  the  Fogg  Art 
Museum  at  Harvard  University. 

Scopes  Trial,  see  Bryan, 
William  Jennings. 

Score,  in  music,  signifies  that 
the  individual  parts  of  a  compo- 
sition are  written  upon  separate 
staves — all  barred  alike — and 
placed  one  above  another  in  such 
juxtaposition  that  they  can  be 
read  simultaneously.  Bass  parts 
are  always  placed  lowest,  and,  in 
orchestral  music,  parts  for  in- 
struments of  the  same  class  are 
usually  set  in  groups,  but  these 
may  occupy  various  positions  in 
the  score,  according  to  the  meth- 
od of  arrangement  favored  by 
the  composer.  Four-part  vocal 
music  is  frequently  written  on 
two  staves,  the  two  higher  on  the 
treble,  the  two  lower  on  the 
bass,  and  when  so,  is  said  to  be 
in  compressed  or  short  score. 

Scoresby,  William  (1789- 
1857),  English  Arctic  explorer, 
was  born  near  Whitby  ;  made  his 
first  Greenland  voyage  at  the  age 
of  eleven.  After  1810  he  con- 
tinued to  make  the  Greenland 
voyage  annually.  His  interest 
in  the  scientific  aspects  of  the 
Arctic  regions  having  been 
awakened  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks, 
he  published  An  Account  of  the 
Arctic  Regions  (2  vols.  1820). 
In  1822  he  abandoned  the  sea, 
but  still  continued  his  scientific 
studies,  in  the  interest  of  which 
he  made  a  voyage  to  Australia  in 
1856.  He  visited  the  U.  S.  in 
1844,  and  made  a  second  tour  in 


1  4  f942 


Scoriae 

Canada  and  the  U.  S.  in  1848. 

He  published  Magnetical  Investi- 
gations (1839-52).  See  Life  by 
Scoresby  Jackson  (1861). 

Scoriae,  or  Scoria,  either  the 
cinder-hke  masses  ejected  by 
volcanoes  and  known  as  volcanic 
ashes,  or  the  ropy,  irregular 
pumiceous  crusts  usually  found 
on  lava  flows,  especially  those  of 
basic  charact  r.  Pumice  is  the 
best-known  example. 

Scoriflcr.tion.  See  Metal- 
lurgy. 

Scorpio,  the  eighth  sign  of  the 
zodiac  (symbol  lU),  entered  by 
the  sun  about  October  21,  and  an 
ancient  constellation,  now  nearly 
30"  east  of  the  sign.  The  Greeks 
followed  the  Chaldasans  in  assign- 
ing to  it  a  duplicated  zodiacal 
representation,  the  claws  occupy- 
ing the  space  appropriated  to 
Libra  by  the  Romans.'  The  ap- 

Eearance  in  it  of  a  comet  was  said 
y  PUny  to  portend  a  plague  of 


<am 

I 

«/«/» 

i¥k          j   ^  \ 

v±.ii  2.c<t 


Scorpio. 

locusts.  The  chief  star  is  An- 
tares;  the  primary  of  /3,  visually 
triple;  as  well  as  m,  o-,  and  A  Scor- 
pii,  are  spectroscopic  binaries; 
^,  A,  2,  and  11,  are  closely 
double;  f  Scorpii  forms  a  ternary 
system;  v  is  quadruple.  The 
'star  of  Hipparcnus'  (134  B.C.). 
and  the  Nova  which  lit  up  the 
cluster  Messier  80  in  1860,  ap- 
peared in  Scorpio;  the  adjacent 
globular  cluster  Messier  4  and 
62  contain  fifty-eight  variables; 
and  an  extensive  nebulosity  near 
Antares  was  photographed  by 
Barnard  in  1895. 

Scorpion,  a  name  applied  to 
the  members  of  the  order  Scor- 
pionidse,  of  the  class  Arachnida. 
Scorpions  are  abundant  in  all 
warm  climates,  and  numerous 
species  are  found  round  the 
basin  of  the  Mediterranean, 
Zoologically  scorpions  are  in- 
teresting, not  only  on  account 
of  their  antiquity  as  fossils, 
but  because  of  the  primitive 
characters  which  they  display. 
Thus  the  abdomen  is  very  dis- 
tinctly segmented,  and  bears  six 


33 

appendages  (contrast  spiders), 
and  the  body  consists  of  united 
head  and  thorax,  forming  the 
cephalothorax,  and  of  the  ab- 
domen, which  has  seven  anterior 
segments  of  the  same  diameter  as 


Scorpion^  and  {enlarged)  section 
of  Sting. 

N  c,  Nerve  cord;  c  a,  caudal  artery;  a  o, 
alimentary  canal;  a  o,  anal  orifice;  p  g,  poi- 
son glands.  (After  Newport's  dissection.) 


the  cephalothorax,  and  a  narrow 

Eosterior  portion,  consisting  of 
ve  segments,  and  ending  in  the 
sti  ,.  In  front  of  the  strong 
cl  v.^s  or  nippers  (or  pedipalps) 
are  two  small  appendages  (chelic- 
erae),  placed  close  to  the  minute 
mouth.  ^  Behind  the  nippers  are 
four  pairs  of  walking  legs,  like 
those  of  spiders.  Behind  them 
lie,  first,  a  ,e  ital  plate,  and  then 
a  pair  of  curious  'combs'  (pec- 
tines),  whose  use  is  not  known, 
but  which  appear  to  correspond 
to  the  anterior  gill-books  of  the 
king-crab.  The  next  four  seg- 
ments bear  the  openings  .of  the 
four  lung-book  ,  or  breathing  or- 
gans, which  ^  development  shows 
to  be  remai  is  of  appendages. 
The  other  abdominal  segments 
have  no  appendages.  Scorpions 
feed  upon  insects  and  spiders, 
whose  juices  they  suck.  They 
are  viviparous,  and  the  young  at 
birth  resemble  the  parents.  They 
usually  shelter  beneath  stones  in 
the  daytime,  emerging  at  dusk 
in  search  of  prey.  _  Some  species 
reach  a  length  of  six  inches;  and 
in  such  cases  the  sting,  if  rarely 
fatal,  is  very  painful  and  trouble- 
some. Common  genera  are  Scor- 
pio and  Buthus. 

Scorpion  Grass,  a  name  some- 
times given  to  the  forget-me-not 
(Myosotis). 

Sc  ^rzonera,  also  called  black 
salsify,  Scorzonera  Hispanica.  It 
is  cultivated  like  salsify  as  a  gar- 
den vegetable,  the  black  parsnip- 
shaped  root  beiiig  eaten.  It  is 
a  perennial,  and  the  roots  con- 
tinue to  enlarge  if  left  in  the 
ground  more  than  one  season 
without  becoming  inedible. 
Scot,  Michael.  See  Scott. 
Scot,  Reginald  (?1538-99). 
English  writer  against  witchcraft. 


Scoter 

was  born  in  Kent.  His  Discoverie 
of  Witchcraft  (1584;  new  ed. 
1886),  in  which  he  wages  war 
against  the  popular  behef  in 
witches,  had  great  influence  in 
the  formation  of  public  opinion. 

Scotcli  Terrier.  A  large, 
shaggy  terrier  dog,  originating  in 
Scotland.  Hardy,  persevering, 
with  immense  teeth  for  his  size, 
ears  erect,  a  hard  coat,  short- 
legged  and  long- bodied,  he  is 
able  to  hold  his  own  anywhere. 
A  keen  dog  for  vermin,  he  was 
once  mucii  used  in  hunting  foxes 
in  hilly  country  where  hounds 
could  not  run.  Since  his  introduc- 
tion elsewhere  he  has  become  a 
great  favorite,  and  the  breeder  has 
been  able  to  add  a  white  coat  to 
his  wardrobe.  He  is  classified  in 
two  classes  at  shows — white,  and 
other  than  white.  Points: — Skull 
of  good  length,  rather  inclined  to 
be  curved  in  shape,  covered  with 
hair,  and  showing  a  drop  between 
the  eyes;  muzzle  very  powerful 
and  not  too  pointed;  nose  large 
and  black;  teeth  extremely  larg  ; 
eyes  dark,  small,  piercing  in  ex- 
pression, and  very  bright;  ears 
very  small,  sharp  at  the  points, 
and  carried  erect;  neck  short  and 
powerful;  chest  rat^er  wid-,  and 
very  deep;  bo 'y  o- ly  iiolerately 
long,  and  very  powerful  ^t  t'  e 
loins;  fore-legs  straig' t  and  short, 


Scotch  Terrier. 


and  heavy  in  bone;  feet  compact 
and  well  padded,  with  hair  be- 
tween the  toes;  hind-quart  rs 
muscular;  hocks  well  bent;  tail 
of  fair  length,  and  carried  gaily; 
coat  very  harsh  and  weather-re- 
sisting; colors,  black,  dark  gray, 
brindle,  red,  wheaten,  and  white; 
markings  objectionable.  Weight 
from  17  to  20  lbs. 

Scotch  Verdict.  The  verdict 
of  'not  proven,'  which  juries  in 
criminal  trials  in  Scotland  may 
render.  It  has  the  same  legal 
effect  as  the  verdict  of  'not  guilty,' 
and  is  a  bar  to  a  second  trial  of  tb*" 
defendant  on  the  same  charge. 

Scotch  Woodcock,  the  name 
jocularly  given  to  a  dish  of  toa?T 
and  finnan  haddock. 

Scoter,  or  Black  Ducb 
((Edemia  nigral  Velvet  Scotei 


Scoter 


KFK 


34 


Scotland 


(cS.  fusca),  and  Stmp  Scoter  {(E. 

perspicillata),  a  group  of  species 
of  duck  which  are  marine  in  their 
habits,  and  are  distinguished  by 
their  large  bealcs,  which  are 
swollen  or  tuberculated  at  the 
base,  and  have  the  tip  depressed 
and  covered  by  a  flat  nail.  The 
male  is  entirely  black  in  the  com- 
mon scoter,  has  a  white  bar  on 


Courtesy  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History 


SCORPION 


the  wings  in  the  velvet  scoter, 
and  has  two  patches  of  white  on 
the  head  in  the  surf  scoter.  This 
predominance  _of_  a  black  tint  is 
also  characteristic  of  the  other 
two  species  of  the  genus.  All 
are  _  confined  to  the  northern 
hemisphere,  and,  owing  to  the 
oily  flesh,  are  almost  uneatable. 
The  American  varieties  are  found 
in  winter  off  the  coasts  of  New 
England  and  the  middle  Atlantic 
states.  The  scoters  breed  in  the 
far  north,  placing  their  nests  on 
the  ground  m  marshy  places,  or  on 
shores.  They  visit  the  temperate 
latitudes  on  migration  spring  and 
fall,  and  are  shot  for  market  in 
great  numbers. 


Scotists.  A  name  applied  to 
those  following  the  philosophy  or 
theology  of  Duns  Scotus.  See 
Duns  Scotus,  Scholasticism. 

Scotland  (Gaelic  Aihan,  for 
Scotland  N.  of  Central  Lowlands; 
Lat.  Caledonia,  from  Cheviots 
to  riv.  Forth)  forms,  with  its 
islands,  the  northern  section  of 
Great  Britain.  The  total  area  is 
30,405  sq.  m. 

Proximity  and  Access  to  the 
Sea. — The  greatest  length  is  from 
Cape  Wrath  to  the  Mull  of  Gal- 
loway, 274  m.,  and  the  breadth 
(narrowest  between  the  estuaries 
of  Clyde  and  Forth)  varies  from 
24  m.  to  146  m.  No  part  of  the 
country  is  over  40  m.  from  sea- 
water,  and  the  proximity  of  the 
sea,  especially  on  the  w.,  exerts 
important  climatic  effects.  The 
coast  line,  especially  on  the  w., 
is  enormously  developed.  Of 
the  inlets,  the  most  important 
are:  on  the  W.,  Loch  Ryan, 
Firth  of  Clyde  (the  only  impor- 
tant commercial  inlet).  Lochs 
Fyne,  Linnhe,  and  Broom;  on  the 
E.,  the  Moray  Firth  and  the  Firths 
of  Tay  and  Forth,  in  which  last 
two,  facing  the  Continent,  a  busy 
commerce  has  developed.  The 
Orkneys  and  Shetlands  in  the 
N.,  and  the  Hebrides  in  the  W., 
are  the  most  important  island 
groups — important  chiefly  for  the 
fisheries  which  are  carried  on 
round  their  shores. 

Physical  Structure. — Scotland 
consists  broadly  of  (1)  the  High- 
lands, cleft  by  the  narrow,  lake- 
filled  valley  of  Glenmore  (60  m. 
long),  through  which  the  Cale- 
donian Canal  has  been  cut;  (2)  a 
rift  valley  or  Central  Lowland; 
and  (3)  the  Southern  Uplands. 
These  have  been  described  struc- 
turally and  geologically  in  the 
article  Great  Britain.  Prac- 
tically the  whole  of  Scotland  is 
composed  of  rocks  older  than  the 
Coal  Measures,  except  for  two 
patches  of  rock,  covering  the 
islands  of  Skye  and  Mull,  of 
recent  volcanic  origin,  and  for 
the  Coal  Measures  belt  itself, 
which  constitutes  the  rift  val- 
ley or  Central  Lowland.  The 
southern  boundary  of  the  High- 
lands may  be  defined  by  a  hne 
drawn  from  Stonehaven  to  the 
Firth  of  Clyde.  The  chief  entry 
into  the  Highlands  is  up  the 
Garry  valley.  A  more  or  less 
continuous  "belt  of  high  ground 
between  Cape  Wrath  ana  Loch 
Lomond  is  Scotland's  main  water- 
shed. Being  near  the  w.  coast 
it  throws  _  off  the  longer  rivers 
on  its  E.  side.  These  include  the 
Tweed  (95  m.),  noted  for  its 
salrnon;  the  Forth  (60  m.),  its 
navigable  estuary  spanned  by 
the  Forth  railway  bridge;  the 
Tay  (105  m.),  also  spanned  by  a 
railway  bridge ;  the  South  Esk 
(40  m.);  Dee  (87  m.);  Don  (82 
m.);  Deveron  (62  m.);  and  Spey 


(96  m.),  a  very  rapid  and  destruc- 
tive stream.  On  the  w.  and  s. 
the  chief  streams  are  the  Clyde 
(106  m.),  navigable  to  Glasgow; 
and  the  Nith  (71  m.),  whose  valle] 
penetrates  the  Southern  Uplands. 
The  inland  lochs  or  lakes  of  Scot- 
land lie  principally  toward  the 
w.  Such  are  Loch  Lomond,  the 
largest  (27  sq.  m.);  Loch  Katrine, 
in  the  Forth  basin,  which  supplies 
Glasgow  with  drinking-water; 
Lochs  Earn,  Tay,  and  Rannoch 
in  the  Tay  basin,  all  centres  for 
fishermen  and  tourists;  Loch 
Ericht  and  Loch  Laggan;  and,  in 
Sutherland,  Loch  Shin.  All  con- 
tain trout,  especially  Loch  Leven 
in  Kinross,  which  is  a  rift-valley, 
not  a  Highland,  lake. 

Character  of  Surface  and  Vege- 
tation. —  The  Central  Lowland 
is  a  trough,  sunk  below  the 
hill  ranges  on  either  side  of  it. 
Its  surface  is  undulating  and 
crossed  by  ranges  of  low  hills, 
like  the  Campsie  Fells,  Fife 
hills,  etc.  The  most  clearly 
marked  section  is  Strathmore 
('Great  Valley'),  between  the 
Grampians  and  the  Ochils  and 
Sidlaws.  Two  other  distinctively 
named  sections  are  the  level 
Carses  of  Stirling  and  Gowrie, 
the  latter  north  of  the  Firth 
of  Tay.  The  Central  Lowland 
generally  is  the  agricultural 
region  of  Scotland,  though  the 
low  land  extending  round  from 
Aberdeen  to  the  Moray  Firth  is 
also  devoted  to  agriculture.  The 
Highlands  are  a  tangled  mass 
of  mountains,  with,  however,  a 
general  northeasterly  and  south- 
westerly tilt.  Much  of  their  sur- 
face is  covered  with  peat  and 
heather,  though  the  lower  slopes 
afford  grazing  for  sheep.  In  all 
Scotland  21.9  per  cent,  of  the 
surface  is  totally  uncultivable. 
But  even  the  waste  and  barren 
heather-clad  districts  command 
high  rentals  as  grouse  moors 
and  deer  forests.  The  Southern 
Uplands,  of  lower  elevation,  and 
grass-grown  to  their  summits, 
afford  excellent  sheep  pastures, 
while  the  plain-land  that  borders 
them  in  the  W.  is  the  dairy  region 
of  Scotland.  This  western  plain 
is  balanced  by  the  fertile  valley 
of  the  Tweed  to  the  S.E.,  part  of 
it  known  as  the  Merse,  which  is 
one  of  the  richest  agricultural 
districts  in  the  country. 

Climate. — Scotland,  like  Great 
Britain  as  a  whole,  is  divided  by 
a  central  belt  of  uplands  into  a 
western  windward  side,  which  is 
equable  and  moist  (as  at  Storno- 
way),  and  an  eastern  leeward 
side,  which  is  drier  and  sHghtlv 
more  extreme  (as  at  Edinburgh 
and  Aberdeen),  The  rainfall  is 
highest  in  the  w.  (annual  average 
at  Ben  Nevis  Observatory,  _  15 
in.,  as  compared  with  Nairn, 
28  in.).  The  'rain-shadow'  or 
dryness  to  the  leeward  of  moun- 


m  1  ^^^2 

Scotland  KFK  35  Scotland 


tain  masses  is  most  marked  un- 
der the  high  barrier  of  the  cen- 
tral Grampians  round  Cairngorm, 
and  Lochnagar.  Hence  the  pop- 
ularity, as  summer  resorts,  of 
Braemar,  and  other  places  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Dee,  Don,  and 
Spey.  Climatic  conditions  are 
further  reflected  in  the  prevail- 
ing occupations,  agriculture  be- 
ing pursued  in  the  drier  east,  and 
grazing  in  the  west.  A  minor 
effect  is  seen  in  the  suitability  of 
the  moist  western  climate  for  the 
cotton  industry. 

Mining.  —  Scotland's  mineral 
wealth  is  considerable,  consisting 
chiefly  of  coal,  iron,  and  shale 
oil.  Among  the  important  coal- 
producing  counties  are  Lanark- 
shire, Fife,  and  Sterling.  Iron 
producing  counties  are  Ayr,  La- 
nark, Renfrew,  Fife,  Dumbarton, 
and  Linlithgow.  The  oil  shale 
beds  are  confined  to  a  small  area, 
about  20  miles  in  diameter,  in  the 
counties  of  West  Lothian,  Mid- 
lothian, and  Lanarkshire.  Great 
Britain's  output  of  shale,  largely 
from  this  region,  totaled  1,551,- 
000  tons,  valued  at  $7,584,350. 
The  richer  grades  yield  30  to  40 
gallons  of  oil  per  ton.  (See 
Great  Britain.) 

Fisheries. — Both  the  fresh  wa- 
ter and  sea  fisheries  of  Scotland 
are  important,  especially  in  the 
east.  The  chief  fishing  centers 
are  Aberdeen,  Peterhead,  and 
Wick  in  the  east,  and  Stornoway 
on  the  west  coast.  Herring,  had- 
dock, flatfish,  and  cod  are  the 
principal  food  fishes.  The  value 
of  the  catch  in  1938  was  $18,- 
712,000. 

Agriculture  and  Stock  Rais- 
ing.— Agriculture  is  largely  con- 
fined to  the  coast  regions  and  the 
Lowlands.  In  1939,  out  of  a  total 
of  19,069,000  acres,  10,465,000 
acres  were  rough  pasture  land, 
1,623,000  acres  were  permanent 
pasture,  and  2,935,000  were  ara- 
ble land.  The  chief  crops,  with 
their  acreage  and  production  in 
1939,  were  as  follows  :  turnips 
and  swedes,  309,000  acres,  4,- 
983,000  tons;  oats,  777,000 
acres,  34,488,000  bushels  ;  pota- 
toes, 134,000  acres,  1,040,000 
tons;  barley,  100,000  acres,  3,- 
944,000  bushels;  wheat,  80,000 
acres,  3,168,000  bushels;  hay, 
560,000  acres,  820,000  tons  ;  man- 
golds, 5,200  acres,  112,000  tons. 
Stock  raising  is  important,  no- 
table cattle  breeds  being  the  Ayr- 
shire, Galloway,  Aberdeen,  An- 
gus, and  West  Highland.  The 
Clydesdale  breed  of  horses  is  fa- 
mous, as  is  the  Cheviot  breed  of 
sheep.  In  1938  cattle  numbered 
1,308,000  ;sheep,7,840, 000  ; hogs, 
256,000,  and  horses,  144,000. 

Manufactures. — The  most  im- 
portant industries  are  the  manu- 
facture of  textiles,  metals,  and 


machinery,  and  shipbuilding.  The 
cotton  industry  centers  chiefly  in 
Glasgow  and  Paisley,  the  latter 
noted  for  its  thread.  Woolen 
manufacture  is  carried  on  in 
Stirling,  Kilmarnock,  Bannock- 
burn,  and  Paisley,  while  the  wool 
produced  on  the  Southern  Up- 
lands, combined  with  the  pres- 
ence of  water  as  a  motive 
power,  has  helped  to  locate  the 
manufacture  of  woolen  cloths 
('tweeds')  in  the  towns  of  the 
Tweed  Valley  —  Hawick,  Gala- 
shiels, and  Selkirk.  Other  im- 
portant industries  are  the  manu- 
facture of  damask  and  linoleum. 
Smelting  and  iron  working  are 
of  considerable  importance,  while 
both  Glasgow  and  Kilmarnock 
are  noted  for  their  production  of 
machinery,  engines,  and  railway 
rolling  stock.  Paper  manufacture 
in  Midlothian  and  Aberdeenshire, 
whiskey  distilling  in  the  High- 
lands, brewing  and  distilling  in 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Leith, 
dyeing  at  Perth,  Glasgow,  and 
Dumbarton,  sugar  refining  at 
Greenock,  and  tobacco  manufac- 
ture at  Glasgow,  have  all  at- 
tained considerable  importance. 

The  shipbuilding  industry,  cen- 
tered chiefly  in  Glasgow,  Green- 
ock, Partick,  and  Dumbarton, 
produces  a  large  part  of  the  total 
tonnage  built  in  the  United  King- 
dom. The  industry  is  also  car- 
ried on  to  a  lesser  extent  in  Dun- 
dee, and  in  the  region  of  the 
Firth  of  Forth  on  the  east  coast. 

Communications.  —  Railway 
lines  reach  Edinburgh  and  Glas- 
gow from  the  south  and  through 
the  river  valleys,  penetrating  the 
heart  of  the  Southern  Uplands, 
while  the  flat  country  between 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  has  made 
railroad  construction  in  that  re- 
gion easy.  Northward  connection 
from  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  is 
provided  by  the  North  British 
Railway  to  Aberdeen,  whence 
the  Great  North  of  Scotland 
Railway  carries  it  on  to  Elgin 
and  Inverness  ;  and  by  the  Cale- 
donian through  Perth,  Forfar, 
Montrose,  and  thence  to  Aber- 
deen. 

Scotland  has  four  canals  with 
a  combined  length  of  about  185 
miles.  The  Caledonian  Canal 
connects  the  nearly  continuous 
line  of  lochs  in  Glenmore,  and  is 
devoted  chiefly  to  tourist  travel, 
as  is  the  Crinan  Canal  across  the 
peninsula  of  Kintyre. 

Commerce.  —  Commercial  de- 
velopment has  been  favored  by 
the  deep  inrunning  estuaries  of 
the  coast  and  by  the  location  of 
the  producing  areas  of  the  Cen- 
tral Lowlands  either  actually  on, 
or  quite  close  to,  the  maritime 
outlets.  The  western  ports  trade 
chiefly  with  North  and  South 
America,  the  west  of  England 
and  Ireland;  the  eastern  ports 


chiefly  with  the  Low  Countries 
and  the  Baltic  States.  The  Clyde 
ports,  on  the  west,  receive  bacon, 
hams,  grain,  flour,  tobacco,  living 
animals,  leather,  lard,  timber,  and 
iron  ore  for  the  metal  industries. 
Representative  imports  arriving 
at  the  eastern  ports  are  butter, 
grain,  flour,  eggs,  linen  yarn,  and 
timber,  principally  from  the  Bal- 
tic States.  Exports  are  identical 
in  character  with  British  exports, 
generally.  Scotch  imports  and  ex- 
ports formed  a  large  proportion 
of  Great   Britain's  total  trade. 

Education.— In  1937-38,  there 
were  2,895  primary  schools  with 
an  average  attendance  of  556,- 
448  ;  252  secondary  schools  with 
an  average  registration  of  156,- 
645  ;  and  numerous  continuation, 
technical,  and  special  schools. 
There  are  four  universities  in 
Scotland — St.  Andrews,  Glasgow, 
Aberdeen,  and  Edinburgh,  with 
student  enrollments  as  follows,  in 
the  order  named:  1,010,  4,187, 
1,163,  and  3,053.  The  teaching 
staff  of  each  university  was,  in 
the  order  named,  173,  292,  175, 
and  432. 

Religion.— In  1929  the  Church 
of  Scotland  (Presbyterian)  was 
joined  with  the  United  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  under  the 
name  of  the  former.  The  Church 
of  Scotland  had,  in  1938,  2,536 
congregations,  1,286,509  members 
and  adherents,  and  3,353  Sunday 
schools  with  more  than  311,000 
pupils  in  attendance.  Other  de- 
nominations include  the  Episco- 
palians, Roman  Catholics,  Bap- 
tists, Methodists,  and  Unitarians. 

Government. — Scotland  is  rep- 
resented by  16  peers  in  the  House 
of  Lords  and  74  members  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  The  man- 
agement of  Scottish  affairs  is  un- 
der the  charge  of  the  Secretary 
for  Scotland,  the  remainder  of 
the  Local  Government  Board  con- 
sisting of  the  Solicitor-General 
for  Scotland,  the  Under-Secre- 
tary for  Scotland,  and  three  oth- 
er members  nominated  by  the 
Crown.  The  new  units  of  local 
government,  as  established  in 
1929  by  the  Local  Government 
Bill,  are  the  county  districts  and 
burghs  with  populations  exceed- 
ing 20,000.  The  High  Court  of 
Justiciary  is  the  supreme  crim- 
inal court  of  Scotland,  the  Court 
of  Session  occupying  a  similar 
status  in  civil  jurisdiction.  The 
sheriff  of  each  county  serves  as 
criminal  judge  for  crimes  occur- 
ing  within  the  county. 

Population. — The  population 
in  1931  was  4,842,554,  more 
than  a  third  of  which  was  in 
the  four  chief  cities  —  Glasgow 
(1,088,417);  Edinburgh  (438,- 
998)  ;  Dundee  (175,583)  ;  and 
Aberdeen  (167,259).  Total  urban 
population  was  69.4  per  cent 
of   the    whole.     Many   of  the 


Courtesy  The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago 

HOLYROOD,  EDINBURGH,  FROM  CALTON  HILL 


DRYBURGH  ABBEY  IN  SCOTLAND 

Vol.  XL— Page  36 


Scotland 

Scottish  counties  are  still  known 
by  their  old  territorial  names — ■ 
e.g.  Midlothian  (Edinburgh), East 
Lothian  (Haddington),  and  West 
Lothian  (Linlithgow),  Galloway 
(Kirkcudbright  and  Wigtown), 
Angus  (Forfarshire),  the  Mearns 
(Kincardine),  Moray  (Elgin).  See 
Hume  Brown's  Early  Travellers 
in  Scotland,  1295-1689  (1891); 
Geikie's  Scenery  of  Scotland 
viewed  in  Connection  with  its 
Physical  Geography  (1887); 
Lauder's  Scottish  Rivers  (1874); 
Sinclair's  Statistical  Account 
of  Scotland  (1791-9);  Dorothy 
Wordsworth's  Tour  in  Scotland 
(ed.  by  Shairp,  1874);  Macgibbon 
and  "Doss's  Castellated  and  Do- 
mestic Architecture  of  Scotland 
(1886-92);  and  The  Highlands 
and  Islands  of  Scotland,  painted 
by  W.  Smith,  jun.,  and  described 
by  A.  R.  Hope,  Moncrieff  (1906). 

History. — The  recorded  his- 
tory of  Scotland  begins  with  the 
invasion  in  80  a.d.  of  the  Ro- 
man general  Julius  Agricola,  who 
subdued  all  the  country  to  the 
south  of  the  Forth,  and  by  a 
great  victory  at  a  spot  called 
Mons  Grampius,  the  precise  site 
of  which  is  uncertain,  broke  the 
power  of  the  Caledonians,  a 
tribe  inhabiting  the  territory 
north  of  the  same  river.  As  a 
check  on  these  northern  tribes,  he 
constructed  (81  a.d.)  a  chain  of 
forts  between  the  firths  of  Forth 
and  Clyde.  The  military  occupa- 
tion of^  N.  Britain,  as  the  district 
north  of  the  Cheviots  was  termed 
by  the  Romans,  was  maintained 
intermittently  till  410  A.D.,  and 
about  a  century  and  a  half 
after  the  departure  of  the  Ro- 
mans we  find  the  land  mainly 
in  the  possession  of  four  peoples 
— the  Picts,  the  Scots,  the  Brit- 
ons, and  the  Angles.  The  Picts, 
whose  origin  is  still  matter  of 
dispute,  occupied  the  region  to 
the  north  of  the  Forth,  and  the 
Britons  (Brythonic  Celts)  the  dis- 
trict known  as  Strathclyde,  ex- 
tending from  their  fortress  of 
Dumbarton  along  the  valley  of 
the  Clyde,  and  as  far  south  as  the 
river  Derwent  in  Cumberland. 
The  Scots  had  begun  to  arrive 
from  Ireland  early  in  the  new  era. 
Later  came  the  Angles  (Teutons), 
under  their  leader  Ida,  ana 
founded  a  kingdom  on  the  E. 
coast.  From  the  eventual  fusion 
of  these  four  peoples  modern 
Scotland  arose.  The  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity  by  St.  Colum- 
ba  in  .563  and  later  by  St.  Mungo 
or  Kentigern  did  much  to  unite 
them.  In  the  first  quarter  of  the 
8th  century  all  four  had  ac- 
knowledged the  supremacy  of 
Rome.  In  succeeding  struggles 
the  Picts  profited  most  by  the 
conflicts  of  the  three  other  king- 
doms, and  eventually  took  the 
leadership;  and  at  length  Mal- 
colm II.,  king  of  the  united  Picts 


37 

and  Scots  won  at  Carham  on 
Tweed  (1018),  a  victory  which 
made  him  ruler  over  nearly  the 
whole  of  what  is  known  as  mod- 
ern Scotland.  This  was  the 
most  decisive  event  in  early 
Scottish  history.  The  consolida- 
tion of  the  different  kingdoms, 
however,  was  succeeded  by  dy- 
nastic quarrels  and  revolts,  and 
by  invasions  from  Norway.  King 
Duncan  (1034-40)  was  defeated 
by  one  of  the  Norwegian  in- 
vaders, and  Macbeth,  taking 
advantage  of  his  weakness,  re- 
volted, slew  him,  and  made 
himself  king.  The  next  sover- 
eign of  Scotland  to  stand  forth 
with  marked  individuality  was 
Malcolm  iii.  (Canmore).  In  his 
reign  the  kingdom  of  England 
came  into  active  relations  with 
Scotland,  both  dynastically  and 
by  the  settlement  of  English 
subjects  in  the  latter  country. 
Malcolm  married  Margaret,  sis- 
ter of  Edgar  Atheling;  and  his 
queen,  who  was  a  vigorous  and 
capable  adviser,  began  a  re- 
ligious policy  which  was  contin- 
ued by  her  descendants,  and 
which,  with  the  introduction  of 
feudalism,  gave  to  Scotland  a 
framework  like  that  of  the  other 
Christian  kingdoms  of  Europe. 
After  Malcolm's  death  the  fierce 
struggles  between  his  relatives 
And  the  sons  of  Margaret  for  the 
throne,  during  which  the  king- 
dom was  divided  for  a  time  under 
two  rulers,  resulted  in  Edgar 
(1097-1107)  again  uniting  the 
two  kingdoms  under  his  sway, 
and  they  were  never  again  sepa- 
rated. David  I.,  one  of  his  younger 
brothers,  was  a  powerful  ruler 
(1124-53).  _He  spent  most  of 
his  reign  in  English  invasions, 
but  administered  the  government 
so  firmly  that  the  kingdom  was 
unified  on  lines  which  it  was 
destined  to  follow  for  many  years. 
His  fame  is  due  chiefly  to  his 
domestic  policy.  He  assimilated 
the  national  religion  to  the  Ro- 
man model,  and  gave  so  many 
and  so  large  grants  of  land  to 
men  of  Norman,  Scottish,  and 
Danish  birth  and  descent  that 
the  governing  race  of  the  country 
was  changed.  He  likewise  gave 
an  impetus  to  the  development 
of  burghs,  and  under  him  Scot- 
land flourished,  and  excited  the 
rivalry  of  England. 

England  had  good  reason  to 
regard  with '  alarm  the  increas- 
ing resources  of  its  neighbor 
kingdom,  and  the  English  kings 
adopted  a  deliberate  policy  of 
reducing  the  power  of  their 
Scottish  contemporaries.  One  of 
David's  successors,  William  the 
Lion  (1165-1214),  was  captured 
while  invading  Northumberland, 
and  was  forced  to  acknowledge 
Henry  ii.  as  lord  paramount  of 
Scotland;  but  the  English  suze- 
rainty was  relinquished  in  1189. 


Scotland 

Under  Alexander  n.  and  Alexan- 
der III.  (1214-85)  Scotland  made 
steady  progress  along  all  the  lines 
of  national  development.  Under 
the  latter  notable  achievements 
were  won.  Alexander  iii.  de- 
feated Haco,  King  of  Norwav,  at 
the  battle  of  Largo  (1263),  and  the 
Hebrides  and  the  Isle  of  Man 
were  added  to  Scotland .  Through- 
out the  period  of  disaster  and 
misery  that  followed  the  death  of 
Alexander  his  reign  came  to  be 
regarded  as  the  golden  age  of  the 
Scottish  people. 

At  his  death  Alexander  iii.'s 
only  living  representative  was 
his  granddaughter  Margaret,  the 
'Maid  of  Norway.'  By  the  re- 
gency appointed  to  manage  the 
affairs  of  the  kingdom  it  was  ar- 
ranged that  she  should  be  mar- 
ried to  the  heir  of  Edward  l.  of 
England,  but  on  her  way  home 
she  died  in  the  Orkney  Islands. 
For  the  vacant  throne  there  were 
no  fewer  than  twelve  candidates, 
of  whom  only  three,  however, 
could  be  considered  as  possessing 
serious  claims.  These  were  John 
Baliol,  grandson  of  the  eldest 
daughter  of  David,  Earl  of  Hun- 
tingdon, brother  of  William  the 
Lion;  Robert  Bruce,  son  of  the 
second  daughter;  and  Henry 
Hastings,  the  son  of  the  third. 
With  the  consent  of  the  claim- 
ants, the  award  of  the  Scottish 
crown  was  referred  to  Edward  i., 
he  being  acknowledged  by  all  as 
the  lord-paramount  of  Scotland. 
In  the  castle  of  Berwick  (Nov.  17, 
1292)  Edward  gave  his  judgment 
in  favor  of  Baliol,  the  award 
implying  the  suzerainty  of  Eng- 
land. BaUol  fretted  under  the 
conditions  of  his  vassalage,  re- 
belled, was  defeated,  and  forced 
to  demit  his  crown  (1296).  His 
conqueror  decided  that  thence- 
forth there  should  be  no  king  of 
Scots,  and  appointed  a  governor, 
a  treasurer,  and  a  justiciary  to 
administer,  the  affairs  of  the 
country.  This  arrangement  had 
not  lasted  a  year  when,  under 
the  leadership  of  William  Wal- 
lace, the  Scots  rose  in  revolt,  and 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
English  forces  at  Stirhng  (1297). 
The  following  year  Edward  en- 
tered Scotland  in  person,  broke 
the  power  of  Wallace  at  Falkirk, 
and  once  more  made  himself 
master  of  the  country,  securing 
the  domination  by  garrisoning 
the  most  important  strong- 
holds. Another  deliverer  arose 
in  Robert  Bruce,  grandson  of  the 
claimant.  In  1306,  in  circum- 
stances not  well  ascertained, 
Bruce  slew  John  Comyn  in  the 
chapel  of  the  Minorite  convent  at 
Dumfries.  Comyn  represented  the 
interests  of  England,  and  Bruce 
was  thus  forced  upon  the  path 
he  had  probably  long  contem- 
plated. He  had  himself  crowned 
at  Scone  (1306),  and  began  that 


Scotland 

career  which  was  to  result  in  the 
complete  independence  of  Scot- 
lana.  His  work  was  facilitated 
by  the  death  of  Edward  i.  (1307) 
and  the  feeble  character  of  his 
successor.  By  1313  the  only  im- 
portant stronghold  in  possession 
of  the  invader  was  the  castle  of 
Stirhng,  and  Bruce's  triumphant 
victory  at  Bannockburn  the  fol- 
lowing year  decided  at  once  the 
fate  of  Stirling  and  the  fate  of 
thf;  kingdom.  The  country  being 
now  cleared,  Bruce  began  a  policy 
of  retaliation  by  systematic  inva- 
sions of  England,  his  two  right- 
hand  men,  the  'Good'  Sir  James 
Douglas  and  Thomas  Randolph 
(afterwards  Earl  of  Moray),  espe- 
cially distinguishing  themselves 
in  a  peculiarly  Scottish  mode  of 
warfare.  As  another  blow  at 
England,  Edward  Bruce,  brother 
of  Robert,  carried  his  arms  into 
Ireland,  of  which  he  was  actually 

Eroclaimed  king  (1316),  though 
e  was  slain  two  years  later  in 
battle  with  the  English  at  Dun- 
dalk.  England  was  at  length 
constrained  to  acknowledge  the 
independence  of  Scotland  m  the 
Treaty  of  Northampton  (1328). 
Bruce  died  the  following  year. 
To  his  reign  also  belongs  the 
most  outstanding  fact  in  the  con- 
stitutional history  of  Scotland. 
In  1326  there  met  at  Cambus- 
kenneth  the  first  Scottish  Par- 
liament in  name  and  in  reality. 
Hitherto  only  the  greater  barons 
and  the  higher  clergy  had  com- 
posed the  deliberative  assembly 
of  the  nation,  but  at  Cambus- 
kenneth,  for  the  first  lime,  repre- 
sentatives from  the  burghs  took 
part  in  its  proceedings.  Robert  I. 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  David 
II.  (1329-71).  Edward  III.  of 
England,  taking  advantage  of  the 
youth  of  David,  succeeded  for  a 
time  in  placing  Edward  Baliol, 
son  of  John  Baliol,  on  his  father's 
throne  as  a  vassal  king.  Baliol 
was  eventually  cast  on;  but  in 
an  invasion  of  England  David 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner 
at  Neville's  Cross  (1346),  and  re- 
covered his  liberty  eleven  years 
later  only  on  the  payment  of  a 
ransom  which  overtaxed  the  re- 
sources of  his  kingdom.  On  his 
return  to  Scotland  he  dishon- 
ored himself  as  the  son  of  his 
father  by  entering  into  a  secret 
treaty  with  England,  by  which 
any  son  of  Edward  ill.,  except 
the  eldest,  was  to  succeed  him  as 
king  of  Scots.  It  was  owing  to 
the  indignant  protest  of  the  Scot- 
tish Parliament  that  this  comj)act 
did  not  take  effect,  and  at  David's 
death  Scotland  still  maintained 
the  independence  it  had  gained 
by  the  treaty  of  Northampton. 

A  new  fine  of  Scottish  kings 
begins  with  Robert  ii.,  son  of 
Marjory,  daughter  of  Bruce. 
The  ofiice  of  nigh  steward  had 
been  hereditary  in  the  family  of 


38 

the  new  king,  and  the  official 
designation  became  the  dynastic 
name  of  Stewart.  During  his 
reign  (1371-90)  Scotland  warred 
with  England  and  received  direct 
aid  from  France.  The  Franco- 
Scottish  league  then  begun  was 
broken  only  when,  at  the  Refor- 
mation, Scotland  accepted  Prot- 
estantism as  the  national  religion. 
In  this  reign  also  took  place  the 
battle  of  Otterbourne  (Chevy 
Chase),  in  which  the  Douglases 
defeated  the  English  Percies. 
The  outstanding  individuality  for 
many  years  was  the  Duke  of 
Albany,  younger  brother  of  Rob- 
ert III.,  who  became  regent  after 
the  latter's  death  and  ruled  the 
country  until  1420.  Soon  the 
power  of  the  nobles,  who  had 
seldom  been  kept  firmly  subdued, 
caused  serious  opposition  in 
which  the  crown  determined  to 
incl-ease  its  power.  The  struggle 
lasted  during  1424-1500.  It  began 
in  the  reign  of  James  i.  (1424-37). 
He  systematized  the  statute  law 
and  established  the  court  of  ses- 
sion. The  long  minority  of  his  son 
ensued,  but  in  1449  James  ll.  took 
up  the  reins  of  government  and 
subdued  the  powerful  family  of 
Douglas  who  opposed  him.  He 
was  killed  accidentally  in  1460, 
and  his  death  was  followed  by 
another  minority  until  James  iii. 
carne  of  age.  This  king  had  fa- 
vorites who  excited  the  jealousy  of 
his  younger  brothers,  and  a  quarrel 
between  them  and  the  King  re- 
sulted in  the  latter's  imprisonment 
and  the  execution  of  the  favorites. 
The  nobles  united  against  the 
King  because  they  were  excluded 
from  his  councils,  made  open  war 
upon  him,  and  defeated  and  slew 
him  in  battle  at  Sauchieburn  in 
1488.  James  iv.  (1488-1513), 
who  managed  to  govern  without 
exciting  the  hostility  of  the  nobles, 
was  mainly  concerned  about  his 
relations  with  England,  and  made 
war  with  that  country  by  support- 
ing the  claims  of  the  imposter 
Perkin  Warbeck,  with  an  invad- 
ing army.  James's  marriage  to 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  vii., 
brought  about  peace,  and  eventu- 
ally assured  the  union  of  England 
and  Scotland  under  James  vi. 
(1489)  against  the  existing  govern- 
ment, which  was  speedily  crushed. 
In  1344  the  chiefs  of  the  great 
clan  of  Macdonald  had  estab- 
lished a  lordship  oyer  the  whole 
western  islands,  which  they  virtu- 
ally ruled  as  independent  sover- 
eigns, permanently  inimical  to 
the  kings  of  Scots.  Thus  during 
the  minority  of  James  iii.,  John 
Earl  of  Ross  and  Lord  of  the 
Isles,  entered  into  a  secret  treaty 
with  Edward  iv.,  the  object  of 
which  was  the  expulsion  of  the 
Stewart  dynasty  and  the  dis- 
memberment of  their  kingdom. 
It  was  in  the  person  of  this  same 
John   that    the    great  lordship 


Scotland 

came  to  an  end.  In  his  advanced 
age  he  entrusted  his  authority  to 
his  nephew,  Alexander  of  Loch- 
alsh,  who,  resenting  the  submis- 
sion his  uncle  had  made  to  James 
III.,  unsuccessfully  sought  to  re- 
assert the  former  powers  of  the 
lordship.  In  1493  the  Scottish 
Parliament  passed  a  sentence  of 
forfeiture  on  the  Lord  of  the 
Isles,  which  John  was  in  no  posi- 
tion to  contest.  But  the  strength 
of  the  clan  was  still  sufficient  to 
tax  all  the  resources  of  Tames  iv. 
and  his  successor  to  crush  it.  This 
king,  unlike  his  predecessors,  had 
no  difficulties  with  the  nobles. 
He  rarely  summoned  a  meeting 
of  the  Estates,  and  governed 
through  his  Privy  Council.  From 
first  to  last  the  main  preoccupa- 
tion of  Tames  was  his  relation  to 
England.  Espousing  the  cause 
of  the  impostor  Perkin  Warbeck, 
he  led  a  great  army  across  the 
Border,  which,  however,  received 
no  support  from  the  English 
people.  Fortunately  for  James, 
the  king  of  England  was  the 
peaceful  Henry  vii.  By  the  mar- 
riage of  his  daughter  Margaret  to 
the  Scottish  king  (1502)  Henry 
secured  peace  between  the  two 
kingdoms  during  the  remainder 
of  his  reign,  and  assured  their 
eventful  union  under  James  vi. 
of  Scotland.  When  (1509)  Henry 
VIII.  ascended  the  throne  of  Eng- 
land, there  was  friction  between 
him  and  James  from  .the  first. 
Border  troubles  led  to  misunder- 
standings- and,  as  the  ally  of 
France,  James  considered  him- 
self bound  in  honor  to  invade 
England  when  Henry  declared 
war  against  Louis  xii.  The  result 
was  his  defeat  at  Flodden  (1513), 
the  greatest  disaster  that  ever  be- 
fell the  Scottish  arms.  James  him- 
self fell,  and  every  family  of  con- 
sequence had  its  representative 
among  the  slain.  Apart  from  the 
disaster  of  Flodden,  James  had 
proved  himself  a  vigorous  and 
successful  ruler,  and  energetic  in 
the  administration  of  justice.  The 
western  Highlands  and  islands 
were  reduced  to  a  state  of  law 
and  order  such  as  they  had  never 
known  before.  The  construction 
of  a  Scottish  navy,  the  founda- 
tion of  the  University  of  Glasgow 
(1495),  and  the  introduction  of 
printing  (1507),  are  further  dis- 
tinctions of  one  of  the  most  popu- 
lar of  Scottish  reigns. 

At  James's  death  his  son  and 
heir,  James  v.  (1513-42),  was  but 
a  child,  and  the  government  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  his  mother, 
Margaret  of  England,  whose  va- 
garies disturbed  the  country  al- 
most to  the  close  of  the  reign. 
From  the  first  she  was  opposed 
by  a  powerful  party,  who  called 
to  the  regency  Jonn,  Duke  of 
Albany,  son  of  that  Albany  who 
had  given  so  much  trouble  to 
James  III.    Albany  arrived  from 


AN  INCIDENT  IN  SCOTTISH  HISTORY— '  JOHN  KNOX  ADMONISHING  MARY,  QUEEN 

OF  SCOTS.' 
(From  a  picture  by  W.  Allan,  a.b^) 


^coiiand 


46 


Scotland 


France  in  1513,  and  retained  the 
regency  till  1525.  Now  for  the 
first  time  a  party  arose  in  Scot- 
land more  favorable  to  England 
than  to  France,  and  when  Albany 
sought  to  make  war  in  England, 
he  found  the  majority  of  the 
nobles  unwilling  to  follow  him. 
Accordingly  it  was  as  a  baffled 
man  that  he  demitted  the  regency 
and  finally  quitted  the  country. 
In  1528  James  took  the  govern- 
ment into  his  own  hands.  His  first 
task  was  to  deal  with  the  Earl  of 
Angus,  the  second  husband  of  the 
queen-mother,  and  the  head  of 
the  family  of  Douglas.  Though 
supported  by  the  interest  of  Eng- 
land, Angus  was  speedily  crushed 
and  driven  into  exile.  James  gave 
further  proof  of  his  resolution 
by  restoring  order  in  the  islands 
and  the  Borders.  Like  his  father, 
however,  he  found  his  most  for- 
midable enemy  in  Henry  viil. 
England  had  now  broken  with 
the  Church  of  Rome,  and  Henry 
was  more  eager  than  ever  to  have 
Scotland  as  his  ally.  But  no 
solicitations  could  detach  James 
from  either  his  inherited  faith  or 
the  ancient  alliance  with  France. 
To  the  indignation  of  Henry  he 
successively  married  two  French 
wives — Madeleine,  daughter  of 
Francis  I.,  and  Mary  of  Lorraine. 
At  length  war  broke  out  between 
the  two  countries.  But  when 
James  assembled  an  army  for  the 
invasion  of  England,  the  nobles 
refused  to  follow  him,  on  the 
ground  that  he  was  acting  in  the 
interest  of  France  and  not  of  his 
own  kingdom.  The  ignominious 
rout  of  his  forces  at  Solway  Moss 
(1542)  broke  James's  heart,  and  a 
few  weeks  later  he  died  at  Falk- 
land, leaving  as  his  successor  the 
infant  Mary  Stewart.  He  had 
been  an  even  more  popular  king 
than  his  father,  but  he  does  not 
rank  with  him  as  a  successful  ad- 
ministrator. One  act  of  his  reign, 
however,  is  specially  worthy  of 
note — the  foundation  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Justice  (1532)  on  the  model 
of  the  Parlement  of  Paris. 

Since  the  Stewart  dynasty  had 
come  to  the  throne,  the  dominat- 
ing fact  in  the  history  of  Scot- 
land had  been  the  struggle  be- 
tween the  crown  and  the  nobles. 
With  the  accession  of  Mary 
Stewart  (1542-67)  new  principles 
of  division  began  to  appear  in  the 
evolution  of  the  kingdom.  On  the 
one  hand,  there  arose  a  party  that 
favored  Protestantism  and  com- 
mon action  with  England;  on  the 
other,  there  was  at  first  the  great 
bulk  of  the  nation,  that  wished 
to  retain  the  old  religion  and 
the  ancient  alliance  with  France 
The  appointment  of  the  Earl  of 
Arran  as  governor  encouraged 
Henry  viii.  to  propose  a  mar- 
riage between  his  son  Edward 
and  the  infant  queen  of  Scot- 
land; and  through  the  agency 


of  Arran,  who  had  both  English 
and  Protestant  leanings,  a  mar- 
riage treaty  was  actually  con- 
cluded at  Greenwich  (1543).  To 
the  majority  of  Scotsmen,  how- 
ever, the  treaty  was  distasteful; 
and  in  Cardinal  Beaton,  the  chief 
representative  of  the  old  rehgion, 
they  had  a  champion  whose  in- 
terests both  as  a  man  and  as  an 
ecclesiastic  were  bound  up  with 
the  existing  order.  Through  the 
efforts  of  Beaton  the  English 
treaty  was  abrogated,  Arran  de- 
prived of  all  real  power  in  the 
country,  and  the  French  alliance 
renewed  and  assiduously  culti- 
vated. By  successive  invasions 
Henry  endeavored  to  wrest  by 
force  what  he  had  failed  to  ob- 
tain by  diplomacy,  but  under  the 
direction  of  Beaton  Scotland  con- 
tinued obstinate.  In  1546  Beaton 
was  assassinated  in  the  Castle  of 
St.  Andrews,  partly  out  of  re- 
venge for  his  execution  of  the 
Protestant  martyr  George  Wish- 
art.  Henry  himself  died  the  fol- 
lowing year;  but  the  protector 
Somerset  continued  his  poHcy  of 
seeking  the  Scottish  alliance  at 
all  costs.  The  death  of  Beaton, 
however,  only  strengthened  the 
ties  with  France.  Between  Arran 
and  the  queen-mother  Mary  of 
Lorraine  there  ensued  a  contest 
for  the  first  place  in  the  coun- 
try, and  the  latter  triumphed. 
The  young  queen  was  sent  to 
France;  a  French  force  brought 
to  Scotland  drove  out  the  Eng- 
lish garrison  which  Somerset  had 
planted  in  the  country;  and  in 
1554  Mary  of  Lorraine  was  made 
regent,  Arran  being  solaced  with 
the  dukedom  of  Chatelherault. 
It  now  seemed  as  if  Scotland  were 
about  to  become  a  dependency  of 
France — a  contingency  which  was 
rendered  still  more  likely  by  the 
marriage  of  Mary  Stewart  to  the 
dauphin  of  France  (1558).  But 
the  sight  of  French  garrisons  in 
the  chief  Scottish  strongholds, 
and  of  French  statesmen  in  im- 
portant public  offices,  gradually 
roused  against  France  a  feeling 
as  fierce  as  the  hereditary  hatred 
against  England.  With  this  feel- 
ing was  now  conjoined  a  growing 
dissatisfaction  with  the  ancient 
church,  which  by  its  wealth,  its 
abuses,  and  the  degradation  of 
many  of  its  clergy  had  become 
ethically  and  economically  in  the 
eyes  of  many  (not  always  disinter- 
ested observers)  an  impossible  in- 
stitution. The  doctrines  of  Prot- 
estantism steadily  gained  ground, 
especially  among  the  middle 
classes  of  the  larger  towns. 
Headed  by  a  few  nobles,  notable 
among  whom  were  the  Lord 
James  Stewart  (subsequently  the 
regent  Moray),  the  Earl  of  Glen- 
cairn,  and  Lord  Lorn,  the  Prot- 
estant party  openlv  revolted 
against  the  regent,  and  sought  and 
gained  the  assistance  of  England, 


now  ruled  by  tne  Protestant  Eliza- 
beth. Besieged  in  Leith  by  the 
combined  Scottish  and  English 
forces,  the  French  were  driven  to 
accept  a  treaty  which  virtually 
established  Protestantism  as  the 
national  religion— a  consumma- 
tion which  was  formally  sanc- 
tioned by  a  meeting  of  the  Scottish 
Estates  (August,  1560).  Mary  of 
Lorraine  had  died  in  the  course  of 
the  struggle,  and  it  was  not  till 
August,  1561,  that  her  daughter, 
having  lost  her  husband,  Francis 
II.,  returned  to  her  native  country. 
The  first  four  years  of  her  actual 
reign  were  comparatively  unevent- 
ful, the  crushing  of  the  "great  Earl 
of  Huntly  (1562)  being  its  main  in- 
cident. Mary  accepted  the  reli- 
gious situation  as  she  found  it, 
though  reserving  the  right  to  her- 
self and  her  servants  of  having 
mass  celebrated  in  the  chapel  of 
Holyrood.  It  was  on  this  point 
that  she  came  into  conflict  with 
John  Knox,  who  had  been  the 
great  popular  leader  in  the  over- 
throw of  the  old  religion.  The 
two  chief  advisers  of  Mary,  the 
Lord  James  Stewart  (made  Earl 
of  Morav  in  1562)  and  WilUam 
Maitland  of  Lethington,  break- 
ing away  from  their  former  con- 
federate, adopted  a  policy  of 
their  own  for  securing  the  new 
religious  settlement.  This  policy 
was  to  persuade  Elizabeth  to  rec- 
ognize Mary  as  her  successor  to 
the  EngKsh  throne,  whereupon 
Mary  would  have  excellent  rea- 
sons for  identifying  herself  with 
the  religion  now  established  in 
both  countries.  Elizabeth  would 
not  be  persuaded  to  designate 
a  successor,  and  Mary  married 
(1565)  her  cousin  Darnley,  who 
after  herself  was  the  nearest  heir 
to  the  English  crown,  and  thus 
reinforced  her  own  claim.  Pas- 
sion, however,  soon  made  sad 
work  of  policy.  Jealous  of  the 
attentions  which  Mary  ostenta- 
tiously showed  to  her  Itahan 
secretary,  David  Rizzio,  Darnley 
entered  into  a  plot  of  the  leading 
Protestant  nobles  for  cutting  off 
the  favorite.  The  murder  of 
Rizzio  (1566)  in  Holyrood  Palace 
made  the  final  breach  between 
the  royal  pair.  The  conduct  of 
Darnley  after  the  deed  left  him 
without  a  friend  in  the  country. 
With  Moray  and  Maitland,  whom 
she  had  cast  off  when  they  had 
striven  to  hinder  her  marriage 
with  Darnley,  Mary  could  no 
longer  work  in  concert.  The 
new  counsellor  she  chose  was 
James,  Earl  of  Bothwell,  who, 
not  content  only  to  share  her 
counsels,  determined  likewise  to 
share  her  throne.  Darnley  stood 
in  the  way;  but  with  the  alleged 
secret  approval  of  Mary,  Bothwell 
blew  up  the  house  (the  Kirk  of 
Field)  in  which  Darnley  was  then 
lying  on  a  sick-bed,  his  victim  hav- 
ing probably  been  murdered  be- 


\ 


Scotland 

fore  the  explosion  took  place. 
Within  little  more  than  three 
months  Mary  and  Bothwell  were 
married;  but  public  opinion  would 
not  tolerate  a  union  which  dis- 
graced the  nation  before  the 
world.  The  Protestant  lords 
compelled  Mary  to  surrender  at 
Carberry  Hill,  Bothwell  being 
forced  at  the  same  time  to  quit 
the  country.  Consigned  to  Loch 
Leven  Castle,  Mary  was  con- 
strained to  demit  her  crown,  and 
the  Earl  of  Moray  was  appointed 
regent  in  the  name  of  her  infant 
son,  who  was  crowned  as  James 
VI.  (1567).  The  following  year 
she  escaped  from  her  prison,  but 
was  defeated  at  Langside,  and 
driven  to  seek  refuge  in  England. 
Then  followed  the  successive  re- 
gencies of  the  Earls  of  Moray, 
Lennox,  and  Morton.  Through- 
out these  regencies,  till  1573,  the 
nation  was  distracted  by  the  wars 
of  the  king's  and  queen's  parties, 
in  the  course  of  which  two  re- 
gents,^ Moray  and  Lennox,  were 
assassinated.  The  queen's  party 
was  supported  by  the  house  of 
Hamilton  and  the  majority  of 
the  great  nobles,  and  was  subsi- 
dized by  France;  that  of  the  king 
had  the  sympathy  of  the  larger 
towns  and  the  intermittent  assist- 
ance of  England.  The  struggle 
was  finally  decided  by  the  cap- 
ture of  Edinburgh  Castle,  the 
last  stronghold  of  the  Marians, 
by  the  regent  Morton,  reinforced 
by  English  auxiliaries.  This 
finally  assured  the  triumph  of 
Protestantism  in  Scotland.  Mor- 
ton demitted  the  regency  in  1578, 
and  in  the  attempt  to  reassert  his 
ascendency  was  overpowered  and 
publicly  executed  in  1581. 

With  the  actual  reign  of  James 
VI.  begins  another  stage  in  the 
ecclesia-stical  and  political  devel- 
opment of  the  country.  Although 
there  was  still  a  considerable 
Roman  Catholic  minority,  the 
Protestant  settlement  might  now 
be  considered  safe.  Thencefor- 
ward, till  the  revolution  of  1688- 
89,  the  absorbing  interest  of  the 
country  was  the  controversy  be- 
tween the  kirk  and  the  crown. 
James  vi.,  with  his  fixed  idea  of 
the  divine  right  of  kings,  aimed 
at  a  form  of  government  which 
should  make  him  the  absolute 
master  of  the  goods,  bodies, 
and  souls  of  his  subjects.  With 
such  an  ideal  of  government  Cal- 
vinistic  Presbyterianism,  which 
was  the  creed  and  church  polity 
which  comm.ended  itself  to  the 
majority  of  Scotsmen,  was  fun- 
damentally irreconcilable.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  episcopal 
system,  as  Tames  conceived  it, 
A^as  admirably  adapted  to  further 
his  political  ends.  Through 
the  bishops,  who  would  be  mere 
state  officials,  dismissible  at  his 
pleasure,  he  could  ensure  the 
pliability  of  the  general  clergy, 


4} 

who  in  their  turn  would  give 
a  fitting  direction  to  the  mind 
of  the  laity.  At  first,  under  the 
leadership  of  Andrew  Melville 
and  a  considerable  section  of  the 
nobles,  the  kirk  was  more  than 
able  to  hold  its  own.  Even  before 
the  union  of  tlT^  crowns,  when 
James  became  King  of  England 
(1603),  he  had  broken  the  strength 
of  Presbvterianism,  and  made 
considerable  progress  in  setting 
up  Episcopacy.  This  he  achieved 
by  dissociating  the  nobles  from 
the  kirk  by  the  liberal  grant  of 
church  lands  to  all  of  them  who 
were  wilhng  to  give  him  their 
support.  On  his  removal  to  Eng- 
land he  had  the  resources  of  an- 
other kingdom  at  his  back,  and 
he  gradually  but  surely  converted 
Scotland  into  a  mere  dependency 
of  the  crown.  It  was  through 
the  Scottish  Privy  Council,  nomi- 
nated by  himself,  that  he  admin- 
istered the  affairs  of  the  country. 
Parliaments  were  seldorn  sum- 
moned, and  when  they  did  meet 
they  were  carefully  packed  by 
subservient  representatives,  who 
gave  an  appearance  of  constitu- 
tional procedure  to  his  dictates. 
By  the  date  of  his  death  (1625), 
James  had  destroyed  Presbyteri- 
anism and  established  a  species 
of  Episcopacy  which  gave  him  as 
complete  control  ovei*  the  church 
as  over  the  state.  He  also  kept 
the  Borders,  as  well  as  the  High- 
lands and  islands,  in  an  admirable 
state  of  law  and  order. 

Charles  i.,  his  son  and  successor 
(1625-49),  continued  his  father's 
policy;  but  pushing  it  to  extremes 
he  provoked  a  national  revolt, 
and  brought  about  his  own  ruin. 
The  first  important  proceeding  of 
Charles  was  the  Act  of  Revoca- 
tion (1626-9),  which  recalled  the 
grants  of  church  lands  made  by 
his  father,  and  thus  alienated  the 
majority  of  the  propertied  classes 
among  his  Scottish  subjects.  By 
another  step  he  roused  the  spirit 
of  Presbyterianism,  which  ap- 
peared to  have  been  crushed.  In 
1637  Charles  sent  down  a  new 
liturgy,  with  the  imperative  order 
that  it  should  at  once  be  adopted 
in  all  the  churches.  The  great 
majority  of  the  ministers,  with 
the  ardent  support  of  their  con- 
gregations, vehemently  protested 
against  the  innovation.  There 
was  a  double  objection  to  the 
new  service-book:  it  savored  of 

gopery,  and  it  was  supposed  to 
e  mainly  the  work  of  Archbishop 
Laud,  whose  name  is  inseparably 
attached  to  the  book.  Charles 
would  not  give  way,  and  there 
followed  in  rapid  succession  the 
events  that  led  to  the  final,  trag- 
edy at  Whitehall.  The  nobil- 
ity, discontented  with  the  Act 
oi  Revocation,  and  indignant  at 
the  powers  and  privileges  that 
had  been  assigned  to  bishops 
in  the   management   of  public 


Scotland 

affairs,  identified  themselves  with 
the  national  religious  feeling. 
By  the  National  League  and  Cov- 
enant (]638),  the  nation  bound 
itself  to  the  restoration  of  Pres- 
byterianism and  the  extirpation 
of  prelacy.  Rather  than  give 
way  Charles  appealed  to  the 
sword;  but  the  result  of  the 
first  bishops'  war  (1639)  was  that 
he  found  himself  compelled  to 
grant  every  demand  of  the  Cove- 
nanters. The  second  bishops' 
war  followed  (1640),  and  Charles 
again  found  himself  the  beaten 
party.  In  1642  his  long  contro- 
versy with  his  English  House  of 
Commons  broke  into  civil  war. 
The  English  Commons  had  sym- 
pathized with  the  Scots  in  their 
national  struggle,  and  by  the 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant 
(1643)  both  bound  themselves  to 
joint  action  against  the  king.  In 
entering  into  this  compact  the 
Scots  understood  that  in  the 
event  of  Charles  being  overpow- 
ered the  Presbyterian  polity  was 
to  be  imposed  on  both  countries 
— a  result  which  their  allies  did 
not  desire,  and  which  it  was  even- 
tually beyond  their  power  to  re- 
alize. With  the  aid  of  the  Scots 
the  armies  of  the  English  Parlia- 
ment broke  the  power  of  Charles 
beyond  recovery.  In  May,  1646, 
he  placed  himself  in  the  hands 
of  the  Scots,  who  vainly  tried  to 
persuade  him  to  accept  the  Cove- 
nants. Threatened  with  an  inva- 
sion of  Scotland  by  the  English 
ParHament,  they  delivered  him 
into  its  hands,  though  with  no 
suspicion  of  the  doom  that  was  in 
store  for  him.  By  the  arrange- 
ment known  as  the  Engagement, 
which  pledged  Charles  to  sup- 
press Independency  and  to  estab- 
lish Presbyterianism  in  England 
for  three  years,  a  party  in  Scot- 
land, headed  by  the  Duke  of 
Hamilton,  undertook  to  invade 
England  in  the  royal  interest. 
A  Scottish  aimy  led  by  Hamilton 
actually  crossed  the  Border,  but 
was  cut  to  pieces  by  Cromwell 
(^August,  1648),  who  in  his  turn 
invaded  Scotland,  and  came  to 
terms  with  the  Presbyterians, 
whose  chief  leader  was  the  great 
Marquis  of  Argyll.  Six  days  after 
the  execution  of  Charles  i.  (Jan., 
1649)  the  Scots  proclaimed  his 
son  king,  and  subsequently  in- 
vited him  to  Scotland.  This  was 
regarded  as  an  act  of  defiance 
by  the  English  Parliament,  and 
Cromwell  was  sent  north  to  cut 
short  their  proceedings.  His  over- 
whelming victory  at  Dunbar  (Sep- 
tember 1650),  was  a  severe  blow  to 
the  Scots;  yet  in  the  first  day  of 
the  following  year  they  crowned 
Charles  at  Scone,  and  prepared 
to  support  him  against  the  in- 
vader. In  September  Charles 
led  a  Scottish  army  across  the 
Border,  but  it  was  annihilated  at 
Worcester  by  Cromwell  on  the 


Scotland 

anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Dun- 
bar. Then  was  effected  what  no 
EngUsh  king  had  ever  been  able 
to  accomplish — the  complete  sub- 
jection of  Scotland  for  the  space 
of  nine  years.  Till  the  close  of 
1653  the  country  was  ruled  by 
the  English  Commonwealth,  and 
from  that  date  till  1660  by  Crom- 
well and  his  son.  In  many  re- 
spects the  country  was  better 
governed  than  it  had  been  by  any 
of  its  native  princes.  Free  trade 
with  England  stimulated  com- 
merce, justice  was  efficiently  and 
impartially  administered,  and 
the  abolition  of  general  assem- 
blies put  a  temporary  check  on 
ecclesiastical  anarchy.  Most  not- 
able of  the  results  of  Cromwell's 
rule,  however,  was  the  union  of 
the  Scottish  and  English  Parlia- 
ments, Scotland  being  repre- 
sented by  thirty  members  in  the 
common  Parliament  that  sat  at 
Westminster. 

From  the  beginning  of  Charles 
ll.'s  reign  (1660-85)  it  was  his  de- 
liberate policy  to  restore  the  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  polity  which 
had  been  established  by  James 
VI.  He  himself  never  visited 
Scotland  after  his  restoration, 
and  he  administered  its  affairs 
through  four  successive  royal 
corrmissioners — the  Earls  of  Mid- 
dleton,  Rothes,  Lauderdale,  and 
James,  Duke  of  York,  after- 
wards James  vii.  (ii.).  When 
parliaments  were  summoned,  they 
were  carefully  packed  with  mem- 
bers who  would  raise  no  diffi- 
culties. As  under  James  vi.,  it 
was  the  Privy  Council,  nominated 
by  the  king,  that  governed  the 
country.  It  was  in  the  restora- 
tion of  Episcopacy  that  Charles 
had  the  gravest  difficulties  to  en- 
counter. The  mass  of  the  people 
were  Presbyterian  in  their  sym- 
pathies, and  it  was  only  by  sys- 
tematic repression  that  these 
sympathies  were  held  in  check. 
By  successive  letters  of  indul- 
gence some  were  gained  over, 
while  the  spirit  of  others  was 
broken  by  fines,  imprisonment, 
and  exile.  In  the  southwestern 
counties,  however,  nothing  could 
reconcile  the  people  to  Episco- 
pacy, and  twice  they  rose  m  re- 
volt, but  were  hopelessly  crushed 
at  Rullion  Green  (1666)  and 
at  Bothwell  Brig  (1679).  The 
most  sensational  event  of  the 
reign  was  the  assassination  of 
Archbishop-  Sharp  (1679),  who 
had  been  Charles's  principal 
agent  in  setting  up  Episcopacy, 
and  had  made  himself  obnoxious 
by  his  persistent  efforts  to  sup- 
press noncomformity. 

James  vii.  (ii.)  (1685-1701)  was 
a  declared  Roman  Catholic.  His 
first  year  (1685)  was  marked  by 
special  severities  against  religi- 
ous recusants,  and  his  second  year 
saw  the  beginning  of  an  attempt 
to  convert  his  country  to  his  own 


religion.  A  request  that  the  Par- 
liament would  abolish  the  penal 
laws  against  Roman  Catholics  was 
coldly  received,  and,  as  in  Eng- 
land, he  had  recourse  to  'the 
dispensing  power,'  by  which  he 
claimed  the  right  to  set  aside 
such  laws  as  he  d^approved.  By 
way  of  reconciling  the  country  to 
his  policy,  he  granted  indulgence 
to  Protestant  and  Roman  Catho- 
lic nonconformists  alike;  but  his 
ultimate  object  was  never  mis- 
understood. Openly  he  manned 
the  Privy  Council  with  those  of 
his  own  religion,  the  lord  chan- 
cellor (Perth)  and  the  two  secre- 
taries of  state  (Melfort  and  Mur- 
ray) being  only  three  among 
many  who  sought  his  favor  by 
becoming  proselytes.  In  March, 
1689,  a  Scottish  convention  met 
at  Edinburgh;  it  formally  de- 
clared that  James  had  'fore- 
faulted'  the  crown,  and  offered 
it  to  William  and  Mary  as  joint 
sovereigns.  Throughout  the  whole 
of  Wilham's  reign  (1689-1702) 
his  government  of  Scotland  was 
beset  with  the  gravest  difficul- 
ties. Of  the  nobility  he  could 
depend  on  the  fidelity  of  two  or 
three  at  the  most;  the  Episcopal 
clergy  and  all  who  favored  them 
were  his  more  or  less  openly  de- 
clared enemies;  and  the  majority 
of  the  Highland  chieftains  were 
ready  at  any  moment  to  draw  the 
sword  for  the  exiled  king.  In 
the  first  session  of  the  only  Scot- 
tish Parliament  that  sat  under 
William,  Episcopacy  was  abol- 
ished, and  in  the  second  Presby- 
terianism  was  put  in  its  place. 
By  the  abolition  of  the  committee 
known  as  the  Lords  of  the  Ar- 
ticles, Parliament  ceased  to  be 
the  mere  'baron  court'  which  it 
had  come  to  be  under  the  last 
three  Stewarts.  During  the  first 
months  of  William's  reign  his 
government  in  Scotland  was 
threatened  by  the  rising  of  the 
Highland  clans  under  Viscount 
Dundee;  but  the  death  of  that 
leader  in  the  hour  of  victory  at 
Killiecrankie  (1689)  proved  fatal 
to  the  cause  of  the  Stewarts.  The 
massacre  of  Glencoe  (1692)  gave, 
however,  another  opportunity  to 
the  Jacobite  party,  which  they 
assiduously  used  to  discredit  the 
revolution  settlement  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  Besides  this, 
the  ruin  of  the  Darien  colony, 
which  was  mainly  attributed  to 
William  and  the  commercial 
jealousy  of  England,  caused  an 
alienation  between  the  two  coun- 
tries which  threatened  a  sever- 
ance of  the  connection  that  had 
now  existed  for  a  century.  At 
the  opening  of  the  reign  of 
Anne  (1702-14)  the  Scottish  Es- 
tates by  an  Act  of  Security  de- 
clared that  they  would  not  have 
a  sovereign  of  England  to  reign 
over  them  except  on  the  condi- 
tion of  equal  trading  privileges. 


Scotland 

It  was  the  very  bitterness  of  the 
estrangement  that  convinced  the 
statesmen  of  the  time  that  a 
closer  union  was  necessary  in  the 
interest  of  both  countries,  and  in 
1707  this  union  was  accomplished 
by  the  coalescence  of  the  English 
and  Scottish  Parliaments  into 
one  representative  body.  Un- 
popular at  the  time  in  Scotland, 
the  results  of  the  union  gradually 
convinced  the  people  of  both 
countries  that  the  arrangement 
was  for  the  well-being  of  both. 

Henceforward  the  main  inter- 
est of  Scottish  history  is  to  be 
found  in  the  social,  commercial, 
and  intellectual  developments  of 
the  country,  though  that  history 
is  diversified  by  such  picturesque 
incidents  as  the  Jacobite  rising  of 
1715,  the  Porteous  mob  (1736), 
and  the  second  Jacobite  rising  of 
1745.  By  the  suppression  of  this 
last  outbreak  the  Highlands  were 
finally  reduced  to  order,  and 
brought  into  line  with  the  ad- 
vancing civilization  of  the  Low- 
lands. A  notable  chapter  in  the 
national  history  subsequent  to 
the  'Forty-five'  is  what  is  known 
as  the  'Dundas  despotism'  (1783- 
1806),  during  which  the  country 
was  in  complete  political  subjec- 
tion to  the  Tory  party,  ruled  by 
Henry  Dundas,  Viscount  Mel- 
ville. Against  this  Tory  regime 
there  gradually  grew  up  a  vigor- 
ous national  feeling,  which  found 
its  expression  in  the  Edinburgh 
Review,  established  in  1802,  and 
as  the  result  of  the  Reform  Bill 
of  1832  the  political  ascendency 
passed  from  the  Tories  to  their 
rivals  the  Whigs. 

See  George  Chalmers's  Cale- 
donia (1807);  E.  W.  Robertson's 
Scotland  under  her  Early  Kings 
(1862);  Skene's  Celtic  Scotland 
(1886-90);  Joseph  Anderson's 
Scotland  in  Early  Christian 
Times  (1881);  Hailes's  (Lord  Dal- 
rymple)  Annals  of  Scotland,  1057- 
1370  (1776);  J.  Rhys's  Celtic 
Britain  (3d  ed.  1904);  Cosmo 
Innes's  Scotland  in  the  Middle 
Ages  (1860),  Sketches  of  Early 
Scotch  History  (1861),  and  Scot- 
tish Legal  Antiquities  (1872); 
Pinkerton's  History  of  Scotland 
from  the  Accession  of  the  House 
of  Stuart  to  that  of  Mary  (1797); 
Cochrane  Patrick's  Medieval 
Scotland  (1892);  Duke  of  Argyll's 
Scotland  as  it  was  and  as  it  is 
(1887);  Gregory's  History  of  the 
Western  Highlands  and  Isles  of 
Scotland;  Hill  Burton's  The  His- 
tory of  Scotland  from  Agricola's 
Invasion  (1867-70);  A,  Lang's 
A  History  of  Scotland  from  the 
Roman  Occupation  (1900  -  4)  ; 
Hume  Brown's  History  of  Scot- 
land (1899-1902); -Tytler's  His- 
tory of  Scotland  from  the  Acces- 
sion of  Alexander  III.  to  the 
Union  of  the  Crowns  (1864);  Prin- 
cipal Robertson's  History  of  Scot- 
land, 1542-1603  (1759);  Malcolm 


Scotland 

Laing's  History  of  Scotland  from 
the  Union  of  the  Crowns  to  the 
Union  of  the  Parliaments  (1800); 
J.  Mackinnon's  The  Union  of 
England  and  Scotland  (1896) ; 
Graham's  Social  Life  in  Scotland 
during  the  Eighteenth  Century 
(1901);  Craik's  A  Century  of  Scot- 
tish History  (1901);  Mathieson's 
Scotland  and  the  Union  (1905); 
and  Terry's  The  Scottish  Parlia- 
ment, 1603-1707  (1906). 

Vernacular  Language  and 
Literature.  Language.  —  The 
vernacular  literature  of  ^  Scot- 
land is  Uterature  written  in  the 
native  Scottish  as  distinguished 
from  literature  written  in  modern 
English.  In  the  13th  century  this 
native  Scotch — a  development 
of  the  Northern  dialect  of  Early 
English — dififered  comparatively 
little  from  the  original  dialect  of 
Northumbria.  With  the  sever- 
ance of  English  influences  after 
the  triumph  of  Robert  Bruce,  and 
with  the  complete  organization  of 
a  Scottish  kmgdom  in  close  al- 
liance with  France,  the  Northern 
Early  English  dialect,  while  it 
gradually  won  universal  accept- 
ance in  the  Scottish  I^owlands, 
was  there  modified  in  various 
ways,  both  by  French  intercourse 
and  by  the  old  languages  of  the 
different  races  forming  the  com- 

Eosite  Scottish  nation.  Latterly, 
owever,  the  literary  language 
of  Scotland  became  partly  inter- 
mixed with  the  Midland  dialect 
of  Early  English  as  used  by 
Chaucer;  and  with  the  advent  of 
the  reformation,  and  the  renewed 
intercourse  with  England  which 
led  to  the  union  of  the  crowns, 
even  the  spoken  language  of  the 
Scottish  common  people,  though 
retaining  many  of  its  old.  phrases 
and  idioms,  and  manifesting,  in 
different  districts,  peculiar  pro- 
vincialisms, became  more  and 
more  affected  by  the  influences 
of  literary  English. 

Literature. — Of  the  early  Scot- 
tish songs  only  a  few  fragments 
survive,  such  as  the  cantus  on 
the  death  of  Alexander  lll.  (1298) 
recorded  by  Wyntoun.  The  ro- 
mance of  Sir  Tristrem  has,  with 
some  show  of  reason,  been  claimed 
for  Thomas  of  Ercildoune;  and 
he  may  have  had  some  connection 
with  the  prophecies  in  the  third 
'fytte'  of  the  fragmentary  romance 
of  Thomas  of  Erceldoune  (prob- 
ably itself  the  work  of  an  English- 
man^, although  the  prophecies 
ascribed  to  him  are  plainly  for- 
geries. That  one,  at  least,  of  the 
old  Scots  'makers,'  the  'Clerk  of 
Tranent,'  wrote  an  alliterative 
romance  may  be  inferred  from 
Dunbar's  Lament.  And  if  a  cer- 
tain Huchieson,  or  'Huchown  of 
the  Awle  Ryale,'  mentioned  in 
terms  of  high  praise  by  Wyntoun, 
be  a  Scotsman,  and  another  than 
'Clerk  of  Tranent,'  then  three 
other  alliterative  romances  were 


43 

the  work  of  a  Scotsman,  although 
of  these  only  The  Pystyll  of  Swete 
Susan  has  been  identified  beyond 
dispute.  Huchown,  it  has  been 
conjectured,  is  the  'gude  Sir  Hew 
of  Eglintoun,'  mentioned  in  Dun- 
bar's Lament,  and  identified  by 
some  with  Sir  Kew,  Lord  of  EgHn- 
ton  (d.  1376).  This  identification 
has  also  been  rendered  more  prob- 
able by  the  evidence  which  Mr. 
George  Neilson  has  adduced  in  his 
Huchown  of  the  A  wle  Ryale  (1902). 
The  earliest  work  in  the  Scottish 
vernacular  that  has  retained  a 
certain  popularity  down  to  the 
present  time  is  the  Bruce  of  John 
Barbour,  in  the  octosyllabic 
couplet;  but  both  it  and  the 
much  later  and  poetically  much 
inferior  Chronicle  of  Andrew  of 
Wyntoun  (fl.  c.  1395-1424)  are  now 
mainly  of  interest  from  their 
historical  theme.  Of  slightly 
later  date  than  Wyntoun  was 
King  James  I.,  to  whom,  if  he  was 
the  author  of  The  Kingis  Quair, 
may  probably  be  attributed  the 
beginnings  of  the  Chaucerian 
vogue  in  Scotland,  and  who,  if 
he  wrote  Christis  Kirk  and  Pe- 
blis  to  the  Play,  was  also  an  ac- 
complished master  in  verse  of 
distinctively  northern  tradition. 
To  the  earlier  half  of  the  15th 
century  belong  probably  those 
burlesques  of  the  old  romances. 
The  Taill  of  Rauf  Coilzear, 
Cokelhies  Sow,  King  Berdok,  and 
The  Gyre  Carling.  But  the 
author  of  none  of  tl  lese  is  known; 
and  the  outstanding  name  next 
in  date  after  James  I.  is  Blind 
Harry,  who,  though  sharing  in 
the^  Chaucerian  influence  of  the 
period,  was  nevertheless,  as  he 
himself  confesses,  only  a  'burel' 
or  unlearned  man,  and  not,  as 
usually  was  the  case  with  the 
Scottish  makers,  an  educated  ec- 
clesiastic. 

The  more  distinguished  of  the 
makers  who  died  before  1506  are 
commemorated  in  Dunbar's  La- 
ment. Five  pieces  in  the  Banna- 
tyne  MS.,  including  the  humorous 
Wooing  of  J  ok  and  Jynny,  are, 
on  doubtful  authority,  ascribed 
to  John  Clerk.  Sir  Richard  Hol- 
land (fl.  1482)  is  known  by  his 
curious  political  allegory  The 
Howldlt,  in  the  old  alliterative 
romance  stave.  To  Sir  Patrick 
ohnstone  (d.  c.  1494)  a  mor- 
idly  mournful  piece  in  the 
French  octave,  The  Thrie  Deid 
Pows,  is  ascribed.  Of  Mersar, 
whose  'lively'  love  verses  Dun- 
bar specially  eulogizes,  we  have 
three  examples,  and  they  quite 
corroborate  Dunbar's  opinion. 
One  of  the  Roulls  mentioned  by 
Dunbar — but  whether  he  of  Aber- 
deen or  his  'gentle'  namesake  of 
Corstorphine  it  is  impossible  to 
say — is  represented  by  a  quaint 
example  of  invective,  The  Curs- 
ing of  Sir  John  Rowlis  upon  the 
Sielaris  of  his  Fowlis.  Quentin 


Scotland 

Schaw  (d.  c.  1504),  a  cousin  of 
Dunbar's  rival  Kennedy,  is  now 
known  only  as  the  author  of  the 
shrewdly  humorous  Advyce  to 
a  Courtier.  It  is  very  evident, 
both  from  surviving  specimens  of 
verse,  the  authorship  of  which 
can  still  be  traced,  as  well  as 
from  such  anonymous  pieces  as 
The  Murning  Maiden,  O  Lusty 
May,  and  When  Flora  had  ourfret 
the  Firth,  that  the  general  stand- 
ard of  excellence  among  the  poets 
of  this  period  was  exceptionally 
high.  Of  the  makers  before 
Dunbar  there  is,  however,  if  we 
except  James  I.,  only  one  of  out- 
standing individuality  and  merit 
— Robert  Henryson.  The  fact 
that  so  many  of  his  pieces  have 
been  preserved  tells,  of  course,  in 
his  favor;  but  this  was  probably 
due  to  his  greater  repute  among 
his  contemporaries.  Like  the 
earlier  author  of  the  Kingis 
Quair,  he.  was  an  ardent  disciple 
of  Chaucer;  but  even  in  pieces  of 
a  specially  Chaucerian  cast,  and 
in  his  fables  and  many  of  his 
miscellaneous  pieces,  his  Scottish 
individuality  is  very  apparent. 
But  Henryson  manifests  neither 
the  varied  mastery  of  metre  .nor 
the  poetic  robustness  of  Dunbar, 
who,  although  accepting  Chaucer 
as  his  master,  and  closely  follow- 
ing Chaucer's  methods  in  his  more 
allegorical  pieces,  was  not  only 
specially  versed  in  contemporary 
French  poetry,  but  utihzed  all  his 
models  for  the  perfecting  of  a 
poetic  individuality  of  his  own — 
an  individuality  so  strong  that 
it  entitles  him  to  be  regarded  as 
the  most  striking  British  poet  be- 
tween Chaucer  and  Spenser.  Of 
Dunbar's  rival,  Walter  Kennedy 
(?1460-?1507).  only  a  few  pieces 
survive,  including  his  part  in  the 
famous  Flyting  between  the  two 
poets.  They  indicate  that,  ^  if 
Kennedy  lacked  Dunbar's  vig- 
orous originality,  he  was  never- 
theless a  very  skilful  and  grace- 
ful metrist.  Another,  somewhat 
later,  contemporary  of  Dunbar 
was  Gavin  Douglas,  who,  how- 
ever, represents  mainly  the  de- 
cline of  political  allegory,  and 
whose  chief  title  to  remembrance 
is  his  clever,  if  too  labored, 
translation  of  Virgil's  Jineid. 
Still  further  evidence  of  the  de- 
cline of  purely  poetic  character- 
istics is  manifest  in  the  work  of 
Sir  David  Lindsay,  who  employed 
verse  mainly  for  the  inculcation 
of  social  and  ecclesiastical  re- 
forms. In  addition  there  were 
many  names  of  lesser  merit. 
Among  them  were  Stewarte,  who, 
besides  several  effusive  amatory 
pieces,  has  left  some  rude  satires 
on  tailors;  Steil,  the  author  of 
The  Ryng  of  the  Roy  Robert  and 
two  'aureate'  love  poems;  Flem- 
ing, who  is  represented,  by  a 
clever  skit  on  evil  wives,  entitled 
Be   Merry^   Brethren;   and  Sir 


Scotland 

John  Moffat,  to  whom  some  have 
assigned  the  famous  tale  of  The 
Wyje  of  A  uchtirmychty.  To 
about  this  period  we  may  also 
assign  the  anonymous  but  hu- 
morous tales,  The  Freiris  of  Ber- 
wick (attributed  by  some  to  Dun- 
bar) and  The  Three  Preistis  of 
Peblis,  and  such  excellent  pieces 
as  Quhy  sowld  nocht  Allane 
Honorit  he  (the  oldest  known 
original  of  the  ballads  on  John 
Barleycorn),  Tayis  Bank  (sup- 
posed to  commemorate  Margaret 
Drummond,  the  mistress  of  James 
IV.,  the  elaborate  In  May  in  a 
Morning,  and  a  Song  of  A  bsence. 
But  the  most  characteristic  lyric 
of  the  period  seems  to  have  per- 
ished, though  the  features  of  a 
few  may  be  traced  in  the  paro- 
dies preserved  in  The  Gude  and 
Godhe  Ballates,  used  in  the  early 
religious  services  of  the  reform- 
ers. 

After  the  reformation  merely 
secular  poetry  came  under  a  ban, 
although  the  patronage  of  James 
VI.  encouraged  its  cultivation 
among  a  select  few,  and  apart 
from  this  the  influences  of  the 
old  literature  could  not  at  once 
be  wholly  swept  away.  Thus  Sir 
Richard  Maitland  continued  to 
pen  occasional  satires  on  the  fol- 
lies of  his  time.  Moreover,  the 
English  literary  revival  had  be- 
gun to  affect  Scotland:  Alexan- 
der Scott  and  Alexander  Mont- 
gomerie,  for  instance,  show  closer 
assimilation  to  the  English,  and 
may  fitly  be  called  the  last  of 
the  old  makers.  The  drift  of 
the  national  sentiment  is  repre- 
sented mainly  in  pious  parodies 
of  the  old  songs,  such  as  The 
Gude  and  Godlie  Ballates,  and 
various  satirical  pieces  written  in 
the  interests  of  the  ecclesiastical 
reformers. 

Among  the  older  Scottish  speci- 
mens of  vernacular  prose  is  the 
Scots  version  of  Wycliff's  New 
Testament,  and  the  translations 
of  Sir  Gilbert  of  the  Haye.  The 
older  vernacular  is  well  repre- 
sented in  John  Bellenden's  trans- 
lation (1536)  of  Hector  Boece's 
Latin  History  of  Scotland,  and 
in  that  curious  tractate  The 
Complaynt  of  Scotland  (1549) — 
an  adaptation  for  Scottish  pur- 
poses of  Le  Quadrilogue  Invectif 
of  Alain  Chartier — in  which  an 
attempt  is  made  to  add  to  the 
vividness  of  the  descriptions  by 
means  of  alliteration  and  conso- 
nance. The  Chronicle  of  Robert 
Lindsay  of  Pitscottie,  though  con- 
fused in  its  dates  and  untrust- 
worthy in  many  particulars,  is 
a  remarkably  graphic  narrative, 
both  its  style  and  its  version  of 
historical  facts  being  largely  bor- 
rowed from  the  old  ballads.  But 
even  the  Scots  tongue  of  Pits- 
cottie, or  his  transcribers,  has  an 
English  coloring;  and  this  is 
still  more  manifest  in  the  Scots 


44 

tractates  of  George  Buchanan, 
and  in  those  of  his  great  opponent. 
Bishop  John  Leslie,  whose  Scots 
History  of  Scotland,  written  for 
Mary  Stuart's  perusal,  is,  however, 
couched  in  a  purer  vernacular. 
Xhe  tractates  of  the  CathoKc 
controversialist,  Ninian  Winzet 
(1518-92),  are  not  without  ironi- 
cal vigor-  but  the  language, 
though  colored  by  Scottish  words 
and  phrases,  is  mainly  English. 
His  opponent,  John  Knox,  em- 
ployeci  a  picturesque  combina- 
tion of  Scots  and  English,  both 
in  his  unique  History  of  the 
Reformation  in  Scotland  and_  in 
his  political  and  ecclesiastical 
manifestoes;  and  in  the  History 
of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland  by  David 
Calderwood  (1574-1625),  and  the 
prose  works  of  James  vi.,  before 
his  accession  to  the  English 
throne,  the  modifying  influences 
of  English  are  still  more  apparent. 
The  vernacular  prose  is  also  rep- 
resented by  diaries,  journals,  and 
memoirs,  such  as  the  minutely 
graphic  Autobiography  and  Diary 
of  James  Melville,  and  the  Me- 
moirs of  his  own  Life  by  Sir 
James  Melville  of  Hahill. 

With  the  accession  of  James  vi. 
to  the  English  throne  Scottish 
vernacular  verse  almost  ceased  to 
be  cultivated.  But  apart  from 
the  balladists,  the  chief  Scottish 
poets  of  the  early  part  of  the 
century  wrote  in  English,  the 
earliest  poet  of  the  revived  ver- 
nacular muse  being  Robert  Sem- 
pill,  whose  Life  and  Death  of 
Habhie  Simson  is  in  the  six-line 
stave  afterwards  so  variously 
and  brilliantly  utilized  by  Burns. 
Half  a  century  or  more  later 
the  chief  names  are  Lady  Grisell 
Baillie  (1665-1746),  authoress  of 
the  mournful  and  romantic  W ere- 
na  my  heart  licht;  Lady  Eliza- 
beth Wardlaw  (1677-1727),  au- 
thoress of  Hardyknute;  and 
WilHam  Hamilton  of  Gilbert- 
field.  In  1706-11  was  published 
Watson's  Choice  Collection  oj 
Scottish  Poems. 

But  the  main  agent  in  the  ver- 
nacular revival  was  the  enter- 
prising Allan  Ramsay.  His  own 
poetic  efi'orts  won  him  much 
fame,  but  he  probably  exercised 
greater  influence  as  editor  and 
publisher  of  the  Tea-table  Mis- 
cellany and  of  The  Evergreen. 
Among  Ramsay's  contemporaries 
were  his  poetic  correspondent, 
William  Hamilton  of  Gilbert- 
field;  Alexander  Pennecuick 
(d.  1720),  sortie  of  whose  vernac- 
ular pieces  vie  in  grossness  with 
the  rankest  of  Ramsay's  vernacu- 
lar broadsides ;  Dr.  Alexander 
Pennecuick  (1665-1722),  author  of 
Truth's  Travels;  Sir  John  Clerk 
of  Penicuik  (1684-1755),  author 
of  the  excellent  Merry  may 
the  Maid  be  that  Marries  the 
Miller;  and  William  Hamilton 
of     Bangor.    Somewhat  later 


Scotland 

was  Alexander  Ross  (1699-1784), 
author  of  a  rather  dull  pastoral, 

Helenore,  or  the  Fortunate  Shep- 
herdess, in  the  Aberdeenshire  dia- 
lect, and  of  several  vivaciously 
witty  songs,  such  as,  The  Bridal 
O't  and  Wooed  and  Married 
and  a'.  The  poets  of  the  im- 
mediately succeeding  generation 
were  chiefly  song-writers,  the 
most  prolific  being  John  Skinner 
(1721-1807);  and  among  the  best- 
known  songs  of  the  period  are 
the  Jacobite  O  send  Lewie  Gor- 
don Hame,  by  Father  Alexander 
Geddes;  Auld  Robin  Gray,  by 
Lady  Anne  Barnard;  versions  of 
The  Flowers  of  the  Forest,  by  Jane 
Elliott  and  Mrs.  Cockburn ;  Z-o^7e 
o'  Buchan,  and  There's  nae  Luck 
aboot  the  Hoose.  Apart  from 
song-writers,  the  chief  Scottish 
poet  between  Ramsay  and  Burns 
was  Robert  Fergusson,  whose  de- 
scriptive pieces  in  the  vernacu- 
lar, though  modelled  on  those  of 
Ramsay,  possess  a  wit  which,  if 
less  broadly  humorous,  is  more 
subtle  and  incisive.  But  the 
poetic  vernacular  revival  cul- 
minates in  Robert  Burns.  (See 
Burns.)  Poetry  of  a  certain 
individuality,  and  possessing  some- 
thing  of  the  old  (vernacular 
flavor,  was  accomplished  by  sev- 
eral of  his  successors,  such  as  the 
Baroness  Nairne,  James  Hogg, 
Robert  Tannahill,  Sir  Alexander 
BiDswell,  Alexander  Cunning- 
ham, Hector  Macneill,  Elizabeth 
Hamilton,  Joanna  Baillie,  Wil- 
liam Laidlaw,  WiUiam  Thorn. 
William  Nicholson,  Robert  Gil- 
fillan,  and  James  Ballantyne; 
and  the  old  Scottish  art  is  still 
essayed  by  numbers  of  versifiers. 
But  while,  even  in  the  case  of 
verse-writers  of  such  accomplish- 
ment as  'Surfaceman,'  J.  B.  Sel- 
kirk, J.  Logie  Robertson,  and 
R.  L.  Stevenson,  the  vernacular 
art  savors  too  much  of  mere 
reminiscence  of  the  older  writers, 
the  work  of  the  majority  of  the 

goetasters  is  hopelessly  tainted 
y  eccentric  vulgarity. 
See  Irving's  Lives  o}  Scottish 
Writers  (1839),  and  History  of 
Scottish  Poetry  (1861);  Ross's 
Early  Scottisli  History  and  Liter- 
ature (1884);  Professor  Walker's 
Three  Centnt  ies  of  Scottish  Litera- 
ture (1893);  T.  F.  Henderson's 
Scottish  Vernacular  Literature 
(1898);  Graham's  Scottish  Men 
of  Letters  in  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury (1901);  G.  Gregory  Smith's 
Specimens  of  Middle  Scots  (1902); 
and  J.  H.  Millar's  Literary  His- 
tory of  Scotland  (1903).  See  also, 
especially  for  the  older  literature, 
the  publications  of  the  Scottish 
Text  Society. 

Scotland,  Church  of.  See 
Presbyterians. 

Scotland,  Episcopal  Church 
IN.   See  Church,  Anglican. 

Scotland,  Free  Church  of. 
See  Presbyterians. 


Scotland 


KFP 


45 


Scott 


Scotland,  United  Free 
Church  of.  See  Presbyteri- 
ans. 

Scotland  Yard,  a  group  of 
buildings  in  Whitehall,  London, 
which  was  the  headquarters  of 
the  Metropolitan  Police  till 
1890,  when  they  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  Thames  Embank- 
ment. New  Scotland  Yard  is  the 
designation  of  the  present  head- 
quarters. 

Scott,  Austin  (1848-1922), 
American  educator,  was  born  in 
Maumee,  Ohio.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Yale  in  1869,  subse- 
quently studying  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Leipzig  and  Berlin.  He 
was  for  a  time  (1872-3)  private 
secretary  to  the  historian  George 
Bancroft,  whom  he  assisted  in 
preparing  the  History  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  He  was  president  of 
Johns  Hopkins  University 
(1891-1906). 

Scott,  Charles  (1733-1813), 
American  soldier,  was  born  in 
Cumberland  county,  Va.  He 
served  in  the  French  and  Indian 
War  and  in  the  Continental 
Army  in  the  Revolutionary  War. 
He  commanded  a  regiment  at 
Trenton;  in  1777  became  briga- 
dier general;  and  in  1780  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  British  at 
the  surrender  of  Charleston.  He 
served  as  brigadier  general  of 
volunteers  in  the  expeditions  of 
St.  Clair  and  Wayne  against  the 
northwestern  Indians ;  was  gov- 
ernor of  Kentucky  in_  1808-12, 
and  did  good  service  in  raising 
volunteers  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  with  England. 

Scott,  Clement  Williams 
(1841-1904),  English  dramatic 
critic  and  author,  was  born  in 
Hoxton,  London.  In  1860  he 
entered  the  War  Office,  from 
which  he  retired  in  1879.  In 
1872  he  became  dramatic  critic 
of  the  Daily  Telegraph — a  posi- 
tion which  he  held  till  within  a 
few  years  of  his  death.  His 
works  include  Lays  and  Lyrics 
(1888)  ;  In  the  Garden  of  Sleep 
(1892);  The  Land  of  Flowers 
(1892)  ;  lona  (1896)  ;  Sisters  of 
the  Sea  (1897);  The  Life  of 
William  Terris  (1898)  ;  The 
Drama  of  Yesterday  and  To-day 
(1899);  Ellen  Terry  (1900). 
He  also  adapted,  or  helped  to 
adapt,  several  French  plays — 
e.g.,  Diplomacy,  Odette.  In  1900 
he  founded  the  Free  Lance. 

Scott,  David  (1806-49), 
Scottish  painter,  etcher,  and 
writer,  was  born  in  Edinburgh. 
In  1828  he  exhibited  at  the  Scot- 
tish Academy  The  Hopes  of 
Early  Genius  Dispelled  by 
Death,  which  he  followed  with 
Fingal  and  The  Death  of  Sappho. 
In  1831  he  published  six  designs 
in  outline  entitled  Monograms 
of  Man,  and  commenced  a  re- 
markable series  of  outline  illus- 


trations to  Coleridge's  Ancient 
Mariner,  published  in  1837. 
During  a  tour  in  Italy  in  1832 
he  produced  The  Vintager,  and 
after  his  return  to  Scotland 
painted  a  large  number  of  his- 
torical pictures,  of  which  Queen 
Elizabeth  at  the  Globe  Theatre 
and  Traitor's  Gate  are  the  most 
notable.  In  1841  he  commenced 
his  great  work  Vasco  da  Gama, 
now  in  Trinity  House,  Leith. 
His  portrait  of  Ralph  Waldo 
Emerson  is  in  the  public  library 
at  Concord,  Mass. 

Scott,  Duncan  Campbell 
(1862—  ),  Canadian  author 
and  public  official,  was  born  in 
Ottawa,  Ontario.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Stanstead  College,  en- 
tered the  Canadian  Civil  Service 
in  1879,  and  advanced  rapidly 
through  all  g;rades  of  the  serv- 
ice, becoming  deputy  superin- 
tendent-general of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Indian  Affairs  in  1913. 
He  was  joint-editor  of  the  series 
of  historical  biography  The 
Makers  of  Canada,  and  was  au- 
thor of  The  Magic  House  and 
Other  Poems  (1893)  ;  In  the 
Village  of  Viger  (1896);  La- 
bour and  the  Angel  (1898)  ; 
New  World  Lyrics  and  Ballads 
(1905);  John  Graves  Slmcoe 
(1905);  Lundy's  Lane  (1916); 
Beauty  and  Life  (1921). 

Scott,  Sir  George  Gilbert 
(181 1-78), _  English  architect, 
was  born  in  Gawcott,  Bucking- 
hamshire. Having  in  1840  come 
under  the  influence  of  Pugin,  he 
soon  became  the  foremost  repre- 
sentative of  the  Gothic  school, 
and  found  his  life-work  as  an 
architectural  restorer.  His  first 
restoration  was  Chesterfield 
church,  and  his  first  great  origi- 
nal work  the  church  of  St.  Nich- 
olas in  Hamburg.  Ely,  West- 
minster Abbey,  Chester,  Edin- 
burgh, Rochester,  Gloucester, 
and  Exeter  are  among  the  cathe- 
drals which  he  restored.  Among 
his  secular  buildings  were  the 
Albert  Memorial  in  Hyde  Park, 
London,  the  government  of- 
fices  in  Whitehall,  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity, and  St.  Pancras  railway 
station  and  hotel  in  London.  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academi- 
cian (1861),  and  knighted 
(1872). 

Scott,  Hugh  Lenox  _( 1853- 
1934),  an  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Danville,  Ky.  He  was 
graduated  from_  the  tj.  S.  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1876,  serving 
in  that  year  in  the  Sioux  expe- 
dition, and,  in  1877,  in  the  Nez 
Perce  expedition.  From  1892  to 
1897  he  enlisted  and  command- 
ed the  Kiowa  and  Comanche 
Indians  of  the  7th  Cavalry.  He 
was  chief-of-staff  of  Cuba 
(1898-1902) ;  governor  of  the 
Sulu  Archipelago  where  he  in- 
stituted civil  government  (1903- 
§}  ;  commandant  of  the  U.  S. 


Military  Academy  (1906-10)  ; 
and  from  1908  to  1915  arbiter 
in  various  Indian  disputes.  He 
was  chief  of  staff  of  the  U.  S. 
Army  from  1914  to  1917,  and  in 
the  latter  year  was  a  member  of 
the  U.  S.  Commission  to  Rus- 
sia, after  which  he  served  in  the 
First  World  War  as  commander 
of  the  78th  Division.  He  was 
made  a  brigadier  general  in 
1913,  and  major  general  in  1914, 
and  in  1919  was  awarded  the 
Distinguished  Service  Medal. 

Scott,  Hugh  S.  See  Merri- 
man,  Henry  Seton. 

Scott,  Irving  Murray 
(1837—1903),  American  engineer 
and  naval  architect,  was  born  in 
Hebron  Mills,  Md.  In  1858  he 
became  a  draughtsman  in  the 
Union  Iron  Works,  San  Fran- 
cisco, of  which  he  was  superin- 
tendent in  1863—5,  and  general 
manager,  as  well  as  a  member  of 
the  firm,  in  1865-1903.  He  built 
the  Oregon,  Olympia,  Wiscon- 
sin, Ohio,  and  other  United 
States  naval  vessels,  and  made 
various  mechanical  inventions. 

Scott,  James  Brown  (1866- 
1943),  American  lawyer  and  ed- 
ucator, was  born  in  Kincardine, 
Ont.,  Canada.  He  was  graduated 
from  Harvard  in  1890,  special- 
izing there  in  international  law 
(1891-4)  and  in  1894  studied  in 
Berlin,  Heidelberg,  and  Paris. 
He  organized  the  present  law 
department  of  the  University  of 
Southern  California  and  was  its 
dean  (1896-9)  ;  was  dean  of  the 
College  of  Law  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois  (1899-1903),  and 
was  professor  of  law  at  Colum- 
bia Law  School,  the  University 
of  Chicago,  and  George  Wash- 
ington University  (1903-11). 
He  was  solicitor  for  the  Depart- 
ment of  State  (1906-10),  and 
was  named  a  delegate  to  The 
Hague  Peace  Conference  of 
1907 ;  counsel  for  the  United 
States  _  in  the_  North  Atlantic 
Fisheries  Arbitration  at  The 
Hague  in  1910;  technical  dele- 
gate to  the  Paris  Peace  Confer- 
ence (1919)  ;  and  legal  adviser 
to  the  Washington  Conference 
on  Limitation  of  Armaments 
(1921). 

Scott,  John  Morin  (1730- 
84),  American  patriot,  was  born 
in  New  York  City  and  was  grad- 
uated from  Yale  (1746).  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Sons 
of  Liberty  (q.  v.),  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Provincial  Con- 
gress and  of  the  New  York  Gen- 
eral Committee  in  1775.  As  a 
brigadier  general  he  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Long  Island  in 
1776.  He  was  subsequently  sec- 
retary of  the  State  of  New  York 
(1778-9)  and  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  (1780-83). 

Scott,  Julian  (1846-1901), 
American  artist,  was  born  in 
Johnston,  Vt,  He  served  in  the 


Scott 


KFP 


46 


Scott 


Federal  army  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  subsequently  studied 
at  the  New  York  National  Acad- 
emy of  design,  and  under  Em- 
manuel Leutze.  His  subjects, 
taken  chiefly  from  incidents  in 
the  Civil  War,  include :  Rear 
Guard  at  White  Oak  Swamp  (in 
the  Union  League  Club,  New 
York  City)  ;  Capture  of  Andre 
(1876)  ;  In  the  Cornfield  at  An- 
tictam  (1879);  Charge  at  Pe- 
tersburg (1882);  The  Blue  and 
the  Gray  (1886).  He  was  elected 
an  associate  of  the  National 
Academy  in  1870. 

Scott,  Michael  (c.  1175- 
c.  1234),  Scottish  mathematician 
and  scholar,  was  educated  at  the 
universities  of  Oxford,  Paris, 
Bologna,  Palermo,  and  Toledo, 
and  as  an  astrologer  became  at- 
tached to  the  court  of  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  ii,  for  whom  he 
translated  from  the  Arabic  some 
of  the  works  of  Aristotle  with 
the  commentaries  of  Averrhoes. 
His  great  learning  won  for  him 
the  reputation  of  a  magician,  and 
numerous  legends  are  associated 
with  his  name.  There  is  a  tra- 
ditional grave  at  Melrose  Abbey 
around  which  Sir  Walter  Scott 
wrote  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Min- 
strel. 

Scott,  Michael  (1789- 
1835),  Scottish  author,  was  born 
in  Glasgow  where  he  established 
himself  in  business  in  1822  after 
a  number  of  years  spent  in  the 
West  Indies.  He  wrote  two  sea 
stories  which  achieved  lasting 
popularity — Tom  Cringle's  Log 
that  first  appeared  in  Black- 
wood's Magazine  in  1829  and 
The  Cruise  of  the  Midge,  pub- 
lished in  1836. 

Scott,  Richard  William 
(1825-1913),  Canadian  public 
official,  was  born  in  Prescott, 
Ontario,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1848.  He  served  in  the 
Canadian  Parliament  in  1857- 
63,  and  in  1867  was  elected  to 
the  Legislative  Assembly  of  On- 
tario, of  which  he  was  chosen 
speaker  in  1871.  He  became 
Secretary  of  State  in  1874,  and 
on  the  defeat  of  the  Liberal  Gov- 
ernment in  1878,  leader  of  the 
Opposition  in  the  Senate,  which 
position  he  retained  until  1896. 
From  1896  to  1908  he  was  again 
Secretary  of  State.  He  fathered 
the  bill  granting  the  Roman 
Catholics  of  the  province  the 
right  to  establish  schools,  which 
would  derive  benefit  from  the 
general  taxes ;  and  the  'Scott 
Act,'  conceding  to  municipalities 
the  right  to  enact  local  option. 

Scott,  Robert  (1811-87), 
English  clergyman  and  lexicog- 
rapher, was  born  in  Bondleigh, 
Devonshire  and  educated  at  Ox- 
ford. He  became  a  fellow  of 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1835, 
and  master,  in  opposition  to 
Jowett,  in  1854.  He  resigned  the 


mastership  in  1870,  and  was 
appointed  dean  of  Rochester. 
The  work  of  his  life  was  the 
Greek-English  Lexicon,  begun 
in  1836. 

Scott,  Sir  Robert  Falcon 
(1868-1912),  British  officer  and 
explorer,  was  born  in  Outlands, 
Devonport.  He  entered  the  navy 
as  a  cadet  on  the  Britannia  in 
1881,  and  in  1891  was  appointed 
torpedo  lieutenant  on  the  Vul- 
can. After  serving  in  various 
positions,  he  was  promoted,  in 
1900,  to  the  rank  of  commander, 
and  that  same  year  headed  the 
National  Antarctic  Expedition 
to  the  South  Pole.  On  his  return 
to  England  in  1904  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  captain, 
and  in  1909  was  made  naval 
assistant  to  the  second  sea  lord 
of  the  Admiralty,  but  resigned 
in  1910  to  prepare  for  a  second 
expedition  to  the  South  Pole, 
known  as  the  British  Antarctic 
Expedition.  Captain  Scott  sailed 
with  his  party  from  New  Zea- 
land in  November,  1910,  and 
reached  the  South  Pole  in  Jan- 
uary, 1912,  five  weeks  later  than 
Amundsen,  the  Norwegian  ex- 
plorer, but  he  and  his  compan- 
ions perished  of  starvation  and 
exposure  on  the  return  journey, 
March,  1912. 

Scott,  Robert  Kingston 
(1826-1900),  American  soldier 
and  Reconstruction  governor  of 
South  Carolina,  was  born  in 
Armstrong  county.  Pa.  He 
served  throughout  the  Civil  War 
as  lieutenant  colonel  and  colonel 
of  an  Ohio  regiment  in  the  Army 
of  the  Tennessee,  was  assistant 
commissioner  of  the  Freedman's 
Bureau  in  South  Carolina,  for 
three  years  after  the  war,  and  in 
1868  was  elected  governor  by 
the  Negro  vote.  He  was  re- 
elected in  1870.  During  his  two 
administrations  Ku-Klux-Klan 
disorders  were  rampant,  and 
only  the  power  of  the  Federal 
government  prevented  his  over- 
throw by  a  popular  uprising. 

Scott,  Thomas  (1747-1821), 
English  Biblical  commentator, 
was  born  in  Braytoft.  Lincoln- 
shire, and  was  a  farm  laborer  till 
1773,  when  he  became  a  priest. 
In  1781  he  succeeded  John  New- 
ton as  curate  of  Olney.  In  1779 
he  published  an  autobiographic 
record,  The  Force  of  Truth. 
Later  he  moved  to  a  London  cu- 
racy, and  was  induced  to  under- 
take the  Commentary  on  the  Bi- 
ble, on  which  his  fame  rests. 

Scott,  Thomas  Alexander 
(1824-81),  American  railroad 
manager,  was  born  in  London, 
Pa.  In  1851  he  entered  the  serv- 
ice of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
Company  as  a  clerk,  winning 
rapid  promotion  until  in  1859  he 
was  made  vice-president.  In  1861 
he  was  appointed  to  the  staff  of 
Gen.   Andrew   G.    Curtin,  and 


with  the  aid  of  U.  S.  troops 
opened  traffic  on  the  Washing- 
ton and  Philadelphia  railroad. 
At  the  end  of  1861  he  was  com- 
missioned colonel  of  volunteers 
and  placed  in  control  of  the 
government's  railroad  and  tele- 
graph systems.  In  1861-2  he  was 
assistant  secretary  for  war,  and 
did  valuable  work  in  reorganiz- 
ing transportation.  In  1871  he 
became  president  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Company.  He  was  pres- 
ident of  the  Union  Pacific  Rail- 
road Company  in  1871-2,  and 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
Company  in  1874-80,  and  was 
founder  and  first  president  of 
the  Texas  Pacific. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter  (1771- 
1832),  Scottish  novelist  and 
poet,  was  born  in  Edinburgh.  By 
paternal  descent  he  was  a  cadet 
of  the  house  of  Harden,  an  old 
border  family  descended  from 
the  lairds  of  Buccleuch,  while  on 
his  mother's  side  he  was  con- 
nected with  the  houses  of  Ruth- 
erford, Haliburton,  and  Swin- 
ton.  At  Sandy-Knowe,  his  grand- 
father's farm  in  Roxburghshire, 
the  frail  and  imaginative  child 
first  heard  the  ballads  and  leg- 
ends of  the  Border.  In  1778  he 
entered  the  high  school  of 
Edinburgh,  where  he  revelled  in 
poetry,  history,  and  romances, 
yet  gave  little  promise  as  a  stu- 
dent. At  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  where  he  spent  two 
years  (1783-5),  he  continued  his 
extensive  reading  in  addition  to 
his  study  of  law. 

Admitted  to  the  bar  in  1792, 
he  attained  fair  success,  but  de- 
voted his  leisure  moments  to 
writing,  his  first  publication,  ap- 
pearing in  1796,  a  translation  of 
two  of  Burger's  ballads — Le- 
nore  and  The  Wild  Huntsman. 
The  following  year  he  married 
Charlotte  Charpentier,  daughter 
of  a  French  family  resident  in 
England.  In  1799  his  translation 
of  Goethe's  Gots  von  Berlichin- 
gen  was  published,  and  his  ap- 
pointment as  sheriff  of  Selkirk- 
shire gave  him  leisure  for  his 
literary  work. 

In  1802  two  volumes  of  the 
Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Bor- 
der appeared,  and  Scott  won  rec- 
ognition among  literary  men, 
while  with  The  Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel  which  followed  in  1805, 
he  became  the  most  popular  poet 
of  the  day.  At  this  time  he  en- 
tered the  firm  of  James  Ballan- 
tyne  and  Co.,  a  printing  and 
publishing  concern  ;  the  venture 
did  not  prosper,  however,  and 
the  proceeds  of  Marmion  (1808), 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake  (1810), 
Rokeby  (1813),  and  The  Lord 
of  the  Isles  (1815)  went  toward 
cancelling  accumulating  debts. 

Following  a  misunderstanding 
between  his  friend  Jeffrey  (who 
reviewed  Marmion   in  a  petty 


Scott 

spirit)  and  himself,  and  a  quarrel 
with  Constable,  Scott  helped  to 
start  the  Quarterly  Review,  in 
which  he  wrote  much.  Editions 
of  Dryden  and  Swift  also  occupied 
him,  and  the  Edinburgh  Register, 
in  which  he  lost  £1,000  yearly. 
There  were  several  financial  crises, 
with  difficulty  surmounted;  but 
Scott,  among  all  these  labors  and 
those  of  two  official  positions, 
the  sheriffship  and  a  clerkship 
in  the  Court  of  Sessions,  was 
happy  and  robust.  He  knew 
ever>'body,  Wordsworth  and  Sou- 
they  among  men  of  letters;  and 
became  the  friend  of  Byron, 
although  the  latter  had  eclipsed 
him  in  poetical  popularity.  Words- 
worth and  Coleridge  he  never 
tired  of  quoting  and  prais- 
ing, wholly  without  return,  in 
early  days,  from  these  higher 
souls.  The  enormous  vogue  of 
the  first  poems  declined,^  partly 
through  the  abundance  of  imita- 
tions. But  Scott,  having  bought 
land  on  the  banks  of  the  Tweed, 
began  to  build  Abbotsford,  and 
collect  pieces  of  soil  with  historical 
or  legendary  associations.  Where 
legends  did,  not  exist  he  invented 
them,  and  so  Abbotsford  became 
'an  unsubstantial  fairy  place,' 
the  library,  armory,  and  other 
collections  being  as  costly  as  the 
haunted  hills  and  burns,  and  the 
laird's  hospitality  adding  to  the 
outlay.  Here  Washington  Irving 
and  George  Ticknor,  among  oth- 
ers, were  his  guests. 

By  a  chance  Scott  found,  in  1814, 
the  unfinished  MS.  of  Waverley 
(begun  in  1805),  and  wrote  two 
volumes  in  three  weeks,  went  on  a 
tour  round  the  Scottish  coasts,  and 
returned  to  find  that  the  'Great 
Unknown,'  the  author  of  Waver- 
ley, was  famous.  Not  till  after  his 
ruin,  in  1826,  did  Scott  acknowl- 
edge the  authorship  of  the  im- 
mortal series  of  romances  from 
Waverley  to  Woodstock.  About 
twenty  people  knew,  all  the  world 
guessed;  but,  in  Rob  Roy^  Scott  had 
accidentally  given  proof  positive. 
He  put  into  the  mouth  of  Bailie 
Nicol  Jarvie  a  long  account  of  the 
condition  of  the  Highlands  in 
1715,  derived  from  a  Gartmore  MS. 
Presently  Jamieson  published,  in 
Burt's  Letters  from  the  North,  the 
MS.  itself,  lent  to  him  'by  Mr. 
Walter  Scott.'  And  nobody  put 
the  facts  together!  Yet  no  person 
of  sense  doubted  that  the  'Great 
Unknown'  was  Scott.  The  plot  of 
Marmion  is  practically  the  plot 
of  Ivanhoe.  In  1820  he  was 
created  a  baronet, but  the  laureate- 
ship  he  had  declined,  supposing 
that  it  was  worth  fAOO  a  year, 
and  that  Southey's  need  was 
greater  than  his  own.  Moreover, 
he  did  not  like  the  idea  of  being 
loyal  to  order. 

Scott  was  hardly  a  practical 
politician — a  party  man — despite 
his  Toryism.  His  whole  nature 
Vol.  XL— 4. 


was  filled  and  thrilled  by  the 
past;  the  past  was  his  inspira- 
tion, and  a  child  reading  the 
chapter  on  feudalism,  in  the 
Tales  of  a  Grandfather,  naturally 
remarks  that  feudalism  was  a 
very  good  thing;  and  so  its 
ideal  really  was.  Scott  believed 
in  that  ideal.  His  novels  not 
only  made  the  novel  paramount 
in     English     literature;  they 


^rry^'s  prayer 


Scott 

for  'one  hour  of 
•uhdee.^  Gladstone  (haturally  a 
Tory)  was  one  of  Scott's  devotees, 
and  is  reported  to  have  had  a 
peculiarly  high  admiration  for 
Kenilworth.  Cavalier  and  Jaco- 
bite as  Sir  Walter  was,  no  more 
impartial  pen  was  ever  employed 
on  history.  Dr.  M'Crie  detected 
some  errors,  in  point  of  detail,  in 
the  Covenanters  of  Old  Mortality; 


Sir  Walter  Scott. 
(From  the  painting  by  Raebum.) 


breathed  life  into  the  dry  bones 
of  history.  Froude  and  Macaulay 
descend  from  Scott  as  certainly 
as  Alexandre  Dumas  does;  and 
even  in  the  calm  pages  of  Raw- 
son  Gardiner  we  find  a  Montrose 
who,  but  for  Scott,  would  prob- 
ably have  been  designed  in  other 
colors.  Sir  Walter  carried  cap- 
tive even  Hazlitt,  who  loathed 
the  Tory,  but  loved  the  novelist. 
It  was  Scott  who  made  Words- 
worth and  Ruskin  join  in  Glen- 


but  the  general  fairness,  as  well 
as  the  humor,  of  the  various 
shades  and  degrees  of  the  Cove- 
nanting character,  are  unim- 
peachably  accurate.  In  the  Tales 
of  a  Grandfather  (1828),  though 
legend  is,  very  properly,  allowed 
her  proper  place,  Scott's  impar- 
tiality is  that  of  a  man  of  honor 
writing  for  a  child.  He  would 
not  undertake  a  Hfe  of  Queen 
Mary  Stuart,  because  his  judg- 
ment and  his  sentiment  w«re  at 


Scott 

odds.    His  Napoleon  is  a  hasty 

Eiece  of  drudgery,  toilsome  to  a 
roken  and  ruined  man,  and  his 
materials  were  not  copious.  But, 
everything  considered,  Scott  is 
fair  to  Napoleon. 

From  1817  onwards  his  health 
was  not  what  it  had  been.  About 
1818  he  did  not  expect  to  sur- 
vive,, and  The  Bride  of  Lammer- 
moor  was  dictated  in  the  midst  of 
suffering.  When  he  read  the 
book  he  did  not  remember  a  sin- 
gle circumstance  of  his  own 
creation;  merely  the  vague  legend 
which  his  mother  had  told.  The 
ruin  of  Hirst  brought  down  Con- 
stable, and  with  Constable  fell 
Scott,  in  1825-6.  But  he  wrote 
rapidly  at  Woodstock  and  at 
Napoleon  in  these  darkest  days, 
arid  composed  the  stirring  lyric 
of  Bonnie  Dundee,  Hencefor- 
ward h's  time — saddened  by  the 
long  illness  and  death  of  Lady 
Scott,  the  illness  and  death  of 
Hugh  Littlejohn,'  his  grandson, 
Lockhart's  boy — was  devoted  to 
repaying,  his  creditors.  Over  his 
waning  intellect  floated  dreams 
that  all  the  debts  were  paid.  At 
last  Count  Robert  o}  Paris  proved 
that  the  chords  of  the  harp  were 
shattered;  yet,  even  during  his 
voyage  to  Italy  in  1832,  the  weary 
hand  was  busy  with  a  last  ro- 
mance^TheKnights  of  Malta.  After 
a  brief  visit  at  Rome,  Scott  was 
again  smitten,  and  struggled  home 
to  die  within  the  sound  of  Tweed 
(Sep.  21,  1832).  The  brief  words 
in  which  Lockhart  describes  the 
closing  scene  are  among  the  most 
beautiful  passages  in  our  litera- 
ture—  Good-night,  Sir  Walter.' 
His  body  rests  by  the  Tweed  at 
Dryburgh  Abbey,  and  Lockhart 
lies  at  his  feet. 

The  goodness  and  the  greatness 
of  Scott  are  spontaneous,  irreflec- 
tive,  scarcely  conscious  fruits  of 
a  good  tree.  'He  never  blotted 
a  line,'  we  may  almost  say,  though 
we  may  share  Ben  Jonson's  wish 
as  to  Shakespeare,  that,  as  a 
matter  of  art,  he  had  blotted 
many.  In  creation  of  character 
he  comes  nearest  to  Shakespeare. 
As  the  poet  of  the  joy  of  battle, 
there  are  passages  in  which  he 
surpasses  Homer.  Some  dozen  or 
more  of  exquisite  lyrics,  'native 
woodnotes  wild,'  place  him  high 
in  the  most  delightful  field  of 

goetry.  By  far  the  best  critic  of 
cott  as  a  novelist  is  himself,  in 
his  original  introduction  to  The 
Fortunes  of  Nigel  (1822).  The 
blots  in  his  work — the  heaviness, 
the  tediousness,  the  casual  style- 
were  patent  to  the  critics  of  his 
day,  and  to  friends  such  as  Lady 
Louisa  Stuart.  Such  defects  are 
inseparable  from  constant  and 
rapid  improvisation.  It  is  mere 
pedantry  to  point  to  the  histori- 
cal inaccuracies  and  anachro- 
nisms of  his  novels.  Like  Dumas, 
he  consciously  treated  historical 


48 

facts  as  Turner  treated  landscape. 
When  he  erred,  he  erred  with  his 
eyes  open.  Deterred  by  his  lame- 
ness from  being  a  man  of  action, 
a  soldier,  Scott  had  no  high 
opinion  of  literary  fame  or  of 
the  literary  life.  Lockhart's  Life 
(1837)  is,  of  course,  the  main 
source  for  Scott's  biography.  The 
reminiscences  of  Gillies  (1837),  of 
James  Hogg(1834),of  Lady  Louisa 
Stuart,  Washington  Irving  (1850), 
and  others,  are  also  interesting. 
Leslie  Stephen,  in  'Scott'  {Na- 
tional Dictionary  of  Biography), 
especially  illustrates  the  financial 
troubles;  and  the  Life  of  Archi- 
bald Constable  (1873),  by  T.  Con- 
stable, and  Mr.  Andrew  Lang's 
Life  of  Lockhart  (1897),  may  be 
compared.  See  R.  H.  Hutton 
in  English  Men  of  Letters  (1879); 
also  Lang's  Sir  Walter  Scott 
(1906),  and  Norgate's  Life  (1906). 
For  an  estimate  see  Crockett's 
The  Scott  Country  (1902).  Scott's 
Collected  Works  appeared  in  48 
vols,  in  1829-33,  and  Poetical 
Works  (ed.  by  Lockhart)  in 
1833-4.  Textually  the  best  re- 
cent edition  is  'he  Dryburgh 
(1892-4);  another  edition  is  the 
Border  edition  by  Andrev/  Lang 
(1892). 

Scott,  William,  Lord  Stow- 
ELL  (1745-1836),  JEnghsh  judge, 
brother  of  Lord  Eldon,  v/as  born 
in  Durham,  and  became  (1773) 
Camden  reader  in  ancient  history 
at  Oxford.  He  began  at  Oxford 
his  lifelong  friendship  with  Dr. 
Johnson.  Eventually  he  became 
a  great  authority  on  shipping  law. 
He  w^as  called  to  the  bar  in  1779, 
and  in  1798  was  appointed  judge 
of  the  High  Court  of  Admiralty, 
^in  which  position  he  was  rather 
a  lawgiver  than  a  mere  judge. 
He  entered  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  1790,  and  was  a  persistent 
opponent  of  all  reform.  In  1821 
he  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 
See  Surtees's  Lives  of  Lords 
Stowell  and  Eldon  (1846). 

Scott,  William  Bell  (1811- 
90),  Scottish  artist  and  poet,  was 
born  at  St.  Leonard's,  Edinburgh, 
and  in  1837  settled  in  London 
as  etcher,  engraver,  and  painter. 
From  1843  to  1864  he  was  master 
of  the  government  schools  of 
design  at  Newcastle,  and  there- 
after till  1885  he  was  artist- 
decorator  and  examiner  at  S. 
Kensington  Museum.  Scott  deco- 
rated the  staircase  of  Penkill 
Castle  with  striking  pictures  in 
encaustic,  illustrating  scenes  in 
the  Kingis  Quair.  He  gained 
poetical  distinction  with  ballads 
and  sonnets.  He  published  Hades, 
or  the  Transit,  and  The  Progress 
of  the  Mind  (1838);  The  Year  of 
the  World,  his  longest  poem 
(1846);  Poems,  known  as  Poems  by 
a  Painter  (1854);  Poems,  Ballads, 
etc.  (1875);  and  A  Poet's  Har- 
vest Home  (1882;  enlarged,  1893). 
Besides  furnishing  memoirs  for 


Scott 

food  editions  of  Keats,  L.  E. 
.andon,  Byron,  Coleridge,  Shel- 
ley, and  others,  Scott  wrote  a 
Memoir  of  his  brother,  David 
Scott  (1850);  Albert  Durer  (1869): 
British  Landscape  Painters  and 
British  School  of  Sculpture  (1872); 
Murillo  and  the  Spanish  School 
of  Painting  (1873);  The  Little 
Masters  (1879).  He  also  issued 
pubUcations  on  north  of  England 
antiquities,  and  on  the  art  of 
France,  Belgium,  and  Germany. 
His  frank  and  engaging  Autobio- 
graphical Notes,  2  vols.,  were 
edited  by  Minto  (1892).  While 
at  Newcastle,  Scott  completed  a 
stately  decorative  scheme  for  Sir 
Walter  Trevelyan's  seat,  WaUing- 
ton  Hall.  His  notable  published 
designs  are:  (1)  twelve  under  the 
title  Chorea  Sancti  Viti  (1850), 
and  (2)  William  Blake  (1878). 

Scott,  William  Berryman 
(1858),  American  geologist,  born 
in  Cincinnati.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  in  1877  and  at  Heidel- 
berg in  1880,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  geology  and 
palaeontology  in  Princeton  Uni- 
versity. He  was  editor  and  joint 
author  of  Reports  of  the  Princeton 
University  Expeditions  to  Pata- 
gonia (8  vols.).  His  publications 
include  An  Introduction  to  Geology 
(1897). 

Scott,  WlNFlELD  (1786-1866), 
American  soldier,  born  in  Din- 
widdle CO.,  Va.,  Jan.  13,  1786. 
His  grandfather,  James  Scott, 
was  a  follower  of  Charles  Edward 
Stuart,  the  Pretender,  was  at  the 
battle  of  CuUoden,  and  .after- 
wards escaped  to  Va.  WilHam, 
James's  son,  married  Ann  Mason, 
and  Winfield  was  their  second 
son.  His  father,  a  captain  in  the 
American  Revolution,  died  when 
he  was  six  years  old,  and  at  17  he 
lost  his  mother,  a  woman  of  recog- 
nized strength  of  character,  to 
whose  lessons  he  was  wont  to 
attribute  his  attainments. 

Before  he  went  to  college  he 
was  trained  by  Hargrave,  a 
(Quaker  teacher,  and  by  a  Scotch 
instructor,  James  Ogilvie.  He 
entered  William  and  Mary,  but 
left  in  1805  to  take  up  law  in 
Judge  David  Robinson's  office  at 
Petersburg.  Here  he  obtained 
license  to  practise,  and  did  circuit 
work,  trying  a  number  of  causes. 
Impending  hostilities  with  Eng- 
land quickened  his  desire  to  be- 
come a  soldier,  and  President 
Jefferson  gave  him  the  commis- 
sion of  captain  of  artillery  in 
May,  1808.  He  recruited  a  com- 
pany and  embarked  for  New 
Orleans  on  Feb.  4,  1809.  Here 
his  brother  officers  were  in  two 
factions,  the  larger  number  parti- 
sans of  their  commander.  Gen. 
James  Wilkinson.  In  the  course 
of  this  year  Scott  remarked  that 
he  believed  Wilkinson  as  much  a 
traitor  as  Burr.  For  this  he  was 
tried    by    court-martial,  found 


Scott 

guilty  of  disrespect,  and  was  sus- 
pended from  rank  and  pay  for 
nine  months.  History  exonerates 
Scott;  still,  his  remark  was  a  vio- 
lation of  discipline.  During  his 
suspension  Scott  returned  to 
Petersburg  and  resumed  his 
studies,  not  neglecting  military 
works. 

In  1811  he  rejoined  the  army  at 
Baton  Rouge,  where  as  iudge 
advocate  he  strengthened  his 
knowledge  of  military  law,  and 
spent  his  leisure  preparing  him- 
self for  the  New  Orleans  bar; 
but  as  the  likelihood  of  war 
increased,  he,  with  Gen.  Hamp- 
ton, embarked  on  May  20,  1812, 
for  Washington.  Scott  was  soon 
after  promoted  to  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  he  reported  to  Brig.- 
Gen.  Alexander  Smyth  at  Buffalo 
on  Oct.  4,  1812. 

Lieut.  Elliot  had  undertaken  to 
capture  two  British  war  vessels 
near  Fort  Erie,  and  Scott,  with 
two  companies — his  first  expe- 
rience under  fire — materially  aided 
him.  One  of  the  British  vessels 
was  captured,  the  other  was 
burned.  His  first  battle  of  impor- 
tance was  at  Queenstown  Heights, 
which  was  occupied  by  British 
troops  and  Indians.  The  object 
of  tne  Americans  was  to  seize 
these  heights  and  hold  them  as  an 
entering  wedge  to  Canada.  Lieut. - 
Col.  Scott  eagerl}^  marched  his 
command  to  Lewiston,  but  was 
restrained  from  crossing.  After 
severe  American  losses  Scott 
crossed,  and  assumed  command 
on  reaching  the  heights.  The 
British  being  reinforced,  the 
Americans  were  finally  beaten, 
and  Scott  was  forced  to  surrender 
(Oct.  13,  1812).  The  next  year, 
after  exchange,  Scott  became  an 
adjutant-general  and  chief  of 
staff  to  Gen.  Dearborn,  with  the 
rank  of  colonel.  Dearborn  having 
determined  to  take  Fort  George, 
Scott,  accompanying  the  advance, 
crossed  the  Niagara  River  and 
attacked  the  British  on  the  morn- 
ing of  May  27,  1813.  The  action 
was  decisive.  Fort  George  being 
taken  (though  Scott  was  wounded 
by  the  explosion  of  a  powder 
magazine).  On  March  9,  1814, 
Scott  was  promoted  to  be  briga- 
dier-general. He  joined  Gen. 
Brown,  who  put  him  in  command 
near  Buffalo.  There  he  estab- 
lished a  camp  of  instruction  and 
did  most  effective  work  for  the 
army.  In  June  Gen.  Brown  re- 
turned and  on  July  3  advanced  on 
Fort  Erie.     Scott's  brigade  took 

f)art  in  the  engagement  and  the 
ort  was  captured.  On  July  4 
Scott's  brigade  again  advanced 
towards  Chippewa,  near  Niagara 
Falls.  Gen.  Brown  gave  Scott 
control,  himself  holding  the  re- 
serves. The  opposing  forces  met 
on  July  5,  the  British  being  under 
Gen.  Riall.  Scott  broke  Riall's 
front,  put  his  comm9,nd  to  flight. 


49 

and  won  the  battle  of  Chippewa. 
The  American  loss  was  328;  the 
British  507. 

Twenty  days  afterwards  was 
fought  the  fierce  and  indecisive 
battle  of  Lundy's  Lane  (q.v.).  At 
the  outset  Scott  led  the  American 
forces.  Brown  commanding  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  engagement. 
Scott  was  wounded  through  his 
side,  and  later  severely  in  his  left 
shoulder.  The  Americans  lost 
860,  the  British  878.  Though  so 
severely  wounded,  Scott  travelled 
East,  meeting  with  enthusiastic 
receptions.  He  declined  the  office 
of  secretary  of  war,  and  President 
Madison  next  sent  him  abroad  on 
an  important  diplomatic  service. 
He  received  a  medal  of  honor,  a 
vote  of  thanks  from  Congress  and 
another  from  the  legislature  of  Vir- 
ginia, accompanied  by  a  sword, 
and  a  sword  with  a  vote  of  thanks 
from  New  York.  Scott  had  a 
controversy  with  Gen.  Jackson 
which  arose  from  Jackson's  issu- 
ing an  order  in  Nashville  (April 
22,  1817)  prohibiting  his  officers 
from  obeying  any  executive  order 
from  the  War  Department,  unless 
coming  through  him.  Gen. 
Scott  at  a  New  York  dinner  party, 
declared  this  order  'mutinous.' 
Soon  after,  an  anonymous  article 
in  a  newspaper  gave  the  substance 
of  his  remarks.  Jackson  was 
greatly  offended  that  Scott  should 
criticise  his  order,  but  after  years 
the  matter  was  amicably  adjusted, 
and  Scott  was  justified. 

Near  the  close  of  the  Black 
Hawk  War  (1832)  Scott  was  or- 
dered to  the  scene  of  action,  near 
Rock  Island,  111.  He  embarked 
upon  Lake  Erie  from  Buffalo 
with  a  thousand  troops,  but 
nearly  half  the  troops  became  ill 
of  Asiatic  cholera.  Scott  held 
conferences  with  the  Sacs  and 
Foxes  and  kindred  clans-.  He 
uniformly  won  their  confidence 
and  made  permanent  treaties 
with  them.  He  urged  the  whites 
to  'temper  justice  with  mercy  in 
dealing  with  their  feebler  brethren 
of  the  forest.'  The  outbreak  of 
the  Seminole  War  in  Florida  in 
1835,  the  Dade  Massacre  and 
other  severe  battles  soon  caused 
the  War  Department  to  send  Scott 
thither.  He  did  not  have  his 
usual  success,  was  blamed,  and 
recalled,  but  a  court  of  inquiry 
exonerated  him.  In  1837  troubles 
occurred  on  the  Niagara  frontier, 
the  actors  being  'Canada  Pa- 
triots.' Bands  rushed  across  the 
line  and  invaded  British  territory. 
The  excitement  extended  from 
Buffalo  to  Maine.  Scott  was  sent 
to  secure  peace  along  the  border. 
By  his  judiciousness,  his  speeches 
and  other  expedients,  he  allayed 
excitement  and  restored  order. 
Again,  in  1839,  during  the  dispute 
over  the  boundary  between  New 
Brunswick  and  Maine,  Gen. 
Scott,  through  kindness  and  tact, 


Scott 

prevented  an  outbreak  and  paved 
the  way  for  the  Ashburton  Treaty. 
He  was  commended  for  his  skill  in 
removing  the  Cherokees  from 
Georgia  and  neighboring  states, 
beyond  the  Mississippi.  Though 
averse  to  removal,  the  Indians 
trusted  this  great  Chief,  and  he 
accomplished  their  transfer  with- 
out suffering.  Scott's  name  was 
proposed  to  the  Whig  convention 
of  1839  for  the  Presidency,  but 
he  withdrew  in  favor  of  Gen. 
Wm.  Henry  Harrison.  In  1841 
he  was  made  commander  of  the 
U.  S.  army. 

When  the  Mexican  War  began 
(1846),  Scott  recommended  Tay- 
lor for  the  command  on  the  Texan 
frontier.  He  gave  President  Polk 
a  plan  of  campaign,  and  asked  for 
new  regiments.  The  President  at 
first  disapproved  everything  Scott 
suggested,  yet,  after  Taylor's 
success,  he  ordered  Scott  to  pro- 
ceed to  Mexico.  Scott  left  New 
York  on  Nov.  30,  1846,  and 
reached  the  Rio  Grande  early  in 
January.  Soon  he  found  that  the 
bill  for  new  regiments  was  unac- 
countably delayed,  and  that  he 
had  hardlv  left  Washington  before 
another  bill  was  introduced  to 
establish  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general,  and  to  place  at  once  a 
poUtical  partisan  at  the  head  of 
the  army.  Scott  left  Taylor  after 
that  general's  victory  at  Buena 
Vista,  taking  with  him  a  column 
of  12,000  men,  and  entered  upon  a 
southern  campaign  for  the  capture 
of  the  City  of  Mexico.  On  March 
9  he  laid  siege  to  Vera  Cruz,  which 
surrendered  on  March  26.  Then 
followed  his  victory  over  Santa 
Anna  at  Cerro  Gordo  (April  18), 
the  reduction  of  Puebla,  the 
American  successes  at  Contreras 
and  Churubusco,  the  storming  of 
Molino  del  Rey  (Sept.  8)  and 
Chapultepec  (Sept.  13),  and  the 
entry  into  the  City  of  Mexico  (Sept. 
14).   See  Mexican  War. 

In  1852  Scott  was  nominated 
by  the  Whigs  for  the  Presidency, 
but  was  overwhelmingly  defeated 
by  Franklin  Pierce.  In  1855 
Congress  made  him  brevet  lieu- 
tenant-general, and  in  1859  he 
was  despatched  to  the  far  North- 
west to  adjust  serious  boundary 
troubles.  When  the  Civil  War 
came  he  took  his  stand  for  the 
Union  and  did  all  that  was  in  his 
power  to  secure  the  safety  of  the 
capital.  He  resigned  from  active 
service  Nov.  1,  1861. 

Gen.  Scott  had  an  impressive 
personal  appearance.  He  was 
six  feet  and  five  inches  tall,  and  in 
his  prime  was  possessed  of  great 
physical  strength.  He  had  a  re- 
markably strong  face,  and  was 
habitually  dignified  and  reserved. 
He  was  quick  to  resent  insult  but 
as  ready  to  forgive;  and  was  very 
properly  denominated  a  Christian 
gentleman. 

His  publication^  include :  General 


Scottdale 

Regulations  for  the  Army  (1825), 
and  Infantry  Tactics  (1835). 
See  the  Lives  by  Mansfield  (1846): 
Headley  (1852),  Victor  (1861),  and 
Wright  (1894);  also  his  Memoirs 
(1864);  Wilcox's  History  of  the 
Mexican  War  (1892),  and  How- 
ard's General  Taylor  (1892), 

ScottdalC}  bor.,  Westmore- 
land CO.,  Pa.,  30  m.  s.e.  of  Pitts- 


50 

social  system  under  which,  until 
the  last  half  of  the  18th  century, 
the  Gaelic-speaking  Highlanders 
lived.  The  clan  was  a  community 
that  regarded  all  its  members  as 
being  related  by  blood,  which 
held  its  land  on  peculiar  Celtic 
tenures,  and  whicn  obeyed  and 
paid  dues  to  a  chief  selected  from 
a  special  family.  The  succession 


The  Distribution  of  the  Principal  Scottish  Clans. 


burgh,  on  the  Pa.  and  the  B.  and 
O.  R.  Rs.  It  is  located  in  an 
agricultural  and  coal-mining  re- 
gion. Its  principal  manufactur- 
ing establisnments  are  sheet-steel 
works,  rolling  mill,  cast-iron  pipe 
works,  foundry,  machine-shops, 
coke  works,  and  manufactories 
of  caskets  and  brass  furnishings. 
Pop.  (1910)  5,456. 

Scottish  Clans.  The  word 
clan  is  applied  specially  to  the 


to  the  chiefship  was  in  early  times 
by  no  means  strictly  hereditary, 
as  the  chief  had  to  be  able-bodied 
to  lead  the  clan  in  the  numerous 
tribal  battles,  and  illegitimacy 
was  not  much  regarded.  The 
clans,  when  surnames  came  into 
being,  generally  adopted  that  of 
their  most  famous  early  leader 
with  the  prefix  Mac  (son),  or  in 
Ireland,  where  the  system  also 
prevailed,  of  O  {Ua  =  grandson, 


Scottish  Clans 

also  nephew);  and  there  was  the 
further  division  of  Sil  or  Siol,  or 
descent  from  a  common  ancestor. 
In  olden  times  the  rule  of  the 
Scottish  Celtic  kings  was  little 
respected  by  the  clans;  and  in  the 
Highlands   and   western  islands 
the  government  had  little  author- 
ity unless  by  their  will.     It  was 
generally  insisted  on  that  the  clan 
should  have  a  representative,  pos- 
sessed of  property,  at  court,  as  a 
hostage  or  security  for  their  good 
behavior.     A  clan  with  no  secu- 
rity became  a  'broken  clan,'  and 
its    members    were    treated  as 
thieves  and  cattle  robbers,  with 
every  man's  hand  against  them. 
The  best  instance  of  this  is  that  of 
the    MacGregors,    originally  of 
Glcnorchy,  from  which  they  were 
dispossessed  by  the  Campbells  of 
Breadalbane.   From  the  17th  cen- 
tury the  clans  were  generally  of 
royalist  proclivities.     The  High- 
landers generally  declared  for  the 
Jacobites    in    1715,    and  again 
(though  not  universally)  in  1745, 
and  during  the  secret  wanderings 
of  I'riace  Charles  Edward  after 
Culloden,  Cluny  and  Lochiel,  the 
chiefs  of  the  Macphersons  and  the 
Camerons,  and  members  of  the 
clans  Donald  and  Macleod  showed 
extraordinary    fidelity    to  him. 
After  1746,  the  power  of  the  clans 
having  been  broken  at  the  battle 
of  Culloden,  the  disarming  of  the 
Highlands^  and  the  abolition  of 
heritable  jurisdictions  did  much 
to   break  up  the   clan  system. 
Of  the   Celtic  Highland  clans, 
besides  those  already  mentioned, 
the  best-known  clans  were  per- 
haps the  Macdonalds,  Lords  of 
the  Isles;  the  Macleods,  Macken- 
zies,   Camerons,   M'Leans,  and 
M'Neills  of  the  islands  and  the 
west;  the  Clan  Chattan,  which 
included  the   Macphersons  and 
Mackintoshes;  the  Mackays  and 
Sutherlands  in  Sutherland;  the 
.Erasers  of   Lovat;   Gordons  in 
Aberdeenshire;   Robertsons  -and 
Stewarts     in     Perthshire;  the 
Stewarts   of   Appin;    the  Mac- 
dougals  of  Lorn;  the  Chisholms, 
and  many  others.    In  the  United 
States  and  Canada  reunions  of  the 
descendants    and    adherents  of 
Scottish  clans  are  held.  These, 
with  the  membership  and  gather- 
ings of  various  Scottish  societies, 
which  are  organized  for  purely  so- 
cial, literary,  and  benevolent  pur- 
poses, aim  to  keep  alive  the  nis- 
toric  memories  of  the  old  land, 
especially  the  deeds  of  clan  chief- 
tains; but  they  represent  not  only 
any  survival  of  clan  feeling  whicn 
exists  on  the  continent,  but  the 
wider  interest  in  Scottish  Hfe  and 
character.    See  Stewart's  Sketches 
of  the  Highlanders  (1822);  Greg- 
ory's History  of  the  Western  High- 
lands and  Isles   (1836);   W.  S. 
Skene's  Antiquities  (1837);  Shaw's 
Mackintosh   and   Clan  Chattan 
(1880);  Mackenzie's  Maakenz^s 


Scottish  Philosophy 


KFN 


51 


Screen 


(1879),  Macdonalds  (1881), 
Mathesons  (1882),  Camerons 
(1884),  Macleods  (1889),  Chis- 
holms  (1891),  Frasers  (1896). 

Scottish  Philosophy,  the 
school  of  thought  founded  by 
Thomas  Reid  (q.  v.),  and  charac- 
terized by  an  express  opposition 
to  the  empiricism  and  scepti- 
cism of  Hume  (q.  v.).  The  two 
main  doctrines  by  which  Reid 
combated  Hume's  sceptical  anal- 
ysis of  knowledge  were  his  doc- 
trine of  perception  and  of  com- 
mon sense.  The  latter  was  a 
reply  to  the  empirical  aspect  of 
Hume's  philosophy,  and  was  di- 
rected to  bring  out  the  necessity 
of  recognizing  certain  ultimate 
rational  principles  as  inherent  in 
the  human  mind,  and  as  essential- 
ly involved  in  the  constitution  of 
our  experience.  Reid's  doctrines 
were  elaborated  and  expounded 
by  Dugald  Stewart;  but  in  the 
more  original  mind  of  Thomas 
Brown  they  underwent  much 
modification,  his  analysis  of  per- 
ception in  particular  departing 
largely  from  that  of  Reid.  In  Sir 
William  Hamilton,  the  last,  and 
after  Reid  the  most  conspicuous, 
representative  of  the  Scottish 
school  proper,  a  defense  of  Reid's 
principles  was  somewhat  incon- 
sistently combined  with  an  ac- 
ceptance of  Kant's  phenomenal- 
ism and  agnosticism. 

Scotts'bluff,  city,  Nebraska, 
Scotts  Bluff  county,  on  the  Chi- 
cago, Burlington  and  Quincy 
Railroad,  and  on  the  North  Platte 
Valley  and  the  Denver  Black 
Hills  Highways;  234  miles  n.e. 
of  Denver,  Colorado.  It  is  the 
center  of  a  large  sugar  beet  in- 
dustry ;  alfalfa,  grain,  _  and  po- 
tatoes are  grown ;  while  thou- 
sands of  cattle  and  sheep  are 
fattened  for  the  market.  Pop. 
(1930)  8,465;  (1940)  12,057. 

Scotus,   Duns.     See  Duns 

SCOTUS. 

Scotus,  Joannes.    See  Eri- 

GENA. 

Scouring:    Rushes.  See 

Equisetum. 

Scouts,  Boy.  See  Boy 
Scouts. 

Scouts,  Military.  See  Re- 
connaissance; Outposts;  Pa- 
trol. 

Scran'ton,  city,  Pennsylvania, 
county  seat  of  Lackawanna  coun- 
ty, on  the  Lackawanna  River,  and 
the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  and 
Western,  the  Central  of  New 
Jersey,  the  Delaware  and  Hud- 
son, the  Erie,  the  New  York, 
Ontario  and  Western,  and  the 
Lackawanna  and  Wyoming  Val- 
ley railroads;  135  miles  by  rail 
n.w.  of  New  York  City,  and  158 
miles  by  rail  north  of  Philadel- 
phia. The  city  is  attractively  sit- 
uated on  an  undulating  plateau  in 
the  Lackawanna  Valley,  at  an 
elevation  of  650  to  1,770  feet.  It 
has  wide,  tree-lined  streets ;  26 


parks  and  playgrounds  with  a  to- 
tal acreage  of  246.72,  including 
beautiful  Nay  Aug  Park  cover- 
ing 145.44  acres  ;  five  municipal 
swimming  pools  (four  outdoors)  ; 
15  public  tennis  courts;  13  com- 
bination baseball-softball  dia- 
monds and  four  football  fields. 
A  new  stadium  is  the  home  of  the 
Scranton  Red  Sox  in  the  Eastern 
Baseball  League.  The  city  is  on 
Pennsylvania's  newest  scenic 
trail  running  east  and  west — the 
Roosevelt  Highway,  U.  S.  Route 
6,  one  of  the  great  transcontinen- 
tal routes.  It  is  also  on  the  Lack- 
awanna Trail,  running  north  and 
south  through  the  mountains  of 
northeastern  Pennsylvania  to  the 
Delaware  Water  Gap  and  Phila- 
delphia. The  Trail  is  on  the  old 
roadbed  of  the  Lackawanna  Rail- 
road and  crosses  the  largest  re- 
inforced concrete  viaduct  in  the 
world  at  Nicholson. 

Noteworthy  buildings  include 
the  $2,000,000  Masonic  Temple, 
the  $800,000  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, the  United  States  Post 
Office  and  Court  House,  the 
Lackawanna  County  Court 
House,  City  Hall,  the  Col.  L.  A. 
Watres  Armory,  Everhart  Muse- 
um, Albright  Memorial  Library, 
Administration  Building  of  the 
International  Correspondence 
Schools,  Lackawanna  Railroad 
Station  and  general  ofiices.  First 
National  and  Scranton  National 
Banks,  and  Scranton  Life  Insur- 
ance. 

The  city  has  a  complete  edu- 
cational system,  including  three 
senior  and  two  junior  high 
schools  and  41  grade  schools  in 
the  public  school  system;  16  pa- 
rochial schools,  including  six 
senior  high  schools ;  the  O.  S. 
Johnson  Trade  School,  the  W.  T. 
Smith  Manual  Training  School, 
Scranton-Lackawanna  College, 
Powell  School  of  Business,  Penn- 
sylvania Oral  School  for  the 
Deaf,  Scranton  Conservatory  of 
Music,  Marywood  College  and 
Seminary,  the  University  of 
Scranton,  and  Scranton-Keystone 
Junior  (College,  located  in  the 
suburb  of  LaPlume.  Scranton  is 
the  center  of  education  by  mail, 
the  International  Correspondence 
Schools  enrolling  students  in  all 
parts  of  the  world.  The  Albright 
Public  Library  has  four  branches 
in  various  sections  of  the  city, 
housing  a  total  of  130,000  vol- 
umes. The  Scranton  Zoological 
Commission  operates  the  Zoo  in 
Nay  Aug  Park.  The  city  has 
more  than  130  churches,  includ- 
ing most  denominations  serving  a 
cosmopolitan  population.  Twen- 
ty theaters  have  a  total  seating 
capacity  of  30,000.  Eleven  pub- 
lic and  two  private  hospitals  have 
more  than  1,000  beds.  There  are 
more  than  150  natural  lakes  with- 
in two  hours'  motoring  distance 
of  the  city. 


Scranton  is  the  third  most  pop- 
ulous city  in  the  nation's  second 
most  populous  state.  It  had  its 
genesis  in  coal  in  1840  and  be- 
came the  largest  city  in  the  com- 
pact region  containing  the 
world's  richest  anthracite  depos- 
its, but  today  it  is  principally  a 
rnanufacturing  city  with  a  wide 
diversity  of  industries.  The  out- 
put of  its  plants  ranges  from  lace 
to  locomotives  and  from  plastics 
to  piston  rings.  It  has  the  coun- 
try's largest  Nottingham  lace 
mill.  It  is  second  in  rank  of  silk 
manufacturing  districts.  A  huge 
plant  turns  out  airplane  wings. 
Its  location  in  the  heart  of  a  rich 
market  area  makes  it  a  busy  dis- 
tribution center.  It  has  excellent 
highway  and  air  facilities.  Mod- 
ern, broad  highways  radiate  to 
all  points  of  the  compass  and 
make  Scranton  a  center  for  a 
huge  trucking  industry.  It  is 
served  by  three  interstate  bus 
lines.  The  Scranton  Transit 
Company  operates  electric  street 
cars  and  buses  to  18  suburbs. 

It  was  founded  by  George  W. 
Scranton  and  his  brothers,  Jo- 
seph and  Selden.  Pop.  (1930) 
143,433;  (1940)  140,404. 

Screamers  (Palamedcidcr) ,  a 
family  of  South  American  birds 
which  are  believed  to  be  most 
nearly  related  to  the  Anseres 
(ducks  and  geese).  In  size  they 
are  comparable  to  turkeys.  Two 
notable  peculiarities  are  that  the 
ribs  are  without  uncinate  proc- 
esses, and  that  each  wing  bears 
two  sharp  spurs.  The  head  is 
small,  and  the  bill  short ;  the 
legs  moderately  long,  and  naked 
throughout  much  of  their  length  ; 
the  wings  long  and  powerful. 
The  Horned  Screamer  (PaJamc- 
dca  cornuta)  has  a  slender,  horn- 
like process  on  the  head ;  the 
(Trested  Screamer  (Palamedca  or 
Chauna  cristata)  has  a  tuft  of 
feathers  forming  a  crest. 

Screen,  in  architecture,  an  en- 
closure or  partition  of  wood, 
stone,  or  metal  work.  In  old 
Gothic  halls,' it  was  a  partition 
with  a  gallery  for  minstrels  op- 
posite the  dais  ;  also  an  open  col- 
onnade enclosing  a  courtyard. 
Its  most  important  use  is  to  sep- 
arate a  chapel  from  the  body  of 
the  church,  or  the  chancel  from 
the  aisle  or  nave.  The  earliest 
form  of  church  screen  was  the 
low  marble  podia  fencing  the 
chorus  cantantium  in  Roman  ba- 
silicas, and  in  England  perfo- 
rated cancelli.  There  art  two 
main  types — the  open-work 
grille,  and  the  solid  stonework 
such  as  is  seen  in  Canterbury, 
York,  and  Gloucester  cathedrals, 
and  in  the  church  of  the  Made- 
leine at  Troyes.  Other  famous 
screens  are  those  of  Chartres ; 
of  Amiens ;  and  of  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Albi,  the  most  perfect 
Gothic  screen  in  France.  The 


SOME  FAMOUS  ARCHITECTURAL  SCREENS. 

1.  Lincoln  Cathedral.  2.  Westminster  Abbey.  3.  Indian  Screen  in  the  Palace,  Delhi.  4.  Dart- 
mouth Parish  Church.  5.  Aisle  of  Lincoln  Cathedral.  6.  Chartres  Cathedral.  7.  Albi.  8.  Here- 
ford (metal  screen). 

Vol.  XL— Mar.  '18  VoL  XL— at  Page  52 


SereW 


KFN 


53 


Screw-propellet 


iconostasis  in  Greek  churches,  be- 
tween the  sanctuary  and  the  nave, 
is  adorned  with  icons,  and  has 
three  doorways  closed  to  conceal 
from  the  laity  the  altar  and  mass. 

Screw,  one  of  the  simple  ma- 
chines or  mechanical  powers, 
which  has  many  apphcations. 
The  screw  in  itself  is  incomplete, 
being  only  one-half  of  the  'screw- 
pair' or  elementary  mechanism  to 
which  it  belongs.  If  assumed  fric- 
tionless,  let  the  effort  p  act  at 
radius  R,  let  r  be  the  radius  of  the 
screw,  w  the  load,  and  p  the  pitch 
or  distance  between  two  consecu- 
tive coils  of  the  thread.  Then  by 
the  equation  of  work,  p  X  27rR  = 
wp;  also  p  =  27rr  tan  a,  where  a  is 
the  angle  of  the  screw.  It  friction 
be  not  neglected,  then,  assuming 
that  the  coefficient  of  friction  m 
is  known,  it  can  be  shown  that 

-  =  -  tan  (a  T  e) ,  according  as  w 
w  R 

is  about  to  prevail  over  p,  or  p 
over  w;  also  it  can  be  shown 
that  the  efficiency  of  the  screw 
tan 


IS  E  = 


where  0  is  the 


tan  (a  +  <i>) 
angle  of  friction.  In  order  that 
the  screw  may  be  reversible,  a 
must  be  greater  than  <i>. 


Diagram  illustrating  the  Principle 
of  the  Screw. 

The  U.  S.  standard  thread  is  the 
Sellers,  which  is  shaped  like  an 
equilateral  triangle,  with  angle 
60°  between  the  sides,  and  with 
flat  top  and  bottom.  The  British 
standard  is  the  Whitworth,  in 
which  the  angle  is  55°,  and  the 
corners  are  rounded.  The  square 
thread  is  weaker,  but  is  used 
where  accuracy  of  motion  is 
needed.  The  buttress  thread  is 
used  for  strength  and  accuracy 
when  the  important  motion  is  in 
one  direction  only.  It  is  shown 
in  dynamics  that  the  most  gen- 
eral motion  in  space  may  be 
represented  by  a  screw  motion — 
i.e.  the  combination  of  a  transla- 
tion along  a  given  straight  line 
with  a  rotation  about  that  line. 
If  the  pitch  of  the  screw  becomes 
zero,  we  have  a  simple  turning 
pair;  if  it  becomes  infinite,  a  sim- 
ple sliding  pair.  These  are  the 
limiting  cases  of  screw  motion. 

Screw,  or  Wood  Screw,  as  they 
are  technically  known,  are  nails 


which  are  screwed  into  the  ma- 
terial instead  of  hammered.  Up 
to  1760  they  were  not  in  popular 
use,  owing  to  the  costliness  of 
their  production.  In  that  year  a 
machine  for  their  manufacture 
was  invented,  and  in  1817  an 
automatic  screw-making  machine 
was  patented  b3^  a  German  clock- 
maker.  It  was  not  till  1854, 
however,  that  a  practically  serv- 
iceable machine,  the  result  of 
American  invention,  gave  the 
first  impulse  to  an  industry 
which  now  gives  employment 
to  many  thousands  of  workers. 
Roughly  described,  the  process  of 
manufacture  is  as  follows:  A 
piece  of  wire  (copper,  brass,  or 
iron)  is  fed  into  a  heading  ma- 
chine through  a  die,  to  form  the 
screw  blank.  The  wire  is  then 
cut,  and  the  head  is  formed  by 
the  stroke  of  a  plunger  striking 
the  short  piece  which  is  held 
in  the  die.  The  head  is  nicked  in 
the  same  machine.  The  screw 
blanks  are  thrown  into  a  trough, 
and  the  thread  and  point  are 
made  in  a  worming  machine  by 
means  of  a  cutter. 

Screw  Bean.    See  Mesquite. 

Screw  Pine,  a  name  given  to 
certain  tropical  trees  and  shrubs 
belonging  to  the  genus  Pandanus. 
They  bear  spiry,  linear,  rigidly 
coriaceous  leaves,  arranged  in  a 
perfect  spiral  about  the  stem, 
and  most  species  produce  aerial 
roots,  which  heave  the  trunks  out 
of  the  ground,  on  stilts,  as  it 
were,  afterwards  serving,  however, 
to  anchor  the  trees.  Pandanus 
uiilis  is  cultivated  in  the  tropics 
for  its  leaves,  which  are  split  into 
narrow  sections,  and  woven  into 
coarse,  strong  sacks.  In  the 
South  Sea  Islands  the  leaves  are 
also  used  for  matting,  basketry, 
cordage,  and  the  like.  The  young 
screw-pines  are  popular  house 
foliage-plants,  requiring  a  high 
temperature,  plenty  of  sun  in 
winter  and  water  in  summer. 

Screw-propeller,  an  instru- 
ment for  the  propulsion  of  a 
vessel,  consisting  of  two  or  more 
oblique  blades,  set  on  a  shaft  or 
shafts  lying  nearly  parallel  with 
the  keel,  and  revolving  be- 
neath the  water  at  the  stern. 
The  Chinese  used  screw-pro- 
pellers from  a  very  early  date 
for  making  vessels  move.  Vari- 
ous devices  for  applying  the 
principle  were  put  forward  from 
time  to  time  by  Du  Quet  in  17.31, 
Bouguer  in  1746,  Daniel  Bernoulli 
in  1752,  and  Emerson  in  1754. 
The  Archimedean  screw  was  tried 
by  Pancton  in  1768,  and,  as  used 
by  him,  consisted  of  a  revolving 
cylinder  of  some  length,  with  the 
thread  of  a  screw  round  it.  In 
1784  a  more  definite  advance 
was  made  by  Joseph  Bramah,  a 
London  engineer,  who  invented 
a  wheel  furnished  with  inclined 
fans  or  wings.   This  was  attached 


to  a  shaft  which  entered  the 
ship's  stern,  and  was  made  to 
revolve  from  inside.  In  1787 
Fitch  experimented  with  a  screw 
steamer  on  the  Delaware  R.  In 
1799  Dr.  Shorter  obtained  a  patent 


Common  Forms  of  Screw 

propeller. 
1.  Griffith's.    2.  Thornycroft's. 

for  a  'perpetual  sculling  machine,' 
which  consisted  of  a  screw  im- 
mersed in  the  water  at  the  vessel's 
stern,  and  worked  by  hand.  A  suc- 
cessful trial  of  this  was  made  in 
1800.  It  was  not  until  after  Watt's 
engine  had  been  used  at  sea  for 
paddle  steamers  for  some  years 
that  steam  was  employed  for 
screw  propulsion.    In  1836  F.  P. 


Reversible  Propeller. 
A.  Reversing  rod  inside  hollow  propeller 
shaft:   by  twisting  the  blades  round,  the 
EQotion  of  the  boat  is  reversed  without 
changing  the  rotation  of  the  screw. 

Smith,  an  Englishman,  and  John 
Ericsson,  the  famous  Swedish- 
American  mechanician,  applied  it 
independently  and  successfully. 
In  1842  the  U.  S.  S.  Princeton  was 
fitted  with  a  screw-propeller,  and 


Scribe 


KPN 


Scripture 


Was  the  first  sea-going  man-of- 
war  in  any  navy  to  be  so  fitted. 
Modern  vessels,  and  especially 
men-of-war,  are  frequently  fitted 
with  a  pair  of  screws,  the  advan- 
tages being  that  the  necessary 
propelling  area  may  be  got  at  a 
lower  depth  ;  while,  by  reversing 
one  and  letting  the  other  go 
ahead,  the  vessel  may  be  turned 
without  a  rudder  and  without 
steerage  way.  A  further  advan- 
tage is  that  twin  screws  work  in- 
dependently, with  separate  en- 
gines, so  that  the  loss  or  damage 
of  one  does  not  entirely  disable 
a  ship.  Three  and  four  screws 
have  also  been  used,  and  have 
given  satisfactory  results.  In  tur- 
bine-engined  vessels  the  screws 
are  made  of  small  diameter  on 
account  of  their  rapid  rotation. 
Screws  are  made  of  cast  iron, 
cast  steel,  or  bronze.  Though  not 
so  strong  as  steel,  bronze  is  the 
best  material  because  it  does  not 
corrode  rapidly.  See  Barnaby, 
Marine  Propellers  (1891), 
Froude,  Elementary  Relation  be- 
tzveen  Pitch,  Slip,  and  Propul- 
sive Efficiency  (1878),  Bourne, 
Treatise  on  the  Screw  Propeller 
(1856)  and  Catechisnv  of  the 
Steam  Engine  (ed.  1865),  Sea- 
ton,  Manual  of  Marine  Engineer- 
ing (1893),  Tompkins,  Textbook 
of  Marine  Engineering  (1898), 
Sennitt  and  Oram,  Marine  Steam 
Engine  (1898),  Bennett,  Moni- 
tor and  the  Navy  imder  Steam 
(1900). 

Scribe,  Augustine  Eugene 
(1791-1861),  French  dramatist, 
was  born  and  died  in  Paris.  In 
spite  of  the  comparative  failure 
of  a  number  of  his  earliest  plays, 
he  persevered  until  he  compelled 
attention  by  the  success  of  Une 
Nuit  de  la  Garde  Nationale,  in 
1815.  This  play  was  written,  as 
were  most  of  Scribe's,  in  collabo- 
ration ;  indeed,  at  the  height  of 
his  success  he  is  said  to  have  em- 
ployed a  small  army  of  collabo- 
rators, he  himself  being  general 
editor  and  final  polisher.  His 
versatility  was  astonishing  ;  com- 
edy, vaudeville,  opera  libretto, 
emotional  drama,  farce — all 
seemed  to  flow  equally  easily 
from  his  pen.  He  was  not  a 
genius,  but  a  craftsman  of  the 
highest  rank ;  his  great  clever- 
ness concealed  the  superficiality 
of  his  observation.  A  few  of  his 
more  notable  plays  are  Le  Sol- 
liciteur,  Mon  Oncle  Cesar,  Le 
Menage  de  Gargon,  La  Dame 
Blanche,  L'Heritiere ,  Frontin, 
Bertrand  ct  Raton,  Le  Verre 
d'Eau,  La  Calomnie,  Une  Chaine, 
Adrienne  Lecouvreur,  Bataille 
de  Dames,  Les  Doigts  de  Fee. 
His  complete  works  appeared  in 
76  vols.  (1874-85).  See  Life, 
in  h^rench,  by  Legouve  (1874). 

Scribes,  the  official  copyists 
and  expounders  of  the  Jewish 
law.    The  Hebrew  name  was  ap- 


plied to  what  might  be  termed  a 
minister  of  state  (2  Kings  19:2) 
— e.g.  for  war  (2  Kings  25:19), 
or  for  home  affairs  (Neh.  13  :13) 
— also  quite  generally  to  an 
amanuensis,  like  Baruch  (Jer. 
36:26-32).  With  Ezra  emerges 
the  secondary  significance  as  de- 
noting an  expert  in  the  law 
(Neh.  8:1),  and  after  his  day  the 
scribes  were  a  recognized  official 
order,  the  members  of  which 
were  also  called  lawyers  or  teach- 
ers of  the  law,  and  belonged 
chiefly  to  the  Pharisaic  party.  It 
was  their  function  to  expound 
both  the  written  and  the  oral  law. 
See  Edersheim,  Life  and  Tinves 
of  Jesus  the  Messiah,  i.  93  #. 
(1887),  Schiirer,  Hist,  of  the 
Jewish  People,  vol.  ii  (1891). 

Scriblerus  Club,  a  club  of 
authors  in  London  founded  by 
Swift  (1714),  its  object  being  to 
satirize  literary  incompetence. 
Four  of  the  principal  contribu- 
tions were  Pope's  Dunciad  and 
Memoirs  of  Martinus  Scriblerus 
(1741),  chiefly  written  by  John 
Arbuthnot,  and  satirizing  Mar- 
tin's Travels ;  P.  P.  Clerk  of  this 
Parish,  a  satire  on  Burnet's  His- 
tory of  his  own  Time ;  and  The 
Travels  of  Lemuel  Gulliver. 

Scribner,  Charles  (1821- 
71),  American  publisher,  was 
born  in  New  York  city,  and 
graduated  (1840)  at  Princeton. 
Failing  health  interrupted  his 
preparation  for  the  bar,  and  he 
passed  some  time  in  Europe.  In 
1846,  with  Isaac  D.  Baker,  he  or- 
ganized the  publishing  firm  of 
Baker  &  Scribner,  and  on  the 
death  of  Mr.  Baker  in  1848,  pub- 
lished over  his  own  name,  and  as 
Charles  Scribner  &  Co.,  until  his 
death.  Meanwhile  he  had  devel- 
oped his  important  business,  and 
in  1857  he  organized,  with 
Charles  Welford,  a  separate  firm, 
Scribner  &  Welford,  for  the  im- 
portation of  foreign  books. 
Among  the  authors  who  placed 
their  works  in  Mr.  Scribner's 
hands  were  J.  T.  Headley,  W.  G. 
T.  Shedd,  Noah  Porter,  D.  G. 
Mitchell,  N.  P.  Willis,  and  Dr. 
J.  G.  Holland.  The  firm  had  es- 
tablished a  monthly  periodical, 
Hours  at  Home,  in  1865,  and  in 
1870  this  publication  was  merged 
in  a  new  magazine,  Scribner's 
Monthly,  with  Dr.  Holland  as 
editor.  On  the  death  of  Mr. 
Scribner  in  the  following  year, 
he  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest 
son,  John  Blair  Scribner 
(1850-79),  the  firm  being  reor- 
ganized as  Scribner,  Armstrong 
&  Co.,  with  A.  C.  Armstrong  and 
Edward  Seymour  as  partners, 
and  subsequently,  in  1878,  as 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons.  A  no- 
table publication  carried  out  by 
Mr.  Scribner  was  Lange's  Com- 
mentary on  the  Holy  Scriptures 
in  twenty-six  volumes. 

Scribner,    Charles  (1854- 


1930),  American  publisher,  son 
of  the  foregoing,  was  born  in 
New  York  City,  and  graduated 
(1875)  at  Princeton.  He  joined 
the  publishing  house  of  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons,  of  which  his 
brother,  J.  Blair  Scribner,  was 
the  head,  immediately  on  gradu- 
ation, and  on  the  death  of  the  lat- 
ter, in  1879,  himself  became  head 
of  the  firm.  In  1881  Scribner's 
Monthly  was  sold  to  another 
house  organized  to  purchase  it, 
and  its  name  was  changed  to  The 
Century  Magazine.  In  1887 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons  estab- 
lished a  new  monthly  periodical, 
Scribner's  Magazine. 

Scribner,  Frank  Lamson 
(1851-1938),  American  botanist, 
born  in  Cambridgeport,  Mass. 
He  graduated  at  the  Maine 
State  College  of  Agriculture  in 
1873.  After  teaching  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  in  Maine  he  became 
secretary  to  the  state  board  of  ag- 
riculture. In  1886  he  was  ap- 
pointed special  agent  in  charge 
of  the  mycological  division  of  the 
botanical  section  of  the  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  and  in 
1887  became  chief  of  the  section 
of  vegetable  pathology.  In  1888- 
94  he  was  professor  of  botany 
and  director  of  the  Agricultural 
Experimental  Station  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tennessee.  In  1894- 
1901  he  was  chief  of  the  division 
of  agrostology,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  and  in  1901-4 
was  chief  of  the  Insular  Bureau 
of  Agriculture  in  the  Philippine 
Islands.  His  publications  in- 
clude:  Weeds  of  Maine  (1869)  ; 
Ornamental  and  Useful  Plants  of 
Maine  (1874)  ;  Fungus  Diseases 
of  the  Grape  and  other  Plants 
(1886)  ;  American  Grasses;  and 
'Fruits,  Vegetables  and  Fibre 
Plants  of  the  Philippines,'  in 
Census  of  the  Philippine  Islands, 
1903  (vol.  jv.  1905). 

Scribonia,  a  lady  of  ancient 
Rome,  who  was  married  in  40 
B.C.  to  Octavian,  afterward  the 
Emperor  Augustus.  It  was  a 
purely  political  marriage,  Scribo- 
nia being  the  sister  of  Scribonius 
Libo,  the  father-in-law  of  Sex- 
tus  Pompeius,  whom  Octavian 
wished  to  conciliate.  But  he 
divorced  her  in  39  B.C.,  on  the 
very  day  on  which  she  bore  him 
a  daughter,  Julia,  in  order  to 
marry  Livia. 

Scripture,  Edward  Wheeler 
(1864-  ),  American  psychol- 
ogist, born  in  Mason,  N.  H.  He 
graduated  at  the  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York  in  1884,  and 
also  studied  in  the  universities 
of  Berlin,  Zurich  and  Leipzig. 
In  1892-1904  he  was  director  of 
the  psychological  laboratory  at 
Yale,  and  discovered  the  law  of 
'mediate  association  of  ideas,'  and 
methods  of  measuring  hallucina- 
tions, and  imaginings,  and  a 
process  of  producing  anaesthesia 


Scrivener 

electrically.  He  invented  an  im- 
proved instrument  for  testing 
color-sight,  and  many  appliances 
for  experimenting  in  psychology, 
and  demonstrating  the  principal 
psychological  doctrines.  His 
publications  include:  Thinking, 
Feeling,  Doing  (1895)  ;  The 
New  Psychology  (1897) ;  and  Ele- 
ments of  Experimental  Phonetics 
(1901). 

Scrivener,  Frederick  Henry 
Ambrose  (1813-91),  English  Bib- 
lical  scholar,  was  born  in  London; 
was  a  schoolmaster  at  Sherborne 
and  Falmouth,  and  in  1874  be- 
came prebendary  of  Exeter,  and 
in  1876  vicar  of  Hendon  in  Mid- 
dlesex. He  wrote  A  Supplement 
to  the  Authorized  English  Version 
of  the  New  Testament  (1845),  Six 
Lectures  on  the  Text  of  the  New 
Testament  (1874),  edited  The 
Cambridge  Paragraph  Bible  (3 
vols.  1870-3),  and  took  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  revision  of  the  New 
Testament. 

Scrofula,  Struma,  or  King's 
Evil,  a  tubercular  affection  of  the 
lymphatic  glands.  It  is  mani- 
fested chiefly  in  the  glands  of  the 
neck,  which  become  swollen  and 
thick  like  that  of  a  pig,  and  the 
bronchial  and  mesenteric  glands 
may  also  be  affected.  Scrofula  is 
congenital  only  in  this  sense,  that 
the  children  of  weakly  parents  are 
generally  weaklings  and  have 
little  resistive  power.  The  disease 
is  most  common  in  childhood,  but 
it  may  arise  in  adults  and  even  in 
the  aged.  When  the  mesenteric 
glands  are  affected,  the  condition 
IS  known  as  tabes  mesenterica, 
the  'abdominal  scrofula'  of  older 
writers.  Diarrhoea  is  a  constant 
symptom  of  this  affection,  and 
while  the  abdomen  becomes  prom- 
inent and  tympanitic,  the  patient 
is  usually  puny,  wasted,  and 
anaemic.  In  the  treatment  of 
scrofula  good  food,  fresh  air, 
sunlight,  cod-liver  oil,  iron  and 
tonics  should  be  employed  to 
strengthen  the  tissues.  Locally, 
iodine  painted  over  the  glands 
sometimes  appears  to  be  bene- 
ficial in  the  early  stages,  but  of 
late  this  method  of  treatment 
has  rather  fallen  into  disrepute. 
Should  the  glands  suppurate,  an 
early  incision  should  be  made; 
and  even  in  the  absence  of  sup- 
puration it  is  often  advisable  to 
extirpate  the  tubercular  focus  by 
excising  caseous  glands. 

Scroggs,  Sir  William  (i'1623- 
83),  lord  chief-justice  of  England, 
born  at  Deddington  in  Oxford- 
shire; has  left  an  even  more  in- 
famous reputation  than  Jeffreys. 
Though  little  of  a  lawver,  he  was 
clever  as  well  as  brutal  of  speech. 
His  most  outrageous  conduct  on 
the  bench  was  during  the  time 
of  the  Popish  plot  .which  Titus 
Oates  invented.  For  this  he  was 
impeached  by  the  Commons  in 
1681  and  removed  from  the  bench. 


55 

See  Foss's  Judges  of  England 
(1864). 

Scroll,  a  spiral  ornament  in 
architecture  (Ionic,  Corinthian) 
and  joinery.  It  is  also  a  heraldic 
term  for  a  motto-bearing  ribbon 
or  inscription. 

Scrope,  a  north  of  England 
family.  Geoffrey  le  Scrope 
(d.  1340)  was  chief-justice  under 
Edward  ii.  and  Edward  iii. — ■ 
Henry  le  Scrope  (d.  1336),  his 
brother,  was  chief- justice  of  the 
King's  Bench  and  the  Exchequer. 
— Richard  le  Scrope  (1327- 
1403),  son  of  Henry,  was  at  the 
siege  of  Calais  and  at  Neville's 
Cross  (1346),  and  was  afterwards 
steward  to  Richard  ii.,  and  be- 
came chancellor  (1378). — Rich- 
ard le  Scrope  (c.  1350-1405), 
archbishop  of  York,  was  beheaded 
for  conspiracy  against  Henry  iv. 

Scrope,  George  Julius  Pou- 
LETT  (1797-1876),  English  geol- 
ogist and  political  economist. 
He  published  Considerations  on 
Volcanoes  (1824)  and  Geology  of 
the  Extinct  Volcanoes  in  Central 
France  (1826).  He  entered  Par- 
liament in  1833,  and  became  a 
supporter  of  free  trade  and  social 
reforms,  which  he  advocated  in 

Eamphlets  so  numerous  that  he 
ecame  known  as  'Pamphlet 
Scrope.'  He  sat  in  Parliament 
for  Stroud  till  1868,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  small  book  on  Political 
Economy  (1833)  and  of  a  Life  of 
his  brother,  Lord  Sydenham 
(1843). 

Scrophularlaceae,  a  natural 
order  of  plants,  mostly  herba- 
ceous, though  some  are  shrubs  and 
a  few  are  small  trees.  They  bear 
usually  irregular  flowers  with 
four  or  five  persistent  sepals,  a 
gamopetalous  corolla,  frequently 
bilabiate,  generally  four  sta- 
mens, didynamous,  and  a  two- 
lobed  stigma.  Many  herbs  used 
in  medicine  are  included  in  this 
order,  the  most  important  being 
the  foxglove  and  digitalis.  Among 
the  genera  are  Pentstemon,  Antir- 
rhinum, •  Calceolaria,  Mimulus, 
Linaria,  and  Verbascum. 

Scrub,  the  generic  name  ap- 
plied to  the  stunted  tree  or  shrub 
growth  which  overruns  many 
parts  of  Australia  and  elsewhere. 
The  common  scrub  is  known  as 
the  'mallee'  or  'mulga.'  It  lends 
a  dreary  aspect  to  the  features  of 
the  country.  Other  more  pleasing 
varieties  are  the  tea  tree  and  the 
heath.  The  term  is  applied 
generically  to  any  scanty,  dwarf- 
growing,  stunted  vegetation,  and 
even  to  underwoods. 

Scruple.  See  Weights  and 
Measures. 

Scud.    See  Cloud. 

Scudder,  Henry  Martyn 
(1822-1895),  American  Dutch 
Reformed  missionary.  He  was 
born  at  Pandeteripo,  Ceylon,  the 
son  of  Rev.  John  Scudder,  a  mis- 
sionary.   In  1840  he  graduated 


Scudder 

at  the  New  York  University,  and 
in  1843  at  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary.  He  returned  to  India 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Amer- 
ican Board,  and  remained  there 
as  missionary  and  physician — • 
he  took  a  degree  of  m.d.  in 
1853— until  ill-health  compelled 
him  in  1864  to  return  to  the  U.  S. 
He  was  pastor  in  San  Francisco 
in  1865-71;  in  Brooklyn  in 
1872-82,  and  in  Chicago  in  1882- 
87.  In  the  last  year  he  again 
took  up  missionary  work,  this 
time  gomg  to  Japan,  where  he 
remained  until  1889.  He  wrote 
several  books  in  the  Tamil  dialect 
of  India.  Among  them  are: 
Liturgy  of  the  Reformed  Protes- 
tant Dutch  Church  (1862);  Sweet 
Savors  of  Divine  Truth  (1868); 
Spiritual  Teaching  (1870).  He 
wrote  also  Reminiscences  of  Rev. 
John  Scudder  (1870). 

Scudder,  Horace  Elisha 
(1838-1902),  American  editor  and 
author.  He  was  born  in  Boston, 
and  graduated  at  Williams  Col- 
lege in  1858.  He  engaged  in 
literary  work  in  New  York,  and 
his  first  book.  Seven  Little  People 
and  Their  Friends  (1862),  was  so 
successful  that  he  devoted  him- 
self for  several  years  entirely  to 
juvenile  writing.  In  1867-70  he 
edited  the  Riverside  Magazine 
for  Young  People,  in  Boston.  In 
the  latter  year  he  became  con- 
nected with  the  publishing  house 
of  Houghton,  Mifilin  &  Co.,  and 
remained  in  the  book  department 
until  1890,  when  he  succeeded 
Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich  as  editor 
of  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  a  po- 
sition which  he  retained  until  nis 
death.  His  Life  of  James  Rus- 
sell Lowell  ( 1901 )  was  a  notable 
contribution  to  American  let- 
ters. His  other  books  include: 
Dream  Children  (1863);  Stories 
from  my  Attic  (1869);  The  Bod- 
ley  Books,  8  vols.  (1875-87); 
The  Dwellers  in  Five  Sisters 
Court  (1876);  Stories  and  Ro- 
mances (1880);  The  Children's 
Book  (1881);  Boston  Town  (1881); 
Noah  Webster,  in  'The  American 
Men  of  Letters'  series  (1882); 
History  of  the  United  States 
(1887);  Life  of  George  Washing- 
ton (1889);  Childhood  in  Litera- 
ture and  Art  (1894),  He  edited, 
with  Justin  Winsor,  A  Memorial 
History  of  Boston  (1880-81);  Life 
and  Letters  of  Bayard  Taylor,  with 
Mrs.  Taylor,  and  The  American 
Commonwealth  series. 

Scudder,  Samuel  Hubbard 
(1837),  American  entomologist, 
bom  in  Boston,  Mass.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Williams  College  in  1857, 
in  1862-64  was  assistant  in  the 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zool- 
ogy; in  1863-64  lecturer;  and  in 
1879-82  assistant  librarian  in 
Harvard  University.  He  was 
custodian  (1804-70)  and  president 
(1880-87)  of  the  Boston  Natural 
History  Society.    In  1886-92  he 


Scuddet 

was  a  palaeontologist  to  the  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey.  He  was  editor 
of  Science  in  1883-85.  His  publi- 
cations include:  A  Century  of 
Orlhoplera  (1879);  The  Winnipeg 
Country  (188());  Butterflies  of  the 
Eastern  U nitcd  States  and  Canada 
(1889);  The  Fossil  Insects  of 
North  America  (1890);  Index  to 
the  Known  Fossil  Insects  of  the 
World  (1891);  The  Life  of  a 
Butterfly  (1893);  Catalogue  of  the 
Described  Orthoptera  of  U.  S.  and 
Canada  (1900);  and  Index  to  the 
North  American  Orthoptera  (Bos- 
ton Soc.  of  Nat.  History's  18th 
and  19th  Centuries,  1901). 

Scudder,  Vida  Button  (1861), 
American'  educator  and  writer, 
born  at  Madura,  India,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Rev.  Henry  M.  Scudder. 
She  graduated  at  Smith  College 
in  1884,  and  studied  at  Oxford 
and  in  Paris.  In  1887  she  be- 
came instructor  in  literature  in 
Wellesley  College,  and  subse- 
quently associate  professor  in  the 
same  chair.  She  was  active  in 
the  establishment  of  college  set- 
tlements in  large  cities.  She 
wrote :  How  the  Rain  Sprites  were 
Freed  (1883);  Life  of  the  Spirit 
in  the  Modern  English  Poets 
(1895);  Social  Ideals  in  English 
Letters  (1898);  An  Introduction 
to  the  Study  of  English  Literature 
(1901);  A  Listener  tn  Babel  (1903); 
and  edited  Selected  Poems  of 
George  MacDonald  ( 1887 )  and 
Selected  Letters  of  St.  Catharine 
of  Sienna  (1905). 

Scudery,  Madeleine  de  (1607- 
1701),  French  writer  of  romances, 
born  at  Havre,  who  wrote  among 
other  works  Ibrahim  ou  I'lllustre 
Bassa  (1641);  Artamene,  ou  le 
Grand  Cyrus  (1649-53);  Clelie, 
Histoire  Romaine  (1656-60);  and 
Almahide,  ou  I'Esclave  Reine 
(1660-3),  which  were  greeted  with 
universal  admiration.  The  first 
three  were  published  under  her 
brother's  name.  Although  they 
were  long-winded  and  indifferent 
novels,  they  reflected  the  spirit 
of  the  time,  reproducing  faith- 
fully, in  some  respects,  the  fash- 
ionable society  of  France.  Mile, 
de  Scudery  had  a  famous  salon  in 
Paris.  See  Rathery's  Mile,  de 
Scudery,  sa  Vie  et  sa  Correspond- 
ance  (1873),  and  Mason's  The  Wo- 
men of  the  French  Salons  (1891). 
Her  brother  Georges  (1601-67), 
acquired  some  distinction  as  a 
dramatist,  winning  the  favor  of 
Richelieu,  and  becoming  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  (1650). 

Scudo.  (1.)  An  old  Italian 
silver  coin,  varying  locally  in 
value  from  5  to  8  francs,  and  sub- 
divided into  10  paoli  and  100 
hajocchi.  i^i.)  A  gold  coin  struck 
at  Rome  by  the  French  =  17.25 
francs.  (3  )  At  present  a  silver 
coin  eauivalent  to  the  U.  S.  dollar, 
Spanish  piastre,  English  crown  = 
5  francs. 

Sculling,  the  impelling   of  a 


56 

boat  by  means  of  two  sculls  or 
small  oars,  each  rowed  with  one 
hand.  The  term  is  also  applied 
to  the  propulsion  of  a  boat  by 
means  of  a  long  oar  from  its 
stern,  where  it  is  worked  from 
side  to  side  with  a  twist  which 
produces  the  effect  of  a  screw- 
propeller.   See  Rowing. 

Sculpin,  a  name  first  given  to 
the  fishes  belonging  to  the  genus 
Callionymus,  especially  C.  lyra, 
the  gowdie  of  Scotland  and  gem- 
meous  dragonet  of  England.  In 
North  America  the  name  is  ap- 
plied to  similar  rough  and  despised 
cattaid  fishes  known  more  usually 
as  sea-robins. 

Sculptor,  a  small  constella- 
tion between  Cetus  and  Phoenix, 
formed  by  Lacaille  in  1752.  The 
brightest  star  is  of  4.2  magnitude. 

Sculpture  is  the  art  of  carving 
any  substance  into^  a  designed 
form.  The  material  may  be 
stone,  clay,  wood,  ivory,  or 
metal,  hand  wrought  or  cast  in 
moulds.  Sculpture  may  be  in 
the  round  or  detached  form — 
such  as  statues  of  gods,  men, 
animals — or  may  be  figures  or 
designs  in  low  or  high  relief  for 
decorative  purposes  and  archi- 
tectural ornamentation.  Sculp- 
ture, as  an  art,  in  its  widest  sense, 
can  be  traced  through  all  the 
known  civilizations — in  Mexico, 
Babylon,  in  the  rock-hewn  tem- 
ples of  India,  the  bronze  gods 
and  demons  of  China,  in  the 
colossal  figures  and  decorations 
of  temples  in  Egypt,  and  its 
admirable  wrought  statues  in 
carved  wood.  As  a  concrete  art 
it  reached  its  culmination  at  the 
hands  of  the  Greeks — such  as 
Myron,  Phidias,  Praxiteles — who 
developed  it  from  the  limitations 
imposed  by  Egyptian  convention 
to  the  fullest  expression  of  beauty 
of  the  human  form.  The  Romans 
were  the  inheritors  and  imitators 
of  the  Greek  tradition,  but,  add- 
ing nothing  to  it,  brought  about 
its  decadence.  The  decay  of 
Graeco-Roman  art  was  coincident 
with  the  waning  of  paganism. 
The  Byzantine  empire  introduced 
a  new  element  of  Oriental  design, 
which,  blended  with  the  wide- 
spread Celtic  influence,  espe- 
cially among  the  Scandinavian 
branches,  produced  an  elaborate 
form  of  sculptural  decoration 
from  Sicily  and  Ravenna  to  Nor- 
way and  Ireland.  This  reached 
its  highest  expression,  after  the 
general  spread  of  Christianity, 
in  sculptural  ornamentation  of 
tombs  and  crosses.  Out  of  it 
grew  in  the  north  the  form  of 
architectural  sculpture  devoted 
in  France  and  England  mainly 
to  the  beautifying  of  stone  ca- 
thedrals. Natural  instinct  was 
strong  and  faith  fervent,  and 
with  the  development  of  Gothic 
architecture,  facades,  capitals, 
altars,  demanded    carved  detail 


Sculpture 

and  ornamentation  of  figure  re- 
liefs and  statues.  With  the  rise 
of  Norman  power  Norman-Gothic 
art  spread  in  France  and  Eng- 
land, to  Italy  and  to  Sicily,  where 
it  was  blended  with  lingering 
Byzantine  and  Saracenic  influ- 
ences. In  Sicily,  Greek  and 
Saracen  workmen  wrought  out 
Norman  ideas.  During  the  13th 
century  Italian  workmen  were 
imported  as  skilled  carvers  into 
England,  and  there  stone  carving 
excelled  till  the  middle  of  the  14th 
century,  and  wood  carving  dur- 
ing the  Perpendicular  of  the  15th 
centu^;  but  with  the  16th  cen- 
tury Gothic  art  declined  uhder 
Ital  ian  influence,  such  as  that  of 
Torrigiano. 

Gothic  sculpture  reached  its 
highest  expression  in  France  in 
the  12th  and  13th  centuries. 
Facades  of  great  cathedrals  were 
richly  ornamented  with  carved 
traceries  and  statues,  such  as  at 
Poitiers,  Chartres,  Rheiins,  the 
Sainte-Chapelle  in  Paris,  and  the 
tombs  and  statues  of  dead  heroes, 
such  as  the  effigies  in  St.  Denis — 
a  form  of  sculpture  peculiarly- 
Christian,  as  compared  with  Greek 
feeling,  which  concerned  itself 
with  the  representation  of  life 
only.  In  the  14th  century  the 
Gothic  impulse  waned,  and  the 
15th  saw  the  transition  to  the 
style  of  the  Italian  Renaissance. 
In  Germany,  Gothic  sculpture 
culminated  in  the  14th  century 
in  the  hands  of  the  Nuremberg 
schools,  and  of  men  such  as  Balier. 
In  the  15th  century  flourished 
the  great  wood-carvers  Syrling, 
Veit  Stoss,  and  three  generations 
of  the  Vischer  family;  while  to 
the  16th  century  belongs  fine 
bronze  and  metal  work,  such  as 
the  tomb  of  the  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian at  Innsbruck.  In  Spain, 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  Moham- 
medans, sculpture  was  the  hand- 
maid of  religious  architecture, 
under  French  and  German  in- 
fluence, such  as  in  the  churches 
of  Salamanca,  Valladolid,  Bur- 
gos, and  the  tombs  of  the  church 
of  Miraflores.  In  the  16th  cen- 
tury the  influence  of  the  Italian 
Renaissance  was  paramount,  and 
produced  a  few  noted  native  sculp- 
tors, such  as  Montanes,  whose 
statues  are  in  Seville,  and  the 
realist  Cano. 

The  Greek  tradition  in  sculp- 
tural form  is  peculiarly  distin- 
guished among  the  Graeco-Latin 
races.  In  mediaeval  days  the 
Italians,  in  modern  times  the 
French,  have  inherited  the  Greek 
severity  of  form  with  suavity  of 
expression,  and  no  little  of  the 
severe  but  less  abstract  Roman 
touch.  Byzantine  influence  was 
paramount  in  Italy  until  the  12th 
century-  thereafter,  in  the  13th 
and  14th  centuries,  came  a  rebirth 
of  art  at  the  hands  of  those 
pioneers  of  the  Renaissance,  the 


SCULPTURE —11.  MODERN  EUROPEAN  EXAMPLES. 

1.  Frederick  the  Great,  by  Ranch,  at  Berlin.  2.  Lion  and  Serpent,  by  Barye.  Paris.  3.  Triumph  of  the  Republic,  by  Dajo". 
Paris.  4.  Teucer,  by  Hamo  Thornycroft,  R.  A.,  Tate  Gallery,  London.  5.  Christ,  by  Thorwaldsen,  at  Copenhagen.  6.  The 
Mower  (Le  Faucheur),  by  Meunier.  7.  Truth  plucking  out  the  Tongue  of  Falsehood,  by  Alfred  Stevens,  from  the  Wellington 
Monument,  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  8.  Bavaria,  by  Schwanthaler,  Munich.  9.  Voltaire,  by  Houdon. 


Sculpture 


Sculpture 


Pisani,  and  their  followers,  Delia, 
Quercia,  Orcagna,  and  Giotto. 
It  grew  out  of  the  Gothic  Iwe 
of  realistic  treatment  of  living 
forms,  and  the  awakening  of  the 
sense  of  Greek  beauty  of  form 
and  balance,  owing  to  the  dis- 
covery of  Greek  sarcophagi  and 
statues.  These  sculptors  deco- 
rated the  great  cathedrals — Pisa, 
Siena,  Orvieto,  Giotto's  Tower  at 
Florence.  Giovanni  Pisano  in- 
troduced a  dramatic  element  into 
his  work;  in  the  15th  century 
Ghiberti  forsook  the  severe  limits 
of  plastic  art,  in  his  bronze  gates 
at  Florence,  and  introduced  pic- 
torial elements  of  perspective 
and  architectural  backgrounds 
into  his  reliefs.  To  this  period 
also  belong  the  realists  and 
anatomical  artists,  Verrocchio, 
PoUaijuolo,  the  pietist  Mina  da 
Fiesole,  and  the  Delia  Robbia 
family,  whose  ceramics  brought 
art  within  the  sympathetic  under- 
standing of  the  people.  _  With 
Donatello  Christian  Renaissance 
reached  its  purest  development — ■ 
noble  controlled  expression  of 
Christian  fervor  embodied  in  the 
fine  restrained  form  of  Greek 
art.  In  the  16th  century  Gio- 
vanni Bologna  and  Benvenuto 
Cellini  produced  fine  statues  and 
portrait  -  busts  in  marble  and 
bronze  ;  and,  finally,  Michael 
Angelo,  the  Titan  of  the  Renais- 
sance, is  the  last  great  exponent 
of  mediaeval  Christianity  and  the 
herald  of  modern  sculpture,  inas- 
much as  he  introduced  the  new 
element  of  the  struggle  of  man 
with  destiny,  of  his  anguish  under 
the  passing  of  -  material  con- 
ditions, the  wrestling  of  spirit 
freeing  itself  from  ecclesiastical 
bondage  as  at  the  dawn  of  the  Ref- 
ormation. Thereafter  Bernini  is 
the  chief  figure  of  the  decadence 
of  the  17th  century.  Cahova  and 
his  Danish  (Icelandic)  follower 
Thorwaldsen  are  the  chief  expo- 
nents of  the  pseudo-classicism  of 
the  18th  century. 

In  England  the  introduction 
of  Protestantism  was  followed 
by  a  decline  of  the  plastic  arts. 
Nicholas  Stone  (d.  1047)  carved 
effigies  and  tombs  under  Inigo 
Jones,  and  the  Dutchman  Grin- 
ling  Gibbons  worked  under  Sir 
Christopher  Wren.  _  In  the  18th 
century  Flaxman  initiated  the 
classical  revival  in  sculpture; 
early  in  the  19th  Chantrey  was 
the  chief  pseudo  -  classicist.  J. 
Gibson  strove  to  revive  poly- 
chromatic sculpture.  A  return 
to  nature  was  attempted  by  West- 
macott,  Wyatt,  and  Bell.  The 
finest  sculptor  of  the  first  half 
of  the  Victorian  era  was  Alfred 
Stevens  (1817-75),  who  designed 
the  Wellington  memorial  in  St. 
Paul's.  To  a  later  date  belong 
Sir  Edwin  Landseer's  Lions  on 
Nelson's  Monument. 

In  Germany  the  influence  oi 


the  Italian  Renaissance  was  para- 
mount in  the  17th  and  18th  cen- 
turies, and  in  the  beginning  of 
the  19th  century  the  pseudo- 
classical  revival  was  in  the  hands 
of  Tieck,  Ranch,  Rietschel,  and 
Schwanthaler,  who  designed  the 
Valhalla  above  the  Danube  near 
Ratisbon,  and  the  Bavaria  monu- 
ment in  Munich. 

French  sculpture  fell  under  the 
influence  of  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance in  the  16th  century  through 


classicism  of  the  18th  century,  and 
claimed  liberty  of  choice  for  the 
artist.  After  the  French  Revolu- 
tion Rude  and  Carpcaux  strove  to 
give  expression  to  direct  sponta- 
neous human  emotion,  and  m  this 
they  were  followed  by  Barye,  who 
was  the  first  great  sculptor  of  ani- 
mals since  Greek  days.  The 
Italian  and  French  sculptors 
added  each  a  definite  quality  to 
sculpture  as  understood  by  the 
Greeks.    The  Italians  added  the 


•  GeorgeWashingtotij'  on  the  Steps  oj  the  Sub-Tr  easier  y.  New  York  City. 
(By  J.  Q.  A.  Ward.) 


the  work  and  presence  in  France 
of  Benvenuto  Cellini,  and  Gou- 
jon  was  its  chief  exponent.  The 
17th  century  was  dominated  by 
the  artificial  taste  of  the  court  of 
Louis  XIV.  Paget,  however,  strove 
to  break  the  cramping  conven- 
tions and  to  create  a  nobler  and 
more  natural  form  of  art.  Houdon, 
a  man  of  exceptional  power,  was 
the  precursor  of  the  modern 
school.    He  forsook  the  pseudo- 


intensity  of  religious  emotion,  of 
spiritual  yearning.  French  mod- 
ern sculptors,  since  the  commune, 
have  touched  a  new  human  ex- 
pression, and  are  concerned  with 
the  worldly  needs  of  man;  he  is  no 
longer  the  saint,  the  hero,  but 
the  human  being  moulding  his 
life  out  of  material  conditions 
bv  the  sweat  of  his  labor.  The 
chief  modern  sculptors  are  Con- 
stantine  Meunier  (Belgian),  Bar- 


Sculpture 


60 


Sculpture 


tholome,  Dalou,  Mercie,  Fal- 
guiere,  and  Rodin,  who  has 
opened  further  vistas  as  a  pro- 
found psychologist  of  passion  and 
suffering.  The  influence  of  recent 
French  sculpture  has  caused  a 
widespread  reawakening  of  the 
art. 

In  Russia,  where  sculpture  has 
practically  come  into  existence 
since  the  emancipation  of  the 
serfs,  the  chief  exponents  are 
Antokolsky  (d.  1902)  and  Bek- 
lemisheff,  a  young  man  of  talent. 
In  England  excellent  work  has 


portrait  in  marble,  did  some  credi- 
table work  before  Powers's  time. 
Powers's  Greek  Slave,  now  in 
the  Corcoran  Gallery  at  Washing- 
ton, was,  however,  the  first  statue 
of  art  importance  by  an  Ameri- 
can, and  notwithstanding  its 
lack  of  originality  it  remains  re- 
markable for  dig'nity  and  purity 
of  line.  A  contemporary  of 
Powers's  was  Thomas  Crawford 
(1813-57),  who  in  his  short  life- 
time produced  some  remarkable 
works,  notably  the  figure  of  Lib- 
erty on  the  dome  of  the  Washing- 


Meade,  Launt  Thompson,  and 
William  Rimmer  belong  to  the 
same  period.  Coming  soon  after 
them  IS  Olin  Warner  (1844-96), 
whose  nude  figure  of  Diana  is 
considered  by  some  critics  the 
best  work  of  its  kind  yet  produced 
in  America,  With  Augustus 
Saint-Gaudens  (1848)  begins  an 
era  in  which  American  work 
is  marked  with  all  the  technical 
perfection  characterizing  the  mod- 
ern French  sculpture  of  such  men 
as  Mercie,  Falguicre,  and  Rodin, 
and  also  with  an  originality  of  its 


Statue  of  General  W.  T.  Sherman,  in  the  Central  Park  Plaza,  New  York  City. 
(By  Augustus  St.  Gaudens.) 


been  done  by  Foley,  Alfred  Gil- 
bert, Onslow  Ford,  Thornycroft, 
Frampton,  and  Harry  Bates,  and 
in  Scotland  by  Pittendrigh  Mac- 
gillivray  and  John  Tweed,  to  men- 
tion two  only  of  the  younger  men. 

In  the  United  States  Hiram 
Powers  (1805-73)  was  the  first 
sculptor  who  really  deserved  the 
name,  although  William  Rush, 
a  ship -carver  whose  allegorical 
statue  of  the  Schuylkill  River 
stands  in  Fairmount  Park,  Phila- 
delphia, and  John  Frazee,  the 
first  native  sculptor  to  make  a 


ton  Capitol,  and  the  bronze  doors 
of  the  Capitol.  In  connection 
with  work  on  the  Capitol,  the 
eight  panels  on  the  door  in  the 
rotunda,  by  Randolph  Rogers 
(1825-92),  portraying  scenes  from 
the  career  of  Columbus,  may  also 
be  noted.  Thomas  Ball  (1819) 
and  Henry  K.  Browne  (1814- 
86)  both  succeeded  in  making 
equestrian  statues  that  satisfied 
popular  taste,  the  latter's  Wash- 
mgton  statue  in  Union  Square, 
New  York  city,  rising  above  the 
average  of  such  work.    Larkin  J. 


own.  The  list  of  Saint-Gaudens's 
notable  achievements  is  a  long 
one.  His  Farragut  in  Madison 
Square,  Peter  Cooper,  near  the 
Cooper  Union,  the  equestrian 
statue  of  General  Sherman  at  the 
Central  Park  entrance,  all  in 
New  York  city;  the  Shaw  Me- 
morial in  Boston,  the  Puritan 
in  Springfield,  the  figure  of  Grief 
in  the  cemetery  at  Washington, 
and  the  Robert  Louis  Stevenson 
medalUon,  all  need  mention  in 
any  record  of  American  sculptors. 
Daniel    C.    French    (1850).  a 


THE  HEWER,  BY  GEORGE  GREY  BARNARD 
Vol.  XI.— Page  61  Vol.  XI.— Oct.  '25 


Sculpture 


61  A 


Sculptured  Stones  of  Scotland 


pupil  of  Rimmer  and  Thomas 
Ball,  produced  in  his  relief, 
Death  Stopping  the  Sculptor's 
Hand,  for  the  Milmore  Memorial 
in  Boston,  a  work  that  attracted 
serious  attention,  and  he  has 
followed  it  with  much  good  sculp- 
ture, such  as  the  Alma  Mater 
on  the  steps  of  the  Columbia  Uni- 
versity Library  in  New  York,  the 
Minute  Man  at  Concord,  Mass., 
and  John  Harvard  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.  Of  more  recent  date  is 
his  Lincoln  for  the  Lincoln  Me- 
morial at  Washington.  The 
winning  grace  of  Frederick  Mac- 
Monnies'  (1863)  dancing  Bac- 
chante, which  the  Boston  Public 
Library  would  have  none  of,  and 
which  finally  found  a  resting- 
place  in  the  Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum of  New  York,  placed  him  at 
once  in  the  front  rank  of  the 


younger  American  sculptors.  His 
fountain  at  the  Chicago  World's 
Fair  of  1893,  with  its  twenty- 
seven  colossal  figures,  proved 
him  a  master  of  the  picturesque, 
while  the  Nathan  Hale  statue  in 
New  York's  City  Hall  Park  and 
the  Stranahan  statue  in  Brooklyn 
show  that  he  can  do  excellent 
work  of  a  less  flamboyant  char- 
acter. His  much  discussed  Civic 
Virtue  in  City  Hall  Park,  New 
York  City,  is  a  masterly  piece  of 
work.  John  Quincy  Adams 
Ward  (1830-1910)  made  his  first 
impression  with  The  Freedman  (a 
negro  free  from  his  fetters),  a 
work  that  typified  most  happily 
the  results  of  the  Civil  War. 
His  statues  of  Greeley,  in  New 
York,  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  in 
Brooklyn,  The  Pilgrim,  in  Central 
Park,  New  York  City,  and  Wash- 
ington, in  Wall  Street,  New  York, 
further  enhanced  his  reputation. 
Among    American  sculptors 

Vol.  XL— Oct.  '25 


who  have  distinguished  them- 
selves in  decorative  work  are 
Isidore  Konti  (1862),  an  Austrian 
by  birth;  Karl  Bitter  (1867- 
1915) — also  born  in  Austria — 
whose  pediment  for  the  Wiscon- 
sin State  Capitol  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  America;  Philip  Mar- 
tiny  (1858),  a  native  of  France; 
J.  Massy  Rhind  and  Charles 
Grafly  (1862),  who  has  achieved 
special  distinction  for  his  por- 
trait busts.  F.  W.  RuckstuU 
(1853)  did  important  work  at 
various  expositions,  and  for  the 
Customs  House  and  the  Appellate 
Court  Buildings,  New  York 
City.  Others  who  have  con- 
tributed materially  to  the  beauty 
of  many  important  structures 
are  Herbert  Adams  (1858);  Wil- 
liam Ordway  Partridge  (1861), 
who  has  also  rendered  valuable 


service  to  art  by  his  lectures  and 
writings;  Charles  H.  Niehaus 
(1855);  Bela  Lyon  Pratt  (1867- 
1917);  Paul  Wayland  Bartlett 
(1865),  whose  best  work  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  Congressional  Library ; 
George  Grey  Barnard  (1863), 
notable  for  his  highly  original 
and  virile  work,  as  exemplified 
in  the  heroic  groups  at  the 
Pennsylvania  State  Capitol;  Al- 
bert Jaegers  (1868),  who  in  1920 
completed  a  fine  Pioneer  Monu- 
ment for  Germantown,  Pa. ;  Lor- 
ado  Taft  (1860);  Adolph  Wein- 
man (1870). 

Cyrus  E.  Dallin  (1861)  and 
Hermon  A.  MacNeil  (1866)  are 
especially  distinguished  for  their 
Indian  groups,  and  Edward 
Kemeys  (1843-1907),  A.  Phimis- 
ter  Proctor  (1862),  Edward  C. 
Potter  (1857-1923),  Solon  Borg- 
lum  (1868-1922),  Henry  Shrady 
a871),  and  Frederick  Roth 
(1872),  for  their  animal  studies. 


Gutzon  Borglum  (1867)  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  con- 
temporary American  sculptors. 
His  work,  which  shows  the  in- 
fluence of  Rodin,  is  strongly  real- 
istic; he  has  been  particularly 
successful  in  such  figures  as  the 
seated  Lincoln  at  Newark,  N.  J. 
Of  the  younger  group  of  Ameri- 
can sculptors,  probably  the  most 
notable  is  Paul  Manship  (1886). 

American  women  who  have 
achieved  fame  in  this  form  of 
art  include  Harriet  Hosmer 
(1830-1908),  Anne  Whitney, 
Edith  Woodman  Burroughs, 
Janet  Scudder  (1873),  Evelyn 
Beatrice  Longman,  Anne  Vaughn 
Hyatt  (1876). 

Consult  Marquand  and  Froth- 
ingham's  History  of  Sculpture; 
W.  B.  Scott's  British  School  of 
Sculpture;  M.  H.  Spielmann's 
British  Sculpture  and  Sculptors  of 
To-day;  Claretie's  Peintures  et 
sculptures  contemporaines;  Lub- 
ke's  History  of  Sculpture  (Eng. 
trans.) ;  Perkins'  Italian  Sculptors 
and  Tuscan  Sculptors;  Symonds' 
Renaissance  in  Italy;  Ruskin's 
Stones  of  Venice  and  Aratra 
Pentelici;  Guillot's  Les  artistes  en 
Espagne;  Post's  A  History  of 
European  and  American  Sculp- 
ture (1921);  Lorado  Taft's  His- 
tory of  American  Sculpture  (new 
ed.  1924). 

Sculptured  Stones  of  Scotland, 
remains  of  Celtic  art,  chiefly 
crosses  and  monuments, 
distributed  throughout  the  main- 
land of  Scotland  and  the  ad- 
jacent islcmds.  Their  principal 
features  are  incised  symbols, 
carved  interlaced  work  and 
figures  of  men  and  beasts 
sculptured  usually  in  low  relief. 
The  crosses  comprise  forms  of 
the  simplest  type,  as  at  Eilean 
Naoimh  (Garvelloch  Isles)  and 
various  localities  in  Wigtown- 
shire, and  such  masterpieces  of 
design  as  the  tomb  slabs  of  St. 
Vigeans  or  the  free-standing 
crosses  of  Kildalton,  Campbel- 
town, and  Ruthwell.  Many  of 
the  stones,  like  the  last  named 
and  one  from  Kilbar,  Barra, 
bear  runic  inscriptions;  a  few 
also  combine  symbols  with  Ogam 
inscriptions,  and  others  have 
Ogams  alone.  The  majority, 
however,  display  (1)  symbols 
such  as  the  crescent,  the  sceptre, 
the  mirror;  (2)  groups  of  animal 
forms;  (3)  hunting  scenes;  or 
(4)  representations  of  the  cruci- 
fixion and  other  scenes  from  the 
Scriptures.  Occasfonally,  as  at 
Dunfallandy  in  Perthshire,  one 
side  of  a  monument  displays  a 
cross  with  interlaced  work  and 
animals  while  on  the  other  side 
are  sculptured  symbols.  Near 
Kirkmadrine  in  Wigtownshire 
are  two  pillars  bearing  incised 
crosses  of  the  earliest  known 
form,  accompanied  by  a  Christian 
inscription  in  Latin.  In  respect 
of  time,  the  sculptured  stones 
extend  from  about  the  middle 


Scup 


61  B 


Scutellaria 


of  the  fifth  to  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. Similar  monuments  occur 
elsewhere  in  the  British  Isles. 
Consult  Allen's  Early  Christian 
Symbolism,  and  The  Early  Chris- 
tian Monuments  of  Scotland,  and 
Stuart's  Sculptured  Stones  of 
Scotland. 

Scup,    SCUPPAUG,    or  PORGY, 

a  small  sparoid  fish  {Stenotomus 
chrysops),  allied  to  and  resem- 
bling thesheepshead,  everywhere 
numerous  along  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  United  States  and  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  highly 
valued  for  food. 

Scurf,  minute  epithelial  scales 
formed  by  portions  of  the  cuticle 
separated  from  the  body  by 
friction  even  in  health.  It  is 
sometimes  called  furfur,  some- 
times dandruff  (see  Hair,  Dis- 
eases of).  Normally  the  scalp 
most  markedly  exhibits  this 
desquamation  of  epidermis,  to 
which  are  added  the  exuviae  of 
the  hair  follicles. 

Scur'vF,  or  Scorbutus,  a 
nutritional  disease,  characterized 
by  debihty,  anaemia,  a  spongy 
condition  of  the  gums,  and  a 
tendency  to  hemorrhage  in  and 
from  the  mucous  membranes 
into  the  skin  and  elsewhere. 
Various  theories  as  to  its  cause 
have  been  set  forth  from  time 
to  time.  The  theory  now  gener- 
ally accepted  dates  back  only  as 
far  as  1912,  when  Hoist  and 
Frohlich,  on  the  basis  of  obser- 
vations on  guinea  pigs,  attri- 
buted it  to  the  absence  of  a 
certain  chemical  substance  from 
the  diet — which  for  lack  of  a 
better  term  has  been  called  the 
'antiscorbutic  substance.'  This 
substance  has  been  found  to 
occur  in  fresh  vegetables,  fruit 
juices  (especially  orange  and 
lemon),  fresh  meat,  and  milk 
(slightly).  It  is  easily  destroyed 
by  drying  and  other  preservative 
measures,  which  accounts  for  the 
former  prevalence  of  the  disease 
among  soldiers  and  sailors  fed 
for  long  periods  on  preserved 
foods.  (See  Diet  and  Die- 
tetics.) 

Infantile  Scurvy  ('Barlow's 
disease')  is  seen  principally  in 
children  from  six  to  eighteen 
months  old.  It  is  commoner  in 
cities  than  in  country  districts, 
and  is  seen  more  frequently 
among  moderately  well-to-do 
people  than  among  the  very 
poor,  apparently  because  of  the 
greater  proportion  of  children  fed 
on  proprietary  foods,  and  the 
custom  of  boiling  and  sterilizing 
the  milk  used.  The  scorbutic 
child  is  sallow  and  fretful  before 
any  marked  physical  signs  of 
disease  appear.  Later  it  begins 
to  be  sensitive  to  the  touch, 
particularly  about  the  lower 
limbs,  and,  in  consequence  of 
the  pain  caused  by  movement, 
will  refuse  to  move  or  to  bear 


the  weight  on  the  legs.  Later  the 
limbs  swell,  the  tenderness  in- 
creasing. There  is  hemorrhage 
under  the  periosteum,  and  this 
not  only  causes  enlargement  and 
pain,  but  may  result  in  separa- 
tion of  the  cartilaginous  ends  of 
the  growing  long  bones,  such  as 
the  thigh  bones,  from  the  shafts. 
If  there  be  many  teeth,  the  gums 
are  spongy  and  swollen,  and 
there  is  frequently  an  ofTensive 
discharge.  The  appearances  are 
so  characteristic  that  diagnosis 
is  not  usually  difficult.  Rickets 
may  co-exist. 

The  prognosis  in  cases  properly 
treated  is  extremely  favorable. 
Treatment  is  simple,  consisting 
simply  in  dietary  measures.  A 
diet  of  fresh  cow's  milk,  suitably 
modified,  is  preferable,  to  which 
should  be  added  from  K  to  2 
ounces  of  orange  juice  daily. 


Common  Scurvy  Grass 
1.  Petal.   2.  Flower,  section.   3.  Fruit. 


The  juice  of  canned  tomatoes  is 
an  effective  substitute  for  the 
orange  juice.  Properly  prepared 
potato  water  has  also  proved 
effective.  Almost  immediate  im- 
provement is  noted,  and  except 
in  cases  of  long  standing  cure  is 
apparently  complete  within  a 
few  weeks.  The  most  important 
preventive  measure  is  the  use  of 
orange  juice  (10  c.c.  or  more 
daily)  for  all  bottle-fed  babies. 

Scurvy  in  Adults  responds  to 
treatment  less  rapidly  than  in- 
fantile scurvy,  but  the  outlook 
is  favorable  except  in  the  severest 
cases.  The  diet  should  include 
fresh  milk,  meats,  vegetables, 
and  fruits,  especially  orange  and 
lemon  juice.  Iron  tonics  are 
useful,  and  mouth  washes  of 
potassium  permanganate  are 
helpful.  The  gums  may  be 
painted  with  silver  nitrate  solu- 
tions.    If  possible,  the  patient 


should  stay  in  a  warm,  dry  place. 
The  use  of  fresh  foods — milk, 
meats,  vegetables  and  fruits — 
is  all  that  is  necessary  in  the  way 
of  prevention. 

Scurvy  Grass,  a  genus  (Coch- 
learia)  of  herbaceous  plants  be- 
longing to  the  order  Cruciferae. 
They  are  characterized  by  their 
fruit,  which  is  a  globose,  two- 
valved  pouch,  the  valves  not 
flattened.  The  common  scurvy 
grass  (C.  officinalis)  of  Great 
Britain  is  an  abundant  sea-shore 
plant,  with  heart-shaped  root 
leaves  and  oblong  stem  leaves, 
bearing  large  corymbs  of  white 
flowers  in  May. 

Scu'tage,  a  sum  of  money  pay- 
able by  a  knight  under  the  feudal 
system  for  his  fee  by  way  of  com- 
mutation for  personal  service.  It 
was  first  exacted  in  1159,  and  was 
restricted  by  Magna  Charta. 

Scutari,  skoo'ta-re,  town,  Al- 
bania, capital  of  the  vilayet  of 
the  same  name,  on  Lake  Scutari. 
Features  of  interest  are  the 
castle  and  cathedral.  Small  arms 
and  textiles  are  manufactured, 
and  grain,  wool,  tobacco,  and 
hides  are  exported.  Scutari,  the 
ancient  Scodra,  was  taken  by 
the  Romans  in  168  B.C.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  it  fell  into  the 
possession  of  the  Servians  and 
was  lost  by  them  to  the  Vene- 
tians. It  was  acquired  by  Turkey 
in  1479.  During  the  Balkan 
wars,  it  was  surrendered,  after 
a  six-months  siege,  to  the  Monte- 
negrins, but  they  were  forced  to 
hand  the  city  over  to  the  Powers, 
who  incorporated  it  in  the  new 
principality  of  Albania.  In  the 
course  of  the  Great  War  Scutari 
was  occupied  by  the  Austrians 
(Jan.  23,  1916)  after  the  Serbian 
debacle.    Pop.  32,000. 

Scutari,  or  Uskudar,  town, 
Asia  Minor,  on  the  Bosporus, 
opposite  Constantinople,  of  which 
it  forms  a  suburb.  See  Con- 
stantinople. 

Scutella'ria,  a  genus  of  peren- 
nial herbs  belonging  to  the  order 
Labiatae.  They  bear  flowers 
with  campanulate,  bilabiate 
calyxes,  the  upper  lip  bulging  out 
so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  lid  or  cap 
over  the  fruit,  and  a  bilabiate 
corolla,  the  lips  being  unequal. 
5.  lateriflora.  The  Mad  Dog 
Skullcap,  Madwort,  or  Hood- 
wort,  common  in  wet  places 
throughout  the  Eastern  United 
States,  has  a  much-branched  stem 
with  small  blue  (rarely  white) 
flowers.  It  was  once  regarded  as 
an  antidote  for  hydrophobia.  5. 
serrata,  the  Showy  Skullcap, 
bearing  racemes  of  blue  flowers, 
is  found  in  woods  from  the  lati- 
tude of  Southern  New  York 
southward  to  North  Carolina 
and  Kentucky.  Other  varieties 
are  the  Hyssop  Skullcap  (S. 
integrifolia) ,  Downy  Skullcap  {S. 
canescens).   Hairy  Skullcap  {S. 

Vol.  XL— Oct.  '25 


Scutum  Sobieskl 


62 


Sea 


pilosa),  and  Hooded  or  Marsh 
Skullcap  (5.  galericulata) . 

Scutum  Sobieski,  sku'tum  so- 
byes'ki,  a  small  constellation 
formed  by  Hevelius;  it  is  situated 
in  a  bright  part  of  the  Milky 
Way  south  of  Aquila,  and  in- 
cludes the  'Omega'  nebula  (M 
17)  and  the  well-known  cluster 
Messier  11.  R.  Scuti  varies  from 
4.4  to  9.0  magnitude  in  about 
:eventy-one  days. 

Scylax,  si'laks,  a  Greek  geog- 
rapher of  the  city  of  Caryanda 
in  Caria,  who,  according  to 
Herodotus,  was  sent  by  Darius 
Hystaspes  on  a  voyage  of  dis- 
covery down  the  Indus  into  the 
Indian  Ocean  and  the  Red  Sea. 
A  work  is  still  extant,  called  the 
Periplus,  ascribed  to  Scylax;  but 
it  is  probably  the  work  of  a 
writer  of  about  350  B.C.,  edited 
by  Fabricius  (1878). 

Scylla  and  Charybdis,  sil'a, 
ka-rib'dis,  in  ancient  Greek  legend 
two  monsters  of  the  sea.  Ac- 
cording to  Homer,  Scylla  was 
the  daughter  of  Triton  or  Po- 
seidon, and  lived  on  a  rock  in 
the  strait  of  Messina.  She  had 
twelve  feet,  six  long  necks  and 
heads,  armed  with  three  rows  of 
teeth,  with  which  she  snatched 
sailors  from  vessels  which  passed 
too  near.  At  a  bowshot  distance, 
under  a  low  rock,  Charybdis  alter- 
nately sucked  in  and  belched  forth 
the  water  so  that  no  one  could 
escape.  The  story  is  typical  of 
the  dangers  of  navigation  there, 
and  gave  rise  to  the  proverb, 
'You  fall  into  Scylla  trying  to 
avoid  Charybdis.'  A  later  story 
portrays  Scylla  as  a  beautiful 
maiden,  who  was  beloved  by  the 
sea-god  Glaucus.  He  asked  Circe 
to  give  him  charms  to  win  her 
love;  but  in  her  jealousy  Circe 
threw  magic  herbs  into  the  pool 
in  which  Scylla  bathed,  so  that 
while  above  the  waist  she  re- 
tained a  woman's  form,  below 
she  was  changed  into  a  fish-like 
shape,  encircled  by  dogs.  Ovid 
gives  this  account  in  his  Metamor- 
phoses. 

Scyphomedusse.  See  Jelly 
Fish. 

Scyphozoa,  one  of  the  three 
divisions  of  the  Coelenterata  (q. 
v.),  including  the  jelly  fish,  sea 
anemones,  and  allied  forms.  See 
Jelly  Fish;  Sea  Anemone. 

Scyros,  si'ros,  or  Skyros, 
island,  one  of  the  Northern 
Sporades  (see  Grecian  Archi- 
pelago), in  the  /Egean  Sea, 
Sea,  east  of  Euboea.  It  has  an 
area  of  79  square  miles,  moun- 
tainous in  the  south  but  with 
fertile  plains  in  the  north.  Wheat 
and  the  vine  are  grown,  and 
sheep  and  goats  are  raised.  On 
vScyros,  according  to  legend; 
Achilles  was  hidden  by  his  mother 
to  save  him  from  the  Trojan  War, 
and  there  Theseus  was  killed  and 
buried.    In  47G  B.C.  the  Athen- 


ians under  Cimon  conquered  Scy- 
ros, and  brought  home  the  bones 
of  the  hero.  It  was  then  a  pirate 
stronghold.  The  present  popula- 
tion is  about  3,500 

Scytale,  sit'a-le,  an  ancient 
Greek  contrivance  for  sending 
written  messages  decipherable 
only  by  possessors  of  the  key. 
It  consisted  of  a  staff  of  a  pe- 
culiar shape,  about  which  was 
wound  a  narrow  strip  of  leather, 
on  which  the  message  was  written 
lengthwise;  the  strip  was  then 
unrolled  and  sent  to  the  cor- 
respondent, who,  by  rolling  it 
round  a  similar  stick,  was  able  to 
read  it.  The  scytale  was  em- 
ployed especially  by  the  Spartans 
in  their  communications  between 
their  ephors  and  generals. 

Scyth'ia,  the  name  given  by 
the  ancient  Greeks  to  the  south- 
eastern part  of  modern  Europe, 
between  the  Carpathians  and 
the  Caucasus.  The  Scythians 
are  described  as  nomads  who 
lived  in  wagons  and  fought 
chiefly  on  horseback.  From  Her- 
odotus' description  of  their  ap- 
pearance they  seem  to  have  been 
of  Mongolian  race;  but  the  ten- 
dency of  modern  authorities  is  to 
regard  them  as  Aryans.  They 
inhabited  the  vast  treeless  plains 
that  stretch  from  the  Danube  to 
the  Volga,  keeping  herds  of 
horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  lived 
in  tent-covered  wagons,  fought 
with  bows  and  arrows  on  horse- 
back, made  drinking-skulls  of 
the  heads  of  their  slain  enemies, 
and  worshipped  without  images 
various  gods  like  those  of  the 
Aryan  Greeks.  From  the  Greek 
colonies  established  north  of  the 
Euxine  they  learned  something 
of  the  arts  of  civilization;  one  of 
their  kings,  Anacharsis,  even 
went  to  Athens  to  learn  at  the 
feet  of  Solon. 

In  the  seventh  century  B.C. 
the  Scythians  invaded  Media, 
and  were  only  got  rid  of  after 
ten  years'  occupation  by  Cyax- 
ares  making  all  their  chiefs  drunk 
at  a  banquet,  and  then  slaying 
them.  Shortly  after  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century  the  Scyth- 
ians (Scolots)  in  Europe  were 
subdued  and  in  great  part  ex- 
terminated by  the  Sarmatians. 
The  Scythians  of  Asia,  however, 
after  about  128  B.C.  overran 
Parthia  (Persia),  routed  several 
Parthian  armies,  and  levied  trib- 
ute from  the  Parthian  kings. 
They  founded  also  in  the  East  of 
the  empire  the  kingdom  of  Sa- 
castane,  so  that  that  part  of 
Asia  was  long  known  as  Indo- 
Scythia.  During  the  first  century 
before  and  the  first  century  after 
Christ  hordes  of  "Scythians,  hav- 
ing overthrown  the  Bactrian  and 
Indo-Greek  dynasties  of  Afghan- 
istan and  India  (125-25  B.c), 
invaded  Northern  India;  and 
there   they    maintained  them- 


selves with  varying  fortune  for 
five  centuries  longer. 

Scythopolis,  si-thop'o-lis.  the 
Biblical  Beth-shanor  Beth-shean, 
a  city  belonging  to  the  western 
half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  a  few 
miles  west  of  the  Jordan  and  12 
miles  south  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 
Excavations  undertaken  here 
after  the  overthrow  of  Turkish 
power  in  Palestine  in  the  Great 
War  have  been  particularly  rich 
in  results,  important  discoveries 
being  an  inscribed  stele  of  Seti  i. 
of  Egypt  (1313-1292  B.C.),  nam- 
ing some  of  the  Israelitish  tribes; 
the  first  sarcophagi  of  the  Philis- 
tines; and  the  sarcophagus  of 
Antiochus,  cousin  of  Herod  the 
Great.  In  September  1925 
American  archaeologists  un- 
earthed here  an  Egyptian  temple 
which  they  believe  dates  back 
to  1200  B.C.  Its  foundations 
measured  12  by  71 K  feet. 

Archaeologists  believe  that  the 
site  was  inhabited  as  early  as 
the  Stone  Age.  As  Scythopolis 
it  was  one  of  the  great  cities  of 
the  East  during  the  classical 
period.  It  was  conquered  by 
the  Arabs  in  632  a.d.  Under 
Turkish  rule,  it  was  part  of  the 
Sultan's  private  domain.  Close 
to  the  ruins  of  past  civilizations 
stands  the  native  village  of 
Beisan. 

Sea,  a  term  commonly  used 
to  denote  a  large  area  of  the 
ocean,  delineated  by  fairly  well- 
defined  land  boundaries.  Seas 
occupy  about  6K  per  cent,  of  the 
oceanic  area,  (1.)  Where  the 
land  is  almost  continuous,  we 
may  speak  of  midland  seas,  such 
as  the  Mediterranean,  Black,  and 
Baltic  Seas.  (2.)  Where  the  land 
is  continuous  only  on  two  or 
three  sides,  and  the  fourth  is  de- 
fined by  islands,  we  have  mar- 
ginal seas,  such  as  the  North 
Sea,  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  seas 
off  the  east  coast  of  Asia.  (3.) 
Where  the  land  exists  on  two 
opposite  sides  with  openings  to 
two  larger  areas  of  the  ocean  on 
the  other  two  opposite  sides  we 
talk  of  a  connecting  sea,  such  as 
Bering  Sea,  the  Norwegian  and 
Irish  Seas;  while  (4)  a  variety  of 
this  is  found  in  the  island- 
bordered  seas  of  Sulu  and  other 
basins  of  the  Malay  archipelago. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  depth 
we  may  distinguish  the  shallow 
seas  over  the  continental  shelf 
(transgression  seas)  from  the 
deep,  down-sunken  areas  such  as 
the  Mediterranean,  which  have 
been  termed  ingression  seas.  The 
term  sea  is  used  popularly  also 
for  a  great  gulf — e.g.  Arabian  Sea 
— and  for  some  salt  lakes,  such  as 
the  Caspian  Sea,  Sea  of  Aral,  the 
Dead  Sea.  See  separate  articles 
on  the  principal  oceans  and  seas; 
also  Ocean,  and  other  articles 
there  cited;  Marine  Biological 
Research;  Seashore. 


Vol.  XL— Oct.  '25 


SEA  ANEMONES. 

Types  of  Sea  Anemones.    The  specimen  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner  is  closed  for  protection. 


Sea 


63 


Seabury 


Sea,  Sovereignty  of  the. 
See  Sovereignty  or  the  Sea. 

Sea-anemone,  a  popular  name 
applied  to  certain  of  the  solitary 
members  of  the  Zoantharia,  on 
account  of  their  flower-like  ap- 
pearance. One  of  the  commonest 
sea-anemones  round  the  coasts  of 
the  N.  Atlantic  is  the  smooth 
anemone  (A  ctinia  mesemhryan- 
themum),  which  is  attached  to 
rocks  and  stones  between  tide- 
marks.  It  consists  of  the  base  (by 
which  the  animal  is  attached  to  its 
support),  the  upright  column,  and 
the  free  disc  (which  is  surrounded 
by  tentacles,  and  has  the  mouth  in 
tne  centre).  Round  the  base  of  the 
tentacles  may  be  observed  a  row  of 
blue  beads,  which  are  really  bat- 
teries of  stinging  cells.  The  ten- 
tacles are  also  furnished  with 
stinging  cells,  and  in  some  threads 
called  acontia,  covered  with  sting- 
ing cells,  can  be  shot  out  from  the 
sides  of  the  body ;  some  of  the  very 
large  tropical  forms  can  sting 
severely.  The  internal  anatomy 
is  complicated.  The  mouth,  for 
instance,  opens  into  a  gullet  which 
hangs  down  in  the  general  cavity 
of  the  body.  This  general  cavity 
is  crossed  by  a  number  of  parti- 
tions or  mesenteries,  which  di- 
vide the  cavity  into  a  series  of 
chambers.  On  these  mesenteries 
are  placed  the  reproductive  or- 
gans, and  also  tangled  threads 
known  as  the  digestive  filaments, 
which  are  often  protruded  when 
an  anemone  is  damaged  in  remov- 
ing it  from  the  rock.  The  sexes  are 
either  separated  or  united;  but, 
in  addition  to  the  sexual  method 
of  reproduction,  they  reproduce 
asexually  by  both  internal  and 
external  budding,  or  even  by  a 
mere  rupture  of  a  part  of  the 
body,  which  then  grows  into  a 
new  individual.  This  is  often 
seen  in  the  plumose  anemone 
{Actinoloba  dianthus),  a  beau- 
tiful form  common  just  below 
low-tide  mark.  The  colors  of 
anemones  are  very  variable,  and 
often  very  beautiful.  In  some 
instances  they  are  of  the  charac- 
ter described  as  protective  colora- 
tion. See  Gosse's  History  of  the 
British  Sea-anemones  ana  Corals 
(1860);  and  Mayer's  Sea-shore 
Life  (1906). 

Sea-bass,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  food-fishes  belonging  to 
the  family  Percidae,  such  as  the 
species  of  Centropristis,  two  of 
which  are  frequent  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  N.  America.  The  term 
is,  however,  vague,  and  often 
wrongfully  applied. 

Sea-bat,  a  name  given  to  the 
species  of  Platax  (fish  belonging 
to  the  horse-mackerel  family) 
on  account  of  the  great  elonga- 
tion of  the  dorsal,  anal,  and  ven- 
tral fins.  All  the  species  occur 
in  the  Indian  and  W.  Pacific 
Oceans. 

Sea-bear.  See  Fur-seal. 
Vol.  XL— 5. 


Sea-blubber,  a  name  for  jelly- 
fish. 

Sea-bream.  See  Bream. 

Sea-buckthorn,  or  Sallow- 
THORN  {HippophcB  Rhamnoides)t 
a  thorny  shrub  found  near  the 
sea  in  Europe.  It  beairs  nar- 
row gray  leaves,  small  greenish 


and  at  Edinburgh,  was  ordained 

Eriest  by  the  bishop  of  Carlisle  at 
,ondon.  Returning  to  America 
he  was  a  missionary  at  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  was  rector  at 
Jamaica,  L.  I.,  from  1757  to  1766, 
and  was  rector  at  Westchester, 
N.  Y.,  from  1767  to  1775,  in  which 


Types  of  Sea-anemones. 


1,  Actinia  mesembryanthemum.  2.  Sagartia  bellis.  3.  S.  coccinea.  4.  Actino- 
loba dianthus.  5.  Anthea  cercus.  6.  Bolocera  Tuediae.  7.  Tealia  crassicornis. 
8.  Peachia  hastata. 


white  flowers  in  late  spring,  and 
juicy,  acid,  orange-colored  ber- 
ries in  autumn. 

Seabury,  Samuel  (1729-96), 
American  P.  E.  prelate,  born  at 
Groton,  Conn.  He  graduated 
(1748)  at  Yale,  studied  medicine 
at  Edinburgh  University  during 
1752-53,  and  in  1753,  having  also 
studied  theology  under  his  father, 


year  his  advocacy  of  the  Loyalist 
cause  obliged  him  to  suspend  his 
ministrations.  During  the  Revo- 
lution he  practised  medicine  in 
New  York,  and  was  chaplain  of 
a  royal  regiment.  In  1783  he  was 
elected  bishop  of  Connecticut, 
but  was  not  immediately  conse- 
crated owing  to  difficulties  with 
the  English  law.    He  was  conse- 


Seabury 

crated  at  Aberdeen  on  Nov.  14, 
1784,  by  three  bishops  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland. 
Returning  to  the  U.  S.,  his 'juris- 
diction was  admitted  by  the 
church  members  of  Connecticut, 
and  he  was  requested  to  extend  it 
over  Rhode  Island.  At  the  Gen- 
eral Convention  of  1789  his 
authority  was  confirmed  and  he 
became  presiding  bishop.  See 
Beardsley's  Life  and  Correspond- 
ence of  Samuel  Seabury  (1881). 

Seabury,  Samuel  (1801-72), 
American  E.  clergyman,  grand- 
son of  Bishop  Samuel  Seabury, 
was  born  in  New  London,  Conn., 
and  was  privately  educated.  He 
was  ordered  deacon  in  1826,  and 
ordained  priest  in  1828;  and  after 
holding  various  educational  posi- 
tions was  editor  of .  The  Church- 
man from  1831  to  1849.  In  1838 
he  became  rector  of  the  Church 
of  the  Annunciation  in  New  York 
city,  from  which  he  retired  in 
1868.  He  was  professor  of  Bibli- 
cal learning  in  tne  General  Theo- 
logical Seminary  from  1862  until 
his  death.  He  published  several 
theological  works,  including  The 
Continuity  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land in  the  Sixteenth  Century 
(1853)  and  The  Supremacy  and 
Obligation  of  Conscience  (1860). 

Sea-eat.  '  See  Chimjera,  and 

WOLF-nSH. 

Sea-cow.  See  Sirenia. 
Sea-encumber.    See  HoLO- 

THURIANS. 

Sea-devil.  See  Devil-fish. 
Sea-eagle.    See  Erne. 
Sea-elephant.  See  Elephant- 
seal. 

Sea-fan.    See  Gorgonid^, 

Seafarer,  one  of  the  master- 
pieces of  Old  English  song,  is 
in  the  Exeter  Book.  It  may  be 
divided  into  two  parts — the  first 
heathen,  the  second  Christian 
and  later.  Two  iantagonistic 
points  of  view  are  represented — ■ 
longing  for  the  sea,  and  the  hard- 
ships of  a  sailor's  hfe.  Most  of 
the  text  is  accessible  in  Sweet's 
Anglo-Saxon  Reader  (ed.  1887). 
See  Wiilker's  Grundriss  (1885), 
and  the  American  Journal  of 
Germanic  Philology  (1902),  iv.  4. 

Sea-fir.    See  Hydrozoa. 

Seaforth,  tn.,  Huron  co.,  Ont., 
Canada,  37^  m.  n.n.w.  of  Lon- 
don, on  a  branch  of  the  Maitland 
R.,  and  on  the  Buff,  and  Goderich 
br.  of  the  Gr.  Trunk  R.  R.  It 
has  1,100  ft.  under  its  site,  a 
100-ft.  thick  stratum  of  rock  salt. 
It  has  salt  wells,  and  manufac- 
tures furniture,  engines,  woollens, 
flour,  and  is  an  important  shipping 
point  for  grain,  cattle,  horses, 
and  eggs.  Among  noteworthy 
features  of  interest  are  the  town 
hall,  a  park,  and  the  Seaforth 
Collegiate  Institute.  The  sur- 
::ounding  district  produces  wheat 
(of  which  1,000,000  bushels  are 
shipped  annually  from  Seaforth), 
catile,  and   salt.    It    was  first 


64 

settled  about  1860.  Pop.  (1901) 
2,247. 

Seaforthia,  a  genus  of  tropical 
Australasian  and  Pacific  palms, 
which  are  usually  handsome 
plants  with  tall  trunks,  and  ter- 
minal, pinnatisect  leaves.  They 
are  mostly  worthy  of  cultivation 
as  stove  plants.  The  best-known 
species  is  S.  elegans,  the  Illawarra 
palm,  which  does  well  in  a  cool 
greenhouse.  It  grows  to  a  height 
of  about  sixty  feet,  and  has  leaves 
from  three  to  over  ten  feet  in 
length. 

Sea-fox.  See  Thresher. 

Sea-grape,  or  Joint  Fir, 
a  genus  (Ephedra)  of  shrubs  be- 
longing to  the  order  Gnetaceas. 
E.  distachya  is  a  Russian  species, 
the  sweet  mucilaginous  berries  of 
which  are  eaten  by  the  peasants. 

Sea-grapes,  in  zoology,  a  name 
given  to  the  grapelike  egg  clus- 
ters of  some  of  the  cuttle-fishes. 

Sea-gull.  See  Gull. 

Seaham  Harbor,  tn.  and 
seapt.,  Durham,  England,  6  m. 
s.  of  Sunderland.  It  was  founded 
in  1828  by  the  Marquis  of  London- 
derry, as  an  outlet  for  the  prod- 
uce of  his  collieries.  The  new 
harbor  was  completed  in  1905. 
Trade  is  chiefly  in  coal,  and  there 
are  motor  wagon,  bottle,  and 
electrozone  works,  and  an  iron 
foundry.    Pop.   (1911)  15,759. 


Sea-hare  (Aplysia). 


Sea-hare  (Aplysia),  a  genus 
of  nudibranch  gasteropods,  whose 
members  are  widely  distributed 
in  shallow  water.  In  classical 
times  the  sea-hare  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean was  the  object  of  many 
superstitions,  largely  based  upon 
its  habit  of  pouring  out  a  purplish 
fluid  when  handled.  The  animal 
is  perfectly  harmless,  the  fluid 
having  no  effect  on  the  human 
skin. 

Sea-hedgehog  (Diodon).  See 
Globe-fish. 

Sea-hog.  See  Porpoise. 

Sea-holly.   See  Eryngium. 

Sea-horse.  See  Hippocampus. 

Sea-kale,  a  European  vege- 
table of  the  easiest  culture.  The 
soil  should  be  deeply  dug  and 
heavilv  manured.  The  roots 
should  be  planted  about  the  end 
of  March,  in  rows  eighteen  inches 
apart,  and  eighteen  inches  from 
root  to  root  in  the  row.  The 
young  shoots  require  to  be  kept 
from  the  light  by  means  of  sand, 
litter,  or  pots,  as  unless  thoroughly 


Sea  LiavendcY 

blanched  they  are  bitter  and  un- 
pleasant. It  may  be  cooked  much 
in  the  same  way  as  asparagus. 

Sea  Islands,  off  the  coast  of 
S.  C,  and  extending  s.  of  Winyah 
Bay  to  the  Savannah  R.,'  a 
littoral  chain  of  islands,  low, 
flat,  and  very  fertile.  Hilton 
Head,  Port  Royal,  St.  Helena, 
Edisto,  John,  and  James  are  the 
largest.  They  produce  the  rice 
and  famous  long  -  fibred  Sea- 
Island  cotton.  They  are  subject 
to  inundations;  those  of  1893-4 
killed  thousands  and  destroyed 
the  crops.  The  population  is 
largely  negro. 

Seal.  See  Seals  and  Seal 
Fisheries. 

Seal.  See  Gems  and  Precious 
Stones. 

Seal.  In  law,  a  distinguishing 
mark  or  impression  upon  paper 
or  parchment,  or  some  substance, 
as  wax,  bearing  a  mark,  device, 
or  words,  and  capable  of  being 
attached  to  a  document,  to  au- 
thenticate it,  or  to  serve  as  a  sig- 
nature. The  term  is  also  applied 
to  the  instrument  by  which  the  / 
mark  or  impression  is  made. 
The  practice  of  authenticating 
documents  by  affixing  a  distin- 
guishing mark  or  seal  was  current 
in  ancient  India,  Egypt,  Greece, 
and  Rome,  and  was  continued  in 
medircval  times.  The  early  popes 
used  leaden  seals  or  bullce.  Seals 
were  used  on  private  instruments 
at  a  time  when  few  people  could 
write,  and  most  documents  were 
written  by  the  clergy.  All  modern 
nations  have  great  seals,  and 
states,  courts,  certain  public 
officials,  and  municipalities  gen- 
erally have  their  own  seals  for 
authenticating  important  docu- 
ments. By  the  common  law  a 
peculiar  efficacy  is  attached  to  a 
.  sealed  instrument.  Considera- 
tion is  conclusively  presumed  in 
a  contract  or  promise  under  seal. 
Deeds,  wills,  and  other  convey- 
ances are  generally  required  to  be 
under  seal.  In  some  of  the 
United  States  seals  have  been 
rendered  unnecessary  by  statute, 
and  in  many  states  a  seal  is  onlv 
presumptive  evidence  of  consid- 
eration and  may  be  rebutted. 
The  practice  of  having  individual 
seals  has  fallen  into  disuse,  and 
round  pieces  of  adhesive  paper  of 
some  color  other  than  white,  are 
in  common  use  as  seals.  In  some 
states  a  scroll  with  a  pen  and  the 
letters  'L  S,'  or  the  word  'seal' 
will  suffice.  Corporations  are 
generally  required  to  have  seals 
and  usually  adopt  a  die  which 
makes  an  impression  of  the  name 
of  the  corporation  upon  paper. 
See  Contracts;  consult  Parsons 
on  Contracts. 

Sea  Lavender.  Either  of  the 
perennial  plants,  Statice  Limo- 
nium  or  Limonium  Carolinianum, 
found  in  salt  marshes,  and  oc- 
casionally cultivated.    The  latter 


Sea-leopard 


KFI 


65 


Seal  Fisheries 


has  tufts  of  thick,  oblanceolate 
leaves  ;  broad,  panicle-like  flow- 
er heads,  of  feathery  aspect, 
crowded  with  tiny,  lavender- 
tinted,  five-parted  flowers  ;  and 
a  thick,  woody,  strongly  astrin- 
gent root,  used  medicinally. 

Sea-leopard,  a  large  spotted 
seal,  Stcnorhynchns  Icptonyx , 
of  the  family  Phocidse,  found  in 
Antarctic  seas.    See  Seals. 

Seal  Fisheries,  which  are 
world-wide  in  distribution,  are 
devoted  principally  to  the  cap- 
ture and  utilization  of  fur  seals 
and  hair  seals  ;  sea  lions,  sea  ele- 
phants and  other  aquatic  mam- 
mals also  have  contributed  to 
these  fisheries  in  some  measvire. 
Fur  seals  are  valuable  for  their 
pelts  while  hair  seals  are  used 
chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of 
leather  and  oil. 

Fur  Seal  Fisheries, — Fur 
seals  are  widely  scattered  over 
the  world.  These  animals  are 
now  confined  almost  exclusively 
to  the  colder  waters,  but  they 
were  formerly  abundant  in 
warmer  regions.  By  far  the 
largest  and  most  important  herd 
of  fur  seals  is  the  Alaska  herd 
{Callorhinus  alascanus)  which 
has  its  breeding  grounds  on  the 
Pribilof  Islands  in  Bering  Sea. 
It  is  estimated  that  this  herd 
contains  more  than  80  per  cent 
of  all  fur  seals  of  the  world. 
Other  herds  of  commercial  im- 
portance are  those  of  the  Com- 
mander Islands  in  Bering  Sea, 
belonging  to  Soviet  Russia ; 
Robben  Island  and  the  Kuriles, 
possessions  of  Japan  ;  the  Lobos 
and  other  islands  off  the  eastern 
coast  of  South  America ;  and 
coastal  areas  in  the  vicinity  of 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  South 
Africa.  Fur  seals  in  relatively 
small  numbers  resort  to  the 
Falkland  Islands  and  other 
small  islands  in  the  South  At- 
lantic, the  Crozet  Isles  in  the 
south  Indian  Ocean,  and  Guade- 
loupe Islands  and  the  Galapagos 
Islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
New  Zealand  and  Australia 
were  formerly  the  source  of 
many  fur  seal  skins,  but  the 
herds  at  these  places  have  been 
so_  reduced  that  the  number  of 
skins  now  obtained  is  insignifi- 
cant. 

The  fur  seals  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  belong  to  the  genus 
Callorhinus  while  those  of  the 
Southern  Hemisphere  are  classi- 
fied in  the  genus  Arctoccphalus. 
Each  herd  is  an  independent, 
self-perpetuating  unit,  and  the 
animals  of  the  various  herds  do 
not  intermingle.  Permanent, 
constant  differences  between  the 
animals  of  the  several  herds 
have  resulted  in  classification  of 
the  members  of  each  as  separate 
species. 

^  Fur-seal  hunting  for  commer- 
cial purposes  began  toward  the 


end  of  the  18th  century  in  the 
Southern  Hemisphere,  and  early 
in  the  19th  century  the  industry 
assumed  gigantic  proportions. 
During  the  early  years  of  seal- 
ing, the  skins  were  taken  to  the 
Canton  market  where  they  were 
exchanged  for  teas,  silks,  and 
other  well-known  products  of  the 
Chinese  Empire.  The  price  ob- 
tained for  the  skins  was  com- 
paratively small,  visually  rang- 
ing from  50  cents  to  $5.00  per 
skin.  The  sealing  business 
proved  very  profitable,  how- 
ever, and  led  to  an  indiscrimi- 
nate and  exterminating  slaugh- 
ter. Every  seal  that  could  be 
obtained  was  killed  regardless 
of  age  or  sex,  and  one  after  an- 
other of  the  populous  seal  rook- 
eries was  visited  and  reduced  to 
commercial  extinction. 

Discovery,  ruthless  exploita- 
tion, and  partial  or  complete  ex- 
tinction is  the  story  of  the 
world's  fur-seal  colonies,  with 
few  exceptions.  The  herds  of 
the  Pribilof  Islands  and  of  the 
Commander  Islands  in  Bering 
vSea  suffered  less  from  early  ex- 
ploitation than  the  others.  These 
islands  from  the  time  of  their 
discovery  were  under  the  juris- 
diction of  Russia,  and  as  early  as 
1835  restrictive  measures  were  in 
force  to  protect  and  rehabilitate 
the  herds.  There  has  been  more 
or  less  stringent  regulation  of 
killing  also  on  the  seal  rookeries 
at  Lobos  Island,  Aukland  Is- 
land, and  on  the  west  coast  of 
South  Africa  by  the  Govern- 
ments concerned. 

Practically  all  of  the  early 
sealing  was  on  land ;  pelagic 
sealing,  or  killing  at  sea,  had 
been  carried  on  since  time  im- 
memorial, however,  by  Indians 
along  the  northwest  coast  of 
North  America  who  intercepted 
the  seals  on  their  northward  mi- 
gration. The  Indians  sought  the 
fur  seals  chiefly  for  food  and 
the  number  taken  was  nominal. 
It  was  not  until  about  1879, 
when  schooners  were  fitted  out 
to  transport  hvmters  and  canoes 
to  their  fields  of  operation  and 
to  care  for  them  there,  that 
pelagic  sealing  attained  signifi- 
cance. These  schooners,  averag- 
ing about  70  tons,  with  sealing 
canoes  and  hunters  on  board, 
sailed  chiefly  from  Victoria, 
B.  C.  ;  others  were  from  Pacific 
Coast  ports  from  San  Diego  to 
Seattle.  Pelagic  sealing  com- 
menced off  the  California  coast 
late  in  December,  and  the  mi- 
grating Pribilof  Islands  herd 
was  followed  northward  into 
Bering  Sea  where  operations 
continued  until  September.  A 
less  important  pelagic  sealing 
industry  was  dependent  upon  the 
Japanese  and  Russian  fur-seal 
herds,  the  sealing  grounds  ex- 
tending   from    the    latitude  of 


Yokohama  to  the  Commander 
Islands  in  Bering  Sea,  and  the 
season  extending  from  March  to 
September.  There  was  no 
pelagic  sealing  anywhere  in 
November  and  December. 

The  rise  of  pelagic  sealing 
was  rapid,  and  as  the  bulk  of  the 
catch  was  composed  of  females, 
these  operations  soon  had  an 
injurious  effect  on  the  herd, 
which  became  apparent  in  re- 
duced numbers  of  seals  available 
for  land  killing.  The  wasteful- 
ness of  pelagic  sealing  was 
quickly  recognized,  and  the 
United  States,  acting  upon  the 
precedent  established  by  Rus- 
sia in  the  Ukase  of  1821,  seized 
and  confiscated  a  number  of 
sealing  vessels  that  entered  Ber- 
ing Sea.  Pelagic  sealing  being 
largely  _  a  Canadian  industry, 
this  action  resulted  in  a  contro- 
versy with  Great  Britain  which 
extended  over  many  years.  In 
1892  the  entire  matter  was  re- 
manded to  a  tribunal  of  arbitra- 
tion for  settlement  of  the  ques- 
tion of  jurisdiction  over  fur 
seals  in  offshore  waters,  and  also 
for  recommendation  of  measures 
for  the  protection  of  fur  seals. 
The  tribunal  of  arbitration  met 
in  Paris  in  1893  and  denied  the 
United  States  authority  to  exer- 
cise jurisdiction  over  Pribilof 
Islands  fur  seals  when  such  ani- 
mals were  more  than  three  miles 
from  shore.  Regulations  were 
formulated,  the  essential  fea- 
tures of  which  were  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  closed  zone  of  60 
miles  in  Bering  Sea  about  the 
islands,  and  a  closed  season 
from  May  1  to  August  1  within 
which  all  pelagic  sealing  was 
prohibited.  These  regulations 
were  inadequate,  and  the  Pribi- 
lof herd  continued  to  decline  at 
an  alarming  rate. 

Finally  after  extensive  scien- 
tific investigation  on  the  part  of 
the  two  Governments,  the  ques- 
tion of  pelagic  sealing  in  waters 
of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  was 
settled  July  7,  1911  by  an  agree- 
ment, known  as  the  North  Pa-, 
cific  Sealing  Convention,  be- 
tween the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  Russia,  and  Japan. 
This  treaty  became  effective  De- 
cember 15,  1911.  It  refers  spe- 
cifically to  the  American,  Japa- 
nese, and  Russian  fur-seal  herds, 
and  applies  to  the  waters  of  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean  north  of 
the  thirtieth  parallel  of  north 
latitude,  including  the  Seas  of 
Bering,  Kamchatka,  Okhotsk, 
and  Japan.  The  nationals  of 
each  of  the  treaty  powers  are 
prohibited  from  engaging  in 
pelagic  sealing  in  the  waters 
described,  and  provision  is  made 
for  adequate  patrol  of  the  waters 
frequented  by  fur  seals.  Special 
exception  is  made  for  aborigines 
dwelling   on  the  coasts  of  the 


Seal  Fisheries 


KFI 


66 


Seal  Fisheries 


protected  waters,  and  they  may 
continue  to  take  seals  in  the  sea 
under  certain  restrictions  which 
prohibit  the  use  of  powered 
boats  and  firearms ;  primitive 
methods  only  may  be  used.  As 
a  consequence  the  number  of  fur 
seals  killed  by  aborigines  is  very 
small. 

Under  the  convention,  the 
management  of  fur  seals  on  land 
is  left  largely  to  the  country  hav- 
ing jurisdiction  over  the  rookery 
area.  The  United  States  de- 
livers 15  per  cent  of  the  fur- 
seal  skins  taken  at  the  Pribilof 
Islands  to  Canada  and  15  per 
cent  to  Japan.  Japan  delivers 
to  the  United  States,  Canada, 
and  Russia  each  10  per  cent  of 
the  fur-seal  skins  taken  on  rook- 
eries vxnder  her  jurisdiction  ;  and 
Japan  and  Canada  each  receive 
15  per  cent  of  the  fur-seal  skins 
taken  on  Russian  possessions. 
Great  Britain  has  no  shores 
within  the  protected  area  to 
which  fur  seals  resort,  but  pro- 
vision is  made  for  a  division  of 
the  skins  taken,  should  rookeries 
become  established. 

The  North  Pacific  Sealing 
Convention,  still  in  effect,  was  for 
a  period  of  15  years  and  there- 
after until  terminated  by  12 
months'  written  notice  given  by 
one  or  more  of  the  parties.  At  the 
time  the  treaty  became  effective 
the  Pribilof  Islands  herd  num- 
bered less  than  125,000  animals 
as  compared  with  about  2,500,000 
when  the  United  States  pur- 
chased Alaska  in  1867.  Man- 
aged in  accordance  with  a  scien- 
tific program  of  conservation 
and  utilization,  the  herd  has  in- 
creased steadily  until  in  1938 
it  contained  almost  2,000,000 
animals. 

United  States. — Three  years 
after  acquisition  of  the  Pribilof 
Islands  in  the  Alaska  purchase, 
the  United  States  leased  the 
privilege  of  taking  fur  seals  on 
the  islands  to  the  Alaska  Com- 
mercial Company.  The  lease 
ran  for  a  period  of  20  years 
from  May  1,  1870.  For  the 
privilege  granted  by  the  lease, 
the  company  paid  the  Govern- 
ment an  annual  rental  and  a  tax 
on  each  skin  taken.  The  Gov- 
ernment received  $6,020,152  un- 
der this  lease,  1,977,377  fur-seal 
skins  having  been  taken.  The 
North  American  Commercial 
Company  was  the  lessee  for  the 
20-year  period  May  1,  1890  to 
April  30,  1910.  The  return  to 
the  Government  during  the  term 
of  this  lease  amounted  to 
$3,453,844,  and  the  total  take  of 
skins  was  342,651. 

Upon  the  expiration  of  the 
second  lease,  the  United  States 
Government  took  full  charge 
and  began  sealing  operations  in 
1910.  This  arrangement  has 
continued  in  effect  since,  and  all 


sealing  operations  at  the  Pribilof 
Islands  are  under  the  immediate 
supervision  of  Government  offi- 
cials. 

Fur  seals  are  polygamous,  and 
one  bull  seal  may  have  as  many 
as  100  cows  in  his  harem.  The 
most  desirable  ratio  is  one  bull 
to  40  cows.  Because  of  their 
polygamous  life  and  the  fact 
that  the  sexes  are  in  equal  num- 
bers at  birth,  there  are  many 
surplus  male  seals.  These  are 
killed  when  they  are  three  years 
old,  the  age  at  which  the  quality 
of  the  pelt  is  best.  An  adequate 
reserve  of  3-year-old  males  is 
always  maintained  for  breeding 
purposes.  Most  of  the  sealskins 
are  taken  in  July.  They  are 
given  a  preliminary  treatment  at 
the  islands,  and  after  being 
cured  in  sak,  they  are  shipped 
to  a  Government  supervised  fac- 
tory where  they  are  dressed  and 
dyed  and  sold  in  finished  con- 
dition at  public  auction.  In  the 
earlier  years  most  of  the  seal- 
skins were  shipped  to  London 
where  they  were  sold  in  the  raw 
state.  The  dressing  and  dying 
industry  is  now  established  in 
the  United  States  and  the  quali- 
ty of  finished  sealskins  is  un- 
excelled. 

Hair  Seat  Fisheries, — Impor- 
tant hair  seal  fisheries  in  the 
North  Atlantic  and  Arctic 
Oceans  are  located  (1)  along 
the  west  coast  of  Greenland, 
(2)  coasts  of  Newfoundland, 
Labrador,  and  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  (3)  Jan  Mayen 
Island  and  adjacent  waters, 
(4)  Novaya  Zemlya  Island  and 
adjacent  waters,  and  (5)  the 
White  Sea.  The  Caspian  Sea 
also  supports  a  seal  fishery. 

In  the  South  Atlantic,  Pacific 
and  Antarctic  regions,  the  hair 
seal  fishery  has  been  chiefly  for 
the  sea  elephant  or  elephant  seal, 
the  largest  of  the  hair  seal 
family.  This  fishery,  prose- 
cuted in  conjvmction  with  whal- 
ing and  fur-seal  operations,  was 
exclusively  for  the  oil.  Sea  ele- 
phants were  abundant  on  many 
of  the  islands  off  the  southern 
portion  of  the  South  American 
continent,  on  both  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  sides,  along  the  Pata- 
gonian  coasts,  the  Falkland 
Islands,  South  Shetland  Islands, 
South  Georgian  Islands,  and 
Crozet,  Kerguelen,  and  Herd 
Islands.  Indiscriminate  and  in- 
judicious killing  of  these  ani- 
mals in  the  early  years'  of  ex- 
tensive sealing  has  resulted  in 
virtual  extermination  in  many 
places. 

The  sea  elephant  also  was 
sought  commercially  on  the 
coasts  of  Western  Mexico  and 
Lower  California.  This  once 
important  fishery  was  aban- 
doned many  years  ago  because  of 
almost    complete    extinction  of 


the  species.  Many  hair  seals 
are  taken  annually  along  the 
Alaskan,  Siberian,  and  other 
coasts  of  the  North  Pacific,  by 
natives  for  food  and  clothing; 
no  commercial  fishery  of  conse- 
quence is  carried  on  in  those 
waters,  however. 

The  most  important  hair  seal 
fishery  of  the  world  is  that  cen- 
tered around  Newfoundland, 
which  once  supported  a  fleet  of 
400  vessels  manned  by  over 
10,000  men,  and  yielded  annual 
catches  of  from  500,000  to 
700,000  seals.  In  recent  years 
the  fleet  has  fallen  to  less  than 
10  vessels.  Two  species  of  hair 
seals  are  taken  in  the  New- 
foundland fishery — harp  seals, 
the  most  common,  and  hood 
seals.  Both  species  are  migra- 
tory, moving  south  in  the  win- 
ter to  breed  on  the  ice  to  the 
northeast  of  Newfoundland. 
By  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
catch  is  made  in  March  and 
April  while  the  seals  are  on  the 
ice.  The  vessels  follow  the  open 
leads  through  the  ice  until  seals 
are  sighted.  The  sealers  are 
landed  on  the  ice  where  they 
move  about  in  the  herd,  killing 
the  seals  with  clubs.  The  hides, 
with  the  underlying  layer  of  fat, 
are  stripped  off  the  carcasses 
and  taken  to  the  vessel  and 
packed  into  the  hold.  When  a 
full  cargo  is  obtained  the  vessel 
returns  to  its  home  port  where 
the  skins  are  unloaded,  the  blub- 
ber removed,  and  the  hides  pre- 
pared for  manufacture  into 
leather.  Hair  seals  have  not  the 
fine  under-fur  that  character- 
izes fur  seals,  and  the  skins  are 
seldom  used  in  clothing.  Oil  is 
extracted  from  the  blubber  and 
is  used  extensively  in  the  soap 
and  leather  industries. 

Failure  of  the  world  hair  seal 
fishery  was  predicted  by  con- 
servationists early  in  the  19th 
century.  Regulations  and  inter- 
national agreements  subsequent- 
ly enacted,  however,  have  failed 
to  maintain  or  restore  it,  and  to- 
day this  picturesque  industry  is 
relatively  unimportant  in  world 
commerce. 

Consult  Report  of  Fur  Seal 
Invcstigatioixs,  Part  3,  1899  (U. 
S.  Treasury  Dept.)  ;  Alaska 
Fishery  and  Fur  Seal  Indus- 
tries (U.  S.  Bureau  of  Fish- 
eries) ;  The  Fur  Seals  and  Other 
Life  of  the  Pribilof  Islands, 
Alaska  in  1914,  by  Osgood, 
Preble,  and  Parker  {Bulletin  U. 
S.  Bvireau  of  Fisheries,  vol.  34, 
1915)  ;  Fnr-Seal  Industry  of 
Pribilof  Islands,  Alaska,  by 
O'Malley  (Economic  Circular 
No.  71  of  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Fisheries)  ;  Fur-Seal  Industry  of 
Commander  Islands,  1897  to 
1922  (Bulletin,  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Fisheries,  vol.  41,  1925);  Re- 
ports   of    Newfoundland  Fish- 


Sealing  Wax 


KFI 


67 


Seals 


ery  Research  Commission,  vol. 
1,  No.  1,  1931. 

Seaton  H.  Thompson, 
Asst.  Chief,  Division  of 
Alaska  Fisheries. 

Sealing  Wax,  a  colored  com- 
position of  resins  and  other  sub- 
stances used  for  sealing  bottles 
and  documents.  The  latter  use 
has  greatly  diminished  since  the 
introduction  of  envelopes  with 
adhesive  flaps.  Sealing  wax  is 
supposed  to  have  originated  in 
the  East,  and  was  brought  from 
India  to  Europe  by  the  Vene- 
tians. It  was  an  important  ar- 
ticle of  commerce,  and  was  han- 
dled also  by  the  Spaniards. 

There  are  many  recipes  for 
different  grades  of  sealing  wax, 
but  for  a  high-class  red  wax  the 
following  gives  good  results : 
fuse  a  hundred  parts  of  orange 
shellac  in  an  enamelled  pot  over 
a  gas  flame ;  mix  with  thirty 
parts  of  Venice  turpentine ; 
add  seventy-five  parts  of  ver- 
m.ilion ;  and  again  thoroughly 
mix.  The  mixture  is  scented 
by  the  addition  of  two  parts  of 
storax  or  Peruvian  balsam,  and 
cast  into  sticks,  the  sticks  being 
finally  polished  by  superficial 
fusion.  Other  colors  can  be  ob- 
tained by  substituting  ivory 
black,  artificial  ultramarine,  etc., 
for  the  vermilion. 

For  a  commoner  wax  for  par- 
cels, three  parts  of  shellac  may 
be  melted  with  five  parts  of 
resin  and  four  parts  of  Venice 
turpentine  ;  then  one  part  chalk 
and  two  parts  of  red  lead  or 
vermilion,  mixed  to  a  paste 
with  oil  of  turpentine,  is  added. 

Bottle  waxes  are  of  an  even 
cheaper  and  simpler  character — 
resin,  rendered  less  brittle  by  the 
addition  of  10  per  cent  of  its 
weight  of  beeswax,  and  colored 
by  25  per  cent  of  lamp-black  or 
red  ochre,  being  melted,  and  the 
necks  of  the  bottles  dipped  in 
the  mixture. 

Sea-lion,  a  name  applied  to 
the  larger  members  of  the 
OtariidjE,  resembling  in  general 
form,  structure,  and  breeding 
habits  the  sea  bears,  but  without 
the  fur.  Enmetopias  stcllcri, 
the  great  yellow  sea-lion,  attain- 
ing a  length  of  ten  to  twelve  feet 
and  a  weight  of  1,200  to  1,500 
pounds,  is  the  largest  species, 
widely  distributed  along  the 
shores  of  the  North  Pacific  from 
California  to  Japan.  It  is  much 
prized  by  the  natives  of  Alaska 
for  food  and  for  the  skin,  which 
is  used  as  covering  for  their 
boats.  Zalophus  calif ornianns, 
the  smalle-st  species,  and  the 
common  sea-lion  of  menageries 
and  zoological  gardens,  is  found 
on  the  coast  of  California.  A 
famous  locality  is  Seal  Rocks  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  opposite  the 
Cliff  House  of  San  Francisco. 
See  Seals. 


Seal  Islands.  See  Lobos  Is- 
lands. 

Seal  Islands,  a  term  applied 
to  the  Commander  and  Pribilof 
Islands  (qq.  v.),  in  Bering  Sea, 
because  of  the  fur  seal  rookeries 
upon  them.  See  Seal  Fisher- 
ies. 

Seal'kote.    See  Sialkot. 

Seals.  The  term  seal  is  applied 
to  two  widely  dififerent  classes 
of  pinniped  animals — (1)  the 
Fur  Seals  or  Sea  Bears  {Otarii- 


Male  Fur  Seal. 


dec),  and  (2)  the  Hair  Seals 
or  True  Seals  {Phocidcc) .  In 
structure,  appearance,  and  meth- 
od of  locomotion  the  two  classes 
are  quite  distinct,  and  their  evo- 
lution as  pelagic  animals  (q.  v.) 
has  been  along  separate  lines. 
In  internal  structure  the  two 
animals  are  equally  distinct. 

1.  Fur  Seals. — The  fur  seals 
are  probably  descended  from 
bear-like  ancestors.  The  feet 
are  truly  plantigrade,  the  an- 
terior limbs  being  used  in  swim- 
ming. The  head  and  neck  can  be 
raised,  and  the  animal  can  run 
or  lope  along  the  ground  as  do 
ordinary  mammals.  The  exter- 
nal ear  is  moderately  developed, 
giving  rise  to  the  name  'Eared 
Seals.' 

The  fur  seals  are  divided  into 
two  groups  or  genera :  ( 1 ) 
Arctocephalus  {A.  townsendi, 
Guadeloupe  Islands;  A.  philippi, 
Galapagos  Islands  ;  A.  australis, 
southern  coasts  of  South  Amer- 
ica and  neighboring  islands;  A. 
forstcri,  coasts  of  New  Zealand 
and  Southwestern  Australia;  A. 
dclalandi,  islands  off  South 
Africa;  A.  gazclla,  Kerguelen 
and  Prince  Edward  Islands), 
once  numerous  and  widely  dis- 
tributed among  the  islands  of 
the  Southern  Hemisphere,  now 
practically  extinct,  except  for 
two  small  herds — one  on  Lobos 
Island  in  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Plata,  the  other  on  certain  islands 
off  Cape  Horn,  both  under  gov- 
ernment protection  ;  and  (2) 
Callorhinus  {C.  ursinus, 
Commander  Islands ;  C.  alas- 
caniis,  Pribilof  Islands  ;  C.  kuri- 
lensis,  Kurile  Islands  and  Rob- 
ben  Island),  confined  to  Bering 


Sea  and  the  North  Pacific 
Ocean,  still  existing  in  consider- 
able though  greatly  diminished 
numbers. 

The  typical  male  fur  seal, 
called  'bull'  or  'beach  master,' 
weighs  from  four  hundred  to  five 
hundred  pounds,  has  a  length 
of  six  feet  and  a  girth  of  four 
and  a  half  feet,  and  attains  ma- 
turity at  about  seven  years.  His 
color  is  blackish  or  dark  brown, 
with  yellowish  water  hairs,  par- 
ticularly coarse  and  long  on  the 
back  of  the  neck,  forming  a  'wig' 
or  mane.  The  adult  female,  or 
cow,  averages  about  eighty 
pounds  in  weight,  with  length 
and  girth  in  proportion.  Her 
color  is  of  varying  shades  of 
brown.  She  bears  her  first 
young,  or  pup,  at  three  years. 

The  breeding  grounds  of  the 
fur  seal  are  boulder-strewn 
beaches  and  rocky  hill  slopes 
along  shore,  where  the  animals 
congregate  in  close-set  masses 
or  rookeries.  The  young  males, 
or  bachelors,  herd  by  themselves 
on  beaches  separate  from  the 
breeding  grounds,  known  as 
hauling  grounds.  The  bulls 
reach  the  breeding  ground  early 
in  May,  contend  with  one  an- 
other for  places,  and  await  the 
arrival  of  the  cows,  which  begins 
in  early  June.  The  breeding 
season  is  at  its  height  by  the 
middle  of  July,  and  ends  early 
in  August,  when  the  bulls,  hav- 
ing fasted  since  their  arrival, 
go  away  to  feed  and  recuperate. 
The  single  pup,  weighing  from 
ten  to  twelve  pounds,  is  born 
within  a  few  hours  after  the 
arrival  of  the  cow,  grows  rap- 
idly, and  learns  to  swim  at  the 
age  of  six  weeks.  The  cow  is 
served  by  the  bull  within  a  week, 
and  goes  to  sea  to  feed,  return- 
ing at  intervals  to  nourish  her 
pup.  Pups  and  cows  leave  the 
islands  in  November  for  the  win- 
ter migration,  followed  later  by 
the  other  seals  as  winter  ad- 
vances. 

The  migration  of  the  Pribilof 
seals  extends  to  the  latitude  of 
Southern  California,  which  is 
reached  late  in  December,  the 
return  trip  along  the  coast  oc- 
cupying the  time  until  June. 
Usually  the  females  extend  their 
movements  only  as  far  as  Cali- 
fornia, the  males  remaining  gen- 
erally in  northern  waters.  The 
migration  of  the  Commander 
herd  follows  the  coast  of  Japan. 

The  first  knowledge  of  the 
northern  fur  seals  is  derived 
from  Steller,  the  naturalist  of 
Bering's  voyage  of  1741,  the  ex- 
pedition being  wrecked  on  one 
of  the  Commander  Islands  now 
known  as  Bering  Island,  where 
large  rookeries  still  exist.  The 
second  and  larger  herd,  that  of 
the  Pribilof  Islands,  was  dis- 
covered in  1786  by  the  Russian 


Seals 


KFI 


67  A         Seamanship,  Practical 


navigator  of  that  name.  This 
herd  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  United  States  with  the  ter- 
ritory of  Alaska  in  1867.  _  The 
Commander  herd  remains  in  the 
control  of  Russia,  and  the 
Kurile  herd  now  belongs  to 
Japan. 

2.  Hair  Seals, — The  hair  seals 
are  more  perfectly  adapted  for 
aquatic  life  than  the  fur  seals, 
and  are  readily  distinguished 
from  them.  They  have  short 
feet,  not  truly  plantigrade,  with 
long  claws,  the  posterior  limbs 
alone  being  used  in  swimming. 
The  head  and  neck  can  scarcely 
be  raised,  and  the  animal  cannot 
run  or  walk,  its  movements  on 
land  being  by  a  wriggling,  belly- 
wise  motion.  There  is  no  exter- 
nal ear. 

The  principal  species  of  hair 
seals,  and  those  upon  which  the 
hair  seal  industry  depends,  are 
Phoca  vitulina,  the  common  or 
harbor  seal  of  bays  and  shel- 
tered waters  throughout  the 
Northern  Atlantic  ;  P.  groenlan- 
dica,  the  harp  or  saddleback 
seal  of  Newfoundland  and  the 
North  Atlantic,  northward  to 
the  Arctic  ;  P.  foctida,  the  rough 
or  ringed  seal ;  Erignathus  har- 
batits,  the  bearded  seal  of  the 
North  Atlantic,  North  Pacific, 
and  the  Arctic  Oceans ;  Hali- 
chccrus  gryphus,  the  gray  seal  ; 
Cystophora  cristata,  the  crested 
seal,  confined  to  the  North  At- 
lantic ;  P.  caspica,  the  seal  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  P.  richardii  of 
the  Pacific.  The  remaining  spe- 
cies belong  to  the  South  Pacific, 
Indian,  and  Antartic  seas,  and 
are  commercially  unimportant. 
The  hair  seal  produces  no  fur, 
the  coat  being  harsh  and  stiff, 
but  is  valued  for  the  leather  ob- 
tained from  its  hide  and  for  the 
oil  from  its  fat. 

The  animals  vary  considerably 
in  size  and  color,  the  gray  seal, 
the  largest,  reaching  a  length  of 
from  eight  to  nine  feet.  The 
ringed  seal,  the  smallest,  ranges 
from  four  to  five  feet  in  length. 
The  ex-tremesof  weight  are  eighty 
and  three  hundred  pounds.  The 
harp  seals  are  in  general  whitish 
or  yellowish  white,  the  head  and 
nose  black,  the  throat  and  chin 
spotted,  a  broad  lunate  series  of 
dark  spots  on  the  back,  thought 
to  resemble  an  ancient  harp,  giv- 
ing rise  to  the  distinguishing 
name.  The  harbor  seal  is  yel- 
lowish gray,  varied  with  irregu- 
lar spots  of  dark  brown  or  black. 
The  female  hair  seal  is  slightly 
smaller  than  the  male,  but  there 
is  not  the  wide  disparity  between 
the  sexes  which  is  seen  in  the  fur 
seals.  The  animals  are  riionog- 
amous. 

The  breeding  grounds  for  the 
principal  species  are  the  ice  fields 
of  Newfoundland,  Labrador,  and 
the  Greenland  coasts.    The  sin- 


gle young  is  brought  forth  upon 
the  ice,  the  mother  returning 
from  her  feeding  excursions  to 
nourish  it.  The  pup  grows  rap- 
idly, learns  to  swim  at  the  age  of 
a  month,  and  forms  the  impor- 
tant part  of  the  annual  catch. 

The  harbor  seal  is  non-migra- 
tory, the  other  species  obeying  a 
more  or  less  definite  semi-annual 
migration — southward  with  the 
approach  of  winter,  and  north- 
ward with  the  receding  ice  in 
the  spring.  See  Seal  Fish- 
eries. 

Seals.  The  carving  of  pre- 
cious stones  for  seals  goes  back 
to  the  earliest  Babylonian  civili- 
zation, sard,  jasper,  chalcedony, 
onxy,  and  other  materials  being 
used.  The  design  was  sunk  into 
the  stone  by  means  of  a  small  re- 
volving wheel,  moistened  with 
oil  and  sprinkled  with  emery  or 
diamond  dust ;  by  a  drill,  pointed 
or  having  a  diamond  splinter  set 
in  the  end  ;  or  by  a  blunt  instru- 
ment, moistened  and  dipped  in 
emery. 

The  earliest  Babylonian  seals 
are  of  cylindrical  form,  bearing 
hunting  and  ritual  scenes,  with 
the  inscription  of  the  owner  to 
one  side.  They  were  suspended 
by  a  string,  and  used  as  personal 
marks  on  contracts.  The  most 
important  that  have  been  found 
are  those  of  Sargon  (q.  v.),  arid 
of  a  viceroy  of  Ur-Gur  (2500 
B.C.).  An  alternative  form  was 
the  conoidal — rounded  at  the  top, 
with  a  flat  base  for  the  design. 

The  cylindrical  form  was 
adopted  by  the  Assyrians,  and, 
after  the  conquest  of  Babylon 
(538  B.C.),  by  the  Persians.  It 
is  also  found  in  excavations  in 
Crete  and  Cyprus.  In  Egypt, 
the  cylindrical  form  developed 
probably  simultaneously  with 
that  of  Babylonia.  But  later  the 
scarab  form  was  introduced,  and 
became  almost  tmiversal,  being 
used  as  an  amulet.  The  flat  por- 
tion underneath  received  the 
hieroglyphic  signs  or  carvings  of 
animals  and  deities. 

Seals  were  used  by  the  Israel- 
ites in  Biblical  times,  and  they 
also  came  into  use  among  the 
Phcenicians  and  Etruscans 
(800-600  B.C.).  They  reached 
the  highest  degree  of  excellence 
in  the  Roman  Empire.  But  in 
the  early  centuries  of  our  era  the 
art  declined,  and  though  revived 
again  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
later  seals  are  mostly  imitations 
of  classical  designs.    See  Gems. 

Sea'man,  Sir  Owen  (1861- 
1936),  English  author  and 
journalist.  In  1897  he  joined 
the  staff  of  Punch,  became  as- 
sistant editor  in  1902,  and  on 
the  retirement  of  Sir  F.  C.  Bur- 
nand  (1906)  became  editor  (re- 
tired in  1932).  His  pviblications 
include :  Horace  at  Cambridge 
(1894);    Tillers   of   the  Sand 


(1895)  ;    Battle    of    the  Bays 

(1896)  ;  In  Cap  and  Bells 
(1899)  ;  Borrowed  Plumes 
(1902);  A  Harvest  of  Chaff 
(1904);  Salvage  (1908);  Made 
in  England  (1916)  ;  From  the 
Home  Front  (1918);  Interludes 
of  an  Editor  (1929). 

Seaman.    See  Seamen. 

Seamanship,  Practical,  is 
the  art  of  rigging  a  vessel  and 
of  otherwise  making  her  ready 
for  sea,  and  of  managing  and 
working  her  when  at  sea.  When 
facing  forward,  the  right-hand 
side  of  a  vessel  is  called  the  star- 
board side,  and  the  left-hand  the 
port  side.  Formerly  the  term 
larboard'  was  used  for  port ;  but 
it  was  easily  mistaken  for  star- 
board, and  was  changed  to  'port' 
about  1850  for  this  reason.  Sail- 
ing vessels  are  named  according 
to  their  rig — i.e.,  the  number  of 
masts  and  the  kind  of  sails  they 
carry.  The  side  of  the  vessel 
against  which  the  wind  is  blow- 
ing is  called  the  weather  or  wind- 
ward side,  the  other  the  lee  side. 
The  ship  is  kept  on  her  course 
by  means  of  the  helm  ;  but  the 
manner  in  which  the  sails  are 
set  and  trimmed  has  great  effect 
on  the  steering.  The  after  sails 
tend  to  throw  the  ship  up  in  the 
wind — i.e.,  bring  the  wind  more 
ahead.  The  sails  forward  tend 
to  make  the  ship  pay  off — i.e., 
bring  the  wind  more  aft.  The 
seaman  sets  and  trims  the  sails 
so  that  they  have  a  maximum  ef- 
fect in  driving  the  vessel  along, 
and  at  the  same  time  arranges  as 
far  as  possible  that  the  forward 
and  after  sails  balance  each 
other,  so  that  the  vessel  may  be 
easily  steered. 

A  ship  can  be  sailed  in  any 
direction  not  less  than  about  six 
points  (67^°)  from  the  wind. 
Thus,  with  the  wind  from  north 
a  vessel  could  sail  on  any  course 
not  lying  between  e.n.e.  and 
w.N.w.  When  heading  e.n.e.  she 
would  be  close-hauled  on  the  port 
tack,  and  w.N.w.  close-hauled 
on  the  starboard  tack.  Fore- 
and-aft  vessels  sail  closer  to  the 
wind  than  square-rigged  vessels  ; 
and  the  flatter  the  sails  set,  the 
nearer  the  wind  a  vessel  will  lie. 
When  the  wind  comes  from  the 
direction  in  which  it  is  desired 
to  proceed,  progress  is  made  di- 
rectly to  windward  by  sailing  al- 
ternately on  each  tack,  thus 
making  a  zigzag  track,  the  re- 
sultant of  which  is  a  motion 
against  the  wind.  This  is  called 
beating  to  windward.  Tacking 
is  performed  by  bringing  the  ship 
head  to  wind,  so  that  all  the 
sails  are  aback  (i.e.,  the  wind 
blows  against  their  forward 
side)  ;  she  is  then  'in  stays,'  and 
is  afterward  made  to  fall  off 
from  the  wind  on  the  other  tack. 
In  bad  weather,  or  in  very  light 
winds,  it  is  not  always  possible 


Seamanship,  Practical  KFI 


67  B   Seamen,  Laws  Relating  to 


to  tack.  The  vessel  is  then  put 
on  the  other  tack  by  zvcaring. 
This  is  done  by  making  the  ship 
fall  off  until  the  wind  is  directly 
astern,  and  bringing  her  up  to 
the  wind  on  the  other  tack. 

The  amount  of  sail  set  is  regu- 
lated according  to  the  force  of 
the  wind.  As  it  increases,  the 
light  upper  sails  are  taken  in 
first,  and  a  definite  order  of 
shortening  sail  is  followed,  the 
topsails  being  kept  set  until  the 
last.  The  ability  properly  to 
take  in  heavy  sails  in  very  bad 
weather  is  an  important  qualifi- 
cation of  a  seaman.  In  heavy 
gales,  with  a  high  sea  running, 
it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
heave  to.  The  ship  is  kept  head- 
ing as  close  to  the  wind  as  possi- 
ble, so  as  to  meet  the  seas  bow 
first.  Only  enough  sail  is  set  to 
keep  the  ship's  head  up  to  wind 
and  sea,  and  she  is  allowed  to 
drift,  making  very  little  head- 
way, the  seaman  endeavoring  to 
keep  the  ship  from  falling  oft' 
into  the  trough  of  the  sea. 
Steamers  are  hove  to  nearly  head 
to  sea,  with  the  sea  on  the  quar- 
ter, or  in  the  trough  of  the  sea, 
the  engines  running  very  slowly. 
If  a  sailing  ship  is  not  hove  to, 
she  may  be  kept  before  the  wind, 
or  what  is  termed  running.  As 
she  is  then  moving  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  wind,  its  force  is 
not  felt  so  much  ;  but  the  safety 
of  the  ship  depends  in  a  great 
measure  vipon  good  steering,  and 
with  some  vessels  it  is  not  safe 
to  run  in  a  very  heavy  sea.  In 
case  of  accidents  such  as  loss  of 
rudder  or  of  masts  the  seaman 
must  be  ready  with  resources, 
and  be  able  to  rig  a  jury-rudder 
or  a  jury-mast. 

Tlie  anchor  (q.  v.)  is  used 
when  it  is  required  to  moor  the 
ship  at  some  distance  from  the 
shore.  Its  construction  is  such 
that  any  tendency  of  the  ship  to 
drift  away  causes  the  anchor  to 
embed  itself  in  the  grovmd.  A 
sea  anchor  is  a.  floating  contriv- 
ance formed  of  spars  and  can- 
vas, made  to  hang  vertically 
from  the  surface  of  the  sea.  It 
is  secured  to  the  bow  of  the  ves- 
sel by  a  hawser,  and  by  its  re- 
sistance to  the  water  as  the  ship 
drifts  it  keeps  her  out  of  the 
trough  of  the  sea. 

The  character  of  the  seaman- 
ship required  by  the  officers  of 
steam  vessels  diff'ers  from  that 
necessary  in  sailing  ships,  but  it 
is  of  ecjually  great  importance, 
and  a  lack  of  it  may  cause  seri- 
ous injury  to,  or  loss  of,  the  ship. 
Steam  seamanship  consists  large- 
ly in  knowing  how  fast  it  is  safe 
to  run  in  a  heavy  sea,  in  what 
direction  it  is  best  to  head,  how 
the  vessel  may  best  lie  to,  how  to 
handle  her  in  narrow  waters,  or 
in  emergencies,  etc. 

A  knowledge  of  the  action  of 


the  propeller  is  necessary  in  the 
management  of  a  steamship,  as 
it  not  only  propels  the  ship 
ahead,  but  has  a  considerable 
turning  effect,  which  can  be  uti- 
lized to  great  advantage  when  it 
is  required  to  turn  short  round 
in  narrow  waters.  A  thorough 
knowledge  of  marine  meteorol- 
ogy, including  the  laws  of 
storms  and  the  handling  of  the 
ship  in  them,  is  also  essential  for 
seamen  (officers)  in  both  sailing 
ships  and  steamers. 

Seamanship  should  not  be  con- 
fused with  navigation,  which  is 
the  art  of  determining  a  ship's 
position  and  course  on  the  open 
seas  by  means  of  celestial  obser- 
vations, nor  with  piloting, 
which  is  the  art  of  conducting  a 
vessel  in  channels  and  harbors 
and  along  coasts  where  light- 
houses, landmarks,  buoys,  and 
other  objects  are  available  for 
fixing  position.  Seamanship  and 
navigation  are  companion  arts, 
and  without  good  seamanship  the 
practical  application  of  good 
navigation  is  impossible. 

For  the  prevention  of  colli- 
sions a  number  of  regulations 
have  been  agreed  upon  by  the 
maritime  nations.  (See  Rules 
OF  THE  Road  at  Sea.)  See  also 
Navigation  ;  Sails  and  Rig- 
ging. 

Sea-mat.    See  Flustra. 

Seamen  are  technically  those 
persons,  below  the  rank  of  offi- 
cer, who  are  employed  in  navi- 
gating decked  vessels  on  the  high 
seas.  The  term  has  been  held  to 
include  ship's  stewards,  waiters, 
cooks,  deck  hands,  ship's  carpen- 
ters, stokers.  See  Seamen, 
Laws  Relating  to. 

Seamen,  Laws  Relating  to. 
In  the  United  States,  the  rela- 
tions of  American  shipowners, 
masters,  and  seamen  are  regu- 
lated by  acts  of  Congress. 
These  acts  express  the  obliga- 
tions of  masters  and  owners  in 
great  detail,  and  have  become 
more  and  more  favorable  to  the 
seaman,  in  some  respects,  until 
they  bear  with  such  force  upon 
the  owners  that  it  is  practically 
impossible  for  American  vessels 
to  be  profitably  employed  in  the 
foreign  trade  except  under  un- 
usual circumstances. 

In  all  the  large  seaports  there 
are  U.  S.  shipping  commission- 
ers, or  persons  acting  as  such, 
whose  duties  include  supervision 
of  the  employment  of  seamen, 
and  who  are  required  to  ascer- 
tain, investigate,  and  report  vio- 
lations of  the  law.  Certain 
features  of  the  laws  are  directly 
under  the  cognizance  of  the  col- 
lector of  customs,  and  others  un- 
der that  of  the  supervising  in- 
spector of  steam  vessels.  In 
foreign  ports,  U.  S.  consuls  have 
charge  of  matters  affecting 
American  merchant  seamen. 


Contracts  between  master  and 
seaman  must  be  in  writing,  and 
state  the  rate  of  wages,  length 
and  nature  of  the  voyage,  and 
the  term  of  service.  They  may 
be  set  aside  if  fraud  or  force  is 
used,  and  must  be  entered  into 
before  the  voyage  begins.  Leav- 
ing the  ship  before  the  expira- 
tion of  the  contract  constitvites 
the  oft'ense  of  desertion  (q.  v.). 

Seamen's  Act  of  1915. — This 
measure,  also  known  as  the  'La 
Follette  Bill,'  prescribes  in  detail 
the  treatment  of  sailors  and  the 
safety  requirements  of  passen- 
ger ships.  The  provisions  in  re- 
gard to  the  welfare  of  seamen 
cover,  among  other  subjects,  de- 
sertion, kind  of  labor,  food, 
sleep,  air,  water,  Sunday  and 
other  holiday  recreation,  wages, 
time  and  manner  of  payment, 
living  conditions,  unnecessary 
work,  cleanliness,  punishment, 
language,  recognition  of  what 
constitutes  an  able  seaman,  and 
beginning  and  expiration  of  serv- 
ice. The  chief  life-saving  fea- 
ture is  the  provision  affecting 
ships  vmder  all  flags  leaving 
American  ports  to  the  effect  that 
vessels  built  after  July  L  1915, 
must  carry  life-saving  equip- 
ment for  all  persons  on  board, 
of  which  75  per  cent  must  be 
regular  life  boats,  and  not  more 
than  25  per  cent  life  rafts  or  col- 
lapsible life  boats.  Lake  steam- 
ers are  required  to  carry  life 
boats  for  20  per  cent  of  passen- 
gers and  life  rafts  for  30  per 
cent  more.  Vessels  plying  with- 
in 25  miles  of  the  coast  are  re- 
quired to  carry  life  boats  and 
rafts  for  35  per  cent  each — 70 
per  cent  in  all.  The  Act  directs 
the  President  to  give  notice  to 
those  governments  with  which 
we  have  treaties  in  conflict  with 
any  provision  of  the  Act  that  the 
conflicting  parts  of  such  treaties 
shall  terminate  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, according  to  the  terms  of 
the  treaties. 

Much  opposition  to  certain 
provisions  of  the  Act  arose  in 
shipping  circles,  especially 
against  that  provision  which 
states  that  no  vessel  'shall  be 
permitted  to  depart  from  any 
port  of  the  United  States  unless 
she  has  on  board  a  crew  not  less 
than  75  per  cent  of  which  in  each 
department  thereof  are  able  to 
understand  any  order  given  by 
the  officers  of  such  vessel.' 

Formerly,  deserters  could  be 
arrested  and  forced  to  return  to 
their  ship.  In  foreign  ports  con- 
suls were  charged  with  the  duty 
of  securing  the  arrest  and  return 
of  deserters.  The  Seamen's 
Act  of  1915  removed  all  penal- 
ties for  desertion,  both  at  home 
and  abroad,  except  the  forfeiture 
of  unpaid  wages. 

Assignments  of  a  seaman's 
wages  in  advance  are  void,  un- 


Sea-mew 


KFI 


68 


Sea  Power 


less  made  in  favor  of  the  man 
himself,  or  of  his  wife  or  moth- 
er. A  seaman  may  institute  pro- 
ceedings against  the  ship,  its 
owner,  or  the  master  for  his 
wages.  A  seaman  can  only  be 
discharged  for  cause,  and  in  the 
presence  of  a  shipping  comrnis- 
sioner,  if  possible  ;  in  a  foreign 
port,  before  the  American  con- 
sul. It  is  a  criminal  offense  for 
a  master  unwarrantably  to  aban- 
don a  seaman  in  a  foreign  port. 

Seamen  who  become  ill  during 
the  term  of  contract  must  re- 
ceive proper  care  and  medical 
attendance,  when  practicable. 
Every  ship  must  have  a  suitable 
medicine  chest  provided  with 
proper  medicines.  The  mini- 
mum size  of  crews'  quarters  is 
fixed  by  law  at  120  cubic  feet  of 
air  space  and  16  square  feet  of 
floor  area  per  person.  Washing 
and  bathing  arrangements  and  a 
hospital  room  are  required  in  all 
except  very  small  vessels.  The 
kind  and  amount  of  food  are  also 
fixed  by  statute. 

Three-fourths  of  the  crew  of 
a  vessel  must  understand  Eng- 
lish, and  fifty-five  per  cent  must 
be  able  seamen — e.g.,  must  have 
had  three  years'  experience  at 
sea,  and  be  physically  fit. 

The  Act  of  1915  was  modified 
by  various  later  acts,  but  in 
1939  shipowners  contended  that 
resulting  operating  costs  were  so 
high  that  competition  with  for- 
eign vessels  was  impossible  with- 
out subsidies.  Labor  union  offi- 
cials demanded  laws  which 
would  recognize  their  actual  con- 
trol of  the  'Hiring  Halls'  for 
seamen,  to  enable  union  officials 
to  choose  the  seamen  who  are  to 
receive  employment  and  to  deny 
crews  to  ships  at  their  pleasure. 
Individuals  interested  in  the 
merchant  marine  as  a  national 
asset  and  as  a  defense  auxiliary 
advocated  other  measures :  (a) 
Better  living  quarters  for  sea- 
men ;  (b)  Stability  of  employ- 
ment, instead  of  the  old  hiring 
for  a  single  voyage,  with  the  ob- 
jective of  more  experienced 
crews  for  modern  ships ;  (c) 
Better  discipline  on  board  ships  ; 
(d)  Relaxation  of  laws  which 
have  compelled  the  installation 
of  expensive  and  generally  use- 
less so-called  safety  devices. 
Labor  policies  and  higher  costs 
greatly  reduced  hundreds  of 
seamen's  jobs.  In  1939  the 
American  deep  sea  merchant  ma- 
rine was  almost  entirely  in  gov- 
ernment hands,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly. 

Sea-mew,  se'mu',  a  gull,  es- 
pecially the  European  mew  gull 
(Larus  canus).    See  Gull. 

Sea-mouse  {Aphrodite) ,  a 
polychsete  worm  (Chsetopoda) 
of  curious  shape,  which  lives  in 
land  beyond  tide  mark,  but  is 
frequently  thrown  up  by  storms 


on  the  beach.  The  body  is  oval, 
broadest  in  the  middle,  and 
pointed  at  both  ends,  and  reaches 
a  length  of  several  inches.  All 
signs  of  segmentation  on  the  dor- 
sal surface  are  concealed  by  a 
dense  felting  of  hairs,  mingled 
with  which  are  a  number  of 
brilliantly  iridescent  bristles. 
Beneath  the  felting  lie  a  series 
of  scales  or  elytra,  and  at  the 
sides  of  the  body  are  the  charac- 
teristic polychaete  parapodia.  It 
is  found  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

Sea-otter  (Enhydra  lutris,  or 
Latax  lutris),  a  carnivore  which 
produces  perhaps  the  most  valu- 
able of  all  furs.  Zoologically  it 
is  a  fissiped,  which  in  habit  and 
some  points  of  structure  recalls 


Sea-otter. 


the  pinniped  forms  (see  Otter). 
The  sea-otter  is  confined  to  the 
coasts  of  the  North  Pacific,  and 
is  now  very  rare.  In  general  ap- 
pearance it  somewhat  resembles 
an  eared  seal,  the  hind  feet  being 
long  flippers,  very  different  from 
those  of  the  other  otters.  The 
incisor  teeth  are  reduced  in  nvim- 
ber,  and  the  cheek  teeth  are  fur- 
nished with  blunt  and  rounded 
tubercles,  admirably  adapted  for 
crushing  the  hard-shelled  mol- 
luscs, sea-urchins,  and  crusta- 
ceans upon  which  the  animal 
feeds.  Sea-otters  are  not  polyg- 
amous or  gregariovis,  and  but 
one  young  is  produced  at  a  birth, 
which  takes  place  on  rocky  islets, 
or  even  on  a  bed  of  floating  kelp. 
The  coat  consists  of  a  very  fine 
soft  under  fur  of  a  dark  brown 
color,  with  a  few  long  stiff  hairs 
of  a  grayish  color  scattered 
through.  These  long  hairs  are 
removed  when  the  skin  is  pre- 
pared. As  much  as  $2,500  has 
been  paid  for  a  single  skin.  Sea- 
otter  fishing  is  carried  on  off 
Alaska  and  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
and  also  in  Kamchatka. 

Sea-owl,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  the  Lumpsucker 
(q.  v.). 

Sea-pen.  See  Pennatula. 
The  name  is  sometimes  also  ap- 
plied to  the  horny  structure 
found  in  such  cuttles  as  Loligo, 
where  it  is  the  homologue  of  the 
'bone'  of  such  forms  as  Sepia, 
both  pen  and  bone  representing 
the  last  remnant  of  the  shell. 
See  Cephalopoda. 

Sea-pheasant.   See  Pintail. 

Sea-pie.  See  Oyster- 
catcher. 


Sea-pike  ( Ccntropomus  un- 
decimalis),  an  edible  American 
fish,  occurring  on  the  coasts  of 
Florida  and  Texas.  The  genus 
includes  several  somewhat  pike- 
like fishes,  at  home  in  the  warm 
American  seas,  though  often 
thriving  in  fresh  water.  In  real- 
ity they  are  allied  to  the  perches, 
not  to  the  pikes.  On  British 
coasts  the  term  sea-pike  is  some- 
times applied  to  the  Garfish  or 
Belone. 

Sea-pink,  a  European  plant. 
See  Thrift. 

Sea-porcupine,  the  name 
given  to  a  plectognathous  fish, 
because  of  its  spines  or  tubercles. 
See  Globe-fish. 

Seaport,  a  town  or  city  near 
the  sea  having  a  harbor.  The 
greatest  seaports  of  the  world 
are  New  York,  London,  Kobe, 
Yokohama,  Rotterdam,  Balti- 
more, Colombo,  Osaka,  Antwerp, 
Hamburg,  Philadelphia,  Shang- 
hai, Los  Angeles  and  Liverpool. 

Sea  Power.  The  term  Sea 
Power  has  obtained  general  ac- 
ceptance in  English  speaking 
communities.  It  designates  com- 
prehensively those  elements  of 
national  strength  which  derive 
from  the  free  use  of  the  sea,  or 
those  which  themselves  procure 
and  assure  such  free  use.  In 
this  sense  it  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  expression,  a  Sea  Pow- 
er, or  the  Sea  Powers,  employed 
formerly  more  frequently  than 
now  in  the  diplomatic  corre- 
spondence of  Europe,  to  indicate 
a  nation,  or  group  of  nations — 
Powers — whose  chief  military 
strength  lay  in  their  navies.  An 
example  of  such  use  is  given  by 
the  historian  Grote,  in  the  words 
'the  conversion  of  Athens  from 
a  land  power  into  a  sea  power.' 

In  common  application.  Sea 
Power  most  usually  means  naval 
development.  This,  however,  is 
simply  the  ultimate  result  of  var- 
ious factors  which  facilitate  the 
acquisition  of  naval  strength,  or 
which  make  the  possession  of 
such  strength  essential  to  nation- 
al well-being.  In  these  senses, 
the  idea  underlying  the  expres- 
sion— the  idea  of  the  influence 
of  the  Sea  upon  the  welfare  of 
states — is  long  standing  and  of 
great  antiquity  ;  it  is,  indeed,  too 
obvious  to  escape  the  notice  of 
statesmen  and  thinkers. 

The  foregoing  paragraphs 
were  written  by  the  late  Rear- 
Admiral  A.  T.  Mahan,  of  the 
United  States  Navy,  by  far  the 
most  distinguished  writer  upon 
this  subject.  The  importance  of 
sea  power  was  not  unappreciated 
by  many  of  the  great  thinkers, 
statesmen,  and  naval  command- 
ers of  the  past ;  but  their  views 
were  usually  narrow,  or  else  in- 
adequately developed,  and  their 
expression  produced  no  lasting 
influence  upon  the  policy  of  na- 


Sea  Power 


KFI 


69 


Sea  Power 


tions.  It  remained  for  Mahan 
to  undertake  a  systematic  inves- 
tigation of  the  foundation,  sup- 
porting conditions,  and  value  of 
sea  power,  and  to  present  his 
conclusions  in  a  manner  convinc- 
ing to  the  world  at  large.  After 
many  years'  study  of  the  subject, 
during  which  he  delivered  sev- 
eral lectures  at  the  U.  S.  Naval 
War  College  and  elsewhere,  and 
wrote  numerous  short  articles 
bearing  upon  the  questions  in- 
volved, he  published,  in  1890, 
his  first  great  work.  He  had  in- 
tended to  give  it  the  title  Sea 
Pozvcr ;  but  owing  to  the  igno- 
rance of  the  general  public  con- 
cerning maritime  and  naval  af- 
fairs, and  its  consequent  indif- 
ference to  the  discussion  of  such 
matters,  he  was  prevailed  upon 
to  call  it  the  Influence  of  Sea 
Power  Upon  Historv,  1660- 
1783. 

Its  success  was  instantaneous, 
particularly  in  Europe,  where 
interest  in  such  matters  is  in- 
tense. Its  convincing  marshall- 
ing of  historical  facts,  both  of 
cause  and  effect,  its  clear  and 
strong  reasoning, 'and  the  lessons 
thereby  educed  caused  a  revolu- 
tion in  the  public  mind.  The 
greatest  effect  was  produced  in 
England  and  Germany,  which 
began  at  once  to  develop,  as  far 
as  practicable,  their  maritime 
forces,  commerce,  and  industries 
upon  the  lines  he  laid  down. 

England's  sea  power  was  al- 
ready the  greatest  in  the  world, 
and  was  the  result  of  centuries 
of  experience,  of  her  invulnera- 
bility except  to  over-sea  attack, 
her  colonial  empire,  her  vast 
trade,  the  fluctuating  influences 
of  external  conditions,  and  the 
unconnected  work  of  individual 
statesmen  and  leaders  in  com- 
merce and  manufactures.  It 
was  the  greatest  exemplification 
of  sea  power  that  the  world  had 
ever  seen.  But  it  was  a  growth, 
not  a  development  ;  it  lacked 
analysis  and  a  basis  of  action 
resting  upon  well-considered  and 
interdependent  principles  of  na- 
tional policy.  This  Mahan's 
work  supplied,  and  it  was  enthu- 
siastically approved.  Since  then, 
a  systematic  development  of  the 
fleet  and  other  elements  of  sea 
power  has  been  the  unquestioned 
aim  of  all  political  parties  and 
creeds. 

In  Germany,  conditions  were 
different.  The  situation  of  the 
country  rendered  the  possession 
of  a  great  army  of  paramount 
importance.  The  navy  was 
composed  of  a  heterogeneous 
mixture  of  types,  chiefly  in- 
tended for  coast  defense,  and 
showed  a  lack  of  definite  pur- 
pose as  to  its  war  use.  The 
colonies  were  few  and  undevel- 
oped. Commerce  and  manufac- 
tures were  growing,  but  had  not 


yet  felt  the  impetus  which  they 
were  soon  to  receive.  The  ap- 
pearance of  Mahan's  book 
changed  all  this,  and  unified  Ger- 
man thought  concerning  mari- 
time affairs.  By  order  of  the 
Kaiser,  the  work  was  placed  on 
every  German  man-of-war  and 
ordered  to  be  studied.  The 
German  Navy  League  was  or- 
ganized under  government  aus- 
pices. The  upbuilding  of  the 
German  fleet  was  commenced  ac- 
cording to  a  definite  plan,  while 
the  government  largely  aug- 
mented its  fostering  care  of 
commerce  and  manufacturing, 
and  began  looking  about  for  col- 
onies and  spheres  of  influence. 
The  German  genius  for  organiz- 
ing appeared  in  the  excellence  of 
all  the  arrangements,  but  Ger- 
many misunderstood  and  misap- 
plied many  of  the  facts  which 
Mahan  had  set  down,  as  the 
years  1914-18  showed. 

Japan,  with  a  full  understand- 
ing of  Mahan's  conclusions,  laid 
her  plans  in  accordance  with  the 
possibilities  they  indicated,  and, 
in  1939,  was  still  carrying  them 
out  to  the  fullest  degree  by  de- 
veloping commerce,  manufac- 
tures, a  strong  navy,  and  expan- 
sion in  China.  Italy,  Austria, 
Russia,  and  many  of  the  lesser 
powers  followed  Mahan's  doc- 
trines to  a  limited  extent  prior 
to  1914. 

Though  not  realizing  its  full 
value,  for  they  lacked  the  knowl- 
edge which  the  history  of  cen- 
turies has  given  vis,  the  impor- 
tance of  sea  power  was  recog- 
nized by  some  of  the  ancient 
statesmen  and  thinkers.  Mahan 
says :  'Grote  quotes  Herodotus, 
"The  ^ginetan  War  was  the 
salvation  of  Greece,  by  con- 
straining the  Athenians  to  make 
themselves  a  maritime  power  ;" 
and  he  himself  adds  in  comment, 
that  the  whole  efficiency  of  the 
resistance  subsequently  made  to 
Xerxes  turned  upon  this  new 
movement  in  the  organization  of 
Athens.' 

The  Phoenician  cities  of  Tyre 
and  Sidon  existed  through  their 
sea  power  alone,  and  the  great 
colony  of  Carthage  was  part  of 
it  and  a  result  of  it.  The  em- 
pires of  Assyria,  Babylon,  Per- 
sia and  of  Alexander  stopped  at 
the  sea  coast  through  lack  of  sea 
power.  It  is  true  that  each  of 
these  organized  great  naval 
forces  from  among  their  vassals, 
but  the  other  elements  were 
lacking.  Carthage  was  de- 
stroyed because  she  allowed  her 
sea  power  to  decline.  The  Ro- 
mans were  not  a  seafaring  race, 
and  their  early  victories  were  on 
land.  When  their  ambition 
sought  extension  beyond  the  sea, 
they  boldly  embarked  in  ship- 
building, and  eventually  became 
supreme  upon  the  water.  With- 


out this  sea  power  they  could 
neither  have  made  nor  held  their 
conquests  in  Africa,  Asia,  or 
Britain. 

In  the  early  Middle  Ages  the 
dominant  nations  were  strong 
at  sea,  in  naval  forces  and  in 
commerce.  The  Eastern  Em- 
pire at  Constantinople  preserved 
its  life  by  the  maintenance  of  a 
naval  force.  Whenever  this  be- 
came too  weak  (as  frequently 
happened),  commerce  suffered, 
and  the  national  existence  was 
threatened.  For  a  time  the  Em- 
pire passed  under  the  sway  of 
Venice ;  at  others,  the  Genoese 
and  Pisans  had  commanding  in- 
fluence in  its  councils.  Three 
comparatively  small  Italian 
cities,  by  their  commerce,  wealth, 
and  naval  strength,  were  thus 
able  to  dominate  a  great  empire. 
They  were  also  able  to  check  the 
speed  of  the  Mohammedan  flood 
by  interfering  with,  and  at  times 
destroying,  communication  by 
sea  between  the  Eastern  caliph- 
ate and  Mohammedan  states 
and  dependencies  in  Africa  and 
Spain. 

A  few  hundred  years  later  the 
Battle  of  Lepanto  destroyed  the 
Turkish  navy,  almost  put  an  end 
to  Turkish  commerce,  and  for  a 
time  ended  her  sea  power.  For 
more  than  two  centuries  Spain 
almost  lived  upon  her  commerce 
and  the  revenue  from  her  colo- 
nies and  maritime  conquests. 
The  disastrous  defeat  of  the 
great  Armada  was  the  culminat- 
ing point  in  Spanish  history.  It 
was  followed  by  sweeping  victo- 
ries of  the  Dutch  naval  forces, 
the  loss  of  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands, and  a  steady  decline  of  sea 
power  and  national  importance. 

The  rise  of  the  Dutch  sea 
power  in  the  midst  of  their 
struggle  for  freedom  shows  how 
much  great  sea  power  can  do  for 
a  small  state.  The  Spanish 
Netherlands  were  a  Venice  of 
the  North.  The  commerce  and 
wealth  of  their  seaport  cities  af- 
forded support  for  a  large  fleet, 
naval  and  commercial,  and  the 
merchant  vessels  built  up  for 
themselves  a  vast  additional 
business  in  the  carrying  trade  of 
nearly  all  Europe.  Even  British 
sea-borne  commerce  fell  into 
their  hands,  and  so  remained  un- 
til the  operation  of  the  Naviga- 
tion Laws  and  other  causes  com- 
bined to  destroy  Britain's  rivals. 

As  Mahan  points  out,  a  rich, 
populous,  and  highly  commercial 
island  is  the  ideal  center  for 
great  sea  power.  Moreover, 
such  an  island  cannot  become 
rich  and  populous  and  remain  so 
without  the  possession  of  ample 
sea  power.  England  is  the 
greatest  example  of  this.  Much 
of  what  great  sea  power  can  do 
and  what  it  can  prevent  may  be 
seen  in  her  history.    Her  com- 


Sea  Power 


KFI 


70 


Search 


merce  built  up  her  industries,  es- 
tablished and  developed  her  colo- 
nies, and  controlled  the  markets 
of  the  world,  while  her  fleet  pro- 
tected all.  Her  naval  suprema- 
cy, supported  by  her  wealth  and 
sea-borne  trade,  was  the  leading 
cause  of  the  downfall  of  Napo- 
leon. More  than  once  it  has  in- 
tervened to  change  or  prevent  a 
change  in  the  map  of  the  world. 
Without  it,  Germany  would  have 
been  victorious  in  the  World 
War  of  1914-18. 

United  States. — No  country 
has  had  more  reason  to  recognize 
the  importance  of  sea  power 
than  has  the  United  States  ;  and 
no  government  or  people  seems 
to  have  appreciated  it  so  little. 
In  the  American  Revolution  the 
ill-equipped  but  numerous  priva- 
teers and  cruisers  almost  de- 
stroyed British  commerce,  and 
created  a  strong  sentiment  in 
England  for  the  cessation  of  hos- 
tilities, while  the  strength  of  her 
fleet  enabled  France  to  land 
troops  at  Yorktown  for  the  de- 
cisive campaign  of  the  war.  In 
1812,  the  few  naval  vessels  in 
commission — which  were  all 
that  the  previous  administration 
allowed  to  exist,  together  with 
the  privateers,  drove  the  British 
to  make  peace  at  a  time  when 
they  had  been  uniformly  success- 
ful on  land. 

In  the  various  disputes  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  the 
Barbary  states,  sea  power  finally 
exacted  an  honorable  and  per- 
manent peace,  after  the  United 
States  had  paid  an  annual  trib- 
ute to  these  pirate  states  for  sev- 
eral years  and  suffered  interfer- 
ence with  her  trade  and  impris- 
onment of  her  seamen. 

In  the  Civil  War,  victory  was 
rendered  possible  by  cutting  off 
the  supplies  from  abroad 
through  the  agency  of  the  fleet ; 
while  the  navy  of  the  South, 
weak  as  it  was,  afforded  impor- 
tant assistance  to  Confederate 
operations,  and  nearly  destroyed 
Northern  over-sea  commerce. 

In  the  Spanish  War,  the  supe- 
rior American  fleet  destroyed  the 
Spanish  forces  at  Manila  and 
Santiago,  and  blockaded  the 
Spanish  army  in  Cuba,  so  that 
its  surrender  was  only  a  ques- 
tion of  time.  While  the  Span- 
ish navy  was  of  respectable  size 
on  paper,  the  fleet  had  neither 
trained  men  nor  organization ; 
the  nation  lacked  wealth,  foreign 
commerce,  and  private  and  naval 
establishments  adequate  to  the 
rapid  equipment  of  her  vessels, 
their  support  and  maintenance  in 
time  of  war.  In  other  words, 
Spain  possessed  but  a  single 
requisite  of  sea  power. 

The  position  of  the  United 
States  is  favorable  to  the  de- 
velopment of  great  sea  power, 
and  her  necessities  demand  it. 


Though  not  an  island,  she  can  be 
attacked  from  the  land  side  only 
along  her  northern  and  southern 
borders.  The  distance  of  her 
coast  from  the  shores  of  every 
other  great  nation  compensates 
for  her  vulnerability  from  the 
north  and  south.  But  the  great 
extent  of  her  coast  line  renders  a 
surprise  attack  possible.  Fortu- 
nately, such  attacks  cannot  be 
accompanied  by  overwhelming 
military  forces  in  the  face  of  an 
adequate  navy.  And  this  she 
must  have,  or  else  keep  in  train- 
ing an  army  of  a  size  comparable 
to  those  maintained  by  Euro- 
pean nations.  Her  chief  weak- 
ness is  the  lack  of  a  foreign  car- 
rying trade.  Not  only  does  this 
condition  of  affairs  involve  a  loss 
to  the  country  of  the  large  sums 
of  money  paid  for  freight  to  for- 
eigners, but  much  export  busi- 
ness as  well,  for  there  is  no  busi- 
ness getter  like  a  steamship  com- 
pany which  must  obtain  freight 
both  ways  in  order  to  exist  ;  and, 
if  foreign-owned,  it  would  nat- 
urally seek  traffic  in  its  home 
ports  at  the  expense  of  Ameri- 
can interests.  Furthermore, 
without  such  steamer  lines,  there 
can  be  neither  vessels  for  auxili- 
ary service  in  war  nor  men  to 
man  them. 

Admiral  Mahan  has  nowhere 
defined  in  detail  all  the  elements 
which  go  to  make  up  sea  power, 
because  those  elements  are  con- 
stantly changing,  and  only  broad 
principles  remain.  In  these 
modern  days,  to  maintain  a  naval 
force  in  time  of  peace  is  simple, 
requiring  merely  money  and 
men.  The  former  will  purchase 
the  vessels  and  supplies  ;  the  lat- 
ter may  be  trained  or  untrained 
— there  is  ample  time  for  their 
instruction.  In  time  of  war,  in 
order  that  the  sea  power  of  a  na- 
tion shall  be  commensurate  with 
the  size  of  its  naval  force,  the 
fleet  must  be  properly  balanced 
as  regards  numbers  and  charac- 
ter of  its  vessels ;  it  must  be 
fully  equipped,  highly  organized, 
manned  by  a  thoroughly  trained 
personnel,  and  have  a  reserve 
supply  of  officers,  men,  guns, 
ammunition,  fuel,  and  provi- 
sions. War  plans,  covering  all 
important  possibilities,  must  be 
carefully  considered,  and  their 
details  worked  out  in  advance 
as  far  as  practicable.  There 
must  be  shipyards,  navy  yards, 
gun  factories,  projectile  facto- 
ries, powder  factories,  torpedo 
factories,  and  an  adequate  sup- 
ply of  raw  material  for  their  use 
which  the  enemy  cannot  cut  off. 
There  must  be  ports  which  can 
be  used  as  bases  of  operations,  of 
repair,  and  of  supply.  There 
must  be  a  commercial  marine 
from  which  to  draw  auxiliary 
vessels  and  men.  And  there 
must    be    a    trained  reserve, 


whether  engaged  in  maritime  af- 
fairs or  not.  In  these  days  of 
steam,  electric,  and  internal- 
combustion  engines  and  other 
machinery,  the  training  of  the 
enlisted  men  fits  them  as  well 
for  mechanical  industries  on 
shore  as  for  sea  service. 

The  foregoing  applies  to  such 
sea  power  as  a  nation  may  pos- 
sess, without  regard  to  its  extent 
or  adequacy.  The  power  de- 
manded by  a  country's  needs  de- 
pends upon  the  extent  of  sea 
coast,  magnitude  of  interests  to 
be  protected,  vulnerability  to  at- 
tack, and  other  similar  consider- 
ations. 

See  Mahan,  A.  T. ;  Navies; 
Navy  of  the  United  States. 

Consult  Gen.  C.  E.  Callwell, 
British  Army,  Effect  of  Mari- 
time Command  an  Land  Cam- 
paigns Since  Waterloo  and  Mili- 
tary Operations  and  Maritime 
Preponderance ;  W.  O.  Stevens 
and  A.  Westcott,  History  of  Sea 
Pozvcr  (1937).  See  also  the 
works  by  Mahan,  under  Mahan, 
and  Sprout,  Rise  of  American 
Naval  Power,  1776-1918 
(1939). 

Search  and  Search  War- 
rants^ In  law,  the  term  search 
refers  to  an  inspection  of  one's 
person  or  premises  to  discover 
property  supposed  to  be  illegally 
concealed  or  evidence  improper- 
ly suppressed.  The  Fourth 
Amendment  to  the  United  States 
Constitution  (q.  v.)  contains  the 
provisions  that  the  people  shall 
be  secure  in  their  persons, 
houses,  etc.,  against  unreasona- 
ble searches  and  seizures,  and 
that  search  warrants  shall  issue 
only  when  supported  by  affi- 
davits as  to  facts,  etc.,  and  must 
contain  a  description  of  the  place 
to  be  searched,  the  purpose 
thereof,  and  what  is  to  be  seized 
thereunder.  Most  of  the  State 
constitutions  have  incorporated 
these  provisions. 

Search  warrants  are  issued  to 
search  for  and  to  seize  goods 
held  contrary  to  customs  and 
revenue  laws  ;  stolen  goods  ;  in- 
toxicating liquors ;  obscene  lit- 
erature and  pictures ;  counter- 
feit money  ;  game  taken  or  held 
contrary  to  the  game  laws ;  to 
discover  females  supposed  to  be 
detained  for  immoral  purposes 
against  their  will ;  for  evidence 
of  crime  ;  and  for  goods  held  in 
contravention  of  any  statute.  A 
search  warrant  shall  be  issued 
only  by  a  legally  avithorized 
court,  and  shall  be  directed  to  a 
proper  officer,  such  as  a  sheriff 
or  police  officer  ;  and  the  latter 
must  comply  strictly  with  its 
provisions,  or  become  personally 
liable  for  trespass.  If  refused 
admittance  he  may  force  an  en- 
trance. A  search  warrant  will 
not  be  issued  merely  to  obtain 
evidence  for  a  party  to  a  civil  ac- 


Search 


KFI 


71 


Sea  Serpent 


ner  surface  is  painted  a  dead 
black.  The  casing  is  mounted 
on  trunnions  like  a  gun  in  order 
to  permit  elevation  and  depres- 
sion, and  the  trunnion  arms  are 
supported  on  a  rotating  base. 

Searchlights  are  much  used  in 
military  operations  in  the  field 
and  on  coast  fortifications,  but 


University  ;  visited  Germany  for 
a  prolonged  period ;  and  on  his 
return  became  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Newton  Seminary,  and 
then  president.  From  1855  to 
1867  he  was  president  of  Brown 
University,  and  was  afterward 
general  agent  for  the  Peabody 
Educational  Fund. 


Door  used  for  adjusting  the  carbons 
and  for  cleaning  the  front  door. 


Vertical  peep 


Dour  used  when 
adjusting  negative 
carbons  or  clean- . 
ing  the  mirror. 

Horizontal  peep 
sight. 

Door  used  when 
carbons  are  to 
be  adjusted  or 
changed. 


Hand  star  wheel 
for  slow  vertical 
movement. 

Wheel  for  throwing  out  split 
nut  used  for  connecting  or 
disconnecting  the  drum 
from  the  base  mechaniflin» 


Front  door. 


Sliding  case  to  b< 
"  opened  when  lamp 
mechanism  is  to  bt 
inspected. 


Hand  star  wheel  for 
clamping  turntable  to 
centre  pin  for  electrical 
control. 


A  Searchlight  for  Coast  Defence. 


tion,  but  must  be  for  the  benefit 
of  the  state.  A  person  who 
makes  a  false  affidavit  or  pro- 
ceeds without  reasonable  cause 
to  obtain  a  search  warrant  is  lia- 
ble for  malicious  prosecution. 

Search,  Right  of,  is  a  privi- 
lege granted  to  belligerent  pow- 
ers by  International  Law  (q.  v.). 
It  authorizes  belligerent  war 
vessels  to  stop  neutral  ships,  and 
examine  their  charters  and  car- 
goes in  order  to  make  sure  that 
they  are  not  enemy's  vessels  mas- 
querading under  a  neutral  flag, 
and  to  determine  whether  or  not 
they  are  carrying  contraband  of 
war  (q.  v.).  If  a  neutral  ship 
fails  to  stop  when  ordered,  or  re- 
fuses to  do  so,  she  may  be  fired 
upon,  and  even  sunk  if  she  can- 
not otherwise  be  stopped.  If 
the  neutral  vessel  is  captured  af- 
ter attempting  to  escape  or  resist- 
ing search,  she  may  be  con- 
demned as  a  prize  to  her  captor. 
If  there  is  reasonable  doubt  as  to 
the  neutral  character  of  a  vessel, 
or  if  she  is  carrying  contraband 
goods,  she  may  be  captured  and 
turned  over  to  a  prize  court  for 
adjudication. 

A  neutral  vessel  carrying  con- 
traband goods  may  be  destroyed, 
if  it  cannot  be  taken  into  port 
without  involving  danger  to  the 
captor  or  to  the  success  of  the 
operations  in  which  he  is  en- 
gaged ;  but  he  must  provide  for 
the  safety  of  all  persons  on 
board,  and  must  remove  all  pa- 
pers necessary  to  be  placed  be- 
fore a  prize  court.  A  captor 
who  has  destroyed  a  neutral  ves- 
sel must,  as  a  condition  preced- 
ent to  any  decision  as  to  the  va- 
lidity of  the  capture,  establish 
the  fact  that  he  acted  only  in  the 
face  of  an  exceptional  necessity. 
Failing  to  do  this,  he  must  com- 
pensate the  parties  interested, 
without  examination  as  to 
whether  the  capture  was  valid  or 
not.  See  Prize  of  War;  Con- 
traband OF  War. 

Searchlight,  an  instrument 
for  directing  a  powerful  beam  of 
electric  light  for  the  purpose  of 
search,  illumination,  or  si-gnal- 
ling.  The  electric  searchlight 
consists  of  a  carbon  arc  mounted 
in  the  focus  of  a  parabolic  mir- 
ror that  is  secured  in  the  rear 
end  of  a  cylindrical  casing  of  thin 
steel.  The  candle  power  of  the 
arcs  used  is  from  2,000  to  50,000 
or  more.  The  carb©n  pencils  are 
placed  with  their  axes  in  the 
common  axis  of  the  casing  and 
mirror.  The  crater  in  the  posi- 
tive carbon,  which  furnishes 
about  85  per  cent  of  the  light,  is 
turned  toward  the  mirror ;  and 
this,  by  virtue  of  its  parabolic 
.shape,  reflects  all  the  divergent 
rays  which  fall  upon  it  in  a  di- 
rection parallel  to  its  axis.  To 
reduce  the  interference  of  the 
rays  as  much  as  possible,  the  in- 


they  have  their  widest  sphere  of 
usefulness  in  the  navy,  where 
they  are  employed  for  purposes 
of  navigation,  to  detect  vessels 
attempting  a  torpedo  attack,  and 
to  light  up  the  enemy  so  that  the 
gvms  may  be  more  accurately 
sighted.  In  recent  years,  mer- 
chant vessels  have  employed 
searchlights  to  an  increasing  ex- 
tent.    See  Signalling. 

Search  of  Title.  See  Re- 
cording Acts. 

Search  Warrants.  See 
Search. 

Searcy,  town,  Arkansas, 
county  seat  of  White  county,  50 
miles  northeast  of  Little  Rock. 
It  is  a  health  resort  and  a  ship- 
ping point  for  cotton  and  fruit. 
Pop.   (1930)  3.387. 

Sea  Reed.    See  Ammophila. 

Sea  Robin.  See  Gurnard  ; 
Sculpin. 

Sears,  Barnas  (1802-80), 
American  clergyman  and  edu- 
cator, was  born  in  Sandisfield, 
Mass.  In  1831-3  he  was  profes- 
sor at  Madison  (now  Colgate) 


Sears,  Roebuck  and  Com- 
pany, a  great  American  mail  or- 
der concern  with  headquarters  in 
Chicago  and  numerous  branches 
all  over  the  United  States.  The 
corporation  was  formed  in  1893, 
after  the  two  partners  had  sold 
out  the  Richard  W.  Sears  Watch 
Company,  founded,  from  small 
beginnings,  by  Sears  in  the  later 
'eighties.  The  business  grew  to 
gigantic  proportions,  with  sales 
amounting  to  considerably  more 
than  $300,000,000  annually.  A 
huge  catalog  of  over  1,000  pages 
is  issued  periodically. 

Sea  Serpent,  a  name  applied 
to  a  marine  monster  of  ser- 
pentine form,  often  reported 
to  have  been  seen,  but  whose  ex- 
istence has  never  been  scientifi- 
cally verified. 

Some  of  the  accounts  of  sea 
serpents  are  undoubtedly  myth- 
ical ;  while  others  are  generally 
believed  to  be  due  to  inaccurate 
observations  of  actual  fish  or 
marine  animals,  as  the  long, 
slender  ribbon  fish  (q.  v.)  or  oar 


Seas,  Freedom  of  the  KFI 


72 


Seashore 


fish,  the  basking  and  frilled 
shark  (see  Shark),  and  the 
giant  cuttlefish  of  the  Loligo  or 
squid  type  (see  Squid  ;  Cepha- 
lopoda). Another  theory  is  that 
there  are  still  a  few  living  speci- 
mens of  marine  reptiles,  such  as 
the  plesiosaurus  (q.  v.),  and  that 
at  rare  intervals  these  appear  on 
the  surface  of  the  ocean. 

Seas,  Freedom  of  the.  Since 
the  days  of  Grotius  (1583-1645) 
the  freedom  of  the  seas  for  the 
passage  of  neutral  vessels  has 
been  increasing,  and  for  nearly 
a  hundred  years  previous  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  World  War 
(1914-18)  there  has  been  no  in- 
equitable interference  of  one 
nation  with  the  commerce  of  an- 
other upon  the  high  seas  with- 
out reparation. 

Over  the  'high  seas'  (q.  v.), 
according  to  international  law, 
no  nation  has  any  jurisdiction. 
It  is  an  open  highway  for  the 
vessels  of  the  world  engaged  in 
peaceful  pursuits  or  lawful 
trade.  In  time  of  peace  no  na- 
tion may  abridge  its  freedom  by 
stopping  or  otherwise  exercising 
control  over  the  vessels  of  an- 
other nation,  though  in  time  of 
war  a  belligerent  public  ship 
may  legally  stop  and  search  any 
merchant  vessel  in  order  to  make 
sure  of  her  character  and  of  the 
lawfulness  or  vmlawfulness  of 
her  destination  and  cargo.  This 
is  called  the  'right  of  visit  and 
search'  (see  Search,  Right 
of).  In  time  of  war  neutral 
vessels  may  trade  with  the 
enemy  through  any  ports  not  ef- 
fectively blockaded  ;  an  effective 
blockade  (q.  v.)  being  one  main- 
tained by  a  force  sufficient  to 
stop  all  ordinary  trade,  and  make 
it  nearly  impossible  for  a  single 
vessel  to  pass  through  the  block- 
ading line. 

Enemy  merchant  vessels  may 
be  seized  wherever  found,  but 
become  the  property  of  the  cap- 
tor nation  only  after  condemna- 
tion by  a  prize  court.  In  effect- 
ing the  capture  the  lives  of  non- 
combatants  (enemy  or  neutral) 
must  not  be  put  in  jeopardy  un- 
less resistance  is  offered.  Neu- 
tral vessels  may  be  captured  for 
attempted  breach  of  blockade, 
carrying  contraband  goods,  per- 
forming unneutral  services  for  a 
belligerent,  carrying  false  pa- 
pers, resistance  to  search,  etc. 
But  they  must  be  brought  before 
a  duly  constituted  prize  court ; 
and  until  that  court  has  passed 
upon  the  case,  both  ship  and  car- 
go belong  to  the  original  owners 
and  must  be  cared  for  ;  while  her 
officers,  crew,  and  passengers 
who  are  neutrals  or  non-combat- 
ants must  not  be  exposed  to 
danger  or  ill  treatment.  If  a  cap- 
tor finds  it  necessary  to  sink  a 
merchant  vessel,  neutral  or  bel- 
ligerent,  he  must   first  remove 


the  crew  and  passengers  to  a 
place  of  absolute  safety.  Since 
neutral  goods  on  enemy  ships  are 
not  subject  to  seizure,  efTects  of 
neutral  passengers  on  enemy 
ships  must  be  paid  for.  Neutral 
vessels  may  be  sunk  only  when 
the  circumstances  are  unusual 
and  urgent.  Both  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  hold  that 
if  they  cannot  be  brought  before 
a  prize  court  they  should  be  re- 
leased, unless  caught  in  an  act 
of  unneutral  service. 

With  the  outbreak  of  war  in 
1914,  the  phrase  'Freedom  of  the 
Seas'  was  given  new  meanings 
for  propaganda  purposes.  In 
fact  the  freedom  of  the  seas  was 
curtailed  more  than  ever  before, 
but  this  curtailment  was  carried 
on  under  the  protective  cover  of 
propaganda  for  the  'Freedom  of 
the  Seas.'  Because  the  British 
Navy  was  carrying  on  the  block- 
ade for  the  Entente  Allies  it  fell 
to  the  British  to  strangle  free- 
dom of  the  seas  and  to  do  most 
in  evading  neutral  rights. 
Throughout  the  war  both  Brit- 
ain and  Germany  justified  their 
illegalities  by  claiming  that  their 
acts  were  reprisals  for  the 
wrongful  actions  of  their  ene- 
mies. The  Netherlands  and  the 
Scandinavian  countries  made 
vigorous  protests  against  the 
British  and  German  actions,  but 
these  countries  were  not  power- 
ful enough  to  assert  their  rights 
in  any  other  manner  and  also 
these  countries  were  making 
huge  profits  from  the  war.  The 
course  of  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment is  described  by  Bor- 
chardt  and  Lage  in  Neutrality 
for  the   United   States  (1937). 

The  demands  which  President 
Wilson  made  on  Germany,  prior 
to  the  entrance  of  the  United 
States  into  the  war,  were  based 
to  a  large  extent  on  Wilson's  as- 
sertions that  Germany  was  vio- 
lating the  'Freedom  of  the  Seas.' 
Germany  admitted  the  violations 
of  international  law  and  re- 
peatedly offered  to  abide  by  the 
established  precedents  if  the 
United  States  would  compel 
Britain  to  do  likewise.  Wilson 
was  justified  in  refusing  to  as- 
sume responsibility  for  Britain's 
actions,  but  in  the  opinion  of 
many  authorities  he  was  unjus- 
tified in  demanding  that  Germany 
permit  American  citizens  to 
travel  in  safety  on  belligerent 
merchant  vessels  including  those 
carrying  warfare  ammunition. 
Germany's  illegal  vise  of  sub- 
marines, violating  the  'Freedom 
of  the  Seas,'  according  to  Wil- 
son, furnished  the  immediate 
reasons  which  enabled  Wilson 
to  take  the  United  States  into 
war  in  1917. 

Wilson  set  forth  his  war  ob- 
jectives in  his  well  known  'Four- 
teen    Points,'     enunciated  in 


January,  1918,  and  the  second 
point  read :  'Absolute  freedom 
of  navigation  upon  the  seas,  out- 
side territorial  waters,  alike  in 
peace  and  in  war,  except  as  the 
seas  may  be  closed  in  whole  or 
in  part  by  international  action 
for  the  enforcement  of  inter- 
national covenants.' 

At  Versailles,  Great  Britain 
declined  to  consider  the  question 
of  the  'Freedom  of  the  Seas,'  and 
Wilson's  second  point  was 
buried  without  ceremony. 

Seashore,  the  strip  of  land 
immediately  bordering  the  sea, 
which  extends  from  the  highest 
point  reached  by  an  ordinary 
high  tide  to  the  edge  of  the 
water  at  low  tide.  See  Coast  ; 
Ocean. 

Seashore,  as  a  biological 
term,  may  be  said  to  include 
three  areas:  (1)  the  region  just 
above  high  tide  mark,  (2)  the 
region  between  tide  marks,  and 
(3)  the  region  just  beyond  low 
tide  mark.  Of  these,  the  first  is 
inhabited  by  terrestrial  animals 
and  plants  ;  the  third  is  the  re- 
gion of  marine  organisms  ;  while 
the  second  is  in  a  sense  the 
meeting  ground  of  the  two 
faunas  and  floras. 

Plants  which  live  near  high 
tide  mark  are  characterized,  as 
a  rule,  by  small  fleshy  leaves, 
thick  skin,  and  other  peculiari- 
ties common  to  vegetation  which 
gives  off  water  very  slowly. 

Along  the  sandy  shore  are  to 
be  found  the  yellow  Seaside 
Crowfoot,  the  Sandworts  and 
much-branched  Sand  Spurry 
(see  Spurry),  the  common 
Beach  Pea,  the  little  Sea  Milk- 
wort, Sea  Lavender  (q.  v.).  Sea 
Pink  (see  Thrift),  Sea  Rocket, 
Sea  Plantain,  Beach  Goldenrod, 
Asters,  and  a  host  of  others. 

Associated  with  these  numer- 
ous plants  are  many  kinds  of  in- 
sects, notably  certain  wingless 
forms  of  the  genera  Machilis  and 
Anurida,  and  various  bees,  bee- 
tles, moths,  and  ants.  Shelled 
snails  are  also  common  on  the 
shore  wherever  vegetation  is 
abundant.  Familiar  birds  are 
species  of  gulls,  terns,  the  guille- 
mots, razor-bills,  cormorant, 
sandpipers,  and  other  shore  birds. 

The  area  between  tide  marks 
is  essentially  the  area  of  brown 
and  green  seaweeds  (see  Alg^  ; 
Seaweed)  ,  though  it  has  also 
stragglers  from  the  land  area,  as 
glasswort  (q.  v.),  and  near  its 
seaward  margin  not  a  few  mem- 
bers of  the  red  Algae.  In  the 
tropics  the  littoral  fringe  of 
green  and  brown  weed  is  much 
less  obvious  than  in  temperate 
climates.  In  some  cases,  instead 
of  a  belt  of  Algae,  there  are 
mangrove  swamps.  Such  mem- 
bers of  the  mangrove  swamp 
fauna  as  the  caller-crab  (Gelasi- 
mus)    and    the   curious  jump- 


TYPES  OF  SEASHORE  LIFE. 

Plant  Iilfe.—l.  Searplantain.  2.  Sea-pink.  3.  Sea-reed.  4.  Sea-rocket.  5.  Sea-campion.  6.  Sea-holly.  7.  Sea^spurge.  8.  Stonecrop. 
Bird  Life.-  9.  Cormor  ant.  10.  Guillemot.  11.  Puffin.  12.  Sanderlinp.  13.  Herring  gull.  14.  Tern.  Animal  Life  of  Upper  Zone.— 
1.5.  Tfehx  acutus,  showing  protective  hahit  of  resting  on  dried  stems.  16.  Andrena  cineraria.  17.  Helix  virgata,  two  varieties. 
18.  Pod  lover  inoth.  19.  Anurida  maritima.  20.  Mathilis  maritima.  21.  Sea-slater.  22.  Shore  wainscot  moth.  23.  Ground  lackey 
moth  Animal  Life  of  the  Lower  Zone.— 24.  Corals,  various.  26.  Razor-shell.  26.  Cockle.  27.  Winkles,  various.  28.  Shore  crab. 
20  Father  laaher.  30.  Peiiophthalmus.  31.  Lobworm.  32.  GunneL  Seaweeds.— 33.  Saw-edge  wrack.  34.  Bladder  wrack.  35.  Sugar 
tangle. 


Seashore 

ing-fish  (Periopthalamus)  of  Cele- 
bes help  us  to  understand  how  a 
terrestrial  fauna  may  arise  from  an 
aquatic  one.  In  other  parts  of 
the  tropical  regions  the  intertidal 
zone  is  occupied,  in  part  at  least, 
by  coral  reefs.  There  Algae  are 
rare.  In  temperate  climates  the 
majority  of  the  animals  living  be- 
tween tide-marks  are  found  on  or 
near  rocks.  In  many  cases — as  in 
the  periwinkles,  the  limpets,  the 
sea-urchins,  and  some  crustaceans 
— the  reason  for  this  association 
is  that  the  animals  feed  upon  the 
larger  seaweeds,  which  can  only 
thrive  when  attached  to  rock 
surfaces.  In  other  cases — as  in 
sponges,  anemones,  sea -firs,  zo- 
ophytes, sea-squirts,  and  most  bi- 
valves— the  animals  are  incapable 
of  resisting  by  their  own  move- 
ments the  action  of  shore  cur- 
rents, and  must  have  a  firm  basis 
of  attachment.  Again,  others 
of  the  littoral  animals  are  ac- 
tively carnivorous,  and  must 
haunt  the  rocks,  because  these 
shelter  the  two  preceding  sets  of 
animals,  which  form  their  natural 
prey.  Such  animals  are  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  fish,  most  of  the 
larger  Crustacea,  many  molluscs 
(such  as  the  cuttles  and  certain 
of  the  gasteropods),  and  the 
larger  worms.  Of  these  three 
groups  of  animals — the  purely 
herbivorous,  the  sedentary  forms, 
the  carnivorous  forms — the  first 
set  are  especially  characteristic 
of  the  area  between  tide-marks; 
the  periwinkles  and  certain  of  the 
limpets  are,  indeed,  confined  to 
this  area.  The  other  two  sets 
occur  equally  within  and  beyond 
low-tide  mark,  such  active  forms 
as  the  fish  and  the  cutdes  being 
in  many  cases  only  casual  visitors 
to  the  shore  pools.  Besides  these 
rock-haunting  animals,  there  also 
occur  within  and  beyond  tide- 
marks  many  sand-burrowers. 

Among  the  sand-burrowers  are 
many  worms,  many  molluscs,  such 
as  cockles  and  razor-shells,  echino- 
derms  such  as  heart-urchins  and 
the  wormlike  Synapta,  while 
the  mud  of  deeper  water  con- 
tains peculiar  representatives  of 
the  same  groups.  The  majority 
of  these  animals  are  furnished 
with  protective  investments  of 
some  sort,  such  as  shells  or  tubes ; 
while  yet  others  find  shelter 
and  safety  by  burrowing  in  rocks, 
sand,  or  mud.  The  presence 
of  armor  of  some  sort  may 
thus  be  said  to  be  a  general 
characteristic  of  shore  animals, 
and  is  one  of  the  contrasts  which 
they  offer  to  the  delicate  floating 
animals  of  the  open  sea.  Again, 
very  many  are  sedentary,  some 
permanently  so— e.g.  acorn-shells; 
while  others,  like  the  limpet, 
have  strong  clinging  power,  or, 
like  mussels  and  other  bivalves, 
have  anchoring  threads.  Sym- 
biosis and  masking  are  also  both 


74 

frequent,  the  latter  especially 
among  crabs.  Remarkaole  re- 
semblances between  the  colors 
of  animals  and  their  surround- 
ings are  common,  and  in  not  a 
few  cases  the  colors  of  the  ani- 
mals are  variable  —  changing, 
though  often  slowly,  with 
changes  in  the  surroundings. 
Finally,  one  of  the  most  striking 
peculiarities  of  shore  animals  in 
general  is  the  frequent  occur- 
rence, in  the  life-histcry,  of  a 
free  -  swimming  pelgaic  stage. 
This  permits  of  the  distribution 
of  the  species;  but  its  exact 
significance,  from  the  evolution- 
ist's point  of  view,  is  still  keenly 
debated. 

See  Newbigin's  Life  by  the  Sea- 
shore (1901);  Arnold's  Sea-Beach 
at  Ebb  Tide  (1900);  Heilprin's^wi- 
mal  Life  of  Our  Seashore  (1888); 
and  Mayer's  Seashore  Life  (1906). 
For  the  seaweeds,  see  Cook's  In- 
troduction to  the  Study  o/ (British) 
Seaweeds  (1895),  and  Farlow's 
Marine  Alga  of  New  England 
(1883). 

Sea^slckness,  the  peculiar  re- 
flex disturbances  of  tne  nervous 
system  produced  by  a  ship  or  a 
boat  in  motion,  and  resulting  in 
various 'degrees  of  disturbance  to 
the  alimentary  system,  from  slight 
nausea  to  severe  vomiting,  some- 
times uncontrollable  ana,  very 
rarely,  ending  fatally  by  ex- 
haustion. In  most  cases  sea-sick- 
ness is  merely  temporary,  even 
during  a  voyage  lasting  for  the 
first  few  days  only,  and  then  end- 
ing either  in  complete  recovery 
with  greatly  improved  appetite, 
or  in  general  wellbeing  witn  occa- 
sional relapses  in  severe  weather. 
Precisely  similar  effects  are  pro- 
duced upon  some  by  the  motion 
of  a  swing  or  a  railroad  train.  In 
some  cases  the  disorder  is  due  not 
so  much  to  the  motion  as  to  a  lack 
of  fresh  air,  combined  with  the 
smell  of  bilge-water  and  engine- 
oil;  and  a  person  may  be  very 
sea-sick  in  a  'tramp'  steamer,  but 
quite  at  ease  in  an  open  boat. 
The  brain  seems  to  be  affected 
through  the  nerve  -  supply  to 
brain,  eyes,  stomach,  and  per- 
haps other  channels.  Habit 
usually  brings  temporary  indif- 
ference; but  in  many  cases  the 
nervous  system  needs  a  fresh 
training  for  each  voyage.  It  is 
said  that  Nelson,  the  English 
admiral,  never  completely  con- 
quered sea-sickness;  and  the  mo- 
tion of  some  modern  forms  of 
vessel,  such  as  the  torpedo-boat 
destroyer,  will  at  times  affect  the 
strongest  stomachs.  Children 
and  old  people  are  least  likely  to 
be  affected  by  sea-sickness,  while 
women,  as  a  rule,  suffer  more 
than  men.  A  pregnant  woman 
may  suffer  especially,  and  sea- 
sickness is  a  frequent  cause  of 
abortion. 

There  b  no  specific  against  sea- 


Sea-snakes 

sickness.  The  most  favorable 
position  is  a  recumbent  one — at 
full  length  in  a  chair,  on  deck  if 
possible.  Food  should  be  spe- 
cially light  and  readily  digestible 
until  the  stomach  is  accustomed 
to  its  new  conditions.  It  should 
be  taken  as  soon  after  vomiting 
as  it  can  be  borne.  Champagne 
or  a  little  brandy  may  be  ad- 
visable if  exhaustion  is  great. 
A  tight  broad  bandage  about  the 
abdomen  often  has  a  good  effect, 
and  relieves  the  strain  of  vomit- 
ing. The  sufferer  should  be  thor- 
oughly protected  from  cold.  Many 
escape  trouble  by  carefully  breath- 
ing regularly  and  not  in  rhythm 
with  the  dip  or  roll  of  the  ship. 

Seaside  Grape,  the  popular 
name  of  a  small  W.  Indian  tree, 
Coccoloba  uvifera,  belonging  to 
the  order  Polygonaceae.  Its  wood 
is  very  hard  and  close-fibred,  and 
takes  a  good  polish.  The  tree 
bears  bunches  of  fruit,  the  fleshy 
part  of  which  is  eaten,  being  re- 
freshingly tart.  The  nuts  are 
surrounded  by  the  permanent 
violet  calyxes,  which  are  con- 
spicuously beautiful. 

Sea  -  slug.  See  Gastropoda. 
The  name  is  also  occasionally 
applied  incorrectly  to  the  holo- 
thurian. 

Sea-snakes  .constitute  a  sub- 
family (Hydrophidae)  of  venom- 
ous snakes  {Colubridce  protero- 
glypha),  characterized  by  the  ma- 
rine habitat  and  the  strongly 
compressed  tail,  which  functions 
as  a  swimming  organ.  The  food 
consists  of  fishes,  and  the  animals 
range  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to 
Central  America,  although  they 
are  most  numerous  in  the  In- 
dian Ocean  and  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  W.  Pacific.  AH  the 
species  are  viviparous,  and  it  is 


Sea-snake  {Hydrophis  obscura). 


said  that  the  females  approach 
the  shore  to  give  birth  to  their 
young,  and  remain  with  them 
there  for  some  time.  The  head 
in  all  cases  is  relatively  small,  as 
are  the  scales  over  the  whole  body. 
The  typical  forms  belong  to  the 
genus  Hydrophis,  of  which  H. 
obscura,  found  in  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  and  the  Malay  Archipel- 
ago, is  an  example.  It  reaches  a 
length  of  about  a  yard,  and  is 
prettily  colored  in  green  and 
yellow.  An  exception  to  the  rule 
that  the  Hydrophidae  are  marine 
is  found  in  Distira  Semperi, 
which  is  found  in  a  fresh-water 
lake  in  the  Philippine  Is.  Some 
of  the  species  of  the  genus  Pla- 
turus,  again,  are  stated  some- 


Seasons 


KFN 


75 


Seattle 


times  to  quit  the  water  volun- 
tarily, and  in  several  points  of 
structure  recall  certain  Indian 
species  of  adder  (q.  v.),  from 
which  the  sea  snakes  have  prob- 
ably arisen.  They  are  highly 
poisonous. 

Seasons,  the  periods  into 
which  the  year  is  divided  by  the 
sun's  changes  in  declination. 
They  are  a  joint  effect  of  the 
earth's  orbital  revolution  and  the 
inclination  of  its  axis.  Hence, 
in  temperate  zones,  the  sun's 
meridian  altitude  varies  to  the 
extent  of  47°  f.  ;  and  this,  to- 
gether with  corresponding  chang- 
es in  the  length  of  the  day,  occa- 
sions large  vicissitudes  of  tem- 
perature.    (See  Earth). 

Within  the  tropics  the  zone  of 
equatorial  calms  in  which  rain- 
fall is  practically  continuous  is 
shifted  northward  when  the  sun 
moves  northward  in  the  north- 
ern summer,  and  is  similarly 
shifted  southward  in  the  south- 
ern summer.  Those  regions  ly- 
ing near  the  mean  position  of  the 
wet  zone  have  thus  two  wet  and 
two  dry  seasons  in  the  year,  the 
regions  near  its  extreme  posi- 
tions having  one  wet  and  one 
dry  season. 

In  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
globe  the  year  is  naturally  di- 
vided into  four  seasons — Spring, 
Slimmer,  Autumn,  and  Winter. 
Conventionally,  it  is  assumed 
that  each  season  commences  at 
the  equinox  or  solstice ;  but  in 
common  parlance  the  summer 
months  include  June,  July,  and 
August,  winter  being  December, 
January,  and  February,  and 
spring  and  autumn  accordingly. 
See  Climate;  Spring;  Sum- 
mer; Autumn;  Winter. 

Sea  Spider.  See  Pycnogo- 
nii>^. 

Sea  Squirt,  a  popular  name 
for  certain  Ascidians  (q.  v.)  or 
Holothurians  (q.  v.).  See  TuNi- 
cata. 

Sea  Surgeon,  or  Surgeon 
Fish,  a  species  of  bony,  edible 
fish  of  the  genus  Teuthis,  with 
bright  colors  and  conspicuous 
stripes,  living  in  tropical  seas,  es- 
pecially near  the  coral  reefs  of 
the  Bahamas  and  West  Indies. 
It  is  characterized  by  the  sharp, 
lancet-like  spines  on  the  sides  of 
the  tail,  which  lie  sheathed  in 
grooves,  but  which  can  be  erected 
into  a  formidable  weapon,  the 
fish  striking  out  laterally  with  the 
tail.  Important  examples  are 
the  West  Indian  Surgeon  Fish 
(T.  hepatus),  the  Ocean  Surgeon 
Fish  {T.  bahianus),  and  the  Blue 
Surgeon  Fish  {T.  cceruleus). 

Sea  Swallow.    See  Tern. 

Sea'ton,  Sir  John  Colborne, 
First  Baron  (1778-1863),  Brit- 
ish soldier  and  colonial  adminis- 
trator, was  born  at  Lyndhurst, 
Hants.  He  entered  the  Lanca- 
shire Fusiliers  in  1794  j  took  part 


in  the  Helder  expedition  (1799), 
and  in  expeditions  to  Egypt 
(1801)  and  Sicily  (1806);  and 
was  military  secretary  to  Sir 
John  Moore  (1808-09).  He 
rendered  distinguished  service 
in  the  Peninsular  War  (1810- 
14),  and  took  a  brilliant  part  in 
the  repulse  of  the  Old  Guard  at 
Waterloo  (1815).  In  1825  he 
was  made  major-general  and 
lieutenant-governor  of  Guern- 
sey. He  was  lieutenant-governor 
of  Upper  Canada  (1830-38); 
and  as  governor-general  and 
commander-in-chief  suppressed 
the  revolt  of  1838  in  Lower 
Canada.  He  was  high  commis- 
sioner of  the  Ionian  Islands  from 
1843  to  1849;  and  commander- 
in-chief  in  Ireland  from  1855  to 
1860.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  in  1839;  became  a  full 
general  in  1854,  and  field  mar- 
shal in  1860. 

Seattle,  largest  city  of  Wash- 
ington and  the  Pacific  North- 
west, and  county  seat  of  King 
county,  is  situated  between  Pu- 
get  Sound  on  the  west  and  Lake 
Washington  on  the  east ;  880 
miles  north  of  San  Francisco 
and  197  miles  north  of  Portland, 
Oregon.  The  city  is  the  termi- 
nus of  several  transcontinental 
railroads,  and  is  reached  by  the 
Great  Northern,  Northern  Pa- 
cific, Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and 
St.  Paul,  and  Union  Pacific 
(Oregon-Washington)  railroads 
over  their  own  rails,  while 
through  transcontinental  trains 
are  operated  by  the  Canadian 
Pacific  and  the  Chicago,  Bur- 
lington, and  Quincy  (over 
Northern  Pacific  tracks),  and 
the  Southern  Pacific  (over  Ore- 
gon-Washington tracks).  To 
Seattle,  the  Columbia  and  Puget 
Sound  Railroad,  the  Canadian 
Pacific,  and  other  lines  operate 
steamship  lines  from  British  Co- 
lumbia. Direct  steamship  serv- 
ice is  also  maintained  to  Alaskan 
and  other  Pacific  Coast  ports,  to 
Gulf  and  Atlantic  Coast  ports 
via  the  Panama  Canal,  and  to 
South  America,  Europe,  China, 
Japan,  Siberia,  the  Philippines, 
and  Hawaii. 

Elliott  Bay,  an  eastern  arm  of 
Puget  Sound,  furnishes  an  ex- 
tensive salt  water  harbor  ;  while 
the  opening  of  the  Lake  Wash- 
ington Ship  Canal  (July,  1916), 
which  joins  Salmon  Bay,  an  in- 
let of  the  sound  northwest  of 
Elliott  Bay,  with  Lake  Union  in 
the  heart  of  the  city  and  Lake 
Washington,  gives  Seattle  the 
greatest  fresh  water  harbor  on 
the  coast.  This  canal  with  a 
total  cost  of  approximately  $5,- 
000,000,  is  8  miles  long,  and 
government  locks  next  in  size  to 
those  of  Panama,  afford  accom- 
modation for  the  largest  ocean- 
going vessels.  Across  the  sound, 
at    Bremerton,    is    the  Puget 


Sound  Navy  Yard,  base  for  capi- 
tal ships  of  the  Pacific  fleet. 

The  climate  of  Seattle  is 
equalile,  with  moderately  warm 
summers  and  mild  winters,  with 
practically  no  snow  or  freezing 
weather.  The  average  mean 
temperature  over  a  period  of  40 
years  was  51.4.  The  precipita- 
tion during  the  same  period  was 
32.6  inches.  The  city  covers  an 
area  of  104.41  square  miles,  in- 
cluding 35.91  square  miles  of 
water,  and  is  built  on  a  series  of 
hills  and  ridges.  The  business 
and  industrial  sections  are  lo- 
cated on  the  levels  along  the 
water  front.  The  residential 
district  occupies  the  heights  to 
the  east,  south,  and  north,  from 
which  are  obtained  magnificent 
views  of  the  snow-crowned 
Olympic  and  Cascade  ranges. 

Transportation  is  provided  by 
a  municipally  operated  trackless 
trolley  and  bus  system,  interur- 
ban  systems  radiate  over  the  sur- 
rounding area,  and  a  fleet  of  small 
steamers  and  ferries  serve  the 
2,000-mile  Puget  Sound  shore- 
line. The  water  supply  is  owned 
by  the  city,  and  is  brought  by  62 
miles  of  supply  mains  from  Cedar 
River  in  the  Cascade  Mountains. 
The  potential  water  power  trib- 
utary to  Seattle  is  very  great, 
and  in  addition  to  the  extensive 
developments  of  private  compa- 
nies, notably  the  Puget  Sound 
Light  and  Power  Company,  the 
municipality  has  participated  in 
an  ambitious  light  and  power  de- 
velopment. 

The  park  system  includes  35 
miles  of  boulevards,  44  parks, 
and  24  equipped  and  supervised 
playgrounds,  with  a  total  of  1900 
acres.  The  most  important  parks 
are  Woodland,  Washington,  Lin- 
coln, Volunteer,  Kinnear,  Ma- 
drona,  Seward,  Ravenna, 
Schmitz,  and  Mount  Baker. 
There  are  also  36  miles  of  com- 
pleted boulevard,  and  12  public 
bathing  beaches.  The  beautiful 
campus  of  the  University  of 
Washington  (582  acres)  and  the 
grounds  of  Fort  Lawton  Military 
Post  (605  acres)  are  within  the 
city  limits.  An  open-air  con- 
crete and  steel  stadium  of  the 
University  of  Washington  seats 
40.000. 

Notable  public  buildings  are 
Federal  buildings — Post  Office, 
Immigration  and  Federal  Office  ; 
U.  S.  Courthouse  ;  the  City  Au- 
ditorium, seating  7,500,  the  Pub- 
lic Library,  the  42-story  Smith 
Building,  the  County-City  Build- 
ing, Harborview  Hospital,  the 
Y.W.C.A.  Building,  and  the 
sports  arena,  seating  9,500. 
Theaters  include  the  Moore  and 
the  Metropolitan.  The  civic  cen- 
ter and  business  district  is  on 
the  shore,  and  behind  on  the 
hills,  north,  south,  east  and  west, 
lie  the  residential  districts.  The 


Seattle 


KFN 


76 


Sea  Urchins 


250  churches  include  a  fine  Ro- 
man Catholic  Cathedral ;  numer- 
ous Protestant  houses  of  wor- 
ship ;  the  Jewish  Temple  de 
Hirsch ;  and  Chinese,  Finnish, 
Scandinavian,  German,  and  Rus- 
sian churches.  The  most  impor- 
tant educational  institution  is  the 
University  of  Washington  (see 
Washington,  University  of). 
Others  are  the  Academy  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  Adel- 
phia  College,  Seattle  College,  Se- 
attle Pacific  College,  and  Seattle 
Seminary. 


Population. — The  population 

of  Seattle  was  (1920)  315,312; 
(1930)  365,583;  (1940)  366,847. 

Government, — The  executive 
authority  is  vested  in  a  mayor 
elected  biennially,  and  the  fol- 
lowing administrative  officers 
and  departments :  controller, 
treasurer,  and  corporation  coun- 
sel ;  board  of  public  works  ;  po- 
lice, fire,  health,  parks,  and  li- 
brary departments  ;  civil  service 
commission.  There  is  a  legisla- 
tive council  of  nine  members, 
three  of  whom  are  elected  an- 


while  the  other  five  are  imper- 
forate. The  outer  surface  of  the 
test  is  densely  clothed  with 
spines.  The  apical  area  in  the 
middle  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
shell  has  in  its  center  the  poste- 
rior opening  of  the  food  canal, 
placed  in  a  patch  of  leathery 
skin,  and  arranged  around  it  are 
five  large  and  five  small  plates. 
The  former  bear  each  a  genital 
pore,  and  one  in  addition  has  a 
number  of  minute  openings,  ad- 
mitting water  into  the  peculiar 
water-vascular     system.  This 


Black  Star  Photo  by  ^eotot 

SEA  URCHIN  WITH  SPINES  EXTENDED  (left)   AND  COLLAPSED  (right) 


Industry  and  Commerce, — 

The  principal  industries  include 
shipbuilding,  airplane  manufac- 
turing (home  of  the  famed  Boe- 
ing Flying  Fortress  and  the 
super-bomber  B-29)  ;  lumber  and 
timber  products,  slaughtering 
and  meat  packing,  flour  and  grist 
mills,  foundries  and  machine 
shops,  printing  and  publishing, 
fisheries,  salmon  packing,  the 
manufacture  of  leather  goods, 
condensed  milk,  shoes,  clothing, 
and  jewelry. 

As  the  largest  city  in  the  Pa- 
cific Northwest,  Seattle  is  the 
banking  and  commercial  hub  for 
the  highly  productive  valleys  in 
the  hinterland,  famous  as  great 
fruit,  wheat  and  lumber-produc- 
ing sections.  It  is  also  the  dis- 
tributing center  for  a  great  share 
of  these  products.  In  1900  Se- 
attle had  practically  no  foreign 
trade.  In  1920  approximately 
five  and  a  half  million  tons  were 
handled  over  its  docks,  and  in 
1930  this  had  increased  to  ap- 
proximately eight  and  a  half  mil- 
lion tons.  The  principal  items  of 
export  are  wheat,  flour,  lumber, 
fish,  coal,  hay,  fruit,  meat,  meat 
canned  goods,  dairy  produce,  mill 
work  and  manufactures. 


nually.  The  public  ocean  ter- 
minals, rated  as  among  the  best 
in  America,  are  administered  by 
an  elective  port  commission  of 
three  members. 

History, — Seattle  was  settled 
in  1852.  It  was  incorporated  as 
a  town  in  1865,  reincorporated 
in  1869,  and  granted  a  city  char- 
ter in  1880.  In  1889  the  busi- 
ness section  of  the  city  was  al- 
most wiped  out  by  a  fire,  which 
caused  $7,000,000  loss.  The 
first  shipment  of  gold  was  re- 
ceived from  Alaska  in  1897,  and 
Seattle  became  the  outfitting  post 
for  prospectors  bound  for  the 
newly  discovered  gold  fields.  The 
Alaska- Yukon-Pacific  Exposition 
was  held  here  in  1909-10. 

Sea  Unicorn.  See  Narwhal. 

Sea  Urchins  (Echinoidea) 
form  a  class  of  the  phylum  Echi- 
nodermata.  A  typical  form  is 
Echinus  csculentus  {Strongylo- 
ccntrotus  drobachicnsis) ,  the 
common  edible  sea  urchin,  found 
abundantly  off  rocky  coasts.  It 
has  an  approximately  spherical 
test  or  shell,  built  up  of  ten 
double  rows  of  plates.  Of  these, 
five  are  perforated  by  small 
openings  through  which  in  life 
the  delicate  tube  feet  emerge, 


modified  plate  is  known  as  the 
madrcporite.  The  five  small 
plates  have  each  an  eye  spot. 
From  the  large  or  genital  plates 
start  the  five  double  rows  of 
non-perforated  plates,  called  the 
interambulacral  plates.  The 
perforated  or  ambulacral  plates, 
on  the  other  hand,  take  origin 
from  the  small  ocular  (eye- 
bearing)  plates. 

On  the  under  surface  of  the 
test  lies  the  mouth,  surrounded 
by  an  area  of  extensible  skin. 
From  the  mouth  there  may  fre- 
quently be  observed  protruding 
five  white  teeth,  which  are  placed 
in  an  elaborate  masticatory  ap- 
paratus called  'Aristotle's  lan- 
tern.' 

The  water-vascular  system  is 
of  use  in  locomotion,  and  per- 
haps also  in  excretion.  The 
madreporite  opens  into  a  tube 
called  the  stone  canal,  and  this 
in  tvirn  opens  into  a  ring  canal 
which  passes  round  the  upper 
part  of  the  lantern.  From  this 
ring  canal  pass  five  radial  canals, 
which  lie  beneath  the  ambulacral 
areas,  and  communicate  inter- 
nally with  a  series  of  little 
reservoirs  of  ampullae,  and  ex- 
ternally are  bound  up  with  the 


VIEWS  OF  SEATTLE, 

1.  Totem  Pole  in  Pioneer  Square.    2.  Looking  North  on  Second  Avenue.    3.  Part  of  the 

City's  Waterfront. 

Vol.  XL— Oct.  '16  Vol.  XL— at  Page  76 


Sea  Water 


77 


Seaweed 


tube  feet.  The  tube  feet  end  in 
little  suckers,  and  can  be  rendered 
tense  with  fluid,  or  allowed  to  be- 
come empty  and  flaccid.  By 
means  of  their  terminal  suckers 
they  act  as  locomotor  organs, 
their  action  being  assisted  by  the 
spines  with  which  the  test  is  cov- 
ered. By  means  of  its  tube  feet 
and  spines  the  urchin  can  crawl 
up  a  perpendicular  rock  surface. 
The  sexes  are  separate,  the  ripe 
products  in  both  cases  leaving  the 
body  by  genital  pores. 

Most  sea  urchins  live  off  rocky 
coasts;  not  a  few  shelter  them- 
selves in  holes  in  the  rocks;  many 
deep-sea  forms  are  known.  They 
feed  in  part  on  seaweeds,  mostly 
on  organisms  and  organic  matter 
found  in  mud  and  other  deposits. 
Many  look  as  if  they  were  falling 
victims  to  their  constitutional 
tendency  toward  the  deposition 
of  lime,  for  there  is  hardly  any 
part  of  the  body  which  may  not 
become  limy,  and  in  some  of  the 
flattened  forms  the  body  cavity 
is  much  restricted  by  cross  beams 
of  lime. 

The  Echinoidea  are  subdivided 
into  four  orders,  as  follows:  (1) 
the  Endocyclica  or  Regularia,  in- 
cluding regular  forms  like  Echin- 
us; (2)  the  Clypeastridea,  the  flat 
and  disc-like  Dollar  Urchins, 
Cake  Urchins,  or  Sand  Dollars, 
forms  in  which  the  anus  lies  out- 
side the  apical  disc,  but  which 
have  masticatory  organs  like  the 
regular  urchins;  (3)  the  Spatan- 
gidae  or  Heart  Urchins,  in  which 
the  anus  is  also  outside  the  apical 
disc,  but  which  have  no  trace  of 
masticatory  organs;  (4)  the  Pa- 
laeo-Echinoidea,  or  fossil  forms, 
which  include  certain  species  very 
different  from  existing  forms. 

See  ECHINODERMATA. 

Sea  Water,  a  solution  of  various 
salts,  principally  sodium  chloride, 
that  have  been  washed  out  of  the 
land  by  the  action  of  rain,  and 
conveyed  by  rivers  to  the  sea  and 
retained  there.  See  Ocean. 

Seaweed,  the  popular  term  ap- 
plied to  a  vast  collection  of 
lower  plant  forms  growing  on  the 
sea  coast  from  a  little  above  the 
highest  tide  mark  to  a  depth  of 
from  50  to  100  fathoms,  and  be- 
longing to  the  sub-class  of  the 
Thallophytes  to  which  the  name 
Algae  has  been  given  (see  Alg^). 
The  most  important  function  of 
seaweeds  is  the  same  as  that  per- 
formed by  ordinary  forms  of  veg- 
etation on  land — to  render  animal 
life  possible.  They  take  the  ele- 
ments existing  in  water  as  impur- 
ities, and  transform  them  into 
materials  essential  to  animal  life. 
They  also  form  the  sole  or  main 
subsistence  of  fish  and  other  ma- 
rine creatures.  Seaweeds  also  act 
as  natural  breakwaters  in  pre- 
venting the  rapid  wearing  away 
of  coast  lines.  The  whole  west 
coast  of  the  Americas  is  flanked 
by  immense  marine  forests  that 
Vol.  XI.— a. 


break  the  force  of  the  tremendous 
tides  of  the  Pacific. 

Examination  of  an  average 
shore  belt  exposed  at  ebb  tide  re- 
veals the  fact  that  this  area  may 
be  roughly  divided  into  four  re- 
gions: (a)  a  zone  at  and  above 
high-water  mark,  characterized 
by  the  predominance  of  filamen- 
tous and  encrusting,  often  incon- 
spicuous, forms,  exhibiting  a  blu- 
ish-green color  when  examined 
under  the  microscope;  (6)  a  zone 
from  near  high-water  mark  to 
half-tide  level,  occupied  chiefly 
by  algae  of  a  bright  grass-green 
tint;  (c)  from  half-tide  level  to 
low-tide  mark,  where  the  major- 


Development  of  Fucus  vesicu- 
losus. 

1.  Cell  filaments  carrying  antheridia. 
2.  Antherozoids.  3.  Oogonium,  intact. 
4.  Oogonium  after  rupture  of  membrane, 
showing  oospheres.  5.  Escaped  oosphere 
surrounded  by  antherozoids.  6.  Yoimg 
fucus  arising  from  fertilized  oosphere. 

ity  of  the  plants  are  olive  brown 
in  color;  and^(rf)  from  near  low- 
water  mark  to  depths  never  ex- 
posed by  the  lowest  ebb,  where 
the  preponderance  of  forms  are  of 
a  distinctly  red  color.  The  bright 
green  seaweeds  are  known  as 
ChlorophycecB,  the  brown  as  Phce- 
ophycece,  the  red  as  Rhodophycece, 
and  the  blue-green  as  Cyanophy- 
cecB.  Many  authors  enumerate 
only  three  groups,  omitting  the 
Cyanophyceae.  The  principal 
natural  means  of  distribution  are, 
of  course,  ocean  currents;  but 
man  counts  for  something,  inas- 
much as  species  are  brought  from 
port  to  port  on  the  bottoms  of 
ships.  Among  the  chief  barriers 
must  be  reckoned  stretches  of 
deep  sea,  coast  deserts  of  sand 
and  mud,  and  the  irruption  of 
fresh  water  lowering  the  salinity 
of  the  neighboring  tidal  water. 
Probably  the  oldest  seaweed 


known  is  one  of  Siphoneous  struc- 
ture, described  as  from  the  De- 
vonian rocks. 

The  structure,  life  history,  and 
classification  of  the  green  sea- 
weeds, or  Chlorophyceae,  are  dealt 
with  in  the  article  Alce,  leaving 
for  treatment  here  the  Phaeophy- 
ceae  and  Rhodophyceae. 

The  Ph^eophyce^  are  sub- 
divided, according  to  their  meth- 
ods of  reproduction,  into  three 
chief  series — viz.,  the  Phceospo- 
recB,  represented  by  such  forms  as 
Ectocarpus,  Cutleria,  Sphacela- 
ria,  and  the  giants  among  sea- 
weeds, Laminaria,  Macrocystis, 
and  Lessonia;  the  FucacecB — 
e.g.,  Facus,  Ascophyllum,  Pelve- 
tia,  etc.;  and  the  Dictyotacece — 
e.g.,  Dictyota  and  Padina.  In  all 
there  are  about  one  hundred  and 
seventy  genera,  chiefly  from  the 
colder  seas. 

The  members  of  the  Phaeospo- 
reae  have  a  most  varied  vegeta- 
tive form.  Many  are  filamentous 
and  branched,  such  as  Ectocar- 
pus and  Sphacelaria;  some  are  tu- 
bular and  unbranched,  as  Asper- 
ococcus  and  Scytosiphon,  or  tu- 
bular and  branched — Chordaria. 
Others  are  ribbon  shaped — e.g.^ 
Cutleria;  not  a  few  are  membra- 
nous and  encrusting — e.g.,  Ralf- 
sia;  while  Laminaria  forms  large, 
expanded,  leathery-stalked  fronds. 

The  Fucaceae  are  characterized 
by  having  distinctly  differentiat- 
ed sexual  organs  with  non-motile 
ova  and  motile  fertilizing  cells. 
In  Fucus  platycarpus  both  ova 
and  sperms  are  formed  in  the 
same  conceptacle;  in  most  Fuca- 
ceae, however,  they  are  formed 
on  different  plants.  Asexual  mul- 
tiplication is  unknown.  The  group 
includes  Fucus,  Halidrys,  and 
Pelvetia,  with  branched  leathery 
fronds,  the  tips  of  whose  branches 
become  transformed  into  recep- 
tacles for  the  reproductive  or- 
gans, and  Himanthalia,  with  a 
button-shaped  thallus,  from 
which  arise  the  long,  strap-shaped 
reproductive  branches  character- 
istic of  that  genus. 

The  Dictyotaceae  are  an  aber- 
rant group,  with  distinct  affini- 
ties to  the  Rhodophyceae.  They 
resemble  that  group  in  having 
non-motile  spores  produced  in 
fours  in  sporangia  which  are  clus- 
tered in  sori  over  the  surface  of 
the  frond  (Dictyota)  or  along  the 
midrib.  In  both  Fucaceae  and 
Dictyotaceae  fertilization  is  ex- 
ternal. 

The  Rhodophyceae  (Florideae), 
containing  nearly  three  hundred 
genera,  mostly  from  temperate 
and  tropical  seas,  form  a  very 
large  assemblage  of  most  varied 
vegetative  form,  and  every  possi- 
ble shade  of  red  from  a  purple 
black  to  brilliant  pink.  The  root 
may  be  a  branched  mass,  a  plate, 
or  a  disc  attached  to  mud,  other 
algae,  or  rock,  while  the  fronds  are 
filamentous,  membranous,  crus- 

VoL.  XI.— Oct.  '16 


Seaweed 


78 


Secaucus 


taceous,  or  calcareous.  The 
asexual  organs  consist  of  spo- 
rangia whose  entire  contents  in 
some  genera  escape  as  a  single 
non-motile  spore.  In  the  majori- 
ty, however,  each  sporangium 
contains  four  non-motile  spores. 
The  sexual  organs  are  antheridia 
and  procarpia.  The  antheridia 
are  generally  modified  terminal 
branches  or  special  areas  in  the 
thallus  (of  the  more  succulent 
forms),  from  which  are  derived 
short  rod-like  fertilizing  cells.  The 
female  organ  is  a  procarp,  whose 
structure  varies  in  complexity  in 
the  different  orders  of  Rhodophy- 
ceae.  The  Rhodophyceae  embrace  • 
a  large  number  of  orders,  the  rep- 
resentatives of  several  of  which 
form  well-known  objects  of  inter- 
est on  the  seashore.  These  in- 
clude Carrageen  (Chondrus  cris- 
pus),  dulse  (Rhodymenia  palma- 
ta),  and  laver  {Porphyra  lacini- 
ata).  The  genera  Callithamnion, 
Delesseria,  Nitophyllum,  Ploca- 
mium,  and  Odonthalia  are  well 
known  to  collectors  for  the  beau- 
ty of  their  fronds. 

Uses  of  Seaweed. — In  Roman 
times  an  alkaline  dye  was  pre- 
pared from  seaweed,  probably 
from  Fucus  vesiculosus,  the  com- 
mon bladderwrack.  From  the 
coarser  brown  seaweeds  kelp  is 
prepared  by  burning,  and  used, 
though  to  a  much  less  extent 
than  formerly,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  iodine  (see  Kelp).  Laver 
(q.  v.),  prepared  from  certain  spe- 
cies, is  valued  as  a  food  in  parts 
of  Europe.  Along  the  coast  of 
New  England,  the  British  Isles, 
and  Western  Europe,  seaweeds 
are  employed  as  fertilizers;  and 
in  certain  countries  they  are  fed 
to  swine  and  cattle.  Sometimes 
they  are  used  for  stuffing  mat- 
tresses and  furniture;  and  they 
have  been  suggested  as  a  substi- 
tute for  wood  pulp  in  the  making 
of  paper. 

In  Japan,  systematic  seaweed 
farming  is  carried  on,  and  the 
Japanese  have  utilized  the  re- 
sources of  seaweed  more  than  any 
other  nation.  The  variety  most 
generally  cultivated  there  is  red 
laver  (Porphyra  laciniata),  which 
brings  about  $1.50  per  acre,  and 
which  is  made  into  a  number  of 
food  products,  principally  amano- 
ri,  for  both  domestic  and  foreign 
consumption.  Of  even  greater 
importance  is  the  manufacture  of 
kanten,  or  seaweed  isinglass,  pre- 
pared from  the  genus  Gelidium, 
and  exported  to  all  civilized  coun- 
tries. This  genus  grows  on  rocky 
sea  bottoms,  and  is  gathered  by 
divers.  Kanten  is  used  for  jellies, 
soups,  and  sauces;  in  purifying 
sake,  the  native  wine;  for  the  siz- 
ing of  textiles,  stiffening  the  warp 
of  silks,  clarifying  wines,  beer, 
and  coffee,  making  moulds  for 
workers  in  plaster  of  Paris,  and 
the  manufacture  of  paper.  Under 
the  name  agar-agar  (q.  v.)  it  has 


extensive  application  as  the  cul- 
ture medium  in  bacteriological 
work.  In  the  United  States,  kan- 
ten is  employed  chiefly  in  food 
preparations  where  gelatin  is  re- 
quired. 

The  only  seaweed  of  commer- 
cial importance  in  the  United 
States  is  that  of  Carrageen  (q.  v.), 
or  Irish  Moss.  Scituate,  Mass., 
is  the  centre  of  the  industry;  and 
the  annual  output  is  about  800,- 
000  pounds. 

See  Seashore;  Fucus.  Con- 
sult John  Cowan's  'Our  Wasted 
Seaweed  Resources'  {Scientific 
American,  Oct.  29,  1910). 
^ix^Seawell,  se'wel,  Molly  Elliot 
(1860),  American  author,  grand- 
niece  of  President  Tyler,  was  born 
in  Gloucester  county,  Va.  She 
published  her  first  widely  known 
children's  story,  LiUle  Jarvis,  in 
1890.  Her  other  works  include: 
Midshipman  Paulding  (1891); 
Paul  Jones  (1892) ;  Maid  Marian 
(1894);  The  Sprightly  Romance  of 
Mar  sac  (1890);  A  Virginia  Cav- 
alier (1896);  Twelve  Naval  Cap- 
tains (1897);  Gavin  Hamilton 
(1899);  The  House  of  Egremont 
(1901);  Francezka  (1902);  The 
Chateau  of  Monplaisir  (1905); 
The  Victory  (1906);  The  Secret  of 
Toni  (1907) ;  The  Last  Duchess  of 
Belgrade  (1908);  The  Ladies'  Bat- 
tle (1911);  The  Jugglers  (1911). 
Maid  Marian  and  The  Sprightly 
Romance  of  Marsac  have  been 
dramatized. 

Sea  Wolf.    See  Wolf  Fish. 

Sebas'tian  (1554-78),  king  of 
Portugal,  succeeded  his  grand- 
father John  III.  in  1557,  under  the 
guardianship  of  Cardinal  Henry, 
his  great-uncle.  He  led  an  expe- 
dition against  the  Moors  in  1578, 
when  he  was  defeated  and  slain 
at  the  Battle  of  Alcazar  in  Mo- 
rocco. Although  his  body  was 
identified,  rumors  arose  that  he 
was  not  dead,  and  impostors  ap- 
peared from  time  to  time  who 
pretended  to  be  the  chivalrous 
young  king.  The  most  famous  of 
these  was  Marco  Tullio  Catiz- 
zone,  a  Calabrian,  who  first  made 
his  pretensions  known  at  Venice 
in  1598,  and  was  hanged  at  San 
Lucar,  Spain,  in  1603.  Sebastian 
forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Dry- 
den's  plays. 

Sebastian,  St.  (25.5-288),  mar- 
tyr of  the  early  church,  was  born 
in  Narbonne,  Gaul.  Secretly  a 
Christian,  he  entered  the  Roman 
army  in  the  hope  of  aiding  fellow 
Christians  under  persecution,  and 
rose  to  high  favor  with  the  Em- 
peror Diocletian.  Upon  the  dis- 
covery of  his  religion  he  was  con- 
demned to  die;  and  being  left  for 
dead  by  a  troop  of  archers,  he  was 
nursed  back  to  health  by  a  Chris- 
tian woman  named  Irene.  '  He 
again  appeared  before  the  Em- 
peror professing  his  faith,  and 
was  ordered  beaten  to  death  by 
clubs  in  the  amphitheatre  at 
Rome.   His  body  was  flung  into 


the  sewers,  but  was  recovered  and 
interred  in  the  catacombs.  The 
feast  of  St.  Sebastian  is  celebrated 
on  Jan.  20.  His  earlier  martyr- 
dom was  a  favorite  subject  of  the 
Italian  religious  painters. 

Sebastlano  del  Piombo,  sa-bas- 
tya'no  del  pyom'bo  (1485-1547), 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Venice. 
His  family  name  was  Luciani, 
that  by  which  he  is  known  being 
derived  from  the  office  he  held 
(1531-47)  of  keeper  of  the  seal 
(piombo)  under  Pope  Clement  vii. 
He  studied  under  Bellini  and 
Giorgione.  In  1509  he  accompan- 
ied Agostino  Chigi  to  Rome,  and 
assisted  in  the  decoration  of  his 
palace  of  Farnesina.  His  skill  as 
a  colorist  won  for  him  the  friend- 
ship of  Michelangelo,  with  whom 
he  co-operated.  He  was  the  in- 
ventor of  a  method  of  painting 
on  stone.  His  most  famous  works 
are  the  Raising  of  Lazarus,  and 
portraits  of  Andrea  Doria,  Car- 
dinal Pole,  and  Clement  VII.  His 
portrait  of  Columbus  is  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art. 

Sebastopol.    See  Sevastopol. 

Sebenico,  sa-ba'ne-ko  (Sla- 
vonic Sibenik) ,  town  and  episcopal 
see,  Dalmatia,  Austria,  on  the 
Bay  of  Sebenico,  in  the  Adriatic 
Sea;  30  miles  northwest  of  Spa- 
lato.  Its  Renaissance  Cathedral 
dates  from  1430  to  1555.  Fishing 
is  carried  on,  and  there  is  trade 
in  wine,  olive  oil,  coal,  coke,  lig- 
nite, and  timber.    Pop.  30,000. 

SebiUot,  sa-be-yo',  Paul  (1846) , 
French  writer  on  folklore,  was 
born  in  Matignon,  C6tes-du- 
Nord.  He  abandoned  law  and 
art  successively  for  the  study  of* 
folklore.  He  has  published :  Con- 
ies de  Terre  et  de  Mer  (1883);  Le 
Blason  Populaire  de  la  France 
(1884);  Contes  des  Provinces  de 
France  (1884);  Coutumes  Popu- 
laires  de  la  Haute-Bretagne  (1886) ; 
Contes  de  la  H aute-Br etagne 
(1894) ;  Le  Folklore  des  Picheurs 
(1901);  Le  Folklore  de  France  (4 
vols.,  1904-7);  Le  Folklore:  Lit- 
ter ature  Or  ale  et  Ethnographic 
Traditionnelle  (1913);  also  bib- 
liographies of  French  folklore. 
Since  1885  he  has  been  editor  of 
the  Revue  des  Traditions  Popu- 
laires. 

Sebnltz,  zeb'nits,  town.  Sax- 
ony, Germany;  22  miles  south- 
east of  Dresden.  Textiles  are 
manufactured.    Pop.  11,500. 

Seborrhoea.  See  Hair,  Dis- 
eases OF.  _ 

Sebu,  sa-boo',  river,  Morocco, 
rises  in  the  Atlas  Mountains, 
flows  northwest  past  Fez,  then 
west  to  the  Atlantic,  which  it  en- 
ters at  Mehedia.  Length,  17C  miles. 

Secale.    See  Rye. 

Secant.   See  Trigonometry. 

Secau'cus,  borough,  Hudson 
county,  New  Jersey,  on  the  Lack- 
awanna Railroad;  2  miles  north 
of  Jersey  City.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  pearl  buttons  and  chem- 
ical appliances,  and  a  large  plant 
Vol.  XL— Oct.  '16 


Secchl 


79 


Seoesslon 


supplying  power  for  the  Hoboken, 

Rutnerford,  and  Paterson  street 
railroads.   Pop.   (1910)  4,740. 

Secchi,  Angelo  (1818-78), 
Italian  astronomer,  was  born  at 
Reggio  in  the  EmiUa,  and  entered 
the  Jesuit  order  in  1833.  Driven 
into  exile  by  the  revolution  of 
1848,  he  came  to  the  U.  S.  and 
found  refuge  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  where,  as  professor  of 
mathematics  and  physics  at 
Georgetown  College,  he  lived 
until  1849,  when  he  returned  to 
Italy  and  was  appointed  by  Pius 
IX.  to  succeed  De  Vico  as  di- 
rector of  the  Roman  College 
Observatory.  He  made  an  ex- 
tensive series  of  double-star  ob- 
servations, successfully  photo- 
graphed i»  Spain  the  totally 
eclipsed  sun  (July  18,  1860),  and 
was  one  of  the  first  to  record  prom- 
inences spectroscopically  by  day- 
light. In  1863  he  established  the 
present  system  of  classifying 
stellar  spectra,  which  he  com- 
pleted by  the  aiscovery  of  carbon 
stars  in  1867.  He  published  in 
1864  an  able  theory  of  universal 
phenomena,  entitled  Unita  delle 
Forze  Fisiche,  and  embodied  his 
solar  researches  in  Le  Soleil 
(1870).  He  also  wrote  Researches 
on  Electrical  Rheometry  (Smith- 
sonian Contributions,  vol.  viii., 
1852).  See  J.  Pohle's  Lebensbild 
(2d  ed.  1904). 

Secession,  a  term  of  modern 
origin  applied  to  the  process  by 
which  a  state,  a  member  of  a  con- 
federacy or  federation,  with- 
draws and  resumes  all  powers 
formerly  delegated  to  the  central 
government.  In  the  United 
States  the  term  is  used  to  denomi- 
nate the  right  once  claimed  by 
various  states  of  withdrawing  at 
will  from  the  Union  and  resuming 
independent  existence.  The  the- 
ory of  secession  is  based  on  the 
idea  that  the  individual  states  are 
still  sovereign.  Secession,  then,  is 
the  act  of  a  sovereign  state  and 
must  be  distinguished  from  revo- 
lution. The  idea  and  practice  of 
secession  date  back  to  the  Greek 
leagues.  In  modern  European 
history  we  meet  instances  in 
Switzerland,  Germany,  and  the 
Scandinavian  countries.  The 
right  of  withdrawal  is  one  claimed 
usually  by  a  weak  state  or  section 
as  a  protection  against  the  en- 
croachments of  a  stronger  state 
or  section.  Seldom  is  there  an 
assertion  of  such  a  right  among 
Latin  i)eoples;  it  seems  to  be  due 
to  the  survival  of  the  Teutonic 
ideas  of  local  and  individual 
liberty,  and  is  found  among  peo- 
ple who  are  historically  opposed 
to  a  strong  centralized  govern- 
ment. 

The  question  of  secession  be- 
came a  practical  one  in  America 
after  the  formation  (1789)  of  the 
Federal  Union  under  the  Con- 
stitution framed  in  1787.  The 


States  in  fact  withdrew  from  the 
old  confederation  in  order  to  form 
the  new  one,  in  which  the  question 
of  the  sovereignty  of  the  states 
was  not  expressly  settled.  The 
question  of  secession  v/as  first 
mentioned  by  Elbridge  Gerry  in 
the  convention  of  1787.  He  pre- 
dicted the  'secession'  of  certain 
states  unless  their  interests  were 
cared  for.  In  1795  the  suggestion 
of  secession  was  heard  in  Ken- 
tucky, a  western  state  which  felt 
that  its  welfare  was  neglected  by 
the  states  to  the  east;  and  in  the 
same  year  in  Connecticut  a  fac- 
tion, fearing  control  of  the  Federal 
government  by  the  South,  advo- 
cated the  secession  of  New  Eng- 
land. The  election  of  John 
Adams  to  the  Presidency  stopped 
this,  however. 

From  1800  to  1815  secession 
was  used  as  a  threat  by  the  New 
England  section  of  states,  dissatis- 
fied by  the  Southern  influence  in 
the  central  government.  It  was 
talked  of  when  Jefferson  was 
elected  in  1800.  The  purchase  of 
Louisiana  (1803)  was  denounced 
as  unconstitutional  by  New  Eng- 
land, which  foresaw  a  transfer  of 
pohtical  power  to  the  South  and 
West  •  and  the  assertion  was  made 
that  the  dissatisfied  states  outfit  to 
withdraw.  In  1804  the  candidacy 
of  Aaron  Burr  for  the  governor- 
ship in  New  York  was  supposed 
to  be  a  movement  preliminary  to 
a  New  York  and  New  England 
secession.  Josiah  Quincy  of 
Massachusetts,  spokesman  for 
New  England,  declared  in  Con- 
gress in  1811  that  if  Louisiana 
were  admitted  as  a  state,  it  would 
virtually  dissolve  the  Union,  and 
that  it  would  be  the  duty  of  the 
states  to  separate,  either  peaceably 
or  by  force.  He  was  called  to  or- 
der, but  th2  House  decided  that  he 
was  in  order.  The  most  serious 
movement  toward  the  secession  of 
New  England  grew  out  of  the 
objections  of  that  section  to  the 
policy  of  the  central  government; 
especially  was  there  opposition  to 
the  operation  of  the  Embargo  and 
Non-Intercourse  Acts  and  to  the 
War  of  1812.  The  right  and  duty 
of  the  New  England  states  to 
withdraw  and  establish  a  new 
repubUc  was  constantly  dis- 
cussed in  that  section,  and  in  Dec, 
1814-Jan.,  1815,  a  secret  conven- 
tion of  delegates  from  these  states 
was  held  at  Hartford.  It  was  then 
charged  that  secession  was  con- 
templated and  discussed,  but  the 
convention  resolved  to  remon- 
strate first  with  the  Federal  adr 
ministration,  and  the  early  close 
of  the  war  put  an  end  to  the  move- 
ment. The  journal  of  the  Hart- 
ford Convention,  which  was 
printed  in  1833,  has  nothing  of 
secession;  but,  as  Babcock,  the 
latest  historian  of  the  period,  says, 
'it  was  always  suspected  that  the 
journal  reflected  neither  the  tem- 


per nor  the  decisions  of  the  con- 
vention.' Thus  ends  the  first 
period  of  dissatisfaction  with  the 
Union.  Talk  of  separation  was 
general  throughout  the  Union  be- 
fore 1815;  objections  to  it  were 
merely  objections  to  its  expediency, 
not  denials  of  the  abstract  right. 
The  idea  of  nationality  was  of 
slow  growth. 

Two  legal  text-books  published 
early  in  the  century  are  important 
in  the  history  of  the  theory 
of  secession.  In  1803  Tucker,  a 
Virginian,  published  an  edition  of 
Blackstone,  with  an  appendix,  in 
which  he  developed  the  theory 
that  each  state  was  sovereign  and 
might  at  will  withdraw  from  the 
Union,  resume  the  powers  dele- 
gated by  the  Constitution  to  the 
Federal  government,  and  continue 
as  an  independent  power.  This 
was  the  first  clear  statement  of  the 
whole  theory,  and  it  indicated  also 
a  modus  operandi.  The  other 
book  was  Rawle,_Ow  the  Constitu- 
tion, published  in  1825.  Rawle 
was  a  Pennsylvania  judge.  He 
maintained  that  each  state  was 
sovereign  and  that  secession  was  a 
matter  for  the  people  of  each 
state  to  decide,  the  central  govern- 
ment having  no  authority  to  pre- 
vent it.  This  book  was  used  from 
about  1825  to  1850  as  a  text  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy, 
The  counsel  of  Jefferson  Davis 
were  prepared  (1867}  to  offer  this 
book  as  evidence  in  case  that 
representative  of  secession  should 
be  brought  to  trial.  General  Lee 
mentioned  the  fact  that  he  had 
studied  Rawle. 

After  the  War  of  1812  secession 
is  next  heard  of  in  the  slavery  con- 
troversy, and,  except  for  a  faction 
of  abolitionists  who  demanded  a 
separation  from  the  slave-holding 
South,  it  is  hereafter  the  Southern 
states  that  threaten  to  secede  in 
order  to  protect  their  peculiar 
institution  —  slavery  —  from  un- 
friendly Northern  interference. 
The  two  sections  were  steadily 
growing  apart,  economically  and 
socially  as  well  as  politically. 
Against  unfriendly  interference 
and  against  laws  considered  un- 
constitutional, the  South  devel- 
oped two  remedies:  nullification 
(g.v.)  within  the  Union  and  seces- 
sion from  the  Union.  Each  one 
was  based  upon  the  idea  of  state 
sovereignty.  But,  as  a  rule,  those 
who  believed  in  secession  repu- 
diated nullification  as  a  weak,  half- 
way measure.  _  In  1832-33,  during 
the  nullification  troubles,  there 
was  a  party  in  South  Carolina 
called  'Unionists.'  These  'Union- 
ists' were  believers  in  secession, 
not  in  nullification,  as  a  remedy 
for  the  evils  complained  of. 

In  1835  Texas  seceded  from 
Mexico  and  soon  wanted  to  join 
the  Union.  In  1843  in  a  debate 
on  the  proposed  annexation  of 
Texas  to  the  United  States,  Johc 


Secession 

Quincy  Adams  declared  that  the 
annexation  of  Texas  would  be  the 
signal  for  the  dissolution  of  the 
Union — the  Eastern  states  would 
then  be  justified  in  withdrawing. 
In  1845,  William  Lloyd  Garrison, 
representing  the  abolitionists,  ad- 
vocated a  secession  of  the  North 
from  the  South  and  the  formation 
of  a  free  republic. 

After  the  Mexican  War  the 
q^uestion  of  slavery  in  the  ter- 
ritories embittered  the  sectional 
controversy.  It  was  seen  that 
the  South  was  gradually  losing 
her  power  before  the  free 
states.  So  from  1848  to  1852 
there  was  considerable  discussion 
by  the  states  of  the  lower  South 
of  the  advisability  of  seceding. 
The  leading  states  were  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  and 
Texas,  the  latter  just  admitted  to 
the  Union.  Several  states  were 
on  the  verge  of  secession,  but  the 
movement  gradually  subsided 
after  the  adoption  of  the  Com- 
promise of  1850.  The  last  speech 
of  John  C.  Calhoun,  in  1850,  was 
an  unwilling  and  gloomy  prophecy 
of  the  separation  which  came  a 
few  years  later.  In  1860  the 
United  States  Senate  adopted  a 
series  of  resolutions  introduced  by 
Jefferson  Davis,  which  formed  the 
platform  of  those  who  looked  to 
secession  as  a  final  refuge. 

But  not  until  1860-1861  was  the 
project  of  secession  finally  put 
into  practice.  It  was  a  direct  out- 
come of  the  Presidential  election 
of  1860,  in  which  a  sectional  party, 
pledged  to  the  prohibition  of  slav- 
ery in  the  territories  and  un- 
friendly to  the  institution  in  the 
states,  was  victorious.  It  had 
been  generally  understood  that 
the  election  of  Lincoln  would  be 
the  signal  for  secession.  The 
causes  of  secession,  as  given,  were 
the  attitude  of  the  North  in  regard 
to  slavery,  the  election  of  a  sec- 
tional President,  the  nullification 
of  federal  statutes  by  the  'personal 
liberty '  laws  of  the  various  North- 
ern states,  the  incitement  of  slaves 
to  insurrection,  as  in  Texas  and  at 
Harper's  Ferry,  the  evident  deter- 
mination of  the  North  to  shut  the 
South  out  from  the  territories, 
etc.  Thus  secession  was,  it  was 
said,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting 
Southern  slave  property,  main- 
taining the  social  order,  and  pre- 
venting political  subordination. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  secession  was 
simply  an  expression  of  the  fact 
that  the  South  was  practically  one 
nation  and  the  North  another  and 
unlike  one;  state  sovereignity  was 
no  more  a  fact  than  was  national 
unity;  further,  secession  was 
rather  a  social  than  a  political 
movement — the  average  Southern 
man  knew  and  cared  little  about 
political  theories,  but  was  cotv- 
vinced  that  only  in  the  continuance 
of  slavery  was  there  safety  for  the 
social  order.    The  theory  of  scces- 


80 

sion  happened  to  fit  the  needs  of  the 
case. 

The  first  state  to  secede  was 
South  Carolina.  Here  the  legisla- 
ture called  a  convention  which  on 
December  20,  1860,  passed  unani- 
mously an  ordinance  repeahng  the 
South  CaroHna  ordinance  of  1788, 
which  ratified  the  Federal  Consti- 
tution. Powers  delegated  to  the 
United  States  government  by  the 
Constitution  were  resumed,  and 
plans  were  formed  for  entering 
into  a  Southern  Confederacy  as 
soon  as  other  states  should  secede. 
Ten  other  states  seceded  as  fol- 
lows: Mississippi,  January  9,  1861, 
by  a  vote  of  78  to  7;  Florida,  Janu- 
ary 10,  by  a  vote  of  62  to  7;  Ala- 
bama, January  11,  by  a  vote  of  61 
to  39;  Georgia,  January  19,  by  a 
vote  of  208  to  89;  Louisiana,  Janu- 
ary 26,  by  a  vote  of  113  to  17; 
Texas,  February  1,  by  a  vote  of 
166  to  7;  Arkansas,  May  6,  by  a 
vote  of  69  to  1;  North  Carolina, 
May  20,  unanimously;  Virginia, 
May  23,  by  a  vote  of  103  to  46;  and 
Tennessee,  June  8,  by  a  vote  of  the 
people.  In  Maryland,  Kentucky, 
and  Missouri  there  was  strong 
sympathy  with  the  secession  move- 
ment, but  the  Northern  troops,  aid- 
ing the  Union  element,  held  these 
states  in  the  Union.  In  Texas 
Governor  Houston  refused  to  con- 
vene the  legislature  which  should 
call  a  convention.  So  an  irregu- 
lar convention  was  elected.  At 
last  he  called  the  legislature  which 
legaUzed  the  convention.  In  Vir- 
ginia the  ordinance  was  submitted 
to  a  vote  of  the  people  and  was 
overwhelmingly  adopted  by  the 
people  of  eastern  Virginia,  but  the 
western  counties  voted  against  it 
and  refused  to  go  into  the  Con- 
federacy. In  Tennessee  no  con- 
vention was  held,  but  the  legisla- 
ture submitted  the  proposition  to 
a  vote  of  the  people  and  it  was 
adopted  by  a  large  majority,  the 
strongest  opposition  beiing  in  East 
Tennessee.  In  all  the  early  con- 
ventions were  two  parties,  the 
'secessionists'  or  'precipitators,' 
and  the  'co-operationists,'  the 
first  urging  immediate  separate 
secession  and  confederation  after- 
ward, the  other  advocating  an  un- 
derstanding between  the  Southern 
states  before  secession  in  order 
that  all  might  secede  in  a  body. 
In  none  of  the  conventions  except 
in  Virginia  were  there  any  'sub- 
missionists'  or  delegates  in  favor 
of  remaining  in  the  Union  under 
all  circumstances.  In  no  state 
except  South  Carolina  was  the  so- 
called  'Black  Belt'  element  in 
control;  the  other  states  of  the 
lower  South  had  what  was  called 
the  'white  basis'  of  representation. 
This  gave  the  power  to  the  'white* 
counties. 

The  six  states  first  to  secede  sent 
delegates  to  a  provisional  Con- 
gress that  met  February  4,  1861, 
m  Montgomery,  Ala.    After  the 


Second  Adventlsts 

framing  of  a  provisional  constitu- 
tion, a  *  permanent '  constitution 
was  adopted  on  March  11  for  the 
'Confederate  States  of  America,' 
to  which  the  other  seceding  states 
were  admitted. 

Upon  the  question  of  secession 
Northern  sentiment  was  divided. 
Some  were  indifferent,  others  glad 
to  be  rid  of  the  troublesome  South; 
few  at  first  advocated  coercion. 
Horace  Greeley  in  the  New  York 
Tribune  said,  'Let  them  go.' 
President  Buchanan  denied  the 
right  of  secession,  but  also  de- 
clared that  under  the  laws  he  had 
no  power  to  coerce  the  Southern 
states.  Congress  refused  to  give 
him  the  legislation  he  asked  for- 
so  the  Federal  government  dicl 
nothing  except  holci  two  forts, 
Sumter  and  Pickens,  that  had  not 
been  surrendered.  When  Lincoln 
became  President  he  declared 
secession  a  nullity  and  announced 
that  he  would  enforce  the  Federal 
laws  in  the  Southern  states.  An 
attempt  made  to  relieve  Fort 
Sumter  caused  the  bombardment 
and  capture  of  the  fort  by  the  Con- 
federates. At  once,  on  April  15, 
1861,  Lincoln  called  for  troops  to 
put  down  an  'insurrection.'  The 
four  years'  war  that  followed,  re- 
sulting in  victory  for  the  North, 
effectively  put  an  end  to  the  theory 
of  secession. 

References:  Jefferson  Davis, 
Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederate 
Government  (2  vols.,  N.  Y.,  1881); 
B.  J.  Sage,  Republic  of  Republics 
(Boston);  Alexander  H.  Stephens, 
Constitutional  View  of  the  Late 
War  between  the  States  (2  vols., 
Philadelphia,  1868,  1870)-  John 
W.  Burgess,  The  Civil^  War  and 
the  Constitution  (vol.  i.,  N.  Y., 
1901);  J.  F.  Rhodes,  History  of 
the  U.  S.  Since  the  Compromise  of 
1850  (vol.  ii.,  N.  Y.,  1895);  J.  L. 
M.  Curry,  The  Southern  States  of 
the  American  Union  (New  York, 
1896);  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  Civil  His- 
tory of  the  Confederate  States 
(Richmond,  1901);  John  C.  Reed, 
The  Brothers'  War  (Boston,  1905). 

Secession  Churches.  See 
Presbyterians. 

Seckendorff,  Veit  Ludwig 
VON  (1626-92),  German  states- 
man, jurist,  and  historian,  born 
at  Herzogenaurach,  near  Erlan- 
gen;  became  chancellor  of  Halle 
University  (1692).  He  wrote  Der 
Deutsche  Furstenstaat  (1655), 
Compendium  Histories  Ecclesi- 
asticcB  (1664),  Der  Christenstaat 
(1685),  and  Commentarius  His- 
toricus  et  Apologeticus  de  Luther- 
anismo  (1688-92).  See  Schreber's 
Historia  Viti  Ludwig  a  Secken- 
dorff (1733). 

Second.    See  Mint7TE. 

Second  Adventists,  the  gen- 
eral name  of  various  religious 
bodies  in  the  United  States,  whose 
distinctive  tenet  is  the  belief  that 
the  Second  Advent  of  Christ  is 
imminent.  (See  Advent,  The  Sec- 


Second  AdTentists 


KFP 


81 


Second  Si^t 


ond)  .  Their  founder  was  William 
Miller  (q.v.),  originally  a  Baptist, 
who,  about  1831,  began  to 
preach  that  the  millennium  was 
to  follow,  not  precede,  the  end 
of  the  world,  and  that  the  latter 
event  would  occur  in  1843.  His 
following  ('Millerites')  at  the 
time  of  his  death  is  said  to  have 
numbered  50,000.  When  1843, 
and  a  second  date  (Oct.  22, 
1844),  fixed  by  Miller  passed, 
many  of  his  adherents  fell  away. 
Those  who  remained  met  in  a 
general  conference  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  April,  1845,  and  declared 
their  belief  that  the  visible,  per- 
sonal coming  of  Christ  was  near; 
that  the  dead  would  rise,  both 
the  just  and  the  unjust;  and 
that  the  millennium  would  follow 
the  resurrection  of  the  saints. 
They  form  the  original  and  oldest 
branch  of  the  sect  and  are  known 
as  Evangelical  Adventists.  All 
of  the  Adventists  ordain  their 
ministers  by  the  laying  on  of 
hands,  and  baptize  by  immer- 
sion; their  polity  is  congrega- 
tional, excepting  the  Seventh- 
Day  Adventists  and  the  Church 
of  God  who  are  presbyterian; 
they  are  organized  in  local  and 
general  conferences  and  hold 
annual  meetings,  often  in  con- 
nection with  camp-meetings. 

There  are  now  five  distinct 
Advent  bodies,  as  follows:  (1) 
The  Advent  Christians  dating 
from  1861,  who  hold  that  the 
soul  is  mortal  and  that  eternal 
life  will  be  attained  only  as  the 
gift  of  God  through  faith;  that 
the  dead  are  unconscious;  and 
that  the  wicked  will  be  annihi- 
lated. (2)  The  Seventh-Day  Ad- 
ventists a  branch  dating  from 
1845,  who  observe  the  seventh 
da,y  of  the  week  as  the  Sabbath. 
They  believe  that  when  Christ 
has  'cleansed  the  heavenly  sanc- 
tuary from  the  presence  of  our 
sins'— a  work  which  he  began  in 
1844 — he  will  return  to  earth. 
They  believe  that  the  dead  will 
sleep  until  the  second  coming  of 
Christ;  that  the  living  righteous 
are  made  immortal,  and  the 
righteous  dead  are  raised  to  life. 
They  also  hold  the  wicked  will  be 
destroyed  by  the  glory  of  Christ's 
presence  and  that  a  second 
resurrection  of  the  wicked  will 
take  place  after  a  period  of  a 
thousand  years. 

They  believe  that  the  second 
coming  of  Christ  is  imminent  but 
do  not  claim  any  definite  time 
for  it,  maintaining  that  that 
event  is  hidden  from  all  mortals. 
They  also  believe  that  the  whole 
Bible  is  inspired  and  that  the 
Holy  Scriptures  are  the  sole  and 
sufficient  standard  of  faith  and 
doctrine  but  they  claim  that  the 
writings  of  Mrs.  E.  G.  White  are 
particular  illuminations  of  the 
vSpirit  and  that  she  had  the  gift  of 
prophecy. 


Their  ministers  are  travelling 
evangelists,  and  the  heads  of 
local  churches  are  not  necessarily 
ordained.  They  practice  foot- 
washing,  have  peculiar  rules  of 
diet,  and  carry  on  an  extensive 
business  in  the  preparation  of  so- 
called  health  foods.  Their  head- 
quarters are  in  Washington  D.  C. 
They  carry  on  an  extensive 
missionary  work.  (3)  The 
Church  of  God  a  branch  of  the 
Seventh-Day  Adventists  which 
seceded  in  1864-6,  claiming,  in 
opposition  to  the  majority,  that 
Ellen  G.  White  was  not  an  in- 
spired prophetess.  (4)  The 
Life  and  Advent  Union,  a  branch 
estabhshed  in  1862,  which  holds 
that  the  wicked  will  never  be 
raised.  (5)  The  Churches  of  God 
in  Christ  Jesus,  or  Age-to- 
Come  Adventists,  existing  since 
1851,  who  believe  that  the 
kingdom  of  God  will  be  estab- 
lished on  earth,  that  the  Jews 
will  be  restored  to  rule  in 
Jerusalem,  and  that  the  wicked 
will  be  annihilated. 

In  1945  the  Adventists  num- 
bered 231,500  communicants  dis- 
tributed as  follows  :  Seventh-day 
Adventists,  194,932;  Advent 
Christian  Church,  30,547; 
Church  of  God  (Adventist), 
5,295  ;  Primitive  Advent  Chris- 
tian Church,  538  ;  and  Life  and 
Advent  Union,  288.  The  Evan- 
gelical Adventists  are  not  in- 
cluded in  the  above  figures. 
Their  numbers  are  steadily  de- 
creasing and  as  an  organization 
they  have  almost  ceased  to  exist. 

Secondary  Colors.  See 
Color. 

Secondary  Education.  See 

Education  and  Educational 
Systems.  See  also  Education 
IN  the  United  States  and 
Education  in  Canada. 

Second  Lieutenant,  an  offi- 
cer of  the  lowest  commissioned 
rank  in  the  United  States  Army, 
corresponding  to  an  ensign  in  the 
navy. 

Second  Sight,  the  popular 
term  which  covers  spontaneous 
cases  of  telepathy,  premonition, 
and  clairvoyance.  The  seer, 
without  using  any  method  of 
inducing  hallucinations,  as  by 
crystal-gazing  or  other  automa- 
tisms, is  hallucinated,  and  by  one 
or  other  of  his  senses,  commonly 
that  of  sight,  becomes  the  per- 
cipient of  persons  who  are  not 
present,  but  are  on  their  way,  or 
are  involved  in  some  crisis  at  a 
distance;  or  the  seer  beholds 
events  remote  in  space,  though 
contemporaneous  in  time;  or  he 
even  witnesses  events  which  are 
still  in  the  future.  In  many  cases 
of  second  sight  the  vision  is  sym- 
bolical; indeed,  this  is  the  chief 
peculiarity  which  differentiates 
second  sight  from  common  telep- 


athy, clairvoyance,  or  premoni- 
tion. Real  persons  actually  pres- 
ent are  beheld  by  the  seer  with 
hallucinatory  additions.  This 
kind  of  second  sight,  though  by 
no  means  confined  to  Celtic- 
speaking  peoples,  has  been  most 
in  evidence  in  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland.  Apparently  in  the 
Highlands  it  L"  not  unusual,  but 
most  of  the  reported  modern 
examples  are  mere  cases  of  tele- 
pathic or  of  premonitory  halluci- 
nation. The  symbolic  variety, 
however,  still  exists — that  is  to 
say.  Highland  seers  still  claim 
such  experiences.  'Corpse  can- 
dles' are  the  most  usual  form  of 
symbolical  premonition;  they 
can  not  always  be  explained  as 
ma-rsh  fires,  for,  out  of  several 
persons  present,  only  one  or  two 
will  see  them. 

The  Scottish  belief  still  is  that 
the  seer  may  communicate  his 
vision  to  a  person  who  will  set 
his  foot  on  the  seer's  foot  and 
his  hand  on  the  seer's  shoulder. 
The  seers  were,  as  a  rule,  anx- 
ious to  be  rid  of  a  faculty  which 
was  perilous  and  far  from  useful. 
Useful  it  seldom 'was,  because  if 
the  seer  tells  what  he  has  seen 
before  the  event,  and  gives  warn- 
ing, he  will  lose  the  faculty. 
The  wreck  of  a  boat  in  Loch 
Leven  (in  Argyllshire)  was  fore- 
seen by  a  second-sighted  man, 
but  he  did  not  warn  the  victims, 
and  they  were  drowned.  The 
belief  that  to  speak  before  the 
event  entails  loss  of  the  gift  is 
prejudicial  to  the  collection  of 
really  evidential  testimony.  Still, 
there  is  abundant  evidence  of 
educated  persons,  ministers  of 
the  Gospel  and  others,  for  suc- 
cessful second  sight  in  their  own 
cases.  The  most  usual  kind  is  the 
appearance,  to  one  or  more  per- 
sons, of  visitors  who,  though  the 
fact  is  not  known  to  the  per- 
cipients, are  actually  on  their 
way  to  the  place  where  they  are 
seen,  and  are  carrying  the 
objects  which  are  beheld  in  their 
hands.  They  are  taken  for  the 
actual  persons,  till  it  is  dis- 
covered that  they  were  remote  in 
space.  The  appearances  of  per- 
sons in  a  place  to  which  they  are 
journeying  are  called  'arrival 
cases'  by  Frederick  Myers,  and 
are  common  in  Scandinavian 
countries.  Kirk  speaks  of  the 
appearances  as  'co- walkers,'  'by 
which  the  people  knew  that  the 
person  of  that  likeness  was  to 
visit  them  within  a  few  days.' 

The  belief,  except  for  one  or 
two  details,  is  as  strong  as  it  ever 
was  in  many  parts  of  the  Scot- 
tish Highlands.  Nor  are  the  ex- 
periences peculiar  to  the  Celtic 
or  any  other  race.  Copious  ex- 
amples among  all  manner  of 
civilized  societies,  and  in  all 
ranks  of  life,  are  recorded  in 
Hwnan  Personality,  by  Frederick 


Secretary 


KFP 


82 


Secretion 


Myers ;  while  the  statements  of 
savages  are  given  in  Andrew 
Lang's  The  Making  of  Religion, 
and  his  Cock  Lane  and  Common 
Sense.  The  topic  was  rather 
casually  investigated  by  Robert 
Boyle  in  the  reign  of  Charles  ii, 
and  interested  Dr.  Johnson, 
Kant,  and  Hegel,  who  was  a 
thoroughgoing  believer.  Modern 
notices  occur  in  Phantasms  of 
the  Living,  by  Gurney  and  My- 


ers, and,  under  the  names  of  te- 
lepathy, premonition,  and  clair- 
voyance, in  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Society  for  Psychical  Re- 
search, where  the  evidence  is 
carefully  criticized. 

Secretary,  the  name  used  in 
the  Federal  government  of  the 
United  States  for  the  members 
of  the  president's  cabinet,  who 
are  the  heads  of  the  various  de- 
partments such  as  State,  Treas- 
ury, War,  Navy,  and  the  others. 
See  Cabinet  and  articles  on  the 
various  departments. 


Secretary  Bird  (Serpentari- 
us  secretarius) ,  an  African  bird 
of  prey,  allied  to  the  vulture. 
The  tuft  of  plumes  at  the  back 
of  the  head  bears  a  supposed  re- 
semblance to  the  pen  of  a  clerk 
stuck  behind  the  ear,  hence  the 
name.  The  bird  has  very  long 
unfeathered  legs,  standing  four 
feet  or  more  in  height ;  the  bill  is 
short,  strong,  and  much  arched ; 
the  neck  long ;  the  tail  with  two 


greatly  elongated  and  drooping 
feathers  in  the  center.  The  gen- 
eral coloring  is  a  combination 
of  gray  and  black.  Secretary 
birds  are  best  known  in  South 
Africa,  although  they  extend 
northward  to  the  Sudan.  The 
diet  consists  primarily  of  snakes 
and  insects,  but  also  of  small 
mammals,  lizards,  birds,  and 
tortoises.  In  South  Africa  the 
birds  are  protected  on  account 
of  their  services  in  destroying 
snakes  and  noxious  insects,  and 
are  often  kept  about  farms,  The 


bird  fearlessly  attacks  the  most 
venomous  serpents,  stunning 
them  with  blows  of  its  wings,  or 
seizing  and  carrying  them  into 
the  air  to  such  a  height  that  they 
are  killed  by  the  fall.  It  uses 
its  feet  also  to  overpower  its 
prey,  striking  violent  blows  with 
them.  Small  serpents  are  swal- 
lowed entire ;  larger  ones  are 
torn  to  pieces. 

Secretary  of  State,  in  Great 
Britain,  is  an  office  of  whose  ex- 
istence in  England  mention  is 
first  made  in  Henry  iii's  reign. 
During  the  Tudor  period  the 
practice  was  adopted  of  appoint- 
ing two  secretaries,  and  after  the 
Restoration  (1660)  these  were 
known  as  secretaries  of  state. 
By  this  time  the  office  had  be- 
come one  of  great  importance. 
The  two  secretaries  conducted 
between  them  the  home,  colonial, 
and  foreign  business  of  the 
country.  The  Union  between 
England  and  Scotland  in  1707 
resulted  in  the  appointment  of  a 
separate  secretary  of  state  for 
the  latter  country,  but  after  1746 
this  practice  was  discontinued. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Ameri- 
can revolution  a  third  secretary 
of  state  was  appointed  for  colo- 
nial affairs,  but  the  recognition 
of  the  independence  of  the 
United  States  rendered  this  un- 
necessary. 

In  1782  each  of  the  two  sec- 
retaries had  a  definite  province 
allotted  to  him.  The  one,  who 
had  previously  been  known  as 
secretary  of  the  southern  depart- 
ment, became  Home  Secretary 
with  the  charge  of  domestic  and 
colonial  affairs,  while  the  other, 
who  had  previously  been  known 
as  secretary  of  the  northern  de- 
partment, became  Foreign  Sec- 
retary. In  1794  a  new  secretary 
of  state  for  war  was  appointed, 
who,  in  1801  took  over  the  man- 
agement of  colonial  affairs  also. 
In  1854  a  separate  secretary  of 
state  for  the  Colonies  was  ap- 
pointed, and  in  1858  another  for 
India.  There  are  thus  at  the 
present  day  five  secretaries  of 
state,  administering  the  affairs 
of  different  departments  of  gov- 
ernment, viz. :  home  affairs,  for- 
eign affairs,  the  Colonies,  India, 
and  war.  Holders  of  the  secre- 
taryships hold  cabinet  rank. 

In  the  United  States,  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  is  equivalent  to 
Foreign  Minister.  See  State, 
U.  S.  Department  of. 

Secretion,  a  term  for  the 
process  by  which  living  organ- 
isms separate  from  surrounding 
fluids  specific  materials,  which 
are  elaborated,  collected,  and 
discharged  for  the  performance 
of  special  functions ;  and  also 
used  for  the  material  secreted. 
A  distinction  is  drawn  between 
secretions  and  excretions,  the 


Secretary  Bird 


Secret  Service,  U.  S. 


KFP 


83 


Secret  Societies 


former  being  functionally  active, 
while  the  latter  consist  of  waste 
materials  thrown  out  by  the  or- 
ganism as  useless  or  harmful ; 
but  in  some  cases — in  the  bile, 
for  example — the  gland  product 
is  partly  functional  and  partly 
excretory.  In  the  human  body 
each  variety  of  gland  has  its  pe- 
culiar product,  which  it  elabo- 
rates from  the  blood  and  lymph. 
Secretion  is  due  to  the  metabolic 
or  transforming  powers  of  liv- 
ing protoplasm,  and  the  selective 
capacities  of  the  various  cells. 
Like  muscular  action,  secretion 
is  largely  under  the  influence  of 
the  nervous  system,  and  is  often 
excited  and  inhibited  in  a  reflex 
fashion.  The  sight  and  smell 
of  food  stimulate  the  salivary 
glands,  and  one's  'mouth  wa- 
ters' ;  irritation  of  the  eye  in- 
duces lachrymal  flow.  During 
the  period  of  rest  the  construc- 
tive processes  of  the  gland  out- 
pace the  discharge,  and  zymogen 
or  mucigen,  as  the  case  may  be, 
accumulates  in  the  cell.  During 
the  secretory  activity,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  cell  becomes 
more  or  less  depleted. 

Secret  Service,  U.  S.  This 
descriptive  title  legally  applies 
to  one  branch  of  the  government 
only — a  division  in  the  office  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  at 
Washington.  It  came  into  ex- 
istence in  June,  1860,  when  an 
appropriation  of  $100,000  was 
made  for  the  purpose  of  detect- 
ing and  prosecuting  counterfeit- 
ers of  gold  and  silver  coins.  At 
the  close  of  the  Civil  War  it  ab- 
sorbed the  best  of  the  available 
material  from  the  ranks  of  Col. 
Baker's  famous  organization  in 
the  military  bureau  of  informa- 
tion, and  since  that  period  has 
been  maintained  primarily  for 
the  protection  of  the  currency  of 
the  country.  It  is  practically  an 
independent  bureau,  having  ju- 
risdiction in  all  the  states  and 
territories.  Its  operations  are 
directed  by  a  chief  with  an 
assistant  and  a  clerical  force 
in  the  Treasury  Department. 
There  are  twenty-eight  districts 
throughout  the  country,  each  of 
which  is  under  the  immediate 
supervision  of  an  'operative-in- 
charge,'  with  as  many  assistants 
and  subheadquarters  in  each  dis- 
trict as  may  be  necessary.  Ap- 
pointments are  made  to  the  field 
force  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  chief  under  civil  service 
regulations.  There  are  other 
branches  of  the  government  do- 
ing work  of  a  confidential  nature 
— special  agents  in  the  customs 
service,  revenue  agents  in  the 
Internal  Revenue  Bureau,  in- 
spectors in  the  Post  Office  and 
other  departments,  and  the  Fed- 
eral   Bureau    of  Investigation 


(F.B.I.)  of  the  Department  of 
Justice,  but  none  of  these  belong 
to  the  Secret  Service  proper. 
All  information  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  men  in  the  field,  their 
names  and  official  stations  (ex- 
cept at  the  principal  district 
headquarters)  is  withheld  by  ad- 
ministrative officers  in  the  inter- 
ests of  efficiency,  and  in  this  re- 
spect it  is  unique.  While  the 
primary  function  of  the  Secret 
Service  is  the  suppression  of 
counterfeiting,  it  is  used  for  oth- 
er purposes  to  the  distinct  ad- 
vantage of  the  general  govern- 
ment. During  the  Spanish- 
American  difficulty  it  was  em- 
ployed to  checkmate  the  opera- 
tions of  the  Spanish  agents  in  the 
United  States,  arrested  a  num- 
ber of  spies,  and  brought  about 
the  expulsion  from  Canada  of  a 
former  naval  attache  of  the 
Spanish  legation  who  had  estab- 
lished a  base  of  operations  across 
the  Canadian  border.  All  of 
the  departments  at  Washington 
from  time  to  time  avail  them- 
selves of  the  services  of  experi- 
enced agents  of  the  Secret  Serv- 
ice, especially  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  naturalization  and  land 
frauds,  violations  of  the  anti- 
trust laws,  and  various  offenses 
against  the  Federal  statutes. 
There  is  a  special  detail  of 
agents  for  the  protection  of  the 
President  and  high  dignitaries 
of  foreign  countries  who  may 
visit  the  United  States. 

Secret  Societies  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  rather 
surprising  that  in  no  other  coun- 
try than  the  United  States, 
where  a  democratic  civilization 
has  been  so  highly  developed, 
have  there  been  or  are  there  so 
many  secret  societies,  or  so 
many  members  thereof.  Stu- 
dents of  this  sociological  phe- 
nomenon have  recorded  about 
350^  such  organizations  in  the 
United  States,  with  an  approxi- 
mate total  membership  in  1906 
of  about  7,500,000,  about  one  in 
every  eleven  of  the  aggregate 
population.  Many  of  these  or- 
ganizations are  composed  of 
women  as  well  as  men  (see  Fra- 
ternal Beneficiary  Orders), 
and  if  _7,000,000  be  taken  as  rep- 
resenting the  male  membership 
it  is  seen  that  about  40  per  cent 
of  the  total  adult  male  popula- 
tion are  members  of  secret  soci- 
eties. The  growth  from  1796, 
when  secret  society  life  in  the 
United  States  was  made  up  of 
about  2,500  Freemasons,  500 
members  of  St.  Tammany  Soci- 
eties and  kindred  patriotic  fra- 
ternities, and  members  of  the 
few  scattered  chapters  of  the 
Phi  Beta  Kappa,  the  mother  col- 
lege fraternity,  is  thus  seen  to 
have  been  prodigious,  from 
about  one,  or  less  than  one  per 


cent  of  the  population  of  the 
coimtry  110  years  ago  to  9  per 
cent  to-day.  When  these  secret 
societies,  fraternities,  sister- 
hoods, and  mixed  assemblies  are 
classified,  something  of  the  enor- 
mous range  taken  by  this  pecul- 
iar sociological  development  is 
shown  at  a  glance.  They  may 
be  grouped,  in  the  order  of  their 
appearance,  about  as  follows:  1, 
Freemasonry  and  appendant  or- 
ders ;  2,  Patriotic  and  Political 
fraternities;  3,  College  (Greek 
letter)  fraternities;  4,  Charita- 
ble and  Benevolent  fraternities  ; 
5,  Temperance  societies;  6,  Fra- 
ternal beneficiary  orders  ;  7,  In- 
dustrial (or  labor)  organiza- 
tions ;  8,  Military  fraternities ; 
and  9,  Miscellaneous. 

Freemasonry  made  its  appear- 
ance in  the  United  States  from 
England  in  Boston  and  Philadel- 
phia. (See  Freemasonry). 
For  34  years  thereafter  it  was 
the  only  secret  society  here  hav- 
ing an  organized  existence. 
Then  sprang  up  the  patriotic 
and  political  fraternities,  the 
first  of  which  was  the  Sons  of 
Liberty  (1764-1783)  ;  from  them 
came  the  Sons  of  St.  Tamina 
and  Sons  of  St.  Tammany 
(1771-1813);  The  Tammany 
Society,  or  Columbian  Order 
(1789),  N.  Y.  City  (q.  v.)  ;  the 
Society  of  Red  Men  (1813- 
1832),  and  the  Order  of  the 
United  American  Mechanics 
(1845),  treated  elsewhere  under 
that  title,  as  well  as  the  Junior 
Order  of  United  American  Me- 
chanics (1853)  ;  Patriotic  Order 
Sons  of  America  (1847)  ;  Broth- 
erhood of  the  Union  (1850)  ; 
Sons  of  '76,  or  Order  of  Star- 
Spangled  Banner  (Know  Noth- 
ing Party,  1852)  (q.  v.),  and 
many  others  which  were  tem- 
porarily swallowed  by  that  last 
named.  It  was  the  Civil  War 
which  checked  the  first  great 
Native  American  movement. 
Neither  the  Know  Nothing  Par- 
ty, nor  its  secret  society,  Crysa- 
lis,  reappeared  after  that  con- 
flict, as  did  the  two  orders  of 
'Mechanics,'  the  Sons  of  Amer- 
ica, and  the  Brotherhood  of  the 
Union,  from  which,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Loyal  Orange 
Association,  introduced  here  late 
in  the  sixties,  were  gathered  the 
suggestion  and  impetus  which 
started  another  nominal  repeti- 
tion of  the  Know  Nothing  move- 
ment by  the  American  Protec- 
tive Association  (1888-1900). 
(See  Protective  Association. 
American).  During  that  peri- 
od most  of  the  older  patriotic 
fraternities,  those  already  named 
and  new  ones  which  had  only 
short  lives,  were  virtually  ab- 
sorbed by  the  'A.  P.  A..'  only  the 
four  emerging  from  the  eclipse 
in  which  the  'A.  P.  A.'  was  in- 
volved, at  the  beginning  of  the 


Secret  Societies 


KFP 


84 


Secret  Societies 


20th  century,  the  same  which  re- 
appeared after  the  Civil  War 
had  blotted  out  the  Know  Noth- 
ing Party.  The  Sons  of  Liberty 
stood  for  a  protest  against  Brit- 
ish oppression  in  the  American 
colonies,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
War  of  the  Revolution  it  was 
Sons  of  Liberty  who  organized 
Sons  of  St.  Tamina,  or  St.  Tam- 
many, an  American  Indian,  in 
ridicule  of  loyalty  to  the  Crown 
then  shown  by  such  organiza- 
tions as  the  St.  George,  St.  An- 
drews, St.  David,  and  St.  Nich- 
olas societies,  and  as  a  protest 
against  the  so-called  aristocratic 
Society  of  the  Cincinnati,  with 
its  federal  tendencies  and  hered- 
itary memberships.  The  Society 
of  Red  Men  (1813-1832).  was 
formed  by  members  of  St.  Tam- 
many societies.  In  all  of  these 
organizations  Indian  ceremoni- 
als formed  a  part  of  those 
which  were  visited  upon  initi- 
ates. That  last  named  was  more 
political  than  merely  patriotic 
and  finally  disappeared  through 
excessive  diversions  in  social 
lines.  Two  years  later,  in  1834, 
former  members  of  the  Society 
of  Red  Men,  and  of  late  St. 
Tammany  societies,  made  a  radi- 
cal departure  by  forming  the 
Improved  Order  of  Red  Men 
(q.  v.),  the  first  purely  charita- 
ble and  benevolent  secret  society 
having  an  American  background 
and  origin,  organized  along  lines 
suggested  by  the  Independent 
Order  of  Odd  Fellows,  original- 
ly an  English  friendly  secret  so- 
ciety, which  was  introduced  into 
the  United  States  in  1819.  (See 
Odd  Fellows,  Independent 
Order  of.)  Owing  to  this 
abrupt  switching  off  of  a  long 
line  of  patriotic  fraternities  into 
one  which  eschewed  politics  and 
worked  alone  for  the  welfare  of 
fellow-members,  there  was  a 
nominal  break  of  a  few  years  in 
the  more  than  a  century  and  a 
third  of  patriotic  and  political 
secret  societies,  which  began 
with  the  Sons  of  Liberty,  1764, 
and  are  still  extant  in  the  United 
Orders  of  American  Mechanics 
and  allied  societies.  Native 
American  political  uprisings  be- 
gan in  New  York  city  in  1835, 
in  Philadelphia  in  1837,  and 
were  quite  pronounced  at  New 
York  in  1843,  when  James 
Harper,  founder  of  Harper 
Bros.,  publishers,  was  elected 
mayor  on  the  anti-free  immi- 
gration, America  for  Americans, 
and  anti-Roman  Catholicism 
cries.  Labor  disturbances  at 
both  New  York  and  Philadel- 
phia were  fre(|uent,  and  an  out- 
growth of  them  in  1845,  at  Phil- 
adelphia, was  the  United  Amer- 
ican Mechanics,  afterward  Or- 
der of  United  American  Me- 
chanics, which,  later,  was  made 
a  secret  society  to   which  all 


American  men  in  sympathy  with 
its  objects  were  eligible.  (See 
United  American  Mechan- 
ics, Junior  Order  of.)  Na- 
tive Americanism  first  showed 
itself  in  the  St.  Tammany  soci- 
eties, then  in  the  Alien  and  Se- 
dition Laws  of  1798,  next  in  the 
War  of  1812,  and  was  kept  alive 
during  the  'era  of  good  feeling' 
by  the  Society  of  Red  Men  and 
Surviving  Sons  of  St.  Tam- 
many, until  1832.  It  was  only 
a  few  years  later  that  it  flared 
out  again,  as  first  described,  and 
has  had  a  continuous  existence, 
generally  behind  closed  doors, 
ever  since.  First  and  last,  there 
have  been  some  seventy  or  more 
patriotic  or  political  secret  fra- 
ternities. These  in  the  last  third 
of  the  18th  century  stood  for 
popular  patriotism  and  Ameri- 
canism ;  in  the  second  third  of 
the  19th  century  this  developed 
into  anti-free  immigration  and 
anti-Roman  Catholicism,  and 
during  the  final  decade  of  the 
last  century  it  became  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  virtually  to  re- 
vive the  issues  of  the  period 
1852-1856. 

For  an  account  of  the  origin 
and  development  of  the  College, 
or  Greek  Letter  Fraternities,  the 
first  of  which  made  its  appear- 
ance in  1776,  see  Fraternities, 
College. 

Charitable  and  benevolent  se- 
cret societies  in  this  country, 
while  borrowing  in  part  from 
Freemasonry,  are  more  nearly 
the  offspring  of  the  Odd  Fel- 
lows. The  latter,  as  told,  was 
introduced  here  in  1819,  and  the 
Ancient  Order  of  Foresters  first 
in  1834,  from  England,  the  year 
the  native  society,  the  Improved 
Order  of  Red  Men,  was  formed  ; 
the  Ancient  Order  of  Hiberni- 
ans (1836)  came  from  Ireland, 
and  the  United  Ancient  Order 
of  Druids  (1839)  from  England. 
The  German  Order  of  Harugari 
was  formed  at  New  York  City 
in  1847,  the  Knights  of  Pythias, 
at  Washington  (1864),  and  the 
Benevolent  and  Protective  Or- 
der of  Elks  at  New  York  City 
in  1866,  which  constitute  the 
leading  as  well  as  typical  frater- 
nities of  this  variety,  all  of 
which  are  described  in  detail 
elsewhere  under  their  several 
titles. 

The  parent  American  secret 
society  formed  to  disseminate 
total  abstinence  principles.  Sons 
of  Temperance  (1842),  was  an 
outcome  of  the  Washington  tem- 
perance movement.  Freema- 
sons were  among  its  founders. 
It  had  been  preceded  by  the  In- 
dependent Order  of  Rechabites, 
formed  by  Odd  Fellows  and 
Foresters,  in  England,  in  1842, 
which  was  brought  to  the  United 
States  in  1845.  From  the 
American  Sons  of  Temperance 


there  sprang  the  Templars  of 
Honor  and  Temperance  (1845), 
Independent  Order  of  Good 
Templars  (1852),  and  from  the 
latter  came  the  Royal  Templars 
of  Temperance  (1870). 

It  was  in  1868  that  the  first  of 
the  American  fraternal  benefi- 
ciary (assessment  insurance  or- 
ders) orders,  a  modification  of 
the  charitable,  beneficiary,  or 
English  friendly  societies,  was 
organized,  the  Ancient  Order  of 
United  Workmen.  For  an  ex- 
tended account  of  the  growth 
and  work  of  this  large  section  of 
secret  society  life  in  the  United 
States,  see  Fraternal  Soci- 
eties. 

Organized  labor  has  not  great- 
ly favored  the  secret  society 
methods  of  working  out  its  pur- 
poses, but  what  it  has  done  in 
that  direction  has  been  conspic- 
uous. The  various  Railway 
Brotherhoods,  the  Engineers 
(1863),  Conductors  (1868), 
Firemen  (1873),  Trainmen 
(1883),  Telegraphers  (1866), 
Switchmen  (1887),  and  Carmen 
(1889),  had  a  Masonic  origin  in 
the  parent  of  them  all,  the 
Brotherhood  of  Locomotive  En- 
gineers, and  constitute  some  of 
the  most  efficient  organizations 
in  the  ranks  of  labor  to  this  day. 
(See  Railway  Brotherhoods.) 
An  outgrowth  of  the  French  la- 
bor unions  was  the  forming  of 
'the  International'  at  London  in 
1862,  from  which  the  Knights 
of  Labor,  formed  in  the  United 
States  in  1869,  drew  its  inspira- 
tion. The  latter  has  had  a  var- 
ied career.  Its  membership  in 
1886  was  726,000,  but  it  has 
declined  sharply.  From  the 
Knights  of  Labor  sprang  the 
Amalgamated  Iron  and  Steel 
Workers'  Association  (1876), 
the  International  Association  of 
Machinists   (1888),  and  others. 

Military  secret  societies  were 
mostly  the  outgrowth  of  the 
Civil  War,  when  they  took  the 
place,  in  some  instances,  of  gen- 
eral or  open  societies  for  the 
perpetuation  of  the  memories 
and  sacrifices  which  the  mem- 
bers had  shared  in  the  war  for 
the  preservation  of  the  Union. 
Following  came  those  fraterni- 
ties (and  sisterhoods)  formed  of 
descendants  of  and  of  women 
relatives  of  veterans.  Typical 
of  them  all  are  the  Grand  Army 
of  the  Republic  (1866),  and  the 
Sons  of  Veterans  (1878),  which 
are  referred  to  elsewhere  under 
their  respective  titles. 

In  addition  to  these  groups  of 
secret  societies,  there  are  or  have 
been  many  which  may  be  classed 
as  miscellaneous,  with  purposes 
which  may  be  given  in  part  as 
revolutionary,  co-operative  and 
recreative.  Among  those  in  the 
first  groups  were  the  Knights  of 
the  Golden  Circle,  the  Ku  Klux 


* 


•Sector 


KFP 


85 


Sedan 


Klan,  the  Fenian  Brotherhood, 
and  the  Clan-na-Gael ;  in  the 
second,  the  Wheel  and  the 
Patrons  of  Husbandry  ;  and,  in 
the  third,  various  annexes  to 
secret  societies  already  referred 
to,  such  as  the  'Mystic  Shrine' 
of  the  Freemasons,  and  like  at- 
tachments to  the  Odd  Fellows, 
the  Knights  of  Pythias,  and  oth- 
er fraternities,  most  of  which 
may  have  been  suggested  by  the 
now  extinct  Sons  of  Malta, 
which  had  such  a  vogue  through- 
out the  North  and  South  e.  of 
the  Mississippi  river  prior  to  the 
Civil  War. 

In  all  of  these  secret  frater- 
nities and  sisterhoods,  or  com- 
binations of  both,  in  perhaps 
several  thousand  lodges,  chap- 
ters, councils,  temples,  courts, 
groves,  hives,  camps,  command- 
eries,  or  whatever  they  may  be 
called,  the  work  of  benevolence 
and  relief  and  the  search  for 
truth  are  going  on  nightly, 
somewhere  throughout  the  coun- 
try, behind  closed  doors,  with  an 
enormous  wealth  of  ceremonial 
by  which  to  introduce  many 
more  new  members  annually. 

Sector,  that  portion  of  a  cir- 
cle contained  between  two  radii. 
Area  =  Yz  r^d,  where  6  is  the 
angle  between  the  radii  in  circu- 
lar measure,  or  =  Yz  sr,  where  s 
is  the  arc.  See  Mensuration  ; 
Geometry. 

Secularism  may  be  regarded 
in  two  very  different  ways — (1) 
as  an  aggressive  movement  of  a 
particular  sect;  (2)  as  a  vague 
and  general  tendency  of  thought. 
As  a  particular  aggressive  move- 
ment, secularism  belongs  to  the 
latter  half  of  the  19th  century, 
and  had  for  its  leading  repre- 
sentative G.  J.  Holyoake.  Its 
aim  was  twofold — first,  to  free 
our  views  of  human  life  and 
conduct  from  their  traditional 
association  with  religion  and 
theology ;  and  secondly,  to  lay 
a  far  greater  emphasis  than  the 
traditional  religious  ethics  does 
on  the  importance  of  the  mate- 
rial conditions  of  life.  The  for- 
mer aim  was  connected,  in  the 
case  of  some  members  of  the 
party,  such  as  Charles  Brad- 
laugh,  with  a  frank  profession 
of  atheism.  But  even  those  who 
were  not  prepared,  or  did  not 
think  it  politic,  to  make  such  a 
profession,  still  considered  it  es- 
sential to  make  a  vehement  pro- 
test against  any  dependence  of 
moral  rules  and  ends  on  theo- 
logical opinions  which  they  re- 
garded as  incapable  of  any  cer- 
tain proof.  See  Holyoake's 
Principles  of  Secularism  fl859) 
and  Origin  of  Secularism  (1896). 
Criticism  and  historical  refer- 
ences are  given  in  Flint's  Anti- 
Theistic  Theories  (1879). 

Secularism  as  an  existing 
tendency    or    characteristic  of 


thought  means  the  fact  that,  in 
consequence  of  the  teachings  of 
modern  science,  there  has  taken 
place  an  enormous  expansion  of 
the  mundane  horizon,  and  a  cor- 
responding recession  of  the  tra- 
ditional religious  view  of  things 
by  which  that  horizon  was  for- 
merly defined.  Physical  science 
and  biological  science  have  com- 
pletely destroyed  that  picture  of 
creation  which,  in  consequence 
of  a  too  literal  acceptance  of 
scriptural  teaching,  was  so  long 
regarded  as  a  representation  of 
actual  events  which  occurred 
not  so  very  many  thousand  years 
ago.  And  historical  criticism  is 
steadily  undermining  those  con- 
ceptions of  supernatural  inter- 
vention in  Jewish  and  Christian 
history  which  have  formed  the 
basis  of  Christian  dogma  in  its 
traditional  forms.  The  tendency 
of  these  changes  has  been  to 
make  matters  of  religious  belief 
more  and  more  vague  and  shad- 
owy. Such  secularism  has  no 
direct  or  immediate  bearing 
upon  conduct,  but  it  is  none  the 
less  a  profoundly  important  in- 
tellectual tendency  of  the  pres- 
ent day. 

Secundarabad,  tn.  and  can- 
tonment, India,  state  of  Haidara- 
bad,  6  m.  n.e.  of  Haidarabad. 
Pop.  85,267. 

Security,  a  term  which  in- 
cludes documents  and  transac- 
tions that  assure  or  facilitate  the 
payment  of  money,  by  giving  the 
holder  of  them  some  right  for 
the  recovery  of  his  debt,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  rights  which  he  has 
in  common  with  creditors  gen- 
erally. It  includes  bonds,  de- 
bentures, promissory  notes, 
checks,  bills  of  exchange,  mort- 
gages legal  and  equitable,  bank- 
notes, and  government  stock,  bvit 
not  shares  in  companies,  bank 
stock,  and  unpaid  legacies.  The 
obligation  of  the  debtor,  or  of 
another  for  his  benefit,  is  known 
as  personal  security.  A  person 
who  undertakes  to  perform  the 
obligation  of  another  is  called  a 
surety.  Security  for  the  per- 
formance of  an  obligation  may 
also  be  given  by  creating  a  lien 
on  property  by  document  or 
pledge.  See  Mortgage  ;  Lien  ; 
Pledge;  Suretyship. 

Security  and  Information. 
The  service  of  reconnaissance, 
advance  and  rear  guards,  out- 
posts, patrols,  etc.,  upon  which 
the  safety  and  success  of  an 
army  in  the  field  largely  depends. 
See  Wagner's  Security  and  In- 
formation (Kansas  City,  1902), 
and  Field  Service  Regulations , 
U.  S.  Army  (Washington,  1905). 

Sedaine,  Michel  Jean 
(1719-97),  French  dramatist, 
born  at  Paris ;  whilst  appren- 
ticed to  an  architect  he  wrote 
plays,  particularly  in  the  depart- 
ment of  opera  comiquc,  where, 


often  in  collaboration  with  Phili- 
dor  or  Monsigny,  he  produced  a 
mass  of  works,  sometimes  of  a 
high  order.  It  was  to  one  of 
these — Richard  Cceur-de-Lion 
(1784) — that  he  is  said  to  have 
owed  his  election  to  the  French 
Academy.  Two  of  his  comedies 
— Le  Philosophe  sans  le  Savoir 
(1765)  and  La  Gagcure  Im- 
prevue  (1768) — were  performed 
at  the  Theatre  Frangais.  His 
talent  was  original  and  his  work 
careful,  and  the  style  he  initiated 
was  no  doubt  in  great  degree  re- 
sponsible for  the  subsequent  suc- 
cess of  Scribe  and  Augier. 

Sedalia,  city,  Missouri,  co. 
seat  of  Pettis  co.,  80  m.  e.s.e.  of 
Kansas  City,  on  the  Mo.  Pac. 
and  the  Mo.,  Kan.  and  Tex.  rail- 
roads. It  is  located  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  986  ft.  above  the  sea  in 
an  agricultural,  coal-mining, 
and  limestone  region.  It  con- 
tains the  George  R.  Smith  Col- 
lege (colored),  a  public  library, 
2  hospitals,  the  state  fair 
grounds  and  buildings,  court 
house,  post  office  buildings,  col- 
lege of  music,  and  2  parks.  Its 
industrial  establishments  include 
the  general  offices  and  railway 
shops  of  the  Mo.,  Kan.  and  Tex. 
R.  R.,  the  locomotive  shops  of 
the  Mo.  Pac.  R.  R.,  iron  found- 
ries, breweries,  beef,  pork,  and 
poultry  packing  houses,  grain 
elevators,  flour  mills,  and  manu- 
factories of  boots  and  shoes, 
overalls,  shirts,  clothing,  car- 
riages, candy,  woolens,  ice,  agri- 
cultural implements,  and  brooms. 
It  has  also  horse  breeding  inter- 
ests and  an  extensive  trade  in 
the  grain,  hay,  potatoes,  fruit, 
poultry  and  eggs,  etc.,  produced 
in  the  surrounding  district. 
There  are  adjacent  deposits  of 
zinc,  iron,  lead,  fire-clay,  and 
emery.  It  was  laid  out  in  1861, 
by  Gen.  G.  R.  Smith,  and  re- 
ceived its  present  charter  in 
1864.  It  was  a  U.  S.  military 
post  (1861-1865)  and  was  held 
in  1864  for  a  short  time  by  the 
Confederates.  Pop.  (1930)  20,- 
806;  (1940)  20,428. 

■Sedan,  city,  Kansas,  co.  seat 
of  Chautauqua  co.,  75  m.  s.e.  by 
E.  of  Wichita,  on  the  Caney  R., 
and  on  the  Mo.  Pac.  R.  R.  It  is 
located  in  a  region  containing 
coal  and  building  stone.  Pop. 
(1930)  1,776;  (1940)  1,948. 

Sedan,  town,  France,  fron- 
tier fortress  in  French  dep.  Ar- 
dennes, on  the  Meuse,  32  m. 
N.w.  of  Verdun.  It  is  a  center 
of  cloth  manufacture,  which 
employed  10,000  hands,  and  had 
existed  for  more  than  three  cen- 
turies. From  the  16th  century 
it  was  the  seat  of  a  famous 
Protestant  seminary.  On  Sept. 
1,  1870,  the  army  of  MacMahon 
was  defeated  by  the  Germans, 
commanded  by  Frederick  Wil- 
liam, crown  prince  of  Prussia 


Sedan  Chair 


KFP 


86 


Sedgivick 


(afterward  Frederick  iii)  and 
the  crown  prince  of  Saxony. 
On  the  following  day,  Sept.  2, 
Napoleon  iii  and  86,000  French 
troops  surrendered  to  the  Ger- 
mans. It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Marshal  Turenne  (1611).  Pop. 
17,283. 

Sedan  Chair,  an  enclosed 
armchair  carried  by  two  bearers 
by  means  of  poles  passed  through 
rings  fixed  to  the  side  of  the  ve- 
hicle. Taking  its  name  from 
the  town  of  Sedan  in  France, 
where  the  chair  was  said  to  have 
been  invented,  it  was  introduced 
into  England  by  Buckingham  in 
the  reign  of  James  i.  It  con- 
tinued in  use  until  about  the 
third  decade  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. 

Sedatives,    in  medicine, 

agents  used  to  soothe  the  body, 
whether  by  external  or  internal 
application.  A  sedative  may  be 
a  drug  (some  of  which  may  act 
as  a  stimulant  in  one  dose  and 
sedative  in  another),  or  the  ap- 
plication of  heat  or  cold.  A 
poultice  may  act  as  a  local  seda- 
tive, as  also  may  ice  applied  to 
the  head  in  feverish  conditions. 
Cerebral  sedatives  are  also  gen- 
eral— opium,  chloral,  chloro- 
form, and  many  other  drugs  be- 
ing examples.  Gastric  sedatives 
are  represented  by  hydrocyanic 
acid  diluted,  by  bismuth,  and  by 
oxalate  of  cerium.  Hydrocyanic 
acid  diluted  and  derivatives  of 
opium  are  also  pulmonary  seda- 
tives. Spinal  sedatives  are  bro- 
mide of  potassium  and  Calabar 
bean.  Digitalis  and  strophan- 
thus  are  cardiac  sedatives,  al- 
though also  cardiac  tonics.  A 
warm  bath  is  a  valuable  exam- 
ple of  the  sedative  action  of 
heat. 

Sedden,  James  Alexander 
(1815-80),  Confederate  States 
official,  was  born  in  Stafford  co., 
Va.  He  graduated  in  law  at  the 
University  of  Virginia,  and  be- 
gan to  practice  at  Richmond. 
In  1845  he  entered  Congress. 
In  1846  he  declined  a  renomina- 
tion,  but  served  again  in  1849- 
51,  when  he  retired  from  politi- 
cal life  on  account  of  ill  health. 
In  1861  he  was  one  of  the  rep- 
resentatives of  Virginia  in  the 
peace  convention  at  Washing- 
ton, and,  as  a  member  of  the 
committee  on  resolutions,  intro- 
duced the  minority  report  which 
recognized  the  right  of  peaceable 
secession.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  first  Confederate  Congress, 
and  in  1862  received  the  port- 
folio of  secretary  of  war  of  the 
Confederate  States.  He  held 
this  position  until  the  close  of 
hostilities. 

Seddon,  Richard  John 
(1845-1906),  British  premier  of 
New  Zealand,  was  born  at  Ec- 
cleston  in  Lancashire.  He  emi- 
grated to  Victoria  in  1863  as  a 


mechanical  engineer.  He  after- 
wards removed  to  New  Zealand, 
where  in  1879  he  was  returned 
to  Parliament  as  member  for 
Hokitika,  and  afterwards  for 
Kumara  (1881)  and  Westland 
(1890).  In  1891  he  became 
minister  of  mines,  then  minister 
of  public  works,  and  in  1895 
premier.  He  attended  the  con- 
ferences of  Colonial  premiers  at 
London  in  1897  and  1902.  He 
died  at  sea  June  10,  1906. 

Sedge.   See  Carex. 

Sedgemoor,  moor,  England, 
Somerset,  between  Bridgwater 
and  Weston  ;  scene  of  the  defeat 
of  Monmouth  (1685). 

Sedgley,  urban  dist.,  Eng- 
land, Staffordshire,  4  m.  s.s.w. 
of  Wolverhampton.  Nails,  gas 
retorts,  iron  safes,  and  hard- 
ware are  manufactured,  and 
coal,  limestone,  ironstone,  and 
fire-clay  are  worked.  Pop.  16,- 
529. 

Sedgwick,  Adam  (1785- 
1873),  English  geologist,  was 
born  at  Dent  in  Yorkshire,  and 
in  1818  became  professor  of  ge- 
ology at  Cambridge  University, 
and  soon  became  recognized  as 
an  authority  on  palaeozoic  rocks 
and  fossils.  His  principal  pub- 
lication was  a  long  introduction 
to  Description  of  British  Palac- 
o::oic  Fossils  (1854).  He  stren- 
uously opposed  Darwinism  when 
the  Origin  of  Species  appeared. 
See  Life  and  Letters  (2  vols. 
1890). 

Sedgwick,  Catherine  Ma- 
ria (1789-1867),  American  au- 
thor, born  at  Stockbridge,  Mass., 
the  daughter  of  Judge  Theodore 
Sedgwick.  In  1839  she  traveled 
in  Europe.  She  was  a  volumi- 
nous writer,  and  her  books  were 
widely  read  in  this  country  and 
in  Europe.  She  was  sometimes 
called  'The  Female  Cooper.' 
Among  her  writings  were :  A 
New  England  Tale  (1822); 
Redwood  (1824)  ;  The  Traveller 
(1825)  ;  Hope  Leslie;  or  Early 
Times  in  Massachusetts  (1827)  ; 
Sketches  and  Talcs  (1835)  ; 
Live  and  Let  Live  (1837)  ;  Let- 
ters from  Abroad  to  Kindred 
at  Home  (1841)  ;  Historical 
Sketches  of  Old  Painters 
(1845)  ;  William  Harvey  and 
Other  Tales  (1845).  Her  Life 
and  Letters,  edited  by  Mary  E. 
Dewey,  was  published  in  1871. 

Sedgwick,  John  (1813-64), 
American  soldier,  born  at  Corn- 
wall, Conn.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1837  as  a  second 
lieutenant  of  cavalry,  and  served 
in  the  second  Seminole  War  and 
in  the  Mexican  War.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he 
was  appointed  colonel  in  the  reg- 
ular army  and  brigadier  general 
of  volunteers,  and  he  became 
major  general  in  1862.  He 
commanded  a  division  of  the  2d 
Corps    in    the    Peninsula  cam- 


paign and  at  Fair  Oaks,  May 
31,  1862,  the  arrival  of  his  divi- 
sion on  the  field  saved  McClel- 
lan's  threatened  right  wing  from 
disaster.  At  Antietam  his  divi- 
sion had  some  of  the  severest 
fighting,  and  he  himself  was 
twice  wounded.  When  Hooker 
re-organized  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  in  the  spring  of  1863, 
Sedgwick  was  given  the  6th 
Corps  and  he  commanded  it  un- 
til his  death.  In  the  Chancel- 
lorsville  campaign  he  directed 
the  operations  against  the 
heights  behind  Fredericksburg, 
retiring  when  the  main  army 
was  defeated.  His  corps  took 
part  in  the  last  two  days  at  Get- 
tysburg and  led  in  the  pursuit 
of  the  defeated  Confederates. 
He  played  an  important  part  in 
the  opening  operations  in  the 
campaign  of  1864,  in  the  Wil- 
derness, and  was  killed  at  Spott- 
sylvania  on  May  9. 

Sedgwick,  Robert  (c.  1590- 
1656),  American  colonist,  born 
probably  in  Woburn,  Bedford- 
shire, England.  He  settled  in 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  in  1635  ; 
was  many  times  a  deputy  to  the 
General  Court ;  and  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  celebrated 
Ancient  and  Honorable  Artil- 
lery Company.  He  was  major 
general  over  all  the  militia  in 
1652;  expelled  the  French  from 
the  Penobscot  region  in  1654; 
assisted  in  the  capture  of  Ja- 
maica in  1655;  and  was  one  of 
the  commissioners  appointed  to 
govern  that  island. 

Sedgwick,  Theodore  (1747- 
1813),  American  jurist,  born  at 
West  Hartford,  Conn.  He  was 
educated  at  Yale  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  After  a  short 
service  in  the  Revolutionary 
army  he  returned  to  his  practice 
and  in  1781  argued  the  case  of 
Elizabeth  Freeman,  the  decision 
in  which  abolished  slavery  in 
Mass.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  in  1785- 
86,  member  of  the  Mass.  con- 
vention which  ratified  the  Fed- 
eral Constitution  in  1788,  mem- 
ber of  Congress  in  1789-96, 
U.  S.  senator  in  1796-99,  mem- 
ber of  Congress  and  speaker  of 
the  House  in  1799-1801,  and 
justice  of  the  Mass.  Supreme 
Court  in  1802-1813.  He  was  a 
strong  Federalist  in  politics. 

Sedgwick,  William  Thomp- 
son (1855-1921),  American  bi- 
ologist, born  in  West  Hartford, 
Conn.  He  graduated  from  Yale, 
was  instructor  in  physiological 
chemistry  there,  and  was  a  fel- 
low and  instructor  in  biology  at 
Johns  Hopkins  in  1879-83.  In 
1883-85  he  was  assistant  profes- 
sor and  in  1885-91  associate 
professor  of  biology  in  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy ;  and  became  professor  in 
1891.    In  1888-96  he  was  biol- 


Sedition 


KFP 


87 


Seed 


ogist  to  the  Massachusetts  state 
board  of  health,  and  became 
known  as  an  authority  on  epi- 
demiology. In  1897  he  was 
curator  of  the  Lowell  Institute, 
Boston,  and  in  1897-99  was 
chairman  of  the  board  of  pauper 
institutions  trustees.  In  1902- 
04  he  was  a  member  of  the  ad- 
visory board  of  the  Hygienic 
Laboratory  for  Public  Health 
and  Marine  Hospital  Service  of 
the  U.  S.  He  was  joint  author, 
with  E.  B.  Wilson,  of  General 
Biology  (1886)  ;  assistant  edi- 
tor, with  Mrs.  Rogers,  of  the 
Life  and  Letters  of  William 
Barton  Rogers  (2  vols.  1896)  ; 
and  author  of  The  Principles  of 
Sanitary  Science  and  the  Public 
Healt\  (1902). 

Sedition.  Words  or  conduct 
which  tend  to  incite  rebellion 
against  the  state  or  nation,  or 
bring  into  contempt  the  constitu- 
tion and  government,  but  which 
are  not  followed  by  an  overt  act 
constituting  treason.  The  Fed- 
eral statutes  define  and  provide 
for  the  punishment  of  seditious 
conspiracy  as  follows  :  'If  two  or 
more  persons  in  any  state  or  ter- 
ritory conspire  to  overthrow,  put 
down,  or  to  destroy  by  force 
the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  or  levy  war  against  them, 
or  oppose  by  force  the  authority 
thereof ;  or  by  force  to  prevent, 
hinder  or  delay  the  execution  of 
any  law  of  the  United  States  ;  or 
by  force  to  seize,  take  or  pos- 
sess any  property  of  the  United 
States  contrary  to  the  authority 
thereof ;  each  of  them  shall  be 
punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less 
than  five  hundred  dollars  and 
not  more  than  five  thousand  dol- 
lars, or  by  imprisonment  with  or 
without  hard  labor,  for  a  period 
of  not  less  than  six  months,  nor 
more  than  six  years,  or  by  both 
such  fine  and  imprisonment.' 
Sedition  in  the  army  and  navy 
may  be  punished  by  death  or  im- 
prisonment in  the  discretion  of 
a  court-martial.     See  Treason. 

Sedimentary  Rocks,  rocks 
formed  by  the  deposition  of  ma- 
terials previously  held  in  sus- 
pension by  water.  See  Rock 
and  Petrology. 

Sedley,  or  Sidley,  Sir 
Charles  ( ?1639-1701),  Eng- 
lish wit  and  dramatic  author, 
born  at  Aylesford,  Kent ;  had 
great  repute  in  his  own  day  both 
as  a  rake  (see  Pepys'  Diary, 
passim)  and  as  a  poet.  Dryden 
makes  him  figure  in  The  Essay 
on  Dramatic  Poesy  under  the 
name  of  Lisideius,  and  calls  him 
the  'Tibullus  of  the  age.' 
Charles  ii  delighted  in  his  con- 
versation. He  was  the  author  of 
three  tragedies — Antony  and 
Cleopatra  (1677),  Beauty  the 
Conqueror,  or  the  Death  of 
Marc  Antony  (1702),  and  The 
Tyrant  King  of  Crete  (1719); 


and  three  comedies — Mulberry 
Garden  (1668),  B  ellamira 
(1687),  and  The  Grumbler 
(1719)  ;  but  his  fame  rests  chief- 
ly on  such  lyrics  as  'Love  still 
has  something  of  the  sea,'  and 
'Phillis  is  my  only  joy.'  See 
Works,  with  Memoir  (1722). 

Sedro-Wooley,  city,  Wash- 
ington, Skagit  CO.,  62  m.  N.  of 
Seattle,  on  the  Skagit  R.,  and 
on  the  Gt.  N,  and  the  N.  Pac. 
railroads.  It  is  located  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Skagit  Valley 
(75  m.  long  and  4-10  m.  wide). 
It  consists  of  the  two  towns  of 
Sedro  and  Wooley  united  in 
1898.  It  has  a  hospital,  veneer 
and  excelsior  works,  iron  works, 
extensive  lumber  and  shingle 
mills,  creamery  and  dairy  fac- 
tories, and  vinegar  works.  The 
surrounding  district  produces 
oats,  hay,  fruit,  coal,  iron,  and 
cement.  Sedro-Wooley  was  first 
settled  in  1887.  Pop.  (1930) 
2,719;  (1940)  2,954. 

^  Seduction.  Inducing  a  pre- 
viously chaste  female  to  consent 
to  illicit  sexual  intercourse  by 
strong  persuasion,  deception, 
flattery,  or  by  any  enticement 
which  overcomes  a  natural  re- 
luctance on  her  part.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished from  rape  (q.  v.)  in 
that  consent  of  the  woman  is  se- 
cured, and  force  is  not  employed 
to  obtain  it.  If  the  woman  in- 
vites the  intercourse  it  is  not  se- 
duction. At  common  law  a  par- 
ent, the  father  if  living,  and  if 
he  is  dead,  the  mother,  has  a 
right  of  action  for  damages 
against  the  seducer  of  his  un- 
married daughter,  and  a  master 
for  the  seduction  of  his  servant. 
The  right  has  also  been  extend- 
ed to  all  persons  standing  in  loco 
parentis  to  an  unmarried  female. 
The  theory  of  the  action  is  loss 
of  services  as  a  result  of  the 
seduction.  In  most  states  the 
parent  is  not  held  to  strict 
proof  of  actual  services  by  the 
daughter ;  if  she  was  available 
for  service  and  performed  the 
slightest  service  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient, and  substantial  damages 
may  be  awarded.  Therefore,  in 
the  case  of  a  parent  the  theory 
of  loss  of  services  is  practically 
a  fiction,  and  the  real  ground 
of  the  action  is  the  humiliation, 
disgrace,  and  mental  suffering 
of  the  parent.  At  common 
law  the  female  seduced  has  no 
right  of  action,  but  in  many 
states  by  statute,  if  it  was  under 
promise  of  marriage,  or  if  it  re- 
sults in  the  birth  of  a  child,  she 
is  entitled  to  damages.  In  some 
states  seduction  under  promise 
of  marriage  is  a  crime.  See 
Rape  ;  consult  Wharton,  Crim- 
inal Law. 

Sedum,  a  genus  of  hardy, 
fleshy,  usually  tufted,  herba- 
ceous plants,  belonging  to  the 
order  Crassulaceae.    They  gen- 


erally bear  cymes  of  white  or 
yellow  flowers,  and  are  of  easy 
culture,  lending  themselves  es- 
pecially to  wall  or  rock  garden- 
ing. The  principal  species  have 
been  classified  as  herbaceous 
perennials,  evergreen  perennials, 
and  annuals  or  biennials. 

See,  Horace  (1835-1909), 
American  engineer  and  naval 
architect,  born  in  Philadelphia. 
He  served  an  apprenticeship  to 
the  machinist  trade  with  I.  P. 
Morris  &  Co.  in  Philadelphia. 
He  was  afterwards  employed  in 
numerous  shipbuilding  works, 
and  was  largely  instrumental  in 
making  the  works  of  Wm. 
Cramp  &  Sons  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  kind  in  the  country 
while  holding  the  position  of  en- 
gineer-superintendent. While 
with  Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons  he  de- 
signed the  machinery  of  many 
war  ships  and  fast  mail  steam- 
ers, and  greatly  furthered  the 
adoption  of  triple  and  quadru- 
ple expansion  engines.  In  1889 
he  established  a  practice  as  con- 
sulting engineer  and  naval  ar- 
chitect in  New  York. 

See,  Thomas  Jefferson 
Jackson  (1866),  American  as- 
tronomer, born  near  Montgom- 
ery City,  Mo.  He  graduated 
from  the  University  of  Mis- 
souri, 1889,  and  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Berlin,  Germany,  in 
1892.  In  1887-89  he  had  charge 
of  the  observatory  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Missouri.  In  1891  he 
was  a  volunteer  observer  in  the 
Royal  Observatory,  Berlin,  and 
in  1893—96  organized  and  had 
charge  of  the  department  of  as- 
tronomy in  the  University  of 
Chicago.  In  1896-98  he  was 
astronomer  of  the  Lowell  Ob- 
servatory, in  the  City  of  Mex- 
ico, and  in  1899  became  profes- 
sor of  mathematics,  U.  S.  N.  In 
1903  he  took  charge  of  the  na- 
val observatory  on  Mare  Island, 
Calif.  He  has  computed  the 
orbits  of  many  of  the  double 
stars,  and  investigated  the  diam- 
eters of  many  planets  and  satel- 
lites. He  has  published  several 
valuable  star  catalogues,  and  is 
author  of :  Die  Entwickclung 
dcr  Doppelstern-Systeme  (1893), 
and  Researches  on  the  Evolu- 
tion of  the  Stellar  Systems 
(1896). 

Seebohm,  Frederic  (1833- 
1912),  English  writer,  born  at 
Bradford,  Yorkshire :  became 
partner  in  a  banking  firm  at 
Hitchin.  His  works  include 
The  Oxford  Reformers  (1867), 
The  English  Village  Community 
(1883),  The  Tribal  Custom  in 
Anglo-Saxon  Law  (1902),  and 
The  Tribal  System  in  Wales 
(1904). 

Seed,  the  fertilized  ovule  in 
flowering  plants.  In  addition  to 
the  embryo,  the  seed  usually  con- 
tains a  certain  amount  of  albu- 


Seeley 


KFP 


88 


Seguin 


min  for  the  early  nourishment 
of  the  embryo.  The  two  chief 
requisites  of  germination  are 
moisture  and  a  suitable  temper- 
ature. In  sowing  seeds,  over- 
watering  is  as  harmful  as  too 
great    dryness ;    on    the  other 


Types  of  Seed. 

1,  Acorn  (dicotyledon) ;  2,  lon^tudinal 
section,  showing  two  cotyledons  and  em- 
bryo ;  S,  cross-section.  4,  Oat  (monocoty- 
ledon); 5,  longitudinal  section,  showing 
embryo ;  6,  cross-section ;  7,  embryo. 

hand,  a  wet  surface  over  a  dry 
substratum  is  specially  harmful ; 
the  whole  depth  of  the  seedbed 
should  be  equally  moist.  As  a 
rule,  the  ground  should  be  made 
firm  after  sowing,  either  by 
walking  over  it,  foot  by  foot,  or 
by  beating  it  with  the  back  of  a 
shovel  or  spade.  As  a  check 
upon  drying  influences,  it  is 
often  advantageous  to  use 
screens,  such  as  a  square  frame 
made  from  common  laths  laid  at 
right  angles  in  a  double  series, 
the  interstices  between  the  laths 
being  equal  in  width  to  the  laths 
themselves.  A  brush  screen, 
consisting  of  a  low  frame  cov- 
ered with  boughs,  is  often  used  ; 
the  brush  is  often  laid  directly 
upon  the  ground,  especially  in 
large  beds. 

Seeley,  Harry  Govier  (1839- 
1909),  English  geologist,  was 
born  in  London.  He  became 
professor  of  geology  at  King's 
College,  London,  in  1876,  and 
discovered  the  skeletons  of  Pa- 
reiasaurus,  Cynognathus,  and 
other  reptiles  in  the  Karroo  of 
S.  Africa.  Among  his  works 
are  Index  to  Fossil  Remains  of 
Aves  (1860),  Ornithosauria 
(1870),  The  Fresh-water  Fishes 
of  Europe  (1886).  Physical  Ge- 
ology and  Palaeontology  (1884), 
Story  of  the  Earth  in  Past  Ages 
(1895),  Dragons  of  the  Air 
(1901). 

Seeley,  Sir  John  Robert 
(1834-95),  English  historian 
and  essayist,  born  in  London. 
In  1863,  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  ■  Latin  in  University 
College,  London,  and  in  1869 
professor  of  modern  history  at 
Cambridge.     In  1865  appeared 


anonymously  his  Ecce  Homo,  a 
book  which  deals  with  Christian- 
ity and  its  founder  in  a  non- 
theological  and  unconventional 
way.  Seeley 's  delineation  of 
Christ's  character,  his  concep- 
tion of  the  early  Christian 
church,  and  his  exposition  of 
the  ethical  code  of  Christianity, 
no  less  than  the  high  literary 
style,  the  grave,  reverential  at- 
titude, and  the  fresh,  vigorous 
handling,  made  a  profound  im- 
pression upon  believers  and  un- 
believers alike.  In  1882  Seeley 
followed  up  Ecce  Homo  by  an- 
other book.  Natural  Religion; 
but  it  did  not  create  any  special 
stir.  As  a  historian,  Seeley 's 
ruling  aim  was  to  bring  history 
into  close  contact  with  national 
life,  as  in  his  Life  and  Times  of 
Stein  (1879),  and  Life  of  Na- 
poleon (1886).  His  greatest 
success  in  this  line  was  his  Ex- 
pansion of  England  (1883), 
treating  of  the  development  of 
the  English  realm  from  an  insu- 
lar state  to  a  world-wide  power. 
Seeley  was  a  warm  advocate  of 
federation,  to  which  his  book 
gave  a  great  impetus.  The  next 
important  work,  on  which  he 
was  engaged  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  was  his  Growth  of  British 
Policy  (ed.  by  G.  W.  Prothero, 
with  Memoir,  1895). 

Seelye,  Julius  Hawley 
(1824-95),  American  educator, 
born  at  Bethel,  Conn.  He  grad- 
uated (1849)  at  Amherst,  took 
the  divinity  course  at  Amherst 
Theological  Seminary,  and  con- 
tinued his  studies  in  German 
universities.  He  was  ordained 
in  1853,  and  was  pastor  of  the 
First  Reformed  Dutch  Church 
at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  until 
1858.  From  1858  to  1875  he 
was  professor  of  mental  and 
moral  philosophy  at  Amherst 
College,  and  from  1875  to  1877 
was  an  independent  member  of 
Congress  from  N.  H.,  distin- 
guishing himself  by  disagreeing 
with  the  verdict  of  the  Electoral 
Commission.  He  was  president 
of  Amherst  College  in  1879-90. 
He  translated  Schwegler's  His- 
tory of  Philosophy  (1856),  and 
published  The  Way,  the  Truth, 
the  Life  (1873),  and  Christian 
Missions  (1875). 

Seelye,  Laurens  Clark 
(1837-1924),  American  educa- 
tor, brother  of  Julius  H.  Seelye, 
was  born  at  Bethel,  Conn.,  and 
graduated  (1857)  at  Union  Col- 
lege. He  studied  divinity  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary 
and  at  German  universities,  and 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
North  Congregational  Church  in 
Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1863. 
From  1865  till  1873  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  English  literature  and 
oratory  at  Amherst,  and  was  the 
first  president  of  Smith  College 
(1874-1910),  having  had  charge 


of  the  organization  of  that  insti- 
tution. 

Seg^antini,  Giovanni  (1858- 
99),  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ar- 
co  in  Tyrol.  A  passionate  lover 
of  nature,  and  a  mystic,  he 
developed  an  individual  style 
in  technique  based  on  the  juxta- 
position of  colors  for  purity  of 
effect.  Amongst  his  works  are 
At  the  Watering-place  (Basel 
Museum),  The  Return  Home 
(Berlin  National  Gallery), 
Vacherie  in  the  Engadine  (Ham- 
burg), and  The  Angel  of  Life 
(Budapest).  See  Lives  by  Ser- 
vaes  (1902),  Martersteig  (1904), 
and  Villari  (1905).  and  the  Stu- 
dio (August,  1897). 

Segesta,  or  Egesta,  city, 
Italy,  near  the  seacoast,  in  west- 
ern Sicily.  It  claimed  to  have 
been  founded  by  Trojan  refu- 
gees, and  in  time  became  Hel- 
lenized.  In  454  B.C.  it  formed 
an  alliance  with  Athens  ;  and  in 
416  an  appeal  from  Segesta  for 
help  in  its  war  against  Selinus 
led  to  the  Sicilian  expedition,  so 
disastrous  for  Athens.  In  410 
Segesta  looked  to  Carthage  for 
help,  and  in  consequence  became 
a  dependency  of  that  state.  Its 
chief  interest  at  the  present  day 
is  its  ruined  temple,  the  whole 
of  the  peristyle  of  which  is  in 
perfect  preservation.  Indeed, 
the  cella,  or  body  of  the  temple, 
was  apparently  never  built. 

Segovia,  province,  Spain,  on 
N.  slopes  of  Guadarrama  Mts., 
in  valley  of  Douro.  Area  2,682 
sq.  m.    Pop.  (1940)  194,752. 

Segovia,  city,  Spain,  cap.  of 
prov.  of  same  name,  in  n.n.w. 
of  Madrid ;  very  ancient,  pic- 
turesque, walled  city,  on  bold 
cliff  over  the  Eresma.  The 
striking  palace  stronghold  (Al- 
cazar) of  the  kings  was  burnt, 
but  restored  (1862).  There  are 
a  fine  16th-century  cathedral, 
and  a  splendid  Roman  aque- 
duct of  153  arches.  It  was  for- 
merly the  cloth  center  of  Spain, 
but  is  now  decayed.  Pop.  18,- 
027. 

Segovia  or  Wanks  River, 

Central  America,  rises  in  the 
dept.  of  Segovia,  Nicaragua. 
The  lower  half  of  its  course  is 
the  boundary  line  between  Nic- 
aragua and  Honduras.  It  is 
navigable  for  small  craft  for  150 
m.  from  its  entrance  at  Cape 
Gracias-a-Dios  into  the  Carib- 
bean Sea. 

Seguin,  tn.,  Texas,  co.  seat 
of  Guadalupe  co.,  35  m.  e.n.e. 
of  San  Antonio,  on  the  Guada- 
lupe R.,  and  on  the  Galv.,  Har- 
risburg  and  San  Ant.  R.  R.  It 
is  located  in  an  agricultural  and 
cotton  growing  region  and  has 
cotton  gins  and  compresses,  cot- 
ton-seed oil  mills,  planing  mills, 
brick  and  lumber  yards,  and 
flour  mills.  It  was  first  settled 
in  1838  and  received  its  present 


Segnin 


KFP 


89 


Seine 


charter  in  1852.  Pop.  (1930) 
5,225  ;  (1940)  7,006. 

Seguin,  Edward  Constant 
(1843-98),  American  neurolo- 
gist, born  in  Paris,  France.  He 
graduated  at  Columbia  in  1864, 
and  in  1862-64  served  as  a  med- 
ical cadet  in  the  volunteer  army. 
In  1864—65  he  was  assistant  sur- 
geon, U.  S.  A.,  at  Little  Rock, 
Ark.,  and  in  1868-69  in  New 
Mexico.  In  1868-73  he  was  lec- 
turer on  nervous  diseases  at  Co- 
lumbia, and  in  1873-87  adjunct 
professor  of  diseases  of  the  mind 
and  nervous  system.  In  1873 
he  founded  a  clinic  for  nervous 
diseases,  and  he  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  American  neu- 
rological association.  He  made 
important  investigations  on  crit- 
ical localization  and  spastic  spi- 
nal paralysis,  and  improved  the 
practice  of  medication  in  dis- 
eases of  the  nervous  system.  He 
introduced  the  employment  of 
large  doses  of  iodides  in  thera- 
peutics, and  fully  demonstrated 
the  uses  and  value  of  aconitia, 
hyoscyamus,  and  other  important 
drugs.  He  also  greatly  enlarged 
the  field  for  the  employment  of 
arsenic  and  antimony  in  medi- 
cal practice.  He  was  editor  of 
The  American  Series  of  Clinical 
Lectures,  and  some  of  his  more 
important  medical  articles  were 
published  in  Opera  Minora 
(1884). 

Segur,  Louis  Philippe. 
COMTE  DE  (1753-1830),  French 
diplomatist  and  writer,  son  of 
the  Marquis  de  Segur,  born  in 
Paris,  and  served  with  the 
forces  under  Rochambeau  in  the 
American  Revolutionary  War. 
Appointed  ambassador  at  St. 
Petersburg  (1784),  he  became  a 
favorite  of  Catherine  ii,  and  ne- 
gotiated a  commercial  treaty  be- 
tween Russia  and  France.  He 
represented  France  at  Berlin 
(1790),  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Academy  (1803),  and  be- 
came a  peer  of  France  (1818). 
He  wrote  Histoirc  de  Frederic 
Guillaume  ii  (1800)  ;  Histoire 
Universelle  (1817)  ;  Pensees, 
Maximes  et  Reflexions  (1822)  ; 
Galerie  Morale  et  Politique 
(1817-23);  and  Memoires 
(1825-6). — His  son,  Philippe 
Paul  (1780-1873),  was  also  a 
voluminous  author,  who  wrote 
History  of  the  Expedition  to 
Russia  .  .  .  in  1812  (Eng.  trans. 
1825),  History  of  Russia  and  of 
Peter  the  Great  (Eng.  trans. 
1829),  History  of  Charles  viii 
(Eng.  trans.  1842),  and  His- 
toire et  Memoires  (1873). 

Segur,  Philippe  Henri, 
Marquis  de  (1724-1801).  mar- 
shal of  France,  fought  through 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  being  se- 
verely wounded  and  taken  pris- 
oner at  Klostercamp.  He  be- 
came minister  of  war  in  1780. 
During  the  Revolution  he  was 


imprisoned  by  the  Convention, 
but  was  afterwards  released  by 
Napoleon. 

Seiche,  the  periodic  oscilla- 
tions of  the  surface  level  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,  which  some- 
times amount  to  five  or  six  feet. 
At  the  time  of  the  Lisbon  earth- 
quake on  Nov.  1,  1755,  the 
waters  of  Loch  Lomond  were 
observed  to  rise  and  fall  every 
five  minutes  for  nearly  two 
hours,  the  range  of  the  motion 
amounting  to  two  feet  six 
inches.  Similar  motions  were 
noticed  on  Lochs  Katrine  and 
Ness.  Our  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  laws  of  seiches  dates  from 
1869,  when  Forel  began  his  ob- 
servations on  those  of  the  Lake 
of  Geneva.  Quite  recently,  in 
connection  with  Sir  John  Mur- 
ray's survey  of  the  fresh-water 
lochs  of  Scotland,  the  seiche 
phenomena  on  several  of  these 
lochs  have  been  studied,  and 
Professor  Chrystal  has  devel- 
oped the  hydrodynamical  theory 
in  a  form  which  successfully  co- 
ordinates the  phenomena.  The 
broad  results  may  be  stated  as 
follows  : — Periodic  variations  of 
pressure  or  wind  bearing  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  generate,  in 
a  manner  not  yet  clearly  under- 
stood, what  are  known  as  stand- 
ing oscillations  of  the  water  as  a 
whole.  The  simplest  type  is  that 
shown  by  the  pendulum-like 
swing  of  water  in  a  tumbler 
which  has  been  slightly  tilted 
and  righted  again.  When  a 
lake's  waters  oscillate  in  this 
way,  rising  and  falling  at  the 
two  ends,  but  hardly  changing 
level  near  the  center,  the  seiche 
is  said  to  be  uninodal.  In  the 
binodal  seiche  the  water  will 
rise  in  the  center  as  it  sinks  to- 
wards the  ends,  the  points  at 
which  there  is  no  change  in  level 
being  between  these  positions. 
Similarly,  the  trinodal  seiche 
will  have  three  points  at  which 
there  is  no  change  of  level,  while 
the  periodic  rise  and  fall  will  be 
observed  at  intermediate  sta- 
tions. See  F.  A.  Forel's  Le 
Lemon,  Monographic  Limnolo 
gique  (ed.  1895),  and  Chrystal's 
paper  on  the  'Hydrodynamical 
Theory  of  Seiches'  {Trans.  Roy. 
Soc.  Edin.,  1905). 

Seidl,  Anton  (1850-98), 
musical  conductor,  born  in  Pest, 
Hungary.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the 
Leipzig  Conservatory.  When 
only  twenty  years  old  he  was  en- 
gaged by  Hans  Richter  as  chorus 
master  at  the  Vienna  opera.  In 
1873  he  became  Wagner's  secre- 
tary, and  in  this  capacity  had 
much  to  do  with  the  preparation 
of  the  Nihelungen  Ring  and 
its  production  at  Bayreuth  in 
1876.  For  two  years  (1883-85) 
he  was  conductor  at  Bremen,  and 
then  for  several  years  conductor 
of    the    Wagner  performances 


given  throughout  Europe  by  the 
Neumann  Nibelungen  company. 
In  1885  he  succeeded  Leopold 
Damrosch  as  conductor  at  the 
N.  Y,  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  where  he  remained  un- 
til 1891.  Under  his  direction 
were  produced  for  the  first  time 
in  America  Tristan  und  Isolde, 
Siegfried,  Die  G  otter  ddmme- 
rung,  and  Die  Meistersinger. 
For  several  seasons  he  was 
conductor  of  the  N.  Y.  Philhar- 
monic Orchestra  and  of  a  series 
of  Sunday  night  concerts.  In 
1886  and  in  1897  he  was  one  of 
the  conductors  at  the  Bayreuth 
festival.  He  ranked  with 
Richter  as  one  of  the  greatest  of 
Wagnerian  leaders.  His  widow, 
Frau  Seidl-Krauss,  published  in 
1900  a  memorial  Life. 

Seidlitz  Powders  are  com- 
posed of  two  powders  which 
effervesce  when  mixed  in  water. 
One  powder,  dispensed  in  blue 
paper,  contains  120  grains  of 
Rochelle  salts  (a  tartrate  of  so- 
dium and  potassium)  and  40 
grains  of  sodium  bicarbonate ; 
while  the  other,  enclosed  in 
white  paper,  consists  of  35 
grains  of  tartaric  acid.  The 
mixture  is  a  mild  saline  purga- 
tive, and  is  intended  to  repro- 
duce the  sparkling  mineral  wa- 
ter of  Seidlitz,  a  village  in  Bo- 
hemia. Seidlitz  powders  form 
an  excellent  hydragogue  cathar- 
tic. They  stimulate  the  bowel 
to  evacuation,  and  have  also  a 
cholagogue  action  on  the  liver, 
and  relieve  hepatic  congestion. 

Seignette's  Salt.  See  Ro- 
chelle Salt. 

Seigniorage,  the  profits  made 
by  the  government  in  coining 
silver  and  copper  coins  (there  is 
no  profit  on  gold),  and  paid  into 
the  Treasury.  The  aggregate 
profits  from  the  coinage  of  silver 
dollars  under  the  Acts  of  1878 
and  1890  were  nearly  $90,000,- 
000.  ^ 

Seine,  n.  dep.  of  France,  is 
an  enclave  of  dep.  Seine-et-Oise, 
and  was  formed  out  of  a  portion 
of  the  old  province  of  He  de 
France.  It  includes  all  Paris 
and  part  of  the  suburbs.  Low 
hills  stud  its  surface.  Though 
the  soil  is  not  naturally  fertile, 
yet  the  neighborhood  of  Paris 
ensures  large  supplies  of  manure 
and  sewage,  and  market-garden- 
ing (especially  on  the  Seine  pen- 
insula of  Gennevilliers)  is  the 
chief  industry.  The  district 
round  Montreuil  is  renowned  for 
its  fruit.  Quarries  of  gypsum 
and  freestone  are  largely  worked. 
Area,  185  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1936) 
4,962,967. 

Seine  (anc.  Sequana),  riv.. 
France,  flows  from  the  s.  end  of 
the  Langres  plateau,  with  a  gen- 
eral winding  n.w.  course,  past 
Troyes.  Melun.  Paris,  St.  Denis, 
St.  Germain,  Elbeuf.  and  Rouen, 


Seine-et-Marne  KFP  90  Selborne 


and  enters  the  English  Channel 
by  a  wide  estuary,  on  which 
stand  the  ports  of  Honfleur, 
Harfleur,  and  Havre.  Its  chief 
tributaries  are  (1.  bk.)  the 
Yonne  and  Eure,  and  (r.  bk.) 
Aube  and  Marne  (both  from 
Langres  plateau)  and  Oise  (with 
Aisne)  from  the  Ardennes. 
Navigation  (for  boats)  begins  at 
Marcilly,  350  m.  from  its  mouth, 
and  an  elaborate  system  of  ca- 
nals connects  it  with  the  Loire, 
Rhone,  Rhine,  Somme,  and 
Scheldt.  Paris  can*  be  reached 
by  vessels  of  1,000  tons,  while 
vessels  up  to  2,400  tons  can 
reach  Rouen.  A  canal  from 
Havre,  avoiding  the  estuary, 
gives  sea-going  vessels  direct 
connection  with  the  Seine  at 
Tancarville.  Length,  480  m. ; 
area  of  basin,  30,000  sq.  m. 

Seine-et-Marne,  dep.  of 
France,  traversed  in  s.  by  riv- 
er Seine  and  in  n.  by  lower 
Marne.  It  forms  a  low  plateau, 
with  an  average  elevation  of  327 
ft.  (culminating  point,  705  ft.). 
The  major  part  consists  of  the 
fertile  region  of  La  Brie,  be- 
tween the  two  rivers.  The  cli- 
mate is  equable.  Brie  cheese  is 
famous ;  rose  culture  flourishes 
at  Brie-Comte-Robert  and  Pro- 
vins,  and  viticulture  at  Thomery 
and  Fontainebleau.  Flagstones 
are  quarried.  The  principal  in- 
dustries are  flour-milling,  and 
the  manufacture  of  beet-sugar, 
paper,  porcelain,  and  glass. 
Cap.  Melun.  Area,  2,275  sq.  m. 
Pop.  (1936)  409,311. 

Seine-et;Oise,  n.  dep.  of 
France,  encircles  dep.  Seine  and 
Paris.  All  the  rivers  of  the  de- 
partment go  to  swell  the  Seine ; 
the  chief  are  Essonne,  Oise, 
Epte,  and  Eure.  The  surface  is 
flat  or  gently  rolling,  and  cov- 
ered with  many  forests,  such  as 
those  of  Rambouillet.  St.  (Ger- 
main, and  Senart.  The  climate 
is  temperate.  About  half  of  the 
population  devote  themselves  "to 
agriculture  and  market-garden- 
ing. Milling,  sugar  manufac- 
ture, and  paper  and  porcelain 
making  (at  Sevres)  are  the  chief 
industries.  Versailles  is  the  cap- 
ital. Area,  2,184  .sq.  m.  Pop. 
(1936)  1,413,472. 

Seine-Inferieure,  maritime 
dep.,  France,  on  lower  Seine. 
The  chief  ports  and  seaside  re- 
sorts are  Dieppe,  St.  Valery, 
Fecamp,  Etretat  (whose  chalk 
clififs  are  the  most  celebrated  in 
Normandy),  and  Havre.  The 
surface  is  composed  of  the  three 
low  plateaus  of  Caux,  Vexin, 
and  Roumois,  and  is  dry,  but 
well  cultivated.  Farm  products 
are  cheese  CGournay'  and  'Neuf- 
chatel'),  butter,  wool,  and  cider; 
and  the  principal  industries  are 
those  of  cotton  (at  Rouen),  wool 
(at  Elbeuf),  and  iron  (at  Havre 
and  Rouen),  as  well  as  manu- 


factures of  flax,  chemicals,  to- 
bacco, and  dyes.  The  fisheries 
(herring  and  sardine)  are  very 
productive.  Cap.  Rouen.  Area, 
2,448  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1936)  915,- 
628. 

Seipel,  Ignaz  (1876-1932), 
Austrian  statesman,  was  born  in 
Vienna  and  was  professor  at 
Salzburg  (1909-12)  and  at  the 
University  of  Vienna  (1917). 
His  book.  Nation  and  State, 
dealing  with  the  subject  of  a 
supernational  state  such  as  Aus- 
tria-Hungary then  was,  brought 
him  to  the  attention  of  the  Em- 
peror Karl  who  was  trying  to 
find  a  way  out  of  the  First 
World  War  through  unofiicial 
negotiations  abroad.  Seipel 
helped  in  these  steps  and  at  the 
same  time  was  interested  in  the 
reform  of  the  constitution,  but 
the  fall  of  the  monarchy  (1918) 
put  an  end  to  both  projects.  In 
1919  he  was  elected  to  the  Na- 
tional Constituent  Assembly,  and 
as  leader  of  the  Christian  Social- 
ist party  he  became  Chancellor 
(May  31,  1922)  at  the  time  of 
the  inflation  crisis  to  which  he 
succeeded  in  putting  an  end. 
He  resigned  in  1924  but  was 
again^  Chancellor  (1926-29). 

Seir,  Mount,  a  synonym  for 
the  land  of  Edom,  and  especially 
the  name  for  the  Edomite  moun- 
tain land,  Mount  Seir  (Deut.  ii, 
1).    See  Edom. 

Seisin.  Originally,  under  the 
feudal  system,  the  completion  of 
the  investiture  by  which  a  person 
was  made  a  tenant  of  an  over- 
lord, and  which  involved  the  per- 
formance of  homage  and  taking 
the  oath  of  fealty.  At  present 
the  term  denotes  possession  of 
land  under  a  claim  of  having 
at  least  a  freehold  interest 
therein. 

Seismology.  See  Earth- 
quakes. 

Seiss,  Joseph  Augustus 
(1823-1904),  American  divine, 
was  born  at  Graceham,  Freder- 
ick CO.,  Md.,  of  Alsatian  descent, 
studied  for  a  time  at  Pennsyl- 
vania College,  Gettysburg,  and 
carried  on  his  theological  prep- 
aration in  private.  He  was  or- 
dained a  Lutheran  minister  in 
1844,  and  was  pastor  of  churches 
in  Md.  and  Va.  until  1858,  when 
he  became  pastor  of  St.  John's 
English  Lutheran  Church  in 
Philadelphia.  In  1874  he  was 
called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  new 
Church  of  the  Holy  Communion 
in  the  same  city,  whose  erection 
he  instituted.  He  was  editor  of 
several  Lutheran  periodicals  at 
different  periods,  including  the 
Prophetic  Times  from  1863  to 
1875.  Some  of  his  publications 
are :  The  Lutheran  Church 
(1859),  Luther  and  the  Refor- 
mation (1883),  Lectures  on  the 
Epistles  of  the  Church  Year  (2 
vols.     1885),     Beacon  Lights 


(1899)  ,  and  Dost  Thou  Believe? 

(1900)  . 

Seistan  Boundary  Com- 
mission was  appointed  in  1902 
in  response  to  an  appeal  to  the 
Indian  government  from  the 
Shah,  and  had  reference  to  the 
water  rights  along  the  Helmund 
river,  to  be  enjoyed  respectively 
by  Persia  and  Afghanistan.  Aft- 
er two  and  a  half  years'  arduous 
labor,  a  satisfactory  settlement 
was  arrived  at. 

Sejanus,  Aelius,  commander 
of  the  praetorian  guards  at  an- 
cient Rome  under  Tiberius,  and 
also  that  emperor's  chief  minis- 
ter. He  was  a  native  of  Volsinii 
in  Etruria,  and  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther as  commander  of  the  guards 
in  14  A.D.  As  early  as  23  a.d. 
Sejanus  began  to  aim  at  secur- 
ing the  empire  for  himself.  His 
first  step  was  to  gain  the  affec- 
tion of  Livilla,  the  sister  of  Ger- 
manicus  and  the  wife  of  Drusus, 
Tiberius'  son,  and  through  her 
agency  he  had  Drusus  poisoned. 
He  next  secured  the  banishment 
of  Agrippina,  the  widow  of  Ger- 
manicus,  and  her  sons  Nero  and 
Drusus,  thus  clearing  away  oth- 
er rivals  to  the  imperial  throne. 
Finally,  however,  Tiberius'  sus- 
picions were  aroused,  and  in  31 
A.D.  Sejanus  was  put  to  death  by 
the  senate. 

Selachoidei.    See  Elasmo- 

BRANCHS. 

Selaginella,  a  genus  of  ever- 
green, flowerless  plants,  some- 
what resembling  the  mosses  in 
general  appearance.  J.  G.  Bak- 
er, in  his  monograph  of  the  Se- 
laginellae  in  the  (British)  Jour- 
nal of  Botany  (1883-5),  points 
out  that  the  genus  is  principally 
confined  to  the  tropical  zone, 
chiefly^  tropical  America.  Its 
habit  is  entirely  that  of  Lyco- 
podium,  and  some  of  the  species, 
small  and  fungacious,  resemble 
Hepaticae.  A  large  number  of 
species  are  grown  under  glass,  a 
light,  open  soil  being  required. 
They  should  always  be  kept  very 
moist.  S.  lepidophylla  is  one  of 
the  'resurrection  plants,*  the 
dried  plant  expanding  in  water. 

Selang-or,  British  protected 
native  state,  w.  coast  of  Malay 
Peninsula,  immediately  south  of 
Perak.  It  has  an  area  of  3,160 
sq.  m.,  and  a  population  (1941) 
of  701,552.  There  are  valuable 
deposits  of  tin  ;  and  coffee,  co- 
coa, pepper,  rice,  gambler,  and 
sago  are  grown.  Cap.  Kuala 
Lumpur.  Klang  is  the  principal 
port. 

Selanik.  See  Salonica. 

Selborne,  vil.,  England, 
Hampshire,  4  m.  s.e.  of  Alton; 
famous  as  the  home  of  Gilbert 
White,  author  of  Natural  His- 
tory of  Selborne  (1789).  Pop. 
1,430. 

Selborne,  Roundell  Palm- 
er, First  Earl  of  (1812-95), 


Selborne 


KFP 


91 


Seleucus 


British  jurist  and  lord  chancel- 
lor, was  born  at  Mixbury,  Ox- 
fordshire; was  called  to  the  bar 
(1837),  became  Queen's  counsel 
(1849)  ;  sat  as  m.p.  for  Plym- 
outh (1847-52  and  1853-7) ;  be- 
came solicitor-general,  sitting 
for  Richmond  (1861);  and  was 
attorney-general  (1863-6).  He 
was  British  counsel  at  the  Ge- 
neva Court  of  Arbitration  in 
1871-72.  He  was  lord  chan- 
cellor (1872-4)  (being  created 
Baron  Selborne),  and  again 
(1880-5),  and  was  created  Vis- 
count Wolmer  and  Earl  of  Sel- 
borne, but  refused  to  be  asso- 
ciated with  Home  Rule  (1886). 
He  was  a  devout  churchman,  a 
subtle  and  convincing  lawyer, 
and  a  capable  politician,  as 
evinced  bv  his  Judicature  Act 
(1873).  He  published  The  Book 
of  Praise  (1863),  and  A  De- 
fense of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land Against  Disestablishment 
(1886). 

Selborne,  William  Walde- 
GRAVE  Palmer,  Second  Earl 
OF  (1859-1942),  British  states- 
man, sat  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons for  ten  years  (1885-95)  as 
Viscount  Wolmer.  He  repre- 
sented East  Hampshire  (1885, 
1886,  and  1886-92)  ;  but  seced- 
ed from  Gladstone  on  the  ques- 
tion of  Home  Rule  (1886),  and 
served  as  one  of  the  whips  to 
the  Liberal  Unionist  party  in  the 
House  of  Commons  (1886-95). 
He  was  member  for  W.  Edin- 
burgh (1892-95).  When  the 
third  Salisbury  administration 
came  into  power  (June,  1895), 
Lord  Selborne  was  made  under- 
secretary for  the  Colonies  ;  and 
on  its  reconstruction  (Nov., 
1900)  he  was  promoted  to  be 
first  lord  of  the  Admiralty,  with 
a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  Balfour, 
as  prime  minister,  confirmed  him 
in  this  appointment  in  July, 
1902.  In  1905  he  succeeded 
Lord  Milner  as  high  commis- 
sioner in  S.  Africa  and  admin- 
istrator of  the  Transvaal  and 
Orange  River  colonies. 

Selby,  Viscount.  See 
Gully. 

Selden,  John  (1584-1654), 
English  lawyer  and  man  of  let- 
ters, was  born  at  Salvington  in 
Sussex.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
two  he  made  a  reputation  by 
his  treatise  the  Analccton  An- 
glo-Britannicon,  and  in  1614  he 
published  a  work  on  Titles  of 
Honor.  His  History  of  Tithes 
(1617)  allows  the  legal,  but  de- 
nies the  divine  right  of  the 
clergy  to  these  dues.  His  inde- 
pendence of  thought  procured 
him  a  brief  imprisonment  in 
1621.  His  parliamentary  career 
commenced  in  1623  ;  he  also  sat 
in  1626,  in  Charles  I's  second 
parliament.  He  was  at  first  in 
opposition  to  the  court  party,  and 
assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the 


articles  for  the  impeachment  of 
Buckingham.  In  1628  he  pro- 
duced his  Marmora  Arundeli- 
ana.  In  1629,  on  the  occasion 
when  the  Speaker  was  held  in 
the  chair,  Selden  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  moving  of  the 
remonstrance  against  the  levy- 
ing of  tonnage  and  poundage. 
For  this  he  spent  eight  months 
in  the  Tower,  and  was,  for  a 
while,  in  the  King's  Bench  pris- 
on. He  was  a  member  of  the 
Long  Parliament,  representing 
the  University  of  Oxford,  and 
was  a  lay  member  of  the  Assem- 
bly of  Divines  at  Westminster. 
In  1645  he  was  a  commissioner 
of  the  Admiralty.  He  is,  how- 
ever, best  known  by  his  Table 
Talks  (1689).  As  a  lawyer  he 
held  a  high  position.  His  Dis- 
sertation on  Fleta  (1647),  in 
Latin,  shows  an  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  the  origins  of  English 
law,  and  its  development  under 
the  influence  of  the  civil  law. 
See  the  Vita  by  D.  Wilkins 
(1725),  also  Johnson's  Memoirs 
of  John  Selden  (1884). 

Selection.  See  Darwinism 
and  Sex. 

Selene,  the  moon-goddess,  in 
ancient  Greek  mythology,  was  a 
daughter  of  Hyperion  and  a  sis- 
ter of  Helios  and  Eos.  She  was 
also  called  Phoebe,  a  sister  of 
Phoebus  the  sun-god.  She  loved 
Endymion,  and  caused  him  to 
sleep  in  order  that  she  might  kiss 
him.  She  rode  across  the  heav- 
ens in  a  chariot  drawn  by  two 
white  horses.  In  later  times  her 
worship  became  identified  with 
that  of  Artemis. 

Selenga,_  riv.,  Mongolia  and 
Siberia,  chief  upper  course  of 
Angara.  It  is  fed  by  lake  Kos- 
sogol  or  Kosgol  (51"  n.  lat.  and 
100.5°  E.  long.),  sacred  in  Bud- 
dhist cosmogony,  and  is  joined 
by  the  Orkhon,  famous  in  Mon- 
gol history,  flowing  from  neigh- 
borhood of  Karakoram.  Length, 
900  m.,  of  which  210  are  navi- 
gable. Area  of  basin,  177,000 
sq.  m. 

Selenite,  a  clear,  transparent 
variety  of  gypsum,  CaS042H20, 
often  found  in  large  twinned 
crystals  shaped  like  arrow-heads 
or  rhombs.  They  have  a  perfect 
cleavage  like  mica,  but  are  less 
flexible,  somewhat  softer,  and 
not  elastic  (h.  =  2  ;  sp.  gr.  2.3). 
Films  of  selenite  are  valuable  on 
account  of  the  beautiful  colors 
they  show  in  polarized  light. 
The  largest  crystals  of  selenite 
come  from  Utah,  where  they  oc- 
cur in  immense  geodes.  The 
massive  variety  known  as  gyp- 
sum is  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  plaster  of  paris 
and  certain  artificial  cements  and 
plasters. 

Selenium,  Se,  79.2,  an  ele- 
ment of  the  sulphur  group,  its 
principal  source  being  the  flue 


dust  obtained  in  burning  pyrites 
in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric 
acid  by  the  leaden-chamber  proc- 
ess. It  is  prepared  by  solution 
as  selenic  acid,  and  by  subse- 
quent reduction,  when  it  is  pre- 
cipitated as  a  red  amorphous 
solid.  This  melts  at  217°  c.  to  a 
black-red  glassy  mass  that  breaks 
with  a  conchoidal  fracture,  has 
a  specific  gravity  of  4.5,  and  is  a 
non-conductor  of  electricity.  It 
boils  at  65°  c,  and  if  kept  at  a 
temperature  somewhat  below  its 
melting-point,  changes  into  a 
gray,  crystalline,  semi-metallic 
variety  that  conducts  electricity 
to  an  extent  which,  though  small, 
increases  according  to  the 
brightness  _  of  the  light  with 
which  it  is  illuminated.  This 
peculiar  behavior  has  been  em- 
ployed in  transmitting  sound  by 
means  of  light,  and  of  exhibiting 
at  one  place  pictures  of  scenes 
occurring  at  another ;  but,  un- 
fortunately, the  property  is  not 
retained  long.  The  compounds 
of  selenium  are  very  like  those 
of  sulphur :  thus  it  forms  a 
bad  smelling  hydrogen  selenide, 
HoSe,  like  hydrogen  sulphide, 
and  selenious  and  selenic  acids, 
H2Se03  and  H2Se04,  closely  re- 
sembling sulphurous  and  sul- 
phuric acids. 

Seleucia.  Ancient  city  on 
the  Tigris,  founded  by  Seleucus, 
king  of  Syria,  between  312  and 
302  B.C.,  some  50  m.  n.  of  an- 
cient Babylon,  immediately  op- 
posite the  Parthian  city  of  Ctes- 
iphon.  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
eastern  provinces  of  the  Syrian 
kingdom.  Trajan  captured  it  in 
116  A.D.,  and  as  it  revolted, 
burned  it  to  the  ground.  Again 
in  165,  after  voluntarily  opening 
its  gates  to  the  Romans,  it  was 
burned  by  Avidius  Cassius  on 
a  charge  of  treachery.  Once 
more,  in  198,  Severus  captured 
it,  and  Carus  did  the  same  in 
283.  After  that  time  it  rapidly 
declined,  and  eighty  years  after- 
wards, when  '  Julian  invaded 
Mesopotamia,  he  found  it  a  heap 
of  ruins. 

Seleucia  in  Cilicia,  near 
south  coast,  famous  for  its  ora- 
cle of  _  Apollo,  and  its  annual 
games  in  honor  of  the  Olympian 
Zeus. 

Seleucia  Pieria,  in  Syria, 
was  founded  by  Seleucus  in 
300  B.C.,  12  m.  w.  of  Antioch, 
to  which  it  served  as  a  port. 
From  246  to  219  it  was  held  by 
the  Egyptian  kings.  About  109 
B.C.  it  became  independent.  Aft- 
er 66  B.C.  it  was  included  in  the 
Roman  province  of  Syria.  By 
the  6th  century  a.d.  it  had  fallen 
into  decay. 

Seleucidae.  See  Seleucus 
and  Antiochus. 

Seleucus,  the  name  of  sever- 
al kings  of  Syria.  (1.)  Selett- 
cus  I,  surnamed  Nicator  (c.  3>^ 


Seleucns 


KFP 


92 


Selfridsre 


to  280  B.C.),  was  a  Macedonian, 
and  served  with  Alexander  the 
Great  throughout  his  Asiatic 
campaigns.  After  Alexander's 
death  he  attached  himself  to 
Perdiccas ;  but  when  the  latter 
invaded  Egypt,  he  led  the  band 
which  broke  into  Perdiccas'  tent 
and  slew  him.  In  321  B.C.,  when 
the  provinces  were  redivided, 
Seleucus  secured  Babylonia  for 
his  share;  but  in  316  he  was 
expelled  by  Antigonus,  and  had 
to  take  refuge  in  Egypt,  Here 
he  persuaded  Ptolemy  to  join 
Lysimachus  and  Cassander 
against  Antigonus;  and  in  312 
B.C.,  after  the  victory  of  Gaza 
over  Antigonus'  son  Demetrius, 
he  easily  regained  his  province. 
He  then  proceeded  to  conquer 
Susiana,  Media,  and  the  eastern 
provinces  of  Alexander's  empire 
to  the  banks  of  the  Oxus  and  the 
Indus.  He  carried  on  war,  too, 
with  an  Indian  king,  Sandra- 
cottus  or  Chandragupta  In  306 
he  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and 
in  302  he  again  joined  Lysima- 
chus, Cassander,  and  Ptolemy 
against  Antigonus  ;  and  the  vic- 
tory at  Ipsus  in  301  was  largely 
due  to  his  generalship.  By  this 
victory  he  acquired  half  of  Asia 
Minor  and  all  Syria.  After  cap- 
turing Demetrius  in  286  B.C.,  Se- 
leucus declared  war  on  Lysima- 
chus, and  defeated  and  slew  him 
at  Corupedion.  This  victory 
made  Seleucus  master  of  all 
Asia,  and  left  the  throne  of 
Macedonia  vacant.  Seleucus 
crossed  the  Hellespont  to  seize 
it-;  but  he  was  murdered  in 
Thrace  by  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  a 
son  of  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt. 
He  was  a  great  conqueror,  and 
founded  many  cities — no  less 
than  sixteen  Antiochs,  called 
after  his  father ;  seven  Seleu- 
cias,  Apamea,  Stratonicea,  Be- 
roea,  and  Edessa.  These  foun- 
dations were  centers  of  Greek 
life  and  culture ;  and  two  of 
them,  Antioch  iij  Syria  and  Se- 
leucia  on  the  Tigris,  ranked 
among  the  greatest  cities  of  the 
world.  (2.)  Seleucus  ii,  sur- 
named  Callinicus,  son  of  Antio- 
chus  II,  reigned  from  246  to  226 
B.C.  The  first  act  of  his  reign 
was  to  put  his  stepmother,  Bere- 
nice, to  death ;  to  avenge  her, 
her  brother,  Ptolemy  Euergetes, 
king  of  E^ypt,  invaded  and  con- 
quered Syria,  capturing  Anti- 
och ;  but  after  his  withdrawal 
Seleucus  easily  recovered  the 
provinces.  The  chief  event  of 
his  reign  was  the  revolt  of  the 
Parthians.  Seleucus  himself 
was  defeated  (c.  230  b.c.)  by 
Arsaces,  king  of  Parthia,  in  a 
great  battle,  which  resulted  in 
the  establishment  of  the  Parthian 
kingdom.  Seleucus  lost  his  life 
when  warring  against  Attalus. 
(3.)  Seleucus  hi,  surnamed 
Ceraunus,  reigned  from  226  to 


223,  succeeding  his  father,  Se- 
leucus II.  (4.)  Seleucus  iv, 
surnamed  Philopator,  reigned 
from  187  to  175  B.C.;  was  the 
son  and  successor  of  Antiochus 
the  Great.  He  maintained 
friendly  relations  with  Rome 
and  Egypt.  (5.)  Seleucus  v, 
son  of  Demetrius  ii,  assumed 
the  crown  in  125  B.C. ;  but  his 
mother,  Cleopatra,  had  him  as- 
sassinated. (6.)  Seleucus  vi, 
surnamed  Epiphanes  Nicator, 
reigned  from  95  to  93  B.C.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Antiochus 
viii.  He  defeated  his  cousin, 
Antiochus  Cyzicenus,  who 
claimed  the  kingdom  ;  but  he  was 
soon  afterwards  expelled  from 
Syria  by  Antiochus  Eusebes,  son 
of  Cyzicenus,  and  took  refuge  at 
Mopsuestia  in  Cilicia.  His  tyr- 
anny and  exactions,  however, 
provoked  the  people  to  burn 
him.  See  Plutarch's  Life  of  De- 
metrius, Droysen's  Gcschichte 
Alexanders  dcs  Grossen  (ed. 
1892),  and  Bevan's  House  of 
Seleucus  (1903). 

Self-consciousness,  in  psy- 
chology, denotes  the  fact  that  we 
have  consciousness,  not  only  of 
an  external  world,  but  of  our- 
selves in  relation  thereto.  Psy- 
chologists trace  the  stages 
through  which  this  presentation 
is  supposed  to  pass.  In  the  first 
or  merely  perceptual  phase  of 
mind,  the  self,  which  is  an  ob- 
ject of  consciousness,  can  be 
nothing  else  than  the  body, 
which  is  strongly  differentiated 
from  external  objects  by  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  source  of  keen 
pleasurable  and  painful  feeling. 
As  a  child  passes  from  the  per- 
ceptual to  the  higher  phases  of 
mental  development,  this  imme- 
diately present  bodily  self  of  per- 
ception is  expanded  by  memo- 
ries of  past  and  expectations  of 
future  experiences,  internalized 
by  distinguishing  the  self  of 
images  and  feelings  from  the 
visible  bodily  self,  and  finally 
socialized  by  the  intercourse 
with  other  persons  which  speech 
makes  possible ;  that  is  to  say, 
we  conceive  ourselves  as  persons 
of  whom  certain  conduct  is  ex- 
pected by  others.  The  self 
which  is  thus  an  object  for  con- 
sciousness is  called  by  psycholo- 
gists the  empirical  self  or  ego,  to 
distinguish  it  as  an  object  known 
from  the  knowing  subject.  Con- 
cerning the  empirical  self,  psy- 
chologists are  largely  agreed ; 
but  concerning  the  knowing  or 
pure  subject,  and  how  we  are  to 
think  of  it,  there  is  considerable 
divergence  of  opinion.  The  term 
self-consciousness  is  used  in 
metaphysics  by  a  certain  school 
of  writers  to  designate  the  prin- 
ciple to  which  they  would  refer, 
and  in  terms  of  which  they  would 
explain,  the  whole  world  of  ex- 
perience.   And  such  a  usage  may 


be  regarded  as  signifying  that 
the  world  is  held  to  be  essential- 
ly spiritual,  and  to  be  explicable 
only  in  terms  of  mind  as  the  ul- 
timate reality.  For  the  psycho- 
logical doctrine,  see  James,  Prin- 
ciples of  Psychology  (1890). 

Self-Defence.  In  its  broad- 
est sense,  the  use  of  force  in  the 
protection  of  one's  own  person 
or  property,  or  the  person  of  an- 
other, from  unlawful  injury. 
The  term  is  most  frequently  em- 
ployed in  cases  where  the  person 
who  attempts  the  injury  is  killed 
by  the  one  whose  person  or  prop- 
erty is  attacked.  The  general 
rule  is  that  any  one  may  repel 
an  attack  with  reasonable  force, 
and  may  even  kill  his  assailant, 
if  he  reasonably  believes  that  he 
is  in  danger  of  losing  his  life  or 
suffering  great  bodily  harm. 
The  person  attacked  should  re- 
treat before  killing  his  assailant 
if  it  is  safe  to  do  so,  unless  he  is 
on  his  own  premises,  where,  by 
the  weight  of  authority,  he  is  not 
obliged  to  retreat  even  if  he  has 
opportunity  to  do  so.  The  old 
rule  requiring  a  person  attacked 
to  'retreat  to  the  wall'  has  been 
greatly  modified.  A  person  may 
take  life  only  where  necessary 
to  protect  his  property  from  be- 
ing stolen  from  his  presence,  and 
not  in  attacking  a  trespasser. 
Opprobrious_  language  directed 
to  a  person  is  not  an  excuse  for 
inflicting  great  bodily  injury 
upon  the  offender,  and  the  latter 
may  defend  himself  to  the  ex- 
tent of  taking  the  life  of  the  per- 
son insulted,  under  the  above 
rule.  See  Assault;  Murder. 
Consult  Bishop,  Criminal  Law. 

Self-denying  Ordinance,  a 
measure  passed  in  the  English 
Parliament  of  1645,  largely 
through  the  instrumentality  of 
Cromwell  and  the  Independents, 
whereby  all  officers  holding  com- 
missions in  the  army  were  called 
on  to  resign.  In  this  way  those 
generals  who  held  either  Epis- 
copalian or  Presbyterian  views 
— such  as  Essex,  Manchester, 
Waller,  and  others — were  re- 
moved from  command,  their 
places  being  filled  by  Cromwell's 
nominees. 

Self-heal,  or  Prunella,  a 
genus  of  hardy,  perennial,  her- 
baceous plants  belonging  to  the 
order  Labiatae.  They  bear  white 
or  purplish  flowers,  and  are  eas- 
ily grown  in  ordinary  garden 
soil.  P.  vulgaris  is  a  common 
naturalized  plant  with  heads  of 
purplish  flowers  in  late  summer. 

Selfridge,  Thomas  Oliver, 
Jr.  (1836-1902),  American  na- 
val officer,  born  in  Charlestown, 
Mass.  He  graduated  at  the  Na- 
val Academy  in  1854,  and  had 
reached  the  rank  of  lieutenant 
when  the  Civil  War  began.  He 
was  second  lieutenant  on  the 
Cumberland  when  she  was  sunk 


Seligman 


KFP 


93 


Selkirk 


by  the  Merrimack,  commanded 
the  Osage  in  the  Red  R.  expe- 
dition, and  the  Huron  in  both 
attacks  on  Fort  Fisher.  In 
1869-73  he  was  engaged  in  sur- 
veying for  a  route  for  an  inter- 
oceanic  canal  across  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama. 

Seligman,  Edwin  Robert 
Anderson  (1861-1939),  Ameri- 
can economist,  born  in  New 
York.  He  graduated  at  Colum- 
bia in  1879  and  in  1891  became 
professor  of  that  science  in  the 
same  institution.  In  1886  he  es- 
tablished the  Political  Science 
Quarterly,  and  became  one  of  its 
editors  ;  also  edited  Encyclopedia 
of  Social  Sciences  (15  vols.). 

Selim  I  (1467-1520),  sultan 
of  Turkey,  dethroned  and  mur- 
dered his  father,  Bajazid  ii 
(1512),  and  then  entered  upon 
a  career  of  conquest  against  Per- 
sia, defeating  Shah  Ismail  at  the 
battle  of  Chaldiran  near  Tabriz, 
which  enabled  him  to  subdue 
Kurdistan  and  Diarbekr  (1514). 
Then  he  warred  against  the 
Mameluke  sovereigns  of  Egypt 
and  against  Syria  (1517),  and 
finally  against  Arabia,  gaining 
Mecca  and  Medina  and  the  green 
flag  of  the  Prophet.  He  be- 
came the  spiritual  head  of  Islam. 
He  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  modern  military  power  of 
Turkey. 

Selim  II  (?1524-74),  grand- 
son of  the  above,  ascended  the 
throne  in  1566.  In  his  reign  oc- 
curred the  defeat  of  the  Turkish 
fleet  by  Don  John  of  Austria  off 
Lepanto  (q.  v.)  in  Greece  (Oct. 
7,  1571),  and  the  first  collision 
between  the  Turks  and  the  Rus- 
sians at  Astrakhan. 

Selim  III  (1761-1808),  on 
his  accession  to  the  throne  of 
Turkey  (1789),  was  favorable 
to  reforms  in  the  administration 
of  the  empire.  The  war  with 
Austria  and  Russia  had  gone 
very  disastrously  for  the  Turks 
— Belgrade,  Bucharest,  Bender, 
Akkerman,  and  Ismail  having 
all  surrendered  to  Suvorov  ;  but 
by  the  Treaty  of  Jassy  (1792), 
which  confirmed  that  of  Kain- 
ardji,  the  Dniester  was  made 
the  frontier  line,  and  Belgrade 
was  restored  to  Turkey. 

Selincourt,  Ernest  de 
(1870-1943),  English  scholar, 
was  born  in  Streatham.  He  was 
educated  at  Dulwich  College  and 
at  University  College,  Oxford. 
He  was  lecturer  in  modern  Eng- 
lish literature  at  the  University 
of  English  language  and  litera- 
University  of  Wales  (1904-07), 
and  in  the  University  of  London 
(1911-14).  He  was  professor 
of  English  language  and  litera- 
ture at  the  University  of  Bir- 
mingham (1908-35),  and  vice- 
principal  of  the  University 
(1931-35).  He  edited  Letters 
of  William  and  Dorothy  Words- 


worth (1935-6),  and  Journals  of 
Dorothy  Wordsivorth  (1941). 

Selinus,  se-li'nus,  ancient 
Greek  city  on  southwest  coast  of 
Sicily,  was  founded  about  628 
B.C.  by  colonists  from  Hyblaean 
Megara,  itself  a  colony  from 
Megara  in  Greece.  It  became 
prosperous,  but  about  500  b.c. 
fell  to  Carthage.  It  was  liberated 
by  Gelon's  victory  at  Himera 
in  480  B.C.  The  Athenian  expe- 
dition of  415  B.C.  was  sent  pri- 
marily to  champion  Segesta 
against  Selinus.  In  410,  how- 
ever, the  Segestans  appealed  to 
Carthage,  and  next  year  a  vast 
army  attacked  Selinus.  It  capit- 
ulated, and  nearly  all  the  popu- 
lation was  massacred,  and  the 
town  destroyed.  On  the  site  are 
the  ruins  of  eight  ancient  tem- 
ples. One  of  them  dates  from 
before  600  b.c.  ;  its  metopes  (in 
the  museum  at  Palermo)  are  the 
most  ancient  Greek  sculptures 
known  except  the  lions  at  My- 
cenae. Consult  Sladen's  Selinus, 
Segasta,  and  the  West  of  Sicily. 

Seljuks,  sel'jobks,  the  name 
of  several  Turkish  dynasties  of 
common  origin,  whose  rule  ex- 
tended over  a  large  part  of  Asia 
in  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thir- 
teenth centuries.  Toghrul  Beg, 
the  first  of  the  Seljuk  rulers, 
was  the  grandson  of  Seljuk,  a 
chief  of  the  Ghuzz  confederacy 
of  Turkish  tribes  who  had  set- 
tled on  the  Syr  Daria  in  Trans- 
oxiana,  and  had  become  converts 
to  Islam.  With  his  kinsman, 
Chakir  Beg  and  Ibrahim  Niyal, 
he  severely  crippled  the  empire 
of  Ghazni ;  then  turning  west- 
ward conquered  all  Persia  ;  and 
setting  up  his  capital  at  Merv, 
was  acknowledged  chief  of  the 
family.  His  nephew,  Alp  Ars- 
lan  (q.  v.),  who  succeeded  him 
in  1063,  continued  the  conquests 
of  his  uncle,  wrested  Syria  and 
Palestine  from  the  Fatimide 
caliph  of  Egypt,  and  in  1071 
captured  the  Byzantine  emperor, 
Romanus  Diogenes.  He  was 
followed  on  the  throne  by  his  son 
Malik  Shah  (1072-92),  who  es- 
tablished independent  sovereign- 
ties in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria, 
and  whose  reign  was  distin- 
guished for  the  enlightened  rule 
of  his  grand  vizier,  Nizam  ul- 
Mulk,  founder  of  a  university 
at  Bagdad  and  collaborator  with 
Omar  Khayyam  (q.  v.)  in  the  re- 
vision of  the  astronomical  tables. 

After  the  death  of  Malik  Shah 
the  empire  began  to  break  up 
into  smaller  kingdoms,  while  the 
European  powers  initiated  the 
Crusades  in  which  the  Seljuk 
sultanates  of  Syria  and  of  Asia 
Minor  or  Rum  became  involved. 
The  Seljuk  dynasty  in  Syria  be- 
ginning with  Tutush,  brother  of 
Malik  Shah,  came  to  an  end  aft- 
er three  generations. 

The  capital  of  Riim  was  fixed 


at  Iconium  (Konieh)  in  the  first 
half  of  the  twelfth  century,  and 
the  dynasty  reached  the  acme 
of  its  power  under  Kaikavus 
(1211-34),  who  ruled  over  near- 
ly the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  and 
extensive  territories  in  Mesopo- 
tamia and  northern  Persia. 
During  the  reign  of  his  son 
Kaikhosran  ii,  the  poet  Jelal-el- 
Din  Rumi  flourished  and  the 
various  orders  of  dervishes 
arose ;  and  at  the  same  time  the 
Mongols  began  to  threaten  the 
eastern  borders  of  the  state. 
From  about  1243  the  real  sov- 
ereign power  of  that  part  of 
Asia  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Mongol  chiefs,  Hulagu  and  his 
successors,  until  the  rise  of  the 
Ottoman  princes.  These  last, 
had  retreated  westward  before 
the  all-conquering  Mongols  about 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, and  at  the  end  of  it  they  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  Seljuk 
ruler  of  Asia  Minor.  After  that 
the  name  Osmanli  or  Ottoman 
soon  superseded  that  of  Seljuk 
as  the  appellative  of  the  Turkish 
rulers  and  ruling  classes  in  Asia 
Minor.  Out  of  the  Ottoman  su- 
premacy grew  the  empire  of 
Turkey  (q.  v.).  The  Seljuks, 
however,  had  centuries  before, 
while  still  settled  in  Transoxi- 
ana,  lost  a  good  many  of  their 
peculiarly  Turkish  characteris- 
tics and  had  become  'Turkemans,' 
i.e.,  'Like  the  Turks' ;  and  with 
their  conversion  to  Islam  they 
also  adopted  the  Perso- Arabian 
civilization  and  customs,  though 
retaining  their  own  language. 
Consult  Mirkhond's  History  of 
the  Seljuks. 

SeFkirk,  Scotland,  capital  of 
Selkirkshire,  on  the  Ettrick  ;  39 
miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Edin- 
burgh. It  has  tweed  and  hosiery 
mills.    Pop.  5,667. 

Selkirk,  Alexander  (1676- 
1721),  English  mariner,  was 
born  in  Largo,  Fifeshire.  He 
joined  Dampier's  privateering 
expedition  in  1703;  but  when 
his  vessel  touched  at  Juan  Fer- 
nandez (q.  v.),  off  the  west  coast 
of  South  America,  he  asked,  in 
consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  his 
captain,  to  be  put  ashore  (1704). 
In  1709  Dampier  touched  at  the 
island,  and  Selkirk  was  taken  off. 
It  was  from  the  record  of  his 
experiences  that  Defoe  probably 
wrote  Robinson  Crusoe.  Con- 
sult Howell's  Life  and  Adven- 
tures of  Alexander  Selkirk. 

Selkirk,  Thomas  Douglas, 
Fifth  Earl  of  (1771-1820), 
British  colonizer,  was  born  at 
St.  Mary's  Isle,  Kirkcudbright- 
shire, Scotland.  Succeeding  his 
father  in  1799,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  promotion  of  emigra- 
tion from  the  Scottish  High- 
lands to  America,  and  in  1803 
established  a  successful  set- 
tlement   in    Prince  Edward's 


Selkirk  Mountains 


KFP 


94 


Sellers 


Island.  In  1811  he  obtained  from 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  a 
grant  of  116,000  square  miles  in 
the  Red  River  Valley  and 
founded  the  Red  River  Settle- 
ment, in  the  present  province  of 
Manitoba.  Relentless  antago- 
nism on  the  part  of  the  Northwest 
Fur  Company,  a  trading  mon- 
opoly with  headquarters  at  Mon- 
treal, caused  the  failure  of  the 
colony,  and  Selkirk,  defeated  in 
various  legal  proceedings  and 
broken  in  health,  returned  to 
Europe  in  181S.  Consult  C. 
Martin's  Lord  Selkirk's  Work  in 


Exploration  in  The  Selkirks 
(1914). 

Selkirkshire,  a  southeastern 
county  of  Scotland,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Midlothian.  It  is 
essentially  a  pastoral  county, 
consisting  of  great  rounded  hills. 
The  Tweed  skirts  the  north  bor- 
der, but  the  truly  Selkirk  rivers 
are  the  Ettrick  and  the  Yarrow, 
which  join  a  few  miles  above  the 
county  town.  St.  Mary's  Loch 
is  the  finest  sheet  of  water  within 
its  borders.  Sheep  farming  is  an 
important  industry.  The  only 
towns  are  Selkirk   (the  county 


he  became  professor  of  Greek  at 
St.  Andrews,  and  in  1863  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  at  Edinburgh. 
His  chief  work  was  his  series  of 
appreciations  and  interpretations 
of  the  Latin  poets — The  Roman 
Poets  of  the  Republic  (1863),  The 
Roman  Poets  of  the  Augustan  Age 
(1877),  and  Horace  and  the 
Elegiac  Poets  (1892). 

Sel'lers,  Coleman  (1827-1907), 
American  engineer,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia.  He  became  super- 
intendent of  the  Globe  Rolling 
Mills  at  Cincinnati,  and  subse- 
quently cliicf  cnj^ineer  and  part- 


I 


Paul's  Photos,  Chicago 


THE  TOWERING  SELKIRK  MOUNTAINS  OF  BRITISH  COLUMBIA 


Canada  (Oxford  Historical  and 
literary  Studies,  Vol.  vii,  1916). 

Selkirk  Mountains,  a  range  of 
mountains  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  British  Columbia,  Can- 
ada, west  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  almost  parallel  to  them, 
being  separated  by  the  north- 
westerly flowing  portion  of  the 
Columbia  River,  and  bounded  on 
the  west  by  the  same  river  in  its 
southward  course.  The  entire 
range  covers  an  area  of  about 
16,000  square  miles,  and  is  thor- 
oughly alpine  in  character,  with 
great  snow  fields  and  glaciers. 
The  highest  peak  is  Mount  Sir 
Doriald  (10,645  feet).  The  Ca- 
nadian Pacific  Railway  crosses  the 
range,  at  an  altitude  of  4,300 
feet,  by  Roger's  Pass.  Consult 
H.  Palmer's  Mountaineering  and 


town)  and  Galashiels.  Area,  267 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1940,  est.) 
21,900. 

Sel'la,  QuiNTINO  (1827-84), 
Italian  statesman,  born  at  Mos- 
so,  near  Biella.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  geometry  in  Turin 
University  (1852),  and  was  elect- 
ed deputy  (1860).  As  minister  of 
finance  (1862,  1864,  and  1869)  he 
was  successful  in  placing  Italian 
finance  on  a  sound  footing.  He 
acted  as  leader  of  the  Right 
(1873-84).  He  was  also  a  dis- 
tinguished mineralogist,  and  was 
president  of  the  Accademia  dei 
Lincei. 

Sel'lar,  William  Young  (1825- 
90),  Scottish  scholar,  born  at 
Morvich  in  Sutherlandshire,  and 
elected  in  1848  to  a  fellowship  at 
Oriel  College,  Oxford.    In  1859 


ner  in  the  machine  tool  works  of 
William  Sellers  &  Co.,  at  Phila- 
delphia; consulting  engineer  to 
the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.;' 
professor  of  mechanics  at  Frank- 
hn  Institute,  Philadelphia;  and 
non-resident  professor  of  engi- 
neering practice  at  Stevens  Insti- 
tute, Hoboken.  He  was  also  an 
American  representative  on  the 
International  Niagara  Commis- 
sion. He  was  an  earnest  student 
of  photography,  began  making 
photographs  by  artificial  light 
in  1873,  produced  many  im- 
provements in  the  art,  and  in- 
vented a  kinematoscope. 

Sellers,  Matthew  Bacon 
(1869-1932),  American  aero- 
nautical engineer,  was  born  it 
Baltimore.  He  was  educated 
privately,    spending    two  years 


Selma 


KFP 


95 


Semaphore 


abroad,  studied  law  at  Harvard 
(ll.b.,  1902)^  and  pursued  spe- 
cial courses  at  the  Lawrence 
Scientific  School  (Harvard)  and 
at  Drexel  Institute.  He  was  en- 
gaged in  research  work  in  the 
field  of  aerodynamics  (1900)  ; 
invented  one  of  the  light  aero- 
planes, and  one  requiring  the 
least  horsepower ;  and  discov- 
ered the  method  of  determining 
the  lift  and  drift  of  arched  sur- 
faces by  means  of  the  wind  tun- 
nel. He  was  a  member  of  the 
U.  S.  Naval  Advisory  Board  in 
1915. 

Sel'ma,  city,  Alabama,  coun- 
ty seat  of  Dallas  county,  on  the 
Alabama  River,  and  the  South- 
ern, the  Louisville  and  Nash- 
ville, and  the  Western  of  Ala- 
bama railroads  ;  50  miles  west  of 
Montgomery.  Leading  institu- 
tions are  Dallas  Academy,  the 
Baptist  Colored  University,  the 
Alabama  Methodist  Orphanage, 
and  a  Carnegie  Library.  Selma 
is  the  center  of  a  large  cotton- 
growing  and  farming  region, 
and  has  extensive  cotton  and 
cotton-seed  oil  industries.  Oth- 
er manufacturing  interests  are 
foundries  and  machine  shops, 
and  railway  repair  shops.  It 
has  marble  works,  bottling 
plants,  a  brick  manufacturing 
plant,  planing  mills,  and  mat- 
tress factories.  Craig  landing 
field  is  situated  here. 

Selma  was  settled  in  1756  and 
was  incorporated  in  1826.  It 
was  a  Confederate  supply  depot 
during  the  Civil  War,  and  in 
April,  1865,  surrendered  to  a 
Federal  force  under  Gen.  J.  H. 
Wilson.  Pop.  (1930)  18,012; 
(1940)  19,834. 

Selmeczbanya,  or  Selmecz- 
ES  Belabanya  (German  Schem- 
nitz),  town,  Hungary,  capital  of 
the  county  of  Hont ;  152  miles 
by  rail  north  of  Budapest.  It  is 
an  old_  mining  town  and  is  situ- 
ated in  the  Hungarian  Ore 
Mountains  in  a  deep  ravine  sur- 
rounded by  lofty  mountains.  It 
has  a  picturesque  ruined  castle 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  a  fa- 
mous academy  of  mining  and 
forestry  founded  in  1760,  a  later 
castle,  and  a  town  hall.  Gold, 
silver,  lead,  copper,  and  arsenic 
are  mined,  and  there  are  pot- 
teries famous  for  their  pipes. 
To  the  southwest  and  west  are 
the  baths  of  Vihnye  and  Szkleno. 
Pop.  13,292. 

Selous,  s^-loos'  or  -loo', 
Frederick  Courteney  (1851- 
1917),  English  traveler  and  au- 
thor, was  born  in  London.  In 
1871  he  left  England  for  South 
Africa,  in  1872  proceeded  to 
Matabeleland,  and  from  1872  to 
1890  traveled  in  south  Central 
Africa,  where  he  engaged  in  ele- 
phant hunting,  exploration,  and 
the  collection  of  natural  history 
specimens.    In  1890  he  entered 


the  service  of  the  British  South 
Africa  Company,  acting  as  guide 
to  the  pioneer  expedition  to 
Mashonaland,  and  in  1893  he 
took  part  in  the  first  Matabele 
War.  During  the  First  World 
War  (1914-1918)  he  served  in 
East  Africa,  received  the  Dis- 
tinguished Service  Order,  and 
was  killed  in  action.  His  pub- 
lished works  include :  A  Hunt- 
er's Wanderings  in  Africa 
(1881)  ;  Travel  and  Adventure 
in  Southeast  Africa  (1893)  ; 
Sunshine  and  Storm  in  Rhodesia 
(1896)  ;  Sport  and  Travel,  East 
and  West  (1900)  ;  Recent  Hunt- 
ing Trips  in  British  North 
America  (1907)  ;  African  Na- 
ture Notes  and  Reminiscences 
(1908). 

Seltzer  Water,  or  Selters 
Water,  is  properly  an  aerated 
mineral  water  obtained  from  the 
spring  at  Oberselters  in  Hesse- 
Nassau,  Germany,  but  is  gen- 
erally artificially  prepared.  The 
chief  ingredients  are  bicarbon- 
ates  of  sodium  (58  grains  per 
gallon),  of  calcium  (17  grains), 
and  of  magnesium  (14  grains), 
with  sulphate  of  potassium  (163 
grains),  and  smaller  quantities 
of  other  ingredients,  the  whole 
being  aerated  with  91  volumes 
of  carbon  dioxide  per  100  of  the 
water.  It  is  valuable  medicinal- 
ly where  an  alkaline  water  is 
required,  and  is  an  agreeable 
though  saline  table  water. 

Selves,  Justin  Germain 
Casimir  de  0848-1934), 
French  public  official,  was  born 
in  Toulouse.  He  became  prefect 
of  the  Tarn  and  Garonne  depart- 
ment in  1880,  and  occupied  a 
similar  position  in  the  Oise, 
Meurthe  and  Moselle,  and  Gi- 
ronde  departments.  He  was  suc- 
cessively director  of  posts  and 
telegraphs  (1891-6),  prefect  of 
the  ^  Seine  (1896-1911),  and 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  in 
the  Caillaux  Cabinet  (1911-12). 
His  period  in  the  Foreign  Office 
was  marked  by  the  crisis  in  the 
negotiations  between  France  and 
Germany  over  Morocco  begin- 
ning with  the  Agadir  (q.  v.)  Af- 
fair, and  settled  by  the  Franco- 
German  agreement  of  1911, 
which  led  to  the  resignation  of 
the  Caillaux  Ministry. 

Selwyn,  sel'win,  Alfred 
Richard  Cecil  (1824-1902), 
English  geologist,  was  born  in 
Kilmington,  Somerset.  He  was 
educated  in  Switzerland,  and  in 
1845  became  associated  with  the 
Geological  Survey  of  Great  Brit- 
ain. He  was  director  of  the 
Geological  Survey  of  Victoria, 
Australia,  from  1852  to  1869, 
during  which  time  he  made  a 
special  study  of  the  gold-bearing 
rocks  of  that  region,  and  was  di- 
rector of  the  Geological  Survey 
of  Canada  from  1869  to  1894, 
when  he  retired.  He  was  Presi- 


dent of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Canada  in  1896.  He  edited  and 
contributed  to  the  Geological 
and  Natural  History  Survey  of 
Canada  (1869-94). 

Selwyn,  George  Augustus 
(1719-91),  English  wit,  was  ex- 
pelled from  Oxford  for  alleged 
blasphemy,  and  proceeding  to 
London,  adopted  the  role  of 
sinecurist  and  man  about  town. 
He  entered  Parliament  in  1747, 
but  was  more  prominent  at 
the  executions  of  criminals 
than  in  parliamentary  debates. 
Consult  Jesse,  George  Sehvyn 
and  His  Contemporaries ;  Kerr, 
George  Selwyn  and  the  Wits 
(1909). 

Selwyn,  George  Augustus 
(1809-78),  English  primate  of 
New  Zealand  and  bishop  of 
Lichfield,  was  born  at  Hamp- 
stead,  near  London.  He  was  in 
1841  consecrated  first  bishop  of 
New  Zealand.  He  studied  Maori 
and  navigation,  so  that  he  could 
preach  to  the  natives  in  their 
own  tongue,  and  could  steer  his 
own  vessel  on  his  missionary 
voyages.  In  1867,  he  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  Lichfield.  Sel- 
wyn College,  Cambridge,  was 
erected  and  endowed  in  his  mem- 
ory (1882). 
_  Selymbria,  se-lim'bri-a,  an- 
cient Greek  city,  founded  (c. 
700  B.C.)  by  colonists  from  Me- 
gara,  on  the  north  coast  of  Pro- 
pontis  (Sea  of  Marmora)  in 
Thrace.  During  the  fifth  cen- 
tury B.C.  it  belonged  to  the  Athe- 
nian Confederacy.  Silivri  now 
stands  on  its  site. 

Semang^  an  aboriginal  peo- 
ple of  the  Malay  Peninsula  be- 
longing to  the  Negrito  race  (see 
Negrito).  They  are  dark 
brown  or  black  in  color,  between 
41^  and  5  feet  in  height,  with 
closely  curling  brown-black  hair. 
The  head  is  round  or  intermedi- 
ate between  long  and  round,  the 
forehead  low,  and  the  nose  short 
and  pyramid  shaped.  The  peo- 
ple are  nomadic.  They  are 
found  chiefly  in  northern  Perak 
and  Pahang,  and  in  Kedah,  Ke- 
lantan,  and  Trengganu. 

Semaphore,  an  instrument 
for  signalling  with  one  or  two 
movable  arms  at  the  head  of  a 
pole,  the  various  positions  of 
the  arms  denoting  numbers,  let- 
ters, or  other  meanings.  Sema- 
phore signals  may  also  be  made 
by  the  motions  of  a  man's  arms, 
with  or  without  flags  in  his 
hands.  The  invention  is  ascribed 
to  a  Frenchman  named  Chappe, 
in  1794.  In  the  following  year 
the  plan  was  adopted  by  the 
British.  The  earliest  sema- 
phore towers  had  three  pairs 
of  arms,  one  above  another,  on 
a  pole,  and  they  were  manipu- 
lated from  a  room  below.  This 
machinery  was  superseded  by 
a   mast   with   two   arms,  one 


Semaphore 


KFP 


95A 


Sembrich 


above  the  other.  Semaphores  of 
this  type  were  used  until  1847, 
when  the  simpler  plan  of  the  pres- 
ent day  was  adopted.  The  signs 
denote  numbers  as  well  as  letters, 
so  that  messages  may  be  trans- 


in  the  center,  but  other  colors 
are  used.  The  staff  is  about  2 
feet  long.  Army  flags  are  18 
inches  square,  and  are  orange 
with  a  scarlet  center,  or  scar- 
let with  an  orange  center.  The 


A  I 


G  7 


B  2 


H  e 


KFMT 


C  3 


I  9 


INTfRROGAriVE 


D  4 


J     0  (ZERO) 


P  AmRMATIVC 


E  5 


K  NEiiATIVf 


F  6 


END  OF 
MESSAGE 


NUMERALS 


END  OF  WORD 


Flag  Signalling  Table. 


mitted  by  code  or  spelling.  In 
the  U.  S,  Navy  all  seamen  are  in- 
structed in  signalling. 

Semaphore  signals  are  used  in 
the  U.  S.  Army  and  Navy,  and 
they  employ  the  same  code.  For 
day  work  the  machine  consists  of 
a  vertical  bar  with  two  arms  piv- 
oted at  the  top.  The  bar  is  cap- 
able of  rotation,  so  that  the  send- 
er may  face  the  receiver  and  thus 
prevent  a  misunderstanding  of 
the  displays.  A  short  fixed  arm 
projects  to  the  right  of  the  bar  to 
indicate  the  direction  in  which 
the  signal  is  being  sent.  The 
machine  is  usually  painted  black, 
and  the  movable  arms  are  oper- 
ated by  levers  placed  at  a  con- 
venient height.  For  night  work, 
electric  lamps  are  mounted  along 
the  arms  and  bar. 

The  hand  semaphore,  which  is 
very  rapid,  is  much  used  by  both 
army  and  navy  for  short  dis- 
tances. The  naval  flags  are  usu- 
ally of  blue,  12  to  18  inches 
square,  and  have  a  white  square 


small  size  of  the  flags  makes  them 
easy  to  carry  in  the  field  or  in 
boats. 

The  subsidiary  meanings  at- 
tached to  certain  displays  are 
frequently  changed,  and  in  time 
of  war — as  at  present — the  whole 
code  may  be  recast  from  time  to 
time.  This  is  usually  done  by  a 
cipher  correction  which  may  be 
operated  under  a  fixed  system 
of  change  or  by  arbitrary  varia- 
tions. The  display  for  each  let- 
ter remains  as  before,  but  the 
signification  is  different.  Thus  a 
may  signify  n  on  one  day  and  x 
on  another. 

The  general  instructions  for 
signalling  are  in  substance  as  fol- 
lows: To  call  a  station  or  vessel: 
Make  'attention'  call  and  call  let- 
ter of  station  or  vessel.  The  sta- 
tion called  answers  with  its  'call 
letter'  or  'attention'  if  it  has  no 
call  letter.  The  sender  then 
proceeds  with  the  message. 

At  the  end  of  the  message  ex- 
tend arms  horizontally  and  wave 


flags  slightly  until  the  receiver 
answers  with  the  same  signal. 

At  the  end  of  a  word  cross  the 
flags  in  front  of  the  body  as 
shown  in  accompanying  plate. 

Should  the  receiver  miss  a 
word  he  waves  the  flag  over  his 
head.  The  sender  then  stops 
and  waves  flag  in  same  manner. 
The  receiver  then  signals  're- 
peat last  word'  or  whatever  he 
wishes. 

If  the  sender  should  make  an 
error,  he  signals  'error'  until 
answered  by  the  receiver  with  the 
same.  He  then  proceeds,  begin- 
ning with  the  word  in  which  the 
error  occurred. 

See  Signalling,  Military; 
Signalling,  Naval.  Consult 
International  Signal  Code  (pub- 
lished by  U.  S.  Naval  Hydro- 
graphic  Office). 

Sema'siology,  in  philology  (q. 
v.),  is  the  study  that  treats  of  the 
significance  of  words  and  the  de- 
velopment of  their  meanings. 

Sembach,  zem'bak,  Johannes 
(1881),  German  dramatic  tenor, 
was  born  in  Berlin.  He  was 
educated  in  the  Berlin  Gymnas- 
ium, and  studied  vocal  music  un- 
der Felix  Schmidt  and  Rothmiihl. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Opera  in  Vienna  (1903-07),  and 
of  the  Royal  Opera  in  Dresden 
(1907-13);  was  with  Jean  de 
Reszke  (q.  v.)  in  Paris  (1911); 
and  made  his  debut  in  the  United 
States  in  1914,  when  he  appeared 
as  Parsifal  at  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House.  Sembach  is  gen- 
erally considered  the  greatest 
Wagnerian  interpreter  since  De 
Reszke,  with  whom  he  has  much 
in  common.  He  is  distinguished 
for  the  beauty  and  artistic  qual- 
ites  of  his  voice,  and  for  his 
dramatic  genius. 

Sembat,  sari^ba',  Marcel 
(1862-1922),  French  public  offi- 
cial and  editor,  was  born  in 
Bonnieres,  Siene-et-Oise.  He 
was  educated  in  Paris,  became 
associated  with  Jean  Jaures 
(q.  v.),  and  was  Socialist  mem- 
ber of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
after  1893.  During  the  First 
World  War  he  was  minister  of 
Public  Works  in  the  cabinets  of 
Viviani  (1914-15)  and  Briand 
(1915-16).  He  was  editor-in- 
chief  of  Petite  R e pub lique,  and 
wrote  Faites  un  Roi  Simon 
Faites  la  Paix  (1913). 

Sembilan.  See  Negri  Sem- 
bilan. 

Sembrich,  zem'bric/t,  Mar- 

cella  (1858-1935),  Polish  so- 
prano singer,  was  born  in 
Wisniowczyk,  Galicia,  her  real 
name  being  Kochanska.  She 
adopted  her  mother's  maiden 
name,  studied  under  Wilhelm 
Stengel,  to  whom  she  was  later 
married,  under  Epstein,  and  un- 
der Rokitansky  in  Vienna,  and 
in  1877  made  her  debut  at  Ath- 
ens  in   /   Puritani.     She  was 


Semecarpus 

engaged  for  the  Dresden  Opera 
House  in  1878,  and  subsequently 
sang  in  London,  Munich,  and 
Berhn,  Her  first  appearance  in 
America  was  in  Lucia  di  Laminer- 
moor  at  the  MetropoHtan  Opera 
House  in  1883,  after  which  she 
sang  for  several  seasons  in  New 
York  and  in  other  cities  of  the 
I  United  States.  She  retired  from 
the  operatic  stage  in  1909,  but 
continued  to  appear  in  concerts. 
Her  voice  is  a  high  soprano  of 
beautiful  quality,  and  her  ability 
as  an  actress  is  of  the  highest 
class.  Her  famous  parts  include 
Rosina  in  The  Barber  of  Seville, 
Norina  in  Do7i  Pasquale,  Lucia, 
Martha,  and  Leonora  in  //  Trov- 
atore.  Madame  Sembrich  has 
been  active  in  relief  work  during 
the  European  War,  becoming 
president  of  the  American  Polish 
Relief  Committee  in  1915.'*-V^\"5" 
Semecar'pus,  a  genus  of  trop- 
ical evergreen  trees  belonging  to 
the  order  Anacardiaceae.  They 
bear  panicles  of  small  flowers, 
followed  by  nuts  or  drupes.  The 
black  juice  of  the  fruits  is  used 
by  the  natives  of  Ceylon  for 
marking  clothes.  The  kidney 
bean  of  Malacca  is  5.  Anacar- 
dium. 

Semele,  semVle,  in  ancient 
Greek  mythology  a  daughter  of 
Cadmus,  king  of  Thebes,  was  be- 
loved by  Zeus,  whose  wife  Hera, 
in  her  jealousy,  persuaded  vSemele 
to  ask  Zeus  to  show  himself  to 
her  in  all  his  majesty.  Zeus 
thereupon  appeared  as  the  god  of 
thunder,  and  Semele  was  con- 
sumed by  lightning;  but  Zeus 
saved  the  child  Dionysus,  with 
whom  she  was  pregnant. 

Another  story  is  that  Semele 
gave  birth  to  Dionysus,  and  after 
his  birth  Cadmus  put  her  and 
the  child  into  a  boat  and  cast  it 
loose  on  the  sea;  that  the  boat 
came  ashore  at  Brasise  in  La- 
conia,  with  Semele  dead  but 
Dionysus  still  alive.  The  general 
account  agrees  that  Dionysus 
brought  Semele  out  of  Hades, 
and  that  she  became  a  goddess  by 
the  name  of  Thyone. 

Semendria,  se-men'dri-a  (Ser- 
vian Smederevo),  fortified  town, 
Servia,  on  the  River  Danube;  26 
miles  southeast  of  Belgrade. 
Grain  and  wine  are  exported. 
Here  in  1411  the  Turks  defeated 
the  Hungarians.  The  fortress 
was  taken  by  Prince  Eugene  in 
1717,  but  remained  in  Turkish 
hands  till  1867.  In  October, 
191.5,  the  town  was  captured  by 
the  Central  Powers  in  their  great 
drive  through  Servia.  Pop.  7,500. 

Semenov,  sem-yo'nof,  Peter 
Petrovitch  (1827-1906),  Rus- 
sian geographer  and  public  offi- 
cial, was  born  in  Petrograd.  He 
was  educated  in  his  native  city 
and  at  Berlin,  and  travelled  in 
Western  Europe  and  in  Central 
Asia,  where  he  visited  the  Tian- 
Shan  Mountains,  explored  the 
Vol.  XL— Mar.  '18 


95  B 


upper  reaches  of  the  Syr  Daria, 
and  carried  out  important  ex- 
plorations in  Transcaspia.  He 
was  active  in  the  emancipation 
of  the  serfs  in  Russia,  was  made 
director  of  the  Bureau  of  Statis- 
tics in  1864,  and  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  the  Empire  in  1897. 
Mount  Semenov  and  the  Seme- 
nov Glacier  in  the  Tian-Shan 
Mountains  are  named  in  his 
honor. 

Semenovka*  se-mye-nof'ka,  or 
Semionovka,  town,  Chernigov 
government.  Southwestern  Rus- 
sia; 70  miles  northeast  of  Cherni- 
gov city.  Oil,  hides,  skins,  and 
boots  are  produced.   Pop.  18,500. 

Senienud,  town.  Lower  Egypt, 
on  the  Damietta  arm  of  the  Nile; 
11  miles  southwest  of  El  Man- 
sura.    Pop.  10,000. 

Semcre,  town,  on  borders  of 
Togoland  and  Dahomey,  West 
Africa,  in  9°  30'  n.   Pop.  10,000. 


Seminar 


Semes 'ter,  a  term  derived  from 
the  Latin  semestris,  'six  months,' 
used  commonly  to  denote  a  col- 
lege or  university  term  cov^ering 
half  the  academic  year,  usually 
from  15  to  18  weeks.  This  divi- 
sion is  employed  generally  in 
universities  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe  and  in  America.  British 
universities  divide  the  year  into 
three  terms  of  about  three 
months  each. 

Semi-anthracite,  Semi-bitum- 
inous.   See  Coal. 

Semibreve,  a  musical  note 
equal  in  value  to  half  a  breve, 
and  known  popularly  as  the 
whole  note.  It  is  the  longest  note 
employed  in  modern  music,  other 
notes  having  their  values  cal- 
culated as  component  parts  of 
the  semibreve.   See  Music. 

Sem'inar,  a  group  of  students 
assembled  for  special  research 
work  under  the  direction  of  a 


Semaphore  (2-arm)  Code. 
The  hand  semaphore  using  two  flags  is  the  same. 


1 


A      B      c      3>      E.       F  a 


H        I       J       K       L      M  W 


K 


V 


O       P       Q.      ».      S       T.  TCr 


< 


■V-     -W     X     "Y  Z 


Cornet 
(gen.  Code) 
Attention 


Signals 
follow 


Letters 
follow 


11 


Interval 


Semlnoles 


96 


Semlpalatlnsk 


teacher,  or  the  course  of  study- 
thus  conducted.  By  extension 
the  name  is  also  bestowed  on  the 
room  in  a  university  or  college 
where  such  special  research  work 
is  carried  on. 

Sem'inoles,  a  tribe  of  North 
American  Indians,  a  branch  of 
the  Muskhogeans  (q.  v.)  or 
Creeks,  formerly  dominant  in 
Florida.  The  Seminoles  are 
prominent  in  the  history  of  the 
United  States  because  of  their 
former  position  on  the  border  of 
Florida  while  that  territory  was 
a  possession  of  Spain.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century 
they  had  about  twenty  towns. 
In  1817-18,  in  retaliation  for 
their  raids  into  American  terri- 
tory. Gen.  Andrew  Jackson  in- 
vaded the  Seminole  country,  and 
destroyed  many  of  their  towns. 
This  invasion  eventually  resulted 
in  the  transfer  of  Florida  to  the 
United  States  (see  Seminole 
Wars). 

The  Seminoles  were  noted  for 
the  complexity  of  their  ceremo- 
nies, among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned the  'busk,'  or  green  corn 
dance,  a  festival  marking  the 
time  when  the  corn  became  edi- 
ble. In  this  ceremony  purifica- 
tion was  sought  by  the  'black 
drink,'  a  decoction  of  the  Ilex 
cassine,  which  acts  as  a  powerful 
emetic,  producing  violent  nerv- 
ous disturbances. 

At  the  close  of  the  Seminole 
Wars  the  conquered  Indians  were 
removed  to  Oklahoma,  where 
their  descendants  form  the  pres- 
ent Seminole  nation.  In  1906 
they  were  admitted  to  American 
citizenship.  They  now  number 
about  1,500.  The  remnant  of 
those  that  sought  refuge  in  the 
Everglades,  less  than  200  in  num- 
ber, retain  many  of  their  prim- 
itive customs.  Consult  H.  M. 
Wilson's  The  Seminoles  of  Florida 
(1910). 

Seminole  Wars.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  nineteenth  century, 
when  Florida  was  still  a  Spanish 
possession,  a  part  of  the  land 
bordering  on  Georgia  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Seminole  Indians 
(see  Seminoles).  The  latter 
were  accused  of  frequent  depre- 
dations on  the  Georgia  border, 
and  of  receiving  into  their  tribes 
fugitive  slaves  from  Georgia  and 
North  Carolina.  As  Spain  paid 
no  attention  to  the  claims  of  the 
planters,  and  as  its  administra- 
tion was  lax  and  inefficient,  there 
had  been  frequent  outbreaks 
against  the  Seminoles,  which 
were  indeed  slave  hunts  rather 
than  wars.  The  Georgians  were 
then  continually  urging  the  Fed- 
eral Government  to  go  to  war 
with  the  Seminoles,  and  looked 
forward  to  the  day  when  Florida 
would  be  an  American  possession. 

During  the  War  of  1812  the 
British  had  built  a  fort  on  the 
Apalachicola  River,  and  after 
Vol.  XL— Mar.  '18 


the  peace  had  left  this  fort  with 
its  arms  and  ammunition  to  the 
Indians  and  negroes.  This  fort, 
known  afterward  as  'Negro  Fort,' 
became  a  source  of  anxiety  to  the 
United  States.  At  length  Gen. 
E.  P.  Gaines  found  a  pretext  for 
attacking  it  with  a  force  of  U.  S. 
regulars  and  Creek  Indians,  and 
blew  it  to  pieces  (July,  1816), 
killing  or  wounding  all  of  its 
defenders.  This  led  to  reprisals, 
and  the  Indians  massacred  an 
expedition  which  was  ascending 
the  Apalachicola  in  boats. 

In  1818  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson 
(q.  V.)  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  American  forces.  He  de- 
clared that  he  would  take  Florida 
for  the  United  States,  if  it  were 
desired,  in  sixty  days,  and  con- 
strued the  Rhea  Letter  as  sup- 
potting  this  policy  (see  Rhea 
Letter).  Accordingly,  he  ad- 
vanced rapidly  and  in  force,  took 
St.  Mark's  (March,  1818),  and 
moving  down  the  Apalachicola 
attacked  all  Indians,  whether  in 
arms  or  not,  whom  he  met. 
Then  believing  that  the  Indians 
had  been  assisted  by  the  British 
and  Spaniards,  he  put  to  death  two 
British  traders,  Arbuthnot  and 
Ambrister,  took  Pensacola  (May, 
1818),  and  deposed  the  Spanish 
government.  These  actions 
caused  much  anxiety  to  his  gov- 
ernment, and  their  relief  was 
great  when  the  Spanish  minister 
agreed  to  a  treaty  ceding  Florida 
for  a  sum  of  $5,000,000,  which 
was  ratified  in  1821. 

The  conflicts  with  the  Semi- 
noles still  continued,  however, 
much  wrong  being  done  on  both 
sides.  In  1832,  by  a  provisional 
treaty  at  Payne's  Landing,  the 
Indians  agreed  to  move  across 
the  Mississippi,  if  the  lands  there 
allotted  were  satisfactory.  The 
next  year  at  Fort  Gibson  their 
seven  delegates  signed  a  supple- 
mentary treaty  agreeing  to  re- 
move, which  was  ratified  by  the 
U.  S.  Senate  in  1834.  The  In- 
dians declared  that  they  had  been 
tricked,  and  that  the  delegates 
were  not  authorized  to  sign  a 
binding  treaty,  but  the  American 
Government  determined  to  re- 
move them  by  force  if  it  became 
necessary. 

In  November,  1835,  one  of  the 
chiefs,  Osceola  (q.  v.),  began  the 
second  Seminole  War  by  kilHng  a 
chief  who  favored  removal  and 
by  capturing  a  U.  S.  baggage 
train.  Indian  agent  Wiley  Thomp- 
son was  killed,  and  on  Dec.  28, 
1835,  Major  F.  L.  Dade  and  a 
force  of  110  men  marching  to  the 
relief  of  Fort  King  were  am- 
bushed, and  only  one  man  es- 
caped. During  the  next  year 
the  American  army  was  increased 
to  about  10,000  men,  though  the 
entire  number  of  the  Indians  was 
less  than  4,000.  In  1837  Gen. 
Thomas  S.  Jesup  secured  a  prom- 
ise that  about  800  would  go  west, 


and  the  war  was  declared  at  an 
end  on  March  26. 

Disputes  over  the  possession  of 
the  negroes,  whom  the  whites 
claimed  were  runaway  slaves,  led 
to  further  hostilities,  however, 
but  Osceola  was  captured  by 
treachery  in  October  and  died  in 
prison  at  Fort  Moultrie  the  next 
year.  In  February,  1838,  513 
Indians  and  165  negroes  were 
captured  and  removed  beyond 
the  Mississippi,  and  in  May  Gen. 
Zachary  Taylor  sent  400  more  to 
join  them.  General  Macomb 
concluded  a  peace  in  1839,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  Indians 
were  allowed  to  remain  in  Flori- 
da, but  in  July  the  Indians  again 
resumed  hostilities,  though  with 
less  success  than  formerly.  Fight- 
ing continued  until  1842,  the  last 
battle  being  fought  near  the  site 
of  the  Dade  massacre.  The  In- 
dians were  finally  subdued  and 
all  prisoners  were  sent  west. 

General  Worth  reported  that 
not  more  than  300  remained,  and 
that  they  had  retired  to  the  im- 
penetrable retreats  in  the  Ever- 
glades (q.  v.).  The  total  number 
of  Indians  and  negroes  trans- 
ported in  1836-42  was  3,930. 
The  total  American  loss  was 
about  1,500,  and  the  cost  of  the 
war  was  possibly  $10,000,000. 
In  1855  the  remnant  in  Florida 
rose  in  arms  because  of  ill-treat- 
ment by  a  party  of  U.  S.  engineers, 
but  the  insurrection  soon  sub- 
sided. Consult  Sprague's  Origin, 
Progress,  and  Conclusion  of  the 
Florida  War;  Coe's  Red  Patriots. 

Semipalatinsk,  province,  Rus- 
sian Central  Asia,  between  Zun- 
garia  (east)  and  the  Russian 
provinces  of  Tomsk  (northeast), 
Akmolinsk  (west),  and  Semirye- 
chensk  (south).  Together  with 
Akmolinsk,  Semipalatinsk  forms 
the  general  government  of  the 
Steppes.  Area,  178,820  square 
miles.  Pop.  842,000  (some  80 
per  cent.  Mohammedans).  The 
highland  region  in  the  east  and 
centre  belongs  to  the  Altai  sys- 
tem on  the  north  and  to  the  Tar- 
bagatai  range  on  the  south,  and 
reaches  up  to  over  10,000  feet. 
The  Zaisan  plateau,  between  the 
Altai  and  Tarbagatai  mountains, 
is  one  of  the  chief  gates  from  east 
into  west  Central  Asia.  Almost 
all  the  watercourses  belong  to  the 
Irtish  basin. 

Gold,  silver,  copper,  salt,  coal, 
and  iron  are  mined,  and  graphite 
and  various  gems  are  found.  Fish 
abound  in  Lake  Zaisan,  which  is 
80  miles  long,  with  a  maximum 
breadt.  of  20  miles.  The  Kirghiz 
nomads  form  three-quarters  of 
the  population.  Agriculture  is 
the  chief  occupation.  Besides 
cereals,  flax,  hemp,  melons,  and 
tobacco  are  grown.  Bee  keeping 
flourishes. 

Semipalatinsk,  town,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Semipalatinsk, 
468  miles  southeast  of  Omsk,  on 


Semi-Pelagians 


97 


Semlteft 


an  island  in  the  Irtish.  It  is  di- 
vided into  Russian  and  Tartar 
quarters:  in  the  former  are  the 
old  fortress  and  the  governor's 
house;  in  the  latter,  twelve 
mosques.  The  town  has  tanner- 
ies and  distilleries,  and  manufac- 
tures flour,  soap,  and  candles. 
Pop.  (1897)  26,353. 

Semi-Pelagians.     See  Pela- 

GIUS. 

Semiramis,  a  mythical  queen 
of  Assyria,  and  wife  of  Ninus, 
the  founder  of  Nineveh.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  the  Syrian 
fish-goddess  Derceto,  and  was 
married  by  Onnes,  one  of  Ninus's 
generals.  When  Onnes  was  en- 
gaged in  the  siege  of  Bactra, 
Semiramis  led  a  forlorn  hope 
against  the  citadel,  and  captured 
it  and  the  town.  Thereupon 
Ninus  resolved  to  marry  her,  and 
Onnes  slew  himself.  After  Ni- 
nus's death  Semiramis  ruled,  and 
founded  many  cities  and  built 
many  marvellous  buildings,  in- 
cluding her  husband's  tomb  at 
Nineveh.  She  is  also  reputed  to 
have  built  Babylon,  and  to  have 
conquered  Egypt  and  Libya, 
though  failing  to  conquer  India. 
After  a  reign  of  forty-two  years 
she  resigned  the  throne  to  her 
son  Ninyas,  and  departed  to 
heaven  in  the  shape  of  a  dove. 
See  Lenormant's  La  Legende  de 
Semiramis  (1873). 

Semiryechensk,  prov.,  Rus- 
sian Central  Asia,  forming  part 
of  the  general  government  of 
Turkestan  (till  1899  of  the  gen- 
eral government  of  the  steppes). 
Area,  152,280  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1897) 
990,107,  It  is  naturally  divided 
into  a  mountainous  region  in  the 
s.  and  S.E.,  and  a  steppe  region 
in  the  n.w.  The  mountains  be- 
long to  the  Tarbagatai  and  Tian- 
Shan  systems,  the  former  divid- 
ing Semiryechensk  from  Siberia, 
the  latter  from  Chinese  Turkes- 
tan. The  drainage  belongs 
mainly  to  the  basins  of  the  Syr 
Daria  and  of  lakes  Issik-kul,  Ala- 
kul,  and  Balkhash.  Gold,  copper, 
iron,  coal,  and  salt  occur.  Cot- 
ton, vines,  and  fruit  trees  are 
grown  in  the  S.  Market-garden- 
.ng  engages  the  Russian  colonists, 
bat  not  more  than  6  per  cent,  of 
the  land  is  treated  as  arable.  The 
capital  is  Vyernyi.  Of  the  popu- 
lation about  70  per  cent,  are  Kir- 
ghiz (mostly  nomads),  24  per 
cent.  Sarts. 

Semites,  the  descendants  of 
Shem.  Ethnologically  the  term 
signifies  a  particular  race  of  man- 
kind, of  which  the  Arabs  and  the 
Jews  may  be  taken  as  types.  The 
type  is  characterized  by  a  dull 
white  skin,  black  hair  and  eyes, 
a  prorninent  and  aquiline  nose, 
thick  lips,  oval  face,  abundance 
of  beard,  and  dolichocephalic 
skull.  Owing  to  mixture,  how- 
ever, many  (if  not  all)  of  these 
characteristics  tend  to  disappear : 


thus,  an  (examination  of  tlie  Jews 
of  Central  Europe  has  shown 
that,  while  about  17  per  cent,  are 
blondes,  only  25  per  cent,  are 
brunettes,  the  rest  being  of  inter- 
mediate type;  and  that  among 
the  brunettes  brachycephalism 
frequently  occurs  (Fligier's  'Zur 
Anthropologic  der  Semiter,'  in 
Mitteilnngen  der  Wiener  an- 
thropol.  Gesellschaft,^  ix.  pp.  155 
et  seq.).  The  Israelitish  tribute- 
bearers  of  Jehu,  depicted  on  the 
obelisk  of  the  Assyrian  king  Shal- 
maneser  ii.  (842  B.C.),  have  all 
the  features  of  the  typical  Jew  of 
to-day— as,  indeed,  have  the  As- 
syrians themselves. 

The  Semitic  languages  are 
noteworthy  from  the  form  of 
their  roots,  which  are  triliteral 
and  triconsonantal.  They  are 
usually  divided  into  two  branches. 
Northern  and  Southern.  The 
former  subdivides  into  the  As- 
syrian group,  including  Assyrian 
and  Babylonian;  the  Hebrew 
group,  including  Hebrew,  Phoeni- 
cian, Edomitic,  and  Moabitic;  and 
the  Aramaic,  including  Syriac, 
Mandaic,  Palmyrene,  Nabataean, 
Samaritan,  and  the  Aramaic  of 
the  Talmud.  The  Southern 
branch  includes  Arabic,  Sabaean, 
and  Minaean,  Ethiopic,  and  Am- 
haric.  The  Semitic  language  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria  can  be 
traced  back  to  about  4000  B.C. 
Hebrew,  the  language  of  the  Old 
Testament,  was  '  the  language  of 
Canaan.'  The  close  relationship 
of  the  Hebrew  group  has  been 
established  not  only  by  the  Phoe- 
nician inscriptions  (the  language 
of  which  differs  only  dialectically 
from  Hebrew),  but  also  by  the 
Tell  -  el  -  Amarna  tablets,  which 
show  that  in  the  15th  century 
B.C.  the  language  of  Canaan  was 
practically  Hebrew,  and  by  the 
Moabite  Stone,  which  shows  the 
practical  identity  of  Hebrew  and 
Moabitic  in  the  ninth  century 

B.C. 

The  Aramaic  dialects  were 
used  throughout  the  region  which 
extended  from  the  borders  of 
Babylonia  to  N.  Syria.  Aramaic 
tribes  encamped  in  Babylonia  it- 
self; and  inscriptions  found  at 
Sinjirli,  north  of  the  Gulf  of 
Antioch,  prove  that  in  the  8th 
century  B.C.  the  peculiarities 
which  mark  Aramaic  off  from  its 
sister  tongues  were  as  yet  only 
in  process  of  formation.  Aramaic 
eventually  became  the  language 
of  trade  and  diplomacy  in  the 
East,  replacing  Assyrian  in  As- 
syria and  Babylonia  and  Hebrew 
in  Palestine.  One  of  its  dialects, 
known  as  Syriac,  has  acquired  a 
specially  prominent  position  in 
consequence  of  its  use  in  the 
Christian  Church.  Arabic  was 
spoken  in  Central  and  N.  Arabia, 
more  especially  by  the  nomad 
Bedawin  (Bedouins),  who  have 
preserved   the   purity   of  their 


blood  and  language  better  than 
have  their  kinsfolk  elsewhere. 
Indeed,  although  the  earlier 
monuments  of  literary  Arabic  are 
hardly  older  than  the  age  of 
Mohammed,  the  sounds  and 
grammatical  forms  have  survived 
in  it  which  were  already  lost  in 
the  Babylonian  of  six  thousand 
years  ago.  This  literary  Arabic 
was  originally  the  language  of  the 
tribe  of  Koreish  at  Mecca,  and 
was  spread  over  the  Oriental 
world  by  the  conquests  of  Mo- 
hammedanism, supplanting  Ara- 
maic, just  as  Aramaic  had  pre- 
viously supplanted  the  native  lan- 
guages of  Babylonia  and  Canaan. 
Distinct  from  Arabic  are  the  dia- 
lects of  S.  Arabia,  represented  by 
the  extinct  Minaean  and  Sabaean, 
and  the  modern  Ehkili  with  its 
allied  idioms.  Emigrants  from  S. 
Arabia  carried  their  language 
with  them  to  the  opposite  shores 
of  Africa,  where  it  became  the 
Ethiopic  of  the  Abyssinian 
Church  and  its  modern  descen- 
dant Amharic. 

As  a  general  rule  the  Semitic 
race  and  the  Semitic  family  of 
speech  go  together.  There  are 
indeed  Semites — such  as  the  Jews 
— who  have  adopted  non-Semitic 
languages  ;  and  some  of  those 
who  speak  Semitic  languages — • 
such  as  the  Maltese  and  some 
Nubians — are  not  of  Semitic  de- 
scent. The  Semitic  family  occu- 
pies a  compact  square  in  S.W. 
Asia  and  a  large  part  of  N. 
Africa.  The  centre  of  the  square 
is  roughly  formed  by  N.  Arabia, 
and  it  is  probable  that  either  N. 
or  Central  Arabia  was  the  origi- 
nal cradle  of  the  race.  From 
there  came  the  great  movement 
and  expansion  of  the  race  in  his- 
torical times  under  Mohammed 
and  his  successors.  The  sugges- 
tion has  been  made  that  the  be- 
ginnings of  the  race  should  be 
sought  in  Africa,  Arabia  being 
rather  the  land  in  which  its  char- 
acteristics became  fixed,  and  its 
language  acquired  the  features 
which  distinguish  it  from  other 
families  of  speech.  However 
this  may  be,  the  Semitic  family, 
so  far  as  it  is  known  to  us,  had 
its  first  home  in  Arabia.  Recent 
researches  have  gone  to  show 
that  the  dominant  race  in  an- 
cient Egypt  was  of  Asiatic  ex- 
traction, and  that  the  language 
they  brought  with  them  was  a 
sister  of  the  parent  Semitic 
speech.  Like  the  latter,  it  was 
characterized  by  triliteralism,  its 
roots  consisting  of  three  conso- 
nantal sounds.  It  shared  also 
some  peculiarities  of  Semitic 
grammar,  and  part  of  its  vocabu- 
lary has  been  traced  to  a  Semitic 
origin.  Tradition  brought  the 
Phoenicians  also  from  the  Persian 
Gulf.  Assyria,  moreover,  had  a 
Semitic  population,  and  the 
mountains  of  Elam  were  occu- 


Semler 

pied  by  Semitic  settlers  as  fat- 
eastward  as  Susa.  In  Babylonia 
the  older  non-Semitic  inhabitants 
were  conquered  by  Semitic  immi- 
grants, who  assimilated  the  cul- 
ture of  their  predecessors,  and 
formed  with  them  a  mixed  pop- 
ulation, which  in  turn  created 
the  Babylonian  civilization  of 
the  historical  age. 

As  an  individual  the  Semite 
was  intense,  persevering,  and  re- 
lentless. Politically,  the  Semite 
showed  dislike  to  absorption  into 
a  large  empire  and  inability  to 
create  a  well-knit  and  abiding 
system  of  control.  Separatism 
and  small  communities  express 
the  preferences  of  the  race. 
Hence  the  great  empires  existed 
only  by  repeated  reconquest  of 
large  parts  of  the  realm. 

The  same  traits  showed  them- 
selves in  the  religion.  The 
primary  object  of  worship  in  any 
locality  was  a  '  Baal '  or  *  lord,' 
who  often  manifested  himself  in 
the  sun,  and,  like  the  sun,  was 
Ht  once  a  healer  and  a  destroyer. 
But  the  Baals  were  as  numerous 
as  the  tribes  who  adored  them  or 
Ihe  high  places  which  were  dedi- 
cated to  their  worship.  For  his 
worshippers,  however,  each  sepa- 
rate Baal  was  supreme  in  his  own 
district  or  among  those  who  in- 
voked his  name.  He  was  con- 
ceived as  the  head  of  the  family 
or  tribe,  and  the  patriarchal  con- 
stitution of  the  family  was  ac- 
cordingly extended  to  him.  By 
the  side  of  the  Baal  stood  his 
wife,  the  Baalath,  a  colorless  re- 
flection of  the  god.  The  divine 
family  was  occasionally  completed 
by  a  son,  who,  acted  as  the  minis- 
ter of  his  father  and  the  inter- 
preter of  his  will.  Semitic  re- 
Jigion  was  thus  essentially  tribal 
in  its  origin,  and  a  tribal  char- 
acter clung  to  it  to  the  last.  See 
Robertson  Smith's  Religion  of 
the  Semites  (1889);  T.  Noldeke, 
in  Sketches  from  Eastern  His- 
tory (1892);  McCurdy,  History, 
Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments, 
vols,  i.,  ii.  (1894-6);  Barton's 
Sketch  of  Semitic  Origins 
(1902);  Wright's  Ccnnparative 
Grammar  of  the  Semitic  Lan- 
guages (1890),  and  works  cited 
under  Arabia,  Assyria,  Baby- 
lonia, etc. 

Semler,  Johann  Salomo, 
(1725  -  91),  German  theologian, 
born  at  Saalfeld  in  Thuringia; 
was  professor  at  Halle  (1752- 
91).  Though  a  rationalist,  he 
was  not  a  '  naturalist ';  and  his 
philosophical  insight  was  not 
keen.  He  foreshadowed,  how- 
ever, the  true  method  of  Biblical 
criticism,  and  may  be  said  to 
have  anticipated  the  central  idea 
of  the  Tubingen  school.  The 
most  important  of  his  many 
works  are  Apparatus  ad  liber- 
alem  Veteris  Testamenti  Inter- 
pretationem  (1773),  Abhandlung 


] 

98 

VdH  frd^y  Untersucdung  des 
Kanons  (1771-2),  Selecta  Capita 
Hist.  Eccl.  (1767-9).  See  his  au- 
tobiography (1781-2). 

Semliki,  riv.,  E.  Africa,  issues 
from  Albert  Edward  Nyanza, 
curves  round  w.  rim  of  Ruwen- 
zori,  and  flows  n.e.  to  s.  end  of 
Albert  Nyanza.  The  river  swarms 
with  crocodiles.  It  first  became 
known  in  1888,  when  Stanley 
came  upon  it  some  thirty  miles 
above  its  mouth.    Length,  150  m. 

Semlin,  tn.,  Croatia- Slavonia, 
Hungary,  on  1.  bk.  of  Danube,  6 
m.  w.N.w.  of  Belgrade;  has  im- 
portant transit  trade,  and  con- 
tains the  ruins  of  the  castle  of 
John  Hunyadi,  who  died  here  in 
1456.    Pop.  14,416. 

Semmering,  Austrian  Alpine 
pass  (3,219  ft.)  connecting  Vien- 
na with  Graz,  the  capital  of 
Styria.  It  is  the  lowest  of  the 
Alpine  passes,  and  is  traversed 
by  a  railway,  the  first  (1854)  to 
be  carried  across  the  Alps.  The 
summit  tunnel  is  285  ft.  below  the 
highest  point  of  the  pass.  The 
viaducts  of  the  Semmering  rail- 
way, some  of  them  with  several 
tiers  of  arches,  are  among  the 
grandest  works  of  engineering. 

Semmes,  Raphael  (1809- 
1877),_  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Charles  county,  Md.  He 
was  appointed  a  midshipman  in 
the  navy  in  1826,  but  did  not 
actively  take  up  his  duties  until 
1832,_  spending  the  intervening 
time  in  study.  He  became  a  lieu- 
tenant in  1837  and  commander  in 
1855.  He  served  with  the  Gulf 
Squadron  in  the  Mexican  War. 
Upon  the  secession  of  Ala.,  of 
wnich  state  he  had  become  a 
citizen,  he  resigned  from  the  navy 
and  soon  afterwards  accepted  a 
commission  as  commander  in  the 
Confederate  navy.  Immediately 
after  his  resignation,  President 
Davis  sent  him  North  in  search  of 
skilled  mechanics  and  supplies, 
and  he  succeeded  in  shipping 
many  cases  of  percussion  caps  to 
Montgomery  without  interference 
from  the  Federal  authorities.  In 
1861-62  he  commanded  the 
Sumter  and  in  1862-64  the  Ala- 
bama, cruising  in  the  paths  of 
commerce  and  doing  vast  damage 
to  American  shipping.  The 
Sumter  was  finally  blockaded  in 
Tangier  and  sold,  and  the  Ala- 
bama was  sunk  by  the  Kearsage, 
off  Cherbourg,  June  19,  1864. 
Semmes  escaped  to  England  and 
returning  to  the  Confederacy  was 
given  command  of  the  James 
River  Squadron,  with  the  rank  of 
rear  admiral.  Upon  the  evacua- 
tion of  Richmond  his  squadron 
was  destroyed  and  he  served  the 
few  remaining  weeks  of  _  the  war 
in  the  army,  surrendering  with 
Johnston.  The  remainder  of  his 
life  was  spent  at  Mobile,  prac- 
tising law. 

Semnones,  a  tribe  of  ancient 


Germany,  the  most  powerful  of 
the  Suevic  race,  which  inhabited 
the  country  between  the  Viadus 
(Oder)  and  Albis  (Elbe). 
Semnopithecus.  See  Langur. 
Semolina,  sometimes  known  as 
Grits,  consists  of  small  particles 
of  grain,  chiefly  wheat,  roughly 
ground.  The  name  is  given  to 
the  residuum  of  larger  granules 
left  unground  in  the  process  of 
flour-making  where  hard  wheat 
is  used.  It  is  also  applied  to  the 
coarser  forms  of  potato-flour. 
Consult  Bulletin  20,  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry  (1902). 

Sempach,  tn.,  Swiss  canton  of 
Lucerne,  10  m.  n.w.  of  town  of 
Lucerne,  near  small  lake  of  Sem- 
pach. Here  was  gained  (1386) 
the  victory  which  secured  Swiss 
independence,  and  in  which  Ar- 
nold von  Winkelried  (a  real  per- 
son) is  said  to  have  performed 
his  (legendary)  feat  of  arms. 
Pop.  (1900)  1,028. 

Semper,  Karl  (1832-93),  Ger- 
man naturalist,  born  at  Altona; 
after  a  tour  in  the  Philippines 
and  the  Pacific  islands,  he  became 
professor  of  zoology  at  Wiirz- 
burg  (1868).  He  visited  the  U. 
S.  in  1877,  and  gave  a  course  of 
lectures  at  the  Lowell  Institute, 
Boston,  which  were  published 
later  with  the  title  Animal  Life 
as  Aifected  by  the  Natural  Con- 
ditions of  Existence  (1881).  and 
by  this  work  he  is  chiefly  known. 

Sempervivum,  a  genus  of  suc- 
culent plants  belonging  to  the 
order  Cra^sulaceae.  Mr.  J.  G. 
Baker  has  classified  all  the  hardy 
species  as  follows: 

(1.)  Sub-genus  Sempervivum 
Proper. — Parts  of  the  flowers 
usually  in  twelves.  Open  flower, 
bell-shaped. 

Rhodantha:  flowers  reddish. 
Group  1.    Ciliata. — Leaves  of 
the  barren  rosette  glabrous  on 
the  face  when  mature,  shortly 
ciliated  on  the  edges  only. 

Group  2.  Pubescentia. — Leaves 
of  the  barren  rosette  pubescent 
on  the  face,  as  well  as  ciliated  on 
the  edges,  not  tipped  with  a  tuft 
of  spreading  hairs. 

Group  3.  Barbatula. — Leaves 
of  the  barren  rosette  strongly 
ciliated  on  the  edges,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  tuft  of  short, 
straight  hairs  at  the  tip. 

Group  4.  Arachnoidea. — Dwarf 
species,  with  the  tips  of  the  inner 
leaves  of  the  rosette  connected 
by  fine,  fleecy  threads,  like  a 
spider's  web. 

(2.)  Sub-genus  Diopogon. — 
Parts  of  the  flower  usually  in 
sixes.  Flowers  always  yellow- 
ish. Expanded  flower  spreading 
widely.    See  also  House-leek. 

Sempronia,  daughter  of  Tibe- 
rius Sempronius  Gracchus,  Ro- 
man censor  in  169  B.C.,  and  sis- 
ter of  the  Gracchi,  the  famous 
tribunes.     She  married  Scipio 


Senaat 


(Senate 


Africanus  the  Younger.  After 
his  mysterious  death,  in  129  B.C., 
she  and  her  mother  Cornelia 
were  suspected,  without  sufficient 

grounds,  of  having  murdered 
im.  Also  the  name  of  a  charac- 
ter in  Ben  Jonson's  tragedy,  Cati- 
line. 

Senaar.  See  Sennaar. 

Senancour,  Etienne  Pivert 
DE  (1770-1846),  French  writer, 
born  at  Paris.  His  first  book  was 
a  sort  of  metaphj'sico-sentimental 
romance  called  Ohermann  (1804; 
Eng.  trans,  by  A.  E.  Waite, 
1903),  or  letters  written  about 
himself  by  a  '  solitary  '  living  on 
the  slopes  of  the  Jura.  The  in- 
fluence of  Rousseau  and  of 
Goethe's  Werther  is  very_  per- 
ceptible. He  followed  this  up 
by  De  1' Amour  (1805),  in  which 
his  really  fine  French  style  is  seen 


magistrate,  who  could  convoke  it 
when  he  chose.  Finally,  the  exe- 
cution of  any  resolution  passed 
by  the  senate  rested  with  the 
magistrates,  who  could  disregard 
it  without  any  constitutional  pen- 
alty. In  spite  of  all  these  dis- 
abilities, the  senate  was  for 
centuries  the  ruhng  body  at 
Rome,  particularly  during  the 
3d  and  the  2d  century  B.C.,  dur- 
ing which  Rome  secured  the  em- 
pire of  the  world.  In  the  first 
century  or  so  of  the  republic  it 
claimed,  however,  the  right  to 
approve  the  list  of  candidates 
proposed  for  magisterial  office; 
down  to  339  B.C.  measures  passed 
by  the  assembly  needed  to  receive 
the  patrum  auctoritas  before  be- 
coming law,  but  after  that  date 
the  auctoritas  had  to  be  given 
beforehand,  and  it  alone  could 


chose  and  conferred  power  on  a 
new  emperor.  But  the  last-men- 
tioned privilege  was  usually 
snatched  from  it  by  the  soldiers; 
and  its  exercise  of  the  others 
depended  entirely  on  the  em- 
peror's caprice.  In  consequence 
its  attitude  was  usually  that  of 
abject  subservience  to  the  ruler. 

Originally  all  senators  were 
patricians;  plebeians  were,  how- 
ever, included  soon  after  the 
foundation  of  the  repubhc.  In 
process  of  time  a  property  quali- 
fication came  to  be  considered 
necessary  for  membership :  under 
the  republic  it  was  400,000  ses- 
terces (about  $15,500),  and  was 
fixed  by  Augustus  at  1,000,000 
sesterces  (about  $39,000).  As  has 
been  already  said,  admission  to 
the  senate  originally  depended 
purely  on  nomination  by  the  mag- 


The  Roman  Senate — Cicero  accusing  Catiline. 
(From  a  fresco  by  Prof.  C.  Maccari  in  the  Italian  Senate  House  at  Rome.) 


at  its  best,  but  the  work  is  still 
more  persistently  '  Wertherish.' 
Sainte-Beuve  praised  his  work 
highly. 

Senate,  deliberative  council  of 
ancient  Rome.  Its  individual 
members  were  known  as  patres 
('  fathers ') — i.e.  the  heads  of  the 
families  or  clans  which  formed 
the  primitive  community.  But  in 
historical  times  the  senator  ob- 
tained his  seat  through  nomina- 
tion, first  by  the  king,  and  after- 
wards by  the  consuls  or  censors; 
only  after  Sulla's  legislation  in 
81  B.C.  did  election  to  the  quaes- 
torship  legally  and  necessarily 
confer  the  subsequent  right  to  a 
seat  in  the  senate.  Constitution- 
ally and  in  theory  the  senate  was 
nothing  but  an  advising  body. 
The  senators  did  not  give  votes, 
but  merely  expressed  their  opin- 
ions. Moreover,  the  senate  could 
only  meet  when  convoked  by  a 


declare  a  dictator  to  he  neces- 
sary ;  the  actual  appointment, 
however,  was  made  by  a  consul. 
But,  as  a  rule,  the  consul  or 
other  magistrate  was  in  the  posi- 
tion of  a  young  man^  of  brief 
experience,  confronted  with  a 
body  of  men  of  greater  age  and 
wider  knowledge,  many  of  whom 
had  earlier  in  life  held  the  same 
high  office  as  himself.  Hence,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  senate  was 
generally  consulted  with  regard 
to  public  worship,  finance,  the 
administration  of  the  provinces, 
and  the  management  of  foreign 
affairs  ;  in  the  last  of  these 
departments  the  necessity  of  a 
continuous  policy  could  hardly  be 
supplied  by  officials  who  changed 
every  year.  Under  the  empire 
the  position  of  the  senate  was 
altered;  it  made  laws,  elected 
to  the  magistracies,  was  the  su- 
preme   judicial    authority,  and 


istrate.  By  the  4th  century  B.C., 
however,  the  practice  had  grown 
up  that  ex-quaestors  and  ex-magis- 
trates of  higher  rank  were  called 
to  the  senate;  and  after  351  b.c. 
this  became  the  regular  practice. 
The  office  was  lifelong;  the  term 
could  only  be  cut  short  by  ex- 
clusion by  the  censors,  usually 
on  the  ground  of  immorality. 
Augustus  made  the  senatorship 
hereditary.  In  early  days  the 
number  of  the  senate  was  about 
300;  Sulla's  reform  raised  it  to 
500  or  600;  Julius  Caesar  in- 
creased it  to  1,000,  but  Augustus 
reduced  it  to  its  old  figure. 

Senators  wore  a  distinctive 
tunic  with  a  broad  purple  stripe, 
and  a  particular  kind  of  shoe 
ornamented  with  a  crescent  in 
front.  They  shared  with  knights 
the  privilege  of  wearing  gold 
rings.  See  E.  Herzog's  Geschichte 
und  System  der  romischen  Stoats- 


Sendai 


100 


Senecti 


verfassung  (2  vols.  1884-91),  and 
Willems's  Le  Senat  de  la  Repu- 
hlique  Romaine  (3  vols.  1878-85). 

In  modern  times  the  senate  is 
the  upper  house  of  the  legislature 
in  various  countries — e.g.  the 
United  States  (also  the  individual 
states  of  the  Union),  France,  Italy, 
and  Canada.  The  term  senate  is 
also  applied  to  the  governing 
bodies  of  some  universities.  See 
United  States,  section  on  Gov- 
ernment. 

Sendai,  tn.,  on  E.  coast  of 
Honshiu,  Japan,  220  m.  by  rail 
N.N.E.  of  Tokyo;  has  trade  in  fish 
and  salt.    Pop.  100,231. 

Seneca.  (1.)  Marcus  Ann^us 
Seneca  (c.  61  b.c.  to  after  30 
A.D.),  Roman  rhetorician,  was  a 
hative  of  Corduba  in  Spain.'  He 
spent  some  time  at  Rome  early  in 
the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  after- 
wards returned  to  Spain.  His 
literary  efforts  were  confined  to 
the  popular  rhetoric  of  the  day, 
and  his  extant  works  are  the  (in- 


Lucius  AnncBus  Seneca. 

complete)  Controversiarum  Liber, 
contentious  rhetorical  exercises, 
and  the  Suasoriarum  Liber, 
speeches  of  counsel.  Their  only 
excellence,  that  of  form,  does 
not  atone  for  their  weakness  in 
thought.  There  are  editions  by 
H.  J.  Miiller  (1888),  and  Kiess- 
ling  (in  the  Teubner  Series, 
1872).  (2.)  Lucius  Ann^us 
Seneca  (c.  5  b.c.-65  a.d.),  Ro- 
man philosopher  and  statesman, 
was  the  son  of  the  above,  and 
was  born  at  Corduba.  By  the 
reign  of  Caligula  (37-41  a.d.) 
he  had  won  reputation  as  a 
pleader  of  cases;  in  the  first  year 
of  the  reign  of  Claudius  he  was 


banished  to  Corsica,  but  was  re- 
called after  49,  raised  to  the  prae- 
torship,  and  made  the  tutor  of 
Nero.  On  Nero's  accession  to 
the  imperial  throne  Seneca  was 
with  Burrus,  the  chief  minister 
to  the  emperor;  and  they  must  be 
credited  with  the  excellent  ad- 
ministration of  Nero's  first  five 
years.  After  the  death  of  Bur- 
rus, in  62,  Seneca,  believing  that 
Nero  coveted  his  great  wealth, 
offered  it  to  the  emperor,  and 
asked  leave  to  retire.  But  bemg 
suspected  of  complicity  in  Piso's 
plot  in  65,  he  was  ordered  to 
die,  and  he  accordingly  opened 
his  veins  and  bled  to  death.  The 
one  blot  on  Seneca's  name  is  his 
share  (if  he  was  an  accomplice  in 
it)  in  the  murder  of  Agrippina, 
Nero's  mother.  In  philosophy 
and  literature  Seneca  formerly 
enjoyed  a  great  reputation,  but 
at  the  present  time  his  works  are 
little  read.  Montaigne  speaks  of 
him  and  Plutarch  as  his  two 
teachers.  In  philosophy  he  was 
a  Stoic,  but  his  Stoicism  is  of 
an  eclectic  nature  ;  his  writings 
show  practical  wisdom  rather 
than  profound  speculation.  His 
style  is  that  of  a  rlietorician,  but 
is  clear  and  forcible.  His  trage- 
dies, ten  in  number,  are,  with  one 
exception,  imitations  of  the 
Greek,  and  consist  of  declama- 
tory speeches,  interspersed  with 
lyrical  passages.  The  Octavia, 
the  subject  of  which  is  Nero's  ill- 
treatment  of  Octavia,  his  wife, 
is  the  most  dramatic.  In  prose 
he  wrote  De  Ira,  a  treatise  on 
anger;  De  Beneficiis  Libri  vii,  on 
benefits;  De  Animi  Tranquilli- 
tate,  on  peace  of  mind — and  simi- 
lar themes;  Liber  de  Consolatione 
ad  Marciam ;  Epistolce  ad  Lii- 
cilium,  a  collection  of  maxims; 
QucBstiones  Naturales.  discussing 
meteors,  winds,  earthquakes, 
thunder  and  lightning,  and  the 
like;  and  a  satire  on  the  deifica- 
tion of  the  Emperor  Claudius 
Apocolocyntosis  Divi  Claudi, 
published  in  Biicheler's  Petronius 
(1882,  ed.  by  Ball,  1903).  Edi- 
tions: Philosophical  works,  by 
Koch  and  Vahlen  (1879),  and 
Gertz  (1886);  tragedies,  by  Leo 
(1879)  and  Peiper-Richter  (in 
the  Teubner  Series,  1902);  com- 
plete works,  by  Haase  (in  the 
Teubner  Series,  1898).  There 
are  English  translations  by  Stew-  < 
art  of  The  Minor  Dialogues 
(1889)  and  On  Benefits  (1887). 
See  Hochart's  Etudes  sur  la  Vie 
de  Seneque  (1885),  and  H. 
Westbury's  novel,  Acte  (1890). 

Seneca  Falls,  vil.,  Seneca  co., 
N.  Y.,  35  m.  w.  by  s.  of  Syracuse, 
on  the  Seneca  R.,  and  on  the 
N.  Y.  C.  and  H.  R.  and  the  Leh. 
Val.  R.  Ps.,  and  the  Seneca- 
Cayuga  Canal.  It  is  an  industrial 
centre,  utilizing  power  afforded 
by  the  river  in  the  manufacture 
of  pumps,  fire  engines,  automo- 


biles, machine  tools,  buttons,  etc. 
It  is  a  shipping  point  for  fruit, 
which  is  extensively  grown  in  the 
district.  The  village  contains 
Mynderse  Academy,  Rumsey 
Hall,  a  preparatory  school,  Myn- 
derse Library,  and  Johnson  Home 
for  Old  Ladies.  Cayuga  Lake 
Park  is  a  summer  resort  of  the 
neighborhood.  The  first  settle- 
ment here  was  made  in  1787,  and 
the  village  was  incorporated  in 
1831  and  1905.  Pop.  (1910) 
6,588. 

Seneca  Lake,  a  long  and  nar- 
row body  of  water  in  New  York 
state,  of  glacial  origin.  Its  s.  ex- 
tremity IS  21  m.  N.  by  w.  of 
Elmira.  It  is  drained  by  Seneca 
R.  to  Lake  Ontario,  and  is  35  m. 
long  by  from  1  to  3  m.  broad. 

Senecio,  the  most  extensive 
genus  in  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
including  upwards  of  nine  hun- 
dred species.  It  is  a  subdivision 
of  the  order  Compositae,  and  is 
marked  off  by  its"  five-cleft,  tubu- 
lar, central  florets,  the  outer 
florets  being  strap-shaped,  form- 
ing a  ray,  and  furnished  with  pis- 


Senecio  vulgaris. 
1,  Flower ;  2,  flowei*  head  ;  3,  fruit. 

tils  only.  The  involucre  is  im- 
bricated, with  a  few  smaller  scales 
at  the  base,  and  the  receptacle  is 
naked.  Among  the  species  are 
the  German  Ivy  (S.  mikanioides) ; 
and  the  spring  flowering  5.  au- 
reus or  swamp  squaw-weed. 

Senecti,  vil.,  Chihuahua,  Mex., 
6  m.  below  El  Paso  on  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  inhabitants,  9f 
whom  there  were  about  60  in 
1905,  are  a  remnant  of  the  Piro 
tribe  of  New  Mexico.  They  pre- 
serve the  old  tribal  organization 
under  a  cacique,  but  their  orig^ 
inal  language  is  almost  entireh 
forgotten. 


Senef elder,  Aloys  (1771-1834), 

the  inventor  of  the  art  of  lithog- 
raphy, born  at  Prague,  Austria; 
took  to  playwriting,  and  after- 
wards to  engraving,  etching,  and 
stereotyping.  He  published  an 
account  of  his  discovery  of  lithog- 
raphy (1818). 

Senega  {Polygala  senega),  a 
North  American  plant  about  nine 
inches  in  height,  bearing  terminal 
spikes  of  small,  dull-white  flow- 
ers. The  woody  root  of  this 
plant  was  used  by  Indians  as  an 
antidote  against  the  bite  of  the 
rattlesnake,  and  is  used  in  medi- 
cine chiefly  in  chronic  bronchitis. 

Senegal  P r otectorates, 
French  possessions  in  W.  Africa, 
formed  (since  1904)  of  various 
towns,  trading  and  military  posts, 
and  patches  and  strips  of  terri- 
tory between  the  rivers  Gambia 
and  Casamance,  on  those  rivers, 
and  on  the  Senegal  R.  up  as  far 
as  Kayes,  more  or  less  enclaves 
in  the  administrative  territories 
of  Senegambia-Niger.  The  total 
area  is  438  sq.  m.,  and  the  popu- 
lation (1904)  107.826.  In  1904 
the  exports  amounted  to  $6,678,- 
847,  and  the  imports  to  $11,175,- 
961.  Much  of  this  trade,  how- 
ever, belongs  to  the  colony  of 
Upper  Senegal-Niger  (formerly 
Senegambia  and  Niger),  which  is 
exclusively  an  inland  colony,  and 
has  no  intercolonial  customs. 
Other  products  are  millet,  maize, 
rice,  castor  oil,  cocoanuts,  and 
gum.  The  chief  towns  are  St. 
Louis,  the  capital  (pop.  24,070), 
Dakar  (18,447),  Rufiscjue  (12,- 
446),  and  Goree  (1,560).  The 
inhabitants  are  of  negro  origin, 
but  greatly  mixed  with  Moorish 
and  Fulah  elements.  They  are 
mostly  Mohammedans.  The  chief 
industries  are  weaving,  brick- 
making,  and  camel  and  cattle 
breeding. 

Senegambia  and  Niger,  a 
vast  territory  in  French  W.  Af- 
rica, including  the  former  protec- 
torates of  Senegal  and  the  wide 
stretch  of  country  that  lies  be- 
tween the  s.  limits  of  the  Al- 
gerian *  sphere  of  influence,'  the 
Atlantic,  French  Guinea,  Ivory 
Coast,  Gold  Coast,  Togo.  Da- 
homey, and  N.  Nigeria,  and  thus 
includes  the  basins  of  the  upper 
Niger  and  the  upper  Senegal. 
The  capital  is  Bammako,  on  the 
Niger.  Apart  from  the  great 
rivers,  the  principal  geographical 
features  are  those  of  the  Sahara 
and  Sudan  in  the  e.  of  the  region, 
and  a  vast  lo\y  plateau  (1,500 
ix.),  seamed  with  river-courses, 
in  the  w.  The  principal  products 
are  gum,  groundnuts,  gold,  india- 
rubber,  rice,  millet,  wheat,  earth- 
nuts,  and  kola-nuts.  Timbuktu 
has  a  trade  valued  at  less  than 
$500,000.  The  railway,  which 
ascends  beside  the  Senegal,  runs 
across  from  Bafoulabe  on  that 
river  to  Bammako  on  the  Niger. 


101 

The  French  gradually  made  theiii- 
selves  masters  of  this  region  be- 
tween 1880  and  1898.  The  na- 
tive population,  who  are  in  part 
Mohammedans,  consist  princi- 
pally of  Fulahs,  Mandingoes, 
Wolofs,  and  Sarakoles. 

The  reorganization  of  French 
West  Africa,  begun  in  1895,  was 
completed  by  the  decree  of  Octo- 
ber 18,  1904,  which  converted 
the  territories  of  Senegambia  and 
Niger  into  a  separate  colony,  un- 
der the  name  of  Upper  Senegal- 
Niger. 

Seneschal,  an  officer  in  the 
house  of  medijeval  princes  and 
other  high  dignitaries,  who  took 
the  charge  of  feasts  or  domestic 
ceremonies;  a  steward  who  in 
certain  cases  had  the  dispensing 
of  justice;  a  military  commander 
of  high  rank.  In  the  reign  of 
Phihp  I.  (1059)  the  office  was 
considered  the  highest  place  of 
trust  in  the  French  kingdom. 

Sengora  (Siamese,  Songkla), 
Siamese  prov.  on  e.  coast  of 
Malay  Peninsula,  in  7°  30'  n.  lat. 
Area,  17,000  sq.  m.  Pop.  about 
500,000,  many  being  Chinese. 

Senigallia,  or  Sinigaglia,  tn., 
prov.  Ancona,  Italy,  on  Adriatic, 
15  m.  N.w.  of  Ancona.  The 
bishopric  was  founded  in  the  4th 
century.  The  town  is  the  birth- 
place of  Pope  Pius  IX.  Until 
1869  a  famous  fair  used  to  be 
held  here  in  July  and  August. 
Pop.  (1901)  23,195. 

Senility,  a  condition  depend- 
ent less  upon  the  number  of  years 
a  man  has  lived  than  upon  the 
strength  of  his  constitution  at 
starting  and  his  use  or  abuse  of 
his  strength.  The  condition  has 
been  described  as  one  of  general 
progressive  atrophy  of  all  tissues. 
The  chief  causes  of  premature 
senility  are  syphilis,  alcohol,  and 
overwork,  or,  perhaps  more  cor- 
rectly, overworry.  The  condi- 
tion is  marked,  outwardly,  by  a 
wasting  of  tissues  and  a  loss  of 
elasticity.  The  skin  wrinkles, 
for  subcutaneous  fat  goes.  The 
bones  waste  from  within  out- 
wards. The  arteries  lose  their 
elasticity,  and  so  the  blood  vol- 
urne  lessens.  The  blood  is  badly 
driven  by  a  weakened  heart 
through  deteriorated  channels, 
and  thus  the  blood  itself  dete- 
riorates, and  the  organs  deterio- 
rate which  it  should  nourish. 
Hence  fatty  and  fibrous  degene- 
rations of  organs  are  common, 
with  other  grave  changes,  such  as 
softening  of  brain  substance;  or 
apoplexy  occurs — a  very  common 
ending  in  senility,  due  to  rupture 
of  a  cerebral  vessel  or  to  blocking 
of  it  by  embolus.  In  senility  the 
man  tends  to  become  thin.  All 
his  appetites  lessen,  unless  indeed 
abnormally  excited,  as  they  may 
be  in  senile  dementia.  His  nerv- 
ous system  shows  the  most  marked 
changes.    His  memory  goes,  and 


goes  in  particular  for  recent  events, 
while  he  may  still  have  vivid 
recollections  of  long-past  affairs. 
He  is  slow  to  respond  to  the  emo- 
tions, and,  mercifully,  not  so 
deeply  impressed  by  either  joy 
or  sorrow.  The  diseases  of  the 
senile  tend  to  be  chronic,  rarely 
acute.  Light,  nutritious  food, 
no  alcohol  except  under  physi- 
cian's orders,  and  a  quiet  life  de- 
fer the  progress  of  senility. 

Senior,  Nassau  William 
(1790  -  1864),  English  political 
economist,  was  born  at  Compton 
Beauchamp  in  Berkshire.  In 
1825  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  political  economy  in  Oxford, 
and  again  (1847-52).  He  was  ap- 
pointed master  of  Chancery  in 
1836,  a  post  which  he  held  till 
1853.  As  an  economist  he  was 
chiefly  interested  at  first  in  the 
reform  of  the  poor-laws,  and  sat 
as  a  member  of  the  Poor-law 
Commission  in  1832.  As  an 
economist  he  stands  midway  be- 
tween Ricardo  and  J.  S.  Mill. 
Many  of  his  writings  are  records 
of  conversations  afnd  interviews 
he  had  with  eminent  public 
men  at  home  and  abroad.  See 
his  Journals  (1868  and  1871) 
and  Conversations  (1878-80  and 
1882). 

Senlac.   See  Hastings,  Bat- 
tle OF. 

Senlis,  tn.,  France,  dep.  Oise, 
27  m.  N.N.E.  of  Paris.  Old 
walls,  partly  of  Gallo  -  Roman 
masonry,  still  surround  the  place; 
just  outside  is  a  Roman  amphi- 
theatre; the  castle  (parts  dating 
from  the  11th  century)  was  a 
residence  of  the  kings  of  France 
from  Clovis  to  Henry  iv.;  and 
the  church  of  Notre  Dame  (be- 
gun in  1155)  is  a  gem  of  French 
Gothic.  It  was  a  bishop's  seat 
until  1801.    Pop.  (1901)  7,115. 

Senn,  Nicholas  (1844),  Ameri-  t\  .  i  «.  2> 
can  surgeon,  born  in  Buchs,  Swit- 
zerland. He  graduated  at  the 
Chicago  Medical  College  in  1868, 
practised  medicine  in  Fond  du 
Lac  county,  Wis.,  for  several 
years  and  then  settled  in  Mil- 
waukee. In  1874  he  became  at- 
tending surgeon  to  the  Mil- 
waukee Hospital,  and  in  1884-87 
was  professor  of  surgery  in  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, Chicago.  In  1887  he  be- 
came professor  of  surgery  and 
surgical  pathology  in  the  Rush 
Medical  College,  Chicago,  and  in 
1890  professor  of  practical  and 
clinical  surgery  in  the  same  in- 
stitution. He  also  became  pro- 
fessor of  surgery  in  the  Chicago 
Polyclinic,  lecturer  on  military 
surgery  in  the  university,  chief 
surgeon  to  the  6th  Army  Corps 
(1898),  and  attending  surgeon  to 
the  Presbyterian,  St.  Joseph's, 
and  other  hospitals  in  Chicago. 
His  publications  include  :  Experi- 
mental Surgery  (1889),  Intes- 
tinal Surgery   (1889),  Surgical 


Senna 


102 


Sentry 


Bacteriology  (1889),  Principles 
of  Surgery  (3d  ed.  1901), 
Pathology  and  Surgical  Treat- 
ment of  Tumors  (1895),  Syllabus 
of  Practice  of  Surgery  (1892), 
Practical  Surgery  (1901),  Sur- 
gical Notes  on  the  Spanish- 
American  War;  Nurse's  Guide 
for  the  Operating  Room  (1902). 

Senna,  the  leaflets  of  certain 
trees  and  shrubs  belonging  to 
the  genus  Cassia.  The  so-called 
Alexandria  senna  is  the  product 
of  C.  acutifolia;  the  long-leaved 
senna  is  derived  from  C.  elon- 
gata.  Senna  has  a  peculiar  odor 
and  a  curious,  sweetish,  muci- 
laginous taste.  It  is  much  used 
as  a  cathartic  drug,  and  is  one  of 
the  safest  and  most  efifective 
drugs  of  this  class.  It  is  the  ac- 
tive ingredient  of  the  well-known 
compound  liquorice  powder. 

Sennaar,  cap.  of  old  kingdom 
of  same  name,  now  a  prov.  of 
Sudan,  on  the  Blue  Nile,  158  m. 
S.s.E.  of  Khartum.    Pop.  8,000. 

Sennacherib.  See  Assyria, 
and  Babylonia. 

Senones,  ancient  Gallic  tribe 
who  dwelt  about  the  upper  Seine, 
their  chief  town  being  Agedin- 
cum,  now  called  Sens.  About  400 
B.C.  a  portion  of  the  Senones 
settled  on  the  Adriatic  coast  be- 
tween Ravenna  and  Ancona  ; 
they  also  attacked  and  took  Rorne 
in  390  B.C.,  and  were  engaged  in 
hostilities  with  the  Romans,  until 
Dolabella  completely  subdued 
them  in  283  B.C. 

Sens,  tn.  and  archiepisc.  see, 
French  dep.  Yonne,  on  riv. 
Yonne,  63  m.  s.e.  of  Paris.  Its 
original  Gallo-Roman  ramparts 
still  surround  it,  and  the  cathe- 
dral (begun  in  1140)  is  a  beauti- 
.ful  example  of  transition  from 
Circular  to  Gothic,  while  its 
choir  was  the  prototype  of  Can- 
terbury choir  (1175).  Becket 
fled  to  Sens  in  1164,  and  his 
vestments  are  still  preserved  in 
the  cathedral  treasury.  It  manu- 
factures phosphate  manures.  Pop. 
(1901)  13,581. 

Sensation,  in  psychology,  sig- 
nifies that  element  in  conscious- 
ness which  is  immediately  and 
directly  correlated  with  some 
stimulation  of  the  sense  organs 
transmitted  to  the  corresponding 
brain  centres.  Of  such  sensa- 
tions the  traditional  psychology 
recognizes  five  classes,  corre- 
sponding to  '  the  five  senses  '  of 
smell,  taste,  touch,  hearing,  and 
sight.  But  the  more  exact  analy- 
sis of  modern  experimental  psy- 
chology has  had  to  make  further 
discriminations  —  for  example, 
within  touch,  between  sensations 
of  temperature  and  sensations  of 
pressure,  which  appear  to  depend 
on  different  localities  of  the  skin. 
The  term  sensation  is  also  ex- 
tended to  include  the  diffused 
sensibility  which  depends  on  the 
state  of  the  internal  organs  and 


the  body  generally.  This  dilYused 
sensibility  does  not  specially 
attract  our  attention  unless  it  is 
accentuated  in  some  particular 
direction  by  particular  condi- 
tions. The  *  organic  sensations,' 
in  which  it  then  takes  on  distinc- 
tive characters,  have  their  dis- 
tinctive names,  such  as  hunger 
and  thirst. 

By  the  organic  sensations  we 
are  enabled  to  perceive  states  of 
our  own  body  ;  by  the  special 
sensations  we  are  enabled  to  per- 
ceive the  qualities  of  external 
objects.  And  in  ordinary  experi- 
ence sensations  as  such  are  at 
once  referred  to  some  external 
object,  or,  in  the  case  of  organic 
sensations,  to  our  own  body. 
It  is  only  in  very  special  cases, 
such  as  those  of  the  experimental 
psychologist  or  of  the  artist,  that 
the  sensation  itself  is  specially 
attended  toj  and  in  these  cases 
the  sensation  ceases,  of  course, 
to  be  a  mere  sensation.  See 
Stout's  Manual  of  Psychology 
(2d  ed.  1901). 

Sensationalism  signifies  that 
type  of  philosophy  which  en- 
deavors to  account  for  all  knowl- 
edge or  experience  in  terms  of 
mere  sensations — ^directly  experi- 
enced as  impressions  or  revived 
as  images — as  the  ultimate  men- 
tal units.  Of  this  philosophy, 
and  of  the  scepticism  which  logic- 
ally results  from  it,  the  typical 
representative  is  David  Hume. 
When,  as  with  him,  the  single 
sensation  is  regarded  as  the  only 
ultimate  real  unit  in  experience, 
the  reality  of  an  external  world, 
the  causal  connection  of  events, 
the  personal  identity  of  the  know- 
ing subject  himself,  become  illu- 
sions, which  custom  generates, 
but  for  which  we  can  produce  no 
rational  grounds  of  conviction. 
The  whole  structure  of  this 
philosophy,  however,  depends  on 
an  erroneous  assumption — viz., 
that  the  mere  sensation  has 
actual  existence.  In  reality  the 
mere  sensation  is  only  an  ab- 
straction of  analysis.  Concrete 
mental  process  always  implies 
perception  of  objects,  and  the 
perception  of  objects  implies 
relationship  within  a  context  of 
experience.  That  is  to  say,  re- 
lations are  inseparable  from  all 
perception  as  such.  It  was  the 
task  of  Reid  and  Kant  to  set 
forth,  in  opposition  to  Hume^  this 
deeper  analysis  of  experience. 
See  Pringle  -  Pattison's  Scottish 
Philosophy  (1885). 

Sensitive  Plant,  so  called 
from  the  habit  of  its  leaves, 
which  close  at  the  smallest  touch. 
See  Mimosa. 

Sentis.   See  Santis. 

Sensorium,  a  term  once  ap- 
plied by  philosophers  to  a  hypo- 
thetical point  in  the  human  brain 
in  which  the  soul  was  supposed 
to  reside.    It  is  now  used  to  de- 


note that  part  of  the  nervous 
mechanism  which  is  concerned 
with  the  reception  and  conscious- 
ness of  impressions.  Stimuli 
from  the  special  sense  organs, 
such  as  the  eye  and  the  ear,  and 
from  all  parts  of  the  body,  are 
conveyed  to  certain  sensory  cells 
in  the  brain,  where  the  messages 
are  translated  into  ideas.  The 
cerebral  areas  for  the  reception 
of  stimuli  are  fairly  well  mapped 
out.  Thus,  the  sensory  centres 
ior  sight  are  located  in  the  oc- 
cipital lobes'  and  angular  gyri; 
those  for  hearing  lie  in  the  supe- 
rior temporo-sphenoidal  convolu- 
tions; those  for  smell  in  the  un- 
cinate gyrus;  and  those  for  taste 
in  the  same  region.  It  is  less 
easy  to  locate  the  cerebral  centres, 
which  receive  from  the  muscles 
messages  which  they  embody 
into  muscular  sense  impressions. 
From  _  the  skin  three  sorts  of 
stimuli  reach  the  sensorium,  and 
produce  (1)  ordinary  tactile  or 
touch  sensation,  (2)  the  sensation 
following  the  stimulus  of  pain, 
and  (3)  the  sensation  due  to  the 
stimuli  of  heat  and  cold.  Much 
uncertainty  still  exists  as  to  the 
portions  of  the  brain  which  are 
concerned  with  these  senses;  but 
many  authorities  consider  that 
the  different  motor  areas  on  the 
cortex  should  be  regarded  as 
having  not  only  motor  but  also 
sensory  functions.  According  to 
this  view,  the  cerebral  area  which 
controls  the  movements  of  a  limb 
receives  also  the  messages  com- 
ing from  the  muscles  and  skin 
of  that  limb.  If  this  be  so,  the 
sensorium  includes  the  greater 
part  of  the  brain  surface;  but  in 
all  cases  the  sensation  is  referred 
to  the  site  of  the  primary  stimu- 
lation, so  that  one  seems  to  see 
with  the  eyes,  hear  with  the  ears, 
or  touch  with  the  finger.  The 
sensorium  is  not  infallible,  how- 
ever, and  occasionally  makes  a 
misreference.  Thus,  pain  due 
to  the  irritation  of  a  laryngeal 
nerve  is  often  referred  to  the 
ear,  and  a  patient  who  has  lost  a 
limb  may  complain  of  pain  in  his 
buried  foot. 

Sentry,  a  soldier  posted  at 
some  particular  point  to  watch 
over  the  safety  of  the  neighbor- 
hood, to  carry  out  any  order  as 
to  the  passage  of  individuals,  to 
preserve  order,  or  to  give  notice 
of  any  occurrence  he  may  observe 
from  his  post.  Ordinary  sentries 
are  furnished  by  guards  which 
usually  remain  on  duty  for 
twenty-four  hours.  Each  guard 
contains  three  times  as  many 
private  soldiers  as  it  has  sen- 
tries to  furnish,  and  is  divided 
into  three  reliefs.  Each  relief  is 
in  turn  employed  on  sentry  duty, 
usually  for  a  period  of  two  hours, 
so  that  each  soldier^  through9ut 
the  twenty-four  hours  he  remains 
on  guard,  is  alternately  two  hours 


S«onl 


103 


Septimer  PadS 


on  sentry  duty  and  four  hours  in 
the  guard-room.  The  outposts 
which  secure  rest  to  an  army  in 
the  field  also  post  sentries  to 
watch  the  enemy's  movements 
and  give  notice  of  his  approach. 

Seoni,  chief  tn.,  Seoni  dist., 
Central  Provinces,  India,  73  m. 
N.N.E.  of  Nagpur.  Pop.  (1901) 
11,864. 

Seoul.  See  Soul. 

Sepal,  the  individual  floral 
leaf,  which  helps  to  make  up  the 
calyx  or  outer  whorl  of  the  peri- 
anth of  a  flower. 

Separate  Estate.  In  law,  the 
property  of  a  wife  which  is  not 
subject  to  the  control  of  her  hus- 
band. At  common  law  a  woman 
practically  lost  her  property 
rights  upon  marriage  unless  prop- 
erty was  vested  in  her  by  virtue 
of  a  'marriage  settlement  '  which 
expressly  exempted  it  from  the 
control  of  her  husband.  By 
statute  in  most  of  the  United 
States  many  "of  the  common-law 
disabihties  of  married  women  are 
abrogated,  and  they  may  freely 
take,  hold,  and  dispose  of  their 
property  as  if  unmarried.  Money 
saved  by  a  wife  out  of  her  allow- 
ance for  household  expenses,  etc., 
belongs  to  the  husband.  In  some 
states  a  wife  is  entitled  to  her 
personal  earnings,  if  not  con- 
nected with  her  husband  in 
business.  A  married  woman 
may  freely  dispose  of  her  separate 
estate.  See  Husband  and  Wife; 
Settlement. 

Separation.  In  law  this  term 
is  employed  in  a  technical  sense 
to  denote  the  living  apart  of  a 
man  and  wife  without  an  absolute 
divorce.  It  may  be  voluntary,  as 
under  an  agreement  of  separation 
or  under  the  decree  of  a  court.  In 
most  states  a  voluntary  agreement 
to  separate  will  not  be  enforced 
by  the  courts,  but  if  the  parties 
have  actually  separated,  and  the 
agreement  is  to  provide  for  the 
support  of  the  wife  and  custody 
of  tne  children,  it  will  generally 
be  recognized  by  the  courts. 
Judicial  separation,  or  'limited 
divorce,'  will  be  decreed  by  the 
courts  for  some  causes  not  con- 
stituting grounds  for  an  absolute 
divorce.  For  example,  in  New 
York  an  absolute  divorce  will 
be  decreed  only  for  infidelity, 
whereas  judicial  separation  will 
be  ordered  for  sucn  causes  as 
cruelty  or  other  conduct  making 
it  improper  or  unsafe  for  one 
spouse  to  live  with  the  other. 
Provisions  for  the  support  of  the 
wife  and  for  custody  of  the  chil- 
dren are  usually  made  in  such 
decrees.  It  does  not  dissolve  the 
marital  relation  and  neither  party 
may  marry  again  until  an  absolute 
divorce  is  obtained.  The  latter 
will  be  granted  for  statutory 
causes,  although  the  parties  have 
legally  separated,  as  each  is  bound 
by  the  marital  obligations.  See 


Divorce.  Consult  Bishop,  Mar- 
riage, Divorce  and  Separation. 

Separatists.  See  Communis- 
tic Societies  in  the  United 
States. 

Separator,  an  instrument  for 
removing  any  suspended  water 
present  in  the  steam  supplied  to 
an  engine.  The  separation  of 
the  water  is  usually  effected  by 
causing  the  steam  to  pass  through 
an  arrangement  of  baffle  plates, 
to  which  the  water  adheres,  and 
from  which  it  is  drained  away, 
usually  by  means  of  a  steam  trap. 

Separator,  Cream.  See 
Dairying. 

Sephardim.    See  Ashkenaz. 

Sepharvaim,  ancient  city  of 
Babylonia,  on  1.  bk.  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, 16  m.  s.E.  of  Bagdad, 
now  occupied  by  Abu-Habba;  vyas 
called  Sippara  in  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions.  It  originally  com- 
prised two  cities,  '  Sippar  of  the 
Sun-god  '  and  'Sippar  of  Anunit.' 
In  the  temple  of  the  sun-god  many 
monumental  and  tabular  inscrip- 
tions were  discovered  'n  1881  by 
Hormuzd  Rassam.  The  connec- 
tion of  Sepharvaim  with  Samaria 
is  shown  in  2  Kings  17  :  31. 

Sepia,  a  dark-brown  coloring 
matter  secreted  by  the  cuttle- 
fish, and  employed  by  it  to  ob- 
scure its  movements  in  the  water 
when  alarmed.  A  valuable  pig- 
ment is  prepared  by  dissolving 
the  dried  contents  of  the  glands 
in  dilute  alkali,  and  reprecipitat- 
ing  with  an  acid. 

Sepoy,  a  native  Indian  soldier, 
as  distinct  from  the  European  sol- 
dier. Native  soldiers,  recruited 
from  the  higher  castes  only,  were 
first  used  by  the  E.  India  Com- 
pany in  the  18th  century. 

Sepoy  Mutiny.  See  Mutiny, 
Indian. 

Septaria,  or  Septarian  Nod- 
ules, are  rounded  concretionary 
masses  which  occur  most  fre- 
quently in  beds  of  clay  or  shale, 
and  when  broken  across  show  a 
network  of  cracks  filled,  as  a 
rule,  with  white  calcite.  They  are 
usually  composed  of  ferrous  car- 
bonate (clay  ironstone),  in  which 
case  they  have  a  dark-red  crust 
when  weathered;  but  others  con- 
sist mainly  of  calcium  carbonate 
mixed  with  clay.  Many  are 
found  in  the  dark  Carboniferous 
shales,  but  they  are  frequent  also 
in  the  Cretaceous  formations; 
and  similar  nodules  are  a  com- 
mon feature  of  clays  in  general. 
Their  usual  size  is  from  six 
inches  to  a  foot,  but  examples 
several  feet  across  are  sometimes 
obtained. 

September.    See  Year. 

Septembrists,  the  instigators 
of  the  massacres  in  the  prisons  of 
Paris,  September  2  to  7,  1792. 
In  all,  1,368  victims  perished. 

Septennial  Act,  The,  which 
extended  the  possible  duration  of 
the  British  Parliament  from  three 


to  seven  years,  was  passed  in 
1716^  shortly  after  the  accession 
of  Cjeorge  i.,  at  a  time  when  the 
Whig  government  desired  to 
avoid  the  risk  of  a  general  elec- 
tion. The  act,  which  still  re- 
mains law,  is  attacked  by  some 
critics  as  fixing  to  the  life  of 
Parliament  a  limit  too  long  for 
popular  freedom. 

Septicaemia,  a  term  applied 
to  any  disease  caused  by  the 
introduction  of  septic  or  putrid 
matter  into  the  blood.  It  is  pre- 
ceded as  a  rule  by  a  local  lesion. 
Of  the  common  symptoms  the 
most  marked  are  general  malaise, 
fever,  rapid  pulse,  restlessness, 
and  headache.  The  gravest  mani- 
festations are  those  exhibited  by 
the  heart  and  by  the  nervous 
system.  Some  organisms,  how- 
ever, produce  toxins  whose  viru- 
lence is  directed  chiefly  against 
certain  organs  or  tissues.  Thus, 
the  diphtheria  toxin  has  a  special 
tendency  to  attack  the  nervous 
system;  the  tetanus  toxin  has  a 
specific  action  upon  the  motor 
neurones.  The  organisms  mcst 
usually  concerned  in  the  produc- 
tion of  septicaemia  are  either 
staphylococci  or  streptococci  ; 
but  in  many  cases  there  is  a  mixed 
infection,  and  not  one  but  many 
organisms  are  found  in  the  tis- 
sues. Treatment  should  be  di- 
rected towards  the  purification  of 
the  source  of  the  mischief.  By 
the  destruction  of  the  local  poi- 
son manufactory  the  further  ab- 
sorption of  ptomrines  may  be 
prevented.  Collections  of  pus 
should  be  evacuated,  ulcers 
should  be  dressed  antiseptically, 
and  local  manifestations,  like 
those  of  diphtheria,  should  be 
treated  energetically.  In  the  gen- 
eral treatment  of  septicaemia  two 
indications  should  be  followed. 
In  the  first  place,  the  tissues  must 
be  strengthened  in  every  possible 
way,  to  enable  them  to  withstand 
the  bacterial  attack.  Fresh  air, 
sunhght,  as  generous  diet  as  the 
patient  can  assimilate,  and  stimu- 
lation of  the  excretory  organs  are 
all  essential.  In  the  second  place, 
a  direct  attack  may  be  made  upon 
the  organism  by  inoculation  with 
appropriate  serum.  A  compara- 
tively small  dose  injected  at  an 
early  stage  yields  far  more  favor- 
able results  than  do  larger  doses 
at  a  later  period.  For  septicaemia 
anti-streptococcic  serum  is  used. 
It  is  prepared  by  treating  horses 
with  six  different  races  of  strep- 
tococci, but  has  no  curative  effect 
if  the  disease  is  due  to  staphy- 
lococci. An  anti-staphylococcic 
serum  has  been  introduced,  \ml 
its  value  cannot  yet  be  estimated. 

Septimer  Pass  (7,582  ft.),  in 
the  Alps  and  Swiss  canton  of 
Orisons,  is  traversed  by  a  mule 
path  from  the  Julier  Pass  (Lake 
Constance)  road  to  Val  Brega- 
glia,  and  on  Maloja  Pass  (Lake 


Septuageslma 


104 


Sepulveda 


Como)  route.  The  original  paved 
track  across  it  was  constructed  in 
1387. 

Septuagesima.      See  Quin- 

QUAGESIMA. 

Septuagint,  The,  is  the  earliest 
Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament Scriptures,  made  directly 
from  the  Hebrew  original  during 
the  third  to  the  first  centuries  b.c. 
for  the  use  of  the  Hellenistic 
Jews.    In  Egypt,  but  especially 


ing  him  to  send  qualified  inter- 
preters. Seventy-two  were  se- 
lected, six  from  each  of  the 
twelve  tribes,  and  they  finished 
their  work  in  seventy-two  days. 

The  translation  is  not  of  uni- 
form value  or  of  the  same  style 
throughout.  The  Pentateuch 
and  later  historical  books,  as 
well  as  the  Psalms^  exhibit  a 
fair  rendering  of  the  original. 
The    prophetical    books  show 


/,  '  .J 


Portion  of  Psalter,  from  Septuagint.    In  the  British  Museum. 


at  Alexandria,  Greek-speaking 
Jews  were  then  numerous.  Hence 
the  traditional  association  of  the 
Septuagint  with  Alexandria  is 
both  antecedently  probable  and 
credible.  In  a  literary  forgery 
produced  about  the  Christian  era, 
known  as  the  Letter  of  Aristeas, 
and  accepted  as  genuine  by  Jo- 
sephus  and  others,  it  is  alleged 
that  the  translation  was  executed 
at  the  command  of  Ptolemy  ii. 
(Philadelphus)  of  Egypt,  who 
dispatched  an  embassy  to  the 
high  priest  in  Jerusalem  request- 


greater  divergence  from  the 
Hebrew,  while  Proverbs  fre- 
quently displays  loose  para- 
phrase. Daniel  suffered  so  much 
at  the  translator's  hands  that  his 
version  of  this  book  was  event- 
ually set  aside  in  favor  of  the 
later  rendering  by  Theodotion. 
Even  single  books,  such  as  Isaiah, 
show  considerable  differences  of 
execution  in  different  chapters. 
The  style  of  the  Greek  is  far 
from  elegant;  and  even  ^Ynen  the 
rendering  is  faithtul,  it  is  often 
rather  literal.    There  is  also  in 


parts  a  close  imitation  of  Hebrew 
expressions  and  constructions. 

In  the  times  of  Christ  and  His 
apostles  the  Septuagint  was  com- 
monly used  even  by  Palestinian 
Jews.  The  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  frequently  quote  it 
rather  than  translate  directly 
from  the  Hebrew.  A  new  version 
was  made  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Jews  by  Aquila,  a  native  of 
Asia  Minor  and  a  proselyte  to 
Judaism  ;  but  this  was  often 
crudely  literal,  and  found  little 
acceptance  in  the  Christian 
church.  It  has  been  practically 
lost.  Theodotion,  another  Jewish 
proselyte,  made  a  revised  edition 
of  the  Septuagint  rather  than  a 
fresh  translation;  while  Symma- 
chus  specially  aimed  at  reproduc- 
ing the  Hebrew  idioms  in  more 
elegant  Greek.  Then  Origen 
prepared  his  Hexapla  by  placing 
these  three  versions,  together 
with  the  Septuagint,  in  parallel 
columns  after  the  (unpointed) 
Hebrew  original  and  a  Greek 
transliteration  of  the  latter.  Of 
the  Septuagint  column  the  greater 
part  has  been  preserved  in  a 
Syriac  translation  (the  Syro- 
Hexaplar);  and  by  retranslating 
this  into  Greek  we  obtain  an  ap- 
proximation to  the  Septuagint  as 
edited  by  Origen,  who  took  care 
to  insert  certain  signs  at  points 
where  this  version  differed  from 
the  Hebrew.  In  Egypt  another 
corrected  edition  of  the  Septua- 
gint was  prepared  about  the  same 
time  by  Hesychius;  but  Lucian 
of  Antioch  executed  a  much 
superior  recension,  which  modern 
scholars  have  traced  and  partly 
reproduced.  The  value  of  the  old 
Greek  version,  even  in  an  incor- 
rect form,  is  that  it  frequently 
enables  us  to  restore  the  true 
reading  of  the  Hebrew.  EarHer 
literature  on  the  subject  has  been 
largely  superseded  by  Swete's 
Introduction  to  the  Old  T esta- 
ment  in  Greek  (1900);  his  edi- 
tion of  The  Old  Testament  in 
Greek  (3  vols.  1887-94)  is  an 
advance  on  the  work  of  Tischen- 
dorf,  but  the  fullest  is  still  that 
of  Holmes  and  Parsons  (5  vols. 
1798-1827).  The  first  part  pi 
the  large  C)ambridge  4tQ  ed.,  with 
variant  readings,  which  will  be 
the  best  yet  issued,  appeared 
1906.  The  Concordance  of 
Trommius  has  given  place  to  that 
of  Hatch  and  Redpath  (1897- 
1906);  the  best  dictionary  is  still 
that  of  Schleusner  {Lexicon  in 
LXX.,  3  vols.  1822);  a  grammar 
of  Septuagint  Greek  is  being  pre- 
pared by  H.  St.  John  Thackeray. 

Sepulchral  Mound.  See  Bar- 
row and  Cairn. 

Sepulveda,  Juan  Ginez  de  {c. 
1490-1574).  Spanish  theologian 
and  historian,  was  born  at  Pozo- 
Blanco,  near  Cordova.  He  held 
the  post  of  royal  historiographer 


Sequani 


KFI 


105 


Serao 


from  1536,  and  was  also  precep- 
tor of  Philip  II.  He  bitterly  at- 
tacked Las  Casas,  holding  in  his 
treatise,  Dcmocratcs  Seciindtis, 
that  war  on  the  Indians  and  In- 
dian slavery  were  justifiable. 
His  works,  written  in  Latin,  in- 
clude histories  of  the  reigns  of 
Charles  v  and  Philip  ii,  and  trea- 
tises on  theology.  Erasmus 
styled  Sepulveda  'the  Spanish 
Livy.' 

Sequani,  sek'wa-ni,  tribe  of 
ancient  Gaul,  who  took  their 
name  from  the  river  Sequana 
(the  Seine),  which  rose  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  their  terri- 
tory. Their  chief  town  was 
Vesontio  (BesanQon).  They 
were  subdued  by  Caesar  between 
58  and  51  b.c. 

Sequard.     See  Brown-Se- 

QUARD. 

Sequestration,  se-kwes-tra'- 
shun,  a  process  employed  by 
courts  of  equity  to  enforce  their 
decrees  by  the  seizure  of  prop- 
erty belonging  to  persons  against 
whom  the  decrees  are  made.  The 
proper  officer  takes  the  property, 
collects  rents  and  profits,  and  ap- 
plies the  net  income  to  the  sat- 
isfaction of  any  award  in  the 
decree,  or  retains  it  until  it  is  de- 
termined to  whom  it  belongs. 
The  process  is  sometimes  used  to 
enforce  obedience  by  a  person 
in  contempt  of  a  court  of  equity. 
The  statutory  process  of  execu- 
tion has  superseded  it  in  some 
States,  but  courts  of  equity  gen- 
erally retain  the  power  to  issue 
it.  See  Execution  ;  Equity  ; 
Process. 

Sequin,  se'kwin  or  sek'in,  an 
Italian  gold  coin,  the  value  of 
which  was  about  $2.31,  first 
minted  at  Venice  about  the  close 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  In 
appearance  it  was  not  unlike  the 
ducat.  Similar  coins,  of  varying 
values,  were  used  in  Turkey  and 
in  Egypt.  Sequins  were  coined 
in  Austria  down  to  1822,  and  at 
Rome  and  Bologna  until  1834. 

Sequoia,  se-kwoi'o,  a  genus  of 
large  resinous  trees  belonging  to 
the  order  Coniferae.  The  trees 
are  symmetrical  in  form,  the 
trunk,  a  purplish  brown  in  color, 
often  rising  a  hundred  feet  or 
more  without  a  branch.  The 
bark  is  thick  and  consists  of  two 
layers,  the  outer  composed  of 
fibrous  scales,  the  inner,  thin, 
close,  and  durable.  The  foliage 
is  feathery  and  delicate  and  the 
cones  are  a  bright  green.  The 
Sequoia  is  found  only  in  the 
mountains  of  California,  where 
two  species  exist,  gigantca  and 
S.  scmpcrvircns.  S.  gigantea,  or 
-S'.  washingtoniana,  the  Big  Tree, 
has  an  average  height  of  275  feet 
and  a  diameter  of  20  to  25  feet. 
It  occurs  only  in  small  groves — 
ten  in  number — scattered  along 
the  west  slope  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada mountains,  the  most  impor- 


tant of  these  being  the  Mariposa 
and  the  Calaveras  groves.  The 
Calaveras  grove,  discovered  by 
John  Bidwell  in  1865,  has  be- 
tween 90  and  100  large  trees,  the 
tallest  being  the  Keystone  State, 
323  feet,  and  the  largest  and  fin- 
est the  Empire  State.  There  are 
fine  specimens  also  in  the  groves 
in  Yosemite  Park  (q.  v.),  in 
Sequoia  National  Park  (q.  v.), 
and  on  privately  owned  estates. 
These  Big  Trees  are  among  the 
largest  of  all  forest  trees,  and  are 
of  great  age,  some  specimens  be- 
ing probably  from  2,000  to  3,000 
years  old.  .S".  scmpcrvircns,  the 
Redwood,  is  found  in  a  narrow 
strip  of  coast  ranges  from  the 
southern  part  of  Oregon  to  the 
Bay  of  Monterey.  It  has  light, 
soft,  red  wood,  close-grained, 
durable,  and  easily  worked  and 
is  employed  for  shingles,  fence- 
posts,  railway  ties,  and  building 
purposes.  It  is  often  cultivated 
as  an  ornamental  tree  in  temper- 
ate European  countries. 

Sequoia  National  Park,  a 
national  park  of  161,597  acres, 
on  the  upper  slopes  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains  of  Central 
California,  created  in  1890  to 
preserve  the  groves  of  sequoias, 
which  constitute  its  principal  fea- 
ture. These  include  some  1,666,- 
000  trees,  of  which  12,000  are 
more  than  10  feet  in  diameter. 
The  largest  trees  are  gathered  in 
twelve  groups  of  many  acres,  and 
include  the  General  Sherman 
tree,  over  279  feet  high,  with  a 
diameter  of  36.5  feet ;  the  Abra- 
ham Lincoln,  270  feet  high,  with 
a  diameter  of  31  feet;  the  Wil- 
liam McKinley,  291  feet,  with  a 
diameter  of  28  feet ;  and  the  Dal- 
ton,  292  feet,  with  a  diameter  of 
27  feet.  Other  points  of  interest 
are  Twin  Lakes,  an  admirable 
fishing  ground  on  the  northern 
border ;  Hospital  Rock ;  Para- 
dise Cave  ;  and  Elk  Park. 

Sequoya,  se-kwoi'a  (c.  1760- 
1843),  American  Cherokee  In- 
dian, born  of  mixed  parentage  in 
the  town  of  Tuskegee,  near  Fort 
Loudon,  Tenn.  About  1809  he 
began  to  devise  an  alphabet  for 
the  Cherokee  tongue,  and  finally 
completed  one  of  eighty-five 
characters.  The  invention  was 
adopted  by  his  tribe,  and  after- 
ward was  of  use  to  missionaries. 
In  1823  he  took  up  his  residence 
among  the  Cherokees  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  in  1839  helped 
to  unite  the  'Old  Settlers'  and 
that  portion  of  the  tribe  which 
had  recently  settled  in  that  re- 
gion. 

Serafin,  Tullio  (1880- 
),  Italian  musical  conduc- 
tor, was  born  in  Cavarzere.  He 
graduated  from  the  Conscrva- 
torio  in  Milan  and  made  his  first 
appearance  as  conductor  in 
Verdi's  A'ida  in  Ferrara.  His 
debut  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 


House  in  New  York  City  oc- 
curred in  1924,  after  which  he 
also  conducted  in  European  capi- 
tals and  in  South  America. 

Seraglio,  se-ral'yo,  the  palace 
of  the  former  sultans  of  Turkey 
at  Constantinople,  which  occupies 
the  site  of  ancient  Byzantium. 
Its  erection  was  begun  in  1468; 
it  was  much  enlarged  by  Soly- 
man  (Suleiman)  i  ;  and  for  more 
than  three  centuries  was  the  chief 
residence  of  the  Ottoman  sul- 
tans. In  1853  Abdul-Mejid 
moved  his  residence  to  Dolma 
Bagtche  Palace  and  the  Seraglio 
ceased  to  be  the  imperial  dwell- 
ing place.  The  Seraglio  consists 
of  a  series  of  kiosks  surrounded 
by  a  battlemented  wall  over 
three  miles  in  circumference. 
The  grounds  rise  in  three  ter- 
races, the  upper  containing  the 
palace  proper  and  the  covirt  of 
the  Janissaries,  and  the  two  low- 
er, numerous  buildings  and  gar- 
dens, among  which  are  the  Im- 
perial School  of  Fine  Arts,  the 
Museum  of  Antiquities,  the  Ki- 
osk of  Roses,  and  the  Church  of 
St.  Irene,  now  used  as  an  armory 
and  museum.  The  palace  proper 
consists  of  a  number  of  small 
buildings,  of  which  the  most  in- 
teresting are  the  Hall  of  the  Di- 
van or  throne-room,  the  library 
of  Mustafa  in,  containing  many 
treasures,  the  Bagdad  Kiosk,  the 
former  imperial  harem,  and  the 
building  of  the  Prophet,  contain- 
ing some  of  his  relics.  An  earth- 
quake in  1865  destroyed  some  of 
the  buildings,  and  many  of  the 
kiosks  have  been  turned  to  gov- 
ernmental uses. 

Seraievo.    See  Sarajevo. 

Seraing,  sc-rafi',  town,  Bel- 
gium, province  of  Liege,  on  the 
River  Meuse ;  3  miles  s.w.  of 
Liege.  The  Cockerill  engineer- 
ing and  machinery  works,  found- 
ed here  in  1817  by  John  Cocker- 
ill,  an  Englishman,  occupy  some 
270  acres.  The  old  palace  of  the 
prince-bishops  of  Liege  forms 
the  fagade  of  the  establishment. 
Pop.  (1937)  43,332. 

Serampore,  ser-um-poor', 
town,  Hugli  district,  Bengal, 
British  India,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Hugli;  13  miles  north  of 
Calcutta.  It  was  originally  a 
Danish  settlement  but  was  ceded 
to  the  East  India  Company  in 
1845.  It  has  a  Baptist  college 
and  a  library,  and  is  a  center  of 
Christian  missions.  Industries 
include  cotton  and  silk  weaving 
(by  hand)  and  the  making  of 
bricks,  pottery  and  mats.  Pop. 
33,197. 

Serang.    See  Cream. 

Serao,  sa-ra'6,  Matilde 
(1856-1927),  Italian  novelist, 
was  born  in  Greece.  She  settled 
at  Rome,  married  E.  Scarfoglio, 
and  with  him  founded  //  Corricre 
di  Roma,  II  Corricre  di  Napoli, 
and  the  Neopolitan  //  Mattino. 


Serapeum 


KFI 


106 


Serbia 


She  also  founded  and  was  direc- 
tor of  //  Giorno,  Naples.  Her 
novels,  though  marred  by  a  cer- 
tain lack  of  proportion,  style  and 
finish,  have  achieved  wide  popu- 
larity, which  they  deserve  by 
reason  of  the  knowledge  of  and 
truth  to  life  displayed  in  them. 
The  following  English  transla- 
tions of  her  works  have  ap- 
peared:  Fantasy  (1891);  Fare- 
well Love  (1894)  ;  The  Ballet 
Dancer  (1901)  ;  On  Guard 
(1901);  The  Land  of  Cockayne 

(1901)  ;  The  Conquest  of  Rome 

(1902)  ;  a  striking  book  of  im- 
pressions of  Palestine,  Nel  Pacse 
di  Gesi)  (Eng.  trans.  /;;  the 
Country  of  Jesus,  1905);  After 
the  Pardon  (1909). 

Serape'um.    See  Sf.rapis. 

Seraph,  ser'af  {pi.  seraphim), 
a  heavenly  being  mentioned  only 
by  Isaiah  (vi.  2-6).  As  minis- 
ters in  the  ideal  sanctuary,  sera- 
phim hover  over  God's  throne. 
They  appear  to  have  human  fig- 
ures, since  they  have  faces,  feet, 
and  hands,  but  each  has  also  six 
wings.  Their  office  is  to  pro- 
claim God's  holiness,  and  to 
purge  the  sin  from  the  prophet 
with  the  coal  from  the  altar. 

The  tradition  which  took  its 
rise  in  Dionysius,  the  Areopa- 
gite,  represents  them  at  the  head 
of  the  nine  choirs  of  angels,  the 
first  rank  being  seraphim,  cheru- 
bim, and  throni. 

Seraphim.    See  Seraph. 

Seraphine,  ser'a-fen,  a  key- 
board musical  instrument,  one  of 
the  prototypes  of  the  harmonium  ; 
now  obsolete. 

Serapion,  se-ra'pi-on,  or  Sar- 
APioN,  Sacramentary  OF,  Egyp- 
tian pontifical,  dated  probably 
A.D.  350-356  ;  published  in  Texte 
nnd  Untersuehungen  (1899),  by 
Dr.  G.  Wobbermin,  and  trans- 
lated bv  John  Wordsworth 
(1899).  It  contained  (1)  'Con- 
fession concerning  the  Orthodox 
Faith,'  by  Euthalius,  bishop  of 
Sulke;  (2)  a  letter  of  St.  Atha- 
nasius  to  the  philosopher  Maxi- 
mus ;  (3)  thirty  prayers;  (4)  a 
dogmatic  letter  'Concerning  Fa- 
ther and  Son';  (5)  parts  of  the 
Septuagint,  Job,  the  prologue  of 
Polychronius,  Wisdom  of  Jesus, 
son  of  Sirach,  Proverbs  of  Solo- 
mon, Ecclesiastes,  and  the  Song 
of  Songs.  Appended  to  prayers 
1  and  1  5  is  the  name  of  'Sarapion, 
bishop  of  Thmuis,'  a  town  in  the 
delta  of  the  Nile,  near  Lake 
Menzaleh  (Herodotus,  2,  166). 
Sarapion,  styled  Scholasticus. 
wrote,  besides  his  Confession,  a 
treatise  on  the  Manich.-Eans  and 
Epistles.  ^ 

Serapis,  se-ra'pis,  or  Sara- 
pis,  the  name  given  to  the  sacred 
bull  of  the  Egyptians,  Apis 
(q.  v.),  after  his  death  and  as- 
similation with  Osiris  (q.  v.), 
Serapis  was  worshipped  under 
the  Ptolemies  and  the  Romans 


in  Egypt  and  many  temples  were 
erected  in  his  honor,  among  them 
a  magnificent  one  in  Alexandria, 
the  Serapeum ,  and  one  at  Mem- 
phis, which  was  excavated  in 
1850.  He  was  represented  with 
an  animal  by  his  side  and  a  ser- 
pent coiled  around  his  body. 
The  worship  of  Serapis  spread 
over  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and 
even  to  Rome  itself  and  contin- 
ued in  Egypt  until  the  image  at 


and  Slovenes.  On  October  3, 
1929,  the  official  name  of  the 
State  was  changed  to  Jugoslavia 

(q.  v.)._ 

Serbia  or  Servia  (Slavonic 
Srbiya),  formerly  a  kingdom  of 
Southeastern  Europe,  now  the 
predominant  state  of  Jugoslavia 
(q.  v.). 

Its  area,  until  the  signing  of 
the  Treaty  of  Bucharest  (1913) 
after   the   close    of   the  Balkan 


Temple  of  Serapis  al  Sakkara,  Memphis. 


Alexandria  was  destroved,  a.d. 
398. 

Serbati.    See  Rosmini-Ser- 

BATI. 

Serb-Croat-Slovene  State, 

former  name  of  what  is  now 
Jugoslavia  (Jugo  means  'South- 
ern'). When  the  old  Austro- 
Hungarian  Empire  collapsed  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  World  War 
in  1918,  Slavonia,  Croatia,  Dal- 
matia  and  Bosnia  declared  their 
independence  and  union  with 
Serbia.  Montenegro  also  joined, 
and  together  they  formed  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Serbs,  Croats 


Wars  (q.  v.),  was  18,782  square 
miles.  That  treaty  added  por- 
tions of  Salonica  (q.  v.)  (1,795 
square  miles),  Monastir  (3,473 
square  miles),  and  Kossovo  (9,- 
973  S(iuare  miles)  ;  and  subse- 
quent boundary  adjustments 
brought  the  area  of  Old  Serbia 
(1921)  to  42,098  square  miles. 
A  free  zone  in  the  harbor  of 
Salonica  was  obtained  by  Serbia 
from  Greece  in  1923. 

Topography . — In  contour, 
Serbia  is  a  table  land  intersected 
by  valleys  and  traversed  by 
mountain    ranges.     The  high- 


CoppTigia  bo  PnbHshers^  Pboto  Service. 

GENERAL  SHERMAN,  THE  GIANT  SEQUOIA,  SEQUOIA  NATIONAL 
This  tree  is  over  279  feet  high,  with  a  diameter  of  36  5  feet 
Vol.  Xl.-Oct.  '21  XL- 


i 

I 


Serbia 


KFI 


107 


Serbia 


lands  of  Eastern  Serbia  form  the 
transition  between  the  Transyl- 
vanian  Alps  and  the  Balkans. 
The  mountains  of  the  western 
part  belong  to  the  Dinaric  Alps 
and  are  covered  with  dense  for- 
ests. The  loftiest  peaks  are 
Pobyezdin  Potok  (6,950  feet) 
and  Midzor  (7,170  feet),  on  the 
Bulgarian  frontier.  The  princi- 
pal rivers  are  the  Danube,  the 
Save,  the  Drina  and  the  Timok, 
which  form  parts  of  the  northern 
and  eastern  boundaries ;  the 
Morava,  with  its  tributaries, 
flowing  into  the  Danube ;  and 
the  Vardar,  which  empties  into 
the  Gulf  of  Salonica.  The  val- 
leys of  the  Morava  and  Vardar 
form  together  a  route  of  com- 
munication from  the  Danube  to 
the  port  of  Salonica.  Mineral 
and  hot  springs  are  abundant. 

The  climate  is  temperate,  but 
subject  to  extreme  variations, 
and  the  winters  are  sometimes 
severe.  The  anntial  rainfall  is 
about  25  inches. 

Natural  Resources. — There 
are  great  forests  which,  until 
recent  years,  covered  three-quar- 
ters of  the  country,  but  with  the 
extension  of  arable  land  these 
are  being  greatly  reduced.  They 
consist  chiefly  of  beech,  oak,  fir, 
walnut  and  chestnut.  Minerals 
are  found  chiefly  in  the  north. 
Lakes  Okhrida,  Presba  and  Doi- 
ran  in  the  south  are  noted  for 
fish. 

The  potential  mineral  wealth 
is  enormous.  Rich  supplies  of 
copper,  coal,  lignite,  iron,  lead, 
antimony,  gold,  silver,  zinc,  mer- 
cury and  petroleum  are  avail- 
able. 

Industries. — The  soil  is  fer- 
tile, and  agriculture  is  the  chief 
occupation,  employing  more  than 
80  per  cent  of  the  population. 
Most  of  the  farms  are  small  pri- 
vate holdings.  Maize  is  the  sta- 
ple article  of  food,  and  is  widely 
cultivated,  as  are  also  other  cere- 
als, beetroot,  plums,  tobacco  and 
hemp.  Vineyards  produce  much 
wine  and  employ,  with  silk  cul- 
ture, many  people. 

Stock-raising  is  profitable ; 
pigs  are  largely  bred,  and  there 
are  State-owned  stud  farms. 
Serbian  horses  are  small,  but  of 
great  endurance.  Flour  mill- 
ing is  one  of  the  principal  in- 
dustries ;  others  include  sugar, 
textiles,  leather,  vegetable  oils, 
brewing,  and  distilling.  Of  the 
large  quantities  of  plums  grown 
the  bulk  is  exported  as  fresh 
fruit,  as  prunes  and  in  marma- 
lade. From  plums  the  Serbs 
make  a  brandy  which  they  call 
slivovits.  Serbian  wines  are 
inferior  in  (|uality,  but  are  ex- 
ported to  France,  where  they  are 
improved  and  re-exported  as 
'Bordeaux.' 

Carpet  weaving,  one  of  the 
oldest  industries,  still  flourishes, 


chiefly  at  Pirot,  and  Serbian  rugs 
are  highly  esteemed  for  their 
fine  coloring  and  solid  workman- 
ship. Cloth  weaving,  tanning, 
boot  making,  pottery,  iron  work- 
ing, sugar  refining,  and  meat 
packing  are  carried  on. 

Commerce. — Since  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Jvigoslav  State,  sepa- 
rate statistics  for  Serbia  are  un- 
obtainable. The  exports  were 
shipped  principally  to  Austria- 
Hungary,  Germany  and  Turkey. 
Imports  were  received  principally 
from  Austria-Hungary,  Ger- 
many, and  the  United  Kingdom. 
Since  the  World  War,  trade 
which  was  formerly  chiefly  car- 
ried on  with  Austria,  has  gone 
to  other  countries. 

Transportation. — There 
were  two  principal  railway  lines  : 
one  running  from  Belgrade 
through  Nish  to  Vranya,  and 
forming  part  of  the  important 
route  from  Western  Europe  to 
Constantinople ;  the  other  run- 
ning south  from  Nish  through 
the  Morava-Vardar  valley  to- 
ward Salonica.  Additional  lines 
connected  Mitrovitza  with  the 
main  line  at  Skoplje,  and  Monas- 
tir  with  Salonica.  The  total 
mileage  in  December,  1913,  was 
about  1,000.  River  navigation 
is  confined  to  the  Danube,  Drina, 
and  Save  Rivers,  a  total  of  400 
miles.  The  country  is  equipped 
with  telegraph,  telephone,  and 
postal  facilities.  The  roads, 
neglected  during  the  Turkish 
occupation,  have  been  much 
improved. 

People. — The  Serbians  are  a 
Slavic  people,  forming  the  chief 
population  not  only  of  Serbia, 
but  of  Montenegro,  Bosnia,  and 
Croatia.  Other  peoples  found  in 
Serbia  are  Turks,  Bulgarians, 
Greeks,  Jews,  Albanians,  and 
Gypsies.  In  December,  1920, 
the  population  numbered  4,- 
393,315.  The  principal  towns  of 
Old  Serbia  are  Belgrade  (capi- 
tal, and  now  capital  of  Jugo- 
slavia), Monastir,  or  Bitolj, 
Nish,  Kraguyevatz,  Novi  Pazar, 
Prizren,  Leskovatz,  Poshare- 
vatz,  Vranya  and  Pirot. 

The  religions  of  Serbia  are, 
first,  Serbian-Orthodox ;  then 
follow  Roman  Catholic,  Greek 
Catholic,  Protestant,  Moslem, 
and  Jewish,  while  there  was 
complete  freedom  for  all  creeds 
recognized  by  law.  Under  the 
Jugoslav  State  there  have  been 
changes  in  religious  organization 
and  government. 

Education  had  never  reached 
a  high  stage  in  old  Serbia,  for 
about  85  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion was  illiterate.  Elementary 
education  is  now  free  and  com- 
pulsory, and  schools  exist  in 
every  commune.  In  1920  a  uni- 
versity of  the  Serbs,  Croats  and 
Slovenes  was  established  at 
Ljubliana.    There  are  numerous 


private  schools  and  a  government 
military  academy. 

Government. — Until  the  for- 
mation of  the  Jugoslav  State, 
Serbia  was  governed  under  the 
constitution  of  1903.  According 
to  the  terms  of  this  constitution, 
the  country  was  a  constitutional 
and  hereditary  monarchy,  the 
executive  power  being  vested  in 
the  king  and  a  cabinet  of  eight 
members,  and  the  legislative 
power  in  the  king  and  the  Na- 
tional Assembly,  consisting  of 
166  deputies.  Besides  this  body 
there  was  a  Senate  of  16  mem- 
bers— 8  chosen  by  the  king  and 
8  by  the  National  Assembly — 
which  acted  as  a  permanent 
council. 

The  army  was  reorganized  in 
1916,  but  the  war  had  caused 
such  great  losses  in  killed  and 
missing  that  when  it  ended  the 
army  was  demobilized  and  a  new 
organization,  on  a  small  scale, 
commenced.  In  1919  a  new 
army  of  Jugoslavia  was  begin- 
ning to  take  shape  and  in  1920 
this  amounted  to  200,000  men. 
Military  service  is  still  universal 
and  compulsory. 

History. — The  original  home 
of  the  Croats  and  Serbs,  or  Ser- 
bians, seems  to  have  been  the 
country  adjoining  the  Carpathi- 
ans. Their  history  begins  in 
A.D.  638,  when  they  migrated 
into  Illyricum  and  part  of 
Moesia.  The  Croatian  branch  of 
the  family  was  ruled  by  bans  till 
annexed  to  Hungary.  The  Serbs 
were  governed  by  a  series  of 
petty  rulers  till  the  time  of 
Stephen  Nemanya  (1159-96), 
who  became  a  monk,  and  aban- 
doned the  government  to  his  son 
Stephen.  The  reign  of  Stephen 
Dushan,  who  succeeded  in  1331, 
is  memorable  for  his  successful 
campaigns  against  the  Greeks, 
and  the  code  of  laws  which  he 
issued  in  1349.  Under  his  rule 
Serbia  reached  the  summit  of 
power.  He  died  in  1355,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Urosh. 
The  Nemanya  dynasty  closed 
with  the  death  of  Urosh  (c. 
1371). 

On  June  15,  1389,  the  Serbs 
were  defeated  at  the  Battle  of 
Kossovo  (the  Field  of  Black- 
birds), in  which  Lazar,  their 
prince,  was  killed,  and  the  Ser- 
bian monarchy  came  to  an  end. 
The  Turkish  Sultan,  Murad,  the 
conqueror,  was  stabbed  on  the 
field  of  battle  by  the  Serb  Milosh 
Obilich.  After  this,  Serbia  be- 
came a  Turkish  province.  In 
1691  large  bodies  of  Serbs  set- 
tled in  Hungary,  where  their  de- 
scendants still  exist ;  others  fol- 
lowed in  1738  and  1788.  Aus- 
tria gained  a  considerable  part 
of  Serbia  by  the  Treaty  of  Posh- 
arevatz  (Passarwitz)  in  1718, 
but  lost  it  again  by  the  Treaty  of 
Belgrade  in  1739. 


Serbia 


KFI 


108 


Serbia 


The  Serbs  groaned  under  the 
Turkish  yoke  till  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  At 
length  the  exasperated  people, 
goaded  to  desperation,  rose  in 
1804  under  the  leadership  of 
Kara  George,  a  rich  swine  owner 
and  a  man  of  influence,  who  by 
1807  stormed  and  took  posses- 
sion of  Belgrade  and  the  other 
fortresses.  In  1813  the  Turks 
assailed  Serbia  on  both  sides 
with  such  vigor  that  Kara 
George  fled  to  Austria,  and  the 
enemy  recovered  the  country. 
Turkish  oppression  again  pro- 
voked an  uprising  of  the  people 
in  1815  ;  they  chose  as  their  lead- 


Michael  (1839-42),  was  driven 
out  of  the  country  by  a  rival  fac- 
tion, who  elected  Alexander,  son 
of  Kara  George,  as  their  prince. 
In  1859  he  was  compelled  to  ab- 
dicate, his  successor  being  the 
aged  exile,  Milosh  Obrenovich. 
On  his  death,  less  than  two  years 
later,  the  chief  power  passed  to 
his  son  Michael,  who  had  been 
expelled  in  1842.  Under  his  rule 
a  new  era  began  for  harassed 
Serbia,  and  the  country  moved 
forward  along  the  path  of  prog- 
ress and  prosperity.  The  Turks 
withdrew  from  the  country  in 
1867.  On  June  20,  1868,  Prince 
Michael  was  assassinated.  He 


georgevitch,  then  in  exile,  was 
proclaimed  king. 

In  1908  the  (luestion  of  the 
union  into  one  empire  of  Serbia, 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  Monte- 
negro, and  other  countries  in 
which  the  inhabitants  were  large- 
ly Serbs,  became  acute  on  the 
annexation  of  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina by  Austria-Hungary. 
Serbia  demanded  compensation  ; 
demonstrations  raised  the  na- 
tional feeling  to  fever  heat,  and 
war  appeared  imminent.  Ulti- 
mately, through  the  efforts  of  the 
Powers,  Serbia  abandoned  its 
demands  against  Austria-Hun- 
gary, while  the  dual  monarchy 


er  Milosh  Obrenovich,  a  herds- 
man, who  in  a  single  campaign 
expelled  the  enemy  except  the 
garrisons  in  the  fortresses.  This 
man  was  henceforth  the  leading 
spirit  in  the  struggle  of  the  Serbs 
for  independence.  In  1817  he 
caused  his  rival  Kara  George, 
who  had  returned,  to  be  assassi- 
nated, and  was  himself  pro- 
claimed chief  ruler  of  Serbia. 
In  1829  the  Ottoman  government 
at  last  formally  agreed  to  the 
provisions  of  the  Treaty  of  Bu- 
charest, and  in  the  following 
year  recognized  Milosh  as  he- 
reditary prince  of  Serbia.  In 
1839  he  was  compelled  to  abdi- 
cate in  favor  of  his  son  Milan, 
who  died  the  same  year. 

Milan's  brother  and  successor, 


was  succeeded  by  Milan  iv,  a 
grandson  of  Yephrem,  brother  of 
the  heroic  Milosh. 

In  1885  war  broke  out  with 
Bulgaria,  in  which  the  Serbs 
were  defeated  by  Prince  Alexan- 
der (of  Battenberg),  ruler  of 
Bulgaria,  at  Slivnitza,  and  at 
Pirot,  and  were  saved  by  foreign 
intervention,  this  time  that  of 
Austria-Hungary.  In  1889  King 
Milan  abdicated  in  favor  of  his 
son  Alexander. 

On  the  morning  of  July  11, 
1903,  a  party  of  ofiicers,  repre- 
senting a  widespread  conspiracy, 
broke  into  the  palace  and  assas- 
sinated King  Alexander  and  his 
queen,  the  queen's  brother,  and 
several  others.  A  few  weeks 
afterward   Prince   Peter  Kara- 


declared  that  it  harbored  no  un- 
friendly designs  against  Serbia. 

When  in  October,  1912,  the 
four  Balkan  States  of  Bulgaria, 
Serbia,  Greece,  and  Montenegro 
united  against  Turkey,  Serbia 
played  a  most  important  part  in 
the  successful  war  that  ensued 
(see  Balkan  War).  According 
to  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of 
London  (May  30,  1913),  ending 
the  first  war,  each  of  the  Balkan 
States  was  given  a  part  of  the 
Turkish  possessions  in  Europe. 
Dissatisfaction  over  the  division 
of  the  spoils  at  once  developed, 
however.  In  June,  1913,  Serbia 
and  Greece  formed  an  alliance 
against  Bulgaria,  and  aided  by 
Roumania,  quickly  defeated  the 
Bulgars.    By  the  Treaty  of  Bu- 


Serbia 


KFI 


109 


Serbian  Languag^e 


charest  (Aug.  10,  1913)  Serbia 
received  a  large  part  of  Mace- 
donia, which  she  then  occupied, 
and  territory  east  of  Kossovo — 
over  15,000  square  miles  in  all. 

In  1914  the  deep-rooted  ani- 
mosity between  Serb  and  Mag- 
yar was  brought  to  a  head  by  the 
assassination  of  Crown  Prince 
Franz  Ferdinand  of  Austria- 
Hungary  at  Sarajevo  (June  28) 
by  a  native  of  Herzegovina. 
Austria  charged  that  the  assas- 
sination had  been  arranged  at 
Belgrade,  and  that  the  conspira- 
tors had  been  aided  by  Serbian 
officials  ;  and  on  July  6  severed 
diplomatic  relations  with  Serbia. 
On  July  28,  1914,  Austria  de- 
clared war  on  Serbia  and  on  Au- 
gust 9  Serbia  dismissed  the  Ger- 
man ambassador  at  her  court. 
Austria  at  once  began  a  bom- 
bardment of  Belgrade  across  the 
Danube  and  the  government  was 
removed  to  Nish.  After  about 
two  weeks  of  fighting,  the  Aus- 
trians  were  defeated  and  Serbian 
territory  was  cleared  of  them. 

In  September,  1914,  fighting 
was  renewed,  and  aided  by  Mon- 
tenegro, Serbia  was  again  able 
to  repulse  the  Austrian  attacks. 
Belgrade  was  evacuated  by  the 
Serbs  Dec.  2,  1914,  but  was  re- 
entered Dec.  14.  The  following 
year,  in  September,  a  fresh  at- 
tack by  the  Austro-German  army 
upon  Serbia  was  started  and  by 
Oct.  9  Belgrade  had  fallen.  Bul- 
garia joined  in  the  attack  against 
Serbia  and  by  the  middle  of 
December  the  conquest  of  Ser- 
bia was  complete.  The  Serbs 
had  resisted  valiantly  for  two 
months  against  odds  of  between 
two  and  three  to  one,  and  if 
they  had  not  been  forbidden  by 
the  Allies  to  attack  the  Bulgars 
until  the  latter  attacked  them, 
they  might  have  fought  with 
more  prospect  of  success.  Serbia 
was  conquered,  but  not  the  Ser- 
bian armies.  More  than  100,000 
men  and  most  of  the  artillery 
and  equipment  had  been  lost. 
The  remnant  of  the  army  and 
people  were  forced  to  retreat 
through  Albania  to  the  Adriatic 
coast,  where  they  were  embarked 
on  Italian  ships  and  conveyed  to 
the  Greek  island  of  Corfu. 
Here  they  were  recuperated  and 
re-e(|uipped.  (For  the  re-con- 
(luest  of  Serbia  and  ultimate 
triumph  of  that  country  with  the 
aid  of  French,  British,  Italian 
and  Greek  allies,  see  Europe, 
Great  War  of). 

Following  the  War  the  Serbs, 
Croats  and  Slovenes  united  in 
the  organization  of  a  new  State 
to  be  known  as  the  Serb,  Croat 
and  Slovene  State,  or  Jugoslavia 
(q.  v.).  The  first  ministry  was 
formed  in  1918,  and  the  Serbian 
Crown  Prince  Alexander  was  ap- 
pointed Prince  Regent  to  act  for 
his  father,  King  Peter,  then  74 


and  broken  by  the  hardships  en- 
dured in  the  war.  Peter  died  in 
1921  and  Alexander  succeeded 
to  the  throne.  The  latter  was 
assassinated  at  Marseilles, 
France,  on  Oct.  9,  1934,  to- 
gether with  Louis  Barthou, 
French  Foreign  Minister. 

Consult  H.  W.  V.  Temperley, 
History  of  Serbia  (1917)  ;  Z.  Zi- 
vanovich.  Political  History  of 
Serbia  (4  vols.,  1923-5)  ;  R.  W. 
Seton- Watson,  The  Rise  of  Na- 
tionality in  the  Balkans  (1917)  ; 
idem,  Sarajevo  (1926)  ;  H.  Vivi- 
an, Servia  (1897);  W.  E.  Cur- 
tis, The  Turk  and  his  Lost 
Provinces  (1903);  M.  E.  Dur- 
ham, Through  the  Lands  of  the 
Serb  (1904)  ;  idem,  Twenty 
Years  of  Balkan  Tangle  (1920)  ; 
A.  Stead  (ed.),  Servia  by  the 
Servians  (1909)  ;  Lazarovich- 
Hrebelianovich,  The  Servian 
People:  Their  Past  Glory  and 
their  Destiny  (2  vols..  1910)  ; 
Chedomil  Mijatovich,  Servia  of 
the  Servians  (1913);  L.  F. 
Church,  The  Story  of  Serbia 
(1914);  K.  S.  Patton,  King- 
dom of  Serbs,  Croats  and  Slo- 
venes (1928). 

Serbian  Langauge  and  Lit- 
erature. The  Serbian  language 
belongs  to  the  southern  division 
of  Slav  tongues,  having  for  its 
nearest  congeners  Bulgarian, 
Slovenian,  and  Russian ;  and  it 
is  the  language  of  the  Croats, 
Montenegrins,  and  Bosniaks. 
(See  Slavs), 

The  earliest  productions  in  the 
Serbian  language  date  from  the 
twelfth  century,  and  consist  of 
monkish  chronicles  and  letters ; 
in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  various  lives  of  the 
saints  and  kings,  and  annals, 
were  written  by  Stephen  Ne- 
manya,  St.  Sava,  Archbishop 
Danilo,  Lazarevich  Vissoki,  and 
others.  To  this  period,  also, 
belongs  the  collection  of  laws 
(Zakonik)  made  in  1349,  when 
Stephen  Dushan  was  king. 

Except  for  biographical  and 
historical  works  there  were 
scarcely  any  original  literary  cre- 
ations in  the  first  period  of 
Serbian  literary  history,  but  in 
the  second  period  the  fine  col- 
lection of  ballads  which  has  be- 
come celebrated  throughout  Eu- 
rope seems  to  have  been  in  proc- 
ess of  formation.  The  first  col- 
lection was  published  in  1824 
by  Vuk  Stephanovich  Karajich, 
who  was  mainly  instrumental  in 
raising  Serbian  to  the  dignity  of 
a  literary  language. 

During  this  second  period 
Ragusa  (Dubrovnik)  was  a  great 
center  of  Slavonic  culture.  Its 
development  was  chiefly  due  to 
the  proximity  of  the  richly  en- 
dowed Italian  cities.  The  main 
products  were  lyrical  poetry  and 
the  lyrical  drama.  Among  the 
poets  may  be  mentioned  Marko 


Marulich  (1450-1524);  Lucie 
(1480-1540);  Hektorovich 
(1486-1572)  ;  Cubranovich  (d.  c. 
1550),  the  author  of  Vegyupka, 
or  the  Gypsy  ;  and  Zlatarich 
(1556-1610).  The  chief  poet 
was  Gundulich  (1550-1638), 
whose  epic  Osman  celebrates  the 
victory  of  the  Poles  over  the 
Turks  at  Khotin. 

In  spite  of  the  galling  Turkish 
yoke,  which  checked  all  national 
feeling,  the  Serbs  had  not  entire- 
ly forgotten  their  past.  Dositei 
Obradovich  (1739-1811)  and 
Yovan  Raich  (1720-1801)  were 
two  considerable  scholars  who  la- 
bored for  the  welfare  of  their 
countrymen.  The  former  was 
the  first  author  among  the  Serbs 
who  emphasized  the  necessity  of 
writing  in  the  language  of  the 
people,  and  so  prepared  the  way 
for  Vuk  Stephanovich  Karajich 
(1787-1864),  who  published  a 
grammar  and  a  dictionary  of  his 
native  language.  Some  remark- 
able writers  followed,  such  as 
Mushitski  (1777-1837)  and  Mil- 
utinovich  (1791-1847).  The 
most  celebrated  of  the  poets  of 
modern  times  have  been  Stanko 
Vraz  (1810-51),  by  birth  a  Slo- 
vene ;  Radichevich,  who  died 
(1853)  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
nine  ;  Petar  Petrovich  Nyegosh 
(1813-1851),  the  author  of  Gor- 
ski  Viycnats,  a  drama  in  verse 
describing  the  life  of  the  Mon- 
tenegrins ;  Yovan  Yovanovich 
(1833-1904),  and  Gyoora  Yak- 
shich  (1832-1878),  a  painter  as 
well  as  a  poet. 

Other  modern  names,  well  and 
favorably  known,  are  those  of 
Laza  Kostich,  Prince  Nikola 
Petrovich  Nyegosh  of  Monte- 
negro, poets ;  Dragootin  Ilich, 
Milosh  Glishich,  Branislav  Noo- 
shich,  and  Kosta  Trifkovich, 
dramatists  ;  Vidakovich,  Yakov 
Ignyatovich,  Lazarevich,  Lyoo- 
bisha,  Milichevich,  Vookiche- 
vich,  Vesselmovich,  Srematz  and 
Matavooly,  novelists  and  short 
story  writers  ;  Dr.  Josif  Pan- 
chich,  botanist ;  and  Stoyan 
Novakovich,  Lyooba  Kovache- 
vich,  Yovan  Tomich,  Illaryon 
Roovarats,  and  Chedo  Mija- 
tovich, historians. 

Since  the  establishment  of 
Jugoslavia  there  has  grown  up 
a  movement  towards  unity  and 
co-operation  among  the  literati 
writing  in  Serbo-Croat  and  Slo- 
vene langviages.  The  Universi- 
ties of  Belgrade  and  Zagreb  have 
energetically  fostered  the  move- 
ment which  may,  in  time,  de- 
velop a  truly  national  or  Jugo- 
slav literature.  Women,  too, 
have  entered  the  fields  of  poetry 
and  fiction.  Most  of  the  refer- 
ence and  historical  works  on  this 
subject  are  published  in  Slavonic 
languages  and  German  ;  a  few  in 
French.  One  of  the  rare  Eng- 
lish works  is  by  M.  S.  Stano- 


Serbs 


KFI 


110 


Sergeant 


jevitz,  Early  Jugoslav  Litera- 
ture, A.D.  1100-1800  (vol.  I, 
1922)  ;  M.  Murko,  Geschichte 
dcr  dltern  siidslavischcn  Litcra- 
turcn  (1908);  for  grammars 
and  dictionaries  of  the  Serbo- 
Croat  language  see  the  works  of 
W.  R.  Morfill  and  Chedomil  Mi- 
jatovich,  the  latter  formerly  Ser- 
bian Minister  to  Great  Britain  ; 
F.  R.  Bogadek,  Standard  Eng- 
lish Croatian  Dictionary  (1915). 

Serbs.    See  Serbia. 

Sercq.    See  Sark. 

Serdobsk,  ser-dopsk',  town, 
province  of  Saratov,  East  Rus- 
sia ;  97  miles  northwest  of  Sara- 
tov city.  It  has  breweries,  brick 
works,  and  potash  manufacture. 

Serein,  sf-ran',  the  name 
name  given  to  rain  or  snow  fall- 
ing from  a  cloudless  sky.  The 
precipitation  is  almost  invaria- 
bly small  in  amount  and  gen- 
erally of  brief  duration.  The 
phenomenon  is  unusual,  and  is 
not  well  understood.  It  has  been 
observed  at  Geneva  and  Con- 
stantinople, and  a  number  of 
times  in  America,  and,  according 
to  M.  Gentil,  it  is  not  vmcom- 
mon  in  Mauritius.  Some  re- 
puted cases  are  doubtless  due  to 
snow  or  rain  brought  by  the 
wind  from  a  cloud  too  small  and 
remote  to  be  observed. 

Serena.    See  La  Serena. 

Serena,  Clara  (1901-  _  ), 
British  operatic  contralto  singer, 
was  born  in  Adelaide,  South 
Australia,  and  received  her  train- 
ing at  the  Royal  College  of  Music 
in  London,  in  Germany  and 
Italy.  She  made  her  dcbtit  in 
London  in  1923,  and  in  1924 
created  the  title  role  in  Alkcstis, 
at  Covent  Garden  ;  appeared  in 
Vienna,  Paris  and  Berlin  in 
1926,  and  in  1928  sang  before 
King  George  v  and  Queen  Mary 
at  Queen's  Hall,  London,  and 
later  on  concert  platforms  in  the 
British  Isles  and  in  India. 

Serenade,  ser-e-nad',  an  eve- 
ning song,  from  the  Italian  sera. 
Hence  music  intended  to  be  sung 
or  played  at  night,  especially  a 
song  by  a  lover  to  his  mistress 
.beneath  her  window.  The  music 
should  be  simple  and  melodious 
and  accompanied  by  some  kind 
of  instrument.  'Deh  vieni  alia 
finestra'  in  Don  Giovanni  is 
a  perfect  example  of  a  serenade. 

Serenus,  reputedly  'of  Antis- 
sa,'  an  ancient  Greek  geometer, 
of  whose  work  very  little  has 
survived,  one  entitled  On  the 
Section  of  the  Cylinder  and  an- 
other, On  the  Section  of  the 
Cone.  They  were  supposedly 
written  during  the  fourth  cen- 
tury ;  and  were  edited  by  Ed- 
mund Halley  in  1710.  A  criti- 
cal edition  was  published  by  J.  L. 
Heiberg  at  Leipzig  in  1896. 
Serenus  also  wrote  commenta- 
ries on  Apollonius  of  Perga, 
another    Greek    geometer,  who 


lived  about  600  years  before 
him. 

Serenus,  Sammonicus,  a  Ro- 
man scholar,  who  wrote  a  long 
didactic  medical  poem  Dc  mcdi- 
cina  Pracccpta,  containing  a 
number  of  old  popular  remedies 
and  magical  formulae,  including 
the  still  famous  word  Abracada- 
bra, suposed  to  cure  fever  and 
ague.  Consult  W.  S.  Teuffel, 
History  of  Roman  Literature 
(1900). 

Serer,  a  hardy  people  of  Sene- 
gal, French  West  Africa.  They 
are  marked  by  coarse,  heavy 
features  and  speak  a  language  of 
mixed  Fulani  and  Wolof.  They 
have  neither  slaves  nor  an  arti- 
san class.  They  practice  an 
animistic  religion,  believe  in 
sorcery  and  trial  by  ordeal. 
They  marry  exclusively  within 
their  own  tribes. 

Seres,  ser'es,  or  Siris,  town, 
Macedonia,  Greece,  45  miles 
northeast  of  Salonica.  It  is  the 
center  of  the  Macedonian  cotton 
industry  and  exports  cotton,  to- 
bacco, hides,  and  cocoons.  It  is 
the  see  of  an  archbishop  of  the 
Greek  Church.  During  the 
World  War  Seres  was  surren- 
dered to  the  Bulgarians  (August, 
1916),  but  was  finally  recap- 
tured by  the  Greeks  during  the 
Allied  advance  (October,  1918). 
Pop.  about  40,000,  preponderant- 
ly Greek,  made  up  largely  by 
refugees  from  Smyrna  after  the 
Turks  drove  out  the  Greeks  in 
1922. 

Seres,  sa'ras,  or  Seri,  sa're,  a 
people  of  Mexico,  in  the  State  of 
Sonora  and  the  adjacent  island 
of  Tiburon  in  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia. They  were  scarcely 
known,  except  by  name,  before 
1895,  when  they  were  visited  by 
M'Gee,  who  describes  them  as 
perhaps  the  most  debased  of  all 
the  North  American  Aborigines. 
Most  of  their  food  is  eaten  raw  ; 
they  have  no  domestic  animals 
save  the  dog,  are  totally  without 
agriculture,  and  have  scarcely 
any  industrial  arts.  Consult 
Seventeenth  Annual  Report, 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ethnology. 

Sereth,  ser-et',  river,  tribu- 
tary of  the  Danube,  rises  as  the 
Great  and  Little  Sereth  in  Buk- 
owina  in  the  Carpathians  and 
flows  southeast  through  Molda- 
via, to  join  the  Danube  on  the 
left  bank,  5  miles  above  Galatz, 
after  a  course  of  291  miles.  Its 
chief  tributaries  are  the  Suczava, 
Moldava,  Trotus,  Berlat,  and 
Bistritz. 

Serf,  a  cultivator  of  the  soil, 
who  was  attached  to  the  estate 
on  which  he  lived,  was  trans- 
ferred with  it,  and  might  not  quit 
it.  Serfdom  was  a  characteris- 
tic feature  of  the  social  and  eco- 
nomic organization  of  the  middle 
ages.  It  was  the  intermediate 
stage  between  slavery  and  per- 


sonal freedom.  With  the  bar- 
barian invasions  of  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries  the  suoply  of 
slaves  in  Rome  was  reduced,  and 
a  rehabilitation  of  free  labor  took 
place.  Rural  slaves  became 
merged  in  the  coloni,  who  paid 
a  fixed  proportion  of  the  produce 
to  the  owner  of  the  estate  and 
gave  a  definite  amount  of  labor 
on  the  portion  of  the  domain 
which  they  kept  in  their  own 
hands.  In  the  constitution  of 
Constantine,  a.d.  332,  the  colonus 
was  recognized  as  definitely  at- 
tached to  the  land.  If  he  aban- 
doned it  he  was  brought  back  and 
punished,  he  might  not  marry  out 
of  his  domain,  and,  though  he 
might  possess  property  of  his 
own,  he  might  not  alienate  it 
without  the  consent  of  his  mas- 
ter. With  the  rise  of  the  feudal 
system  (q.  v.),  the  institution  of 
serfdom  reached  its  highest  de- 
velopment. It  died  out  gradu- 
ally in  England  without  any 
special  legislation  against  it,  the 
latest  deed  of  enfranchisement 
being  one  by  Elizabeth  in  1574. 
In  Scotland  the  workers  in  coal 
and  salt  mines  were  in  a  state  of 
serfdom  until  the  reign  of  George 
III.  In  France  serfdom  contin- 
ued till  the  Revolution ;  and  it 
was  not  until  the  beginning  of 
the  19th  century  that  Baron  von 
Stein  secured  its  complete  aboli- 
tion in  Germany.  In  March, 
1863,  twenty-three  million  serfs 
were  emancipated  in  Russia  by 
the  ukase  of  Alexander  ii  pub- 
lished in  1861.  The  characteris- 
tic feature  of  the  Russian 
Emancipation  Act  was  that  the 
peasants,  as  distinguished  from 
household  servants,  were  given 
not  only  personal  freedom  but 
allotments  in  land  in  certain 
proportions  to  their  former 
holdings.  The  former  landown- 
ers were  indemnified  by  the  State, 
and  the  peasants  were  to  redeem 
the  loan  by  annual  payments  ex- 
tending over  a  period  of  years. 
The  Crimean  War  was  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about  this 
emancipation.  See  further  un- 
der Slavery  and  Serjeanty. 
Consult  Ingram's  History  of 
Slavery. 

Serge,  a  cloth  of  twilled 
worsted,  much  used  as  material 
for  both  men's  and  '  women's 
clothing. 

Sergeant,  sar'j(?nt,  Adeline 
(1851-1904),  English  _  novelist 
whose  full  name  was  Emily  Fran- 
ces Adeline  Sergeant,  was  born 
at  Ashbourne  in  Derbyshire.  She 
was  educated  as  a  teacher,  but  in 
1884  abandoned  the  profession 
for  that  of  literature.  She  wrote 
a  large  number  of  novels,  includ- 
ing No  Saint  (1886).  Jacobi's 
Wife    (1887),    The  Idolmakcr 

(1897)  ,    Miss   Betty's  Mistake 

( 1 898)  ,  Barbara's  MonVy  ( 1 902) , 
The  Mystery  of  the  Moat  (1905), 


Sergeant 


111 


Consult 


and  Reparation  (1905) 
Life,  by  W.  Stephens. 

Sergeant,    John  (1710-49). 
American  missionary,  was  boni 
in  Newark,  N.  J.    He  was  grad- 
uated from  Yale  in  1729  and 
after  acting  as  tutor  there  (1731 
35)    began   in    1735  to  preach 
to  the  Indians  in  what  is  now 
Berkshire     county,     Mass.  in 
1736,  when  the  Indians  sold  their 
lands  to  the  province,  they  re- 
tained an  area  six  miles  square  m 
the  present  town  of  Stockbridge. 
Sergeant  was  given  a  vested  in- 
terest in  the  town  and  ordained 
'settled  missionary  to  the  In- 
dians.'   He  estabUshed  a  manual 
training  school  shortly  before  his 
death.     Among  his  works  are 
translations  of  parts  of  the  Old 
and  most  of  the  New  Testament 
into  the  Indian  language,  a  Letter 
on  the  Indians,  and  a  Sermon.  ^ 

Sergeant-at-Arms,  in  a  delib- 
erative body,  as  the  U.  S.  Sen- 
ate or  House  of  Representatives, 
an  official  who  is  responsible  for 
the  maintenance  of  order.  Each 
house  appoints  its  own  sergeant- 
at-arms;  and  this  Is  the  practice 
in  the  State  legislatures  as  well. 
In  the  British  ParUament,  the 
sergeants-at-arms  of  both  houses 
are  appointed  by  the  crown.  _ 

Sergeant-at-T.aw,  a  barrister 
of  high  standing  in  the  common- 
law  courts  of  England.  Until 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury sergeants-at-law  had  the  ex- 
clusive right  to  practice  in  the 
court  of  common  pleas  and  until 
1873  every  judge  of  a  common- 
law  court  had  first  to  be  created  a 
sergeant-at-law.  After  that  tune 
the  office  was  virtually  at  an  end. 

Sergeant-fish  (Rachycenlron 
canadus),  so  called  from  its  broad 
lateral  stripes,  is  a  large,  edible 
fish,  from  4  to  5  feet  in  length,  in- 
habiting warm  waters.  In  sum- 
mer it  is  found  as  far  north  as 
Cape  Cod  and  is  common  south 
of  Chesapeake  Bay.  It  is  also 
known  as  the  crab-eater  and  the 
cobia.  ^  , 

Sergei  Alexandre vitch,  sar 
gye-e  (1859-1905),  grand  duke  of 
Russia,  fourth  son  of  Alexander 
II     entered  the  army,  went 
through  the  Russo-Turkish  War 
(1877-8), and  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor-general and  commander  of 
the  troops  in  Moscow.    A  strong 
autocrat  and  reactionist,  his  zeal 
was  directed  chiefly  against  the 
Jews.    He  was  believed  to  have 
urged  his  nephew  Nicholas  li.  to 
maintain  his  autocracy  intact; 
and  when  it  seemed  likely  that  the 
emperor  would  make  concessions, 
Sergei  resigned  the  governor-gen- 
eralship, but  retained  his  military 
command.      This  deepened  the 
impression  that  he  was  the  leader 
of  the  reactionary  party,  and  he 
was  singled  out  by  the  terrorists 
and  assassinated  at  Moscow  on 
Feb.  17.  1005. 

Sergei,  s^r'gel,  Johann  lo- 
VOL.  XI.— Oct.  '21 


BIAS  (1740-1814),  Swedish  sculp- 
tor, was  born  in  Stockholm.  At 
Rome  he  carved,  in  marble,  a 
Faun,  Diomedes  stealing  the  Pal- 
ladium, Cupid  and  Psyche,  Mars 
and  Venus,  and  the  colossal  his- 
torical group.  Chancellor  Oxen- 
stierna  relating  to  History  the  Ex- 
ploits of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  He 
also  modelled  the  statue  of  Gus- 
tavus III.  which  the  city  of  Stock- 
holm cast  in  bronze  in  1796. 

Sergievsky  Posad,  town, 
Moscow,  Russia,  45  miles  north- 
east of  Moscow,  famous  for  its 
monastery,  which  is  a  great  re- 
sort of  pilgrims.     Pop.  30,000. 

Serginsk,ser-gensk', Upper  and 
Lower,  two  towns,  Perm,  Rus- 
sia, the  seat  of  extensive  iron 
works.    Pop.  30,000^ 

Serglpe,  ser-zhe'pa,  coast 
state  of  Brazil,  lying  northeast 
of  Bahia.  Between  the  sandy 
coast  lands  and  the  mountains 
are  considerable  areas  of  fruitful 
country,  and  on  the  west  side  ot 
the  latter  are  pastures.  Forest 
products  are  obtained,  and  cot- 
ton, coffee,  corn,  rice,  and  sugar 
are  cultivated,  large  quantities  of 
the  last -mentioned  being  ex- 
ported to  North  America.  Graz- 
ing is  the  favorite  occupation  of 
the  halfbreeds.  Aracaju  is  the 
capital.  Area,  15,090  square 
miles.     Pop.  (1920)  535.094. 

Sergius,  sur'ji-us.  the  name  ot 
four  popes  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church. 

Sergius  i.  (687-701)  sent  St. 
Willibrord  as  apostle  to  the  Fris- 
ians, and  baptized  King  Cead- 
walla  of  Wessex  at  Rome. 

Sergius  ii.  (844-7)  succeeded 
Gregory  iv.  During  his  pontifi- 
cate Rome  was  ravaged  by  Sara- 
cens. ,  -  , 
Sergius  hi.  (904-911)  fol- 
lowed Theodore  ii.  in  897.  but 
was  not  recognized  by  the  em- 
peror, who  set  up  an  antipope. 
Sergius  overthrew  the  antipope 
in  904. 

SerGUIS  IV.  (1009-12)  was 
elected  Pope  in  1009.  but  was 
merely  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  the 
patrician  families  of  Rome. 
Seri.    See  Seres. 
Sericite,  ser'i-sit.  a  pale-gray 
or  greenish,  silky-looking  mica, 
which  occurs  mostly  in  mica- 
schist  gneiss,   and  other  meta- 
morphic  rocks.    It  is  often  mis- 
taken for  talc,  but  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  its  slightly  greater 
hardness  and  the  absence  of  the 
smooth,  unctuous  feel  which  char- 
acterizes talc.    It  is  one  of  the 
resultant  products  in  the  altera- 
tion of  orthoclase  feldspar;  and 
granites  are  sometimes  observed 
to  pass  into  sericite  gneisses  and 
schists. 

Sericulture.  See  Silk. 
Seriema,  ser-i-e'ma.  or  Car- 
lAMA.  a  large,  long  legged,  crested 
bird  of  Eastern  South  America, 
somewhat  resembling  the  cranes 
and  bustards.  It  is  about  32  inches 


Series 

long,  yellowish  gray,  with  narrow 
cross  bands  and  black  wings  and 
tail.  It  lives  among  the  high 
grasses  of  the  campos,  running 
swiftly  to  avoid  capture  and  tak- 
ing wing  most  reluctantly.  It 
feeds  on  snakes,  insects,  and  cat- 
erpillars. The  cry  is  loud  and 
unpleasant.  There  are  two  spe- 
cies, C.  Cristala  and  C.  burmets- 
teri. 

Series,  in  mathematics,  is  any 
succession  of  terms  all  of  which 
are  particular  cases  of  a  general 
type,   arranged  according  to  a 
definite  rule.    For  example,  the 
sum  of  the  squares  of  the  natural 
numbers  is  a  series  whose  general 
term  is  of  the  form  «2.    It  may 
be  indicated  by  writing  down  the 
first  few  terms,  12+22-f  3H  .2+ 
etc;   and  the  sum  of  the  series 
will 'depend  upon  the  number  of 
terms  taken  into  account.  In 
this  case  the  sum  steadily  in- 
creases the  greater  the  number  of 
terms  included,  and  can  be  made 
greater  than  any  assigned  num- 
ber by  going  far  enough.    It  is 
an  example  of  a  divergent  series. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  sum  of 
the  squares  of  the  reciprocals  of 
the  natural  numbers,  viz., 


l+-+-+-!l+  etc., 
^^22~32  '  4'*  ' 

forms  a  series  which,  however 
far  it  is  taken,  never  exceeds  a 
certain  limit.    Such  a  series  is 
called  a  convergent  series.  Con- 
vergent series  are  of  great  prac- 
tical importance  in  the  evaluation 
of  functions  such  as  logaritnms, 
sines,   tangents,    and   so  forth. 
The  convergency  of  a  series  may 
be  independent  of  the  algebraic 
signs   of  the   successive  terms. 
The  series  is  then  said  to  be 
absolutely  convergent.    But  m 
many  cases  the  convergency  de- 
pends upon  the  fact  that  the 
successive  terms  are  alternately 
positive  and  negative.  This  gives 
the  semi-convergent  or  (as  Stokes 
originally  called  it)  the  acciden- 
tally-convergent series.  A  simple 
example    of    a  semi-convergent 
series  which  becomes  divergent 
when  the  signs  are  all  positive  is 
1-^  +  ^-i  +  i-etc-    The  con- 
vergency may  be  proved  kme- 
matically  by  imagining  a  move- 
ment through,  say,  one  inch  to  the 
right,  then  half  an  inch  to  the 
left,  then  a  third  to  the  right,  a 
fourth  to  the  left,  a  fifth  to  the 
right,  and  so  on.    As  the  process 
is  indefinitely  continued,  it  soon 
becomes  evident  that  the  finish 
must   be   somewhere   short  of 
three-fourths.      On    the  other 
hand,  the  sum  of  the  reciprocals 
of  the  successive  natural  numbers 
may  be  easily  proved  to  be  diver- 
gent.     This  particular  series  is 
an  example   of   harmonic  pro- 
gression.    The  arithmetical  and 
geometrical  progressions  are  spe- 
cial types  of  series,  probably  the 


Serlnagar 

best  known  and  most  useful  of 
all.  The  theory  of  series  is  of 
fundamental  importance  in  the 
higher  developments  of  mathe- 
matical analyses. 

Serinagar.     See  Srinager. 

Seringapatam,  ser-ing'ga-pa- 
tam',  town  Mysore  state,  India, 
on  an  island  in  the  Cauvery  river; 
8  miles  north  of  Mysore.  The 
former  capital  (1610-1799)  of 
Mysore,  its  fort  was  built  by 
Tipu  (Tippoo)  Sahib,  who  lost 
his  life  in  defending  it  against  the 
British  in  1799.  The  ruins  of 
Tipu's  palace  still  exist.  Pop. 
9,300. 

Seringham.     See  Srirangam. 

Seriphos  se-ri'phos,  one  of 
the  Greek  islands  known  as  the 
Cyclades  in  the  ^gean  Sea.  In 
Greek  legend  it  was  the  place  of 
refuge  of  Danae  and  her  son  Per- 
seus. In  historical  times  it  was 
inhabited  by  Ionian  colonists 
from  Athens.  The  modern  is- 
land of  Seripho  has  an  area  of  26 
square  miles  and  a  population  of 
about  3,000.  It  yields  wine  and 
iron. 

Serjeanty,  sar'jen-ti.  Grand, 
a  form  of  tenure  under  the  feudal 
law  in  England,  whereby  the  ten- 
ant held  lands  of  the  king  in  re- 
turn for  feudal  services  in  person, 
as  carrying  the  king's  banner,  or 
carrying  his  sword  at  coronation. 
Tenure  by  petty  serjeanty  re- 
quired the  subject  to  furnish 
some  weapon,  as  a  dagger  or  ar- 
row, to  the  king  each  year.  The 
recognition  of  the  king  as  lord  of 
the  land  was  the  basis  of  this 
tenure.  It  was  abolished  in 
1660.    See  Tenure. 

Sermon.    See  Preaching. 

Ser'otlne  ( Vesperugo  seroti- 
nus), a  large,  long -eared  bat,  oc- 
curring in  the  United  States  and 
Europe.  In  France  it  is  com- 
monly found  among  piles  of  wood 
in  the  timber  yards  of  Paris,  and 
in  forests,  where  it  flies  among 
tall  trees. 

Serous  Fluids  are  those  se- 
creted by  serous  membranes  or 
by  serous  glands.  The  fluid  se- 
creted by  serous  membranes  is 
derived  from  the  blood,  and  in 
appearance  and  character  is  sim- 
ilar to  lymph.  It  contains  fib- 
rinogen, and  is  capable  of  coagu- 
lation, the  clot  being  colorless 
and  consisting  of  fibrin  and 
white  corpuscles.  In  dropsy 
the  balance  between  secretion 
and  absorption  is  disturbed,  and 
the  serous  fluid  may  be  enor- 
mously increased.  The  fluids 
derived  from  the  serous  glands 
contain,  in  addition  to  their  spe- 
cific ferments,  albumin,  but  no 
mucin. 

Serous  Membranes  are  closed 
sacs  around  serous  cavities, 
which  have  no  communication 
with  the  exterior  of  the  body. 
The  peritoneum  in  the  female  is 
an  apparent  exception,  since 
communication  exists  between 
Vol.  XI.— Oct.  '21 


112 

the  pelvic  cavity  and  the  interior 
of  the  uterus  by  means  of  the 
Fallopian  tubes.  But  this  com- 
munication is  patent  only  for  the 
passage  of  the  ovum,  and  does 
not  permit  of  interchange  of 
fluids  between  the  cavities  dur- 
ing life.  The  chief  serous  mem- 
branes are  the  peritoneum, 
pleura,  pericardium,  and  the 
brain  membranes.  They  con- 
sist of  a  layer  of  transparent, 
squamous,  nucleated  cells  known 
as  endothelial,  supported  upon 
a  deeper  layer  of  fibrous  tissue 
containing  blood  capillaries  and 
lymph  vessels.  There  is  a  close 
relationship  between  the  endo- 
thelium lining  serous  cavities 
and  that  which  covers  the  inner 
stirfaces  of  blood-vessel  and  syn- 
ovial sacs,  a  point  of  importance 
in  the  pathology  of  some  diseases. 

Ser'ow,  the  Eastern  name  for 
the  goat-antelope,  of  the  family 
Nemorhedince.  The  serow  is 
closely  allied  to  the  goral  (q.  v.) , 
but  is  shaggier  and  shows  minor 
differences  in  the  skull  forma- 
tion. The  Common  Serow  {H. 
hubalinus),  found  in  India,  is 
a  fierce  looking  animal  about  the 
size  of  a  donkey,  with  large  ears, 
coarse  black  or  grizzled  hair,  and 
long  curving  horns.  It  is  a  shy, 
solitary  creature,  delighting  in 
the  steepest,  most  rocky  places, 
and  is  savage  and  dangerous 
when  brought  to  bay.  Other 
common  species,  all  of  them 
smaller  than  the  common  serow, 
are  N.  sumatrensis,  found  in  Ti- 
bet, Siam,  Burma,  and  Sumatra; 
N.  crispus,  of  Japan:  N.  swin- 
hoei,  of  Formosa.  ^ 

Serpa  Pinto,  ser'pa  pen'too, 
Alexandre  Alberto  da  Rocha 
(1846-1900),  Portuguese  ex- 
plorer, was  born  in  the  castle  of 
Polchras  on  the  Douro.  Being 
entrusted  with  the  command  of  a 
scientific  expedition  to  South 
Africa,  he  traversed  the  conti- 
nent from  west  to  east  (1877),  the 
result  of  his  travels  being  How 
I  Crossed  Africa  (1881).  In 
1884—6  he  explored  the  country 
between  Mozambique  and  Lake 
Nyasa,  and  in  1889  became  gov- 
ernor of  Mozambique.  He  failed 
in  his  attempt  (1889-90)  to  bring 
Matabeleland  under  the  domin- 
ion of  Portugal. 

Serpens,  s{ir'penz,  an  ancient 
constellation  representing  the 
snake  grasped  by  Ophiuchus. 
The  chief  star.  Cor  Serpentis,  is 
of  2.7.5  magnitude;  2,  6,  and  55 
Serpentis  are  close  pairs  divided 
by  Bumham;  the  wide  physical 
couple,  d  Serpentis,  shows  some 
light-fluctuations;  R  and  S  are 
long-period  variables;  d  Serpentis 
changes  in  a  double  cycle  of  8.7 
days.  The  gloVjular  cluster  Mes- 
sier 5,  containing  eighty-five  va- 
riables, lies  near  the  star  5  Ser- 
pentis. 

Serpent.    See  Snakes. 

Serpent,  a  now  almost  obso- 


Serpentine 

lete  form  of  wind-instrument, 
curved  to  resemble  somewhat  a 
wriggling  serpent,  and  said  to 
have  been  invented  in  1590  by 
Edme  Guillaume,  a  French  can- 
on. It  is  about  eight  feet  long, 
consists  of  conical  sections  of 
wooden  tube  held  together  by  a 
covering  of  leather,  and  contains 


Serpent. 


a  cupped  mouthpiece  like  that  in 
the  bass  trombone.  Parts  for  the 
serpent  are  now  usually  played 
upon  the  ophicleide. 

Serpentaria,  or  Virginian 
Snake-root.       See  Aristolo- 

CHIA. 

Serpent  Eagle  (Spilornis),  a 
large,  dark  brown,  crested  eagle, 
found  chiefly  in  the  Himalays.s 
and  the  Indian  peninsula.  It  is 
sedentary  and  arboreal  in  its 
habits  and  is  not  often  seen  on 
the  wing.  Its  food  consists 
chiefly  of  snakes  and  other  rep- 
tiles, whence  comes  its  name. 
The  best  known  species  is  S. 
cheela.  The  name  serpent  eagle 
is  sometimes  applied  to  the  har- 
rier eagle  (Circaetus  gallicus) . 

Serpentine,  sur'pen-tin  or 
ten,  H4Mg3Li209,  a  greenish, 
rather  soft  mineral  with  a  dull, 
greasy  or  waxy  lustre,  occurring 
in  Sweden,  Silesia,  Canada,  the 
United  States  (Pennsylvania, 
Connecticut.  New  York,  Ver- 
mont), and  elsewhere.  It  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  2.5  and  a  hard- 
ness of  2.5  to  4.  It  is  commonly 
formed  by  the  hydration  of  per- 
idotite.  It  is  found  in  various 
shades  of  green,  also  yellow,  gray, 
red,  brown  and  black,  and  is  of- 
ten spotted  or  mottled.  There 
are  several  varieties;  Common 
Serpentine,  dark  colored  and 
abundant;  Precious  Serpentine, 
greenish  and  translucent,  some- 
times used  as  a  gem ;  Chrysotile 
(q.  v.),  or  fibrous  serpentine,  con- 
sisting of  fine  parallel  fibres,  the 
chief  source  of  asbestos  (q.  v.) ; 
and  Verd-antique  (q.  v.). 

Serpentine,  The,  an  artificial 
sheet  of  water  in  Hyde  Park, 
London,  England,  constructed  sCt 
the  instance  of  Queen  Caroline, 
consort  of  George  Ii. 


Serpent  Mound 


KR 


113 


Sertularta 


Serpent  Mound,  a  work  of 
the  Mount  Builders,  in  Adams 
county.  Ohio.  Built  in  the  form 
of  a  serpent,  with  a  small  oval 
mound  lying  between  its  dis- 
tended jaws,  it  extends  1,000 
feet  in  length,  has  a  breadth  of  30 
feet  and  is  4  feet  high.  It  curves 
but  little  except  at  the  tail,  which 
has  a  triple  curl. 

Serpent  Worship,  or  Ophi- 
olatry. The  cult  of  the  serpent 
exists  in  many  forms  and  among 
many  peoples.  The  peculiar  form 
of  the  serpent,  its  often  remark- 
able beauty,  its  reputed  power  to 
charm,  its  mystery,  the  dangerous 
character  of  its  bite,  its  ability 
to  renew  its  si  .in,  suggestive  of 
longevity  or  even  immortality, 
and  its  rapid  and  stealthy  means 
of  locomotion,  combine  to  make 
it  one  of  the  most  admired  and 
most  dreaded  of  animals,  and  to 
give  it  a  wide  reputation  for  wis- 
dom and  power.  The  cobra  and 
the  asp  were  worshipped  from 
earliest  times.  A  large  living 
snake  was  kept  at  the  Aescula- 
pium  at  Alexandria  and  one  at 
the  temple  of  Metele  in  the  Nile 
Delta.  In  Greece  serpents  were 
regarded  as  guardians  of  graves, 
sanctuaries,  and  dwellings,  and 
their  presence  in  such  places  and 
in  various  religious  rites  suggests 
that  certain  of  the  Greek  deities 
had  once  been  worshipped  as 
snakes.  Serpent  worship  seems 
to  have  been  established  in  Rome 
about  291  B.C. 

Serpent  workship  is  undoubt- 
edly more  general  in  India  now 
than  in  any  other  portion  of  the 
world,  probably  because  of  the 
large  number  of  reptiles  found 
there  and  the  great  loss  of  life 
caused  by  them.  The  serpent  is 
also  worshipped  throughout 
Africa,  especially  in  Dahomey, 
though  the  advance  of  civiliza- 
tion is  destroying  the  cult  there; 
temples  have  occasionally  been 
built  and  dedicated  to  serpents  in 
China  and  Japan,  and  Egypt  and 
Syria  are  rich  in  snake  symbolism 
though  evidences  of  actual  wor- 
ship are  less  abundant  there. 
Among  certain  of  the  North 
American  Indians  the  'snake 
dance'  is  a  characteristic  cere- 
monial (see  MoQUi).  In  Central 
America  living  snakes  are  wor- 
shipped, and  in  Mexico  the  snake 
is  an  important  religious  symbol. 
Consult  Ferguson,  Tree  and  Ser- 
pent Worship;  Cooper,  The  Ser- 
pent Myths  of  Ancient  Egypt; 
Wake,  Serpent  Worship  and  Other 
Essays;  Sampson.  The  Message 
of  the  Sun  and  the  Cult  of  the  Cross 
and  Serpent;  Oldham,  The  Sun 
and  the  Serpent;  Brinton,  Myths 
of  the  New  World. 

Serpukhov,  syer'pdo-kof, 
town  and  river  port,  Russia, 
Moscow  government,  on  the 
Oka;  57  miles  south  of  Moscow. 
It  has  a  catherdal  dating  from 


1710,  and  manufactures  paper, 
textiles,  leather,  and  chemicals. 
Pop.  (1939)  90,766. 

Serpula,  siir'pQ-la,  a  genus  of 
Polychaete  worms,  of  the  family 
Serpulidae  whose  members  con- 
struct coiled  calcareous  tubes, 
of  a  whitish  color,  which  are  at- 
tached to  stones  or  shells.  The 
worms  bear  on  the  anterior  re- 
gion a  crown  of  gills,  often  beau- 
tifully colored,  which  protrude 
from  the  mouth  of  the  tube.  On 
an  alarm  the  gills  are  instantly 
withdrawn,  and  the  mouth  of 
the  tube  is  closed  by  a  plug  called 
the  operculum.  In  Serpula  ver- 
micularis,  found  in  fairly  deep 
water,  the  tube  is  tapering,  about 
three  inches  long,  and  often  pink- 
ish in  color.  In  shallow  water 
occurs  Pomatoceros  triqueter,  in 
which  the  tube  is  adherent  and 
keeled  on  its  upper  surface.  A 
much  smaller  and  exceedingly 
abundant  form  is  Spirorbis,  in 
which  the  tube  forms  a  minute 
flat  spiral,  which  is  fastened  to 
weed. 

Serra,    Miguel   Jose.  See 

JUNIPERO. 

Serradella  or  Serradilla. 
See  Bird's-foot. 

Serra  do  Mar,  ser'ra  do  mar', 
mountain  range,  Brazil,  following 
the  coast  in  the  states  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo,  and  Parana. 
The  valley  of  the  Parahyba  River 
separates  it  from  the  Serra  da 
Mantiqueira  on  the  northwest. 
It  is  very  rugged  near  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  where  its  granite  peaks 
attain  altitudes  of  6,000  to  7,000 
feet.  It  forms  the  watershed  be- 
tween the  narrow  coastal  strip 
and  the  Brazilian  plateau. 

Serrano  y  Dominguez,  ser- 
ra'no  e  do-men'gath,  Francisco, 
Duke  de  la  Torre  (1810-85), 
Spanish  statesman  and  general, 
was  born  in  Anjonilla,  near  Ca- 
diz. He  took  an  active  part  in 
the  Carlist  war  (1832-9),  rising 
from  the  rank  of  captain  to  briga- 
dier general.  Having  been  elected 
a  member  of  the  Cortes  (1839), 
he  assisted  Espartero  in  the 
overthrow  of  Queen  Christina's 
regency,  and  three  years  later, 
turning  against  his  former  ally, 
became  minister  of  war  in  the 
Lopez  cabinet.  After  living 
quietly  on  his  estates  for  a  few 
years,  he  became  the  staunch 
friend  of  Marshall  O'Donnell, 
who  made  him  marshal  (1856) 
and  governor-general  of  Cuba 
(1859-62),  where  he  assisted  in 
the  reconquest  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo. Returning  to  Spain,  he 
became  minister  of  foreign  af- 
fairs under  O'Donnell  and  on  the 
latter's  death  succeeded  him  as 
leader  of  the  Liberal  Union. 
Having  joined  Prim,  Sagasta, 
and  others  in  conspiring  against 
the  government  of  Queen  Isa- 
bella, he  was  banished  to  the 
Canary  Islands  (1868),  but,  re- 


turiiiug  in  the  same  year,  de' 
feat^^d  the  queen's  troops,  and, 
hiving  driven  her  away  into 
France,  became  the  chief  ruler 
(as  regent)  of  Spain  until  the  ac- 
cession of  Amadeus  (1870).  He 
waged  successful  war  against  the 
Carlists  in  1872  and  1874,  and 
during  the  greater  part  of  the 
latter  year  was  again  at  the  head 
of  the  government,  until  he  re- 
signed the  power  into  the  hands 
of  Alfonso  xii.  He  was  ambas- 
sador at  Paris  in  1883-4. 

Serra  San  Bruno,  commune, 
Italy,  Catanzaro  province,  27 
miles  southwest  of  Catanzaro 
city.    Pop.  6,000. 

Sert,  or  Sairt,  town,  Turkey, 
Kurdistan;  90  miles  east  of  Diar- 
bekr.    Pop.  6,000.  _ 

Sertorius,  sur-to'ri-us,  QuiN- 
Tus  (c.  125-72  B.C.),  Roman  gen- 
eral, was  a  native  of  Nursia.  He 
fought  in  the  battle  of  Arausio 
against  the  Cimbri  in  105  B.C., 
and  was  saved  only  by  swimming 
the  Rhone  in  full  armor.  Next 
he  shared  in  Marius'  victory  over 
the  Teutones  at  Aquae  Sextiae  in 
102  B.C.,  and  showed  his  courage 
by  entering  the  enemy's  camp  as 
a  spy  before  the  battle.  In  91  he 
was  quaestor,  and  did  good  ser- 
vice in  the  social  war  of  90  to  89 
B.C.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  civil 
war  in  8S  B.C.  he  joined  the  popu- 
lar party,  and  in  87  marched  with 
Cinna  against  Rome,  but  took 
no  part  in  the  massacres  which 
followed.  In  83  Sertorius  was 
praetor;  the  next  year  he  went  to 
Spain  but  was  forced  to  take  ref- 
uge in  Africa  from  Sulla.  In  80 
he  was  invited  by  the  Lusita- 
nians  to  lead  them  against  the 
Romans,  and  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  Spanish  volunteers  and 
Roman  malcontents  he  defeated 
several  Roman  armies  in  succes- 
sion, including  one  led  by  Pom- 
pey  in  77.  Hostilities  continued 
until  72,  when  Sertorius  was  mur- 
dered by  Perpenna,  his  second  in 
command.  By  the  Spaniards  he 
was  worshipped  for  his  noble 
character;  he  even  used  their 
superstition  to  attach  them  more 
closely  to  him,  professing  to  re- 
ceive his  plans  from  Diana 
through  a  pet  white  fawn  which 
always  accompanied  him.  He 
was,  in  Mommsen's  opinion,  the 
ablest  Roman  before  Julius  Cae- 
sar.   He  was  also  a  fine  orator. 

Sertula'ria,  sur-tu-la'ri-a,  a 
common  genus  of  Hydrozoa 
(q.v.),  whose  species  form  some 
of  the  Sea  Firs.  The  colony  is 
branched  and  fir-like  in  appear- 
ance, each  tiny  branch  bearing  a 
double  row  of  sessile  cups,  which 
in  life  contain  individual  polyps. 
In  addition  to  these  cups  tfxere 
are  larger  ones,  known  as  gon- 
othecae,  which  carry  the  sessile 
sporosacs;  for  sertularians  do 
not  give  off  free-swimming  med- 
usoids,  like  many  of  their  allies. 


Serum 


KR 


113A 


Service 


The  whole  colony  is  fixed  to 
stones,  shells,  seaweed,  and 
the  like  on  the  sea  bottom. 

Se'rum,  a  thin,  alkaline,  albu- 
minous fluid,  separated  from  the 
blood  during  coagulation,  and 
found  in  small  quantities  as  exu- 
dation from  serous  membranes 
(see  Blood). 

Serum  Therapy.  Serum 
therapy  consists  in  the  produc- 
tion of  a  state  of  passive  immu- 
nity by  the  injection  of  the  blood 
serum  of  an  animal,  commonly 
the  horse,  that  has  itself  been 
made  actively  immune  by  treat- 
ment with  large  doses  of  a 
specific  bacterium  or  its  prod- 
ucts. Human  serum  from  con- 
valescent patients  is  likewise 
occasionally  employed.  (See 
Immunity.)  There  are  two  kinds 
of  protective  serums  used  in  the 
treatment  of  disease.  The  one 
kind  is  an  antitoxic  serum  which 
neutralizes  bacterial  toxins,  and 
the  other  is  an  anti-bacterial 
serum  which  prevents  the  mul- 
tiplication of  the  bacteria  in  the 
tissues.  The  chief  antitoxic 
serums  are  the  diphtheria  anti- 
toxin, the  tetanus  antitoxin,  and 
antivenene;  the  chief  anti-bac- 
terial serums  are  the  anti-strep- 
tococcic,  the  anti-cholera,  anti- 
typhoid, and  the  anti-plague 
serums. 

The  serums  are  supplied,  as  a 
rule,  in  the  liquid  form,  and  they 
are  administered  by  subcutane- 
ous or  intravenous  or  intraspinal 
injection,  which  must  be  done 
with  the  strictest  antiseptic 
precautions.  Since  antitoxic  sera 
act  quickly,  they  may  be  used 
after  a  disease  has  set  in,  not 
merely  as  a  prophylactic. 

Serum  therapy  is  applied  as  a 
prophylactic  as  well  as  a  curative 
agent,  however,  in  cases  where 
there  has  been  probable  exposure 
to  infection.  It  has  been  shown 
experimentally  that  a  much 
smaller  quantity  of  serum  is  re- 
quired to  protect  an  animal  when 
the  injection  is  made  soon  after 
infection  than  at  a  later  period, 
and  it  has  been  found  that  after 
a  certain  time  no  amount  of 
serum,  however  large,  is  effica- 
cious. Clinical  experience  bears 
out  these  observations.  In  the 
later  stages  of  a  disease  the  ad- 
ministration of  a  serum  is  of 
little  value;  the  earlier  the  treat- 
ment is  adopted  the  better  the 
chance  of  recovery. 

The  value  of  serum  therapy 
has  been  most  thoroughly  estab- 
lished in  the  case  of  diphtheria, 
and  the  details  of  treatment  are 
described  under  that  head.  (See 
Diphtheria.)  It  need  only  be 
pointed  out  here  that  diphtheria 
antitoxin,  first  prepared  by  Beh- 
ring  and  Kitasuto  in  1890,  has 
reduced  the  fatality  of  this  dis- 
ease from  between  2r)  and  40  per 
cent  to  about  2  per  cent  for 


cases  immunised  within  the  first 
two  days.  The  antitoxin  for 
tetanus  is  essentially  similar  to 
that  used  for  diphtheria,  but  on 
account  of  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  this  disease  it  is  of  little 
value  unless  administered  very 
early.  Intraspinal  inoculation 
has  given  particularly  favorable 
results  in  the  use  of  this  serum. 

The  treatment  of  cerebro- 
spinal meningitis  with  Flexner's 
serum,  obtained  from  horses  im- 
munized with  several  strains 
of  meningococcus  resulted  in  a 
reduction  of  the  mortality  rate 
from  70  per  cent  to  18  per  cent. 
Also  other  types  of  meningitia 
responded  more  favorably  to  this 
therapy  than  to  former  methods 
of  treatment,  but  recently  ad- 
vances in  chemotherapy  have 
yielded  such  brilliant  results  in 
the  treatment  of  infections,  that 
serotherapy  has  been  almost  en- 
tirely superseded  by  the  use  of 
sulfonamides  and  antibiotics. 
However,  some  infections  prove 
resistant  to  the  new  drugs  and 
in  such  instances  serotherapy 
still  has  its  indications.  The  vi- 
rus infections  will  not  respond  to 
chemotherapy,  and  in  many 
conditions  a  combination  of 
chemotherapy  and  serotherapy 
will  yield  best  results.  Inten- 
sive scientific  research  will  prob- 
ably lead  to  a  clear  indication 
for  each  of  these  methods  or 
their  combined  use  in  the  differ- 
ent infections.  The  cures  ef- 
fected by  serotherapy  were  as 
sensational  in  their  day  as  those 
now  being  obtained  with  the 
new  drugs,  and  the  two  methods 
should  be  regarded  rather  as 
supplementing  than  as  excluding 
each  other. 

Reference  must  be  made  to  the 
ill  effects  which  sometimes  follow 
the  use  of  a  serum.  Septic  trou- 
bles arise  if  the  serum  is  contami- 
nated or  the  injection  is  not  made 
under  strict  antiseptic  precau- 
tions. Apart  from  these  avoid- 
able troubles,  symptoms  some- 
times arise  from  the  mere  intro- 
duction of  an  animal's  serum  in- 
to the  tissues  of  man.  These  in 
elude  rashes  and  articular  pains; 
the  former  are  usually  of  a  pro- 
nounced erythematous  char- 
acter, associated  with  slight 
fever;  the  joint  inflammations 
are  less  common.  More  rarely, 
severe  toxic  symptoms,  with 
jaundice,  vomiting,  collapse,  rig- 
ors, and  pyrexia,  are  met  with. 

For  the  results  of  vaccine  ther- 
apy see  Vaccine  Therapy. 

Serval,  ser'val  {Felis  serval), 
a  species  of  wild  cat  widely  dis- 
tributed throughout  Africa — the 
Bush  Cat  of  the  Cape.  It  is  of 
medium  size,  the  total  length  be- 
ing about  four  feet  eight  inches, 
of  which  the  tail  takes  up  about 
sixteen  inches.  The  legs  are 
rather  long,   and   the  coat  is 


spotted  with  black  spots  on  a 
light  ground.  Entirely  black 
specimens,  however,  also  occur. 
The  fur  of  the  serval  is  in  great 
demand,  and  is  known  to  furriers 
as  Tiger  Cat. 

Serve'tus,MiCHAEL(1511-53), 
or  Miguel  Serveto,  Spanish 
physician  and  Anabaptist  mar- 
tyr, was  born  at  Tudela  in  Na- 
varre. In  Germany  he  came  into 
contact  with  Luther,  Oecolam- 
padius,  Bucer,  and  others  of  the 
Reformers;  but  his  own  views, 
especially  in  respect  of  the  Trin- 
ity, were  in  discord  both  with 
those  of  the  Reformers  and  the 
authoritative  teaching  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church.  The  es- 
say in  which  he  propounded  his 
speculations — De  Trinitatis  Er- 
roribus  (1531) — provoked  con- 
siderable discussion.  In  1536  he 
began  to  study  medicine  at  Paris, 
and  after  a  few  years  of  wander- 
ing settled  down  to  practice  at 
Vienne  (1541),  where  he  became 
confidential  physician  to  the 
archbishop.  Meanwhile  his  theo- 
logical studies  were  gradually 
leading  him  to  undiluted  Socin- 
ianism.  These  he  embodied  in  a 
work  on  Christianity,  for  which 
he  was  arrested.  After  a  long 
trial,  in  which  the  influence  of 
Calvin  was  exercised  against  him, 
he  was  condemned  to  be  burned 
alive,  and  the  sentence  was  car- 
ried out  Oct.  27,  1553.  Among 
his  theological  works  were:  Dia- 
logi  de  Trinitate  (1532);  Claudii 
Ptolemcei  Alexandrini  Ceograph- 
ica  Enarratio  (1535);  Christian- 
ismi  Restitutio  (1553);  Biblia 
Sacra  ex  Santis  Paganini  Tra- 
latione  (1542).  Consult  J.  S. 
Porter's  Servetus  and  Calvin;  Os- 
ier's Michael  Servetus. 

Servia.    See  Serbia. 

Service.  Robert  William 
(I874-  ).  Canadian  author, 
was  born  in  Preston,  England. 
He  was  educated  in  Scotland, 
and  emigrated  to  Canada,  where 
in  1905  he  became  associated 
with  the  Bank  of  Commerce, 
British  Columbia.  He  was  later 
transferred  to  White  Horse,  Yu- 
kon Territory,  and  to  Dawson. 
He  spent  some  years  in  travel  in 
the  far  north  and  there  gained  in- 
spiration for  his  literary  work. 
His  books  of  verse  include  Songs 
of  a  Sourdough  (1907);  Ballads 
of  a  Chechako  (1909);  Rhymes 
of  a  Rolling  Stone  (1912) ;  Rhymes 
of  a  Red  Cross  Man  (1916); 
Ballads  of  a  Bohemian  (1921). 
He  has  also  written  novels;  The 
Trail  0/  '55"  (1910),  The  Pretender 
(1914);  Master  of  the  Microbe 
(1926);  House  of  Fear  (1927); 
etc.,  also  his  autobiography. 
Ploughman  of  the  Moon. 

Service,  Musical.  Until  the 
time  of  Ambrose,  elected  bishop 
of  Milan  in  374,  church  music 
was  without  uniformity.  Am- 
brose arranged  the  chanting  of 


Service 


KR 


113B 


Servlss 


the  Psalms  according  to  the  sys- 
tem of  the  tetrachords,  and  set 
the  hymns  to  Greek  melodies.  A 
complete  change  was  effected 
by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  (590- 
604).  The  Gregorian  service  sys- 
tematized the  plain-song  of  the 
Church,  and  eliminated  the  Ori- 
ental ornaments  and  subdivision 
of  intervals  which  had  charac- 
terized the  system  of  Ambrose 
(see  Plain-song)  .  Harmony, 
however,  was  not  attempted.  By 
the  side  of  this  plain  church 
music  gradually  grew  up  the 
melodic  and  metrical  music  of 
the  people. 

Harmonized  and  metrical 
humns  became  popular  wherever 
the  Reformation  spread.  The 
English  liturgy  was  set  to  music 
by  such  men  as  Merbecke,  Tye, 
Tallis,  Byrd,  and  Morley.  The 
great  hymns  ('Te  Deum,'  'Sanc- 
tus,'  'Gloria  in  Excelsis,'  Mag- 
nificat,' etc.),  which  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  sings  in  the 
Latin  tongue,  were  translated 
into  the  vernacular  by  the 
Church  of  England,  and  they 
have  been  set  to  music  by  many 
composers  for  the  use  of  the 
evangelical  churches.  An  injunc- 
tion of  Queen  Elizabeth  permit- 
ted metrical  psalms  and  hymns 
before  and  after  any  service,  and 
about  this  same  time  anthems 
(that  is,  musical  settings  of  por- 
tions of  Scripture  or  of  the  Ht- 
urgy)  were  recognized  as  a  stated 
part  of  divine  service. 

In  1551  Sternhold  and  Hop- 
kins' rendering  of  the  Psalter  was 
issued.  A  more  adequate  setting 
of  the  Psalms,  with  complete 
harmonies,  was  published  by  T. 
Este  in  1592.  Thomas  Tallis, 
'the  father  of  English  cathedral 
music,'  first  harmonized  the  re- 
sponses in  the  morning  and  eve- 
ning prayer. 

The  term  Service  is  employed 
in  two  senses:  first,  to  designate 
any  religious  function,  with  or 
without  music;  second,  as  a  col- 
lective term,  to  comprise  a  set  of 
pieces  including  all  of  the  musical 
portions  of  a  stated  function;  for 
instance,  Stainer's  Communion 
Service  in  F.  Best's  Evening  Ser- 
vice, Merbecke's  Burial  Service, 
Tours'  Morning  Communion, 
and  Evening  Service  in  F. 

In  the  United  States,  modern 
church  music  and  organ  building 
received  their  greatest  impetus 
about  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century.  Musical  services  of  a 
high  character  were  instituted  by 
Dr.  E.  Hodges,  continued  by  Dr. 
H.  S.  Cutler,  and  brought  to  their 
best  development  by  Dr.  A.  H. 
Messiter  during  his  term  of 
nearly  thirty  years  as  organist  of 
Trinity  Church.  The  musical 
uplift  which  originated  in  these 
services  has  been  felt  throughout 
the  country,  and  has  extended  to 
the  other  denominations.  Much 


of  the  music  composed  for  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  churches  has 
been  found  useful  in  other 
churches. 

The  elaborate  music  of  Roman 
Catholic  churches  was  simplified 
by  the  edict  of  Pope  Pius  x 
prescribing  plainer  musical  set- 
tings, and  calling  for  the  use  of 
boys'  voices  in  choirs  wherever 
practicable. 

The  music  of  the  orthodox 
Russian  church  is  entirely  vocal, 
organs  and  other  instruments 
being  absent  from  their  churches. 
Much  of  their  music  is  in  eight- 
part  harmony,  and  many  beauti- 
ful effects  are  obtained. 

A  characteristic  feature  of  the 
modern  Jewish  service  is  the 
antiphonal  singing  by  the  'can- 
tor' and  choir. 

See  Antiphony;  Hymnody; 
Mass.;  Oratorio. 

Service  of  Process,  in  law,  a 
notification  of  the  institution  of 
legal  proceedings,  generally  re- 
quired before  final  judicial  action 
can  be  taken  against  an  indi- 
vidual. To  secure  a  judgment  m 
personam  there  must  be  personal 
service  of  a  summons  (q.  v.)  or 
other  process  upon  the  defendant 
personally  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  court. 

Service  ot  process,  in  the 
United  States,  is  regulated  by  the 
statutes  of  the  different  states, 
and  by  Federal  statutes.  In 
general,  there  are  three  classes 
of  service — namely,  personal  ser- 
vice, service  by  publication,  and 
substituted  service,  which  is 
made  by  leaving  a  copy  of  the 
summons  or  writ  at  the  defen- 
dant's usual  place  of  abode.  Serv- 
ice is  invalid  where  the  defend- 
ant's presence  within  the  juris- 
diction is  secured  by  trick  or 
device,  or  by  the  use  of  force  or 
criminal  process. 

The  statutes  of  some  states 
require  the  service  of  a  copy  of 
the  plaintiff's  complaint  with  the 
writ;  but  unless  there  is  such  a 
statutory  requirement,  a  copy  of 
the  complaint  need  not  be  served. 
Persons  authorized  to  serve  proc- 
ess are  generally  designated  by 
statute.  In  some  instances  cer- 
tain officers  are  named.  In  oth- 
ers, any  person  not  a  party  to  the 
action  is  qualified.  In  such  case 
the  plaintiff's  attorney  may 
serve  the  process. 

In  general,  a  valid  personal 
service  of  process  can  not  be 
made  outside  of  the  territorial 
jurisdiction  of  the  court.  Al- 
though a  provision  for  personal 
service  outside  the  state  is  fre- 
quently found  in  the  statutes 
such  a  service  can  not  give  the 
court  jurisdiction  to  render  a 
personal  judgment.  The  time 
within  which  process  may  be 
served  varies  according  to  the 
state  in  which  the  action  is  com- 
menced.   Examples  of  statutory 


regulation  in  this  regard  are  'not 
less  than  six  days  before  the  re- 
turn day,'  'in  or  at  any  time  be- 
fore the  return  day,'  'ten  days  be- 
fore the  first  day  of  the  term,' 
'within  three  years  after  issu- 
ance.' 

The  usual  method  of  serving 
process  consists  in  reading  the 
writ  to  the  defendant  and  deliv- 
ering a  copy  to  him.  but  by  some 
statutes  the  reading  is  not  re- 
quired. Substituted  service  is 
authorized  where  the  defendant 
is  a  resident  of  the  state,  but 
can  not  be  found.  It  is  generally 
employed  where  the  defendant  is 
seeking  to  avoid  personal  service. 
Service  by  publication  is  the 
method  of  obtaining  jurisdiction 
in  certain  cases,  as  where  the 
defendant  is  a  foreign  corpora- 
tion, or  has  left  the  state  for  the 
purpose  of  defrauding  his  cred- 
itors. Service  of  process  on 
Sunday  is  void,  but  in  most 
states  it  may  be  served  on  public 
holidays.   See  Procedure. 

Service  Tree  (Sorbus  deomes- 
tica),  a  European  tree  with  foli- 
age similar  to  that  of  the  moun- 
tain ash  and  edible  fruit  resem- 
bling a  pear,  but  smaller. 

Servile  Wars,  wars  of  slaves 
or  mercenaries  against  their  mas- 
ters. The  first  known  in  history 
was  the  one  waged  by  Cartha- 
ginian mercenaries,  who,  after 
the  First  Punic  War,  being  un- 
able to  obtain  their  arrears  of 
pay,  nearly  brought  Carthage  to 
ruin  before  they  were  vanquished 
(238  B.C.).  In  134  B.C.  the  slaves 
of  the  Roman  patricians,  goaded 
by  ill  usage,  rose  in  Sicily,  and 
defeated  the  praetors  and  the 
consul  Fulvius  Flaccus,  but  were 
eventually  overcome  by  the  con- 
sul P.  Rupilius  (132  B.C.).  The 
second  servile  war  of  Rome  also 
broke  out  in  Sicily,  but  the  rising 
was  crushed  by  the  consul  M. 
Aquilius  in  101  B.C.  The  most 
dangerous  rising  was  that  of  the 
gladiators  under  Spartacus  (q.v.) 
who.  with  seventy  companions, 
having  fled  from  their  school  at 
Capua,  roused  the  slaves,  drilled 
them,  supplied  them  with  arms, 
and  inflicted  defeat  after  defeat 
upon  the  Romans.  The  rebellion 
was  quelled  by  Crassus  in  72  B.C. 

Servlss,  Garrett  Putnam 
(1851-1929),  American  author, 
was  born  in  Sharon  vSprings, 
N.  Y.,  and  was  educated  at  Cor- 
nell and  Columbia  Universities. 
He  was  an  editorial  writer  on  the 
New  York  Sun  for  some  years, 
and  after  1892  devoted  himself 
largely  to  lecturing  and  writing. 
His  works  include  Pleasures  of 
the  Telescope  (1901) ;  Other  Worlds 
(1902);  The  Moon,  a  Popular 
Treatise  (1907);  Astronomy  with 
the  Naked  Eye  (1908);  Curiosi- 
ties of  the  Sky  (1909);  Round  the 
Year  with  the  Stars  (1910);  A 
Columbus  of  Space  (1911);  As- 


Servltes 


KR 


114 


Sestrl  Ponente 


tronomy  in  a  Nutshell  (1912) ;  The 
Second  Deluge  (1912);  Eloquence 
{1^12);  The  Moon  Maiden  (1915). 

Servltes,  a  monastic  order  de- 
voted to  the  glorification  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  It  was  founded  in 
1233  by  seven  Florentine  mer- 
chants, who  retired  to  Monte 
Senario,  9  miles  from  the  city, 
and  adopted  the  rule  of  St.  Aug- 
ustine with  some  modifications. 
They  received  papal  sanction  in 
1255,  and  in  1424  were  granted 
the  privileges  of  the  other  men- 
dicant orders.  Their  habit  is  a 
white  mantle  with  a  black  hood 
and  scapular.  They  have  houses 
in  Italy,  Austria,  England,  and 
the  United  States. 

Servitude,  in  Roman  law  and 
the  systems  derived  from  it, 
burden  or  restriction  imposed 
upon  the  property  of  one  person 
in  favor  of  another,  and  also  the 
correlative  right  residing  in  the 
latter.  Servitudes  are  either 
personal  or  predial,  according  as 
the  burden  is  imposed  in  favor 
of  one  individual  as  such,  in 
which  case  the  right  must  at  all 
events  end  with  his  death,  or  in 
favor  of  him  as  owner  of  a  piece 
of  property,  in  which  case  the 
right  descends  to  his  heirs,  or 
passes  to  purchasers  or  donees  of 
such  property. 

Personal  servitudes  may  be 
illustrated  by  a  life  interest  held 
by  one  person,  while  the  radical 
right  of  ownership  or  remainder 
is  vested  in  another.  Predial 
servitudes  include  both  easements 
and  profits  a  prendre  in  Anglo- 
American  law.  The  property  in 
favor  of  which  the  burden  is 
imposed  is  called  the  dominant 
tenement,  and  the  property  bur- 
dened the  servient  tenement.  (See 
Easement.) 

Servitudes  of  this  nature  were 
in  Roman  law  classified  as  rural 
or  urban,  according  as  the  respec- 
tive properties  were  landed  es- 
tates or  buildings,  not  according 
as  they  were  situated  in  the 
country  or  a  town.  Thus  a  right 
of  way  which  the  owner  of  an 
estate  possesses  over  neighboring 
lands  belonging  to  another  is  a 
rural  servitude;  while  a  right  to 
prevent  the  erection  of  a  house 
of  a  certain  height  is  an  urban 
servitude. 

A  servitude  is  said  to  be  posi- 
tive when  the  owner  of  the  domi- 
nant tenement  is  permitted  to  do 
something  which  he  might  not 
otherwise  have  done;  and  nega- 
tive when  the  owner  of  the 
servient  tenement  is  prohibited 
from  doing  something  which  he 
might  otherwise  have  done.  The 
law  relating  to  apprentices  is  a 
modern  form  of  the  law  of  servi- 
tude (see  Apprentice). 

Ser'vlus,  a  commentator  on 
Virgil,  and  one  of  the  most  in- 
telligent of  the  Latin  'gram- 
matici,'  lived  at  Rome  about  400 


A.  D.  Much  of  what  is  ordinarily 
cited  as  his  work  is  by  later 
hands,  however. 

Ser'vius   Tul'llus,  (578-534 

B.  C.)  the  sixth  legendary  king  of 
Rome.   See  Rome,  History. 

Sesame,  ses'a-me,  Gingelly, 
or  TiLSEED,  an  annual  herbace- 
ous plant  of  the  genus  Sesamum, 
characterized  by  wingless  seeds, 
and  placentae  with  woody 
lobes  attached  to  the  inner  wall 
of  the  fruit.  The  species  most 
worthy  of  notice  is  5.  indicum. 
Sesame  is  cultivated  throughout 
the  East  from  Egypt  to  Japan 
for  the  sake  of  the  seeds,  which 
yield  benne  oil  or  Gingelly  Oil. 
This  oil  is  used  in  cookery,  for 
lighting,  and  for  lubrication. 

Ses'amoid  Bones,  small, 
rounded  masses,  cartilaginous  in 
early  life,  but  osseous  in  the 
adult,  developed  in  tendons 
which  glide  over  bony  promi- 
nences. In  the  human  subject 
the  patella  is  the  best  example. 
They  are  much  more  numerous 
in  the  great  majority  of  mammals 
than  in  man. 

Ses'amum.  See  Benne  Oil. 

Sesos'trls,  the  Greek  name  of 
a  celebrated  Egyptian  monarch, 
who,  according  to  legendary  his- 
tory, invaded  Libya,  Arabia, 
Asia,  Europe,  Thrace,  and  Scy- 
thia,  leaving  a  colony  at  Colchis 
on  his  return.  In  the  south  he 
subdued  Ethiopia,  and  placing  a 
fleet  on  the  Red  Sea,  conquered 
the  adjacent  isles,  and  extended 
his  dominions  to  India  itself. 
Historians  are  divided  as  to  his 
identity.  Herodotus  places  his 
reign  long  before  that  of  Cheops 
of  the  fourth  dynasty  while  Bun- 
sen  supposes  that  there  was 
more  than  one  monarch  of  this 
name. 

Sesquicentennial  Interna- 
tional Exposition,  an  exposi- 
tion held  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
from  June  1  go  Dec.  1,  1926,  to 
celebrate  150  years  of  American 
Independence.  The  U.  S.  Gov- 
ernment appropriated  $2,1X6,500 
for  the  expenses  of  governmental 
participation,  $1,000,000  of 
which  was  designated  for  a  build- 
ing program.  Chief  among  the 
many  buildings  and  other  fea- 
tures of  the  exposition,  which  oc- 
cupied a  site  comprising  all  of 
League  Island  Park  in  South 
Philadelphia  and  400  acres  addi- 
tional, were  a  huge  reproduction 
of  the  Liberty  Bell,  the  Palace 
of  Machinery,  Transportation 
Building,  Palace  of  Agriculture, 
Palace  of  Liberal  Arts  and  Manu- 
facture, Mines  and  Metallurgy 
Building,  Palace  of  Education, 
Palace  of  Fine  Arts  and  the 
Tower  of  Light.  More  than  20 
foreign  nations,  including  Great 
Britain,  Japan,  Germany,  Aus- 
tria, Denmark,  Spain,  Rumania, 
Persia,  and  the  South  and  Cen- 
tral American  republics  partici- 


pated either  officially  or  unoffi- 
cially, and  a  large  number  of  the 
states  of  the  United  States  had 
buildings  or  exhibits.  A  mam- 
moth pageant,  entitled.  Freedom, 
was  a  leading  feature  of  the 
exposition.  The  attendance  was 
estimated  at  nearly  5,000,000, 
but  financially  the  exposition  was 
a  failure,  closing  on  Nov.  30  with 
a  deficit  of  $2,000,000. 

Sessa  Aurunca,  ses'sa  ou- 
rdbng'ka,  city,  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Caserta,  32  miles 
northwest  of  Naples.  It  has  a 
fine  cathedral,  a  theological  sem- 
inary, a  technical  college,  and 
ruins  (amphitheatre  and  baths) 
of  the  ancient  Suessa  Aurunro- 
rum.  On  its  hills  were  vineyards 
famous  for  the  Falernian  wine  of 
the  Romans.    Pop.  24,074. 

Sesterce,  ses't^rs,  or  Sester- 
tius, ancient  Roman  money  of 
account.  Its  original  value  was 
two  and  a  half  ases,  until  made 
equal  to  four  ases,  a  quarter  of 
a  denarius  Cq.v.).  Its  value  was 
then  a  little  over  4  cents.  The 
neuter  plural  sestertia  equals 
1,000  sestertii. 


Roman  Sestertius 


Ses'tius,  or  Sextius,  Pub- 
Lius,  Roman  patrician,  quaestor 
in  63  B.C.,  aided  Cicero  in  sup- 
pressing the  conspiracy  of  Cati- 
line, and  assisted  Antonius 
in  defeating  Catiline's  forces  in 
Etruria.  He  became  tribune  in 
57  B.C.,  and  did  much  to  promote 
Cicero's  recall  from  banishment. 
In  56  Clodius,  as  aedile,  caused 
him  to  be  prosecuted  on  the 
charge  of  bribery  at  the  elections. 
Cicero  defended  him,  and  he  was 
acquitted.  In  53  he  was  praetor, 
and  in  49,  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War,  was  with  Pompey, 
but  soon  joined  Caesar,  by  whom 
he  was  sent  in  48  to  Cappadocia. 

Ses'to,  commune,  Italy,  5 
miles  northwest  of  Florence.  It 
has  a  14th  century  palace.  Cloth, 
hats,  and  potterv  are  manufac- 
tured.   Pop.  8,346. 

Ses'tos,  an  ancient  Greek 
town  in  Thrace,  founded  by 
Aeolian  colonists  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  Hellespont,  opposite 
Abydos.  It  is  famous  in  legend 
as  the  home  of  Hero,  the  beloved 
of  Leander  (q.  v.),  and  in  history 
as  the  place  where  the  bridge  of 
boats  for  the  crossing  of  Xerxes' 
army  into  Europe  was  formed. 

Sestrl  Levante,  ses'tre  le- 
van'ta,  town  and  pleasure  resort, 
Italy,  on  the  Gulf  of  Genoa;  27 
miles  vsoutheast  of  Genoa.  Pop. 
6,891  (commune  15,341). 

Sestrl  Ponente,  tn.,  prov.  Italy, 
Genoa,  3  m.  by  rail  w.  of  Genoa; 


Sete  Quedas 


KR 


115 


Settemhrlnl 


is  picturesquely  situated  on  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa,  and  is  a  fashion- 
able summer  resort.  There  are 
shipbuilding  yards  and  machin- 
ery workshops.    Pop.  24,522. 

Sete  Quedas,  or  Guiara 
Falls  (Seven  Falls),  a  famous 
cascade  on  the  Parana  river, 
South  America. 

Seth,  Andrew.  See  Pringle 
Pattison. 

Set-off,  Recoupment,  and 
Counter-claim.  By  statute,  it 
has  become  the  practice  to  allow 
a  defendant  in  an  action  for  a 
liquidated  claim  to  reduce  or 
extinguish  that  claim  by  setting 
off  against  it  a  liquidated  ac- 
tionable claim  in  his  favor 
against  the  plantifif  which  ac- 
crued before  the  commencement 
of  the  action.  A  set-off  is  a 
liquidated  demand  arising  from 
a  distinct  transaction,  upon 
which  a  separate  action  might  be 
maintained,  and  which  is  set  up 
in  an  action  by  a  defendant  to 
counterbalance  the  plaintiff's 
recovery  either  in  part  or  in 
whole.  It  may  be  an  assigned 
claim.  The  defendant  may  have 
no  other  defense  and  rely  en- 
tirely upon  his  set-off.  A  few 
states  require  a  defendant  who 
has  a  demand  against  a  plaintiff 
which  might  properly  be  pleaded 
as  a  set-off,  to  do  so  and  bar  his 
right  of  action  if  he  does  not,  but 
this  is  not  the  general  rule.  Re- 
coupment is  the  right  to  plead 
damages  arising  out  of  the  same 
transaction  as  the  main  action, 
as  a  claim  for  damages  by  reason 
of  a  breach  of  the  contract  sued 
upon  by  the  plaintiff.  Counter- 
claim is  a  broader  term,  and 
includes  claims  which  might 
properly  be  subjects  of  recoup- 
ment and  set-off.  The  New 
York  Code  of  Civil  Piocedure 
defines  a  counter-claim  as  fol- 
lows: 'The  counter-claim  speci- 
fied in  the  last  section  must  tend 
in  sorrie  way  to  diminish  or  defeat 
the  plaintiff's  recovery,  and  must 
be  one  of  the  following  causes 
of  action  against  the  plaintiff, 
or,  in  a  proper  case,  against  the 
person  whom  he  represents,  and 
in  favor  of  the  defendant,  or  of 
one  or  more  defendants,  between 
whom 'and  the  plaintiff  a  separate 
judgment  may  be  had  in  the  ac- 
tion: (1)  A  cause  of  action  arising 
out  of  the  contract  or  transaction 
set  forth  in  the  complaint  as  the 
foundation  of  the  plaintiff's 
claim,  or  connected  with  the  sub- 
ject of  the  action.  (2)  In  an  ac- 
tion on  contract,  any  other  cause 
of  action  on  contract  existing  at 
the  commencement  of  the  action. 
If  the  counter-claim  is  allowed 
and  exceeds  the  plaintiff's  claim 
the  defendant  may  have  judg- 
ment for  the  excess.  Any  valid 
defense  against  a  set-off,  recoup- 
ment, or  counter-claim  may  be 
interposed  by  the  plaintiff.  A 


claim  barred  by  the  statute  of 
limitations  can  not  be  set  up  by 
way  of  set-off,  recoupment,  or 
counter-claim.  See  Pleading. 
Consult  Chitty,  Pleading. 

Seton,  a  term  in  surgery,  ap- 
plied both  to  the  wound  or  issue 
and  to  the  skein  of  silk  or  other 
material  left  therein.  Where 
constant  counter-irritation  or  an 
artificial  issue  is  required,  a  fold 
of  the  true  skin  is  pinched  up  be- 
tween the  finger  and  thumb,  and 
pierced  from  side  to  side,  after 
which  threads  of  silk  or  horse- 
hair, or  a  piece  of  tape,  are  drawn 
through  the  wound  by  an  eyed 
probe,  and  left  in  position.  The 
seton  acts  as  a  foreign  body,  and 
to  keep  the  wound  open  it  should 
be  moved  daily  backward  and 
forward  without  removing  it 
from  the  wound.  A  seton  in  the 
back  of  the  neck  was  once  advo- 
cated for  migraine.  The  remedy 
is  an  ancient  one;  formerly  bristles 
were  used  for  the  purpose. 

Seton,  Elizabeth  Ann  (Bay- 
ley)  (1774-1821).  An  American 
Roman  Catholic  philanthropist, 
born  at  Emmettsburg,  Md.,  the 
daughter  of  Dr.  Richard  Bayley. 
She  was  privately  educated,  and 
in  1794  married  William  Seton, 
a  merchant  of  New  York.  His 
illness  compelled  her  to  go  with 
him  to  Italy  in  1803.  He  died 
in  the  following  year  at  Pisa. 
She  returned  to  the  United 
States,  and  in  1805  entered  the 
Roman  Catholic  communion. 
The  loss  of  her  husband's  for- 
tune compelled  her  to  open  a 
private  school  in  Baltimore,  but 
a  gift  of  $8,000  from  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Cooper  enabled  her  to 
found  a  conventual  institution  at 
Emmettsburg  in  1809.  She, 
with  two  sisters-in-law,  and 
two  other  women,  assumed  the 
religious  habit,  and  organized, 
under  the  constitution  of  the 
Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
the  Sisters  of  Charity.  The 
order  grew  rapidly;  in  1814  it 
took  charge  of  an  orphan  asylum 
in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1817  of 
a  similar  institution  in  New 
York.  Organizations  were  es- 
tablished in  many  other  cities. 
She  remainded  as  Mother  Supe- 
rior of  the  order  until  her  death. 
Her  autobiography  was  pub- 
lished in  1817,  and  a  Memoir, 
Letters  and  Journal  of  Elizabeth 
Ann  Seton  was  edited  by  the  Rev. 
Robert  Seton  in  1869. 

Seton,  Ernest  Thompson 
(1860-1946),  American  author, 
illustrator,  and  lecturer,  was 
born  in  South  Shields,  England, 
and  was  brought  to  Canada  in 
1866.  He  studied  at  the  Toronto 
Collegiate  Institute  and  at  the 
Royal  Academy,  London,  Eng- 
land, and  settled  in  Manitoba  in 
1882,  The  publication  of  his 
Mammals  of  Manitoba  (1886) 
and  his  Birds  of  Manitoba  (1891) 


led  to  his  appointment  as  official 
naturalist  of  Manitoba  in  1891. 
Meanwhile  he  did  much  illustra- 
tive work  for  eastern  publishing 
houses,  passed  some  time  in 
study  in  Paris,  and  in  1896  pub- 
lished Art  Anatomy  of  Animals, 
a  large  work  in  plates.  His  first 
popular  animal  book.  Wild  Ant- 
Animals  I  Have  Known  (1898), 
was  followed  by  The  Biography 
of  a  Grizzly  (1900),  Lives  of  the 
Hunted  (1900),  Two  Little  Sav- 
ages (1903),  Monarch,  the  Big 
Bear  (1904),  Animal  Heroes 
(190.5),  Wild  Animals  at  Home 
(1913);  Biography  of  an  Arctic 
Fox  (1937),  etc'  Through  his 
attributing  human  thoughts  and 
feelings  to  wild  animals  he 
received  considerable  criticism. 
His  insistence  upon  attributing 
to  his  animal  heroes  not  only 
extraordinary  intelligence,  but 
many  of  the  subtler  human  emo- 
tions, aroused  the  sharp  criticism 
of  many  responsible  naturalists; 
but  however  much  misinforma- 
tion his  stories  may  convey,  they 
have  done  not  a  little  to  pro- 
mote sympathy  for  our  native 
animals  and  birds,  and  for  their 
preservation. 

Seton,  Robert  (1839-1927), 
American  R.  C.  prelate,  was  born 
in  Pisa,  Italy,  and  graduated 
(1867)  at  the  Ecclesiastical 
Academy  in  Rome.  He  was 
made  private  chamberlain  to 
Pope  Pius  IX  in  1866,  and  pro- 
thonotary  apostolic  in  1867. 
From  1876  to  1902  he  was  rec- 
tor of  St.  Joseph's  Church,  Jer- 
sey City,  N.  J.,  then  removing  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  made  titu- 
lar archbishop  of  Heliopolis  in 
the  following  year.  He  pub- 
lished Memoir,  etc.,  of  Elizabeth 
Seton  (1869),  Essays  on  Various 
Subjects,  Chiefly  Roman  Essays 
(1882),  The  Dignity  of  Labor 
(1893),  and  An  Old  Family 
(1899). 

Seton  Hall  College.  A  Ro- 
man Catholic  institution  for  men, 
founded  in  1856  at  Madison, 
N.  J.,  and  removed  in  1860  to  its 
present  site  at  South  Orange, 
N.  J.  Two  courses  of  study, 
classical  and  scientific,  are  of- 
fered, leading  to  the  b.a.  and  b.s. 
degrees.  The  college  property 
embraces  75  acres.  There  are 
about  4,000  students  in  South 
Orange,  and  an  additional  3,000 
in  the  urban  division  in  Newark. 
This  division  is  co-educational 
and  the  curricula  lead  to  an 
M.A.  degree. 

Sette    Communl.    See  Vi- 

CENZA. 

Settembrini,  Luigi  (1813- 
76),  Italian  writer  and  patriot, 
was  born  at  Naples,  and  in  1835 
became  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
Catanzaro;  but  between  1839 
and  1860  he  spent  many  years  in 
prison  (at  St.  Stefano)  and  in 
exile  (in  Malta  and  London)  for 


Setter 


KR 


116 


Settlement 


his  political  views,  expressed  no- 
where more  forcibly  than  in  the 
Prolesta  del  Popolo  (idle  Due 
Sicilie  (1847).  In  1860  he  re- 
turned from  his  English  exile, 
and  after  holding  an  inspector- 
ship of  studies,  he  occupied  the 
chair  of  Italian  literature  in  the 
University  of  Naples  till  his 
death.  The  Lezioni  di  Lettera- 
tura  Italiana  (1867-72;  often  re- 
printed), while  not  pretending 
to  learning  and  scholarship,  are 
full  of  sound  criticism,  as  are 
also  Scritli  Variidi  Letteratura, 
Politica  ed  Arte  (1879-80).  See 
his  Ricordanze  della  mia  Vita 
(1879-80)  and  the  Epistolario 
(ed.  by  Fiorentino,  1883);  also 
the  monograph  by  Torraca 
(1877),  and  De  Sanctis'  Nuovi 
Saggi  Critici  (1879). 

Setter.  There  are  three  va- 
rieties of  this  dog — the  English, 
the  Scotch  (or  Gordon),  and  the 
Irish.  The  breed  is  doubtless  de- 
scended from  spaniels.  It  is  more 
active  than  the  pointer,  but  with 
somewhat  inferior  scent,  and  it 
'sets,'  or  crouches,  instead  of 
pointing  at  game.    Although  a 


Setter 


well-bred  dog  is  easily  broken  to 
game,  many  are  inclined  to  be 
rather  wild,  and  in  this  respect 
are  generally  inferior  to  the 
pointer.  The  following  are  the 
points  of  the  three  varieties: 

The  English  Setter. — Head  long 
and"rather  narrow;  skull  slightly 
domed,  and  not  very  broad  at 
the  base;  muzzle  long,  square, 
and  clean,  and  not  too  pointed 
at  the  end;  nose  moderately 
large,  with  wide  nostrils;  ears 
fine,  set  on  low,  and  fitting  close 
to  the  head;  eyes  soft,  bright, 
and  intelligent,  and  not  too  light 
in  color;  neck  of  fair  length,  and 
very  muscular;  shoulders  clean 
and  sloping;  chest  deep,  not 
wide;  back  strong  and  muscu- 
lar; ribs  deep  and  well  sprung; 
loins  broad  and  powerful;  thighs 
fairly  long,  and  very  muscular; 
stifles  well  bent;  hocks  well  let 
down;  forelegs  straight  and  well 
feathered;  pasterns  short, 
straight,  and  firm;  flag  medium 
length,  well  set  on  almost  in  a 
line  with  the  back,  and  not 
turned  up  or  curled;  feet  close 
and  compact,  slightly  feathered 
between  the  toes;  coat  soft, 
silky,  wavy,  free  from  curl.  Any 
color,  except  red  or  black  and 


tan.  Various  kennels  are  noted 
for  their  special  colors.  The  La- 
varack  setters  are  liver  and 
white,  flint-colored,  or  blue;  the 
Newark  are  distinguished  by  a 
topknot;  the  Seafields  are  lemon 
and  white,  and  the  Lovats  black, 
white,  and  tan. 

The  Irish  Setter. — Higher  on 
the  legs  than  the  English  variety; 
body  much  the  same;  head  long 
and  narrow;  muzzle  square;  lips 
moderately  deep;  ears  fine,  set 
low,  and  lying  well  back,  giving 
a  domed  appearance  to  the  skull ; 
stop  well  defined;  eyes  rich  hazel 
or  dark  brown;  coat  of  a  rich  dark 
red,  with  a  golden  tinge,  without 
anv  trace  of  black,  and  no  white, 
except  star  on  head  or  chest. 

The  Gordon  Setter. — Heavier 
than  the  English  or  Irish  varie- 
ties, and  shows  more  of  the  hound 
type,  and  less  of  the  spaniel; 
head  stronger,  with  deeper  and 
broader  muzzle  and  heavier  lips; 
ears  somewhat  larger;  eyes  often 
show  the  haw;  color  black  and 
tan,  the  black-jetty  and  the  tan 
on  the  cheeks  and  over  ears,  on 
feet  and  pasterns,  and  on  the 
feathering  of  forelegs  and  thighs. 

Settle,  Elkanah  (1648-1724), 
English  poetaster,  was  born  at 
Dunstable,  Bedfordshire.  His 
first  tragedy,  Cambyses,  made 
somewhat  of  a  hit  (1671).  In 
his  next  tragedy,  The  Empress  of 
Morocco  (1671), which  was  played 
at  Whitehall  by  the  lords  and 
ladies  of  the  court,  and  gained 
great  popularity,  he  invited  com- 
parison with  Dry  den,  who  forth- 
with castigated  him  in  Absalom 
and  Achitophel  (1682).  In  1687 
Settle  published  Reflections  on 
several  of  Mr.  Drydens  Plays. 
After  that  he  eked  out  a  living 
by  writing  verses  for  city  pa- 
geants, and  died  a  pensioner  in 
the  Charterhouse. 

Settlement.  This  term  is  used 
with  distinct  technical  significa- 
tions in  several  branches  of  the 
law.  In  the  law  of  property,  it 
denotes  a  disposition  of  property 
by  a  conveyance,  as  a  deed  or 
will,  whereby  it  is  limited  to  two 
or  more  persons  in  succession;  or 
by  an  agreement  in  contempla- 
tion of  marriage,  or  after  mar- 
riage between  husband  and  wife, 
by  which  the  manner  of  holding, 
mode  of  enjoyment,  and  future 
disposition  are  arranged.  In  the 
law  of  contracts,  it  is  commonly 
employed  to  describe  an  agree- 
ment of  a  debtor  with  one  or 
more  of  his  creditors,  whereby 
their  accounts  are  adjusted.  In 
the  law  of  estates,  it  denotes  the 
examination  and  approval  of  the 
account  of  an  executor,  adminis- 
trator, guardian,  or  trustee  by 
the  proper  court.  It  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  act  of  moving  and 
living  upon  a  parcel  of  the  public 
lands  to  acquire  title  thereto 
under  public  land  acts;  and  to 


describe  the  acquisition  of  a  dom- 
icile or  residence  by  a  pauper  in  a 
particular  district,  whereby  he 
becomes  a  charge  on  the  public 
in  such  district. 

Perhaps  the  most  common 
form  of  settlement  of  property  is 
known  as  a  'marriage  settlement.' 
The  purpose  is  to  deprive  a  pres- 
ent or  prospective  husband  or 
wife  of  his  or  her  common-law 
rights  in  the  property.  This 
may  be  effected  by  a  conveyance 
from  a  third  person  to  a  husband 
or  wife,  or  person  about  to  be 
married,  upon  conditions  pre- 
scribing the  mode  of  enjoyment 
or  future  disposition;  or  by  an 
agreement  between  a  man  and 
woman  engaged  to  be  married^ 
or  between  a  husband  and  wife. 
For  example,  property  may  be 
conveyed  to  a  bride  upon  condi- 
tion that  she  is  to  have  the 
entire  income  therefrom,  and 
power  of  disposition  thereof, 
during  her  lifetime,  free  from  con- 
trol by  her  husband,  and  from  his 
statutory  or  common-law  rights, 
and  that  if  it  is  not  disposed  of  at 
her  death,  it  will  go  to  her  chil- 
dren. In  contemplation  of  mar- 
riage, a  man  or  woman  may  re- 
lease his  or  her  prospective  rights 
in  the  property  of  the  other,  as 
right  of  dower,  homestead,  cour- 
tesy, etc.  A  woman  can  not  re- 
lease her  right  to  support  by  her 
present  or  intended  husband,  as 
that  obligation  is  imposed  by 
law,  and  it  would  be  contrary  to 
public  policy  to  abrogate  it. 
Ante-nuptial  contracts,  whereby 
the  wife  releases  her  claim  to  her 
right  of  dower,  and  other  rights 
to  the  estate  of  her  husband  up- 
on his  decease,  are  not  favored  in 
law,  but  if  fairly  made  without 
fraud  or  imposition,  they  will  be 
enforced  by  the  courts.  If  there 
is  concealment  of  property  the 
agreement  may  be  set  aside.  A 
post-nuptial  marriage  settlement 
may  also  be  made,  whereby, 
rights  are  surrendered  by  either 
party.  Where  there  is  adequate 
consideration,  the  creditors  of 
either  party  can  not  object.  How- 
ever, if  a  voluntary  settlement  of 
property  is  made  by  one  spouse 
upon  the  other,  it  may  be  set 
aside  if  it  is  in  fraud  of  creditors. 
For  example,  if  a  gift  is  made  by 
a  husband  to  his  wife  of  an 
amount  out  of  proportion  to  his 
means,  his  existing  creditors  may 
subsequently  attack  it  if  he  does 
not  retain  sufficient  property  to 
satisfy  their  claims;  or  if  a  hus- 
band, about  to  engage  in  a 
hazardous  business  enterprise, 
conveys  the  whole  or  the  greater 
part  of  his  property  to  his  wife, 
it  will  be  considered  in  fraud 
of  his  subsequent  creditors  and 
may  be  recovered  by  them.  If  a 
husband  conducts  a  business  in 
his  wife's  name,  and  his  creditors 
seek  to  attach  the  profits,  etc.,  the 


Settlement 


KR 


117 


Seven 


burden  is  on  the  wife  of  showing 
that  the  business  was  actually 
conducted  with  her  capital  and 
for  her  benefit.  The  general  rule 
is  that  a  husband  may  give  his 
wife  his  labor,  but  not  accumu- 
lated profits  therefrom,  if  his 
creditors  remain  unsatisfied. 

In  a  number  of  states  by  stat- 
ute certain  formalities  must  be 
observed  in  executing  marriage 
settlements,  as  affixing  a  schedule 
of  the  property  included,  ack- 
nowledgment before  a  notary, 
etc.  By  the  Statute  of  Frauds 
generally,  agreements  in  consid- 
eration of  marriage  must  be  in 
writing  and  signed  by  the  party 
to  be  charged  thereby.  Subse- 
quent marriage  is  a  good  consid- 
eration. Unless  the  settlement  is 
made  conditional  upon  continu- 
ance of  the  marriage  relation, 
separation  or  divorce  of  the  par- 
ties will  not  affect  it.  It  may  be 
abrogated  any  time  by  consent 
of  all  the  parties  thereto. 

The  heirs  and  next  o.  kin  of  a 
deceased  person  may  enter  into  a 
'family  settlement'  in  considera- 
tion of  mutual  releases  or  prom- 
ises, as  an  agreement  for  the  dis- 
position of  a  testator's  property 
contrary  to  the  provisions  of  his 
will,  to  avoid  litigation,  and  if 
fairly  made  it  will  be  upheld  by 
the  courts.  See  Curtesy;  Hus- 
band AND  Wife;  Marriage, 
Consult  Bishop,  Married  Women; 
Parsons,  Contracts  (9th  ed.  190.3). 

Settlement,  Act  of.  See 
Crown. 

Settlement  of  the  Poor.  In 
all  modern  states,  with  the  de- 
velopment of  pauperism,  and  the 
introduction  of  systematic  poor 
relief,  the  question  of  the  resi- 
dence of  poor  persons,  with  the 
attendant  obligation  upon  local 
authorities  to  support  such  per- 
sons in  case  of  need  became  of 
vital  importance.  Definite  rules 
were  first  established  in  England, 
as  a  consequence  of  the  great 
importance  which  the  question 
of  pauperism  assumed  in  early 
modern  times.  By  the  statute  of 
1662,  a  pauper  could  receive  re- 
lief from  a  parish  only  after 
forty  days'  continuous  residence 
therein.  In  principle  this  law 
remained  unchanged  until  1834. 
Its  most  serious  consequences 
were  the  oppressive  measures 
taken  by  the  several  parishes, 
under  the  law  of  removal,  to  pre- 
vent persons  likely  to  become 
paupers  from  acquiring  resi- 
dence. A  person  with  no  other 
means  of  support  than  his  labor 
was  liable,  upon  leaving  his  par- 
ish, to  be  forcibly  expelled  from 
any  other  parish  in  which  he 
sought  to  reside.  Hence  laborers 
were  practically  compelled  to  re- 
main throughout  their  lives  in 
the  districts  in  which  they  were 
born. 

Beginning  with  1834,  succes- 


sive enactments  were  passed  to 
remove  the  restiictions  placed 
upon  poor  persons  by  the  old 
law.  At  present  a  settlement, 
for  the  purposes  of  the  poor  law, 
is  acquired,  as  a  rule,  by  three 
years'  residence.  Various  excep- 
tions are  made,  however,  as,  for 
example,  provisions  granting  set- 
tlement to  owners  of  estates;  to 
women  marrying  persons  who 
have  acquired  a  settlement;  to 
apprentices  after  forty  days'  resi- 
dence, etc.  When  a  person  not 
having  a  settlement  in  the  place 
where  he  resides  becomes  de- 
pendent upon  public  authorities 
for  support,  he  may  be  removed 
to  the  place  where  he  has  a  set- 
tlement, if  he  has  not  resided  in 
the  place  where  he  becomes 
chargeable  for  a  year;  if  he  has 
resided  there  above  a  year,  he 
can  not  be  removed;  but  he  does 
not  acquire  a  settlement  there. 

In  the  American  colonies  the 
English  laws  of  settlement  were 
early  introduced,  modified,  how- 
ever, to  meet  local  conditions. 
Especially  in  New  England  set- 
tlement laws  of  considerable  vig- 
or were  adopted,  and  serious 
abuses  arose  out  of  the  removal 
of  persons  not  yet  paupers,  but 
liable  to  become  such.  After  the 
Resolution  laws  of  settlement 
were  enacted  by  most  of  the 
states.  As  a  rule  these  have  be- 
come less  and  less  vigorous  with 
the  lapse  of  time.  At  present 
settlement  is  commonly  acquired 
by  adult  persons  by  one  year's 
residence;  legitimate  minor  chil- 
dren take  the  settlement  of  the 
father;  illegitimate  children,  of 
the  mother.  A  married  woman 
has  a  settlement  where  the  hus- 
band has  one;  if  the  husband  is 
not  settled  in  the  state,  the  wife 
retains  the  settlement  she  had 
prior  to  marriage.  Persons  be- 
coming recipients  of  public  relief 
in  towns  or  counties  where  they 
have  no  settlement,  are  in  most 
states  removable  to  the  places 
where  they  are  settled.  In  some 
states,  as  New  York,  such  per- 
sons are  not  removable,  but  if 
having  a  settlement  in  other 
places  in  the  state,  are  to  be  sup- 
ported at  the  expense  of  the  place 
of  settlement.  Various  provi- 
sions exist  for  the  removal  from 
one  state  of  paupers  having  a 
residence  in  another  state. 

In  some  of  the  New  England 
states  the  laws  of  settlement  still 
present  the  complexities  of  the 
colonial  laws.  Thus  in  Massa- 
chusetts a  settlement  is  acquired 
by  ownership  of,  and  residence 
upon,  a  freehold  for  three  con- 
secutive years;  by  residence  in  a 
town,  and  payment  of  all  state, 
county  and  town  taxes,  for  five 
years;  by  election  to  certain  town 
offices,  provided  that  the  duties 
of  such  office  are  performed  for 
one  year;  by  apprenticeship  for 


four  years,  followed  by  five 
years'  consecutive  exercise  of  the 
craft  or  trade.  A  woman  ac- 
quires a  settlement  by  five  con- 
secutive years  of  residence,  or  by 
marriage  with  a  person  having  a 
settlement.  Persons  becoming 
public  charges  in  places  where 
they  are  not  settled  may  be  re- 
moved to  their  place  of  settle- 
ment, or  may  be  supported  at  the 
expense  of  such  place. 

Settlements.  See  Social 
Settlements. 

Setubal  (Roman  Cetobriga), 
seaport,  Portugal,  prov.  Estre- 
madura,  on  r.  bk.  of  Sado,  on  n. 
side  of  bay  of  Setubal,  17  m.  by 
rail  s.e.  of  Lisbon;  has  important 
sardine  fisheries  and  exports 
salt,  wine,  corks,  and  fruit.  It 
is  the  third  seaport  in  Portugal. 
British  sailors  know  it  as  St. 
Ubes  or  St.  Ives.  Pop.  (1940) 
35,071. 

Sevastopol,  or  Sebastopol, 
town,  seaport  and  seaside  resort, 
S.  Russia,  in  s.vv.  of  Crimea, 
34  m.  s.w.  of  Simpheropol.  It 
is  an  episcopal  see  and  naval 
seaport.  The  buildings  include 
the  cathedral  of  St.  Vladimir 
(1888),  with  paintings  of  modern 
Russian  school,  and  tombs  of 
Russian  naval  heroes;  cathedral 
of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  an  imita- 
tion of  Theseus  temple  at 
Athens;  Admiralty  buildings; 
museum;  and  both  new  and  old 
(ruined)  fortifications.  There 
are  also  extensive  dockyards  and 
naval  arsenals,  two  navigation 
schools,  naval  hospital,  sea  baths, 
and  sanatoria.  Sevastopol  is  a 
biological  station.  It  possesses 
the  best  harbor  of  the  Black  Sea. 
In  1804  it  was  made  the  chief 
Russian  naval  station  of  the 
Black  Sea  (a  first-class  fortress  in 
1825).  The  allies  invested  it  on 
Oct.  5,  1854,  and  gained  posses- 
sion on  Sept.  8-9,  1855.  In  1890 
the  commercial  port  was  trans- 
ferred to  Theodosia  (Feodosia). 
During  the  Russian  troubles  of 
1905  organized  revolts  of  sol- 
diers, sailors,  and  workmen  took 
place,  and  much  fighting  oc- 
curred.   Pop.  (1939)  111.946. 

Seven.  The  number  seven 
has  had  a  mystic  and  even  sacred 
import  from  time  immemorial. 
In  Dan.  9:24,  25,  seventy  weeks, 
or  seventy  times  seven  days,  are 
appointed  to  bring  in  everlasting 
righteousness;'  and  'from  the 
going  forth  of  the  commandment 
to  build  Jerusalem  unto  the  Mes- 
siah the  Prince  shall  be  seven 
weeks,  and  threescore  and  two 
weeks.'  In  Rev.  13:5  'the  beast' 
endut-es  'forty  and  two  months,' 
or  six  times  seven  lunar  months. 
Seven  is  also  the  complete  num- 
ber. The  Lamb  has  seven  horns 
to  symbolize  His  perfect  power. 
The  universal  church  is  repre- 
sented by  seven  candlesticks. 
Seven  is  also  a  good  number. 


Seven  Bishops 


KR 


118 


Seven  Sleepers 


Job  is  rewarded  with  seven 
sons.  Enoch,  the  holiest  of  the 
patriarchs,  is  'the  seventh  from 
Adam.'  Seven  is  intimately  as- 
sociated with  sacred  rites.  The 
blood  of  the  sin-offering  must  be 
'sprinkled  seven  times  before  the 
Lord.'  Any  Bible  concordance 
will  show  how  the  number  seven 
is  interwoven  with  the  whole  re- 
ligious life  and  history,  as  well 
as  with  the  thoughts  and  habits, 
of  the  Jewish  people  (Lev.  15: 
13,  19;  Num.  12:14).  Nor  was 
this  limited  to  the  Jews.  The 
Gentiles  had  their  Seven  Won- 
ders, Seven  Wise  Men,  and  so  on. 
See  James  Hadlev's  Essays 
(1873). 

Seven  Bishops,  The.  See 
Bishops,  The  Seven. 

Seven  Champions  of  Chris- 
tendom were  St.  George  of 
England,  St.  Denis  of  France, 
St.  James  of  Spain,  St.  Andrew 
of  Scotland,  St.  David  of  Wales. 
St.  Patrick  of  Ireland,  and  St. 
Anthony  of  Italy. 

Seven  Days'  Battle,  name 
applied  to  a  series  of  conflicts, 
fought  in  the  six  days  from  June 
26  to  July  1,  1862,  in  the  Penin- 
sula campaign  (q.v.)  of  the  Civil 
War.  The  Union  army,  which 
at  the  outset  numbered  about 
100,000  men,  was  commanded  by 
Gen.  George  B.  McClellan  (q.v.); 
that  of  the  Confederates  of  about 
90,000  men  by  Gen.  Robert  E. 
Lee,  who  had  succeeded  Gen. 
Joseph  E.  Johnston  after  John- 
ston was  wounded  at  Fair  Oaks. 
The  first  important  conflict  took 
place  at  Mechanicsville  (Beaver 
Dam  Creek)  on  June  26,  and 
resulted  unfavorably  to  the  Con- 
federates, who  lost  about  1,500, 
as  against  a  Union  loss  of  about 
400.  Next  day  witnessed  a  much 
heavier  battle  near  Gaines'  Mill 
(Cold  Harbor).  Early  in  the 
afternoon  the  Union  right,  which 
was  separated  from  the  main 
army  by  the  Chickahominy 
river,  and  was  under  the  imme- 
diate command  of  Gen.  Fitz- 
John  Porter,  was  attacked  by 
double  its  own  numbers.  The 
Confederates  were  at  first  driven 
back  with  heavy  loss,  but  were 
later  reinforced  by  troops  under 
Gen.  'Stonewall'  Jackson  and 
pressed  the  Union  forces  so  close- 
ly that  Porter  might  have  been 
overwhelmed  had  he  not  been 
opportunely  reinforced  by  two 
brigades  of  fresh  troops.  As  it 
was,  night  put  an  end  to  the 
conflict,  and  before  morning  Por- 
ter rejoined  the  main  army  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Chicka- 
hominy. The  Union  forces  en- 
gaged in  this  action  numbered 
about  30,000,  those  of  the  Con- 
federates about  60,000.  The  to- 
tal Federal  loss  was  about  6,800, 
that  of  the  Confederates  consid- 
erably more.  During  this  con- 
flict Gen.  McClellan  was  in  such 
a  position  that  by  a  bold  push 
forward  he  could  probably  have 


overcome  the  comparatively 
weak  force  in  front  of  the  main 
army  and  captured  Richmond, 
but  he  lacked  the  necessary  ag- 
gressiveness. He  devoted  the 
next  two  days  to  withdrawing 
his  army  to  a  new  base  on  the 
James  river.  The  Confederates, 
who  had  at  first  been  deceived  by 
the  movement,  came  up  with  a 
portion  of  his  army  on  the  29th, 
and  an  engagement  took  place 
at  Savage's  Station.  On  the 
next  day  battles  occurred  at 
White  Oak  Swamp  and  at  Glen- 
dale,  or  Frayser's  Farm,  and  in 
both  places  the  Union  forces  en- 
gaged succeeded  in  holding  their 
positions  long  enough  to  cover 
the  withdrawal  of  the  army.  In 
the  night  following  Gen.  Mc- 
Clellan stationed  his  army  on 
Malvern  Hill,  and  on  the  next 
day  the  final  battle  of  the  cam- 
paign was  fought.  The  Union 
position,  which  was  in  the  form 
of  a  semi-circle,  was  strongly  de- 
fended by  artillery  and  was  also 
supported  by  the  fire  of  gunboats 
from  the  James  river.  After  an 
artillery  duel  Gen.  Lee  attempted 
a  general  assault,  but  the  signal 
was  not  properly  given  or  else  it 
was  misunderstood,  and  the  vari- 
ous divisions  charged  singly  and 
were  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  about 
5,000,  while  that  of  the  Federals 
was  hardly  one-third  as  great. 
On  July  2  McClellan  withdrew 
to  Harrison's  Landing.  Before 
he  was  ready  to  begin  another 
forward  movement  he  was  re- 
called with  his  army  to  the  vicin- 
ity of  Washington.  The  total 
loss  of  the  Federals  during  the 
seven  days  was  about  19,000,  of 
the  Confederates  about  20,000. 
See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the 
Civil  War,  ed.  by  Johnson  and 
Buel  (4  vols.  1887-88);  Webb, 
The  Peninsula  (1881);  Roper, 
Story  of  the  Civil  War  (vol.  ii 
1898);  Michie,  General  McClellan 
(1901);  McClellan,  McClellan's 
Own  Story  (1887),  and  Long- 
street,  From  Manassas  to  Appo- 
matox  (1896). 

Seven  Dolors  of  the  B.V.M., 
Feast  of,  is  celebrated  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  on  the 
Friday  before  Passion  (or  Palm) 
Sunday.  The  hymn  Stahat  Mater 
expresses  the  sorrows  of  the 
mother  of  Jesus  with  touching 
pathos.  The  seven  dolors  are 
as  follows: — (1)  The  prophecy  of 
Simeon;  (2)  the  flight  into  Egypt; 

(3)  the  loss  of  Jesus  at  Jerusalem; 

(4)  the  spectacle  of  Jesus  bearing 
His  cross;  (5)  the  sight  of  Him 
upon  the  cross;  (6)  the  descent 
from  the  cross;  and  (7)  the  en- 
tombment. A  second  festival  is 
observed  on  the  third  Sunday  in 
September.  The  festival  dates 
from  1423. 

Seven  Pines,  (or  Fair  Oaks), 
Battle  of,  a  battle  of  the  Penin- 
sular Campaign  in  the  American 
Civil  War,  fought  on  May  31  and 
June  1,  1862  at  Seven  Pines,  and 


Fair  Oaks  (localities  about  7  m.  E. 
of  Richmond)  between  a  part  of 
the  Federal  Army  of  the  Potomac 
under  Gen.  McClellan  and  the 
Confederate  Army  guarding 
Richmond,  under  Gen.  Johnston 
and  (later)  Gen.  G.  W.  Smith. 
McClellan  in  advancing  on  Rich- 
mond divided  his  army,  two 
corps,  Keyes'  and  Heintzelman's, 
being  stationed  s.  of  the  Chicka- 
hominy, and  three  corps,  Sum- 
ner's, Franklin's,  and  Porter's  N. 
of  that  stream  to  form  a  junction 
with  Gen.  McDowell  expected 
from  the  N.,  and  to  protect  Mc- 
Clellan's  base  at  White  House  on 
the  Pamunkey.  Gen.  Johnston 
planned  to  crush  Keyes  and 
Heintzelman,  before  reinforce- 
ments could  be  crossed  over  to 
their  aid,  and  on  May  31,  Keyes 
corps  then  being  considerably  in 
advance  of  Heintzelman's,  deliv- 
ered his  attack.  The  attack  was 
admirably  planned,  but  orders 
were  misunderstood  by  Gen. 
Longstreet,  to  whom  the  opening 
of  the  battles  was  entrusted,  and 
considerable  confusion  resulted. 
Generals  Longstreet,  Hill,  and 
Huger  attacked  the  Federals 
with  great  vigor  and  drove  them 
back  for  more  than  a  mile  to  the 
vicinity  of  Savage  Station. 
Meanwhile  Sumner  had  effected 
a  crossing  (though  the  Chicka- 
hominy had  been  considerably 
swollen  by  rain  during  the  night 
of  the  30th),  and  held  in  check 
the  Confederate  left  under  Gen. 
G'  W.  Smith,  who  had  been  sta- 
tioned along  the  river  to  guard 
the  fords.  Toward  the  close  of 
the  day  Gen.  Johnston,  who  had 
been  with  the  Confederate  left, 
was  severely  wounded,  and  was 
succeeded  in  command  by  Gen. 
Smith.  On  the  following  day  the 
Confederates  renewed  their  at- 
tack, but  were  driven  back  and 
the  battle  ended  before  noon. 
About  2  P.M.  Gen.  R.  E.  Lee  ar- 
rived on  the  field  from  Richmond 
and  superseded  Gen.  Smith;  and 
at  nightfall  the  Confederates 
withdrew  to  Richmond.  During 
the  two  days  the  Federal  loss  in 
killed,  wounded,  and  missing  was 
about  5,000;  that  of  the  Confed- 
erates about  6,000.  About  45,- 
000  men  had  been  engaged  on 
each  side.  Consult  Johnson  and 
Buel  (ed.),  Battles  and  Leaders  of 
the  Civil  War  (1887),  Michie, 
General  McClellan  (1901),  Ropes, 
Story  of  the  Civil  War  (1898),  and 
Webb,  The  Peninsula  (1881). 

Seven  Sleepers  of  Ephesus. 
During  the  persecution  of  the 
Christians  under  Decius,  in  the 
3d  century,  seven  Christians 
from  Ephesus  were  said  to  have 
taken  refuge  in  a  cavern,  where 
they  were  tracked  and  immured; 
but  they  fell  into  a  trance,  and 
so  continued  for  two  hundred 
years.  In  the  reign  of  Theodo- 
sius  II,  they  were  awaked  (447 
A.D.).  Having  convinced  the 
emperor  of  the  life  beyond  this 


Se?enth-Day  Adventists  KR 


119 


Severn 


world,  they  again  sank  into  a 
trance  till  the  resurrection.  This 
story  is  generally  current  through 
out  the  East.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  their  festival 
is  on  June  27.  Consult  Baring- 
Gould's  Curious  Myths  of  the 
Middle  Ages. 

Seventh-Day  Adventists. 
See  Second  Adventists. 

Seventh-Day  Baptists.  See 
Baptists. 

Seven  Wise  Masters,  the 
most  common  title  given  to  a 
famous  mediaeval  collection  of 
stories  grouped  round  a  central 
story.  The  leading  story  itself  is 
briefly  as  follows:  A  young  prince 
is  born  in  answer  to  prayer  as  the 
only  son  of  the  aged  king  Kurush, 
and  the  astrologers  foretell  a 
great  danger  overhanging  his 
fate  at  twenty.  At  seven  years 
he  is  entrusted  to  masters,  but  at 
thirteen  he  has  not  learned  any- 
thing. The  sages  then  recom- 
mend Sindibad  as  the  best 
master,  but  for  six  and  a  half 
more  years  the  young  prince 
studies  under  him  uselessly,  and 
at  nineteen  and  a  half  he  has 
still  learned  nothing.  The  king 
again  assembles  the  wise  men, 
and  Sindibad  offers  to  teach  the 
prince  everything  in  six  months 
or  forfeit  hio  life.  He  now  shuts 
himself  up  with  his  pupil,  who 
this  time  progresses  to  Ixis  mas- 
ter's satisfaction.  Before  bringing 
him  back  Sindibad  consults  the 
stars,  and  sees  that  the  prince 
will  die  if  he  should  speak  before 
seven  days.  Sindibad  therefore 
hides  himself,  and  the  prince  at 
court  is  found  to  be  dumb.  One 
of  the  king's  women  now  tempts 
him  as  the  wife  of  Potiphar 
tempted  Joseph,  and  in  the  fury 
of  disappointed  rage  accuses  him 
to  the  king  of  an  attempt  on  her 
virtue.  The  king  condemns  him 
to  death,  whereupon  the  seven 
viziers  resolve  to  stay  his  execu- 
tion by  telling  him  a  series  of 
tales,  till  the  end  of  the  seventh 
day  when  the  prince  is  free  to 
speak. 

The  prince  now  comes  to  the 
king  attended  by  the  sages  and 
by  Sindibad,  whereupon  the 
woman  is  duly  punished,  and  the 
king,  after  seeing  proof  of  his 
son's  wisdom,  gives  him  his 
throne  and  retires  into  solitude 
to  serve  God. 

The  earliest  version  of  a  Book 
of  Sindibad  is  found  in  Arabian 
writers  of  the  10th  century.  The 
more  important  Eastern  versions 
are  the  following:  (1)  the  Synli- 
pas,  a  Greek  text  translated 
during  the  last  years  of  the  11th 
century.  (2)  The  Hebrew  ver- 
sion entitled  Parables  of  SandO' 
bar  {Mischle  Sandabar),  trans- 
lated from  the  Arabic,  probably 
in  the  first  half  of  the  1.3th  cen- 
tury. (3)  The  Sindibad-N dmeh, 
an  unedited  Persian  poem,  writ- 
ten in  137.5.  (4)  The  eighth  night 
of  the  TUti-ndmeh  of  Nachschebi, 


a  Persian  poet  who  died  in  1.329. 
(5)  The  Seven  Viziers,  an  Arabic 
text,  of  uncertain  age,  but  not 
ancient.  (6)  An  Ancient  Spanish 
translation  of  an  Arabic  text 
existing  in  a  15th-century  codex 
— the  version  closest  to  the 
Syntipas. 

Seven  Wise  Men,  certain 
Greek  philosophers  living  be- 
tween 620  and  .550  B.C.,  whose 
wise  and  pithy  sayings  became 
proverbial,  and  were  inscribed  in 
the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi. 
Their  names  and  special  sayings 
are  usually  given  as  follows: 
Solon  of  Athens — 'Do  nothing 
in  excess';  Thales  of  Miletus — 
'Suretyship  spells  ruin';  Pittacus 
of  Mitylene — 'Recognize  your 
opportunity';  Bias  of  Priene — 
the  Greek  equivalent  of  'Too 
many  cooks  spoil  the  broth'; 
Chilon  of  Lacedaemon — 'Know 
thyself;  Cleobulus  of  Lindus — 
'Moderation  is  the  best  thing'; 
Periander  of  Corinth — 'Exercise 
forethought  in  everything.' 

Seven  Wonders  of  the  World, 
a  group  of  famous  works  of 
ancient  times,  which  comprises 
the  Pyramids  of  Egypt,  the 
Hanging  Gardens  of  Semiramis 
at  Babylon,  the  Temple  of  Diana 
at  Ephesus,  Phidias'  Statue  of 
Jupiter  at  Athens,  the  Mauso- 
leum at  Halicarnassus,  the  Co- 
lossus at  Rhodes,  and  the  Pharos, 
or  lighthouse,  at  Alexandria. 
Philo  of  Byzantium  wrote  a  de- 
scription of  these  'wonders,' 
edited  in  1816  by  Orelli. 

Seven  Years'  War  (17.56-63), 
in  one  aspect,  the  final  struggle 
between  Britain  and  France  for 
supremacy  in  North  America 
India,  and  on  the  sea;  in  another 
aspect  the  last  definite  struggle 
between  Austria  and  Prussia  for 
Silesia.  Both  struggles  were  con- 
nected by  the  fact  that,  while 
France  aided  Austria,  Britain 
aided  Prussia.  In  January  1756, 
a  treaty,  between  George  ii  and 
Frederick  the  Great  was  signed, 
known  as  the  second  treaty  of 
Westminster.  War  between 
Britain  and  France  had  virtually 
broken  out  in  America;  and 
Louis  XV,  finding  himself  iso- 
lated, concluded,  in  May  1756, 
the  first  treaty  of  Versailles  with 
Austria.  Frederick  the  Great, 
aware  of  the  hostile  projects  of 
Austria,  Russia,  and  Saxony, 
invaded  Saxony  in  August,  and 
the  Seven  Years'  War  definitely 
began.  Both  Britain  and  Prussia 
in  the  early  stages  of  the  war 
suffered  reverses — the  former 
losing  Minorca,  and  the  latter 
being  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Kolin  (1757).  But  later  in  that 
same  year  Frederick  defeated  the 
French  and  imperial  armies  at 
Rossbach,  and  the  Austrians  at 
Leuthen;  while,  under  the  guid- 
ance of  Pitt,  Britain  rapidly 
gained  the  upper  hand  in  the 
struggle  with  France,  the  year 
1759   being   styled   the  annus 


mirabilis  on  account  of  many 
British  victories.  Large  subsidies 
were  paid  to  Prussia  by  Britain. 
Three  successive  Russian  gen- 
erals— Apraxin,  Fermor  and  Sal- 
tikov — did  not  press  their  suc- 
cesses home,  and  eventually,  in 
1762,  the  accession  of  Peter  iii 
freed  Frederick  from  Russian 
hostility.  Meanwhile  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Family  Compact  in 
1761,  between  France  and  Spain 
had  in  no  wise  checked  the 
triumphal  course  of  the  British 
arms;  and  in  1763  the  Peace  of 
Paris  brought  the  Seven  Years' 
War  to  an  end,  Austria  and 
Prussia  concluding  the  peace  of 
Hubertsburg.  British  supremacy 
in  India  was  secured,  Canada  be- 
came a  British  colony,  and  the 
British  command  of  the  sea  was 
to  a  great  extent  assured.  Con- 
sult Waddington,  La  guerre  de 
sept  ans;  Carlyle,  History  of 
Frederick  the  Great  (6  vols.) ; 
Corbett,  England  in  the  Seven 
Years'  War;  Brackenbury,  Fred- 
erick, the  Great.  See  French 
AND  Indian  War;  Paris,  Trea- 
ties OF. 

Sev'ern,  river,  England,  rises 
on  Plinlimmon  (1,500  feet)  on  the 
border  of  Montgomeryshire.  It 
flows  northeast  and  east  to 
Shrewsbury,  southeasterly 
through  Shropshire  and  Wor- 
cestershire to  Tewkesbury,  and 
southwesterly  to  Gloucester,  be- 
low which  it  forms  an  estuary 
opening  into  the  Bristol  Channel, 
It  receives  the  Teme,  Wye,  and 
Uske  on  the  right,  and  the 
Vyrnwy,  Stour,  Terne,  and 
Upper  and  Lower  Avon  on  the 
left.  It  is  210  miles  long  and  the 
Berkeley  Ship  Canal  (17  miles), 
between  Sharpness  and  Glou- 
cester, admits  vessels  of  from  15 
to  16  feet  draught;  vessels  of 
400  tons  can  ascend  to  Worces- 
ter and  barges  to  Welshpool. 
Canals  connect  the  Severn  with 
the  Thames  and  Trent.  A  rail- 
way tunnel  of  43^  miles  passes 
under  the  estuary  between  New 
Passage  and  Portskewett.  The 
river  is  noted  for  the  tidal  wave 
or  'bore'  which  ascends  to  Glou- 
cester with  front  several  feet 
high. 

Severn,  Joseph  (1793-1879). 
English  artist,  but  known  best 
as  the  devoted  friend  of  Keats, 
was  born  in  Hoxton,  near  Lon- 
don. In  1820  he  accompanied 
Keats  to  Italy  where  he  cared  for 
him  until  Keats'  death.  On  his 
return  to  England  in  1841  he 
began  to  occupy  himself  more 
with  literature  and  less  with 
painting,  but  with  small  success 
in  either  department.  He  was 
appointed  British  consul  at 
Rome  in  1860,  and  retired  in 
1872.  He  died  in  Rome,  and  in 
1882  his  body  was  removed  to  a 
resting  place  beside  that  of 
Keats. 

Severo,  Cape.  See  Chely- 
uskin, Cape. 


Severus 


KR 


120 


Sevres 


Severus,  se-ve'rus,  Lucius 
Septimius  (146-211  A.D.),  Ro- 
man emperor,  a  native  of  Leptis 
in  Africa,  was  the  only  African 
who  ever  reached  the  imperial 
throne.  He  was  governor  of 
Gallia  Lugdunensis,  of  Pannonia, 
and  of  Sicily,  until  he  attained 
the  consulship  in  185  a.d.  Subse- 
quently he  commanded  the 
armies  in  Pannonia  and  Illyria, 
and  after  the  murder  of  Pertinax, 
in  193,  was  proclaimed  emperor 
by  his  troops.  He  marched  on 
Rome,  which  at  once  submitted. 
Pescennius  Niger,  who  had  been 
declared  emperor  by  the  Eastern 
legions,  was  defeated  and  cap- 
tured at  Issus  in  194,  and  put  to 
death.  In  196  Clodius  Albinus, 
proclaimed  emperor  by  the 
troops  in  Gaul,  was  defeated  by 
Severus  near  Lyons  in  February 
197,  and  Albinus  slew  himself. 
Shortly  afterwards,  in  an  expedi- 
tion against  the  Parthians,  Sever- 
us captured  the  cities  of  Babylon 
and  Seleucia,  and  the  Parthian 
capital,  Ctesiphon.  The  next 
three  years  he  spent  in  Egypt. 
In  202  he  returned  to  Rome,  and 
celebrated  the  marriage  of  his 
eldest  son,  Caracalla,  with  Plau- 
tilla  by  games  of  unequaled  os- 
tentation, and  by  an  extravagant 
largess  to  the  poorer  people  and 
praetorians.  In  207  a  rebellion 
in  Britain  took  him  thither;  but 
in  an  invasion  of  Caledonia 
through  disease  and  hardship  he 
lost  50,000  men.  His  soldiers 
then  rebuilt  the  wall  between  the 
firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde  which 
bears  his  name.  Severus  was 
planning  a  fresh  campaign  when 
he  died  at  York  on  Feb.  4. 

Severus,  Marcus  Aurelius 
Alexander  (205-235  a.d.).  Ro- 
man emperor  usually  known  as 
Alexander  Severus,  who  ascended 
the  throne  in  222,  was  born  in 
Phoenicia,  and  was  adopted  by 
the  Emperor  Elagabalus,  his 
relative,  in  221,  and  proclaimed 
Caesar.  In  231  he  was  forced  to 
resist  the  invasion  of  the  Persian 
king  Artaxerxes  and  celebrated 
his  triumph  in  Rome  (233),  but  a 
German  incursion  into  Gaul 
recalled  him,  and  when  on  his 
way  to  repel  it  he  was  murdered 
bv  mutinous  soldiers,  instigated 
by  Maciminus,  who  succeeded 
him. 

Sevier,  se-ver',  John  (1745- 
1815),  American  pioneer,  was 
born  in  Rockingham  county, 
Va.  He  attended  the  academy  at 
Fredericksburg;  founded  the  vil- 
lage of  New  Market  in  the 
Shenandoah  Valley,  and  in  1772 
settled  in  the  Watauga  district, 
west  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  He 
served  as  a  captain  in  Lord  Dun- 
more's  War  against  the  Indians, 
and  when  the  Revolution  broke 
out  was  active  in  securing  the 
annexation  ot  the  Watauga  dis- 
trict to  North  Carolina.  He 


was  a  member  of  the  state  con- 
vention, and  afterwards  of  the 
legislature;  in  1777  became  clerk 
and  district  judge  of  the  new 
Washington  district;  and  in  1779 
defeated  the  Indians  at  Boyd's 
Creek  and  elsewhere.  In  1780  he 
was  one  of  the  leading  spirits  in 
the  victory  of  King's  Mountain 
over  the  British  and  Tories. 
Afterwards  he  conducted  several 
expeditions  against  the  Indians. 

When  in  1784  North  Carolina 
ceded  the  Tennessee  region  to  the 
general  government,  the  settlers 
of  that  region  set  up  a  new  state, 
which  they  called  'Franklin',  and 
elected  Sevier  governor.  This 
led  to  a  conflict  with  the  North 
Carolina  government,  and  Sevier 
was  arrested,  but  was  rescued 
by  his  friends.  The  general  gov- 
ernment then  took  control;  Se- 
vier was  appointed  a  brigadier 
general  in  1789;  and  in  1790  was 
elected  to  Congress.  In  1793  he 
made  a  successful  expedition 
against  the  Creeks  and  Chero- 
kees,  and  in  1796  was  elected 
first  governor  of  the  new  state 
of  Tennessee,  which  office  he 
held  until  1801,  and  again  during 
1803-1809.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  Con- 
gresses, and  was  appointed  a 
commissioner  to  locate  the  boun- 
daries of  the  Creek  territory, 
but  died  while  performing  that 
task. 

Sevlgne,  sa-ven-ya,  M.\rie  de 
Rabutin-Chantal,  Marquise 
DE  (1626-96),  French  writer,  the 
descendant  of  an  old  Burgundian 
family,  was  born  in  Paris.  Her 
girlhood  was  spent  for  the  most 
part  at  Livry  with  her  maternal 
uncle,  Christophe  de  Coulanges, 
abbe  de  Livry.  In  1644  she 
married  Henri,  Marquis  de  Se- 
vigne,  who  died  in  1651.  The 
rest  of  her  life  she  devoted  to  her 
daughter  whom  she  passionately 
loved.  In  1669  this  daughter 
married  the  Comte  de  Giignan, 
and  in  1671  set  out  for  Provence. 
Her  love  for  her  daughter,  ill 
requited  though  it  was,  ap- 
proached infatuation,  and  its 
passionate  expression  fills  many 
pages  of  her  correspondence. 
Paris  now  became  her  head- 
quarters, and  since  between 
1677  and  1678  Madame  de  Grig- 
nan  also  resided  there  almost 
constantly,  the  correspondence 
perforce  languished. 

Madame  de  Sevigne  was  a 
warm-hearted  and  sympathetic 
woman,  and  the  charm  of  her 
character  pervades  her  letters, 
which  owing  to  her  powers  of 
graphic  description,  her  wit, 
humor,  and  constant  gaiety  of 
spirits,  are  perennially  delight- 
ful. Her  easy  and  flowing  style, 
her  warm  and  even  poetic  im- 
agination, and  her  originality  of 
phrase  have  united  to  make  them 
a  model  for  all  subsequent  letter- 


writers.  The  definite  edition  is 
that  of  Monmerque  (Collection 
des  grands  ecrivains,'  14  vols. 
1862-68);  also  Lettres  inedites,  by 
Capmas  (2  vols.,  1876).  Consult 
Boissier's  Madame  de  Sevigne,  in 
'Grands  ecrivains  francais';  in 
English,  Anne  Thackeray  Ritch- 
ie's Madame  de  Sevigne;  Mason's 
Women  of  the  French  Salons. 

Seville,  se-vil';  Sp.  sa-ve'lya, 
province,  Spain,  reaching  from 
Sierra  Morena  to  Sierra  de 
Gibraleon;  area,  5,428  square 
miles.  It  is  watered  by  the 
Guadalquivir  and  Genii  and 
their  tributaries.  Agriculture, 
cattle-rearing  and  mining  flour- 
ish; the  natural  products,  espe- 
cially wool,  silk,  fruit,  oil,  and 
wine,  have  been  famous  since 
Phoenician  times.  Copper,  iron, 
coal,  and  alum  are  mined.  Pop. 
(1946  est.)  1,062,646. 

Seville,  city,  Spain,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Seville,  on  the 
Guadalquivir  river;  60  miles 
northeast  of  Cadiz.  Remains 
of  the  walls  by  which  it  was  for- 
merly surrounded  are  still  visible 
and  the  city  has  a  characteristi- 
cally Moorish  aspect.  The  chief 
feature  of  interest  is  the  ex- 
quisite Hispano-Gothic  cathe- 
dral, commenced  in  1403  and 
finished  in  1519,  one  of  the 
finest  churches  in  the  world;  its 
Mudejar  tower  (Giralda)  espe- 
cially meriting  attention.  This 
was  begun  in  1000  by  the  Moors, 
but  its  upper  portion  has  been  to 
some  extent  Christianized.  It 
stands  350  feet  high.  Other  in- 
teresting buildings  are  the  Moor- 
ish palace,  the  Charity  Hospital, 
with  pictures  by  Murillo,  art 
museum  (with  works  by  Murillo) 
a  university,  an  academy  of  fine 
arts,  the  Casa  Longja  or  ex- 
change, and  several  beautiful 
palaces.  Murillo  was  a  native 
and  his  house  can  still  be  seen. 

The  city,  once  the  center  of 
the  commerce  with  America,  is 
still  a  busy  and  prosperous  port, 
shipping  wine,  oil,  fruit,  lead,  and 
cork;  and  producing  ceramics, 
leather,  iron  works  and  tobacco. 
It  was  the  seat  of  a  Roman 
colony  (Hispalis),  and  was  a 
Moorish  kingdom  from  712 
until  its  conquest  by  Ferdinand 
III  in  1248.  Pop.  (1946  est.) 
370,320. 

Sevlijevo,  sev-le'yev-5,  or  Sel- 
VI,  town,  Bulgaria,  capital  of  the 
county  of  Sevlijevo,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Balkans;  28  miles  west  of 
Tirnovo.    Pop.  12,000. 

Sdvres,  sev'r',  town,  France, 
in  the  department  of  Seine-et- 
Oise,  6  miles  southwest  of  Paris. 
It  is  famed  for  its  porcelain 
manufacture,  which  since  1755 
has  been  a  state  industry.  Sev- 
res also  produces  painted  glass 
and  mosaic  work.  The  museum 
contains  examples  of  the  potter's 
art  of  all  ages  and  all  countries, 


Paul's  Photos,  Chicago 

THE  CATHEDRAL  IN  SEVILLE  IS  BUILT  IN  GOTHIC  AND  SARACENIC  STYLE 


Paul's  Ptiotos.  Chicago 

A  STREET  IN  SEVILLE.  AND  THE  GIRALDA  TOWER 

Vol.  XL— Page  121 


Se?re.s 


KR 


122 


Seward 


notably  a  complete  series  of  all 
objects  made  in  Sevres  since  the 
commencement  of  the  industry. 
Pop.  15,061. 

Sfevres,  Deux-,  a  western 
department  of  France,  drained 
by  the  Sevre-Niortaise,  in  the 
south,  on  which  stands  the  capi- 
tal, Niort,  and  the  Sevre-Nan- 
taise,  which  joins  the  Loire  near 
Nantes;  area,  2.337  square  miles. 
The  department  contains  three 
natural  regions — the  Gatine,  in 
the  north  and  center,  a  poor, 
marshy  country  moderately 
wooded;  a  monotonous  limestone 
plain  in  the  south  and  southeast, 
producing  cereals,  beets,  forage 
crops,  and  a  little  wine;  the 
marsh  country  in  the  west, 
largely  drained,  and  growing 
hemp  and  forage  crops,  and 
in  the  winter  abounding  in  wild 
fowl.  The  climate  is  damp. 
Good  breeds  of  horses  and  of 
mules  are  raised.  Coal  is  mined 
at  St.  Laurs.  Cloth  and  wool- 
ens are  the  chief  manufactures. 
Pop.  (1946)  312,756. 

Sevres  Ware.  See  Pottery 
and  Porcelain. 

Sewage.  See  Sewerage  and 
Sewage  Disposal. 

Sewall,  su'al,  Jonathan 
(1728-96),  American  Loyalist, 
was  born  in  Boston.  He  was 
educated  at  Harvard  College, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1758.  In  1767  he  was  made 
attorney  general  of  Massachu- 
setts, and  a  year  later  was 
offered  the  position  of  judge  of 
the  Admiralty  Court  for  Nova 
Scotia,  which  he  refused.  He 
wrote  vigorously  in  defence  of 
the  oppressive  measures  of  the 
British  Government  in  America, 
and  for  some  time  was  credited 
with  being  the  author  of  the  his- 
toric series  of  letters  written  by 
Daniel  Leonard  in  defence  of  the 
Tory  ministry,  published  in  the 
Massachusetts  Gazette,  and  signed 
'Massachusetts.'  He  fled  to  Eng- 
land in  1774,  and  in  1779  he  came 
under  the  general  proscription  of 
loyalist  refugees,  and  his  prop- 
erty was  confiscated.  He  was 
judge  of  the  Court  of  Vice-ad- 
miralty at  St.  John,  N.B.,  from 
1788  until  his  death. 

Sewall,  May  Wright  (1844- 
1920),  American  educator  and 
woman  suffragist,  was  born  in 
Milwaukee,  Wis.,  the  daughter 
of  Philander  M.  Wright  of  that 
city.  She  was  graduated  (1866) 
from  Northwestern  University, 
was  married  in  1880  to  Theodore 
L.  Sewall,  and  was  for  some  time 
principal  of  the  girls'  classical 
school  founded  by  him  in  Indian- 
apolis, Ind.  She  became  promi- 
nent in  the  Woman  Suffrage 
movement,  held  office  in  several 
national  societies,  and  was  a 
delegate  to  the  Universal  Con- 
gress of  Women  at  Paris  in  1889, 
and  to  other  international  con- 


gresses. Mrs.  Siewall  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Board  of  Lady  Man- 
agers at  the  Columbian  Exposi- 
tion of  1893,  and  a  Commissioner 
to  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900. 
Her  writings  on  reform  subjects 
were  published  principally  in 
pamphlet  form.  She  also  pub- 
lished Women,  World  War  and 
Permanent  Peace  (1916);  Neither 
Dead  nor  Sleeping  (1920). 

Sewall,  Samuel  (1652-1730), 
American  colonial  judge,  was 
born  in  Bishopstoke,  England. 
He  was  taken  to  Massachusetts 
by  his  parents  in  1661  and  in 
1671  was  graduated  from  Har- 
vard. He  was  a  member  of  the 
governor's  council  from  1692  to 
1725,  a  judge  of  probate  in 
1692-1718,  and  chief  justice  of 
the  province  in  1718-25.  In  1692 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  special  court  sent  to  Salem  to 
try  persons  accused  of  witchcraft. 
Nineteen  persons  were  convicted 
during  the  summer  and  executed. 
When  the  witchcraft  delusion 
had  spent  its  force,  Sewall  be- 
came convinced  that  the  court 
had  erred,  and  in  1697  in  a  pub- 
lic confession  manfully  stated 
his  belief  and  took  a  large  share 
of  the  blame  on  himself.  His 
Diary  gives  a  valuable  picture  of 
early  New  England. 

Seward,  city,  Alaska,  in 
Kenai  Peninsula,  on  Resurrec- 
tion Bay;  460  miles  south  of 
Fairbanks.  It  is  beautifully 
situated,  with  lofty  mountains 
forming  an  impressive  back- 
ground and  has  an  excellent 
harbor.  It  is  the  southern  ter- 
minus of  the  Alaska  Northern 
Railroad  opened  from  Fairbanks 
to  Seward  in  1923.  The  city  is  a 
center  of  the  fishing  and  mining 
interests  of  Kenai  Peninsula  and 
has  important  canneries.  Pop. 
(1939)  940. 

Seward,  su'ard,  Anna  (1747- 
1809),  English  author,  known  as 
the  'Swan  of  Lichfield,'  was 
born  in  Eyam,  Derbyshire.  She 
was  precociously  literary,  and  all 
her  life  wrote  verses  on  all  sorts  of 
occasions,  having  invented  what 
one  of  her  admirers.  Dr.  Erasmus 
Darwin,  called  'the  epic  elegy.' 
Favorable  specimens  of  her  verse 
were  the  monody  of  Major  Andre 
and  the  elegy  on  Captain  Cook. 
Her  letters,  gushing  and  senti- 
mental, were  published  in  1811. 

Seward,  Clarence  Arm- 
strong (1828-97),  American 
lawyer  and  soldier,  was  born  in 
New  York  City.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Hobart  College  in 
1848;  was  admitted  to  the  bar; 
and  practiced  in  Auburn  and 
then  in  New  York  City.  In 
1856-60  he  was  judge-advocate 
general  of  New  York.  He  served 
for  a  time  in  the  Civil  War  as 
colonel  of  the  19th  New  York 
regiment;  and  in  1865,  after  the 
attempt  to  assassinate  his  uncle, 


William  H.  Seward,  and  his  cou- 
sin, F.  W.  Seward,  was  for  a  time 
acting  assistant  secretary  of 
state. 

Seward,  Frederick  William 
(1830-191.5),  American  public 
official,  son  of  William  H.  Sew- 
ard, was  born  in  Auburn,  N.  Y. 
He  was  graduated  from  Union 
College  in  1849,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  and  for  ten  years  was 
an  editor  of  the  Albany  Evening 
Journal.  He  was  assistant 
secretary  of  state  under  his  father 
during  the  administrations  of 
Lincoln  and  Johnson,  and  April 
14,  1865,  was  wounded  in  trying 
to  defend  his  father  from  the 
assassin,  Paine.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  New  York  legislature 
in  1875,  and  again  assistant 
secretary  of  state  in  1877-81. 
His  publications  include  The 
Life  and  Letters  of  William 
Henry  Seward  (1891);  A  West 
Indian  Cruise  (1894). 

Seward,  George  Frederick 
(1840-1910),  American  diplo- 
mat, was  born  in  Florida,  N.  Y. 
He  was  educated  at  Union  Col- 
lege and  in  1861  was  appointed 
bv  his  uncle,  William  H.  Seward, 
consul  at  Shanghai  and  in  1863 
consul-general,  retaining  the  po- 
sition until  1876.  He  was  minister 
to  China  in  1876-80.  In  1893  he 
became  president  of  the  Fidelity 
and  Casualty  Company  of  New 
York  He  favored  Chinese  im- 
migration and  in  1881  published 
Chinese  Immigration  and  Its 
Social  and  Economic  Aspects. 

Seward,  William  Henry 
(1801-72),  American  statesman, 
was  born  in  Florida,  a  village  in 
the  town  of  Warwick,  Orange 
county,  N.  Y.,  May  16,  1801. 
He  prepared  for  college  at 
Farmers'  Hall,  Goshen,  and  at 
the  age  of  fifteen  entered  the 
sophomore  class  at  Union  Col- 
lege. Finding  his  debts  greater 
than  he  could  pay,  he  suddenly 
left  college  in  1819,  and  with  a 
friend  went  to  Savannah,  Ga., 
where  for  a  few  months  he 
taught  in  an  academy.  He  then 
returned  home,  and  was  gradu- 
ated from  Union  in  1820.  Ija 
October,  1822,  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  Utica.  He  soon 
after  entered  into  partnership 
with  Elijah  Miller,  of  Auburn, 
whose  daughter,  Frances  Ade- 
line, he  married. 

He  rapidly  rose  to  prominence 
as  a  lawyer,  and  soon  had  a 
profitable  practice.  He  also 
found  time  to  take  an  active 
interest  in  military  affairs,  or- 
ganized an  artillery  company, 
and  eventually  attained  the  rank 
of  brigadier  general  in  the 
state  militia.  His  first  political 
affiliation  was  with  the  wing  of 
New  York  Democratic-Repub- 
licans known  as  'Bucktails,' 
who  acknowledged  the  leader- 
ship of  Tompkins;  but  in  1824 


Seward 


123 


Sewell 


he  abandoned  the  party,  wrote 
and  spoke  against  the  'Albany 
regency,'  and  voted  for  Clinton. 
A  nomination  for  Congress, 
tendered  him  by  the  Anti- 
Masons,  was  declined,  but  soon 
afterward  he  joined  the  Anti- 
Masons,  and  in  1830  attended 
the  national  convention  of  the 
party  at  Philadelphia.  He  was 
also  a  member  of  the  Anti- 
Masonic  convention  at  Balti- 
more, in  1831,  which  nominated 
William  Wirt  for  President.  In 
1830  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  State  Senate,  where  he 
served  four  years.  He  found 
himself  in  increasing  hostility  to 
the  Jacksonian  democracy,  then 
rapidly  becoming  ascendant.  On 
Jan.  31,  1832,  he  made  a  notable 
speech  in  defence  of  the  Bank  of 
the  United  States,  which  had  just 
applied  for  a  renewal  of  its  char- 
ter. In  January,  1834,  he  de- 
nounced Jackson's  course  in 
removing  the  deposits.  On  Sept. 
13,  1834,  he  was  nominated  by 
the  Whigs  for  governor,  but 
was  defeated  by  William  L. 
Marcy. 

In  1838  Seward  again  received 
the  Whig  nomination  for  gov- 
ernor, and  was  elected  by  a  ma- 
jority of  10,421,  being  the  first 
governor  whom  New  York  had 
had  for  forty  years  who  was  not 
a  Democrat.  He  was  re-elected 
in  1840,  and  the  four  years  of  his 
administration  were  filled  with 
important  events.  In  contrast  to 
his  earlier  attitude,  he  favored 
internal  improvements  and  the 
development  of  canals  and  rail- 
ways. He  went  out  of  office  with 
the  defeat  of  the  Whigs  in  1842 
and  resumed  his  law  practice 
at  Auburn. 

Seward's  anti-slavery  opinions 
were  by  this  time  becoming  radi- 
cal, though  he  still  adhered  to  the 
Whigs.  To  such  Federal  meas- 
ures, like  the  admission  of  Texas, 
as  directly  or  indirectly  favored 
slavery,  he  was  strongly  opposed. 
He  took  part  in  campaign  speak- 
ing from  year  to  year,  and  in 
the  Presidential  election  of  1848 
spoke  in  several  States,  including 
New  England,  as  an  anti-slavery 
Whig.  On  Feb.  6,  1849,  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  United 
States  Senate.  On  March  11, 
1850,  in  a  great  speech  favoring 
the  admission  of  California  as  a 
free  State,  he  declared  that  *a 
higher  law  than  the  Constitution' 
devotes  the  public  domain  to 
freedom.  The  death  of  Taylor, 
July  9,  lessened  his  influence, 
since  he  had  no  sympathy  for 
the  ideas  of  Fillmore,  who 
even  went  so  far  as  to  attempt, 
unsuccessfully,  to  prevent  the 
indorsement  of  Seward  by  the 
Whig  convention  in  New  York  in 
the  fall  of  1850.  The  Kansas- 
Nebraska  bill  of  1854  called  forth 
another  notable  speech,  remark- 
able for  its  exhaustive  analysis 
Vol.  XL— Oct.  '20 


of  the  measure,  its  moderation, 
and  its  judicial  temper. 

Seward  was  now  the  acknowl- 
edged leader  of  the  Whigs  who 
opposed  compromise.  In  1855 
he  was  re-elected  to  the  Senate, 
despite  the  opposition  of  the  pro- 
slavery  Whigs  and  Know- Noth- 
ings. The  proposed  organiza- 
tion of  the  Republican  party,  in 
1854,  caused  him  to  hesitate,  iDut 
the  platform  adopted  by  the  new 
party  decided  him,  and  thence- 
forth he  was  a  Republican.  He 
was  not  strong  enough,  however, 
to  win  the  Presidential  nomina- 
tion in  the  Republican  conven- 
tion of  1856,  though  the  influence 
of  Horace  Greeley  in  defeating 
him  has  probably  been  overesti- 
mated. He  strongly  supported 
Fremont.  The  same  year  he 
made  an  effective  speech  in  the 
Senate  in  favor  of  the  admission 
of  Kansas  under  the  free-State 
Topeka  constitution.  He  op- 
posed the  Lecompton  constitu- 
tion, favored  the  use  of  force 
against  the  lawless  Mormons  of 
Utah,  and  urged  the  admission  of 
Kansas  under  the  Wyandotte 
constitution.  ^ 

It  was  generally  expected  that 
Seward  would  be  nominated  for 
president  at  the  Republican  con- 
vention in  Chicago  in  May, 
1860;  but  his  opposition  to 
Know-Nothingism,  and  the  su- 
perior management  of  Lincoln's 
candidacy,  prevented.  His  dis- 
appointment was  keen,  but 
this  did  not  prevent  him  from 
working  hard  for  Lincoln's  elec- 
tion. He  was  one  of  the  many 
who  wished  to  avoid  war  and 
'violent  emancipation,'  and  who 
hoped  and  labored  for  a  peaceful 
settlement  with  the  South, 

On  March  5,  1861,  he  became 
secretary  of  state,  and  he  was  a 
powerful  aid  in  that  capacity  to 
Lincoln.  He  was  opposed  to 
provisioning  Fort  Sumter,  but 
declined  to  confer  with  the  Con- 
federate commissioners.  He  ad- 
vocated the  blockade  of  Southern 
ports,  and  ably  defended  the 
action.  The  attitude  of  Great 
Britain  and  France  towards  the 
Confederacy  was  a  matter  of 
great  anxiety,  but  his  firm  and 
skilful  management  prevented 
the  anticipated  recognition  of  in- 
dependence. In  the  Trent  affair, 
he  insisted  upon  the  release  of  the 
Confederate  commissioners.  The 
withdrawal  of  the  French  from 
Mexico  was  one  of  his  diplomatic 
triumphs.  On  April  5,  1865,  he 
was  thrown  from  his  carriage  and 
seriously  injured.  On  the  night  of 
the  14th  an  attempt  was  made  to 
assassinate  him,  and  for  a  time 
his  life  was  despaired  of.  He 
recovered,  however,  and  re- 
mained in  the  cabinet  through- 
out Johnson's  term.  Of  his  dip- 
lomatic achievements  at  this 
time,  the  most  notable  was  the 
purchase  of  Alaska  from  Russia, 


in  1867.  On  his  retirement,  in 
March,  1869,  he  spent  some 
two  and  a  half  years  in  travel, 
including  a  journey  around  the 
world,  and  was  everywhere  re- 
ceived with  distinguished  hon- 
ors. He  died  at  Auburn,  N.  Y., 
Oct.  10,  1872. 

Seward's  Works,  including  a 
memoir,  have  been  published  in 
five  volumes  (1883).  An  Auto- 
biography, to  1834,  with  a  mem- 
oir (1831—46),  has  been  issued 
by  his  son,  F.  W.  Seward.  A 
Life  and  Public  Services  of  John 
Quincy  Adams,  issued  over  his 
name  in  1849,  seems  to  have  been 
only  in  part  Seward's  work. 
Consult  Life  by  Bancroft,  and 
William  H.  Seward's  Travels 
Around  the  World,  by  Olive 
Seward,  his  adopted  daughter. 

Seward  Peninsula,  Alaska, 
lies  between  Kotzebue  and  Nor- 
ton sounds.  Its  western  extrem- 
ity is  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  on 
Bering  Strait.  On  this  peninsula 
is  the  city  of  Nome  (q.  v.). 

Sewel,  su'el,  William  (1654- 
1720),  Quaker  historian,  was 
born  in  Amsterdarn,  grandson  of 
an  English  Brownist  who  settled 
in  Holland.  He  became  a  trans- 
lator, wrote  verses,  and  conduct- 
ed a  periodical,  but  is  chiefly 
remembered  for  having  written 
a  valuable  work  called  History 
of  the  Rise,  Increase,  and  Progress 
of  the  Christian  People  Called 
Quakers  (published  in  Dutch  in 
1717;  in  English  in  1722).  A 
later  edition  published  at  New 
York  in  1844  contains  a  bio- 
graphical sketch  of  his  career. 

Sewell,  Elizabeth  Missing 
(1815-1906),  English  novelist, 
was  born  in  Newport,  Isle  of 
Wight.  In  early  life  she  was  en- 
gaged in  teaching  at  Bonchurch. 
She  wrote  many  novels,  in- 
cluding Amy  Herbert  (1844), 
Margaret  Percival  (1847),  and 
Katharine  Ashton  (1854),  as  well 
as  tales  for  children,  elementary 
histories,   and  religious  works. 

Sewell,  Jonathan  (1766- 
1839^.  Canadian  jurist,  was  born 
in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  a  son  of 
Jonathan  Sewall  (q.  v.),  and  was 
educated  in  England.  He  went 
to  Canada  with  his  father  in 
1785,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1789.  For  a  year  he  prac- 
tised in  St.  John,  and  then  re- 
moved to  Quebec.  He  became 
solicitor-general  in  1793,  and 
two  years  afterwards  was  made 
attorney-general.  From  1808 
to  1838  he  was  chief  justice  of 
Lower  Canada  and  for  the  first 
twenty-one  years  of  that  time 
he  was  president  of  the  Execu- 
tive Council.  He  was  speaker 
of  the  Legislative  Council  from 
1809  until  his  death.  In  1814 
he  appeared  before  the  Privy 
Council  in  England  to  answer 
the  various  charges  preferred 
against  him  in  regard  to  the 
method  of  procedure  practised 


Sewell 


124 


Sewerage 


by  him  in  the  Canadian  courts. 
The  Privy  Council  exonerated 
him  on  all  counts.  While  in 
England  he  formulated  a  plan 
for  the  federation  of  the  various 
Canadian  '  provinces,  *<which, 
though  not  adopted  at  the  time, 
was  acted  upon  in  great  part 
when  federation  was  consum- 
mated in  1867.  ^ 

Sewell,  Robert  van  Vorst 
(1860),  American  painter,  was 
born  in  New  York  City.  He  was 
graduated  (1883)  from  Columbia, 
studied  art  in  Paris  under 
Lefebvre  and  Boulanger  (1883- 
7),  and  returning  to  the  United 
States  obtained  the  first  Hall- 
garten  prize  at  the  National 
Academy  exhibition  of  1888. 
He  is  best  known  as  a  mural 
painter.  He  was  elected  an 
associate  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy in  1902.  Among  his  mural 
decorations  are  The  Story  of 
Psyche  in  the  St.  Regis  Hotel, 
New  York,  and  The  Canterbury 
Pilgrims  in  the  residence  of 
George  Gould  at  Lakewood,  N.  J, 

Sewerage  and  Sewage  Dis- 
posal. Sewage  consists  chiefly 
of  excreta,  liquid  household  and 
trade  wastes,  and  surface  water. 
There  are  two  nuisances  par- 
ticularly due  to  its  accumula- 
tion: one  caused  by  conditions 
offensive  to  sight  and  smell  and 
the  other  by  the  presence  in  it  of 
disease  germs.  The  problem  of 
sewage  disposal  is  concerned  with 
the  elimination  of  these  nui- 
sances. 

In  most  cities  sewage  disposal 
is  accomplished  by  what  is 
known  as  the  water-carriage  sys- 
tem. Two  forms  are  in  use — 
the  combined  and  the  separate. 
In  the  combined  system  one  set 
of  sewers  is  provided  for  the  re- 
moval of  all  classes  of  sewage, 
refuse,  surface  water,  and  manu- 
facturers' waste;  while  in  the 
separate  system  duplicate  sewers 
are  laid,  one  for  the  removal  of 
all  foul  matters  and  liquids  and 
the  other  for  the  removal  of  all 
surface  waters,  this  latter  being 
usually  the  larger  of  the  two. 
The  separate  system  is  the  one 
found  in  the  majority  of  towns 
and  the  one  now  generally  used 
when  installing  a  new  system. 
Advocates  of  the  separate  system 
argue  that  by  its  use  the  foul- 
water  sewers  need  only  be  made 
large  enough  to  take  the  normal 
flow  of  sewage,  and  may  thus  be 
made  much  more  readily  self- 
cleansing  than  if  they  have  to 
carry  off  the  immensely  greater 
volume  which  would  enter  them 
after  heavy  rain;  and  that  the 
amount  of  dangerously  foul  mat- 
ter is  much  reduced.  Their  oppo- 
nents hold  that  the  contents  of 
the  rain-water  sewers  are  liable 
to  be  too  much  polluted  by  the 
filth  washed  into  them  from  the 
streets  to  render  their  discharge 
into  streams  or  lakes  permissible, 
Vol.  XL— Oct.  '20. 


and  that  the  complication  of  two 
sets  of  sewers  is  undesirable. 

Sewers  are  laid  in  straight  lines 
of  uniform  gradient,  with  man- 
holes or  lamp-holes  placed  at 
intervals  along  their  course  (visu- 
ally about  100  yards  apart),  and 
also  at  all  changes  in  direction  or 
gradient,  and  at  all  junctions. 
Man-holes  are  used  for  exam- 
ining and  cleansing  the  sew- 
ers,  and  are  usually  formed  of 

O.  brickwork  jointed  with  cement 
mortar,  though  they  are  some- 

0,  times  entirely  of  concrete.  They 
J  should  be  circular  or  square  in 

5  plan,  and  large  enough  for  a  man 

<  to  work  with  comfort  inside 
>o  them.  Lamp-holes  are  used  for 
P  lowering    lamps,    in    order  to 

<  ascertain  if  there  is  any  local 
obstruction;     they   are  usually 

^  formed  of  pipes  placed  vertically, 
or  of  small  brickwork  shafts. 

For  small  sewers  glazed  earth- 
enware, stoneware,  or  fire  clay 
pipes  are  used.  Stoneware  pipes 
are  used  for  the  majority  of 
sewerage  and  drainage  works, 
being  less  porous  and  more  re- 
liable than  pipes  of  earthenware 
or  fireclay.  These  pipes,  which 
are  24  inches  in  diameter,  are 
usually  made  in  2-foot,  but  pref- 
erably in  3-foot  lengths.  The 
pipes  are  jointed  with  yarn  or 
other  gaskets  and  cement  mortar 
composed  either  of  pure  cement 
or  cement  and  sand.  Sewers 
over  24  inches  in  diameter  are 
usually  formed  of  brickwork, 
concrete  or  concrete  and  steel 
(re-enforced  concrete) .  They 
are  circular,  oval,  or  more  com- 
monly egg-shaped  in  section,  the 
latter  form  being  generally  used 
in  combined  systems. 

All  sewerage  systems  should  be 
made  as  nearly  self-cleansing  as 
possible,  so  as  to  prevent  deposits 
and  the  formation  of  gases. 
Where  necessary  they  should  be 
provided  with  special  means  of 
ventilation,  in  order  to  permit  of 
an  efficient  expulsion  of  sewer 
gas  from,  and  a  free  admission  of 
fresh  air  into,  the  sewers  at  all 
parts.  In  America  ventilation  is 
commonly  effected  by  making 
the  man-holes  do  duty  as  inlet 
and  outlet  shafts  for  the  air,  by 
forming  ventilating  gratings  in 
their  covers  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  In  Great  Britain 
cast-iron. ventilating  pipes,  con- 
nected to  the  man-holes  and  car- 
ried up  the  gables  of  adjoining 
buildings,  or  connected  to  ven- 
tilating lamp-posts,  are  fre- 
quently used. 

At  the  commencement  of  sew- 
ers whose  gradients  are  flat, 
flushing  tanks  are  constructed 
for  the  purpose  of  flushing  out 
the  sewers  and  removing  any  silt 
or  solid  matter  which  may  be 
lying  on  the  bottom  or  adhering 
to  the  sides.  These  tanks  are 
usually  built  underground,  are 
formed  of.brickwork  or  concrete, 


and  vary  in  size  according  to  the 
size,  gradient,  and  length  of  the 
sewer.  They  are  filled  with 
water,  and  the  contents  are  dis- 
charged into  the  sewer  either 
by  automatic  siphons,  which 
come  into  operation  whenever 
the  tank  is  full  (the  time  oc- 
cupied in  filling  being  regulated 
by  a  tap),  or  by  metal  tipping 
buckets  so  fixed  in  the  brick- 
work of  the  man-hole  that  when 
the  water  supply  reaches  a  cer- 
tain level  the  centre  of  gravity 
is  upset  and  the  contents  of  the 
bucket  is  projected  down  a  slo- 
ping bench  into  the  sewer.  In 
place  of  flush  tanks  it  is  not  un- 
common in  America  to  flush 
sewers  by  means  of  hose  con- 
nected to  the  city  water  distribu- 
tion system. 

When  a  free  and  continuous 
outlet  for  the  sewage  flow  cannot 
be  provided,  tank  or  storage 
sewers  are  necessary,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  sea  outfall  for  sewage 
when  the  condition  of  the  tide 
must  be  considered.  Such  a 
tank  is  merely  a  widening  out  of 
the  outfall  sewer  with  a  valve  to 
prevent  a  backflow  of  sewage 
into  the  town  end. 

Disposal  of  Sewage. — Original- 
ly •  it  was  almost  the  universal 
practice  to  dispose  of  sewage 
by  conveying  it  to  the  nearest 
watercourse,  and  even  to-day 
disposal  by  dilution  is  the  pre- 
vailing method  in  America. 
When  the  sewage  can  be  carried 
directly  to  the  sea,  nothing  fur- 
ther need  be  done,  but  where 
it  is  likely  to  cause  trouble,  as  by 
contaminating  a  water  supply, 
some  method  of  purification 
must  be  employed.  The  prin- 
cipal methods  now  in  use  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes:  (1) 
processes  for  preliminary  clarifi- 
cation; (2)  methods  of  final  oxi- 
dation of  the  impurities.  Clari- 
fication is  carried  out  by  means 
of  screening,  sedimentation,  pre- 
cipitation and  by  liquefying  in 
the  septic  tank;  oxidation  is  car- 
ried out  upon  artificially  prepared 
sewage  filters  or  upon  land. 

The  object  of  screening  is  to 
remove  the  grosser  suspended 
matters,  such  as  paper,  rags, 
sticks,  etc.,  by  passinjg  Hhe 
sewage  through  coarse  wire 
screens;  sedimentation  tanks  are 
then  used  in  which  the  sewage  is 
allowed  to  settle,  the  solid  matter 
sinking  to  the  bottom  in  the  form 
of  sludge,  which  is  sometimes 
barged  out  to  sea  and  dumped 
or,  more  often,  spread  on  land 
as  manure.  If  chemicals  are 
used  to  precipitate  the  solids  in  a 
tank,  these  are  called  precipita- 
tion tanks;  lime  and  alum  are 
the  most  commonly  used  precipi- 
tants.  The  septic  tank  system 
was  introduced  into  England  in 
1896  by  Mr.  Donald  Cameron. 
In  this  process  the  sewage  is  run 
into  a  large  covered  tank  where, 


Septic  Tank  for  the  Removal  of  Suspended  Solids  from  Sewage  by  Sedimentation  and  Their  Subsequent 
Decomposition  by  Anaerobic  Bacterial  Action. 


Trickling  Filters  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  for  the  Oxidation  of  Organic  Matter  in  Sewage  'by  the  Action  of 

Aerobic  Bacteria. 

SEWAGE  DISPOSAL. 

Vol.  XI.— Oct.  '20  Vol.  XL— at  Page  124 


Sewerage 


125 


Sewing  Machine 


after  a  considerable  period,  the 
solids  and  suspended  matters 
become  liquefied  by  the  action 
of  anaerobic  bacteria,  and  only  a 
small  amount  of  sludge  collects 
at  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 

Artificial  beds  for  the  final 
treatment  of  sewage  are  classed 
as  contact  beds,  intermittent 
sand  filters,  and  percolating  fil- 
ters. Contact  beds  consist  of 
broken  stone,  cinders  or  clinkers, 
coke  and  other  materials,  ranging 
in  size  from  1  or  2  inches  to  yi 
inch,  contained  in  water-tight 
compartments.  The  beds  are 
filled,  stand  full  (hence  the  term 
contact),  are  emptied,  and  then 
rest,  the  cycle  taking  from  4  to  8 
or  12  hours.  Intermittent  sand 
filters  are  made  of  fairly  coarse 
sand  and  have  free  underdrains. 
The  sewage  is  applied  for  a  few 
hours  or  days,  and  then  the  beds 
are  given  a  rest.  Percolating 
filters  are  composed  of  large  stone, 
clinker  or  other  material,  on 
which  the  sewage  is  sprayed,  and 
through  which  it  percolates,  con- 
tinuously. These  beds  are  usual- 
ly deeper  than  the  contact  beds, 
and  can  treat  nearly  double  the 
quantity  of  sewage  per  cubic 
yard. 

The  septic  tank  and  the  various 
filters  described,  particularly  con- 
tact beds  and  percolating  filters, 
have  come  to  the  front  since 
about  1895  (Intermittent  filters 
much  earlier),  and  are  classed, 
with  land  filtration,  as  bacterial 
processes.  No  commercially  prac- 
ticable method  of  sewage  treat- 
ment can  convert  sewage  into 
drinking  water. 

Land  treatment  of  sewage  is 
the  process  by  which  it  is  applied 
intermittently  to  land  at  a  rate 
so  low  that  it  does  not  interfere 
with  the  raising  and  harvesting 
of  crops.  This  method  has  been 
used  more  or  less  widely  in  China, 
Germany,  France,  and  England, 
but  has  never  been  in  general  use 
in  the  United  States  except  in  the 
far  West.  Objections  to  its  use 
are  increasing  rather  than  de- 
creasing, these  objections  relate 
to  disagreeable  odors,  prejudice 
against  the  use  of  sewage  to  grow 
vegetables;  and  the  difficulty  of 
obtaining  a  soil  suitable  in  qual- 
ity and  sufficiently  extensive  and 
isolated. 

The  volume  of  sewage  proper 
to  be  carried  off  depends  on  the 
water  consumption  of  the  dis- 
trict, and  amounts  usually  to 
from  30  or  35  gallons  per  head  of 
the  population  in  Great  Britain, 
and  100  gallons  or  more  in  the 
United  States.  The  flow,  how- 
ever, varies  in  volume  through- 
out the  twenty-four  hours.  Storm 
overflows  are  frequently  con- 
structed at  suitable  points, 
throughout  the  system,  by  which 
part  of  the  water  brought  down 
in  times  of  heavy  rain  is  dis- 


charged into  the  nearest  river  or 
stream. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Lath- 
am's Sanitary  Engineering;  Ba- 
ker's British  Sewage  Works;  Fol- 
well's  Sewerage  (1918) ;  Kinnicutt 
Winslow,  and  Pratt's  Sewage  Dis- 
posal (1919). 

Sewickley,  se-wik'li,  residen- 
tial borough  and  summer  resort, 
Pennsylvania,  in  Allegheny  Coun- 
ty, on  the  north  bank  of  the  Ohio 
River,  and  on  the  Pittsburgh, 
Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago  divi- 
sion of  the  Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road; 13  miles  northwest  of 
Pittsburgh.  Natural  gas  and 
petroleum  are  found  in  the  dis- 
trict. The  borough  has  a  public 
library  and  a  fresh-air  home  is 
supported.  Pop.  (1910)  4,479; 
(1920)  4,955. 

Sewing.  See  Needlework; 
Sewing  Machine. 

Sewing  Machine,  a  mechan- 
ical device  for  fastening  fabrics 
together.  The  first  practicable 
sewing  machine  was  invented  by 
Thomas  Saint,  in  England,  in 
1790.  Although  crude  in  construc- 
tion, it  embodied  many  of  the  CvS- 
sential  features  of  the  modern 
sewing  machine,  including  the 
horizontal  feed-plate,  the  over- 
hanging arm  carrying  a  vertically 
descending  needle,  and  the  auto- 
natic  feed;  this  machine  produced 
the  crochet-stitch.  John  Duncan, 
in  1804  and  James  Winter,  some- 
what later,  received  patents 
for  a  less  comprehensive  machine 
and  for  certain  improvements, 
A  machine  patented  by  Thimon- 
nier  in  France  in  1830  was  em- 
ployed for  making  uniforms  in 
Paris  in  1841.  In  that  year,  in 
England,  Newton  and  Archbold 
patented  a  chain-stitch  machine, 
employing  for  the  first  time  the 
eye-pointed  needle.  The  real  de- 
velopment of  the  sewing  machine 
as  a  competitor  with  hand  labor, 
however,  begins  with  the  machine 
patented  by  Elias  Howe  (q.v.), 
Sept.  10,  1846.  Some  twelve 
years  earlier  an  American  named 
Walter  Hunt  is  said  to  have  ex- 
perimented with  a  sewing  device 
which  is  claimed  by  some  to  be 
the  first  sewing  machine  invent- 
ed, but  he  was  denied  a  patent 
because  he  allowed  too  long  a 
time  to  elapse  between  its  com- 
pletion and  his  application. 
Howe's  machine  combined  the 
eye-pointed  needle  with  the  shut- 
tle for  forming  the  stitch  and  the 
intermittent  feed  for  supplying 
the  material  to  be  sewn.  Although 
his  patents  were  at  first  infringed 
upon,  and  he  himself  reduced  to 
abject  poverty,  Howe  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  his  rights 
to  his  invention,  and  amassed  an 
enormous  fortune  from  royalties. 
The  next  important  improve- 
ment in  the  sewing  machine  was 
the  invention  of  the  four-motion 
feed  by  A.  B.  Wilson  in  1850. 


Prior  to  this  date  all  machines 
had  employed  an  overhanging 
arm  which  held  the  needle  direct- 
ly and  vibrated  with  it.  But  in 
1851  Isaac  M.  Singer,  of  New 
York,  patented  the  first  rigid- 
arm  sewing  machine  and  also 
made  important  improvements 
in  the  shuttle.  In  1855  E.  A. 
Gibbs  invented  a  rotary  looper 
which  he  employed  successfully 
in  a  model  machine.  This  rotary 
looper  shortly  thereafter  was  em- 
ployed commercially  in  machines 
of  the  chain-stitch  type  using  a 
single  thread  and  to  the  present 
day  has  been  regarded  as  the 
standard  method  for  producing 
single,  thread  chain-stitch  seams. 

Sewing  machines  are  of  two 
classes — the  chain-stitch  ma- 
chine and  the  lock-stitch  machine 
but  the  principal  upon  which  the 
machine  works  is  the  same  in  all 
types:  the  needle  is  clamped  to  a 
bar  or  arm  which  moves  vertical- 
ly up  and  down  at  great  speed, 
piercing  the  material  to  be  stitch- 
ed, which  is  placed  upon  a  flat  or 
curved  steel  plate.  The  needle  is 
made  with  the  eye  near  the 
point,  the  eye  passing  through 
the  material,  which  is  moved  au- 
tomatically for  a  small  distance 
at  a  time,  to  form  the  stitch.  The 
single-thread  or  chain-stitch  can 
be  unravelled  by  pulling  the  end 
of  the  thread,  but  the  double- 
thread  or  lock-stitch,  in  which  an 
upper  and  lower  thread  are  used, 
locks  together  in  the  centre  of  the 
material. 

The  operation  of  the  chain- 
stitch  machine  is  as  follows :  The 
needle  descends  through  the 
material  and  throws  out  a  loop  of 
thread,  which  is  seized  under- 
neath and  held  by  a  hook-shaped 
piece  of  steel  called  a  looper, 
which  has  a  vibrating  or  rotating 
movement.  |The  needle  then  rises, 
and  as  soon  as  it  is  clear  of  the 
material  this  is  moved  forward 
the  length  of  the  stitch.  The 
looper  then  spreads  the  loop  of 
thread  across  the  path  of  the 
needle;  this  descends  again 
through  the  loop  and  at  the  same 
time  the  looper  takes  the  loop 
from  the  needle,  drawing  it 
through  the  previous  loop  that 
was  held  by  the  looper.  The  loop 
then  slips  off  and  is  drawn  tightly 
up  to  the  underside  of  the  mate- 
rial and  the  operation  proceeds  as 
before.  The  appearance  of  the 
stitch  is  as  a  straight  line  on  the 
upper  surface,  and  as  a  series  of 
interlocked  loops  on  the  under 
side. 

In  the  lock-stitch  machine  the 
needle  descends  and  throws  out  a 
loop  as  before;  through  the  loop  a 
second  thread  is  passed  by  a 
vibrating  shuttle,  or  the  loop  is 
passed  over  the  under  spool  of 
thread  by  a  steel  circular  hook 
having  a  rotating  movement. 
When  the  needle  rises,  the  second 
Vol.  XL— 030 


A. SHUTTLE   ENTERING  LOOP  TROM  '''M.LOOP  P  A  5  S I  NG  R  OUNO  BOO^ 

NEEDLE.B. THREAD   FROM  SHUTTLE         OF  SMUTTUEL  ^  bHUTTLETHf^EAD 


A.PITMAMVCRAMK  FOR  SHUTTLE.  B.FEECi  SHAFT.  C.T  An  E  UP  CAM 
J5<VEVER.  D. BOBBIN  WINDEK 


'v\.LOOP  CLOSINv, 
'HOUND  THRE  ADEi  FORMINC 
STITCH 


LOOPER  TAVMISC  UP  FRES)H 
LOOP.  LOOPB.PASSINQ  OVEK 
N  FORMING  STITCH 


TAMBOUR  STITCH 
MAGNIFIED  STITCHES 
F^OTATINQ   HOO^  S< 

BOBBIN  CA5L 
(WHEELCR  WILSONS) 

BOBBIN  REMOVED 
A  HOOK  ENTERING  LOOPQ 
C  DOTTED  LINE  SHOWS  LOWER  _ 

FRAME. D.  PARTS  OF  LOWER 
FRAME  DRIVING  UPPER  FRAME  IN 
CROOVt  E. 


WILLCOXSi  CIRBS  H I GH  SPEIEID  M  AC  H  CM  E 

A   NEEDLE  BAR   B  . CRANK  ATTACHED  TO  BAR.d  ECCENTRIC  ROTARY  HEAD 
TAKING  UP  THREAD.  D. ECCENTRICS  TO  WORK  TEED  E. ROTARY  HOOK  SHAFT 
F  BOBBIN  CASEBtHOOK,  CB06B1NCaSEOPCn  H. STITCH  CHANGER 
I  BAND  WORK.ING  SHUTTLE  J. FEED. SHAFTS 


F.  LOOP  Caught 
5,passed  between 
upper  1/  lower  frames|-j  |-, 
Cbobbin  Cot  t  om.H.bob6inM  || 


I  (.OOP  ^LIPPIMC 
ROUND  FRAME 
ENCIRCLING  BOBBIN 
THREAD  FORMING  STITCH 


DETAILS  OF  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SEWING-MACHINES  AND  FORMATION  OF  STITCHES 

Vol.  XL— 030 


Sewing  Machine 


127, 


Sex 


thread  is  drawn  tightly  up  to  the 
under  side  of  the  material,  and 
the  two  threads  interlock  to- 
gether in  the  centre.  To  facili- 
tate the  formation  of  the  loop, 
and  to  permit  the  under  thread 
to  be  passed  through  it,  the  nee- 
dle is  made  to  pause  for  an  instant, 
and  descend  again  in  the  up- 
stroke just  after  it  has  com- 
menced to  rise.  The  upper 
thread,  after  leaving  the  spool, 
which  is  carried  on  a  pin  fixed  to 
the  upper  part  of  the  machine,  is 
passed  between  steel  plates 
pressed  together  by  an  adjust- 
able spring.  The  arrangement  is 
termed  the  tension,  and  its  ob- 
ject is  to  put  a  strain  upon  the 
thread,  and  consequently  de- 
termine the  tightness  of  the 
stitch;  it  then  passes  through  a 
slot  or  hole  in  the  upper  end  of 
the  needle-bar  to  the  eye  of  the 
needle.  The  stitch  is  drawn  tight 
by  the  rising  of  the  needle;  and, 
as  the  thread  would  be  left  slack 
on  the  downward  movement,  a 
vibrating  arm  is  provided,  term- 
ed the  automatic  take-up,  which 
engages  the  thread  and  draws  it 
tight,  releasing  it  at  the  move- 
ment of  formation  of  the  loop  and 
at  the  end  of  the  needle  up- 
stroke. The  lower  thread  is 
wound  on  a  bobbin  carried  within 
the  shuttle  or  rotating  hook,  and 
also  provided  with  tension  ar- 
rangement. 

The  material  is  kept  from  ris- 
ing with  the  needle  by  the  presser 
foot,  a  forked  plate  of  steel  car- 
ried at  the  end  of  a  bar  parallel 
with  the  needle-bar,  and  pressed 
down  by  a  spring  which  is  ad- 
justable. The  material  is  carried 
forward  during  the  stitching  op- 
eration by  a  small  toothed  bar  or 
'feed-dog,'  which  rises  through  a 
slot  in  the  cloth  plate  underneath 
the  presser  foot,  engages  with  the 
cloth,  forces  it  forward  the  length 
of  the  stitch,  then  falls  below  the 
cloth  plate,  and  moving  back 
rises  again  and  repeats  the  opera- 
tion. With  lock-stitch  machines 
the  stitch  should  have  the  same 
appearance  on  both  sides  of  the 
cloth.  Various  attachments  are 
provided  for  hemming,  cording, 
braiding,  ruffling,  tucking,  quilt- 
ing; and  embroidery  work  can 
also  be  executed.  Advantages  of 
the  chain-stitch  are  its  elasticity; 
its  automatic  tension  which  re- 
quires no  variation  in  different 
fabrics;  and  the  ease  with  which 
the  stitching  is  removed;  while 
the  points  in  favor  of  the  lock- 
stitch are  strength  and  durabil- 
ity; a  uniform  appearance  on 
either  side;  and  no  particular 
care  necessary  in  fastening  off 
threads. 

Machines  for  tailoring  are  made 
with  higher  frame,  and  stronger 
than  those  for  household  work. 
When  used  for  stitching  leather, 
the  needle  is  made  with  a  flat 


point  something  like  a  spear. 
Button-hole  machines  make  the 
button-hole  of  the  usual  shape, 
and  of  any  size,  and  with  a  'purl' 
stitch,  as  it  is  termed  on  the 
finished  side. 

In  fancy  stitching  the  needle 
has  a  vibrating  movement,  which 
follows  the  design  of  the  stitch, 
the  work  being  fed  along  in  the 
ordinary  way;  several  needles 
may  be  used  together.  For 
stitching  such  work  as  the  seams 
of  sails,  the  material  is  fixed  in  a 
travelling  frame,  which  moves 
the  work  under  the  needle,  the 
machine  being  fixed.  Carpet 
seams  are  stitched  by  a  moving 
machine  which  travels  along  the 
carpet  on  a  fixed  track,  in  the 
frame  of  which  the  carpet  is  held 
vertically.  To  stitch  two  parallel 
seams  at  a  wide  distance  apart,  a 
special  machine  made  in  two 
parts  is  used.  Each  part  has  a 
complete  stitching  apparatus, 
but  both  are  driven  by  one  shaft. 
One  part  is  fixed,  but  the  other 
can  be  moved  away  to  the  re- 
quired distance  apart  from  the 
lines  of  stitches.  For  factory  use 
many  styles  of  machines  are 
made;  sewing  machines  vary  in 
size,  from  the  small  toy  which 
can  be  clamped  to  a  table,  to  the 
massive  tool  supplied  for  belt- 
stitching,  which  weighs  3>2  tons. 

The  most  modern  development 
of  the  sewing  machine  is  the  elec- 
trically driven  machine.  This  is 
of  two  types,  the  stationary  and 
the  portable.  The  former  is  built 
on  a  table  or  in  a  cabinet.  Power 
is  obtained  by  the  use  of  an  elec- 
tric motor,  either  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  machine  from  which 
it  cannot  be  disconnected,  or  by  a 
detachable  motor  which  may  be 
discarded  and  the  machine  run 
by  the  usual  treadle.  There  are 
two  types  of  detachable  motors, 
the  jack-rabbit  which  stands  on 
four  feet  on  the  table  just  back  of 
the  balance  wheel,  and  the  brack- 
et type  which  is  screwed  to  the 
upright  of  the  machine. 

At  the  present  time  there  are 
sewing  machines  for  making  prac- 
tically every  article  of  clothing, 
upholstery  and  leather  goods,  as 
well  as  for  various  kinds  of  em- 
broidery, smocking  and  other 
means  of  ornamentation. 

Of  chief  interest  amongst  the 
most  recent  developments  is  a 
high  speed  seaming  machine  em- 
ploying 4  needles  and  4  loopers 
and  9  threads,  capable  of  produc- 
ing a  seam  with  perfectly  abutted 
edges,  while  simultaneously  trim- 
ming the  raw  edges  of  the  fabric. 

High  speed  machines  run  by 
individual  motors  are  used  in 
factories  where  articles  are  pro- 
duced in  immense  quantities. 
This  method  is  becoming  increas- 
ingly popular  and  is  regarded  for 
certain  classes  of  work  as  superior 
to  the  line  shaft  type  of  drive. 


American  sewing  machines 
have  always  been  in  extensive  use 
abroad,  owing  to  their  vast  su- 
periority over  foreign  makes.  At 
present  machines  are  shipped 
from  the  United  States  to  nearly' 
every  point  in  the  civilized  world. 
In  1927  there  were  in  the  United 
States  41  factories  manufacturing 
sewing  machines,  cases  and  at- 
tachments, with  11,838  wage 
earners  and  a  product  valued  at 
$45,221,816.  Of  this  amount 
about  $10,500,000  represents  cas- 
es and  attachments.  The  leading 
States  were  Illinois,  Connecticut, 
Rhode  Island,  New  Jersey  and 
Massachusetts.  Consult  Byrn's 
Progress  of  Invention  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century;  R.  C.  Cook's  Sew- 
ing Machines  (1922). 

Sex,  the  physical  difference  be- 
tween male  and  female  in  the 
animal  kingdom.  In  almost  all 
animals  and  plants,  except  the 
unicellulars,  the  individual  life 
begins  as  a  fertilized  egg-cell,  in 
the  union  of  two  dimorphic  germ- 
cells  or  gametes,  the  ovum  and 
the  spermatozoon.  The  only  ex- 
ceptions are  (1)  where  the  mode 
of  multiplication  is  asexual — i.e. 
where  the  offspring  starts  as  a 
bud  or  as  a  separated  portion  of 
the  parental  body;  and  (2)  where 
the  egg-cell  develops  partheno- 
genetically  (agamogenesis)  or 
without  fertilization,  as  in  the 
case  with  the  eggs  which  give  rise 
to  drone  bees  or  to  summer  green 
flies.  The  organism  which  pro- 
duces ova  is  called  female,  and 
the  organism  which  produces 
spermatozoa  is  called  male;  but 
in  a  large  number  of  animals, 
such  as  the  snail,  earthworm,  and 
leech,  there  is  a  production  of 
eggs  and  sperms  by  the  same  in- 
dividual, which  in  consequence  is 
known  as  hermaphrodite.  It 
sometimes  happens,  as  in  the  hag- 
fish  {Myxine  glutinosa) ,  that  for 
a  period  the  animal  produces  only 
spermatozoa,  and  thereafter  only 
ova — thus,  so  to  speak,  changing 
its  sex  as  it  grows.  The  egg- 
bearer,  or  female,  and  the  sperm- 
bearer,  or  male,  are  often  con- 
spicuously different — e.g.  in  size, 
shape,  color,  decorations,  habits, 
and  length  of  life.  In  many  cases 
the  males  and  females  are  so  dif- 
ferent that  they  could  not  be 
recognized  as  even  related  one  to 
another  if  their  life-history  were 
not  known — e.g.  Bonellia,  some 
rotifers,  and  some  parasitic 
crustaceans.  In  some  cases  the 
two  sexes  found  separately  have 
been  referred  by  zoologists  to  dif- 
ferent species.  This  is  the  ex- 
treme of  sexual  dimorphism,  but 
visible  dimorphism  is  not  an  es- 
sential element  in  sex. 

While  the  great  majority  of 
Protozoa  are  strictly  unicellular 
organisms,  showing  no  distinction 
between  body  substance  (somato- 
plasm)   and   reproductive  sub- 


VOL.  XI.— 030 


Sex 


128 


Sex 


stance  (germ-plasm),  there  are 
some  which  form,  by  division 
without  actual  separation,  simple 
colonies  of  cells — e.g.  the  Volvo- 
cineae.  In  one  species  of  Volvox, 
a  spherical  colony  of  1,000  or  10,- 
000  cells,  we  have  illustrations  of 
various  types  of  parthenogenesis, 
hermaphroditism,  and  separate 
sexes.  The  history  of  Volvox 
colonies  is  an  epitome  of  the  evo- 
lution of  sex.  In  regard  to  various 
algae  and  fungi,  Klebs  has  shown 
conclusively  that  certain  external 
conditions  (of  nutrition,  moisture, 
light,  temperature,  and  chemical 
reagents)  may  determine  the  oc- 
currence of  asexual  reproduction 
by  zoospores  which  require  no  fer- 
tilization, while  others  as  certain- 
ly evoke  sexual  reproduction  by 
gametes  which  conjugate. 

Nature  of  Sex. — When  we  keep 
to  the  lower  reaches  of  sex  expres- 
sion, we  find  that  the  problem 
resolves  itself  into  this: — Of  two 
ova  of  the  same  mother  fertilized 
by  spermatoza  of  the  same  father, 
one  develops  into  an  egg-bearing 
animal  and  the  other  into  a 
sperm-bearing  animal;  there  may 
be  no  other  visible  difference  be- 
tween them,  either  in  structure 
or  in  function,  but  what  is  it  that 
determines  the  respective  female- 
ness  and  maleness?  According  to 
most  authorities  the  only  funda- 
mental difference  is  a  slight  dif- 
ference in  the  physiological  'gear- 
ing,' in  the  life-ratio  between  ana- 
bolic and  katabolic  processes — 
i.e.  between  constructive  and 
disruptive,  assimilative  and  dis- 
similative  vital  changes.  If  a 
plant  and  an  animal  of  equal 
weight  be  contrasted,  the  ratio  of 

anabolism  to  katabolism  —  in  the 
TDlant  is  greater  than  the  corres- 
ponding ratio  ^  in  the  animal; 
k 

and  the  same  may  be  true  of  the 
fundamental  contrast  between  fe- 
male and  male  organisms.  But 
just  as  dimorphic  varieties  arise 
and  become  established  in  a  spe- 
cies, so  it  may  be  that  an  incipi- 
ent sexual  dimorphism  arose  long 
ago,  based  on  a  slight  bias  to  one 
side  or  the  other  in  the  physio- 
logical gearing. 

There  are  various  reasons  why 
this  initial  dimorphism,  once 
started,  should  continue,  and 
should  be  gradually  more  and 
more  accentuated.  It  tended  to 
secure  cross-fertilization,  which 
implies  the  union  or  amphimixis 
of  more  or  less  diverse  germ- 
plasms.  This  not  only  helps 
to  swamp  undesirable  germinal 
idiosyncrasies,  but  to  induce  pos- 
sibly advantageous  new  varia- 
tions; for  while  there  are  parthe- 
nogenetic  forms,  some  of  which 
are  variable,  and  while  there  are 
self-fertilizing  (or  autogamous) 
hermaphrodite  forms,  like  some 
flukes  and  tapeworms  and  vari- 

VOL.  XI. — 030 


ous  plants,  the  numerous  arrange- 
ments throughout  the  animal  and 
plant  kingdoms  for  securing 
cross  fertilization  show  that  there 
must  be  decided  advantage  in  ex- 
ogamous  amphimixis.  The  ad- 
vantage as  regards  some  plants 
has  been  proved  by  Darwin  and 
others;  the  advantage  as  regards 
animals  is  hinted  at  by  the  occa- 
sionally dire  results  of  too  pro- 
longed and  intimate  inbreeding; 
and  this  form  of  inbreeding  is 
known  as  self-fertilization. 

In  most  of  the  relatively  simple 
multicellular  animals,  such  as 
sponges  and  zoophytes,  there  is 
nothing  analogous  to  sexual 
union;  the  fertilization  of  the  ova 
by  the  spermatozoa  is  left,  rough- 
ly speaking,  to  chance.  Even  in 
many  complex  forms,  such  as  sea- 
urchins  and  bivalves,  the  sperms 
are  usually  liberated  into  the 
water  to  find  or  not  to  find  the 
similarly  liberated  ova.  In  such 
cases  there  is  little  sexual  di- 
morphism, though  there  are  some- 
times special  arrangements  for 
the  equipment  of  the  ova  with 
yolk,  and  the  like.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  actively  moving  animals 
ranging  over  a  more  or  less  exten- 
sive habitat,  and  not  very  closely 
gregarious,  the  fertilization  of  the 
ova  could  not  be  left  to  chance, 
and  probably  those  variations  in 
males  and  females  were  gradually 
selected  which  were  most  effec- 
tive in  securing  amphimixis — 
that  is,  practically,  in  producing 
offspring.  Thus  arose  the  almost 
endless  intricacy  of  sexual  di- 
morphism— all  manner  of  ar- 
rangements for  tracking  and  seiz- 
ing the  females,  for  attracting  the 
males,  for  transferring  and  receiv- 
ing the  sperm.  In  short,  sexual 
dimorphism  arose  as  an  adapta- 
tion for  securing  amphimixis,  and 
had  its  physiological  side  in  sexu- 
al appetency  and  mating  in- 
stincts, as  well  as  its  structural 
aspect  in  the  specialization  of 
particular  organs.  We  thus  con- 
clude that  almost  all  the  details  of 
sex-differences  are  adaptations, 
originating  in  the  germinal  va- 
riations of  particular  males  and 
females,  and  established  by  nat- 
ural selection. 

Let  us  suppose  that  a  particular 
male  (or  set  of  males)  shows,  as 
the  result  of  germinal  variations, 
some  quality  advantageous  in 
mating:  the  progeny  inheriting 
this  quality  will  be  similarly 
at  an  advantage,  and  the  quality 
will  gradually  become  dominant 
in  proportion  to  its  value.  The 
same  will  hold  good  in  regard  to 
variations  in  the  females.  Now 
the  inheritance  must  be  multiple; 
it  must,  on  Weissmann's  argu- 
ment, consist,  not  of  a  single  set 
of  representative  primary  con- 
stituents or  determinants  for  the 
various  structures  of  the  body 
that  is  to  develop,  but  of  several 
alternative  sets.  Thus  drone  bees 


with  their  masculine  peculiarities, 
have  no  father;  the  ova  which 
their  spermatozoa  fertilize  devel- 
op into  queens  (females)  or  work- 
ers (sterile  females) . 

When  we  consider  a  large 
number  of  cases  of  sexual  dimor- 
phism, and  observe,  for  instance, 
that  the  females  are  often  larger, 
less  active,  less  brightly  colored, 
with  a  longer  life  and  so  on,  and, 
conversely,  that  the  males  are 
often  smaller,  more  energetic, 
more  decorative,  and  of  shorter 
life,  we  are  tempted  to  regard  the 
two  sexes  simply  as  expressions  of 
different  physiological  diatheses, 
as  literal  embodiments  of  the  ob- 
vious contrast  between  ovum  and 
spermatozoon.  We  know,  more- 
over, that  subtle  influences  pass 
from  the  reproductive  organs  to 
the  remotest  parts  of  the  body, 
and  that  the  removal  of  the  re- 
productive organs  may  be  follow- 
ed by  the  appearance  of  feminine 
characters  in  a  male  or  of  mascu- 
line characters  in  a  female.  More- 
over, there  are  cases  where  dis- 
tinctive masculine  or  feminine 
secondary  characters  can  be 
shown  with  some  plausibility  to 
be  physiologically  correlated  with 
the  general  constitutional  con- 
trast between  egg-producer  and 
sperm-producer.  But  while  we 
adhere  to  the  view  that  the  fun- 
damental difference  between  male 
and  female  is  a  difference  in  the 
protoplasmic  gearing  or  rhythm 
of  metabolism — the  phraseology 
must  remain  vague — yet  it  does 
not  appear  that  we  can  in  any 
way  dispense  with  the  comple- 
mentary view  that  the  details  of 
sex-dimorphism  are  the  results  of 
long  processes  of  selection.  Thus 
we  arrive  at  a  combination  of 
the  physiological  and  the  adapta- 
tional  theories  of  sexual  dimor- 
phism. 

Another  difficult  question  is 
that  generally  referred  to  under 
the  phrase  the  'determination  of 
sex.'  What  determines  whether 
an  egg  is  to  develop  into  a  male 
or  a  female  organism?  On  the 
one  hand,  most  of  the  careful 
experiments  and  observations  on 
mammals  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  sex  of  the  offspring  is 
fixed  ad  initio  by  the  constitution 
of  the  egg.  In  other  words,  there 
are  ova  whose  'organization'  (to 
put  it  statically),  or  'metabolic 
bias'  (to  put  it  kinetically),  is 
such  that  they  will  develop  into 
male  or  female  organisms  no 
matter  what  natural  influences 
may  be  brought  to  bear  on  them. 
They  are  predetermined  from 
the  first,  and  their  bias  cannot 
be  altered.  Thus,  in  the  case  of 
mice,  no  alterations  of  nutrition, 
prolonged  through  two  genera- 
tions, seem  to  make  the  least 
difference  in  the  proportion  of 
male  and  female  progeny.  More- 
over, cases  are  alleged  where  a 
mother  produced  only  daughters, 


Sex 


129 


Sextant 


though  paired  with  different 
sires;  ana  it  seems  that  in  man- 
kind a  tendency  to  produce  fe- 
male offspring  is  hereditary.  But 
if  there  are  ova  predetermined  to 
develop  into  females  and  others 
into  males,  to  what  is  this  pre- 
determination due — to  the  nutri- 
tive condition  of  the  rnother,  to 
her  age,  to  her  constitution,  or  to 
what  ?  Or  is  the  predetermina- 
tion simply  another  expression  of 
germinal  variation,  in  which  the 
complex  germ-plasm  is  swayed 
rnore  or  less  persistently  to  one 
side  or  the  other  by  factors  be- 
yond our  analysis  ?  As  to  this 
we  have  no  secure  data. 

There  is  also  the  other  view, 
that  the  sex  of  the  offspring  is 
not  predetermined  by  the  con- 
stitution of  the  ovarian  ovum, 
but  remains  for  some  time  un- 
determined and  modifiable.  It 
may  be  that  a  number  of  factors 
co-operate  to  settle  the  open 
question  of  whether  the  egg  is 
to  develop  into  a  male  or  into  a 
female.  Among  the  possible  de- 
termining factors,  the  most  im- 
portant may  be  resolved  into 
plus  or  minus  nutrition,  operat- 
mg  upon  parents,  sex-cells,  em- 
bryo, and  in  some  cases  larvae. 
Thus,  Yung's  experiments  on 
tadpoles,  though  not  conclusive, 
go  to  show  that  the  condition 
of  sexual  indifference  or  undeter- 
mined sex  may  in  this  case  persist 
even  in  larval  life,  and  that  the 
proportions  of  the  sexes  may  be 
altered  in  a  remarkable  degree 
»  by  the  nutrition  afforded  to  the 
larvae.  Those  who  believe  in  the 
view  that  the  sex  of  the  offspring 
is  determined  or  is  alterable  after 
the  ovum  has  left  the  ovary  are 
on  the  whole  agreed  that  favor- 
able nutritive  conditions  tend  to 
result  in  a  production  of  females, 
and  vice  versa;  but,  furthermore, 
that  there  are  numerous  factors 
which  may  exert  their  influence 
either  in  co-operation  or  antag- 
onism. At  present  the  balance  of 
opinion  is  m  favor  of  the  view 
that  there  is  initial  or  ovarian 
predetermination. 

As  elements  somewhat  apart 
from  the  general  life  of  the  body, 
the  sex-cells  multiply  and  claim 
liberation;  thus  the  simplest 
forms  of  the  'sexual  impulse' 
are  concerned  with  the  discharge 
of  the  germ-cells.  This,  which 
might  have  been,  and  often  is, 
effected  by  internal  reflexes  as 
relatively  simple  as  those  of 
urirfation,  has  been  restricted  and 
regulated  in  the  course  of  evolu- 
tion in  a  great  variety  of  ways 
tending  to  secure  fertilization  and 
the  continuance  of  the  race.  But 
what  looks  like  providential  in- 
tention can  be  interpreted  by  the 
selection  principle.  An  early  re- 
striction was  that  the  presence  or 
contact  of  the  other  sex  became 
necessary  in  order  to  set  the  lib- 


erating reflexes  in  action.  Thus 
arose  what  may  be  called  phys- 
ical fondness.  On  this,  however, 
more  and  more  subtle  attractions, 
rising  to  aesthetic  emotion  and 
further,  have  been  grafted,  until 
through  many  circuitous  paths 
and  devious  ways  a  high  psy- 
chical level  was  reached,  as  in 
many  birds  and  mammals.  In 
their  higher  expressions  the  phe- 
nomena of  sex  are  complicated  by 
the  emergence  of  more  or  less  obvi- 
ous psychical  correlates.  Sexual 
selection  takes  two  chief  forms— 

(1)  where  the  rival  males  fight, 
it  seems  to  us,  for  the  possession 
of  a  desired  mate  or  mates,  and 
in  so  doing  reduce  the  leet;  and 

(2)  where  the  females,  it  seems 
to  us,  choose  certain  individuals 
from  amid  a  crowd  of  suitors. 
Darwin  attached  much  impor- 
tance to  both  modes  of  selec- 
tion: the  fitter  males  in  the 
tournaments  are  most  successful 
in  reproduction,  and  those  that 
most  effectively  evoke  the  pair- 
ing instinct  by  gentler  methods 
become  likewise  dominant  in  the 
evolution  of  the  race.  Wallace 
and  others  have  pointed  out  that 
there  is  insufficient  evidence  to 
show  that  the  female  birds  or 
butterflies  do  really  choose,  or 
that  even  the  most  unattractive 
males  remain  unmated.  On  the 
whole,  however,  a  belief  in  the 
reality  of  preferential  mating  sur- 
vives its  criticism.  It  has  been 
pointed  out  by  Lloyd  Morgan 
that  the  elaborate  manoeuvres  of 
courtship  among  animals  prob- 
ably have  in  the  main  a  suggest- 
ive value:  they  excite  the  sexual 
reflexes  through  specialized  emo- 
tional paths;  'and  those  indi- 
viduals which  were  not  expres- 
sive, together  with  those  which 
were  insensible  to  the  suggestive 
influence  of  expression,  would  be 
less  ready  to  mate  and  to  trans- 
mit the  specialized  modes  of 
expression.'  Groos,  again,  has 
pointed  out  that  the  sexual  im- 
pulse is  often  of  extraordinary 
strength,  and  apt  to  exceed  the 
requirements  of  race  preserva- 
tion. That  it  may  become  quite 
pathological  is  well  known. 
Therefore  a  long-continvied  pre- 
liminary excitement,  overcoming 
the  instinctive  coyness  of  the 
female,  calling  forth  the  best  of 
the  male,  has  been  evolved.  The 
human  application  is  fairly  ob- 
vious. See  Biology. — Sex.  See 
Darwin's  The  Descent  of  Man  and 
Selection  in  Relation  to  Sex  (1871); 
A.  R.  Wallace's  Contributions  to 
the  Theory  of  Natural  Selection 
(1871)  and  Darwinianism  (1889); 
iP.  Geddes  and  J.  A.  Thomson's 
The  Evolution  of  Sex  (2d  ed. 
1900);  Havelock  Ellis's  Studies 
in  the  Psychology  of  Sex  (1897); 
Schenk's  Determination  of  Sex 
(new  ed.  1899);  H.  B.  Thomson's 
Mental  Traits  in  Sex  (1905);  and 


Weiningcr's  Sex  and  Character 
(1906). 

Sexagesima,  the  Sunday 
which,  roughly  speaking,  is  sixty 
days  from  Easter.  On  all  the 
three  Sundavs  before  Lent  St. 
Paul  is  used  as  an  example  of 
self-denial  and  zeal. 

Sextans,  a  small  constellation 
between  Crater  and  Hydra.  The 
chief  star  is  of  4.5  magnitude. 
8  Sextantis  is  a  binary,  with  an 
assigned  but  uncertain  period  of 
ninety-four  years. 

Sextant,  an  instrument  of  re- 
flection used  by  navigators  for 
measuring  the  altitudes  of  heav- 
enly bodies,  and  for  observing 
angles.  It  resembles  the  octant 
and  quadrant, 'and  may  be  traced 
directly  to  the  astrolabe,  cross- 
stafT,  and  to  Davis's  back-staff  of 
a  later  date.  The  sextant  con- 
sists of : — A,  the  graduated  arc; 
the  divisions  are  10'  each,  and 
these  are  subdivided  into  10"  by 
the  vernier,  h,  the  handle  by 
which  the  instrument  is  held  in 
the  right  hand.  M,  a  mirror 
called  the  index-glass;  this  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  face  of  the  in- 
strument, and  moves  with  the 
index-bar  m  c,  the  end  of  which 
slides  along  the  graduated  arc. 
m,  the  horizon-glass,  the  lower 
half  silvered,  and  the  upper  half 
left  clear;  this  should  be  parallel 
with  the  index-glass  when  the  in- 


I 


6'  (=3^^ 

Sextant. — Fig.  1. 

dex  points  to  0°  at  the  beginning 
of  the  arc.  E,  the  magnifying 
telescope;  this  gives  greater  dis- 
tinctness to  the  images,  and  is 
placed  in  the  line  of  sight,  and 
supported  in  the  ring  or  collar 
at  K,  which  can  be  moved  by  a 
screw  at  the  back  in  a  direction 
at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of 
the  sextant,  so  that  the  axis  of 
the  telescope  may  be  directed  to- 
wards either  the  silvered  or  the 
transparent  part  of  the  horizon- 
glass.  R,  the  magnifying  glass 
for  reading  the  vernier,  attached 
to  a  revolving  arm  s,  which  is  se- 
cured upon  the  index-bar.  p  and 
Q,  colored  shade  glasses  for 
shielding  the  eye  from  the  glare 
of  the  sun.  b,  the  tangent  screw 
(set  tangent  to  the  arc  of  the 
limb),  by  which  the  vernier  may 


Sextant 

be  moved  delicately  along  the  arc 
after  the  index  -  bar  has  been 
clamped  by  the  screw  c  at  the 
back.  I,  the  inverting  telescope. 
F,  the  simple  tube  without  glasses, 
for  giving  a  direct  line  of  sight 
from  the  centre  of  the  telescope 
ring  to  the  horizon-glass.  The 


130 

about  perpendicular  to  the  line 
of  sight)  and  bring  the  reflected 
image  into  coincidence  with  the 
real  object.  If  the  reflected 
image  of  the  horizon  line  or 
straight  edge  does  not  appear  to 
form  a  straight  line  with  the  real 
object,  it  should  be  made  to  do 


Z.  ■■  : 


Sextant. — Fig.  2. 


inverting  telescope  is  sometimes 
used  for  measuring  the  angles  of 
heavenly  bodies,  and,  as  its  name 
implies,  the  objects  are  shown 
upside  down.  Thus  the  horizon 
is  brought  down  to  the  sun.  g  is 
a  small  ring  containing  a  colored 
glass  for  fixing  on  the  eye-end 
of  the  telescope,  and  for  modify- 
ing the  glare  of  the  sun  instead 
of  depending  upon  the  shade- 
glasses  p  and  Q.  To  adjust  the 
index-glass — i.e.  to  see  that  it  is 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
sextant — look  at  it  obliquely,  and 
if  the  arc  and  its  reflection  are 


so  by  moving  the  horizon-glass 
adjusting  screws.  To  find  the 
index  error,  bring  the  reflected 
image  of  an  object  into  coinci- 
dence with  the  actual  object  as 
seen  through  the  unsilvered  part 
of  the  horizon-glass.  If  the  zero 
of  the  vernier  then  rests  on  the 
zero  of  the  limb,  there  is  no  in- 
dex error;  if  the  two  zeros  do 
not  agree  the  reading  of  the  ver- 
nier is  the  index  error.  If  the 
vernier  zero  is  to  the  right  of 
the  limb  the  index  error  should 
be  added  to  the  reading  of  all 
angles;  and  vice  versa.  An  index 


r 


A 

lO 

B 

"1" 

"1" 

"1" 

1  1  1 

1  1  V 

40 


35 


Sextant. — Fig.  3. 


not  in  the  same  straight  line,  turn 
the  adjusting  screws  in  the 
proper  direction.  The  next  ad- 
justment to  make  is  the  setting 
of  the  horizon-glass  perpendicu- 
lar .to  the  plane  of  the  instrument. 
To  do  this  turn  the  instrument 
toward  the  horizon  (or  toward 
some  distant  object  with  a  well- 
defined  straight  edge  which  is 


error  is  unnecessary,  however, 
and  may  be  corrected  as  follows: 
Set  the  zero  of  the  vernier  at  the 
zero  of  the  limb;  then  revolve  the 
horizon-glass  by  means  of  its 
second  set  of  adjusting  screws 
until  the  object  observed  and  its 
reflected  image  coincide. 

The  vernier  is  a  contrivance 
(applied  to  nearly  all  instruments 


Sexton 

for  measuring  lines  and  angles) 
for  ascertaining  with  great  ex- 
actness the  measure  of  an  angle 
or  distance  without  dividing  the, 
scale  so  closely  as  to  be  confus- 
ing. It  consists  of  a  short  scale 
bearing  some  convenient  relation 
to  the  scale  of  the  arc  or  limb. 
In  the  accompanying  sketch  (Fig. 
3),  AB  is  the  vernier  and  c  d  is 
a  portion  of  the  limb.  The  small 
divisions  of  the  limb  are  evi- 
dently of  10'  each.  Ten  divisions 
of  the  vernier  are  equal  to  nine 
of  the  limb.  If  the  zero  should 
fall  upon  a  division  of  the  limb, 
it  is  plain  that  the  next  division 
mark  of  the  vernier  will  fall  1' 
of  arc  short  of  the  next  division 
rnark  of  the  limb,  that  the  second 
division  mark  of  the  vernier  will 
fall  2'  short  of  the  second  divis- 
ion of  the  limb  and  so  on.  If 
the  vernier  is  moved  to  the  left 
1'  of  arc,  the  first  division  mark 
of  the  vernier — and  no  other — 
will  coincide  with  a  division 
mark  of  the  limb;  and  if  the  ver- 
nier is  moved  2'  to  the  left  the 
second  mark  of  the  vernier  will 
correspond  with  the  next  mark 
of  the  scale.  It  is  then  apparent 
that  we  should  read  the  degrees 
and  minutes  of  the  limb  to  the 
right  of  the  zero  of  the  vernier 
and  to  this  add  the  number  of 
minutes  obtained  by  counting  the 
number  of  division  marks  of  the  • 
vernier  to  and  including  the  one 
which  is  in  coincidence  with  a 
division  rnark  of  the  limb.  Fol- 
lowing this  rule  it  is  apparent 
that  the  reading  of  the  vernier  in 
the  sketch  is  35°  55'.  In  most 
good  sextants  the  vernier  reads 
to  10",  the  divisions  of  the  limb 
being  10'  each  and  60  divisions 
of  the  vernier  equalling  59  of  the 
limb. 

The  geometrical  and  optical 
principles  of  the  sextant  are 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  lettering 
is  the  same  as  in  Fig.  1  so  far 
as  the  parts  of  the  instrument 
are  concerned,  x  m  is  drawn 
perpendicular  to  m  and  Ym  to  m. 
The  angle  to  be  measured  is  fhat 
between  the  objects  lying  in  the 
directions  m  s  and  mz,  and  is 
equal  to  S  M  x.  If  O  is  the  zero 
point  of  the  limb,  then  M  O  is 
parallel    to    m.      Hence  angle 

S  M  X  =  M  —  E  =  2  M — Y  =  2 
C  M  O. 

Sexton,  an  official^  employed 
by  a  church  to  act  as  janitor  and 
to  take  general  charge  of  the 
church  building  and  furniture. 
The  sexton  often  digs  graves  and 
attends  funerals;  in  the  United 
States  he  is  usually  an  under- 
taker by  profession.  The  term 
sacristan,  of  which  sexton  is  a 
corruption,  applies  more  par- 
ticularly to  an  official  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  and  Anglican 
churches,  who  has  charge  of  the 
sacristy  and  its  contents,  and  of 


Sexton 


131 


Seymour 


the  vestments  worn  during  the 
service.  He  occupies  a  con- 
siderably higher  rank  than  the 
ordinary  sexton,  and  in  English 
cathedrals  is  often  one  of  the 
minor  canons  of  the  chapter. 

Sextus  Empiricus,  a  Greek 
physician  of  the  3d  century  A.D., 
who  lived  at  Alexandria  and 
Athens.  He  was  called  Empiricus 
because  he  belonged  to  the  Empiric 
school  of  medicine ;  in  philosophy 
he  was  a  Sceptic.  Two  of  his 
works  are  extant — the  Pyrrhonice 
Hypotyposes,  which  explains  the 
Sceptic  doctrines;  and  Adversus 
Mathematicos  Controversies,  an 
attack  on  all  positive  philosophy; 
they  are  written  in  Greek.  Eai- 
tion  by  Bekker  (1842).  See  mono- 
graph by  Pappenheim  (1875). 

Sexual  Selection,  a  term  used 
by  Darwin  to  indicate  the  effect 
produced  upon  a  race  by  prefer- 
ential mating.  The  males,  notably 
in  birds,  often  possess  a  beauty 
of  coloration,  or  a  power  of  song, 
which  does  not  seem  to  be  actu- 
ally required  for  survival  in  the 
struggle  for  existence.  Darwin, 
therefore,  supposed  that  in  these 
cases  the  coloring  or  song  is  the 
result  of  the  persistent  choice  of 
the  females,  which  in  each  genera- 
tion choose  the  most  beautiful  or 
the  sweetest  songsters,  and  they 
in  their  turn  transmit  their  own 
characters  to  the  male  descend- 
ants. Wallace,  on  the  other 
hand,  holds  that  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  such  selection  exists, 
even  among  birds,  which  are 
highly  organized,  and  much  less 
among  insects,  where  the  same 
color  phenomena  manifest  them- 
selves. Nevertheless,  those  who, 
like  Wallace,  deny  that  the  de- 
tails of  the  patterns  and  coloration 
of  male  organisms  have  been  pro- 
duced by  the  persistent  choice  of 
the  females,  continued  through- 
out many  generations,  do  not 
deny  that  preferential  mating 
has  had,  and  is  having,  an  impor- 
tant effect;  they  only  maintain 
that  its  action  is  strictly  subor- 
dinated to  that  of  natural  selec- 
tion. Wallace  points  out  that 
great  beauty,  power  of  song,  and 
so  forth  are  frequently  mere  exter- 
nal indications  of  superabundant 
health  and  vigor,  and  that  it  is 
probably  this  health  and  vigor 
which  lead  to  the  individual  be- 
coming the  favored  suitor.  The 
subject  may  be  pursued  further 
under  Sex. 

Seychelles,  a  group  of  islands 
in  the  Indian  Ocean,  600  m.  n.e. 
of  Madagascar,  constituting  a 
British  colony.  Area,  149  sq.  m. 
The  chief  islands  are  Mahe  (55 
sq^.  m.),  PrasUn,  Silhouette,  La 
Digue,  Curieuse,  and  Felicite. 
Among  dependent  islands  are 
the  Amirantes,  Alphonse  I.,  St. 
Fran9ois,  St.  Pierre,  Assumption 
I.,  Providence  I.,  and  Flat  I. 
The  capital,  a  naval  coaling  sta- 


tion, is  Victoria,  in  Mahe.  Pop. 
(1901)  19,237.  The  islands  are 
surrounded  by  coral  reefs,  and 
some  of  them  possess  giant  tor- 
toises and  the  curious  coco  de  mer, 
or  double  cocoanut.  The  exports 
— chiefly  vanilla,  cocoanuts,  and 
oil  and  tortoise-shell — amounted 
in  1904  to  $234,94*9;  the  imports  to 
$269,019.  These  islands  were  col- 
onized by  the  French  in  1742,  but 
were  taken  by  the  British,  with 
Mauritius,  in  1794,  and  formally 
ceded  in  1814.  They  were  made  a 
separate  colony  in  1888. 

Seymour.  (1.)  City,  Jackson 
CO.,  Ind.,  60  m.  s.  by  e.  of  Indian- 
apolis, on  the  B.  and  O.  S.  W., 
the  Pitts.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L., 
and  the  S.  Ind.  R.  Rs.  It  is  a 
commercial  and  industrial  centre, 
with  flour  mills,  woollen  mills, 
four  furniture  factories,  hard- 
wood lumber  plants,  three  har- 
ness factories,  etc.  The  district 
raises  consideraole  wheat  and 
other,  agricultural  produce.  The 
first  settlement  here  was  made  in 
1854,  the  town  was  incorporated 
in  1864,  and  the  city  was  char- 
tered in  1867.  Pop.  (1910)  6,- 
305.  (3.)  Tn.,  New  Haven  co.. 
Conn.,  10  m.  n.w.  of  New 
Haven,  on  the  Naugatuck  R.,  and 
on  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  H.  R. 
R.  It  is  an  industrial  town, 
manufacturing  brass  and  copper 
goods,  horseshoe  nails,  mechan- 
ics' tools,  auger  bits,  fountain 
rens,  telegraph  cables,  paper, 
plushes,  foundry  products,  stove 
trimmings,  eyelets,  lathes,  etc. 
The  town  has  a  public  library. 
The  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Monu- 
ment is  situated  in  a  natural 
park.  The  town  was  first  settled 
in  1675  as  part  of  Derby,  and 
was  separately  incorporated  in 
1850.  Pop.  (1910)  4,786.  See 
Sharpe,  History  of  Seymour, 
and  Sharpe  and  Campbell,  Sey- 
mour, Past  and  Present.  (3.) 
City,  Wayne  co.,  la.,  45  m. 
w.s.w.  of  Ottumwa,  on  the  Chi.^ 
Milw.  and  St.  P.  and  the  Chi., 
Rock  I.  and  Pac.  R.  Rs.  The 
leading  industries  are  f:oal-min- 
ing  and  stock-raising.  The  first 
settlement  here  was  made  in 
1872.    Pop.    (1910)  2,290. 

Seymour,  Sir  Edward  Hobart 
(1840),  British  admiral;  served  in 
the  Black  Sea  (1854-5);  the  China 
War  (1857-60);  on  the  w.  coast 
of  Africa  (1870),  when  he  was 
wounded;  in  the  Egyptian  War 
(1882);  and,  as  commander-in- 
chief,  in  China  (1898-1901).  In 
1900  he  led  naval  contingents 
from  the  ships  of  seven  European 
powers  in  an  attempt  to  relieve 
the  besieged  legations  at  Peking, 
but  was  obliged  to  retire.  He 
was  created  admiral  in  1901,  and 
admiral  of  fleet  in  1905.  He  was 
British  special  representative  at 
the  Fulton-Hudson  celebration  in 
New  York  in  1909.  Retired  1910. 

Seymour,  George  Franklin 


(1829-1906),  American  P.  E. 
prelate,  born  in  New  York,  and 
graduated  (1 850)  at  Columbia,  and 
at  the  General  Theological  Semi- 
nary (1854).  He  was  ordained 
priest  in  1855,  and  the  same  year 
founded  St.  Stephen's  College, 
at  Annandale,  N.  Y.  He  was 
rector  of  various  churches  in  New 
York  state  from  1801  to  1867, 
meanwhile  accepting  in  1865  the 
chair  of  ecclesiastical  hiscory  in 
the  General  Theological  Semi- 
nary, of  which  he  was  dean  from 
1875  until  his  consecration  as 
bishop  of  Springfield,  111.,  in  1878. 
He  published  a  number  of  con- 
troversial pamphlets,  including 
What  is  Modern  Romanism? 
(1885),  Marriage  and  Divorce 
(1893),  and  Money,  what  it  Really 
Is  (1896).  In  1903  appeared  his 
Sacraments  and  Principles  of  the 
Church. 

Seymour,  Horatio  (1810-86), 
American  politieal  leader,  born  at 
Pompey  Hill,  Onondaga  co.,  N.  Y. 
He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  and  at  private  academies 
and  in  1832  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  beginning  his  practice  at 
Utica,  N.  Y.  In  1833-39  he  was 
military  secretary  to  Governor 
Marcy;  he  was  a  member  of  the 
assembly  in  1842  and  in  the 
same  year  was  elected  mayor  of 
Utica.  Defeated  for  re-election 
he  was  again  returned  to  the 
assembly,  serving  in  1844  and 
1845,  as  speaker  in  the  latter  year. 
In  1850  he  was  the  unsuccessful 
Democratic  candidate  for  gov- 
ernor, but  was  elected  to  the  office 
two  years  afterwards.  During  his 
term'  he  vetoed  a  prohibition  act 
passed  by  the  legislature,  being 
opposed  to  the  policy  and  also 
believing  the  act  unconstitu- 
tional, and  this  veto  was  probably 
responsible  for  his  defeat  for  re- 
election in  1854,  Clark^  the  Whig 
and  Temperance  candidate  hav- 
ing a  pluraUty  of  309.  The  pro- 
hibition act,  passed  again  and 
signed  by  (jovernor  Clark,  was 
subsequently  declared  unconsti- 
tutional by  the  court  of  appeals. 
Seymour  advocated  loyalty  to  the 
government  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War,  but  opposed  many 
measures  of  the  administration, 
and  sturdily  maintained  the  right 
of  a  citizen  to  criticise  the  conduct 
of  government,  even  in  time  of 
war.  He  was  again  elected  gov- 
ernor on  the  Democratic  ticket  in 
1862  and  rendered  excellent  ser- 
vice in  the  work  of  furnishing 
troops  for  the  prosecution  of  the 
war,  particularly  during  the  Con- 
federate invasion  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1863.  He  was  severely 
criticised  during  the  draft  riots  in 
New  York  city  for  addressing  the 
mob  as  'My  friends,'  but  his  acts 
in  suppressing  the  riots  were 
effective.  In  1864  he  was  de- 
feated for  re-election  by  a  small 
majority,  and  in  1868  was  the  un- 


Seymour 

successful  Democratic  candidate 
for  the  Presidency,  receiving  80 
electoral  votes  to  214  for  Grant, 
although  he  carried  New  York 
by  a  substantial  majority. 

Suymour,  Sir  Michael  (1802- 
87^  British  admiral,  third  son  of 
Sir  Michael  Seymour,  was  pres- 
«int  at  the  capture  of  the  Smiane 
in  1814.  In  1854,  when  he  at- 
tained flag  rank,  he  accompanied 
Sir  Charles  Napier  to  the  Baltic. 
From  1856  to  1859  he  was  com- 
mander-in-chief in  China,  and 
was  present  at  the  action  in  Fat- 
^han  creek,  at  the  capture  of 
Canton,  and  at  the  capture  of 
the  Taku  forts  in  1858.  He  be- 
came an  admiral  in  1864,  and  was 
made  vice-admiral  of  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1875. 

Seymour,    Sir  Michael 
CuLME-  (1836),  British  admiral, 
born  at  Berkhampstead,  entered 
^  the  navy  in  1850.    He  served  in 
(y,  the  Burmese  War  (1852);  in  the 
(j^   Baltic  (1854);  was  present  at  the 
\    bombardment  of  Sevastopol,  and 
^  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Kertch, 
(V^    Kinburn,  and  Yenikale  (1854-5). 
In  the  China  War  (1858)  he  had 
command  of  a  boat  at  Fatshan 
^    creek,  and  in  the  operations  on 
^  the  Canton  river,  and  also  took 
X  part  in  the  capture -of  the  Pei-ho 
forts.    Sir  Michael  was  promoted 
^  rear-admiral    (1882)    and  vice- 
^  admiral    (1888),    and    was  suc- 
^  cessively  commander-in-chief  in 
S),  the  Pacific,  the  Channel,  and  the 
Mediterranean.    In  1897  he  was 
appointed    to    the  Portsmouth 
command,  but  retired  in  1901. 

Seymour,  Thomas  Day  (1848), 
American  scholar,  was  born  at 
Hudson,  O.,  and  graduated  (1870) 
at  Western  Reserve  College,  con- 
tijiuing  his  studies  in  German  uni- 
versities. He  was  professor  of 
Greek  at  Western  Reserve  from 
^  1872  to  1880,  when  he  accepted  the 
^  chair  of  Greek  at  Yale.  From 
—  1887  to  1901  he  was  chairman  of 
the  managing  committee  of  the 
American  School  of  Classical 
Studies  at  Athens,  and  he  held 
membership  and  office  in  several 
learned  societies.  He  edited  a 
number  of  Greek  text-books  and 
lexicographical  works,  including 
Selected  Odes  of  Pindar,  with 
Notes  (1882),  Introduction  to  the 
Language  and  Verse  of  Homer 
(1885),  and  Homeric  Vocabulary 
(1889),  and  was  principal  editor  of 
the  '  College  Series  of  Greek 
Authors.' 

Seymour,  Thomas  Hart 
(1808-G8),  American  politician, 
soldier,  and  diplomat,  born  at 
Hartford,  Conn.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar;  became  editor 
of  The  Jejfersonian;  was  for  a  time 
a  probate  judge,  and  during  184.'}- 
45  was  a  member  of  the  Federal 
House  of  Representatives.  He 
served  in  tlie  Mexican  War  with 
distinction,  and  attained  the  rank 
of  colonel.    He  was  an  unsuccess- 


132 

ful  candidate  for  governor  of 
Conn,  on  the  Democratic  ticket  in 
1849,  and  was  elected  to  that  office 
in  1851,  1852,  and  1853.  In  the 
last-mentioned  year  he  resigned 
the  governorship'to  become  minis- 
ter to  Russia,  where  he  remained 
until  1857.  He  opposed  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  South  so  actively 
that  he  incurred  the  suspicion  of 
disloyalty,  and  in  18G3  was  de- 
feated in  a  fifth  contest  for  whe 
governorship. 

Seymour,  Truman  (1824-91), 
American  soldier,  born  at  Burling- 
ton, Vt.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1846  as  a  second  lieuten- 
ant of  artillery,  served  in  Mexico, 
and  was  one  of  the  garrison  of 
Fort  Sumter  in  April,  1861.  He 
was  made  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers,  served  in  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  and  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  in  S.  C.  and  Florida  until 
1864,  and  was  defeated  at  Olustee, 
Feb.  20,  1864,  while  commanding 
an  expedition  into  the  interior  of 
Florida.  In  1864-65  he  returned 
to  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and 
served  with  it  and  in  the  Shenan- 
doah valley  until  the  close  of  the 
war,  when -he  received  the  brevet 
of  major-general  of  volunteers. 
From  1866  to  1876,  when  he  was 
retired,  he  was  colonel  of  the  5th 
artillery. 

Seymour  Family.  See  Som- 
erset, Dukes  of, 

Seyne,  La,  tn.,  French  dep. 
Var,  opposite  Toulon;  builds 
steamers  and  engines.  Pop. 
(1901)  21,002. 

Sezze  (anc.  Setia),  tn.  in 
Rome  prov.,  Italy,  32  m.  N.w.  of 
Gaeta;  has  ruins  of  a  temple  of 
Saturn,  and  a  14th-century  cathe- 
dral.   Pop.  (1901)  10,827. 

Sfax,  fort,  seapt.,  Tunis,  N. 
Africa,  on  the  Gulf  of  Cabes,  74 
m.  s.  of  Susa;  exports  dates, 
fruit,  sponges,  oil,  alfa,  and 
camels,  and  has  manufactures 
of    silk,    cotton,    and  woollen 

foods.  It  was  captured  by  the 
rench  in  1881.  Pop.  42,500. 
Sforza,  the  ducal  family  who 
ruled  Milan  from  1450  to  1535. 
The  founder  was  Francesco  Sforza 
(1401-66),  a  leader  of  condotti- 
eri,  or  mercenary  troops.  After 
fighting  the  battles  of  Filippo 
Maria  Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan, 
for  many  years,  he  demanded 
the  hand  of  the  duke's  daughter 
and  heiress,  Bianca.  Filippo  re- 
fused, and  Sforza  immediately 
left  him,  entered  the  service  of 
Florence — in  fact,  was  supported 
all  through  by  Cosimo  de'  Medici 
— and  within  a  few  months  com- 
pelled Filippo  to  make  peace, 
of  which  one  of  the  conditions 
was  Francesco's  union  with 
Bianca  (1441).  In  1447,  on  the 
death  of  Filippo,  Sforza,  after 
defeating  the  hereditary  enemies 
of  Milan,  the  Venetians,  com- 
pelled the  Milanese  to  receive 
him  as  their  duke  (1450).  His 


Sgraffito 

rule  was  firm,  just,  and  beneficent. 
He  was  a  patron  of  arts  and 
letters,  and  especially  of  the 
humanist  Filelfo.  The  best  trib- 
ute to  his  political  sagacity,  as 
remarked  by  Symonds,  is  that 
Louis  XI.  of  France  professed  him- 
self Sforza's  pupil  in  statecraft. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest 
son,  Galeazzo  (1444-76),  one  of 
the  greatest  monsters  of  cruelty 
and  sensuality  that  Italy  has 
produced.  His  people  groaned 
under  his  exactions  and  cruel- 
ties, until  three  young  Milan- 
ese nobles  murdered  him  in 
the  Church  of  San  Stefano. 
His  place  was  taken  bv  his 
son,  Giovanni  Galeazzo  (1469- 
94);  but  in  1480  his  uncle,  Lodo- 
vico,  ursurped  the  authority,  and 
after  keeping  his  nephew  in  con- 
finement, poisoned  him  at  Pavia. 
LODOVICO  (?  1446- 15 10)  proved 
himself  in  some  respects  a  capable 
ruler.  The  murder  of  his  nephew 
brought  its  punishment  from 
Louis  XII.  of  France,  to  whom 
Lodovico  was  sold  by  his  own 
Swiss  mercenaries  (1500),  and  he 
died  a  captive  at  Loches  in  1510. 
Massimiliano  (1491-1530),  Lodo- 
vico's  son,  after  an  interval  of  two 
years,  during  which  the  state  was 
held  by  the  French,  was  placed 
in  power  by  the  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian (1512).  But  he  was  prac- 
tically deposed  by  the  French 
after  the  battle  of  Marignano 
(1515).  Seven  years  later,  the  Em- 
ror  Charles  v.,  having  wrested 
ilan  from  Francis  I.  of  France, 
proclaim.ed  Francesco  Sforza, 
the  second  son'of  Lodovico  (1492- 
1535),  duke;  and  when  he  died  the 
Sforza  line  became  extinct.  See 
Symonds's  Renaissance  in  Italy 
(1875-1877),  and  Sismondi's  Ital- 
ian Republics  (Eng.  trans.  1832). 

Sgambati,  Giovanni  (1843), 
Italian    musical    composer  and 
pianist,  was  born  at  Rome.  He 
.studied  under  Liszt;  is  a  brilliant 
1  pianist,  and  has  played  and  con- 
<^  ducted  performances  of  his  works 
j-7  in  London,  Paris,  and  other  Eu- 
^  ropean   capitals.    He   has  been 
professor  of  the  pianoforte  at  the 
conservatory  of  Rome  since  1877. 
His  compositions,  many  of  which 
are    celebrated,   comprise  sym- 
phonies, chamber  music,  concer- 
tos for  piano,  and  songs. 

Sganarelle,  a  comic  character 
introduced  by  Moliere  into  sev- 
eral of  his  plays,  making  his 
first  appearance  in  Sganarelle  ou 
le  Cocu  Imaginaire  (1660).  The 
best-known  Sganarelle  is  that  in 
Le  Medecin  malgre  Lui. 

Sgraffito  ('scratched  work'), 
the  term  applied  to  a  process 
which  appears  to  have  been  prac- 
tised in  Italy  from  very  early 
times,  and  came  probably  from 
Etruria.  The  method  employed 
is  as  follows: — The  wall  or  pottery 
whereon  the  design  is  intended 
to  be  placed  having  been  well 


I^habats 


133 


Shatter 


damped,  a  layer  of  white  plaster 
about  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
thick  is  imposed,  followed  almost 
immediately  by  another  layer  of 
colored  plaster.  When  this  is  set, 
a  final  'face'  of  white  plaster  is 
applied,  and  on  it  is  placed  a  plan 
of  the  drawing  to  be  executed,  the 
outlines  being  deeply  cut  with  a 
dagger-Hke  instrumenc,  and  the 
minor  details  then  added. 

Shabats,  sha'bats,  Shabatz, 
or  Sabac,  town,  district  of 
Podrinye,  Servia,  on  the  river 
Save;  38  miles  west  of  Belgrade. 
It  has  an  active  trade  in  corn  and 
cattle.  During  the  Great  War 
Shabats  was  captured  by  the 
Austrians  (August,  1914),  was 
retaken  by  the  Serbians,  and 
again  taken  by  the  Austrians 
(November  1914,  October  1915). 

Shackleton,  Sir  Ernest  H. 
(1869-1922),  British  naval  officer 
and  explorer,  was  born  in  Kilkee, 
Ireland.  He  was  educated  at 
Dulwich  College,  London,  and  as 
a  lieutenant  in  the  Royal  Navy 
sailed  with  Captain  Scott  in  the 
Discovery  Antarctic  Expedition, 
reaching  (in  1903)  a  point  463 
miles  from  the  South  Pole,  the 
southernmost  point  reached  up 
to  that  time.  In  1907,  in  the 
Nimrod,  he  commanded  an  ex- 
pedition to  the  Antarctic  regions, 
and  on  Jan.  9,  1909,  reached  88° 
23' s.  lat.,  and  planted  the  Union 
Jack  on  Mount  Gauss,  97  miles 
from  the  Pole — then  the  nearest 
approach  on  record  (see  Antarc- 
tic Exploration).  In  1914  he 
headed  an  expedition  to  explore 
the  continent  of  Antarctica.  His 
ship  Endurance  was  crushed  by 
an  ice  floe  in  October  and  drifted 
until  mid-winter,  when  he  and 
his  party  landed  on  Elephant 
Island  in  the  South  Shetland 
Group.  Four  different  relief  ex- 
peditions were  sent  to  their  aid, 
and  it  was  two  years  before  the 
party  was  eventually  rescued.  In 
1917  Shackleton  helped  provision 
and  reinforce  the  British  army  in 
North   Russia.     In  September, 

1921,  he  started  on  the  Quest  on 
his  fourth  Antarctic  trip,  but  he 
died  of  heart   disease,   Jan.  5, 

1922,  off  the  Gritvicken  Station. 
The  story  of  his  experiences  is 
given  in  his  books:  South;  The 
Heart  of  the  Antarctic;  and  The 
Diary  of  a  Troopship.  Shackle- 
ton's  contributions  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  flora  and  fauna  of  the 
Antarctic  regions  are  many  and 
important.  He  was  knighted  in 
1909,  and  received  medals  from 
scientific  and  geographical  socie- 
ties all  over  the  world. 

Shad,  a  fish  belonging  to  the 
herring  family,  of  which  the 
American  species  (Clupea,  or 
Alosa,  sapidissima) ,  is  the  most 
valuable.  It  differs  from  the  her- 
ring in  having  no  teeth  on  the 
jaws,  and  is  larger,  averaging 
about  4  pounds  in  weight,  though 
often  attaining  to  a  greater  size. 

Vol.  XI  —March  '22 


All  shad  are  coast  fi<5hes,  ascend- 
ing rivers  to  spawn  in  late  spring. 
They  were  formerly  abundant  in 
spring  in  all  rivers  of  the  Atlantic 
coast,  but  their  great  popularity 
as  a  food  and  consequent  exces- 
sive seine  and  pound-fishing  so 
reduced  them  that  for  several 
years  the  fishery  authorities  have 
been  propagating  them  artifici- 
ally, turning  millions  of  yovmg 
shad  annually  into  the  Potomac, 
Delaware,  Hudson,  and  other 
rivers. 

Shaddock  {Citrus  deciimand), 

a  tree  of  the  same  gemis  as  those 
which  yield  oranges  and  lemons. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  Malay  region, 
and  is  very  largely  cultivated. 
The  tree  is  larger  than  the  orange 
or  lemon  tree,  and  the  frttit — 
which  is  nearly  spherical — is  very 
much  larger  than  those  fruits. 
See  Grape  Fruit. 

Shadows,  as  ordinarily  under- 
stood, are  the  result  of  the  inter- 
ception of  rays  of  light  by  an 
opaque  or  semi-opaque  sub- 
stance. When  the  light  issues 
from  a  point  the  sharpness  of  out- 
line is  clear  and  definite,  but 
when  the  source  of  light  has  a* 
sensible  diameter,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, the  sun,  the  shadow  is 
bounded  by  a  broad,  indistinct 
portion  called  the  penumbra 
(q.  v.).  Other  forms  of  radiant 
energy  such  as  heat,  sound,  and 
electric  rays,  may  also  be  inter- 
cepted and  produce  shadows. 
Such  shadows  are  not  as  easily 
recognized  as  those  produced  by 
light.   See  Eclipse;  Light. 

Shadrach  Case,  sha'drak,  a 
famous  case  arising  in  February, 
3.S.51,  under  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Act  of  18.50.  Shadrach,  a  colored 
waiter  in  a  coffee  house  in  Boston, 
was  arrested  under  a  warrant  is- 
sued by  U.  S.  Commissioner 
George  T.  Curtis  on  complaint 
of  John  de  Bree  of  Norfolk,  Vir- 
ginia, who  claimed  to  be  Shad- 
rach's  master.  After  a  prelimi- 
nary hearing  the  case  was  post- 
poned. Shadrach  was  rescued  by 
a  crowd  of  colored  men  from  the 
custody  of  the  deputy  marshal, 
and  was  sent  to  Canada.  The 
rescue  aroused  great  indignation 
on  the  part  of  slavery  sympa- 
thizers. President  Fillmore  is- 
sued a  proclamation  calling  upon 
citizens  to  assist  in  enforcing  the 
law  in  such  emergencies.  A  reso- 
lution, introduced  by  Clay,  was 
passed  by  the  Senate  requesting 
the  President  to  lay  the  facts 
before  the  Senate;  three  days 
later  the  President  complied,  but 
nothing  came  of  this  activity 
except  some  acrimonious  debates. 
Five  persons  engaged  in  the  res- 
cue were  indicted,  but  the  jury  in 
every  case  disagreed.  In  one 
case  the  disagreement  was  due  to 
the  fact  that  one  of  the  jurymen 
had  himself  driven  Shadrach  part 
of  his  way  to  safety. 

Shadrinsk,  .shd-drinsk',  town, 


Perm  government,  Northeast 
Russia,  105  miles  southwest  of 
Tiumen,  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the 
Urals.  It  has  tanneries  and  soap 
works.    Pop.  14,000. 

Shad'well,  Thomas  (?1642- 
92),  English  dramatist  and  poet- 
laureate,  born  at  Weeting,  Nor- 
folk. His  plays  give  valuable 
pictures  of  the  life  of  the  time, 
but  they  lack  literary  distinction. 
He  took  Ben  Jonson  as  his  model, 
and  adopted  the  Jonsonian 
scheme  of  humors.  He  was  orig- 
inally on  good  terms  with  Dry- 
den,  who  collaborated  in  Notes 
and  Observations  on  the  Empress 
of  Morocco  (1674),  and  wrote  a 
prologue  to  his  True  Widow 
(1678);  but  politics  turned  their 
friendship  to  open  hostility. 
Shadwell  replied  to  Dryden's 
Medal  with  The  Medal  of  John 
Bayes:  a  Satire  against  Folly  and 
Knavery,  and  an  Epistle  to  the 
Tories  (1682).  For  this  he  was 
pilloried  in  MacFlecknoe  and,  un- 
der the  name  of  Og,  in  the  second 
part  of  Absalom  and  Achitophel 
(1682).  He  made  a  poor  reply  in 
a  translation  of  the  Tenth  Satire 
of  Juvenal  (1687).  At  the  revo- 
lution, however,  when  Dryden 
was  deprived  of  the  office  of  poet- 
laureate,  Shadwell  had  the  tri- 
umph of  being  appointed  his 
successor.  His  Dramatic  Works 
(4.  vols.)  appeared,  with  Life,  in 
1720,  and  his  Poetical  Remains  in 
1698. 

Shafarik.    See  Safarik. 

Shaf'roth,  shaf'roth,  John 
Franklin  (1854-1922),  Amer- 
ican politician,  was  born  in  Fay- 
ette, Mo.  He  was  graduated 
fron  the  University  of  Michigan 
in  1875,  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  removed  to  Denver,  Col.,  in 
1879.  He  was  city  attorney  of 
Denver  in  1887—91,  and  member 
of  Congress  in  1895-1904.  On 
Feb.  15,  1904,  he  resigned  his 
seat  because  he  believed  his  elec- 
tion to  have  been  tainted  by 
fraud.  He  was  the  Democratic 
candidate  for  Congress  from  the 
State  at  large  in  the  fall  of  that 
year,  but  was  defeated.  He  was 
governor  of  Colorado  for  two 
terms,  1909-11  and  1911-13,  and 
was  U.  S.  Senator  from  Colorado 
1913-19. 

Shaf'ter,  William  Rtjfus 
(1835-1906),  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Galesburg,  Mich.  In 
1861  he  entered  the  volunteer 
service  as  first  lieutenant  in  a 
Michigan  infantry  regiment,  and 
served  throughout  the  Civil  War, 
reaching  the  rank  of  colonel  and 
brevet  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers. He  was  made  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  regular  army  in 
1866,  colonel  in  1879,  and  briga- 
dier-general in  1897.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war  with  Spain 
he  was  made  major-general  of 
volunteers  and  given  command 
of  the  army  sent  to  capture  San- 
tiago de  Cuba,  which  was  accom- 


Shaftesbury 


134 


Shaft  Sinking 


pushed  after  some  severe  fighting 
and  the  destruction  of  the  Span- 
ish fleet.  He  was  retired  in  1901 
with  the  rank  of  major-general  in 
the  regular  army. 

Shaftes'bury,  Anthony  Ash- 
ley Cooper,  first  Earl  of 
(1621-83),  British  statesman, 
was  born  in  Wimborne  St.  Giles, 
Dorsetshire,  and  was  elected 
member    of    Parliament  for 


March,  1663,  and,  at  his  request, 
John  Locke  devised  the  constitu- 
tion for  that  colony  in  1669.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  'Cabal' 
ministry  (1670).  involved  the 
country  in  a  war  with  Holland, 
and  persuaded  Charles  to  pro- 
mulgate the  declaration  for  sus- 
pending the  execution  of  the 
penal  laws  against  the  non- 
conformists and  recusants  (1672), 


m — rt^ 


^Fig.  6 


Sinking  of  Shafts  and  Wells 
(For  explanation,  see  text.) 


Tewkesbury  in  1640.  He  joined 
the  parliamentary  party  in  1644, 
and  was  repeatedly  appointed 
one  of  the  Protector's  council  of 
state,  while  he  was  a  member  of 
his  last  Parliament  and  of  that 
convened  by  Richard  Cromwell 
(1659).  He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  Restoration,  and  was  ap- 
pointed chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer, He  was  one  of  the  nine 
to  whom  Carolina  was  granted. 
Vol.  XI.— March  '22 


on  this  point  having  a  vigorous 

controversy  with  his  friend  John 
Locke.  He  was  created  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury  (1672),  and  appointed 
lord  chancellor  (November,  1672) ; 
but  in  November,  1673,  he  was 
dismissed.  He  then  joined  the 
opposition,  and  was  consigned  to 
the  Tower  for  a  time.  As  presi- 
dent of  the  council  (1679),  he  car- 
ried through  Parliament  the 
Habeas  Corpus  Act.   In  October 


he  was  dismissed  from  his  post. 
Then  followed  his  presentation  to 
the  grand  jury  of  the  King's 
Bench  of  the  Duke  of  York 
(whom  he  detested)  as  a  popish 
recusant,  his  support  of  Mon- 
mouth's rebellion,  and  his  com- 
mittal to  the  Tower  on  the  charge 
of  high  treason,  of  which  he  was 
afterwards  acquitted,  when  Dry- 
den  (whose  'Achitophel'  he  rep- 
resented) wrote  his  famous  poem. 
The  Medal,  as  a  satire  on  his 
release.  Shaftesbury  eventually 
retired  to  Holland,  where  he  died. 
Constilt  Martyn  and  Kippis' 
Life  of  A.  A.  Cooper;  Memoirs, 
Letters,  and  Speeches,  ed.  by 
Christie;  Christie's  Life;  Traill's 
Shaftesbury. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ash- 
ley Cooper,  third  Earl  of 
(1671-1713),  English  authoi;, 
grandson  of  the  first  earl,  was 
born  in  London.  He  attributed 
his  education  to  John  Locke,  and 
entered  Parliament  as  member 
for  Poole  (1695),  but  resigned 
(1698)  and  went  to  Holland, 
where  he  became  acqviainted 
with  Bayle  and  Leclerc.  On  the 
death  of  his  father  (1699)  he  re- 
turned to  England,  where  he 
made  a  considerable  figure  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  His  last  years 
were  devoted  to  literature,  prin- 
cipally at  Naples.  A  complete 
collection  of  his  works  was  pub- 
lished (1713)  under  the  title 
Characteristics  of  Men,  Manners, 
Opinions,  and  Times  (ed.  J.  M. 
Robertson,  1900).  His  writings 
excited  great  admiration  in  his 
own  day.  They  include,  among 
other  works.  Letter  on  Enthusiasm 
(1708);  Moralists:  a  Philosoph- 
ical Rhapsody  (1709);  Sensus 
Communis,  or  Essay  on  Wit  and 
Humor  (1709);  and  Soliloquy, 
or  Advice  to  an  Author  (1710). 
Consult  Fowler's  Shaftesbury 
and  Hutcheson  (in  English 
Philosophers  Series)  and  Life  by 
Rand. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ash- 
ley Cooper,  seventh  Earl  of 
(1801-85),  English  philanthro- 
pist, was  a  member  of  Parliament 
(1826-1851),  and  a  lord  of  the 
Admiralty  (1834-5).  As  a  com- 
missioner in  lunacy  (1831-85),  he 
effected  a  complete  reform  of  the 
Lunacy  Acts.  He  also  secured 
amendments  to  and  an  extension 
CI  the  Factory  Acts;  obtained  the 
■passing  of  an  act  (1842)  abolish- 
ing apprenticeship  in  collieries 
and  mines,  and  excluding  women, 
and  boys  under  thirteen,  from 
employment  underground.  He 
worked  unweariedly  for  fourteen 
years  on  behalf  of  a  bill  limiting 
the  hours  of  labor  of  women  and 
young  persons  to  ten  hours  a  day 
(passed  1847).  He  was  chairman 
of  the  Central  Board  of  Public 
Health  (1848). 

Shaft  Sinking.  A  shaft  is  a 
vertical  or  nearly  vertical  hole 
sunk  into  the  ground  for  the  pur- 


Shaft  Sinking 


135 


Shahaptins 


pose  of  extracting  mineral  from 
mines  or  ventilating  the  same;  to 
reach  a  water-bearing  strata  for  a 
water-supply,  as  in  the  case  of 
wells;  or  to  establish  a  foundation 
on  rock  to  support  a  superstruc- 
ture, as  in  the  case  of  foundations. 

In  the  sinking  of  shafts  various 
methods  are  employed,  depending 
upon  the  nature  of  the  work,  the 
size  of  the  excavation,  and  the 
material  through  which  they  must 
be  driven.  In  mining  the  form  is 
usually  that  of  a  rectangle  divided 
into  two  or  more  compartments, 
depending  upon  circumstances;  in 
wells  the  form  is  usuallj;  circular, 
while  in  foundations  any  form  is 
employed  that  is  found  to  be  most 
satisfactory. 

For  about  eight  yards  in  depth 
the  soil  is  thrown  out  to  the  sur- 
face in  one  or  two  stages.  After 
which  a  hoisting  engine  should  be 
employed  to  raise  the  debris,  the 
headgear  being  erected  over  the 
pit  top. 

Until  hard  rock  is  reached  the 
sides  of  the  excavation  are  sup- 
ported temporarily  by  a  lining 
(Figs.  1  and  3)  of  sheet  piling  or 
timber,  but  where  the  material  is 
soft  and  runs,  as  in  quicksand, 
other  means  and  precautions 
must  be  adopted.  When  rock  is 
reached,  a  curb  or  crib  (Fig.  2)  of 
either  wood  or  iron  is  inserted. 
It  is  made  in  segments,  bolted 
together  by  cover  strips,  and  is 
taken  down  the  shaft  in  parts.  It 
is  laid  on  the  prepared  bed,  and 
the  wall  (Fig.  4)  is  then  built  up 
to  the  surface.  Sinking  is  then 
proceeded  with,  until  it  is  deemed 
advisable  to  put  in  a  fresh  curb, 
whereupon  the  brickwork  is  again 
built  up  to  the  curb  above. 

If  only  a  small  _  quantity  of 
water  is  met  with  in  sinking,  it 
may  be  removed  by  bailing,  but  if 
a  constant  feeder  is  encountered, 

Eumps  are  usually  employed,  the 
est  form  being  either  the  pulso- 
meter  steam  pump  or  an  ordinary 
piston  steam  pump  suspended 
from  the  surface  by  ropes  and 
chains,  so  that  it  can  be  lowered 
as  the  sinking  proceeds.  Where 
water  is  met  with,  the  shaft  is 
sometimes  lined  with  a  water- 
tight lining  of  brick,  wood,  or  iron. 
In  the  case  of  brick  this  consists 
in  building  separate  walls,  two, 
three,  or  up  to  five  in  number, 
with  spaces  between  them  filled 
with  cement;  but  as  brick  is  not 
suitable  for  very  high  pressures, 
iron  is  usually  employed  where 
large  quantities  of  water  are 
encountered.  In  the  rocks  at  the 
base  of  the  water-bearing  strata  a 
wedging  curb  of  cast  iron  is  laid 
instead  of  the  usual  oak  bricking 
curb,  and  on  this  is  built  up  the 
lining. 

Where  much  water  is  met  with, 
the  shaft  has  sometimes  to  be  sunk 
by  boring.  There  are  two  meth- 
ods— ^.thji  Kind-Chaudron  and  the 


Lippman.  In  the  former  method 
the  shaft  is  bored  with  a  tool  called 
a  trepan  (Figs.  5  and  6  for  small 
and  large  holes  respectively),  in 
two  or  three  operations,  the  first 
hole  being  5  ft.  and  the  last  hole 
16  ft.  in  diameter.  The  5-ft.  hole 
is  put  down  first,  and  is  kept  in 
advance  of  the  larger  holes.  The 
weight  of  the  boring  tool  for  the 
5-ft.  hole  is  about  8  tons,  and  for 
the  larger  hole  anything  up  to 
20  tons.  The  tool  consists  of  a 
wrought-iron  frame,  in  which  a 
large  number  of  steel  chisels  are 
inserted.  It  is  suspended  by 
wooden  rods  from  a  beam  on  the 
surface.  A  large  sludger  is  ern- 
ployed  to  clear  out  the  debris. 
After  the  water-bearing  rocks 
have  been  sunk  through,  tubbing, 
composed  of  rings  cast  in  one  piece 
about  4  ft.  high  and  bolted  to- 
gether, is  lowered  into  the  shaft. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  tubbing  is  a 
stuffing-box  arrangement,  which 
forms  an  air-tight  joint  as  soon  as 
the  weight  of  the  tubbing  rests 
upon  it.  After  the  tubbing  has 
been  lowered,  the  water  is  pumped 
out  of  the  shaft.  In  Lippman's 
method  the  shaft  is  bored  the  full 
size  in  one  operation. 

Sinking  through  Quicksands. — 
Where  soft  ground  is  met  with 
near  the  surface,  sinking  by  driv- 
ing sheet  piling  is  resorted  to. 
This  consists  in  laying  down  a 
large  wooden  curb  on  the  surface, 
and  driving  down  outside  it 
pointed  planks  close  together. 
As  the  ground  inside  the  planks  is 
excavated,  fresh  curbs  are  put  in 
to  keep  the  planks  vertical. 
Another  curb  is  laid  down  inside, 
and  planks  are  driven  down  out- 
side this.  In  this  way  the  shaft 
is  gradually  sunk  until  the  hard 
ground  is  reached,  when  a  brick 
wall  is  built  up  to  the  surface. 
The  space  between  the  brick  lin- 
ing and  the  wooden  planks  is  filled 
with  cement. 

Where  the  quicksands  are  met 
with  at  some  aepth  from  the  sur- 
face long  tubes  are  sometimes 
driven  down  into  them,  and  a 
freezing  mixture  is  forced  through 
them;  the  ground  round  each  tube 
is  thus  rendered  solid, _  and  the 
sinking  is  carried  on  as  if  in  solid 
rock,  with  the  exception  that  ex- 
plosives are  not  used.  This  is 
the  Poetsch  method.  Sometimes 
quicksands  are  sunk  through  by 
using  brick  drums.  A  curb  of 
wood  or  iron  is  constructed,  vvith 
a  cutting  edge  on  the  under  side, 
and  then  a  wall  of  dry  brickwork 
is  built  on  this,  and  the  weight 
causes  the  drum  to  sink.  At  in- 
tervals a  curb  is  placed  in  the  wall, 
and  bolts  running  from  one  curb 
to  another  keep  the  structul-e 
together.  SinTcing  through  quick- 
sand by  the  pneumatic  process 
consists  in  forcing  back  the  water 
in  the  quicksand  by  pumping  air 
into  a  cylinder  built  up  of  steel 


plates.  The  lower  edge  of  the 
cylinder  has  a  cutting  edge,  and 
the  drum  is  forced  down  by 
hydraulic  rams  or  by  the  addition 
from  time  to  time  of  fresh  seg- 
ments. The  workmen  are,  of 
course,  under  pressure,  so  that 
the  application  of  this  system  is 
limited  to  a  thickness  of  100  ft. 
of  quicksand,  which  requires  a 
pressure  of  three  atmospheres,  or 
45  lbs.  to  the  square  inch.  See 
also  Boring  and  Mining. 

Sliag,  or  Green  Cormorant 
{Phalacrocorax  graculus),  also 
called  scart,  or  crested  cormo- 
rant, a  British  bird  much  smaller 


Shag,  or  Green  Cormorant. 


than  the  common  form,  from 
which  it  may  be  distinguished  by 
its  prevailing  green  color.  It 
haunts  rocky  coasts. 

Shagbarls;  or  Shellbark.  A 
common  name  for  the  most  valu- 
able hickory  {Hicoria  ovata).  It 
is  a  tall  tree,  of  picturesque  growth 
and  straight  trunk.  Its  gray  bark 
splits  off  in  long  strips,  hanging 
from  their  upper  ends. 

Shagreen,  a  variety  of  leather 
made  from  the  skins  of  such  fishes 
as  the  ray,  dog-fish,  and  shark, 
whose  epmermis  is  covered  with 
small,  pointed,  closely  set,  calci- 
fied papillse,  which  polish  readily. 
Shagreen  was  also  manufactured 
in  the  East  from  the  skins  of 
horses  and  asses.  Certain  seeds 
were  forced  into  the  skins  when 
moist,  and  then  scraped  off;  the 
skins  then  presented  a  dimpled 
appearance.  The  outside  cover- 
ing of  ancient  Persian  MSS.,  also 
horse  and  mule  trappings,  were 
made  of  shagreen. 

Shah,  the  title  of  the  ruler  of 
Persia,  meaning  'emperor*  or 
'supreme  monarch.'  It  may  also 
be  conferred  on  princes  of  the 
blood,  as,  for  example,  'Shah- 
zada,'  'son  of  the  reigning  ruler.' 

Shahabad.  (1.)  Municipal  tn., 
Hardoi  dist.,  United  Provinces, 
India,  60  m.  s.E.  of  Bareilly.  Pop. 
(1901)  20,036.  (2.)  Town,  Ambala 
dist.,  Punjab,  India,  17  m.  s.  of 
Ambala.    Pop.  (1901)  11,009. 

Shahaptins,  a  linguistic  stock 
of  N"orth  American  Indians  for- 
merly occupying  the  country  along 
the  tributaries  of  the  Columbia. 


ShahapuT 

The  best-known  tribes  are  the 
Nez  Perces,  KUkitat,  Umatilla,  and 
Walla  Walla.    See  Nez  Perces. 

Shahapur,  tn.  in  feudatory 
state  of  Sangli,  Bombay,  India, 
36  m.  N.w.  of  Dharwar.  Silk 
dyeing  is  the  chief  industry.  Pop. 
(1901)  11,256. 

Shah  Jahan  (1592-1666),  em- 
peror of  Delhi,  ascended  the 
throne  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
Jahangir,  in  1628.  Europeans 
(Bernier,  Tavernier,  Mandelslo, 
and  Manucci)  who  visited  Delhi 
and  Agra  during  his  reign  bear 
testimony  to  his  popularity,  his 
tolerance,  and  the  magnificence 
of  his  court.  They  also  dilate 
on  the  equity  of  his  courts  of 
law,  and  the  general  prosperity 
of  the  ernpire.  His  fame,  how- 
ever, chiefly  rests  on  the  magnifi- 
cent buildings  he  constructed — 
notably  the  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra,  in 
memory  of  his  wife.  He  was  the 
founder  of  New  Delhi,  which  he 
called  Shahjahanabad,  and  there 
he  constructed  a  most  magnifi- 
cent palace,  the  remains  of  which 
are  still  in  existence.  The  Pearl 
Mosque  in  the  fort  at  Agra  is 
another  of  his  unrivalled  struc- 
tures. His  famous  peacock  throne, 
radiant  with  gems,  was  valued  at 
over  six  millions  sterhng.  In 
1658  he  was  captured  by  his  son 
Aurungzebe,  and  was  kept  a 
prisoner  at  Agra  until  his  death. 

Shahjahanpur,  munic.  tn.  and 
cantonment,  cap.  of  Shahjahan- 
pur dis..  United  Provinces,  India, 
44  m.  s.E.  of  Bareilly.  Manufac- 
tures sugar.    Pop.  (1901)  76,458.' 

Shahnamah.    See  Firdausi. 

Shahpura,  tn.  and  cap.  of  feu- 
datory state  of  Shahpura,  Rajpu- 
tana,  India,  60  m.  s.E.  of  Ajmere. 
Pop.  (1901)  11,250.  The  state  has 
anareaof  400  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop- 
ulation (1901)  of  57,677. 

Shairp,  John  Campbell(1819- 
85),  English  critic  and  poet,  prin- 
cipal of  St.  Andrews,  was  Dorn 
at  Houstoun,  Scotland.  He  was 
assistant  master  at  Rugby  (1846- 
56),  and  assistant  professor  of 
Latin  at  St.  Andrews  (1857-61). 
Thereafter  he  held  the  chair  till 
1872,  but  in  1868  he  was  ap- 
pointed principal  of  the  United 
College.    From    1877    he  was 

grofessor  of  poetry  at  Oxford, 
[is  Kilmahoe:  a  Highland  Pas- 
toral, and  Other  Poems  (1864), 
charming  in  description  and  feel- 
ing, includes  the  classic  'Bush 
aboon  Traquair.'  Glen  Desseray, 
and  Other  Poems,  with  exquisite 
lyrics,  and  the  fine  and  stately 
Balliol  Scholars,  appeared  in 
1888.  The  author's  critical  and 
expository  work  includes  Studies 
in  Poetry  and  Philosophy  (1868; 
4th  ed.  1886);  Culture  and  Re- 
ligion (1870;  often  reissued); 
Poetic  Interpretation  of  Nature 
(1877);  Burns,  in  English  Men  of 
Letters  Series  (1879);  Aspects  of 
Poetry  (1881);  Sketches  in  History 


136 

and  Poetry  (1887).  Shairp  collab- 
orated with  Professor  Tait  in  The 
Life  and  Letters  of  J.  D.  Forbes 
(1873),  and  he  edited  Dorothy 
Wordsworth's  Journal  (1874^ 
See  Knight's  Principal  Shairp 
and  his  Friends  (1888),  Dean 
Boyle's  preface  to  Studies  in 
Poetry  and  Philosophy  (ed.  1886), 
Scllars's  'Memoir'  in  Portraits  of 
Friends  (1889). 

Shakers,  a  religious  society, 
styling  itself  the  United  Society 
of  Believers  in  Christ's  Second 
Coming,  organized  on  a  com- 
munistic basis,  having  as  its 
fundamental  principles  'virginal 
purity,  confession  of  sin.  Chris- 
tian communism,  and  separation 
from  the  world.'  Acceptance  of 
these  principles  is  accompanied 
by  belief  in  a  duality  of  maternity 
and  paternity  in  the  Godhead,  in 
the  Second  Coming  of  Christ, 
in  the  person  of  Ann  Lee,  in  the 
new  birth,  resurrection  and  judg- 
ment of  Delievers,  in  a  coming 
millennium,  and  in  spiritualism. 
Membership  in  the  society  is  vol- 
untary, no  inducements  are  of- 
fered to  take  membership,  and 
no  one  is  constrained  to  remain 
in  fellowship.  The  origins  go 
back  to  the  manifestations  of  the 
'French  prophets'  of  the  first 
half  of  the  17th  century,  a  move- 
ment which  spread  on  the  Con- 
tinent and  reached  England. 
Among  the  Quakers  it  found  a 
home,  and  there  in  1747  Jane  and 
James  Wardlaw,  the  first  of 
whom  professed  to  'have  re- 
ceived illumination,'  became  the 
nucleus  of  a  society,  in  the  public 
services  of  which  the  members 
were  affected  with  movements 
of  the  limbs  and  of  the  entire 
person,  from  which  they  received 
their  name  of  'Shakers.'  Perse- 
cution followed  with  no  result 
except  to  increase  their  numbers. 
In  1770  Ann  Lee  joined  them, 
and  although  illiterate,  soon  be- 
came prominent.  She  was  im- 
prisoned in  Manchester,  England, 
for  obstructing  the  streets,  and 
while  in  durance  received  a 
vision  directing  emigration  to 
America.  In  1774  she  and  seven 
companions,  who  called  her 
Mother  Ann  (by  which  name  she 
was  thereafter  known)  landed  in 
New  York,  and  in  1776  settled 
at  Niskayuna  (now  Watervliet), 
near  Albany,  organizing  into 
community  life  in  1787  at  Mt. 
Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  which  has  ever 
since  been  the  central  home.  A 
tour  of  New  England  had  in  the 
meantime  sown  the  seeds  from 
which  subsequently  developed 
several  settlements,  no  little  in- 
fluence resulting  from  the  policy 
of  non-resistance  to  the  attacks 
made  upon  them  by  those  op- 
posed to  the  propaganda.  In 
1784  Mother  Ann  died,  and 
Elder  James  Whittaker  succeeded 
her  in  the  leadership.    In  1787 


Shakespeare 

oseph  Meacham  became  the 
ead  of  the  society^  and  the  one 
whose  formative  mfluence  has 
ever  since  been  felt. 

The  members  form  three  or- 
ders. The  first  is  the  Novitiate, 
and  includes  those  who  while 
holding  the  Shaker  faith,  do  not 
enter  the  community  life.  The 
Junior  order  embraces  those  who, 
not  having  families  of  their  own, 
enter  a  Shaker  'family'  (or 
group),  devote  services,  and  prop- 
erty if  they  so  wish,  to  the  benefit 
of  that  family  and  without  return, 
but  may  at  any  time  resume  dis- 
posal of  both  service  and  prop- 
erty. The  Senior,  or  'church' 
order  includes  those  who  have 
permanently  devoted  person  and 
property  without  compensation 
or  claim  to  the  uses  and  aims 
of  the  organization. 

In  all  thought  and  action,  the 
religious  and  ethical  element  is 
foremost.  Personal  purity  in 
thought,  word,  and  act,  gentleness 
in  treatment  of  fellows,  perfect 
honesty  and  fairness  in  all  com- 
mercial operations,  industry,  and 
sobriety  as  the  daily  habit,  char- 
acterize this  people.  In  their 
eighteen  settlements,  located  in 
nine  states,  and  numbering  about 
1,000  members,  the  industries 
of  lumbering,  farming,  pasturage, 
and  various  forms  of  manufac- 
turing arc  carried  on.  The 
members  of  a  'family'  rise  at  the 
same  time,  eat  together,  all  must 
labor  during  the  day  under  the 
directions  of  the  officers  (elders 
and  deacons)  and  all  attend  the 
religious  services  unless  excused. 
These  last  consist  in  singing  of 
hymns,  marching  and  exhortation, 
while  occasionally  all  watch  as 
some  one  or  two  of  the  members 
perform  a  sort  of  whirling  dance. 
Revivals  have  been  frequent, 
and  membership  has  been  at 
times  increasea  through  this 
means. 

A  sect  known  as  Shakers  was 
formed  in  England  under  the 
leadership  of  Mary  Anne  Gir- 
hng  in  1864.  The  leader  died 
in  1872,  and  the  sect  has  entirely 
disappeared. 

See  Evans's  Shakers^  Compen- 
dium (1859);  Ea.ds's  Shaker  Theol- 
ogy (1879);  Robinson,  Concise 
History  of  the  Shakers  (189^); 
Blinn,  Concise  History  of  the 
Shakers  (1894);  White  and  Tay- 
lor's Shakerism  (1905);  MacLean, 
Bibliography  of  Shaker  Litzrature 
(1905). 

Shakespeare,  William  (1564- 
1616),  English  dramatist  and 
poet,  was  the  descendant  of  a 
good  stock  of  Warwickshire  yeo- 
men. His  father,  John  Shake- 
speare, was  a  native  of  Snitter- 
field,  a  village  four  miles  north 
of  Stratford-on-Avon,  and  moved 
into  this  latter  town  about  1551. 
He  married  (1557)  Mary  Arden, 
a  daughter  of  his  father's  land 


A  SHAKESPEARE  PAGE. 

1.  Memorial  Theatre  Stra«^^  2.  The  Globe  Theatre,  Sonthwaik.   (From  an  old  enqraving.)   3.  Shakespeare  Memorial. 

Btratforrt.   4.  Portrait  of  Shakespeare,  kno-wn  as  the  Ohandos  portrait,  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery.   (Photo  [by  Emerii  Walker.^ 
,5.  Stratforrl-on  Avon.   6  Shakespeare's  autograph.   (Photoerraphed  for  Lee's  L/Ye  of  S/iafcc.spmre  )   7.  Shakespeare's  birthplace:  the 
nh'„i<?i;  8;  f""  Hathaway's  cottage,  Shottery.   9.  Shakespeare's  birthplace.  10.  Room  in  which  Shakespeare  was  born;  11.  Strat- 
ford Church:  the  chancel,  with  Shakespeare  monument.   {Photos,  except  2,  4,  and  6,  by  Frith  )  o        .  ^i. 


Shakespeare 

lord.  The  future  dramatist  was 
the  third  child,  but  the  eldest 
son,  of  this  marriage.  There  is  no 
positive  evidence  to  fix  the  exact 
day  of  his  birth,  but  it  is  gener- 
ally given  as  April  23,  on  the 
strength  of  a  tradition  that  he 
died    upon    his    birthday.  The 

Earish  registers  bear  record  of  his 
aptism  on  April  26.  His  educa- 
tion was  probably  received  at  the 
grammar  school  of  his  town, 
where  he  acquired  a  'pretty  fair' 
knowledge  of  Latin,  with  perhaps 
some  French  and  Greek.  And  in 
later  Ufe  he  must  have  added  an 
acquaintance  with  ItaUan.  Ben 
Jonson's  phrase,  'small  Latin 
and  less  Greek,'  is  to  be  taken 
in  relation  to  the  speaker's  own 
learning. 

During  his  school  days  Shake- 
speare must  have  seen  more  than 
one  dramatic  representation; 
for  the  good  folks  of  Stratford 
were  by  no  means  backward  in 
welcoming  the  strolling  players, 
and  his  own  father,  during  his 
term  as  bailiff  of  the  town,  enter- 
tained two  of  these  companies. 
It  has  been  suggested  also  that 
Shakespeare  may  have  witnessed 
the  Corpus  Christi  mysteries  as 
acted  in  the  neighboring  city  of 
Coventry;  and  the  close  repro- 
duction in  A  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream  (ii.  2,  Unes  148-168)  of 
some  of  the  pageants  with  which 
the  Earl  of  Leicester  in  1575  en- 
tertained Queen  Elizabeth  at 
Kenilworth  seems  to  point  to  the 

foet's  having  witnessed  them, 
n  1582,  when  Shakespeare  was 
still  short  of  nineteen  years,  he 
married  Anne  Hathaway,  of  the 
neighboring  hamlet  of  Shottery. 
No  record  of  it  is  found  in  the 
parish  registers,  and  from  the 
unusual  absence  of  any  reference 
to  the  bridegroom's  parents  in  the 
license,  it  is  conjectured  that  the 
whole  proceeding  was  carried  out 
without  their  knowledge. 

About  1585  Shakespeare  re- 
moved to  London.  The  immedi- 
ate cause  of  his  departure  is  stated, 
according  to  early  tradition,  to 
have  been  a  poaching  adventure, 
carried  out  at  the  expense  of  Sir 
Thomas  Lucy  of  Charlecote,  on 
whom  Shakespeare  is  said  to  have 
composed  some  scurrilous  verses 
in  return  for  what  he  conceived 
to  be  a  vindictive  persecution. 
The  tradition  is  thought  to  be 
borne  out  by  the  picture  of 
Justice  Shallow  in  The  Merry 
Wives  of  Windsor,  whose  coat 
of  arms  with  its  dozen  white 
luces  plainly  shows  that  here  the 
dramatist  was  caricaturing  his 
old  enemy.  Once  in  London, 
Shakespeare  very  soon  'beca.me 
connected  with  the  theatres.  The 
story  of  Sir  WilUam  Davenant, 
that  his  first  employment  was 
that  of  tending  the  playgoers' 
horses,  may  or  may  not  be  au- 
thentic, as  also  the  17th-century 


138 

Stratford  tradition  that  he  en- 
tered the  theatre  as  a  servitor. 
He  figures  in  1594  as  a  member 
of  the  lord  chamberlain's  com- 
pany. His  position  as  an  actor  was 
undoubtedly  one  of  eminence, 
although  we  cannot  speak  with 
certainty  as  to  the  roles  he  filled. 
The  ghost  in  Hamlet,  the  part  of 
Adam  in  As  You  Like  It,  and  some 
'kingly  parts  in  sport' — i.e.  in  the 
comedies — have  Deen  attributed 
to  him.  It  is  possible  that  his 
value  to  his  company  lay  as  much 
in  his  keen  business  ability  as  in 
his  acting  qualities.  The  earliest 
certain  contemporary  reference 
to  him  as  a  dramatist  is  contained 
in  the  Groatsworth  of  Wit,  written 
by  Robert  Greene  on  his  death- 
bed in  1592,  where  he  speaks  of 
'an  upstart  crow,  beautified  with 
our  feathers,  that  with  his  Tygers 
heart  wrapt ^  in  a  Players  hyde, 
supposes  he  is  as  well  able  to  bum- 
bast  out  a  blanke  verse  as  the  best 
of  you;  and  being  an  absolute  Jo- 
hannes Fac-totum,  is  in  his  owne 
conceit  the  onely  Shake-scene  in 
a  countrey.*  The  play  on  Shake- 
speare's name  is  obvious,  and  the 
line  in  italics  is  a  travesty  of  one 
which  occurs  in  the  Third  Part 
of  Henry  VI.  This  was  one  of 
the  plays  which  the  dramatist 
had  recast  from  an  earlier  work, 
in  which  critics  have  recognized 
the  hand  of  Greene  and  Marlowe. 
The  quotation  plainly  indicates 
that  this  recasting  of  earlier 
works  was  a  regular  part  of  the 
poet's  theatrical  duties.  A  few 
months  afterwards  (December, 
1592)  Greene's  publisher,  Henry 
Chettle,  publicly  apologized  to 
Shakespeare  in  the  preface  to  his 

f amphlet  Kinde  Ha/t's  Dreame. 
n  the  following  year  the  poet 
published  his  poem  Venus  and 
Adonis,  dedicated  to  the  Earl  of 
Southampton;  and  this  was  fol- 
lowed in  1594  by  the  Pape  of 
Lucrece,  dedicated  to  the  same 
patron  in  terms  which  betoken 
a  close  degree  of  intimacy. 

His  reputation  as  a  dramatist 
grew  rapidly.  In  1597  the  first 
printed  copies  of  individual  plays 
made  their  appearance;  and  next 
year,  Francis  Meres,  in  his  Pal- 
ladis  Tamia,  ranked  Shakespeare 
as  holding  in  England,  both  in 
comedy  and  in  tragedy,  the  place 
assigned  to  Plautus  and  Seneca 
among  the  Latins.  Shakespeare's 
name  was  also  freely  used  by  the 
unscrupulous  publishing  pirates 
of  his  day,  from  1595  onwards. 
A  collection  printed  by  William 
Jaggard  in  1599,  entitled  The 
Passionate  Pilgrim,  was  fathered 
on  the  dramatist,  although  only 
five  of  the  pieces  it  comprises  came 
from  his  pen.  On  the  occasion  of 
a  third  edition  being  issued  in  1612, 
including  some  additional  thefts 
from  Hey  wood,  both  Hey  wood 
and  Shakespeare  protested.  This 
is  the  only  case  in  which  the  lat- 


Shakespeare 

ter  is  known  to  have  made  any 
protest  against  the  liberties  takeit 
with  his  reputation.  A  probably 
authentic  allegorical  poem.  The 
Phoenix  and  the  Turtle,  was 
printed  in  1601  under  his  name, 
along  with  Robert  Chester's  Lovers 
Martyr. 

On  May  1, 1602— the  year  of  the 
production  of  Ifaw/e/— Shake- 
speare, then  a  prosperous  man, 

Purchased  107  acres  of  land  near 
tratford,  adding  another  20 
acres  eight  years  later.  In  1602 
also,  a  cottage  and  garden  situ- 
ated at  Chapel  Lane  were  trans- 
ferred to  him.  Since  1599  he  had 
been  a  shareholder  in  the  Globe 
Theatre,  London;  and  when  Bur- 
bage  purchased  the  Blackfriars 
Theatre  in  1603,  he  placed  actors 
there,  among  whom  Shakespeare 
is  named,  and  in  all  probability 
assigned  him  a  share  in  that  house 
also.  Taking  these  and  his  salary 
as  an  actor  and  as  a  playright 
into  account,  Mr.  Sidney  Lee 
estimates  Shakespeare's  income 
subsequent  to  the  year  1599  as 
at  least  ;£600  per  annum,  or  about 
£5,000  in  present  Enghsh  money. 
Thus  we  can  easily  understand 
how  he  was  able  in  July,  1605,  to 
purchase  the  unexpired  lease  of  a 
moiety  of  the  tithes  of  Stratford. 
Old  Stratford,  Bishopton,  ana 
Welcombe  for  ^^440.  Shakespeare 
inherited  to  the  full  his  father's 
litigious  nature.  We  find  him 
bringing  actions  in  London 
against  John  Clayton  for  a  debt  of 
£1;  at  Stratford  against  Philip 
Rogers  for  £l  15s.  lOd.,  the  bal- 
ance of  an  account  for  malt  sold  to 
him;  and  later  (1609)  against  John 
Addenbroke  for  £7  and  £1  10s. 
expenses,  and  in  default  of  him 
against  Thomas  Horneby,  who 
had  gone  bail  for  the  debtor. 

The  acting  company  to  which 
Shakespeare  belonged  was,  on 
the  accession  of  James  I.,  granted 
special  privileges,  and  named  the 
'king's  servants.'  They  took 
part  in  many  of  the  ceremonial 
functions  in  which  James  rejoiced, 
and  in  1613,  during  the  festivities 
in  connection  with  the  marriage 
of  the  Princess  EUzabeth,  seven 
of  Shakespeare's  plays  were  acted 
at  court.  The  dramatist  probably 
came  to  reside  permanently  in 
Stratford  about  1611;  but  his 
connection  with  London  did  not 
altogether  cease,  for  in  March, 
1613*,  we  have  a  record  of  his  buy- 
ing a  house  and  shop  near  the 
Blackfriars  Theatre.  When,  in 
the  following  year,  an  attempt 
was  made  to  enclose  the  Strat- 
ford commons,  he  intervened 
against  the  proposal;  but  when 
his  own  interests  as  lessee  of  the 
tithes  had  been  safeguarded,  his 
active  opposition  evidently  dis- 
continued. The  attempt,  how- 
ever, proved  unsuccessful. 

On  March  25,  1616,  his  will, 
which  was  first  drafted  in  Janu* 


Shakespeare 

ary,  received  his  signature;  and 
on  Thursday,  April  23,  O.S. 
(May  3,  N.S.),  he  died,  and  two 
days  later  was  buried  in  Strat- 
ford Church.  His  death  is  at- 
tributed some  fifty  years  later 
by  Ward,  vicar  of  the  parish,  to  a 
'merry  meeting'  with  Ben  Jonson 
and  Drayton,  at  which  Shake- 
speare is  said  to  have  drunk  too 
hard  and  contracted  a  fever. 
Over  his  grave  are  inscribed  the 
following  lines,  attributed  to  him- 
self: 

Good  frend,  for  lesue  sake  forbeare 
To  digg  the  dust  encloased  heare; 
Bleste  be  the  man  that  spares  thes 
stones, 

And  curst  be  he  that  moves  my 
bones. 

The  poet's  eldest  daughter, 
Susanna,  married  to  John  Hall, 
died  in  July,  1649.  On  the  death 
of  her  only  child,  EUzabeth  (1608- 
70),  Shakespeare's  descendants  be- 
came extinct. 

As  to  the  poet's  personal  ap- 
pearance, we  are  told  by  Aubrey 
that  he  was  a  'handsome,  well- 
shaped  man.'  The  bust  that  now 
stands  in  Stratford  Church  was 
erected  a  few  years  after  his 
death,  and  the  present  coloring 
— the  eyes  of  hazel  and  the  hair 
and  beard  auburn — represents 
correctly  the  original  coloring. 
The    only    other  contemporary 

gtrtrait  is  the  engraving  by 
roeshout,  prefixed  to  the  First 
Folio  in  1623.  This  was  probably 
a  copy  of  a  painting,  and  the 
original  may  have  been  the  so- 
called  'Flower  portrait,'  now  in 
the  Stratford  Memorial  Gallery. 
The_  'Chandos  portrait,'  in  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery,  Lon- 
don, differs  somewhat  from  these, 
but  does  not  possess  the  same 
authority.  It  belonged  at  one 
time  to  Sir  William  Dayenant 
(who  was  not  averse  to  being  re- 
garded as  Shakespeare's  natural 
son),  and  is  said  to  have  been 
painted  by  Richard  Burbage,  the 
actor. 

The  first  collected  edition  of 
the  plays  was  produced  in  1623, 
hy  John  Hemming  and  Henry 
Condell,  two  of  Shakespeare's 
company.  This  collection,  known 
as  tne  First  Folio,  contains  all 
the  generally  accepted  plays  ex- 
cept Pericles,  and  was  reprinted 
with  some  textual  alterations  in 
1632.  The  Third  Folio  of  1663 
contains  few  changes;  but  a  later 
edition  in  1664  adds  Pericles,  to- 
gether with  six  other  plays  which 
are  not  now  generally  accepted 
as  Shakespearean — viz.  The  Lon- 
don Prodigal;  The  History  of 
Thomas  Lord  Cromwell;  Sir  John 
Oldcastle,  the  Good  Lord  Coh- 
ham;  The  Puritan  Widow;  A 
Yorkshire  Tragedy;  and  The 
Tragedy  of  Locrine.  The  Fourth 
Folio  appeared  in  1685. 

Shakespeare's  poetical  works 
fall  naturally  into  the  three 
Vol.  XI.— la 


139 

divisions  of  narrative  poems, 
sonnets,  and  plays.  Of  these, 
the  narrative  poems,  consisting 
of  Venus  and  Adonis  (1593)  and 
Lucrece  (1594),  are  the  least  im- 
portant. They  are  little  differ- 
ent from  the  conventional  poem 
of  this  type  prevalent  at  the 
time;  but  they  were  extremely 
popular,  seven  editions  of  the 
Venus  and  five  of  the  Lucrece 
appearing  during  their  author's 
lifetime.  ^  The  Sonnets  did  not 
appear  in  printed  form  until 
the  year  1609,  when  they  were 
produced  in  quarto  by  Thomas 
Thorpe,  one  of  the  piratical  pub- 
lishers of  the  day;  out  they  were 
certainly  written  much  earlier. 
In  1598  Meres  speaks  with  praise 
of  Shakespeare's  'sugred  sonnets 
among  his  private  friends';  and  a 
line  from  one  of  them  is  quoted 
in  the  play  of  Edward  III.,  which 
is  assigned  to  a  date  earlier  than 
1595.  Some  of  the  sonnets  were 
therefore  written  before  this  date, 
and  the  probability  is  that  the 
great  majority  of  them  were  com- 
posed aSout  1594-5.  Two  of 
them  figured  in  Jaggard's  Passion- 
ate Pilgrim  in  1599.  But  Thorpe 
did  the  poet  the  ill-service  of 
prefixing  to  his  edition  a  dedi- 
cation to  a  certain  'Mr.  W.  H.,' 
who  is  described  as  'the  onlie 
begetter  of  these  insuing  sonnets.* 
The  wording  of  this  dedication 
naturally  has  suggested  to  Shake- 
spearean students  that  'Mr.  W. 
H.'  is  to  be  identified  with  the 
person  to  whom  the  sonnets  are 
addressed.  But  no  satisfactory 
identification  of  the  person  thus 
indicated  has  ever  been  adduced. 
The  initials  have  been  regarded 
by  some  as  a  transposition  of 
those  of  Henry  Wriothesley,  Earl 
of  Southampton,  Shakespeare's 
earlv  patron;  while  others  have 
read  tnem  as  those  of  William 
Herbert,  Earl  of  Pembroke.  In 
the  latter  case,  at  all  events, 
there  is  really  no  substantial  evi- 
dence to  lead  us  to  think  that 
the  poet  ever  stood  in  such  re- 
lations to  Pembroke  as  would 
prompt  him  to  address  to  that 
nobleman  a  long  series  of  poems 
like  the  sonnets.  The  view  fa- 
vored by  Mr.  Sidney  Lee  is  that 
'Mr.  W.  H.'  stands  merely  for 
William  Hall,  a  hanger-on  of 
the  publishing  trade,  who  made 
a  traffic  of  procuring  or  'beget- 
ting' copies  of  manuscript  works 
for  the  pirating  fraternity.  In 
at  least  one  previous  case  Thorpe 
had  thus  dedicated  a  work  to  its 
'begetter.'  The  significance  of 
the  sonnets  themselves  is  a  prob- 
lem as  much  in  dispute  as  the 
personality  of  their  patron.  The 
popular  view  undoubtedly  re- 
gards them  as  to  a  very  large 
extent  autobiographical,  and 
traces  in  them  a  double  division: 
the  first  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
six  being  addressed  to  a  young 


Shakespeare 

man.  the  remainder  dealing  with 
the  dark*  woman  who  takes  the 
poet  captive,  and  then,  throwing 
her  spells  over  his  young  friend, 
sows  estrangement  between  them. 
The  counter  theory  looks  on  the 
sonnets  as  so  many  essays  in  the 
manner  of  writing  which  between 
1591  and  1597  had  become  the 
rage  in  England.  Shakespeare's 
sonnets  bear  many  marks  of  like- 
ness to  the  other  sonnet  cycles 
of  those  years;  and  probably 
it  is  onlv^  the  superb  dramatic 

genius  which  made  him  identify 
imself  with  the  situations  de- 
picted in  them,  that  has  led  men 
to  regard  them  as  a  transcript 
from  life.  The  form  of  sonnet 
used  by  Shakespeare  consists 
simply  of  three  quatrains  closed 
with  a  couplet.  It  has  no  inter- 
linked rhymes,  and  has  nothing 
in  common  with  the  Petrarchan 
form  except  its  conciseness.  But 
in  Shakespeare's  usage  the  very 
bareness  of  the  form,  and  its 
entire  freedom  from  the  attract- 
iveness which  comes  of  mere  me- 
trical ingenuity,  add  to  the  im- 

gression  produced  by  the  whole, 
ecause  they  leave  the  mind 
free  to  concentrate  on  the  won- 
derful language  and  rhyth- 
mical splendors  of  the  poems. 
So  that  not  only  are  these  son- 
nets ranked  by  universal  consent 
as  the  greatest  of  all  sonnet 
cycles,  but,  in  the  estimation 
of  the  majority  of  competent 
judges,  they  constitute  the  high- 
est achievement  of  the  human 
mind  in  the  region  of  pure  poetry. 
But  from  1591  until  his  retire- 
ment to  Stratford,  in  1611,  the 
main  occupation  of  his  genius 
was  the  production  of  plays,  and 
during  those  years  his  average 
output  amounted  to  two  plays 
per  annum.  The  exact  dating 
of  the  various  plays  is  a  matter 
on  which  no  two  critics  are 
absolutely  agreed.  The  earliest 
edition  of  any  of  them  occurs 
in  1597,  when  Romeo  and  Juliet 
was  published  in  a  pirated  form, 
while  Richard  II.  and  Richard  I II. 
appeared  in  more  authentic  guise. 
Oth  ers  of  Shakespeare's  produc- 
tions were  printed  at  irregular 
intervals  subsequently;  but  this 
irregularity  of  publication,  is  not 
to  be  attributed  to  the  poet's  in- 
difference to  his  own  reputation. 
The  fact  of  his  having  revised 
many  of  his  plays — e.g.  Romeo  and 
Juliet,  Hamlet,  Troilus  and 
Cressida — before  publication,  is 
in  itself  sufficient  proof  that  he 
was  not  indifferent  to  their  re- 
ception by  the  reading  public. 
But  the  copyright  of  the  plays 
was  the  property  of  the  acting 
company,  and  it  was  their  in- 
terest to  retain  the  works  in 
manuscript.  As  the  poet  of  the 
company,  Shakespeare's  duties 
consisted  in  the  adaptation  of 
other  men's  works,  as  well  as  the 


Shakespeare 

production  of  original  composi- 
tions. Two  of  his  earliest  works, 
Titus  Andronicus  (1593)  probably, 
and  The  First  Part  of  Henry  VI. 
(1592)  certainly,  represent  this 
journeyman  playwright  work. 
Love's  Labour's  Lost  (1591),  the 
most  Juvenile  of  his  early  come- 
dies, is  the  only  play  of  Shake- 
speare's which  borrows  nothing 
in  plot  from  any  other  author. 
His  two  immediately  succeeding 
plays.  The  Comedy  o/  Errors 
(1592)  and  The  Two  Gentlemen 
of  Verona  (1591),  are  respectively 
indebted  to  the  Menoechmi  of 
Plautus  and  the  pastoral  Diana 
of  the  Portuguese  writer  Monte- 
mayor.  At  the  same  time,  the 
young  writer  established  his 
reputation  in  more  exacting  fields 
by  the  production  of  Romeo  and 
Juliet  (1592),  that  'lyrical  tragedy 
of  youth.*  The  immediate  results 
of  these  achievements  are  perhaps 
to  be  seen  in  ^  his  collaboration 
with  Marlowe  in  the  revision  of 
The  Second  and  The  Third  Part 
of  Henry  VI.  (1592).  The  two  suc- 
ceeding historical  plays,  Richard 
///.  (1593)  and  Richard  II.  (1593), 
are  written  in  close  imitation 
of  Marlowe's  manner.  In  King 
John  (1594),  however,  we  see 
Shakespeare  emancipating  him- 
self from  the  Marlowian  influ- 
ence; and  when,  after  an  inter- 
val of  some  years,  he  resumes  the 
historical  play  in  the  two  parts 
of  Henry  iV.  (1597),  he  carries 
into  it  the  mature  conception 
of  comedy  that  he  had  already 
exemplified  in  The  Merchant  of 
Venice-  (1594),  A  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream  (1594),  All's  Well 
that  Ends  Well  (1595),  and  The 
Taming  of  the  Shrew  (1595),  and 
centres  the  interest  in  the  Ra- 
belaisian figure  of  Falstaff.  The 
success  of  this  portraiture  led 
to  its  further  development,  by 
rpyal  command,  in  The  Merry 
Wives  of  Windsor  (1597);  and 
then,  after  singing  in  Henry  V. 

(1598)  the  glories  of  England, 
the  dramatist  turned  to  a  more 
poetical  and  less  boisterous  spe- 
cies of  comedy,  and  produced  in 
rapid  succession  Much  Ado  about 
Nothing  (1599),  As  You  Like  It 

(1599)  ,  and  Twelfth  Night  (1600). 
Immediately  succeeding  these 

works  begins  the  period  of  Shake- 
speare's great  tragedies — a  period 
whose  sombre  grandeur  is  broken 
by  two  comedies  only.  Measure 
for  Measure  (1604)  and  Troilus 
and  Cress ida  (1603),  plays  which 
are  but  comedies  in  name,  and 
which  throughout  are  steeped 
in  the  tragic  spirit.  In  Julius 
Ccesar  (1601),  the  tragedy  of 
Brutus,  and  in  Hamlet  (1602)  we 
are  brought  face  to  face  with  the 
spectacle  of  men  overweighted 
by  the  charge  laid  upon  them; 
while  Othello  (1604)-,  Macbeth 
(1606),  King  Lear  (1607),  Timon 
oi  Athens  (1608),  Antony  and 


140 

Cleopatra  (1608),  and  Coriolanus 
(1609)  are  all  betrayed  to  their 
aoom  by  some  fatal  defect  of 
nature  or  weak  temporizing  with 
temptation.  It  is  impossible,  on 
surveying  this  grim  series  of 
tragedies,  to  doubt  that  the  real 
motive  that  led  the  dramatist  to 
the  treatment  of  such  subjects 
was  no  mere  artistic  impulse,  but 
some  real  occurrence  in  his  own 
historv.  But  whatever  that  event 
may  have  been,  it  did  not  per- 
manently embitter  his  nature. 
Already  in  Pericles  (1608)  we 
have  a  hint  of  his  final  attitude 
towards  life;  and  -in  his  latest 
productions  —  the  comedies  of 
Cymbeline  (1610),  ^  Winter's  Tale 
(1611),  and  The  Tempest  (1611)— 
we  find  ourselves  in  an  atmosphere 
of  peace  and  serenity.  They  are 
comedies  of  reconciliation  and 
forgiveness,  and  the  restoration 
of  lost  happiness.  With  them 
Shakespeare's  direct  connection 
with  the  stage  ended.  He  seems, 
however,  to  have  left  behind  him 
with  his  company  some  partially 
executed  sketches  of  plays,  and 
the  finishing  of  these  was  appar- 
ently entrusted  to  Fletcher.  To 
this  joint  labor  we  probably 
owe  Henry  VIII.  (1613)  and  The 
Two  Noble  Kinsmen  (1613).  An- 
other work,  The  History  of  Car- 
denio,  attributed  to  the  same 
authors,  has  disappeared.  Cer- 
tain other  plays  have  been  con- 
jecturally  assigned  to  our  author 
— viz.  Arden  of  Feversham  (1592), 
Fair  Em  (1592),  Mucedorus,  and 
Edward  III.  (1595).  None  of 
these  are  ranked  qs  genuine  by 
any  large  proportion  of  compe- 
tent judges;  but  the  claims  of 
Arden  of  Feversham  have  been 
supported  by  some  critics  of  re- 
pute, including  Mr.  Swinburne. 

Though  admitted  by  the  almost 
universal  consensus  of  mankind 
to  be  the  greatest  of  poets,  Shake- 
speare's greatness  does  not  depend 
upon  any  striking  originality  in 
the  externals  of  his  art.  In  all 
the  outward  manifestations  of 
his  genius  he  was  the  child  of 
his  own  age.  Not  only  was  he 
content  to  borrow  the  frame- 
work, and  sometimes  far  more 
than  the  framework,  of  his  plays 
from  others,  but  in  the  more  in- 
timate matter  of  style  he  made 
himself,  to  begin  with,  the  pupil 
of  his  contemporaries.  Marlowe, 
Peele,  Kyd,  and  notably  Lyly,  all 
influenced  him.  Yet  even  in  his 
most  imitative  writings  the  note 
personal  to  himself  occurs,'  and 
difi'erentiates  his  work  from  that 
of  others.  Even  as  a  pupil  he 
outdid  his  masters;  ancl  the 
manner  of  his  maturer  plays  is 
not  only  entirely  different  from 
that  of  any  other  dramatist, 
but  is  so  individual  that  it  has 
never  been  successfully  imitated. 
Shakespeare  initiated  nothing, 
but  he  brought  all  the  abortive 


Shakespeare 

beginnings  of  others  to  a  tri- 
umphant conclusion.  The  mix- 
ture of  comedy  and  tragedy  in 
the  drama,  for  example,  was  the 
common  inheritance  of  his  age. 
But  before  his  triumphs  the  comic 
elements  were,  as  they  remained 
throughout  in  the  sister  drama 
of  Spain,  sops  thrown  to  the 
groundlings  to  concihate  their 
impatience.  In  Shakespeare's 
hands,  however,  the  comic  be- 
comes an  integral  feature  of  the 
moral  atmosphere  of  the  plays. 
How  much  would  be  lost  to  us 
if,  for  instance,  the  grave-digger 
in  Hamlet  or  the  fool  in  Lear 
were  omitted!  It  is  this  moral 
atmosphere  and  its  effects  on 
character  that  absorb  the  main 
energy  of  the  dramatist;  for  in 
the  mere  matter  of  plot  construc- 
tion, Shakespeare  is  not  to  be 
compared  with  others  of  the 
world's  great  playwrights.  When 
the  problem  that  he  set  out  to 
consider  is  solved,  he  seems  to 
be  comparatively  careless  as  to 
how  his  personages  are  shuffled 
off  the  stage.  It  is  character, 
and  the  development  of  char- 
acter, that  interest  him;  and  it 
is  by  his  prolific  creation,  not 
of  stage  copies,  but  of  men  and 
women,  that  he  has  established 
his  position  as  the  supreme  poet 
and  interpreter  of  human  life. 

Bibliography  .—Text.— The 
earliest  critical  edition  of  the 
plays  is  that  of  Nicholas  Rowe 
(1709),  who  was  followed  by 
Pope  (1725),  Theobald  (1733), 
Hammer  (1744),Warburton  (1747), 
Dr.  Johnson  (1765),  Capell  (1768), 
Steevens  (1773 — based  on  John- 
son), and  Malone  (1790).  The 
first  complete  American  edition 
was  pubhshed  in  1795-96  at 
Philadelphia;  one  ed.  by  Pea- 
body  in  7  vols,  appeared  at  Bos- 
ton in  1836,  and  a  10  vol.  ed. 
(Reed's  text)  was  published  at 
New  York  in  1821  and  in  1824, 
and  there  have  also  been  other 
editions  issued  in  the  U.  S.  from 
that  date  on.  The  First  Variorum 
edition  (Isaac  Reed's — based  on 
Steevens's  materials)  appeared  in 
1803.  The  so  -  called  Second 
Variorum  (1813)  was  practically 
a  reprint.  The  Third  Variorum 
(1821)  was  prepared  by  James 
Boswell  (son  of  the  biographer), 
working  on  Malone's  collection, 
and  is  known  as  Boswell's  Ma- 
lone. A  new  variorum  was  begun 
in  1871  by  H.  Howard  Furness  of 
Philadelohia.  Later  editions  are 
those  of  Dyce  (1857),  Howard 
Staunton  (1868  -  70),  Nikolaus 
Dehus  (1854-61),  the  Cambridge 
edition  (1891-93),  Richard  Grant 
White  (1857-65),  also  his  River- 
side edition  (1883),  H.  N.  Hud- 
son's Harvard  ed.  (20  vols.  1880- 
81),  the  Bankside  edition  (1888), 
the  Henry  Irving  edition,  pre- 
pared by  F.  A.  Marshall  (1888- 
90);  the  Temple  edition  of  Israel 


Shale 


141 


Shamrock 


Gollancz  (1894-6) ;  and  the  Evers- 
ley  Shakespeare,  edited  by  Pro- 
fessor Herford  (1899).  Of  one- 
volumed  unannotate'd.  editions, 
the  Globe,  by  W.  G.  Clark  and 
Aldis  Wright  (1864),  the  Leopold 
(1876),  the  Oxford  (1894),  and  the 
Falstaff  (1896)  deserve  mention. 

Lexicons  and  Concordances: 
Schmidt's  Shakespeare  Lexicon; 
Mrs.  Cowden  Clarke's  Concor- 
dance to  the  Plays;  Mrs.  Furness' 
Concordance  to  the  Poems,  and 
Bartlett's  to  plays  and  poems 
combined;  E.  A.  Abbott's  Shake- 
spearian Grammar;  W.  Sidney 
Walker's  Shakespeare' s  Versi- 
fication and  Critical  Examination 
of  the  Text. 

Sonnets:  Principal  editions  are 
those  of  Dowden  (1875).  Tyler 
(1890),  and  George  Wyndham 
(1898). 

Commentaries  and  Criticisms: 
Coleridge's  Shakespeare  Notes 
and  Lectures;  Hazlitt's  Characters 
of  Shakespeare' s  Plays;  Ulrici's 
Shakespeare' s  Dramatic  Art; 
Kreyssig's  Shakespeare  Fragen; 
Hudson's  Shakespeare:  His  Life, 
Art,  and  Characters;  Dowden's 
Shakespeare,  his  Mind  and  Art; 
Thomas  Spencer  Bayne's  Shakes- 
peare Studies;  Swinburne's  Study 
of  Shakespeare;  R.  G.  White's 
Studies  in  Shakespeare;  Moul- 
ton's  Shakespeare  as  a  Dramatic 
Artist;  Douce's  Illustrations  of 
Shakespeare;  Georg  Brandes'  Wil- 
liam Shakespeare  (Eng.  ed.) ; 
Alfred  Meziere's  Shakespeare,  ses 
CEuvres;  Nichol  Smith's  Eigh- 
teenth Century  Essays  on  Shakes- 
peare; Stopford  Brooke's  Ten 
Plays  of  Shakespeare;  William 
Winter's  Shakespeare  on  the  Stage 
(1911-14);  T.  R.  Lounsbury's 
Shakespeare  as  a  Dramatic  Artist 

(1912)  ;  Brander  Matthews' 
Shakespeare    as    a  Playwright 

(1913)  . 

Lives:  J.  O.  Halliwell-Phil- 
lipp's  Outlines  of  the  Life  of 
Shakespeare;  Life  by  Samuel 
Neil;  Sidney  Lee's  Life  of  Wil- 
liam Shakespeare. 

Shale,  a  sedimentary  deposit  of 
impure  clay  possessing  a  finely 
laminated  structure.  True  shales 
break  into  slabs  or  fiakes  parallel 
to  the  sedimentation  planes. 
Very  uniform  and  fine-grained 
shales  may  pass  into  slates  by 
incipient  recrystallization  under 
great  pressure  such  as  accom- 
panies mountain  folding.  Slates 
have  then  a  cleavage  independent 
of  the  original  bedding.  The 
transition  from  shale  to  argilla- 
ceous sandstone,  argillaceous 
limestone,  clay  ironstone,  and 
coal  is  very  gradual  and  com- 
plete. Shales  disintegrate  readily 
under  the  action  of  rain  and  frost 
and  almost  always  form  slopes 
mstead  of  cliffs  in  erosion.  Some 
shales  are  rich  in  fossil  plants; 
others  yield  petroleum  on  distil- 
lation. See  Oil  Shale. 


Sha'ler,  Nathaniel  South- 
gate  (1841-1906),  American  geol- 
ogist, was  born  m  Newport,  Ky. 
He  was  graduated  from  Harvard 
(1862),  and  during  the  Civil  War 
commanded  a  Kentucky  battery 
which  bore  his  name.  In  1864  he 
became  professor  of  palaeontology 
in  Harvard,  and  in  186.5-72  was 
head  of  the  department  of  geol- 
ogy in  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School.  In  1872  he  became  direc- 
tor of  the  Kentucky  State  Geo- 
logical Survey,  and  in  1884  he 
joined  the  geological  staff  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  division  of  the  U. 
S.  Geological  Survey.  In  1891  he 
became  dean  of  the  Lawrence 
Scientific  School,  at  Harvard.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  National 
Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters. 
Shaler's  special  subject  of  study 
was  geology,  but  he  had  a  wide 
knowledge  of  mathematics,  chem- 
istry, physics,  and  several  de- 
partments of  biology  and  zoology, 
and  did  valuable  work  in  all 
those  sciences.  He  also  wrote 
five  blank  verse  plays,  based  on 
Elizabethan  models,  which  con- 
tain many  eloquent  passages.  He 
was  author  of  Antiquity  of  Cav- 
erns and  Cavern  Life  of  the  Ohio 
Valley  (1876);  Geological  Survey 
of  Kentucky  Reports  (6  vols. 
1876-82) ;  Memoirs  of  the  Geologi- 
cal Survey  of  Kentucky  (1876); 
Kentucky  (1885);  The  Story  of 
Our  Continent  (1892);  Domesti- 
cated Animals  (1895) ;  Nature  and 
Man  in  America  (1895);  Aspects 
of  the  Earth  (1896) ;  Outlines  of  the 
Earth's  History  (1898);  The  In- 
terpretation of  Nature  (189.3);  The 
Individual,  a  Study  of  Life  and 
Death  (1900);  The  Citizen  (1903); 
The  Neighbor  (1904);  Man  and 
the  Earth  (1905).  Consult  his 
Autobiography. 

Shallot'  {Allium  ascalonicum) , 
an  Asiatic  plant,  native  to  Syria, 
cultivated  in  gardens  for  its 
bulbs,  which  resemble  the  onion, 
but  have  a  more  delicate  fiavor. 
The  bulbs  are  elongated  and  of  a 
pale-gray  color  and  are  easily 
cultivated.  They  should  be 
planted  in  the  spring,  just  below 
the  surface,  in  deeply  dug,  rich 
soil,  about  four  inches  being 
allowed  between  bulbs.  When 
the  leavos  begin  to  wither,  the 
crop  should  be  pulled  and  sun- 
dried  for  a  few  days.  Shallots 
are  but  little  known  in  America. 

Shalmaneser.  See  Assyria. 

Shaloo.  See  Durra. 

Shamanism,  sha'man-iz'm,  a 
name  applied  loosely  to  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Turanian  races  of 
Siberia  and  Northeastern  Asia, 
based  essentially  on  magic  and 
sorcery.  Their  Heaven-God  Uk- 
ko  is  the  chief  among  a  host  of 
nature-spirits  capable  of  being  in- 
fluenced and  even  forced  into 
obedience  by  the  spells  of  sha- 
mans or  priests.  The  shaman  is 
believed  to  have  powers  of  heal- 


ing and  of  prophecy,  as  well  as 
the  ability  to  project  his  spirit 
to  remote  distances.  As  a  rule 
the  priestly  cast  is  confined  to 
men,  but  by  some  peoples,  as  the 
Yakuts  (q.  v.),  female  shamans 
are  regarded  as  possessing  special 
powers.  Incantations,  sacrifices, 
and  oracles  play  a  part  in  the 
religious  observances.  There  is  a 
rather  marked  similarity  between 
the  shaman  and  the  medicineman 
of  the  North  American  Indians. 
Consult  Gould's  Concise  History 
of  Religions;  Dixon's  Some  Aspects 
of  the  American  Shaman;  Mad- 
dox'  The  Medicine  Man;  A  Soci- 
ological Study  of  the  Character  and 
Evolution  of  Shamanism  (1923). 

Shamas,  sha'maz,  a  group  of 
song  birds  closely  related  to  the 
redstarts  and  robins,  but  found 
only  in  the  Old  World.  The  best 
known  species  {Cittocincla  ma- 
crurua)  inhabits  the  plains  of 
India,  and  on  account  of  its 
beautiful  song  is  much  sought 
after  as  a  cage-bird.  It  is  glossy 
black  and  chestnut  in  color,  with 
markings  of  white,  and  is  timid 
and  shy.  One  species,  C.  cebuen- 
sis,  occurs  in  the  Philippine 
Islands. 

Shammai,  sham'i,  a  Jewish 
rabbi  or  scribe,  was  a  leading 
member  of  the  Sanhedrin  in  the 
days  of  Herod  the  Great.  His 
name  is  usually  coupled  with 
that  of  Hillel.  Both  masters  gave 
their  names  to  schools  of  thought. 
While  Hillel  created  a  spirit  of 
learned  exclusiveness,  Shammai 
was  intensely  national  rather  than 
esoteric.  The  so-called  'Eighteen 
Decrees'  observed  by  Sham- 
maites  forbade  the  purchase  of 
food  from  Gentiles  and  the  learn- 
ing of  their  languages,  and  inter- 
dicted all  intercourse  with  them. 
Consult  Edersheim's  Life  and 
Times  of  Jesus. 

Shammy.  See  Chamois. 

Shamo.   See  Gobi  Desert 

Shamokin,  sha-m5'kin,  bor- 
ough, Pennsylvania,  Northum- 
berland county,  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  Railroads;  and  a  State 
highway;  80  miles  northwest  of 
Reading.  An  American  Legion 
memorial  building  is  a  note- 
worthy feature.  There  are  coal- 
mining interests  and  manufac- 
tures of  silk  and  knitted  goods, 
overalls,  powder,  and  foundry 
products.  According  to  the 
Federal  Census  for  1919  indus- 
trial establishments  number  67, 
with  $6,880,121  capital,  and 
products  valued  at  $11,600,141. 
Coal,  garden  truck,  and  dairy 
products  are  shipped.  The  first 
settlement  here  was  made  in 
1831.  Pop.  (1900)  18,202;  (1910) 
19,588;  (1920)  21,204. 

Sham'rock,  the  national  em- 
blem of  Ireland.  The  wood  sorrel 
(Oxalis  acetosella)  is  thought  to 
be  the  true  shamrock  of  St.  Pat- 
VoL.  XI.— March  '24 


Sbamrock 


142 


Shan-hal-kuan 


rick,  through  the  instrumentality 
of  which  he  was  enabled  to  im- 
press the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
on  the  Irish  mind.  The  name  is 
more  frequently  given  to  some 
species  of  clover,  or  to  some  allied 
plant,  as  the  Bird's-foot  Tre- 
foil (q.  v.). 

Shamrock  I.,  II.,  III.  See 
America  Cup. 

Shamyl,  sha'mil  (1797-1871), 
Lesghian  chieftain,  known  also 
as  Ghazi-Mohammed,  was  born 
at  Himry  in  Daghestan.  Becom- 
ing a  priest,  or  mollah,  he  resisted 
the  Russians  at  Himry  (1831), 
and  afterwards  became  leader  of 
the  mountaineers  of  the  Cauca- 


sheds  from  which  the  water 
supply  of  New  York  City  is  in 
part  derived  (see  New  York). 
Through  it  water  is  carried  from 
the  Scoharie  Reservoir  through 
the  solid  rock  of  the  mountains  to 
Esopus  Creek,  which  carries  it  on 
to  the  Ashokan  Reservoir  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  Catskill 
Aqueduct  (q.  v.).  It  is  the  long- 
est continuous  tunnel  in  the 
world,  measuring  18.2  miles;  it  is 
10  ft.  3  in.  wide  and  11  ft.  6  in. 
high,  and  is  horseshoe  shaped ;  its 
carrying  capacity  is  estimated  at 
600,000,000  gallons  a  day.  Con- 
struction was  started  in  1917  and 
preliminary  operation  was  begun 


houseboats  owned  by  Shanghai 
residents.  Places  of  interest  are 
the  public  garden,  the  Shanghai 
Club,  the  various  consulates,  the 
race  course,  and  tea-shops.  St. 
John's  University,  one  of  the 
leading  schools  of  China,  St. 
Luke's  Hospital.  St.  Elizabeth's 
Hospital,  the  Door  of  Hope 
Rescue  Home,  and  the  London 
Mission  Hospital  are  important 
educational  and  philanthropic 
institutions. 

Shanghai  is  essentially  a  com- 
mercial city  and  its  river  banks 
are  lined  with  miles  of  wharves, 
docks  and  factories,  while  the 
river  itself  is  alive  with  craft  of 


Photo  from  Ki  i/^Knn    \  uir  Co.,  Inc..  I\i .  y 


Shanghai:    Soochow  Creek  {Wusung  River),  showing  the  City's  Large  Floating  Population 


sus  (1834)  in  their  struggle 
against  Russian  aggression.  By 
adopting  a  policy  of  guerrilla  war- 
fare he  completely  baffled  the 
efforts  of  the  Russians  to  sup- 
press him,  and  on  more  than  one 
occasion  (1839,  1849)  escaped  in 
a  remarkable  manner  when  his 
fastnesses  {e.g.  Achulgo)  were 
taken  by  storm.  He  was  eventu- 
ally captured  (1859),  after  a 
most  desperate  resistance,  on  the 
plateau  of  Gunib  in  Daghestan, 
and,  after  spending  some  time  in 
honorable  captivity  at  Kaluga 
in  Russia,  died  at  Medina  in 
Arabia. 

Hhanda'ken  Tunnel,  a  tunnel 
passing  under  the  Shandaken 
range  of  the  Catskill  Mountains, 
forming  a  connecting  link  between 
the  Esopus  and  wScoharie  water- 

VoL.  XL— March  '24 


early  in  1924.  The  total  cost  was 
placed  at  $12,300,000. 

Shanghai,  shang-hi',  the  chief 
commercial  city  and  most  impor- 
tant treaty  port  of  China,  in  the 
province  of  Kiang-su,  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Hwang-po,  12 
miles  above  its  junction  with  the 
Yang-tse-kiang  at  Wusung,  with 
which  Shanghai  is  connected  by 
rail.  The  city  comprises  the  na- 
tive town  surrounded  by  walls 
and  the  foreign  settlements  which 
extend  along  the  river  front, 
reaching  some  three  or  four  miles 
inland.  The  chief  street,  known 
as  the  Bund,  is  attractively 
shaded  with  trees  and  on  it  are 
the  finest  business  buildings.  At 
its  northern  end  is  the  Garden 
Bridge  which  spans  the  river  and 
near  which  are  anchored  many 


every  kind.  Imports  and  exports 
annually  amount  to  about  200,- 
000,000  taels  each.  The  chief 
imports  are  cotton  cloth,  iron 
and  steel,  and  kerosene,  while 
.he  leading  exports  are  silks, 
skins,  wool,  tea  and  rice.  Cotton 
spinning,  the  manufacture  of 
matches  and  cigarettes,  paper 
making,  publishing,  and  the 
manufacture  of  electric  light 
bulbs  are  the  principal  industries. 
The  city  has  also  eleven  modern 
flour  mills,  with  a  daily  output  of 
6,000  barrels.  Shanghai  was 
taken  by  the  British  in  1842  and 
was  in  the  same  year  opened  to 
foreign  trade.  Pop.  (1920) 
1,538.000. 

Shan-hal-kuan,  shan'hi-kwan, 
a  frontier  town,  China,  between 
the    provinces    of    Chi-li  and 


Shanklln 


KR 


143 


Shantung 


Shing-king,  3  miles  from  the 
sea;  an  important  pass  in  the 
Great  Wall. 

Shank'Iin,  William  Arnold 
(1862-1924),  American  educator, 
born  in  CarroUton,  Mo.  He  was 
graduated  from  Hamilton  Col- 
lege in  1883;  ordained  to  the 
Methodist  ministry  in  1889; 
held  pastorates  at  Peru,  Kan. 
(1887-9),  Fort  Scott  (1889-90), 
Spokane,  Wash.  (1890-3),  Seat- 
tle (1893-6),  Dubuque,  la. 
(1896-1900),  and  Reading,  Pa. 
(1900-3).  In  1905  he  became 
president  of  Upper  Iowa  Univer- 
sity and  in  1908  of  Wesleyan 
University,  Middletown,  Conn. 

Shan'non,  river,  the  largest  in 
Ireland,  rises  in  the  Cuilcagh 
Mountains,  County  Cavan, 
winds  south  and  southwest, 
passing  through  Loughs  Allen, 
Boderg,  Ree,  and  Derg  to  Lim- 
erick, below  which  it  widens 
into  an  estuary,  and  enters  the 
Atlantic  between  Loop  Head  and 
Kerry  Head.   Length,  225  miles. 

Shannon,  Sir  James  Jebusa 
(1862-1923),  Enghsh  portrait 
painter,  was  born  in  Auburn, 
N.  Y.,  and  studied  under  Sir  Ed- 
ward Poynter  at  the  South  Ken- 
sington Art  School,  London.  A 
portrait  of  Henri  Vigne  (1887) 
that  received  medals  at  Paris, 
Berlin,  and  Vienna,  was  followed 
by  an  admirable  portrait  of  Lady 
Granby,  and  Shannon  became 
one  of  the  most  popular  painters 
in  London.  Among  his  noted 
English  portraits  are  those  of 
Lady  Revelstoke,  Lady  Marjorie 
Manners,  Mrs.  Charlesworth  (for 
which  a  medal  was  awarded  at 
Chicago  in  1893),  Lady  Henry 
Cavendish-Bentinck,  .Sir  Alfred 
Lyall,  the  Duchess  of  Portland, 
and  Princess  Margaret  of  Con- 
naught.  He  was  elected  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1887,  and  a  member  in  1909. 
He  made  several  visits  to  the 
United  States,  where  he  painted 
a  number  of  portraits.  He  was 
knighted  in  1922. 

Shans,  shanz,  a  Mongoloid 
people  who  form  the  bulk  of  the 
population  of  Siam,  northeast- 
ern Burma,  Assam,  and  southern 
Yiin-nam,  and  formerly  ranged 
as  far  north  as  the  Yang-tse- 
kiang  basin.  The  most  general 
collective  name  is  Tai,  or  Thai, 
as  in  Tai-Shan.  They  form  com- 
pact groups  in  Siam,  in  the 
Lao  states,  and  in  the  Shan 
states  proper  (Kiang-Hung,  Ki- 
ang-Tung,  Kiang-Sen,  Kiang- 
Rai)  between  the  rivers  Salwin 
and  Mekong,  where  they  main- 
tain a  semi-independent  political 
status  under  the  British  pro- 
tectorate. 

The  Shans  form  a  connecting 
link  between  the  Chinese  in  the 
north  and  the  Siamese  in  the 
south,  being  of  light-yellowish 
complexion,  described  by  some 
observers  as  'sallow,'  and  not 
much  darker  than  that  of  south- 


ern Europeans.  The  hair  is 
always  black,  long,  and  lank;  but 
the  black  or  dark-brown  eyes 
are  almost  straight,  certainly 
less  oblique  than  the  Chinese. 
But  the  true  Mongol  expression 
is  betrayed  in  the  short,  broad 
nose,  rather  high  cheek  bones, 
somewhat  broad  and  fiat  fea- 
tures, and  low  stature  averaging 
about  5  feet  4  inches  or  5  feet 
5  inches.  The  language  is  a  dis- 
tinct member  of  the  monosylla- 
bic or  isolating  Indo-Chinese 
family,  spoken  with  several 
tones,  and  closely  allied  to  Siam- 
ese, but  with  a  very  large  num- 
ber of  terms  common  also  to 
Chinese.  The  Shans  are  mostly 
semi-civilized,  with  a  general 
knowledge  of  letters,  and  are 
good  agriculturists  and  skilled 
workers  in  metals.  Their  cul- 
ture is  essentially  Siamese,  as 
shown  by  their  social  institu- 
tions, and  especially  by  the  form 
of  Buddhism  which  all  outwardly 
profess,  while  at  heart  still  spirit 
or  demon  worshippers. 

Shansi,  shan'se',  upland  prov- 
ince, China,  has  a  total  area  of 
60,394  square  miles,  and  consists 
chiefly  of  a  plateau,  2,800  to  4,500 
feet  above  the  sea,  hemmed  in  by 
the  Yellow  River  on  the  west.  The 
province  lies  under  a  deep  man- 
tle of  loess,  the  vertical  cleavage 
of  which  has  led  to  the  erosion  of 
deep  gorges  which  intersect  the 
plateau  and  render  communica- 
tion so  difficult  that  practically 
only  two  roads  exist  through  the 
province.  Shansi  is  especially 
rich  in  minerals,  including  a  coal 
field  estimated  at  35,000  square 
miles  in  extent — the  eastern  half 
anthracite,  the  western  bitumi- 
nous and  rich  in  iron.  Salt  and  pe- 
troleum also  exist.  The  soil  is  mar- 
vellously fertile  if  rain  falls  soon 
after  seed  is  sown,  but  in  dry 
weather  famines  ensue.  Tai- 
yuan  is  the  capital.  Pop.  (1947) 
11,601,000. 

Shan  States,  a  number  ot 
semi-indepdendent  states  lying 
north  and  east  of  Burma.  Those 
formerly  under  Burmese  and 
under  British  control  have  a 
total  area  of  68,165  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  1,506,337. 
See  also  Shans. 

Shantar  Islands,  a  group  of 
small  islands  off  the  Maritime 
Province,  Russia,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Udskoi.  The  largest  are  Great 
Shantar,  Little  Shantar,  and 
Feklistov. 

Shantung,  maritime  prov- 
ince, China,  with  the  Yellow 
Sea  on  the  south  and  east  and 
the  Gulf  of  Chi-li  or  Pe-chi-li  on 
the  north,  covers  a  total  area  of 
56,447  square  miles.  The  west- 
ern portion  forms  part  of  the 
Peking  plain  and  is  traversed  by 
the  Grand  Canal.  The  east  is 
mountainous,  terminating  in  a 
promontory  extending  toward 
Korea.  The  Hoang-ho,  or  Yel- 
low  River,   flows  from  south- 


west to  northeast,  emptying  into 
the  Gulf  of  Chi-li.  The  climate 
is  bracing  and  the  rainfall 
extends  from  April  to  Septem- 
ber. The  mountainous  regions 
are  unproductive  but  the  plains 
and  valleys  are  fertile  and 
produce  fruits,  Indian  corn, 
millet,  wheat,  buckwheat,  beans, 
and  indigo.  Herring,  cod,  mack- 
erel, and  oysters  abound  in  the 
adjacent  waters.  There  are 
large  coal  fields  in  the  province, 
and  gold,  sulphur,  iron,  copper, 
asbestos,  and  marble  occur.  Silk 
culture  is  well  developed,  and 
pongee  and  straw  braid  are  ex- 
ported. A  railroad  built  by  the 
Germans  crosses  the  province, 
with  its  eastern  terminus  at  the 
port  of  Tsingtao,  and  connects 
at  Tsi-nan  with  the  railway  to 
Tientsin  and  Peking. 

The  population  numbers  about 
38,100,000  Chinese,  and  a  con- 
siderable number  of  Japanese, 
many  of  the  latter  having  come 
to  Shantung  after  the  Japanese 
took  possession  of  Kiaochau 
(q.  V.)  at  the  beginning  of  the 
First  World  War.  Shantung  is 
known  as  the  cradle  of  Chinese 
civilization.  Confucious  and 
Mencius  were  born  here,  and 
here  is  the  sacred  mountain  of 
Tai-Shan. 

In  1897,  on  the  pretext  of 
securing  reparation  for  the  mur- 
der of  two  German  missionaries, 
Germany  forced  the  Chinese  gov- 
ernment to  an  agreement  where- 
by it  leased  to  Germany  the 
district  of  Kiaochau  for  a  term 
of  ninety-nine  years  (see  Kiao- 
chau), and  further  sanctioned 
the  construction  by  Germany  of 
a  railway  from  Kiaochau  and 
Tsi-nan  to  the  boundary  of 
the  province  and  of  a  second  line 
from  Kiaochau  to  Chinchau. 
The  Chinese  government  also 
contracted  to  allow  German 
subjects  to  hold  and  develop 
mining  property  for  a  distance 
of  30  li  (i.e.,  about  10  miles)  from 
each  side  of  their  railways  and 
along  the  whole  extent  of  these 
lines — including  the  rich  coal 
fields  in  the  vicinity  of  Poshan- 
hsien  and  Wei-hsien.  In  1914, 
shortly  after  the  beginning  of 
the  First  World  War,  Japanese 
forces  seized  Kiaochau,  ousted 
the  Germans  from  Shantung,  took 
over  the  German  railway,  and 
proceeded  to  occupy  important 
points  through  the  province. 
By  a  note  of  1915  Japan  agreed 
to  the  eventual  restoration  of 
the  leased  territory  on  several 
conditions,  the  most  important 
of  which  was  the  establishment 
of  a  concession  under  the  ex- 
clusive jurisdiction  of  Japan  at  a 
place  to  be  designated  by  the 
Japanese  government.  By  the 
terms  of  the  Peace  Treaty  (1919), 
however,  Japan  acquired  from 
Germany,  all  the  rights,  titles, 
and  privileges  acquired  by  Ger- 
many in  the  original  treaty  of 


Shari 


KR 


144 


Shark 


1898;  as  well  as  all  the  rights 
which  Germany  might  claim  in 
consequence  of  the  works  or  im- 
provements made  or  of  the  ex- 
penses incurred  by  her  in  con- 
nection with  this  territory. 
China  protested  against  the 
terms  as  an  injustice  to  China 
and  to  the  large  Chinese  popu- 
lation ot  Shantung.  Japan 
countered  with  the  claim  that 
full  territorial  sovereignty  would 
eventually  be  restored  to  China, 
the  economic  privileges  only 
being  retained;  but  Chinese  dele- 


opment  in  the  warmer  seas  of  the 
globe,  a  few  extend  into  the  Arc- 
tic region.  All  are  carnivorous 
and  have  powerful  teeth,  gener- 
ally triangular  and  disposed  in 
rows. 

Several  families  of  sharks  are 
recognized.  To  the  family  Car- 
chariidae  belong  sharks  which 
have  two  dorsal  fins  (both  with- 
out spines)  and  a  nictitating 
membrane.  This  family  includes 
the  typical  sharks  of  the  genus 
Carcharias,  also  the  Topes  (see 
Tope),   the   Hammerhead  (see 


place  of  the  usual  five.  The 
teeth  are  comb-like.  To  this 
family  belong  a  number  of  com 
paratively  small  sharks,  of  which 
Notidanus  griseus  occur  in  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean. 

The  family  Scylliideae  includes 
the  British  dog-fishes,  as  well  as 
some  larger  forms,  such  as  the 
species  of  Crossorhinus,  to  which 
the  name  of  shark  is  applied 
(see  Dog  Fish).  The  Port  Jack- 
son Shark  (Cestracion  Philippi) 
is  a  comparatively  small  form 
belonging  to  the  family  Cestra- 


William  Beebe  Photo 


The  Whale  Shark  Is  Reputed  to  be  the  Largest  Fish  in  the  World 
This  42-foot  specimen  wrenched  the  harpoon  from  its  back  and  swam  away. 


gates  refused  to  sign  the  treaty. 
With  the  defeat  of  Japan  in  the 
Second  World  War  (1945),  China 
regained  full  sovereignty  over 
the  Peninsula. 

Shari,  sha're,  river,  Africa, 
the  chief  feeder  of  Lake  Chad, 
rises  in  north  central  Africa  and 
flows  in  a  general  northwesterly 
direction,  having  a  total  course 
of  over  1,400  miles.  Most  of 
the  headstreams  are  as  yet  un- 
explored. 

Shark,  a  general  name  applied 
to  all  the  larger  Elasmobranch 
fishes  of  the  sub-order  Selachoi- 
dei,  the  smaller  members  of  this 
sub-order  being  called  dog-fish 
(q.  v.).  The  sharks  have  an 
elongated  and  very  flexible  body, 
terminating  in  a  powerful  tail, 
and  have  extraordinary  swim- 
ming powers,  both  from  the 
point  of  view  of  speed  and  of  en- 
durance. Many  inhabit  the 
open  ocean,  and  are  typical 
pelagic  fish,  but  the  smaller 
forms  haunt  the  coasts.  Though 
reaching  their  maximum  devel- 


Hammerheaded  Shark),  and 
the  Hounds  (Mustelus).  In  the 
family  Lamnidae  the  dorsal  fins 
are  similar,  but  the  nictitating 
membrane  is  absent.  Here  be- 
long the  Porbeagle  (q.v.)  and 
Carcharodon  Rondeletti,  which  is 
known  to  reach  forty  feet  in 
length,  and  is  found  in  tropical 
and  subtropical  seas.  To  this 
family  belongs  also  the  Fox 
Shark  or  Thresher  (q.  v.)  as  well 
as  the  large  Basking  Shark.  To 
the  small  family  Rhinodontidae 
belongs  the  single  species  known 
as  Rhinodon  typicus,  a  measured 
specimen  of  which  exceeded 
forty-five  feet  in  length.  This 
shark  occurs  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  perhaps  also  in  the  Pacific. 
It  may  be  distinguished  by  the 
posterior  position  of  the  first 
dorsal  fin.  the  depressed  shape  of 
the  body,  and  the  broad,  flat- 
tened snout.  The  teeth  are 
small.  In  the  family  Notidani- 
dae  the  single  dorsal  fin  is  placed 
very  far  back,  and  the  gill-slits 
may  be  six  or  seven  in  number  in 


ciontidae;  fossil  representatives 
are  very  numerous  in  secondary 
rocks.  The  teeth  are  flattened 
and  pavement-like,  the  animals 
using  them  to  crush  the  moUusks, 
upon  which  they  chiefly  feed. 
Both  the  dorsal  fins  have  a  spine 
in  front.  The  family  Spinacidae 
includes  the  spiny  or  picked  dog- 
fishes (Acanthias),  as  well  as 
some  larger  forms,  of  which  the 
most  important  is  Laemargus 
borealis,  the  Greenland  Shark, 
which  occasionally  strays  south- 
ward. It  reaches  a  length  of 
fifteen  feet,  and  habitually  at- 
tacks the  right  whale. 

Sharks  are  often  very  destruc- 
tive to  food  fish,  and  are  even 
dangerous  to  man.  Some  of  the 
smaller  kinds  are  eaten,  but  in 
eastern  countries  there  is  an  im- 
portant trade  in  the  fins,  which 
are  used  as  a  source  of  gelatine, 
and  also,  in  China,  as  a  food  from 
which  soups  and  other  delicacies 
are  prepared.  A  considerable  ex- 
port of  sharks'  fins  is  made  from 
California  to  the  East.    For  the 


JAN  1  4  1942 


Sharon 


KFK 


145 


Sharp 


economic  importance  of  sharks' 
skins,  see  Shagreen. 

Sharon,  shar'(?n,  plain,  Pales- 
tine, to  the  northwest  of  Jeru- 
salem, between  the  hills  and  the 
coast.  It  was  noted  both  for  its 
beauty  and  its  fertility.  Its 
roses  (possibly  narcissus,  or 
more  probably  rock  cistus)  are 
mentioned  in  the  Song  of  Solo- 
mon (ii.  1). 

Sharon,  Rose  of.  See  Rose 
OF  Sharon. 

Sharon,  city,  Pennsylvania, 
Mercer  county,  on  the  Ohio  bor- 
der, on  the  Shenango  River,  and 
on  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Erie, 
and  the  New  York  Central  Rail- 
roads ;  60  miles  n.w.  of  Pitts- 
burgh. It  is  an  important  indus- 
trial center,  having  iron  fur- 
naces, rolling  mills,  a  boiler  shop, 
stainless  steel  and  chain  works, 
flour,  lumber  and  planing  mills. 
There  are  also  manufactures  of 
malleable  steel  castings,  electri- 
cal transformers,  tinware,  light 
hardware,  still  barrels  and  tank 
cars.  Vast  quantities  of  coal 
are  mined  in  the  neighborhood 
and  natural  gas  abounds.  Pop. 
(1930)  25,908;   (1940)  25.622. 

Sharon  Springs,  village, 
New  York,  Schoharie  county,  on 
the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Rail- 
road ;  46  miles  northwest  of  Al- 
bany. It  is  a  summer  and  health 
resort  and  has  sulphur  and  mag- 
nesia springs.  It  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1871. 

Sharp,  in  music,  a  name  given 
to  the  sign  which,  when  pre- 
fixed to  a  note,  raises  it  a  semi- 
tone. The  double  sharp  (X) 
raises  a  note  two  semitones. 

Sharp,  Dallas  Lore  (1870- 
1929),  American  educator  and 
author,  was  born  in  Haleyville, 
N.  J.  He  was  graduated  from 
Brown  (1895)  and  from  Boston 
University  in  theology  (1899)  ; 
was  pastor  of  Methodist-Episco- 
pal churches  at  Porter  and  at 
Brockton  Heights,  Mass.,  from 
1896  to  1899;  and  in  the  latter 
year  became  assistant  librarian 
of  Boston  University,  where  he 
later  accepted  the  additional 
duties  of  assistant  professor 
(1902)  and  professor  of  English 
(1909).  His  nature  writings, 
contributed  to  periodicals  and  in 
book  form,  are  notable  for  their 
accuracy  of  observation  and 
graceful  literary  treatment.  His 
works  include  IVild  Life  near 
Home  (1901)  ;  ^  Watcher  in  the 
Woods  (1903)  ;  Roof  and  Mead- 
ow (1904)  ;  The  Lay  of  the  Land 
(1908);  Beyond  the  Pasture 
Bars  (1913);  Where  Rolls  the 
Oregon  (1914)  ;  The  Hills  of 
Hingham  (1916)  ;  The  Seer  of 
Slabsides  (1921);  Education  in 
a  Democracy  (1922)  ;  The  Mag- 
ical Chance  (1923)  ;  The  Spirit 
of  the  Hive  (1925)  ;  Sanctuary! 
Sanctuary!  (1926);  The  Better 
Country   (1928)  ;   also  contrib- 


uted serials  and  articles  to  maga- 
zines. 

Sharp,  Granville  (1735- 
1813),  English  philanthropist 
and  pamphleteer,  was  born  in 
Durham.  In  1758  he  entered 
government  service  in  the  Ord- 
nance Department,  but  resigned 
in  1776  on  account  of  his  oppo- 
sition to  the  war  with  the  Amer- 
ican colonies,  in  whose  behalf  he 
had  published  (1774)  A  Declara- 
tion  of   the   People's  Natural 


party  in  the  church,  by  tact  and 
plausibility,  he  won  for  his  party 
the  good  will  of  Cromwell.  At 
the  Restoration  he  was  appointed 
to  the  primacy  of  Scotland,  and 
agreed  to  devote  all  his  energies 
to  the  furtherance  of  Episco- 
pacy in  that  country.  He  was 
also  appointed  professor  of  di- 
vinity in  St.  Andrews ;  but  he 
gave  no  sign  of  his  change  of 
views  until  after  the  subversion 
of  Presbyterianism  by  the  Par- 


Marine  Studios  Photo 

GROUND  SHARK 
Right  to  a  Share  in  the  Legisla-      liament  of 


ture.  In  1778  he  strongly  de- 
nounced the  ministry  of  Lord 
North  in  an  Address  to  the 
People.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
he  sought  to  introduce  Episco- 
pacy into  the  United  States,  with 
the  result  that  the  bishops  of 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
were  consecrated  in  1787.  His 
pamphleteering  activity  covered 
a  wide  range,  from  slavery  to 
philology,  and  from  the  Arma- 
geddon to  the  Greek  particles. 
The  chief  energies  of  his  life, 
however,  were  given  to  the  cause 
of  the  Negro  slave,  and  it  was 
his  efforts  which  secured  the  ju- 
dicial decision  that  whenever  a 
slave  touched  British  soil  he  be- 
came a  free  man.  Sharp  was 
later  associated  with  Clarkson  in 
founding  the  Association  for  the 
Abolition  of  Negro  Slavery,  and 
he  promoted  the  settlement  of 
Sierra  Leone  as  a  colony  for 
freed  men.  He  was  also  promi- 
nent in  founding  the  Foreign 
Bible  Society  (1804). 

Sharp,  James  (1613-79), 
Scottish  ecclesiastic,  was  born  in 
Banffshire.  He  was  educated  in 
King's  College,  Aberdeen,  and 
was  named  professor  of  philoso- 
phy at  St.  Andrews  (1643),  but 
resigned  in  1648,  on  being  ap- 
pointed minister  of  Crail. 
Though  a  leader  of  the  resolu- 
tionist  or  more  strenuously  loyal 


1661,  when  he  re- 
turned to  London,  and  was  con- 
secrated archbishop  of  St.  An- 
drews. From  this  time  he  took 
a  leading  part  in  directing  the 
Covenanting  persecution  in  Scot- 
land, until  his  ruthless  assassi- 
nation by  a  party  of  Covenanters 
at  Magus  Muir.  Consult  Ste- 
phen's Life  and  Times  of  Arch- 
bishop Sharp  and  Keith's  Scot- 
tish Bishops. 

Sharp,  Joseph  Henry  (1859- 
),  American  painter,  was 
born  in  Bridgeport,  Ohio,  and 
studied  in  Antwerp,  Munich,  and 
Paris,  as  well  as  in  Italy  and 
Spain.  He  also  devoted  himself 
to  Indian  subjects.  Eleven  of 
his  portraits  of  famous  Indians 
were  purchased  by  the  U.  S.  Gov- 
ernment for  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution and  a  large  collection 
of  his  works  was  bought  by  Mrs. 
Phoebe  Hearst  for  the  Univer- 
sity of  California.  He  was  an 
instructor  in  the  Cincinnati  Art 
Museum  from  1892  to  1902. 

Sharp,  William  (1749- 
1824),  English  engraver,  was 
born  in  London.  He  engraved 
many  well-known  pictures  in- 
cluding West's  King  Lear  in  the 
Storm,  and  Reynolds'  portrait  of 
John  Hunter  and  The  Holy 
Family. 

Sharp,  William  ('Fiona 
Macleod')  (1855-1 905) ,  Scottish 
poet,  novelist,  critic,  was  a  native 


Sharp 


KFK 


146 


Shaw 


of  Paisley.  Under  his  own  name 
he  wrote  a  number  of  poems, 
including  The  Human  Inherit- 
ance, Earth's  Voices,  Romantic 
Ballads;  and  biographies  on  the 
lives  of  Rossetti,  Shelley,  Heine 
and  Joseph  Severn.  Under  the 
pseudonym  of  Fiona  Macleod  he 
wrote  a  series  of  widely  read  Celtic 
tales.  He  was  the  author  of 
Pharais,  From  the  Hills  of 
Dream,  The  Laughter  of  Peter- 
kin,  The  Divine  Adventiire,  Cel- 
tic, The  House  of  Usna,  Deirdre, 
and  The  Winged  Destiny. 

Sharp,  William  Graves 
(1859-1922),  American  diplo- 
mat, was  born  in  Mt.  Gilead, 
Ohio.  He  was  graduated  from 


pipe,  glass  bottles,  steel  fabrica- 
tion, truck  and  bar  iron,  oil  cans, 
lubricating  oil  and  varnish.  Bi- 
tuminous coal  is  mined  in  the  vi- 
cinity, and  truck  gardening  is 
carried  on.  Pop.  ( 1930)  8,642  ; 
(1940)  8,202. 

Sharpsburg,  Battle  of.  See 
Antietam  Creek. 

Sharpsville,  borough,  Penn- 
sylvania, Mercer  county,  on  the 
Shenango  River,  and  the  Penn- 
sylvania and  the  Erie  Rail- 
roads ;  75  miles  northwest  of 
Pittsburgh.  It  is  a  busy  iron 
center,  with  three  blast  furnaces, 
boiler  works,  a  slag  plant,  and  a 
steel  ingot  foundry.  Pop.  (1930) 
8,642;  (1940)  5,129. 


volume  of  Grand  Coulee,  it  was 
to  displace  Boulder  as  the  sec- 
ond largest  gravity  concrete  dam 
in  the  world. 

Shas'ta,  Mount,  a  peak  at 
the  northern  end  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  in  California.  It  is  an 
extinct  volcano.  Alt.  14,380  ft. 

Shaughnessy,  Thomas 
George,  1st  Baron  Shaugh- 
nessy OF  Montreal  (1853- 
1923),  Canadian  railway  offi- 
cial, was  born  in  Milwaukee, 
Wis.  He  worked  on  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  (1869- 
82),  then  was  purchasing  agent 
for  the  Canadian  Pacific  (1882— 
91),  becoming  vice-president  of 
the  line  in  1891  and  president  in 


Black  Star  Photo  ©  by  Otto  Salomon 


GEORGE  BERNARD  SHAW 


the  University  of  Michigan 
(1881)  and  studied  in  Allegheny 
and  Oberlin  Colleges.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives from  1909-14,  and 
Ambassador  to  France  from 
1914-19.  His  War  Memoirs  ap- 
peared posthumously. 

Sharpe,  Samuel  (1  799- 
1881),  English  Egyptologist, 
was  born  in  London.  He  wrote 
Egyptian  Inscriptions  (1837- 
45),  History  of  Egypt  (1846), 
and  a  History  of  the  Hebrew  Na- 
tion and  Literature  (1869),  and 
published  translations  of  the  Old 
(1840)  and  New  (1865)  Testa- 
ments. Consult  Life  by  Clayden. 

Sharps'burg,  borough,  Penn- 
sylvania, Allegheny  county,  on 
the  Allegheny  River,  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  ;  4  miles 
northeast  of  Pittsburgh.  It  is  a 
residential  suburb  of  Pittsburgh 
and  has  important  manufactures. 
The  leading  products  are  iron 


Shasi  (sha'se),  Chinese  port, 
Hupeh  province,  on  the  Yangtse, 
83  m.  east  of  Ichang.  An  old 
city,  opened  to  foreign  trade  in 
1896,  it  is  now  the  center  of 
trade  for  the  province  because 
of  the  network  of  canals  con- 
necting it  with  a  rich  agricul- 
tural district.  It  is  a  cotton  cen- 
ter.  Pop.   (1931   est.)  113,526. 

Shas'ta  Dam,  a  project  of 
the  U.  S.  Reclamation  Bureau, 
begun  in  1938.  It  has  as  its 
purpose  flood  control  and  irri- 
gation of  the  upper  Sacramento 
River  valley  in  California,  al- 
though it  is  also  an  important 
power  dam,  with  an  initial  power 
station  of  280,000  kilowatts  and 
provision  for  350,000  kilowatts. 
With  a  maximum  height  of  560 
feet  and  a  crest  length  of  3,500 
feet,  the  dam  was  to  contain 
a  volume  of  5,400,000  cubic 
yards.  The  cost  is  estimated  at 
$70,000,000.  With  only  half  the 


1898.  The  road  grew  under  his 
supervision  from  less  than  1,000 
miles  in  1881  to  14,821  miles  at 
the  end  of  1922.  He  was  knight- 
ed in  1901  and  made  a  peer  in 
1916.  In  1918  he  retired. 

Shavli,  town,  Lithuania,  78 
miles  northwest  of  Kovno.  In 
the  World  War  it  was  occupied, 
» April,  1915,  by  the  Germans,  but 
was  later  evacuated  by  them. 
Pop.  (1940)  31,299. 

Shaw,  Albert  (1857-  ), 
American  editor  and  economist, 
was  born  in  Shandon,  O.  He  was 
educated  at  Iowa  College  (now 
Grinnell)  and  at  Johns  Hopkins 
University.  In  1891  he  establish- 
ed the  American  Review  of  Re- 
views and  was  its  editor  from 
that  date  until  1937.  He  wrote 
A  Cartoon  History  of  Roose- 
velt's Career  (1910),  and  a  two- 
volume  cartoon  history  of  Abra- 
ham Lincoln. 


Shaw 


KFK 


J  1  4  1342 

147 


Shaw 


Shaw,  George  Bernard (1856- 
),  Irish  critic  and  dramatist, 
was  born  in  Dublin.  He  left 
school  at  the  age  of  fifteen  and 
in  1876  went  to  London,  where 
he  engaged  in  newspaper  work, 
and  took  an  active  interest  in  so- 
cialistic agitation,  becoming  in 
1884  a  member  of  the  Fabian 
Society  (q.  v.).  He  contributed 
tracts  on  socialism  to  its  publica- 
tions and  edited  Fabian  Essays 
(1889).  Meanwhile,  between 
1880  and  1883,  he  published  four 
novels.  The  Irrational  Knot,  Love 
Among  the  Artists,  Cashcl  Byron's 
Profession,  and  An  Unsocial  So- 
cialist. Shaw's  weekly  articles  on 
musical  subjects  in  the  London 
Star  (1888-90)  and  in  the  World 
(1890-4),  and  later  his  dramatic 


(1901)  ;  Man  and  Superman 
(1903)  ;  John  Bull's  Other  Is- 
land (1905)  ;  Androcles  and  the 
Lion  (1912)  ;  Pygmalion  (1912)  ; 
Heartbreak  House  (1917)  ;  Back 
to  Methuselah  {1921)  ;  Saint  Joan 
of  Arc  (1923)  ;  The  Intelligent 
Woman's  Guide  to  Socialism  and 
Capitalism  (1928)  ;  The  Apple 
Cart  (1929)  ;  Pen  Portraits  and 
Reviews  and  The  Adventures 
of  a  Black  Girl  in  Search  of 
God  (1932);  The  Millionairess 
(1934)  ;  Geneva  and  William 
Morris  as  I  Knew  Him  (1936). 
His  plays  abotmd  in  wit  and 
irony  and  in  effective  dramatic 
situations.  Though  they  ignore 
the  traditions  both  of  the  theater 
and  of  literature,  they  are  mark- 
edly successful  as  pieces  of  stage- 


popular  as  a  platform  lecturer. 
Consult  Life  by  F.  S.  Smith. 

Shaw,  Lemuel  (1781-1861). 
American  jurist,  was  born  in 
Barnstable,  Mass.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  Harvard  in  1800,  and 
in  1801  was  assistant  editor  of 
the  Boston  Gazette.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  New  Hampshire 
bar  in  1804,  and  later  to  that  of 
Massachusetts,  was  a  member  of 
the  Massachusetts  legislature  in 
1811-15,  a  delegate  to  the  State 
constitutional  convention  in  1820, 
and  a  State  senator  in  1821-2 
and  1828-9.  In  1830  he  became 
chief  justice  of  the  Massachu- 
setts supreme  court,  a  position 
which  he  held  until  1860.  He 
opposed  the  passage  of  the  Fugi- 
tive Slave  Law,  but  supported 


Black  Star  Photo  by  J.  B.  Guss 


MOUNT  SHASTA,  CALIFORNIA 


criticisms  in  the  Saturday  Review 
(1895-8),  attracted  much  atten- 
tion by  their  vigor  and  their  in- 
dependence of  judgment.  In 
1891  he  published  The  Quintes- 
sence of  Ibsenism,  in  which  he 
developed  the  thesis  that  the 
principle  underlying  practically 
all  of  Ibsen's  work  is  the  harm- 
fulness  of  traditional  ideals,  and 
in  1898  The  Perfect  Wagnerite 
(1898),  setting  forth  in  detail  the 
astonishing  interpretation  of  the 
Rifig  of  the  Nibelungen  as  a  sym- 
bolized expression  of  social  revo- 
lution. His  Plays,  Pleasant  and 
Unpleasant  (2  vols.),  appeared  in 
1898.  The  'pleasant'  plays  in- 
clude You  Never  Can  Tell,  Arms 
and  the  Man,  Candida,  and  the 
one-act  piece  The  Man  of  Des- 
tiny;  the  'unpleasant'  plays, 
Widowers'  Houses,  The  Philan- 
derer, and  Mrs.  Warren's  Pro- 
fession. Later  publications  in- 
clude Three  Plays  for  Puritans 
(1900),  comprising  The  Devil's 
Disciple,  Caesar  and  Cleopatra, 
and  Captain  Brassbound's  Con- 
version ;  The  Admirable  Bashville 
25-15-1 


craft.  He  received  the  Nobel 
prize  for  literature  in  1925. 

Shaw,  Henry  Wheeler ( 1818- 
85),  American  humorist,  known 
as  'Josh  Billings,'  was  born  in 
Lanesborough,  Mass.  After  sev- 
eral years  of  roving  life  in  the 
Middle  West  he  settled  in  Pough- 
keepsie  as  a  land  agent  in  1858. 
Hist  first  literary  endeavors  met 
with  little  success,  but  he  evolved 
a  system  of  humorous  phonetic 
spelling  for  his  writings,  and 
made  his  first  hit  with  his  Essa 
on  the  Mnel,  bi  Josh  Billings 
(1860).  This  he  followed  with 
Josh  Billings,  his  Sayings  ( 1866), 
Josh  Billings'  Farmers'  Almanax 
(1870-80),  Josh  Billings'  Com- 
plete Works  {l%77),c^\■\d  Josh  Bil- 
lings' Spice-Book  (1881).  His  al- 
manacs were  enormously  success- 
ful, and  his  quaint,  shrewd  say- 
ings are  still  widely  quoted. 
From  1865  until  his  death  he  was 
a  regular  contributor  to  the  New 
York  Weekly.  He  also  wrote  a 
series  of  'Uncle  Esek'  papers  for 
the  Century  Magazine.    He  was 


its  constitutionality  in  the  Sims 
case. 

ShaW,LESLIEM0RTIMER(1848- 

1932),  American  public  official, 
was  iDorn  in  Morristown,  Vt. 
Removing  to  Iowa,  he  was  grad- 
uated from  Cornell  College  in 
that  State  in  1874  and  from  the 
Iowa  College  of  Law  in  1876. 
He  settled  in  Denison,  la.,  prac- 
tised law  (1876-97),  and  in  1880 
became  interested  in  banking. 
He  was  governor  of  Iowa  in 
1898-1902,  and  was  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  in  President  Roose- 
velt's cabinet  (1902-7). 

Shaw,  Robert  Gould  (1837- 
63),  American  soldier,  was  born 
in  Boston,  and  was  educated  in 
Europe  and  at  Harvard  College. 
In  1861  he  enlisted  in  the  Union 
army,  and  in  January  1863  was 
offered  the  colonelcy  of  the  54th 
Massachusetts,  the  first  regiment 
of  colored  troops  raised  in  a 
Northern  State.  Although  he 
realized  that  he  would  subject 
himself  to  much  criticism,  he 
accepted,  and  in  May  accom- 
panied the  regiment  to  the  front. 


Shaw 


KFK 


148 


Shays'  Rebellion 


After  participating  in  an  expedi- 
tion to  Florida,  he  was  attached 
to  the  forces  operating  against 
Fort  Wagner,  and  on  July  18, 
1863,  was  killed  upon  the  para- 
pet of  the  fort  while  leading  the 
assault.  A  fine  monument  on 
Boston  Common,  designed  by 
Augustus  Saint-Gaudens,  was 
dedicated  to  his  memory  in  1897. 

Shaw,  Sir  William  Napier 
(1854-  ),  British  meteorolo- 
gist, was  born  in  Birmingham. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge 
University  and  in  Berlin,  and 
from  1877  to  1906  was  a  fellow 
of  Emmanuel  College.  He  was 
university  lecturer  in  experi- 
mental physics  at  Cambridge 
(1887-99),  member  of  the  Me- 
teorological Council  (1897- 
1905),  director  of  the  Meteoro- 
logical Office  (1905-20)  and  pro- 
fessor of  meteorology  at  the 
Royal  College  of  Science  (1920- 
24).  From  1921-30  he  was 
president  of  the  Meteorological 
Section  of  International  Union 
of  Geodesy  and  Geophysics.  He 
was  knighted  in  1915.  His  pub- 
lications include :  Air  Currents 
and  the  Laws  of  Ventilation 
(1907)  ;  Forecasting  Weather 
(1911,  1923  and  1939)  ;  Man- 
ual of  Meteorology  (1919-31); 
The  Drama  of  the  Weather 
(1933  and  1938). 

Shawano,  sha-wa'no,  city, 
Wisconsin,  county  seat  of  Sha- 
wano county,  at  the  head  of  nav- 
igation on  the  Wolf  River,  and 
on  the  Chicago  and  North  West- 
ern and  the  Minneapolis,  St. 
Paul  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Rail- 
roads ;  38  miles  north  of  Green 
Bay.  It  is  a  popular  summer 
resort.  Leading  manufactured 
products  are  wood  pulp,  paper, 
flour,  sulphite,  and  lumber.  The 
lakes  and  streams  of  the  region 
abound  in  speckled  trout.  The 
Menominee  Indian  Reservation, 
four  miles  north,  is  the  home  of 
1,500  Indians.  Pop.  (1930)  4,- 
188  ;  (1940)  5,565. 

Shawinigan  Falls,  sha'in-i- 
gan,  city,  Quebec,  Canada,  in 
St.  Maurice  county,  on  the  St. 
Maurice  River,  and  the  Canadian 
National  and  the  Canadian  Pa- 
cific Railroads;  21  miles  N.w.  of 
Three  Rivers.  It  has  a  college, 
convent,  hospital,  and  board  of 
trade.  Waterpower  derived  from 
nearby  falls  is  employed  for  the 
manufacture  of  aluminum,  paper, 
and  carbide.  Pop.  (1931)  16,- 
485  ;  (1941)  19,791. 

Shawl,  a  garment  generally 
worn  folded  around  the  shoul- 
ders and  hanging  down  the  back. 
Following  the  caprices  of  fash- 
ion, the  shawl  in  some  countries 
has  intermittently  appeared  and 
disappeared  as  an  article  of 
dress ;  in  the  East,  however,  it 
has  generally  been  regarded  as 
an  indispensable  part  of  feminine 
co.stume.    The  finest  variety  of 


woolen  shawl  comes  from  India, 
particularly  from  the  Vale  of 
Kashmir.  The  goats  of  Tibet, 
whose  coarse  outer  hair  is  but 
the  covering  for  an  inner  coat 
of  fine  curly  wool,  called  pash- 
inina,  furnish  the  yarn  for  these 
famous  shawls.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  there  were  more  than  a 
thousand  establishments  in  Kash- 
mir for  the  weaving  of  shawls, 
but  during  the  nineteenth  and 
twentieth  centuries  there  has 
been  a  steady  decline  in  the 
industry.  Next  in  beauty  and 
value  to  the  Indian  shawls  are 
those  of  Persia,  which,  though 
similar  in  coloring,  design,  and 
weave,  are  of  coarser  wool,  less 
closely  woven.  Paisley,  Scot- 
land, was  famous  for  its  shawls 
during  the  nineteenth  century, 
but  the  industry  has  practically 
died  out  there.  Shawls  of  lace 
come  from  Spain  ;  shawls  of  silk 
from  China. 

Shaw-Lef evre,  \e  fe  ver, 
George  John  (1832-1928), 
English  pvjblic  official,  was  born 
in  Nottingham.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  for  Reading 
(1863-85)  and  Central  Bradford 
(1885-95).  It  was  mainly 
through  his  efforts  that  the  Ala- 
bama claims  were  referred  to  ar- 
bitration. He  held  various  gov- 
ernmental posts  and  acted  as 
chairman  of  important  commit- 
tees and  commissions.  He  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  in  1906  as 
the  first  Baron  Eversley  of  Old 
Ford.  His  publications  include 
English  and  Irish  Land  Ques- 
tions (1881);  Peel  and  O'Con- 
nell  (1887)  ;  Gladstone  and  Ire- 
land (1912)  ;  The  Partitions  of 
Poland  (1915)  ;  The  Turkish 
Empire,  Its  Grozvth  and  Decay 
(1917). 

Shawnee',  city,  Oklahoma, 
Pottawatomie  county,  on  the 
North  Canadian  River,  and  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pa- 
cific, the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe,  and  the  Missouri,  Kan- 
sas and  Texas  Railroads ;  40 
miles  s.E.  of  Oklahoma  City. 
It  has  a  Carnegie  library,  pri- 
vate hospital,  Baptist  University, 
St.  Gregory's  College  (R.  C), 
and  two  large  parks.  It  has 
railroad  repair  shops,  cotton 
compresses,  cotton  gins,  cotton- 
seed oil  mills,  flour  mills,  and 
brick-yards.  Cotton  and  al- 
falfa are  the  leading  commodi- 
ties shipped.  Pop.  (1930)  23,- 
283;  (1940)  22,053. 

Shawnees,  or  Savannahs,  a 
tribe  of  North  American  Indi- 
ans, a  southern  branch  of  the 
Algonquin  family,  whose  original 
home  was  probably  in  Central 
Tennessee.  A  large  body  of  the 
nation,  having  migrated  south 
and  east  to  Georgia,  were  driven 
out  at  the  close  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury and  took  refuge  with  the 
kindred       Delawares  farther 


north.  Later  the  Shawnees  of 
Tennessee  were  also  driven  be- 
yond the  Ohio  by  the  Cherokees. 
The  Shawnees  were  constantly 
at  war  with  the  English  or  the 
Americans  but  by  1865  they  had 
been  subdued  and  the  majority 
were  incorporated  with  the 
Cherokees  in  Oklahoma. 

Shaw  University,  a  co-edu- 
cational Baptist  institution  for 
Negroes,  founded  in  1865  at 
Raleigh,  N.  C.  It  includes  a 
college  of  liberal  arts  and 
sciences  and  a  School  of  Re- 
ligion, courses  in  music,  teacher 
training  and  theology,  also 
pre-professional  courses  for 
medicine,  law  and  dentistry. 

Shays'  Rebellion,  an  upris- 
ing in  western  Massachusetts  in 
1786-7,  based  upon  economic 
discontent.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  Revolution,  there  was  much 
unrest  on  account  of  the  heavy 
taxes  and  the  large  public  and 
private  debts,  and  as  early  as 
1781  conventions,  promoted  by 
Samuel  Ely,  were  held  to  con- 
sider ways  and  means  of  relief, 
and  some  disorder  had  occurred. 
A  convention  of  delegates  from 
thirty-seven  towns  of  western 
Massachusetts  met  at  Worcester, 
August  15,  1786,  and  formulated 
a  statement  of  grievances.  The 
list  included  the  sitting  of  the 
General  Court  at  Boston  among 
the  lawyers  and  the  aristocracy, 
the  lack  of  money,  the  abuses 
in  the  administration  of  the  law 
and  in  the  fee  table,  the  exces- 
sive numbers  and  salaries  of  of- 
fice holders,  the  payment  of  in- 
terest upon  the  debt,  and  the  ap- 
propriation to  Congress.  One 
week  later  representatives  of 
fifty  towns  met  at  Hatfield  and 
further  elaborated  their  griev- 
ances. On  Aug.  29  the  court  of 
common  pleas  at  Northampton 
was  intimidated  and  prevented 
from  issuing  executions  for 
debts,  and  during  September  the 
courts  at  Worcester,  Concord, 
and  Great  Barrington  were  also 
prevented  from  sitting.  In  the 
agitation  Luke  Day  of  West 
Springfield  and  Daniel  Shays  of 
Pelham  took  the  lead.  Both  had 
served  in  the  Revolutionary 
War,  the  former  attaining  the 
rank  of  major  by  brevet  and  the 
latter  that  of  captain.  After  in- 
terference with  the  court  at 
Springfield  on  Dec.  26,  1786,  the 
governor,  who  had  hoped  that  an 
offer  of  pardon  would  end  the 
disturbances,  ordered  out  4,400 
militia  under  the  command  of 
Gen.  Benjamin  Lincoln  of  Rev- 
olutionary fame.  Luke  Day  and 
400  men  were  billeted  upon  the 
inhabitants  of  Springfield  await- 
ing the  co-operation  of  Shays  to 
make  an  attack  upon  the  arsenal. 
The  latter,  on  account  of  a  mis- 
understanding, attacked  alone 
Jan.  25,   1787.     The  attacking 


Shea 


KFK 


149 


Sheboygan 


party  numbered  about  1,900, 
and  the  defenders,  under  Gen- 
eral Shepard,  about  1,100.  Aft- 
er a  parley  a  cannon  was  fired, 
three  insurgents  were  killed,  and 
the  others  broke  and  fled.  Many 
deserted,  and  Day's  forces  also 
scattered  upon  the  approach  of 
General  Lincoln.  Shays  at- 
tempted to  treat  for  peace,  but 
General  Lincoln  refused  to  have 
any  communication  with  him. 
Numerous  small  parties  were 
dispersed,  and  through  the  co- 
operation of  all  the  neighboring 
States,  except  Rhode  Island,  the 
insurrection  collapsed.  The  leg- 
islature of  1787  redressed  many 
of  the  grievances,  and  appointed 
a  commission  with  power  to 
grant  amnesty  to  all  except  a 
few  individuals.  At  the  trials 
afterward  held  fourteen  were 
sentenced  to  death  but  these  were 
pardoned  later.  On  June  13, 
1788,  general  amnesty  was 
granted. 

Shea,  sha,  John  Dawson 
GiLMARY  (1824-92),  American 
historian,  was  born  in  New  York 
City.  He  attended  the  Columbia 
College  Grammar  School  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  de- 
voted most  of  his  life  to  histori- 
cal work.  He  was  editor  of  the 
Historical  Magazine  from  1859 
to  1865,  and  was  a  member  of 
many  historical  societies.  Among 
his  publications  are  :  The  Dis- 
covery and  Exploration  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley  (1853)  ;  His- 
tory of  the  Catholic  Missions 
among  the  Indian  Tribes  of  the 
United  States  (1854)  ;  The  Op- 
erations of  the  French  Fleet  un- 
der Count  de  Grasse  (1864); 
and  The  Catholic  Church  of  Co- 
lonial Days  (1886).  He  also 
translated  numerous  works,  in- 
cluding Charlevoix's  History  and 
General  Descriptiott  of  New 
France  (6  vols.  1866-72),  and 
Hennepin's  Description  of  Lou- 
isiana (1880)  ;  and  edited  a  se- 
ries of  accounts  connected  with 
the  early  history  of  the  French 
colonies  (26  vols.  1857-68),  Cal- 
der's  History  of  the  Five  Na- 
tions (1866),  and  grammars  and 
dictionaries  of  the  Indian  lan- 
guages. 

Shea  Butter.  See  Butter 
Tree. 

Shear,  a  particular  form  of 
strain  produced  by  causing  plane 


spaces  proportional  to  their  dis- 
tances from  a  fixed  parallel 
plane.  Shearing  stress  is  that 
which  produces  shear  ;  it  is  tan- 
gential to  the  surface  considered. 
If,  in  the  figure  (Fig.  1),  the 
dotted  lines  represent  surfaces 
of  a  unit  cube,  distorted  by  the 
shear  to  the  full-line  position, 
and  if  p  be  the  shearing  stress 


Fig.  1 

layers  of  a  material  to  slide  par- 
allel   to    one    another  through 


Fig.  2 

or  tangential  force  distributed 
over  the  upper  surface  of  the 
unit  cube  producing  the  shear, 
then  ba/ac  is  the  shear  strain. 
If  this  be  denoted  by  s,  which  is 
the  tangent  of  the  angle  bca,  then 
p=Nj,  where  n  is  the  modulus 
of  rigidity  of  the  material.  To 
determine  the  shearing  force  in 
beams  and  bridges,  see  Graphic 
Statics.  If  a  small  vertical 
square  abcd  (Fig.  2)  in  the  web 
of  a  loaded  beam  be  considered, 
then  as  the  web  is  assumed  to 
take  up  all  the  shearing  force,  it 
is  evident  that  there  is  a  shear- 
ing force  Ti  acting  along  cd  ;  and 
since  action  and  reaction  are 
equal  and  opposite,  an  equal  and 
opposite  force  T2,  must  act  along 
AB.  To  maintain  equilibrium,  Ts 
and  Ti,  forces  equal  to  Ti  and  Tz, 
must  act  along  cb  and  ad.  Thus 
the  square  is  distorted  into  a 
rhombus,  though  the  amount  of 
the  distortion  is  usually  very 
slight.  Hence  there  is  a  com- 
pression along  AC  and  an  exten- 
sion along  BD,  these  stresses, 
shown  dotted,  being  of  equal  in- 
tensity with  the  shearing  stress 
which  produces  them.  In  this 
way  the  vertical  and  horizontal 
shearing  stresses  acting  on  the 
web  of  a  plate  girder  may  be  re- 
placed by  equal  tensile  and  com- 
pressive stresses  acting  at  angles 
of  45°  to  the  horizontal.  The 
compressive  stress  is  what  tends 
to  make  the  web  buckle,  and  to 
prevent  this  stiffeners  are  intro- 
duced. 

Shearman,  sher'man, 
Thomas  Gaskell  (1834-1900), 
American  lawyer  and  political 
economist,  was  born  in  Birming- 
ham, England,  and  in  1843  was 
brought  by  his  parents  to  Amer- 
ica, settling  in  Brooklyn.  He 


was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1859 
and  built  up  a  successful  prac- 
tice, afterwards  becoming  widely 
known  as  a  writer  on  economic 
subjects  and  an  ardent  advocate 
of  free  trade.  Among  his  works 
are  Talks  on  Free  Trade  (1881), 
Distribution  of  Wealth  (1887), 
Owners   of   the    United  States 

(1889)  ,  The  Coming  Billionaire 

(1890)  ,    Crooked  Taxation 

(1891)  ,  Taxation  of  Personal 
Property  (1895). 

Shears,  an  instrument  con- 
sisting of  two  pivoted  blades,  or 
of  a  single  piece  of  steel  bent 
round  until  the  blades  meet, 
used  for  cutting  cloth,  iron,  etc., 
and  in  sheep-shearing  and  horse- 
clipping.    See  also  Scissors. 

Shearwater,  or  Hagden 
(Puffinus),  a  genus  of  petrels, 
characterized  by  the  length  and 
slenderness  of  the  beak.  The 
nasal  tubes  are  shortened  and  de- 
pressed, and  open  separately. 
The  wings  are  long  and  pointed, 
and  the  color  is  either  uniformly 
dusky,  or  dusky  above  and  white 
below.  These  birds  are  found 
on  most  seas  of  the  world,  never 
far  from  land,  where  they  resort 
for  nesting.  The  Great  Shear- 
water (P.  major)  reaches  a 
length  of  eighteen  inches,  is  white 
beneath,  and  is  generally  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  especially  off  the  coast 
of  Newfoundland.  One  of  the 
best  known  species  is  the  Manx 
Shearwater  (P.  anglorum)  , 
only  fourteen  inches  long,  which 
breeds  on  the  west  coasts  of 
England  and  Scotland,  and  on 
the  coast  of  Ireland.  P.  opistho- 
melas,  about  fifteen  inches  long, 
of  a  uniform  sooty  grey  color,  is 
abundant  off  the  coast  of  Central 
and  Southern  California.  The 
nests  are  burrows  made  in  cliffs 
and  crevices,  and  one  or  two  eggs 
are  laid.    The  birds  are  largely 


Great  Shearwater 

nocturnal,  and  their  food  consists 
of  fish  and  molluscs. 

She'ba,  the  ancient  inhabit- 
ants of  Yemen  in  Southern  Ara- 
bia, identified  with  the  Sabseans. 
Their  queen  visited  Solomon  (1 
Kings  X.  1). 

Sheboygan,  city,  eastern 
Wisconsin,  on  Lake  Michigan  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Sheboygan 
River,  county  seat  of  Sheboygan 
county,  and  on  the  Chicago  & 
North  Western  Railroad.    It  is 


Shechem 


KFK 


150 


Sheep 


the  American  cheese  center  of 
the  world,  has  a  good  harbor,  and 
ships  100,000,000  pounds  of 
cheese  annually.  The  manufac- 
tures include  furniture,  enameled 
ware,  machinery,  oil  refining, 
shoes,  knit  goods,  gloves,  toys, 
leather,  plumbing  and  heating 
equipment,  and  electric  plants 
and  lighting  fixtures.  The  vil- 
lage was  incorporated  in  1845 
and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1853. 
Pop.  (1930)  39,251,  (1940)  40,- 
638. 

Shechem  (modern  Nablus), 
town,  Palestine,  in  a  valley  be- 
tween Mounts  Ebal  and  Gerizim 
in  Ephraim,  on  the  highroad 
from  Jerusalem  to  the  north.  It 
is  mentioned  as  far  back  as  the 
days  of  the  patriarchs.  Abime- 
lech,  the  son  of  Gideon,  after 
ruling  here  for  three  years,  de- 
stroyed the  town  (Judges  ix). 
Jeroboam,  king  of  Israel,  made 


Gen.  ix.  27  fif. ;  Isa.  xxxiii.  5). 
Later  Judaism,  shy  of  using  the 
simpler  phrases  of  an  early  re- 
ligion, conceived  that  between 
God  in  His  transcendent  glory 
and  man  came  such  intermedi- 
aries as  the  shechinah.  The  she- 
chinah  was  specially  thought  to 
dwell  between  the  cherubim 
above  the  mercy-seat  of  the  ark 
in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  Its 
form  of  a  cloud  of  light  was 
suggested  by  Ex.  xl.  34. 

Shedd,  William  Greenough 
Thayer  (1820-94),  American 
divine,  was  born  in  Acton,  Mass., 
and  was  graduated  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vermont  (1839)  and 
from  Auburn  Theological  Semi- 
nary (1843).  In  1844  he  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Church  at  Auburn,  Vt., 
and  from  1845  to  1852  was  pro- 
fessor of  English  literature  at 
his  alma  mater.    He  was  profes- 


CopyrigM  by  Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 

Shechem,  Palestine 


it  his  capital,  but  it  was  later 
forsaken  for  Tirzah  and  Sa- 
maria. It  was  conquered  and 
rebuilt  by  Vespasian,  and  named 
Flavia  Ncapolis ;  hence  its  mod- 
ern name  of  Nablus.  The  pres- 
ent town  has  several  mosques, 
the  most  important  of  which  is 
Jami  el-Kebir,  originally  a  ba- 
silica built  by  Justinian,  a  Greek 
church,  a  Roman  Catholic 
church,  and  a  number  of  schools. 
There  is  trade  in  wool  and  cot- 
ton and  soap  is  manufactured. 
Nearby  are  the  traditional  sites 
of  Jacob's  well  and  Joseph's 
tomb.  Justin  Martyr  was  born 
here.    Pop.  (1939)  19,900. 

Shechinah,  she-ki'na,  a  word 
often  used  in  the  Targums, 
meaning  the  majestic  presence 
of  God  which  has  descended  to 
dwell  among  men.  Where  the 
Hebrew  text  speaks  of  God 
dwelling  in  a  place,  the  Targum 
translates,  'Ciod  causes  His 
shechinah  to  dwell  there'  (c/. 


sor  of  sacred  rhetoric  in  Au- 
burn Seminary  during  1852-4, 
and  professor  of  church  history 
in  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary from  1854  to  1862.  He 
then  held  a  New  York  City  pas- 
torate for  a  year,  and  in  1863 
accepted  the  chair  of  Biblical  lit- 
erature in  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  New  York,  changing 
to  that  of  systematic  theology  in 
1874,  and  retiring  as  professor 
emeritus  in  1890.  His  numerous 
theological  writings  include  Lec- 
tures on  the  Philosophy  of  His- 
tory (1856),  A  History  of  Chris- 
tian Doctrine  (1865),  Homiletics 
and  Pastoral  Theology  (1867), 
The  Doctrine  of  Endless  Punish- 
ment (1886),  Dogmatic  The- 
ology (1889-94),  Orthodoxy  and 
Heterodoxy  (1893),  Calvinism 
Pure  and  Mixed  (1893). 

Shee,  Sir  Martin  Archer 
(1769-1850),  Irish  portrait 
painter,  was  born  in  Dublin.  In 
1791  he  exhibited  his  first  whole- 


length  portrait,  W.  T.  Lewis,  the 
actor  (in  National  Gallery,  Lon- 
don), a  striking  and  individual 
work;  in  1798  he  was  elected 
A.R.A.,  and  in  1880  full  member. 
On  the  death  of  Lawrence  he  be- 
came president  of  the  Academy 
(1830).  He  wrote  Rhymes  on 
Art  (1805);  a  tragedy,  Alasco 
(1824);  and  Oldcourt  (1829), 
a  novel. 

Sheen.    See  Richmond. 

Sheep,  a  ruminant  belonging 
to  the  genus  Ovis  of  the  Bovine 
family,  covered  with  a  woolly 
fleece  varying  in  length,  fineness, 
and  color.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest 
of  the  domestic  animals,  and  has 
been  of  great  usefulness  to  man, 
supplying  material  for  clothing — 
first  as  skins  with  the  fleece  at- 
tached and  later  as  woven  fab- 
rics, and  with  flesh  and  milk  for 
food.  Sheep  raising  has  pre- 
ceded civilization  in  nearly  every 
part  of  the  world,  and  was  pe- 
culiarly suited  to  the  nomadic 
life  and  needs  of  primitive 
peoples. 

The  wild  progenitors  of  the 
slieep  are  unknown,  but  are  most 
commonly  supposed  to  have  been 
the  musimon,  the  mouflon,  or  the 
argali.  The  animals  are  subject 
to  marked  variation  as  a  result 
of  environment,  soil,  feed,  cli- 
mate, and  treatment,  and  this  in 
itself  served  to  bring  about  dif- 
ferent types.  The  tendency  was 
early  taken  advantage  of  by  man, 
and,  together  with  selection  and 
breeding,  has  led  to  a  high  de- 
velopment and  the  formation  of 
numerous  breeds  with  well  de- 
fined characteristics.  The  most 
noticeable  of  these  special  quali- 
ties are  differences  in  the  length 
and  fineness  of  the  wool,  in  the 
size  of  the  animal,  and  the  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  horns ;  but 
there  are  differences,  also,  in  the 
mutton  qualities,  hardiness,  and 
adaptation  to  market  require- 
ments. 

Sheep  are  classified  according 
to  their  wool  into  fine  or  short- 
wooled,  medium,  and  long  or 
coarse-wooled  breeds.  All  of 
the  fine-wooled  sheep  of  all 
countries  are  derived  from  the 
Spanish  Merino,  which  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  oldest  race  of 
domesticated  sheep.  This  breed 
was  highly  developed  in  Spain, 
which  long  controlled  the  wool 
market  of  the  world,  and  their 
exportation  was  prohibited  ex- 
cept by  royal  favor  down  to  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century. 
Merinos  were  imported  in  1765, 
into  Saxony  where  the  wool  was 
brought  to  an  unprecedented  con- 
dition of  fineness,  and  in  1786, 
into  France,  where  they  formed 
the  basis  of  the  Rambouillet  or 
French  Merino.  It  has  not  been 
very  successfully  propagated  in 
Great  Britain,  as  the  moist  cli- 
mate is  not  favorable  to  the  pro- 


Sheep 


KFK 


152 


Sheep 


duction  of  the  finest  grades  of 
wool,  and  moreover  the  breed  is 
deficient  in  mutton  qualities.  It 
has  formed  the  basis  of  the  vast 
flocks  of  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land. It  was  imported  into  the 
United  States  early  in  the  19th 
century,  and  from  these  importa- 
tions have  resulted  the  American 
and  the  Delaine  Merinos.  The 
American  Merino  has  great  gen- 
eral adaptability  at  both  climate 
and  feed,  stands  rough  treatment, 
and  privations  as  to  food  and 
shelter,  and  is  very  valuable  for 
crossing  upon  grades  to  secure 
finer  wool.  The  fleece  lies  in 
wrinkles  over  the  entire  body, 
extending  to  the  hoofs  and  near- 
ly to  the  tip  of  the  nose.  It  is 
the  heaviest  in  proportion  to  the 
weight  of  the  animal  of  any 
breed,  the  fleece  of  mature  rams 
averaging  15  to  20  lbs.  and  of 
mature  ewes  12  to  15  lbs.  The 
Delaine  Merinos  are  larger,  of 
better  mutton  qualities,  and  have 
a  longer  fleece  of  wool,  which  is 
nearly  or  quite  as  heavy.  The 
Rambouillets  are  larger  sheep, 
and  although  the  wool  is  similar, 
the  fleece  is  not  so  heavy  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  animal. 

The  medium  or  middle-wooled 
breeds  include  the  Down  breeds 
of  England,  the  Southdown, 
Suffolk,  Hampshire,  Oxford, 
Shropshire,  and  Dorset.  These 
breeds  originated  in  the  chalk 
hills  of  Southern  England,  which 
have  been  the  home  of  a  race  of 
short-wooled  sheep  since  history 
began.  They  are  typical  mutton 
sheep,  the  Southdown,  Shrop- 
shire, and  Suffolk  being  of  espe- 
cial excellence  in  this  respect. 
Some  of  the  Down  breeds,  like 
the  Southdown,  Dorset  and 
Shropshire,  are  rather  small 
sheep,  while  the  Oxford  and 
Hampshire  are  of  good  size, 
nearly  or  quite  as  large  as  the 
Leicester.  All  except  the  Dor- 
set are  hornless,  and  several  have 
dark-brown  or  black  faces.  The 
wool  is  short  to  medium  and 
quite  fine,  but  the  fleece  averages 
lighter  than  that  of  the  Merino 
or  the  long-wooled  breeds.  It 
ranges  from  5-7  lbs.  in  the  case 
of  the  Southdown,  which  pro- 
duces the  finest  wool  of  this 
class,  to  10-12  lbs.  in  the  case  of 
the  Oxforddown,  which  yields 
the  coarsest  wool  of  the  Down 
breeds.  The  Cheviot,  also 
classed  as  a  medium-wooled 
sheep,  is  a  mountain  breed  and 
contrasts  strongly  with  the  Down 
sheep  in  external  appearance.  It 
is  larger  and  more  rangy  than 
the  Southdown,  adapted  to  a 
wider  range  of  conditions,  and 
carries  a  heavier  fleece  of  wool, 
the  average  weight  being  8  to  10 
lbs.  The  Cheviot  wool  is  said  to 
be  coarser  than  formerly. 

The  principal  long-wooled 
breeds  are  the  Leicester,  Lincoln 


and  Cotswold.  They  are  of  Eng- 
lish origin,  usually  white  faced, 
and  somewhat  coarse  in  flesh. 
The  Leicester  is  interesting  as 
being  the  first  breed  to  be  im- 
proved by  skilful  breeding,  un- 
der Robert  Bakewell,  and  has 
been  much  used  in  the  improve- 
ment of  all  the  other  long-wooled 
breeds.  The  Lincoln  is  consid- 
erably the  largest  and  heaviest  of 
the  domesticated  breeds.  Its 
fleece  weighs  12  to  14  lbs.,  and 
in  fineness  is  about  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Leicester,  which 
weighs  less — 9  to  1 1  lbs.  The 
Cotswold  is  next  to  the  Lincoln 
in  size,  and  clips  11  to  14  lbs.  of 
wool,  which  is  coarser  than  the 
Lincoln. 

Sheep-raising  has  been  chiefly 
carried  on  where  pastures  are 
available  to  furnish  feed  for  a 
large  part  of  the  year.  Sheep 
thrive  best  when  given  a  wide 
range,  and  as  they  feed  where 
cattle  could  not  live,  and  can 
withstand  hardships,  scanty  vege- 
tation and  water,  the  industry 
has  been  popular  and  profitable 
in  regions  where  there  were  ex- 
tensive areas  of  cheap  land. 
Hence  it  has  assumed  the  great- 
est proportions  in  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  Argentina,  the  western 
United  States,  parts  of  Russia, 
and  South  Africa.  These  have 
become  the  principal  sheep-rais- 
ing regions,  although  sheep  are 
raised  in  large  numbers  in  Great 
Britain,  France,  Spain  and  other 
European  countries,  and  usually 
under  much  more  careful  sys- 
tems of  management.  In  this 
country  sheep-raising  was  for- 
merly quite  extensive  in  New 
England  and  the  Middle  States, 
but  changes  in  prices,  the  tariff, 
and  other  conditions  caused  it  to 
be  pushed  on  to  the  West,  where 
free  range  could  be  had.  At 
present  it  has  assumed  consider- 
able proportions  in  the  Middle 
West,  and  is  on  the  increase. 
The  increased  demand  for  lamb 
and  mutton  has  had  much  to  do 
with  this,  as  well  as  the  favor- 
able tariff  conditions. 

In  the  eastern  United  States 
sheep  need  winter  shelter,  as  they 
suffer  if  exposed  to  driving  rains 
and  snow  which  keep  their  fleece 
wet,  although  they  will  endure 
almost  any  amount  of  cold  if  it  is 
dry.  A  shed  which  can  be  closed 
up  in  extreme  weather  is  suffi- 
cient protection  except  at  lamb- 
ing time,  and  there  should  be 
open  yards  for  the  sheep  to  run 
in  in  pleasant  weather.  Sheep 
may  be  wintered  on  straw,  corn 
fodder,  or  other  coarse  fodder, 
although  for  breeding  ewes  good 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay  is  the  best 
coarse  fodder,  with  a  grain  ra- 
tion of  oats  (unground),  peas  or 
bran,  and  some  silage  or  roots. 
In  England  the  practice  is  to 
'flush'  the  ewes,  that  is,  to  feed 


them  heavily  for  2  or  3  weeks 
before  breeding,  to  secure  more 
twin  lambs.  The  period  of  preg- 
nancy for  sheep  is  about  21 
weeks.  Lambing  time  is  a  criti- 
cal period  and  requires  the  con- 
stant attendance  of  the  shepherd 
to  look  after  the  ewes  and  young 
lambs,  especially  if  there  are 
twins.  Grain  is  often  fed  to 
lannbs  before  weaning,  as  well  as 
after.  For  this  purpose  ground 
corn  is  excellent,  with  coarsely 
cracked  peas,  and  bran  after  they 
get  older.  A  mixed  ration  of 
corn,  oats,  and  peas  is  safe  and 
well  relished.  Dwarf  Essex  rape 
is  much  prized  for  lambs,  and 
gives  an  enormous  yield  of  green 
fodder.  The  crop  can  be  cut  sev- 
eral times,  and  pastured  off  in 
the  fall.  Sheep  pastured  on  al- 
falfa are  liable  to  bloat,  old  sheep 
being  quite  as  subject  to  it  as 
young  lambs.  They  should  be 
accustomed  to  the  feed  gradually 
and  not  turned  on  it  when  they 
are  hungry  or  thirsty.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  keep  them  on  the  pasture 
night  and  day,  to  prevent  their 
eating  too  ravenously.  A  pas- 
ture of  clover,  smooth  broom- 
grass,  and  orchard  grass  is  pre- 
ferred by  many  sheep  men  to 
clover  alone,  as  it  gives  a  better 
balanced  ration  and  is  less  likely 
to  injure  the  sheep. 

'Hot-house'  lambs  are  lambs 
born  late  in  the  fall  or  early  in 
the  winter,  and  forced  for  10  or 
12  weeks  or  more,  and  killed  for 
the  early  market  when  the  prices 
are  good.  One  of  the  difficulties 
in  growing  winter  lambs  is  to 
get  the  ewes  to  breed  early 
enough. 

In  the  West  where  sheep  rais- 
ing is  conducted  on  an  extensive 
scale  the  methods  of  manage- 
ment are  very  different  from 
those  in  the  East.  There  a 
sheep-raiser  will  have  from  4,- 
000  to  100,000  sheep,  which  are 
divided  into  flocks  or  bands  of 
2,000  to  3,000  each.  Each  band 
is  under  the  constant  care  of  a 
herder,  assisted  by  one  or  two 
dogs.  The  sheep  are  taken  to 
the  feeding  ground  in  the  morn- 
ing and  allowed  to  spread  out, 
but  not  to  stray  away.  They 
keep  close  together  for  the  most 
part,  and  at  night  are  rounded 
up  near  the  herder's  tent  for  pro- 
tection against  wild  animals. 
They  soon  learn  the  habit  of 
keeping  close  together,  and  lie 
quietly.  The  herder  lives  all 
alone,  moving  camp  as  often  as 
necessary  to  secure  good  graz- 
ing, and  visited  at  intervals  by 
the  supply  wagon.  Formerly  the 
sheep  were  grazed  almost  en- 
tirely upon  the  public  domain, 
but,  with  the  settling  up  of  the 
country  and  the  competition  with 
the  cattle-raisers,  the  open  range 
has  become  insufficient,  and  the 
custom  of  leasing  large  tracts  or 


KAKAKUL  RAM  KARAKUL  EWE  AND  LAMB 

Photos  Courtesy  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  VOL.  XI. — Page  153 


Sheep 


KFK 


154 


Sheep 


acquiring  these  by  purchase  is 
becoming  more  common  among 
sheep  men,  as  well  as  cattle  men. 
In  many  cases,  however,  the 
sheep  man  does  not  own  or  lease 
his  range.  There  has  been  keen 
and  bitter  strife  between  the 
sheep  men  and  the  cattle  men  for 
grazing  ground,  which  has  sev- 
eral times  broken  out  in  open 
warfare.  Sheep  graze  much 
closer  than  cattle,  taking  every 
green  thing  as  they  pass  over  the 
ranges,  and  it  is  claimed  that  for 
this  reason  they  permanently  in- 
jure the  range.  Doubtless  much 
of  it  has  been  injured  by  too  close 
feeding  and  by  pulling  up  the 
herbage  by  the  roots.  Of  late 
the  Federal  forest  reserves  have 
been  leased  for  grazing  under 
certain  restrictions  intended  to 
prevent  permanent  injury. 

Formerly  little  feeding  was 
done  in  the  winter,  although  a 
comparatively  small  amount  of 
hay  was  put  up  for  feeding  if 
necessity  demanded.  The  neces- 
sity had,  however,  to  be  very 
great,  occasioned  by  extreme 
weather  and  deep  snows,  which 
prevented  the  sheep  from  getting 
at  the  feed.  This  is  still  the  case 
to  some  extent  in  the  Southwest, 
and  even  in  parts  of  Wyoming 
and  Montana  sufficient  forage 
for  sheep  is  found  in  the  moun- 
tains throughout  the  year.  Un- 
der such  conditions  sheep  can  be 
managed  at  a  cost  of  75  cents  to 
$1  a  head  annually.  The  winter 
range  is  usually  near  the  ranch 
house ;  but  aftisr  shearing  and 
lambing  time  the  sheep  are 
driven  into  the  mountains  and 
pastured  there  until  the  snow  of 
late  fall  forces  them  out  into  the 
valleys. 

Under  the  old  system  of  range 
management  there  was  little 
possibility  of  improving  the 
herds.  Water  was  not  readily 
accessible  and  was  frequently 
foul  and  dangerous ;  there  was 
little  winter  feeding,  which  re- 
sulted in  periods  of  semi-starva- 
tion ;  and  there  were  no  build- 
ings or  sheds  for  protection  from 
the  extreme  cold.  There  are 
now  a  considerable  number  of 
sheep-raisers  who  provide  better 
conditions,  grow  alfalfa  hay  in 
large  quantities  in  the  irrigable 
valleys  for  winter  feeding,  and 
provide  feeding  corrals  and  sheds 
at  the  winter  quarters.  Better 
rams  are  used  than  formerly,  and 
crosses  formed  which  give  better 
lamb  and  mutton,  while  preserv- 
ing the  wool  production.  A  gen- 
eral purpose  of  sheep-bearing 
wool  of  medium  fineness  is  pre- 
ferred by  the  sheepraisers  of  the 
Northwest.  Coarse- wooled 
bucks,  Lincoln  or  Cotswold,  are 
used  for  two  or  three  years,  and 
then  to  prevent  the  wool  becom- 
ing too  coarse  a  change  is  made 
to  the  Merino  type,  the  Ram- 


bouillet  being  popular  for  this 
purpose. 

Shearing  is  an  important  part 
of  the  season's  operations  on  a 
large  ranch.  This  is  done  in 
spring,  after  lambing,  and  usu- 
ally by  professional  shearers, 
who  start  in  the  extreme  south- 
west in  the  early  spring,  and 
gradually  work  northward,  the 
season  ending  in  Montana  about 
the  middle  of  July.  These  men 
become  so  expert  that  they  are 
able  to  average  100  sheep  a  day, 
and  the  record  runs  as  high  as 
250.  Hand-shearing  was  for- 
merly practised,  but  this  is  being 
superseded  on  large  establish- 
ments by  machine  shearing. 
With  these,  more  wool  is  se- 
cured (from  H  to  1  lb.  per 
sheep),  the  fleece  is  left  evener, 
and  there  is  less  danger  of  cut- 
ting the  animals.  The  shearing 
plants  are  operated  by  a  gasoline 
engine  or  an  electric  motor  and 
are  equipped  with  all  the  way 
from  10  to  40  clippers.  Thus 
the  labor  of  shearing  a  flock  of 
several  thousand  may  be  accom- 
plished within  a  few  days.  See 
also  Wool. 

The  following  recent  Ameri- 
can books  upon  sheep  and  sheep- 
raising  may  be  consulted :  W.  C. 
Coffey,  Productive  Sheep  Hus- 
bandry (1929),  Ed.  2,  rev.  by 
W.  G.  Kammlade  ;  J.  M.  Cooper, 
Range  Sheep  Production  (1933), 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bull.  1710;  F.  R.  Mar- 
shall and  R.  B.  Millin,  Farm 
Sheep  Raising  for  Beginners 
(1934),  rev.  by  D.  A.  Spencer 
and  C.  G.  Potts,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bull.  840  ; 
H.  C.  McPhee  and  D.  A.  Spen- 
cer, Breeding  Problems  ztn'th 
Sheep  (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agricul- 
ture Yearbook  1936)  ;  D.  A. 
Spencer,  Feeding  Problems  zirith 
Sheep  (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agricul- 
ture Yearbook  1939)  ;  F.  S. 
Hultz  and  J.  A.  Hill,  Range 
Sheep  and  Wool  (1931);  Hor- 
lacher,  L.  Jackson,  C.  Ham- 
monds, Sheep  (1936)  ;  Sheep 
Authorities,  The  Golden  Hoof 
(The  Sheep  Breeder,  Union 
Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  1936). 

Diseases. — Parasitic.  Among 
parasitic  attacks  fluke  disease,  or 
liver  rot,  has  been  known  since 
the  16th  century,  and  is  very 
widespread.  Flukes  commonly 
exist  in  the  bile  ducts,  but  it  is 
only  when  the  conditions  are  fa- 
vorable that  they  are  ingested  in 
sufficient  nvimbers  to  produce 
disease.  They  do  not  breed  in 
the  liver,  but  only  become  ma- 
tured there.  After  reaching  ma- 
turity the  flukes  begin  to  lay  or 
produce  eggs  which  are  passed 
out  with  the  faeces.  Their  fur- 
ther development  is  traced  under 
Liver  Fluke.  The  chief  pre- 
disposing causes  are  wet  sea- 
sons, and  the  pasturing  of  sheep 


on  undrained.  low-lying  lands. 
This  influences  the  abundance 
and  distribution  of  snails,  which 
act  as  intermediate  hosts.  It  is 
good  practice  to  keep  salt  before 
sheep  or  to  administer  salt  at 
stated  intervals.  Sheep  on  salt 
marshes  do  not  suffer  from  the 
rot,  because  snails  do  not  find 
favorable  conditions  for  propa- 
gation in  such  areas.  Draining 
infected  land  is  advocated  by 
the  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Burning  the  grass  also  helps. 

Invasion  takes  place  during 
the  autumn  months.  From  six 
weeks  to  three  months  elapse  be- 
fore the  symptoms  appear.  The 
first  symptom  is  followed  by 
gradual  anemia,  diarrhoea,  and 
death  in  from  three  to  six 
months.  Carbon  tetrachloride 
has  been  found  to  be  an  effective 
anthelmintic  treatment.  The 
flesh  is  wholesome  in  the  early 
stages  of  this  disease. 

Parasitic  bronchitis,  'husk,'  or 
'hoose,'  is  a  troublesome  dis- 
order affecting  lambs  more  than 
adult  sheep.  The  cause  is  the 
presence  of  thread-like  worms 
(generally  Dictyocaulus  filaria) 
in  the  air-passages.  The  symp- 
toms are  fits  of  coughing,  dis- 
charge from  the  nostrils,  diffi- 
cult breathing,  diarrhoea,  and 
loss  of  condition.  Isolate  the 
worst  cases.  The  whole  flock 
should  be  dosed  several  times  in 
succession  with  vermifuge  rem- 
edies ;  this  may  improve  the  con- 
dition of  the  flock,  but  it  will 
have  no  effect  on  lungworm  in- 
fection. After  treatment  the 
flock  should  be  moved  to  fresh 
pastures.  Good  feeding  is  es- 
sential to  maintain  strength. 
Prevention  consists  in  avoiding 
pastures  for  lambs  that  have 
been  much  grazed  by  sheep. 

Gid  is  caused  by  the  cystic 
form  of  the  tapeworm  Multicens 
multicens  of  the  dog.  The  ova 
of  this  worm,  dropped  on  pas- 
tures by  dogs  and  foxes,  are  in- 
gested by  sheep,  develop  into 
bladder-worms  in  their  brains, 
cause  giddiness,  loss  of  cerebral 
function,  disease,  and  death. 
Treatment  is  useless.  Sheep 
should  be  butchered  and  the  head 
burned.  The  disease  occurs 
rarely  in  Montana. 

Sheep  scab  is  a  parasitic  skin 
affection  caused  by  acarids, 
which  bite  the  skin,  and  live  on 
the  serous  fluid.  Scab  damages 
the  wool,  the  skins,  and  the 
health  of  the  sheep,  besides  plac- 
ing owners  under  troublesome 
legal  restrictions.  It  is  highly 
contagious.  The  parasites  are 
just  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
They  cause  an  intense  itching. 
The  wool  falls  off  in  patches,  or 
hangs  in  ragged  tufts.  Crusts  or 
scabs  form  on  the  skin  where 
the  discharge  dries,  and  under 
these  the  parasites  shelter.  The 


m  1 4  mz 


Sheep-dip  KFK  155  Sheffield 


back  and  shoulders  are  the  parts 
chiefly  affected.  Affected  sheep 
lose  flesh  and  may  die  of  exhaus- 
tion if  not  treated.  This  consists 
of  isolation  and  repeated  dipping 
in  lime-sulphur  or  some  other 
dip. 

The  louse  or  tick  (Mclophagns 
oviniis)  is  an  external  parasite 
troublesome  to  sheep.  See 
Sheep-louse. 

Infective  or  Bacterial. — Vari- 
ola ovina,  or  sheep-pox,  has  been 
known  since  the  13th  century. 
It  is  very  similar  to  smallpox  of 
man.  The  disease  does  not  oc- 
cur in  the  United  States. 

Anthrax  attacks  sheep  in  an 
acute  form,  and  causes  death  in 
a  few  hours.  The  Bacillus  an- 
thracis  is  found  in  the  blood. 
The  disease  known  as  'braxy'  in 
Scotland  is  believed  to  be  an- 
thrax. Protective  inoculation  is 
not  very  successful.  Black  leg 
is  a  serious  disease  affecting 
sheep,  and  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  micro-organisms  in  the  sub- 
cutaneous tissues.  The  affected 
limb  or  quarter  becomes  much 
swollen,  crackles  under  pres- 
sure ;  there  is  lameness,  and  the 
sheep  dies  in  a  short  time.  Inoc- 
ulation with  attenuated  virus  is 
successful  in  preventing  this  dis- 
ease. 

Malignant  oedema  and  other 
forms  of  septicaemia  occur  in 
sheep,  not  infrequently  from  in- 
fection of  the  small  wounds 
made  during  shearing. 

Septic  metritis  is  a  serious 
contagious  disease  occurring 
after  lambing  in  ewes,  and  is 
known  as  'heaving'  or  parturi- 
tion fever.  It  is  essentially  an 
inflammation  of  the  womb  caused 
by  the  entrance  of  a  specific  or- 
ganism, probably  together  with 
some  putrid  material.  The  con- 
tagion is  readily  conveyed  by  the 
infected  hands  of  the  shepherd, 
or  by  infected  pens  and  litter. 
The  treatment  is  to  isolate  af- 
fected ewes,  change  the  lambing 
pen,  disinfect  the  place. 

General  diseases  include  sim- 
ple and  contagious  foot  rot,  ma- 
lignant aphtha  (an  eruptive  dis- 
ease affecting  the  lips  and 
mouth),  pleurisy,  pneumonia, 
gangrene,  and  other  diseases  of 
the  udder.  Sheep  do  not  suffer 
from  tuberculosis  to  any  appre- 
ciable extent. 

Sheep-dip,  an  antiparasitic 
and  disinfecting  composition 
used  in  the  periodical  washing 
of  sheep.  The  dip  most  used  in 
the  United  States  is  a  boiled  so- 
lution of  lime  and  sulphur.  See 
Sheep. 

Sheep-dog",  Old  English. 
See  Old  English  Sheep-dog. 

Sheep-louse,  or  Sheep-tick 
(Melophagus  ovinus) ,  a  common 
dipterous  insect,  which  feeds 
upon  the  blood  of  sheep  and 
lambs.    It  belongs  to  the  family 


Hippoboscidse,  the  family  to 
which  the  forest-fly  also  belongs, 
but  differs  from  that  insect  in 
the  absence  of  wings.  There  is 
indeed  no  external  resemblance 
to  a  fly,  for  the  body  is  flat  and 
round  and  the  legs  hooked  and 
powerful  and  admirably  adapted 
for  moving  about  among  the  wool 


Sheep-louse 


of  the  sheep.  The  egg  is  hatched 
within  the  body  of  the  mother, 
and  there  undergoes  the  early 
part  of  its  development.  It  is 
then  deposited  in  the  wool  of 
the  sheep  as  living  larvae,  which 
in  a  few  hours  after  deposi- 
tion are  transformed  into  pupae, 
and  from  these  the  imagoes 
emerge.  Various  sheep  dips, 
and  also  pyrethrum  powder  may 
be  used  for  their  extermination. 

Sheepshanks,  John  (1787- 
1863),  English  art  patron,  was 
born  in  Leeds.  He  acquired  a 
collection  representative  of  mod- 
ern British  art,  and  in  1857  made 
it  over  to  the  British  nation.  It 
comprises  233  pictures  in  oil  and 
289  drawings  and  sketches,  and 
is  housed  in  South  Kensington 
Museum,  London. 

Sheepshanks,  Richard 
(1794-1855),  English  astrono- 
mer, was  born  in  Leeds.  He 
became  a  fellow  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  in  1817,  a  po- 
sition he  retained  throughout  his 
life.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1825  and  took  orders  in  the 
Church  of  England  but  never 
practised  either  profession,  being 
more  inclined  toward  scientific 
pursuits.  He  was  intimately  as- 
sociated with  Sir  George  Airy, 
and  at  his  own  expense  recon- 
structed the  standard  of  length 
(adopted  1855),  which  had  been 
destroyed  in  1834  at  the  fire  of 
the  Houses  of  Parliament. 

Sheepshead  (Archosargns 
prohatocephalus) ,  a  marine  fish 
belonging  to  the  family  sparidae 
(porgies),  found  on  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts  of  the  United 
States.  It  reaches  a  weight  of 
fifteen  pounds,  and  is  prized  as 
a  food  fish.  It  takes  its  name 
from  the  sheep-like  outline  of  its 
head  and  teeth  ;  and  for  a  simi- 
lar reason  the  fresh-water  drum 
of  the  Mississippi  valley  is  local- 
ly called  'sheepshead.' 

Sheerness,  sher-nes',  seaport, 
Sheppey  Island,  England,  in 
Kent,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Med- 
way ;  17  miles  n.e.  of  Maidstone. 


It  is  mainly  important  for  the 
government  dockyard,  enclosed 
and  strongly  fortified,  which 
comprises  the  district  of  Blue 
Town.  On  the  shore  of  the 
Thames  estuary  and  the  Med- 
way  is  the  watering-place  Sheer- 
ness-on-Sea.  Sheerness  was 
taken  by  the  Dutch  under  De 
Ruyter  (1667).    Pop.  16,721. 

Sheet  Piles,  flat  piles  driven 
successively  edge  to  edge  so  as 
to  form  a  vertical  sheet  to  ex- 
clude water.  See  Piles  and 
Pile  Driving. 

Sheffield,  city,  England,  in 
the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
on  the  Don ;  40  miles  east  of 
Manchester.  Features  of  inter- 
est include  the  parish  church  of 
St.  Peter's,  a  cruciform  building 
of  the  14th  and  15th  centuries 
whose  Shrewsbury  Chapel  (time 
of  Henry  viii)  contains  monu- 
ments of  the  Talbot  family  ;  the 
town  hall,  an  edifice  in  the  Ren- 
aissance style,  opened  by  Queen 
Victoria  (1897)  ;  Cutlers'  Hall, 
the  market  halls,  the  free  and 
Sheffield  libraries  ;  and  a  bronze 
statue  of  Queen  Victoria.  The 
university  was  opened  by  King 
Edward  vii  and  Queen  Alexan- 
dra (July,  1905). 

Sheffield  is  the  chief  seat  of 
the  British  cutlery  manufacture, 
in  which  it  has  held  pre-eminence 
since  the  14th  century.  The 
Cutlers'  Company  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1624.  The  manufacture 
of  armor  plate  for  battleships, 
guns,  steel  rails,  and  all  kinds  of 
heavy  steel  goods,  files,  saws,  and 
other  mechanical  tools,  is  car- 
ried on,  and  there  are  large  silver 
and  electroplating  works,  tanner- 
ies and  chemical  works  and  pa- 
per mills.  In  the  Norman  castle 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  passed 
most  of  her  captivity  between 
1570  and  1584.  The  castle  was 
taken  by  the  Parliament  (1644), 
and  afterwards  dismantled.  Pop. 
(1937  est.)  518,200. 

Sheffield,  city,  Alabama,  in 
Colbert  county,  on  Lake  Pick- 
wick, in  the  Muscle  Shoals  area; 
2  miles  north  of  Tuscumbia. 
The  leading  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  hydro-electric 
power,  ferro  silicon,  aluminum, 
fertilizer,  ammonium  nitrate, 
stoves  and  cast  light  poles.  In 
the  vicinity  are  U.  S.  government 
nitrate  plants  No.  1  and  No.  2 
and  Wilson  Dam.  It  was  found- 
ed in  1884.    Pop.  (1940)  8.004. 

Sheffield,  John,  third  Earl 
OF  Mulgrave  and  first  Duke 
OF  Buckingham  and  Norman- 
BY  (1648-1721),  political  lead- 
er, enlisted  as  a  naval  vol- 
unteer in  the  Dutch  wars  in 
1672  and  later  intrigued  against 
Monmovith,  and  was  rewarded 
with  the  favor  of  James, 
Duke  of  York.  But  he  did  not 
become  a  Roman  Catholic, 
and  submitted  to  William  and 


Sheffield 


KFK 


156 


Shekel 


Mary.  Though  a  leader  of  the 
Tories,  he  inclined  to  support  the 
government,  and  was  created 
Marquis  of  Normanby  in  1694. 
He  later  fell  into  disfavor  with 
William,  but  Anne  created  him 
Duke  of  Buckinghamshire  (1703). 
He  intrigued  with  the  Electress 
Sophia  of  Hanover,  but  when 
George  i.  came  to  the  throne  he 
was  removed  from  office,  and 
died  an  active  Jacobite  sym- 
pathizer. He  is  the  author  of 
several  poems  and  prose  works. 

Sheffield,  Joseph  Earle 
(1793-1882),  American  merchant 
and  philanthropist,  was  born  in 
Southport,  Conn.  He  received  a 
common-school  education,  be- 
ginning work  as  a  clerk  in  New- 
bern,  N.  C,  in  1808.  Five  years 
afterwards  he  entered  a  New 
York  City  commercial  firm  as 
partner,  with  residence  in  New- 
bern.  He  subsequently  removed 
to  Mobile,  Ala.,  where  he  made  a 
large  fortune  as  a  cotton  mer- 
chant. He  lived  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  after  1835,  engaged  in 
railway  financiering,  and  was 
largely  instrumental  in  securing 
a  charter  for  the  New  York,  New 
Haven,  and  Hartford  Railroad. 
He  was  an  early  advocate  of 
popular  scientific  education,  and 
in  1860  brought  about  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  Yale  scientific 
department,  which  was  named 
the  Shefiield  Scientific  School  in 
honor  of  his  personal  and  finan- 
cial aid.  To  it  he  gave  more  than 
$450,000  during  life  and  $500,000 
by  will. 

Sheffield  Plate.    See  Silver- 
smith's Work. 
Sheffield  Scientific  School. 

See  Yale  University. 
'  Sheik,  shek  (Arab,  shaikh,  'an 
old  man'),  a  title  of  respect 
among  Mohammedans,  applied 
to  an  elder,  chief,  or  head  of  an 
Arab  tribe. 

Sheil,  shel,  Richard  Lalor 
(1791-1851),  Irish  dramatist  and 
political  leader,  was  born  in 
Drumdowney,  Kilkenny  County. 
In  1822  he  contributed  'Sketches 
of  the  Irish  Bar,'  in  which  he 
collaborated  with  Curran,  to  the 
New  Monthly  Magazine,  re- 
published in  the  United  States  by 
R.  S.  Mackenzie  (1854).  As  a 
reformer  he  was  not  so  whole- 
hearted as  O'Connell,  but  he 
joined  the  Catholic  Association, 
and  took  a  large  part  in  the  agi- 
tation which  resulted  in  Catho- 
lic emancipation  (1829).  Subse- 
quently he  entered  Parliament, 
and  in  Melbourne's  administra- 
tion he  was  vice  president  of  the 
Board  of  Trade,  and  the  first 


Roman  Catholic  to  be  created  a 
Privy  Councillor  ;  and  in  Lord 
John  Russell's  administration 
(1846)  he  was  master  of  the  mint. 
In  1850  he  became  British  minis- 
ter to  Tuscany.  His  oratory  was 
elaborate,  prepared,  and  rather 
artificial,  but  on  occasion  he  was 
capable  of  electrifying  his  audi- 
ence.   Among  his  tragedies  and 


Shekel,  shek"l,  an  ancient 
Babylonian,  Hebrew  and  Phoe- 
nician monetary  unit,  60  of 
which  were  equal  to  one  mina, 
and  60  minas  to  one  talent. 
Until  the  exile  the  Hebrews  did 
not  use  coins.  They  weighed 
the  gold  or  silver  which  was^ 
their  medium  of  exchange.  The" 
shekel  was  then  a  standard  of 


Marine  Studios  Photo 


SHEEPSHEADS  SWIMMING  ABOUT  A  DIVER  WALKING  ON 
THE  OCEAN  FLOOR 
A  grouper  is  below  them. 


adaptations  are  The  Emigrants 
(1814),  Evadne  (1819),  The 
Huguenot  (1819),  and  Montoni 
(1820). 

Shekarry,  she-kar'i,  or  Shi- 
kari, a  Hindu  word  for  a  sports- 
man. It  is  used  in  three  ways  : 
(1.)  As  applied  to  a  native  expert, 
who  either  brings  in  game  on  his 
own  account  or  accompanies 
European  sportsmen  as  guide 
and  aid.  (2.)  As  applied  to  the 
European  sportsman  himself. 
(3.)  A  shooting  boat  used  on 
the  Kashmir  lakes. 


weight ;  but  the  weights  were  of 
stone,  kept  in  a  bag  (Prov.  xvi. 
11).  To  save  trouble,  ingots  of  a 
known  weight  were  employed  (1 
Sam.  ix.  8)  ;  but  these  were  not 
stamped  and  guaranteed  like 
coins.  The  heavy  gold  shekel  of 
this  period  probalDly  weighed  253 
grains  troy,  the  heavy  silver 
shekel  224,  with  modern  values, 
respectively,  of  $10.88  and  72i/4 
cents,  a  ratio  of  15  to  one.  On 
the  return  from  exile  the  priests 
introduced  the  'shekel  of  the 
sanctuary,'  equivalent  to  the  old 


Shekinah  KFK  157  Sheldrake 


silver  shekel.  In  this,  not  in  the 
Perso-Bab^^lonian  shekel,  all  tem- 
ple dues  were  to  be  paid.  In 
138-129  B.C.  Antiochus  Sidetes 
granted  Simon  the  Hasmonsean 
leave  to  coin  money  with  his  own 
stamp  (1  Mace.  xv.  5  /.).  It  is 
not,  however,  proved  that  Simon 
ever   used  this  power  to  coin 


Shekel,  time  of  Judas 


shekels.  During  the  revolt  of 
66-70  A.D.,  shekels  and  half 
shekels  of  silver  were  coined. 
These  bear  in  old  Hebrew 
characters  the  legends  'Jerusa- 
lem the  Holy'  and  'Shekel  of  Is- 
rael,' and  as  emblems  a  chalice 
or  a  flowering  lily. 

Shekinah.    See  Shechinah. 

Shelburne,  William  Petty, 
Earl  of.     See  Landsdovvne. 

Shel'burne,  town,  Nova  Sco- 
tia, Canada,  on  the  south  shore, 
on  the  Canadian  National  Rail- 
road ;  80  miles  east  of  Yarmouth. 
Industries  include  fish  curing 
and  packing,  machinery,  ship- 
building and  woodenware.  It  is 
the  seat  of  Shelburne  County 
Academy  and  the  Academy  Li- 
brary.   Pop.  (1931)  1,479. 

Shelby,  city.  North  Carolina, 
county  seat  of  Cleveland  county, 
on  the  Seaboard  Air  Line  and 
the  Southern  Railroads  ;  50  miles 
west  of  Charlotte.  Textile  mills, 
lumber  plants  and  lumber  mills 
are  the  leading  industries.  Pop. 
(1930)  10,789;  (1940)  14,037. 

Shelby,  town,  Ohio,  in  Rich- 
land county,  on  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  and  the  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St. 
Louis  Railroads  ;  72  miles  s.w. 
of  Cleveland.  It  is  an  industrial 
center,  manufacturing  steel  tub- 
ing, bicycles,  salesbooks,  hard- 
ware, automotive  equipment,  sig- 
nal systems,  chewing  gum,  and 
paper  boxes.  The  city  owns  and 
operates  its  own  water  and  light 
plants.  Seltzer  Memorial  Park 
affords  a  recreational  center  with 
a  municipal  swimming  pool.  The 
Marvin  Memorial  Library  is  a 
feature  of  interest  and  the  dis- 
trict raises  considerable  grain. 
It  was  settled  about  1825  and 
incorporated  in  1853.  Pop. 
(1930)  6,198;  (1940)  6,643. 

Shelby,  Isaac  (1750-1826), 
American  soldier  and  pioneer, 
was  born  in  North  Mountain, 
Md.  In  1771  he  removed  with 
his  father  to  Tennessee  and 
served  in  1774  as  a  lieutenant  in 
the  battle  of  Point  Pleasant 
against  the  Indians.  In  July, 
1776,   at   the   battle   of  Long 


Island  Flats,  by  coolness  and 
skill  he  saved  the  frontier  forces 
from  annihilation.  In  1780  he 
defeated  British  detachments  at 
Thicketty  Fort,  Cedar  Springs, 
and  Musgrove's  Mill,  and  in  con- 
junction with  John  Sevier  (q.  v.) 
won  the  important  battle  of 
King's  Mountain.  He  after- 
wards served  against  the  British 
around  Charleston,  during  1782- 
83  was  a  commissioner  to  survey 
the  lands  allotted  to  the  North 
Carolina  soldiers  and  soon  after 
settled  at  Boonesborough,  Ky. 
When  Kentucky  was  admitted  to 
the  Union  he  was  elected  its  first 
governor,  but  refused  a  re-elec- 
tion. Upon  the  outbreak  of  the 
War  of  1812,  however,  he  once 
more  accepted  the  office  ;  and  in 
1813  led  a  body  of  volunteers 
northward  to  assist  General 
Harrison,  and  rendered  services 
at  the  battle  of  the  Thames  for 
which  he  afterwards  received  a 
gold  medal  and  the  thanks  of 
Congress  and  the  Kentucky  leg- 
islature. 

Shelbyville,  city,  Illinois, 
county  seat  of  Shelby  county,  on 
the  Kaskaskia  River  and  on  the 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago 
and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Chicago 
and  Eastern  Illinois  Railroads ; 
54  miles  s.e.  of  Springfield. 
Leading  industries  are  dairying 
and  livestock  raising,  and  the 
manufacture  of  women's  wear 
and  agricultural  machinery.  It 
has  the  largest  haypress  factory 
in  the  United  States  and  a  large 
hairpin  factory.  The  city  pos- 
sesses a  Carnegie  Library.  It 
was  settled  about  1820.  Pop. 
(1930)   3,491;   (1940)  4,092. 

Shelbyville,  city,  Indiana, 
county  seat  of  Shelby  county,  on 
the  Blue  River,  and  on  the 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis 
Railroads ;  27  miles  s.e.  of  In- 
dianapolis. It  is  an  important 
shipping  point  for  the  products 
of  the  district,  which  include 
livestock  and  grain.  The  lead- 
ing manufacture  is  furniture. 
Other  products  are  lumber,  flour, 
carriages,  mirrors,  glue  and 
brick.  It  has  a  Carnegie  Li- 
brary. Pop.  (1930)  10,618; 
(1940)  10,791. 

Shelbyville,  city,  Kentucky, 
county  seat  of  Shelby  county,  on 
the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio,  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville,  and  the 
Southern  Railroads ;  30  miles 
east  of  Louisville.  It  is  a  com- 
mercial town  and  an  important 
leaf  tobacco  market,  and  there 
are  two  large  flour  mills.  The 
district  raises  hemp,  tobacco, 
grain,  and  livestock.  The  in- 
stitutions include  the  Science 
Hill  School  for  girls,  established 
in  1830,  a  home  for  aged  Masons, 
King's  Daughters  Hospital,  and 
a  Carnegie  Library.  Pop. 
(1930)  4,033;  (1940)  4,392. 


Shelbyville,  town,  Tennes- 
see, county  seat  of  Bedford 
county,  on  the  Nashville,  Chat- 
tanooga and  St.  Louis  Railroad ; 
50  miles  s.e.  of  Nashville.  It 
has  diversified  manufacturing  in- 
terests, including  machine-shop 
products,  flour,  lead  pencils, 
harness,  mattresses,  hosiery, 
knitting  mill  and  rubber-cotton 
fabrics.  It  is  also  of  consider- 
able importance  as  a  shipping 
point  for  grain  and  mules.  Pop. 
(1930)  5,010;  (1940)  6,537. 

Shel'don,  city,  Iowa,  in 
O'Brien  county,  on  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul,  the  Il- 
linois Central  and  the  Chicago, 
St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha 
Railroads;  57  miles  northeast  of 
Sioux  City.  It  is  a  commercial 
center,  carrying  on  a  large 
wholesale  trade,  and  shipping 
grain  and  livestock.  Industries 
include  flour  mills  and  tobacco 
factories.  Pop.  (1930)  3,320; 
(1940)  3,768. 

Sheldon,  Charles  Monroe 
(1857-  ),  American  clergy- 
man and  author,  was  born  in 
Wellsville,  N.  Y.  He  was  grad- 
uated from'  Brown  University 
(1883),  and  from  Andover  The- 
ological Seminary  in  1886.  He 
became  pastor  of  the  Central 
Congregational  Church  at  To- 
peka,  Kan.  (1889-1912);  min- 
ister-at-large  of  the  same  church 
(1912-15)  ;  and  active  pastor 
again  (1915-19).  Mr.  Sheldon 
advocated  a  closer  and  more 
practical  adherence  to  the  ex- 
ample and  teachings  of  Jesus  in 
everyday  life  than  he  deemed 
prevalent  among  Christians,  and 
some  of  his  books,  such  as  In 
His  Steps  (1896),  of  which  24 
translations  have  been  made  and 
23,000,000  copies  sold,  called 
forth  wide  discussion.  In  1900 
he  received  permission  to  con- 
duct a  Topeka  daily  paper  for 
a  week  according  to  his  ideas  of 
what  a  Christian  daily  should 
be.  He  was  editor  of  the  Chris- 
tian _  Herald  (1920-25).  His 
published  works  include  Richard 
Bruce  (1891),  John  King's  Ques- 
tion Class  (1894),  Lend  a  Hand 
(1897),  The  Redemption  of 
Freetown  (1898),  The  Reformer 
(1902),  The  Heart  of  the  World 
(1905),  A  Sheldon  Year  Book 
(1909),  A  Little  Book  for  Every 
Day  (1917),  All  the  World 
(1918).  In  His  Steps  Today 
(1921),    The    Everyday  Bible 

(1924)  ,      Tzco      Old  Friends 

(1925)  ,  Life  Story  (1926).  Let's 
Talk  It  Over  (1929)  ;  The 
Treasure  Book  (1930);  He  Is 
Here  (1931);  The  Marks  of  a 
Christian  (1935)  ;  A  Vote  on 
War  (1935)  ;  All  Over  Forty 
(1935). 

Sheldrake,  shel'drak,  or 
Sheld-drake  (Tadorna  cor- 
nuta),  also  called  bargander  and 
burrow-duck,  a  handsome  mem- 


Shell 


KFK 


158 


Shelley 


ber  of  the  duck  family,  which  is 
resident  throughout  the  year  in 
Canada,  and  is  abundant  in  the 
east  of  Scotland.  It  is  distrib- 
uted generally  over  the  north 
temperate  region  of  the  Old 
World,  and  is  usually  a  coast 
bird,  haunting  sandy  regions 
where  it  frequently  nests  in  the 
burrow  of  the  rabbit ;  hence  one 
of  its  popular  names.    The  food 


Sheldrake 


consists  of  water  plants,  mol- 
luscs, and  insects,  and  the  bird 
has  a  powerful  and  heavy  flight. 
It  is  boldly  marked  in  black  and 
white  on  the  body,  the  head  and 
neck  are  glossy-green,  and  a 
broad  band  across  the  back  and 
breast  is  a  rich  chestnut.  There 
is  also  a  brown  line  down  the 
under  surface.  The  bill,  which 
has  a  basal  knob,  is  red  and  the 
feet  pink.  The  female  is  duller 
in  color  than  her  mate.  The 
ruddy  sheldrake  (T.  casarca),  a 
species  largely  orange-brown  in 
color,  is  the  Brahmany  duck  of 
India. 

Shell,  a  term  applied  very 
generally  to  the  hard  outer  cov- 
ering of  many  animals,  as  well 
as  to  the  internal  hard  parts  of 
some  invertebrates,  and  to  the 
covering  of  the  egg  in  various 
animals.  In  the  simplest  ani- 
mals, or  Protozoa,  there  is  fre- 
ciuently  an  external  shell,  which 
may  be  of  lime,  as  in  many  Fora- 
minifera ;  of  flint,  as  in  many 
Radiolaria,  or  may  even  consist 
of  an  aggregation  of  particles  of 
sand,  or  of  sponge  spicules.  The 
shell-bearing  animals  par  excel- 
lence, however,  are  the  Mollusca, 
in  which,  except  in  cuttles  and 
in  some  gasteropods,  the  body  is 
lodged  in  a  calcareous  structure 
formed  by  the  mantle  or  skin. 
This  shell  consists  of  an  outer 
horny  layer  composed  of  a  sub- 
stance called  conchiolin,  a  medi- 
an layer  of  prisms  of  lime,  and 
an  internal  layer  of  mother-of- 
pearl.  The  shell  is  added  to  at 
its  margin,  and  increases  with 
the  increase  in  size  of  its  occu- 
pant. Though  in  popular  lan- 
guage the  Crustacea  share  with 
the  Mollusca  the  title  of  'shell- 
fish,' their  shell  is  in  reality  only 
a  calcification  of  the  chitinous 
cuticle  present  in  arthropods 
generally,  and  is  periodically 
cast  and  renewed.  In  echino- 
derms  the  deposit  of  lime  which 


typically  occurs  in  the  mesoderm 
is  sometimes  sufficiently  well  de- 
veloped to  give  rise  to  an  ap- 
parent shell.  This  is  best  seen  in 
the  sea-urchins.  The  aberrant 
brachiopods  have  an  external 
shell  which  presents  some  re- 
semblance to  that  of  bivalves 
among  molluscs. 

Shell.    See  Ammunition. 

Shellac,  shel-lak',  a  resin  pre- 
pared from  the  exudation  re- 
sulting from  the  puncture  of  the 
branches  of  Ficus  indica  and  sim- 
ilar East  Indian  trees  by  an  in- 
sect. Coccus  lacca.  The  product, 
or  'stick  lac,'  is  removed,  form- 
ing 'seed'  or  'grain  lac,'  which, 
after  melting  in  boiling  water, 
and  being  poured  out  on  a  cold 
surface,  forms  semi-transparent 
brittle  flakes  of  a  deep  orange 
color  called  shellac.  Shellac 
melts  when  heated,  and  burns 
with  a  luminous  flame,  giving 
off  a  rather  agreeable  odor.  It 
dissolves  in  alcohol,  and  in  so- 
lutions of  borax  and  of  alkalis, 
and  is  largely  used  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  varnishes,  French  pol- 
ish, lacquer,  and  sealing-wax. 

Shellala,  or  Shuluhs.  See 
Berbers. 

Shelley,  Harry  Rowe 
(1858-  ),  American  organist 
and  composer,  was  born  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Gustav  J.  Stoeckel,  Dudley 
Buck,  Vogrich,  and  Dvorak  and 
after  several  years  further  study 
in  Paris  he  became  organist  of 
Plymouth  Church  and  then  of 
the  Church  of  the  Pilgrims  in 
Brooklyn,  going  in  1899  to  the 
Fifth  Avenue  Baptist  Church  in 
New  York  City  as  musical  di- 
rector. Among  his  compositions 
are  a  sacred  cantata,  The  Inherit- 
ance Divine ;  a  Te  Deum ;  an 
opera,  Leila;  a  symphonic  poem. 
The  Crusaders ;  a  fantasy  for  pi- 
ano and  orchestra  (written  for 
Rafael  Joseffy)  ;  a  cantata. 
Death  and  Life;  and  many  or- 
gan pieces  and  songs,  of  which 
two  ballads,  'The  Minstrel  Boy,' 
and  'Love's  Sorrow,'  have  at- 
tained wide  popularity. 

Shelley,  Mary  Wollstone- 
CRAFT  (1797-1851),  English  au- 
thor, second  wife  of  Percy 
Bysshe  Shelley,  and  daughter  of 
William  Godwin  (author  of  Ca- 
leb IVillianns)  and  Mary  Woll- 
stonecraft  (author  of  The  Rights 
of  Woman)  was  born  in  London. 
She  was  educated  by  her  father, 
and  became  imbued  with  his  pe- 
culiar ideas  regarding  the  mar- 
riage bond.  When,  therefore,  in 
her  eighteenth  year,  she  met 
Shelley,  she  readily  consented  to 
elope  with  him  (July,  1814). 
From  that  time  she  was  re- 
garded as  his  wife  until  their 
formal  marriage  (December, 
1816)  after  the  suicide  of  Shel- 
ley's first  wife  (Harriet  West- 
brook).   She   is   the  author  of 


Frankenstein,  which,  published 
in  1818,  achieved  immediate 
success.  It  was  followed  by 
Valpcrga  (1823),  The  Last 
Man  (1826),  whose  Adrian  is 
a  portrait  of  Shelley,  Fortunes 
of  Perkin  Warbeck  (1830),  Lo- 
dore  (1835),  largely  autobio- 
graphical, and  Falkner  (1837). 
She  also  wrote  volumes  of  trav- 
els, one  of  which.  Journal  of  a 
Six  Weeks'  Tour,  throws  light 
upon  the  last  years  of  her  hus- 
band's life. 


Percy  Bysshe  Shelley 


Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe 
(1792-1822),  English  poet  of 
high  rank,  was  born  at  Field 
Place,  Warnham,  near  Horsham 
in  Sussex. 

He  came  of  an  old  Sussex 
family  and  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford where  he  found  a  kindred 
spirit  in  Thomas  Jefferson  Hogg. 
The  two  youths  thought  they 
would  shake  Oxford  to  its  intel- 
lectual bases,  and  bring  about  in 
the  civilized  world  the  millen- 
nium of  free  thought,  when  they 
composed  a  pamphlet  entitled 
The  Necessity  of  Atheism.  In 
March,  1811,  their  formal  expul- 
sion made  a  passing  scandal.  A 
few  months  later  Shelley  eloped 
with  a  young  girl  named  Harriet 
Westbrook,  and  on  Aug.  28, 
1811,  they  were  married  in  Ed- 
inburgh. The  year  1813  saw  the 
restricted  publication  of  Queen 
Mab,  a  poem  in  which  he  ex- 
presses his  radical  ideas  on  re- 
ligion and  morals.  The  inevita- 
ble rifts  within  the  lute  of  such 
a  marriage  as  theirs  now  wid- 
ened more  and  more.  Harriet 
cared  nothing  for  atheistical 
principles.  Shelley  found  an  en- 
thusiastic admirer,  a  kindred 
soul,  and  'enfranchised  thinker' 
in  the  person  of  Mary  Wollstone- 
craft  Godwin,  daughter  of  Wil- 
liam Godwin.  With  the  assist- 
ance of  Claire  Clairmont,  the 
daughter  of  Mrs.  Clairmont,  the 
second  wife  of  William  Godwin, 
Shelley  and  Miss  Godwin  eloped 
to  the  Continent.  Shelley  wrote 
to  Harriet  the  now  famous  letter 
from  Troyes  (Aug.  13,  1814), 


Shelley  KFK  159  Shensi 


suggesting  that  she  should  join 
Mary  Godwin  and  himself. 

From  the  time  of  his  union 
with  Mary  Godwin  most  of  Shel- 
ley's life  was  spent  abroad. 
However,  in  September  of  the 
same  year  they  returned  to  Eng- 
land for  a  time ;  and  it  was  at 
Bishopsgate,  near  Windsor  For- 
est that  in  the  following  year 
(1815)  he  produced  the  first 
book  which  unmistakably  bore 
the  signature  of  genius — Alas- 
tor;  or  The  Spirit  of  Soli- 
tude. A  year  later  they  went  to 
Secheron,  near  Geneva.  The 
saddest  and  most  regrettable  part 
of  Shelley's  life  closes  with  the 
end  of  the  year  1816,  for  in  No- 
vember he  and  Mary  Godwin 
were  shocked  by  the  tidings  of 
the  suicide  of  his  wife.  Certain 
writers,  in  seeking  to  excuse 
Shelley,  have  unjustifiably  dis- 
paraged the  mind  and  character 
of  poor  Harriet.  Thereafter  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Shelley  (Mary  Godwin 
and  Shelley  were  married  on 
Dec.  30,  1816,  at  St.  Mildred's, 
London)  lived  in  Italy — now  at 
Rome  or  Florence,  at  Venice  or 
Ravenna  (where  Byron  was  their 
companion),  but  oftener  at  Pisa 
and  its  neighborhood.  The  po- 
et's last  residence  was  the  Casa 
Magni,  at  Lerici  on  the  Gulf  of 
Spezia.  Somewhere  in  this 
beautiful  bay  his  boat  upset  on 
July  8,  1822,  and  his  body  was 
washed  ashore  near  Viareggio. 
The  ashes  of  the  dead  were  in- 
terred in  the  Protestant  ceme- 
tery at  Rome,  close  to  the  grave 
of  Keats. 

Excepting  Alastor,  the  poetry 
of  Shelley  written  in  his  earlier 
or  pre-Italian  period  is  of  sec- 
ondary importance.  There  is 
much  that  is  beautiful  in  The 
Revolt  of  Islam  (1817),  and  the 
magic  touch  is  not  lacking  in 
Rosalind  and  Helen  (1818)  ;  but 
both  poems  would  long  have  been 
forgotten  but  for  the  fame  of 
what  followed.  The  lovely  'By- 
ron-Shelley' Venetian  medley 
called  Julian  and  Maddalo  rep- 
resents the  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  poetry  of  early  man- 
hood and  the  poetry  of  maturity. 
It  is  in  The  Cenci  and  Prome- 
theus Unbound  of  1819  that  we 
find  Shelley  at  his  highest :  in 
no  long  poem  later,  save  in  that 
supreme  English  threnody  Ado- 
nais  (1821),  did  he  excel  or  ap- 
proach in  poetic  beauty  and 
strength  the  sombre  tragedy  of 
Beatrice  Cenci  or  the  lyrical 
drama  of  the  triumph  of  Pro- 
metheus. The  Witch  of  Atlas 
has  a  moonlit  loveliness,  and  the 
lyrical  drama  Hellas  has  the 
movement  of  a  noble  excellence  ; 
but  they  are  minor  productions. 
It  is  in  shorter  poems,  such  as  the 
radiant  and  superb  Epipsychidi- 
on,  or  again  The  Triumph  of 
Life,  or  the  Hymn  to  Intellectual 


Beauty,  in  briefer  lyrical  poems 
such  as  the  Ode  to  the  West 
Wind,  The  Cloud,  Stanzas  Writ- 
ten in  Dejection,  that  we  must 
look  for  a  like  poetic  energy,  a 
like  convincing  magic.  Supreme 
in  lyrical  verse,  unapproached 
save  by  Coleridge  in  one  or  two 
poems,  or  perhaps  only  in  Kubla 
Khan,  Shelley  ranks  high  among 
the  great  masters  of  blank  verse, 
that  noblest  medium  of  poetic 
genius.  His  work  is  filled  with 
flame — a  wild  and  wandering  fire 
at  times — but  oftener  with  the 
fires  of  prophecy,  of  noblest  as- 
piration of  lofty  ideals,  and  an 
unconquerable  faith  in  the  spirit- 
ual destiny  of  the  human  race. 

Bibliography. — A  complete 
edition  of  Shelley's  Works  was 
edited  by  Hutchinson  in  1904. 
His  Letters  were  collected  and 
edited  by  Roger  Ingpen  in  1909. 
The  best  Life  of  the  poet  is  Pro- 
fessor Dowden's.  More  conven- 
ient critical  biographies  are  J.  A. 
Symonds  monograph  in  'English 
Men  of  Letters'  Series  and  Wil- 
liam Sharp's  Life  in  'Great  Writ- 
ers' Series.  Earlier  authorities 
are  Lady  Shelley's  Memorials, 
Medwin's  Life,  Trelawney's  Rec- 
ords, Hogg's  volume  of  Reminis- 
cences, and  the  notices  by  Mrs. 
Shelley  (Mary  Godwin)  inter- 
spersed in  her  edition  of  the  Po- 
ems. There  are  interesting  stud- 
ies of  Shelley's  work  and  influ- 
ence by  Leslie  Stephen,  Laurence 
Hutton,  Sarrazin,  and  Schure. 
Recent  works  are  Hogg's  Shel- 
ley at  Oxford  (1904)  ;  Clutton- 
Brock's  Shelley:  the  Man  and 
the  Poet  (1909);  Thompson's 
Shelley  (1910);  N.  I.  White, 
Shelley  (1940). 

Shell-fish,  a  name  which 
should  be  used  only  as  a  popu- 
lar equivalent  for  Mollusca  (q. 
v.),  but  which  is  often  employed 
also  for  such  forms  as  crabs,  lob- 
sters, and  other  crustaceans.  See 
Clams  ;    Oysters  ;  Scallops. 

Shell-mounds.  See  Kitch- 
en-middens. 

Shells,  Precious.  See  Gems 
AND  Precious  Stones. 

Shelton,  city,  Fairfield  coun- 
ty, Connecticut,  10  miles  west  of 
New  Haven,  on  the  Housatonic 
River,  and  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven,  and  Hartford  Rail- 
road. It  is  a  manufacturing  cen- 
ter, producing  pianos,  brass,  sil- 
verware, pins,  paper,  rubber, 
paper  boxes,  etc.  Pop.  (1930) 
10,113  ;  (1940)  10,971. 

Shemakha,  town,  in  the 
Azerbaijan  S.S.R.,  situated  at 
the  foot  of  the  Caucasian  Moun- 
tains ;  63  miles  n.w.  of  Baku. 
It  was  the  capital  of  the  Tartar 
principality  of  Shirvan,  and  the 
original  town  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury by  the  Persian  shah  Chos- 
roes  Anoshirvan,  30  miles  south- 
east of  the  present  town.    It  has 


suffered  much  from  earthquakes. 
Pop.  4,000. 

Shemites.     See  Semites. 

Shenandoah,  borough, 
Schuylkill  county,  Pennsylvania, 
52  miles  northwest  of  Reading, 
on  the  Pennsylvania,  Philadel- 
phia and  Reading,  and  Lehigh 
Valley  Railroads.  It  is  an  im- 
portant coal-mining  center,  hav- 
ing some  of  the  largest  mines  of 
the  region.  Pop.  ( 1930)  21,782  ; 
(1940)  19,790. 

Shenandoah,  city,  Page 
county,  Iowa,  65  miles  southeast 
of  Omaha,  on  the  Nishnabotna 
River,  and  on  the  Wabash,  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy 
Railroads.  It  has  packing  inter- 
ests and  the  largest  nurseries  and 
seed  houses  in  the  world.  Pop. 
(1930)  6,502;  (1940)  6,853. 

Shenandoah  Base  Level. 
At  the  close  of  Cretaceous  time 
the  whole  Appalachian  region 
was  reduced  to  an  almost  flat  sur- 
face at  nearly  base  level.  With 
subsequent  continental  elevation 
a  new  level  was  reached,  to 
which  erosion  succeeded  in  re- 
ducing much  of  the  region.  That 
stage  is  known  as  the  Shenan- 
doah Base  Level.  For  a  second 
time  a  continental  elevation  and 
dissection  began,  so  that  at  the 
present  time  the  position  of  the 
Shenandoah  Base  Level  is 
marked  only  by  its  remnants,  the 
crests  of  the  lower  interior 
ridges.  See  Kittatinny. 

Shenandoah  River,  in  Vir- 
ginia and  West  Virginia,  the 
largest  affluent  of  the  Potomac. 
It  rises  in  three  branches  in 
mountains  bordering  the  Appa- 
lachian valley  in  Virginia,  and 
flows  northeast  to  its  junction 
with  the  Potomac  at  Harper's 
Ferry.  Its  length  is  200  miles  ; 
drainage  area,  2,850  square 
miles. 

Shenandoah  Valley,  the  val- 
ley of  the  Shenandoah  River, 
was  an  important  theatre  of 
operations  in  the  Civil  War,  es- 
pecially in  1864,  when  bloody 
battles  were  fought  between  the 
forces  of  Sheridan  and  Early,  the 
latter  being  finally  defeated. 

Shendamang:alam,  t  o  w  n , 
Salem  district,  Madras,  India,  25 
miles  south  of  Salem.  The  prin- 
cipal industry  is  iron  smelting. 
Pop.  15,000. 

Sheng-king.  See  Feng- 
tien. 

Shensi,  province,  China.  The 
northern  portion  is  typical  loess 
country,  intersected  by  deep  ra- 
vines, in  sides  of  which  are  cave 
dwellings,  and  across  which 
travel  is  impossible  ;  through  the 
center  flows  the  Wei  in  park-like 
lands  ;  south  of  this  lies  the  Chin- 
ling  range,  through  which  are 
only  two  passes  into  the  upper 
basin  of  the  Han.  Activity  is 
centered  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Han  and  Wei.    Through  the  val- 


Shenstone 


KFK 


160 


Shepstone 


ley  of  the  Wei  lies  the  route 
from  Eastern  to  Central  Asia, 
of  great  strategic  importance. 
Shensi  is  primarily  an  agricul- 
tural province,  its  principal  prod- 
ucts being  cotton,  wheat,  and 
opium.  It  also  grows  pulse,  mil- 
let, maize,  groundnuts,  barley, 
beans,  peas,  and  lucerne.  The 
mineral  resources  include  coal, 
iron,  salt,  and  petroleum.  The 
capital  is  Changnan.  Area,  72,- 
334  sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1936) 
9,717,881. 

Shenstone,  William  (1714- 
63),  English  poet,  was  born  at 
the  Leasowes,  parish  of  Hales- 
owen, Worcestershire.  He  was 
a  contemporary  of  Samuel  John- 
son at  Pembroke  College,  Ox- 
ford. While  a  student  he  printed 
for  private  circulation,  in  1737, 
Poems  on  Various  Occasions,  in- 
cluding the  first  draft  of  his 
Schoolmistress.  In  1741  he  is- 
sued anonymously  The  Judgment 
of  Hercules  (paraphrased  from 
Xenophon),  and  in  1742  the  re- 
vised Schoolmistress,  a  clever 
imitation  of  Spenser.  In  1745 
Shenstone  settled  at  the  Lea- 
sowes, where  he  created  a  prece- 
dent in  luxurious  landscape  gar- 
dening. Walpole  calls  Shenstone 
'a  water-gruel  bard,'  and  one 
must  admit  that,  though  his  work 
is  always  nimble,  and  frequently 
very  dainty,  it  is  persistently  ar- 
tificial and  occasionally  thin. 
His  Pastoral  Ballad  is  among  the 
best  anapaestic  poems  in  the  lan- 
guage. The  Progress  of  Taste 
is  gently  but  suggestively  satiri- 
cal. The  poet's  Elegies,  praised 
by  Burns,  are  correct  and  pre- 
cise, but  they  lack  the  quality  of 
stimulation.  The  Odes — as,  for 
example,  'Rural  Elegance'  and 
'Memory' — are  sometimes  excel- 
lent ;  and  one  or  two  Ballads, 
notably  'Jemmy  Dawson,'  are 
"distinctly  meritorious.  In 
1764-9  Dodsley  issued  Shen- 
stone's  IV  orks  in  3  volumes. 
Consult  Johnson's  Lives  of  the 
Poets;  Graves'  William  Shen- 
stone. 

Sheol,  a  Hebrew  word  of  un- 
certain etymology.  It  signifies 
the  abode  of  the  dead  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  36),  and  is  the  point  at 
the  greatest  possible  distance 
from  heaven  (Job  xi.  8).  It  is 
the  Hebrew  Hades,  where  the 
dead  live  somewhat  according  to 
their  former  mode  of  life,  but 
reduced  to  a  silent,  colorless  ex- 
istence.   See  Abaddon. 

Shepard,  Charles  Upham 
(1804-86),  American  mineralo- 
gist, was  born  in  Little  Compton, 
R.  I.,  and  was  graduated  at  Am- 
herst College  in  1824,  and  later 
was  laboratory  assistant  to  Ben- 
jamin Silliman  at  Yale  Univer- 
sity. In  1830-74  he  was  lecturer 
on  natural  history  in  Yale ;  in 
1835-52,  professor  of  natural 
history  and  chemistry  in  Am- 


herst College,  and  in  1834-61 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the 
Charleston  Medical  College. 
While  engaged  here  (1865)  in 
experiments,  he  detected  phos- 
phate of  lime  in  local  limestone 
specimens,  and  opened  the  way 
to  the  development  of  the  phos- 
phate industry. 

Shepard,  Edward  Morse 
(1850-1911),  American  lawyer, 
was  born  in  New  York  City.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York  in  1869, 
and  became  a  leading  member  of 
the  New  York  bar.  He  was  a 
civil  service  commissioner  of 
Brooklyn  (1883-85),  chairman 
of  the  civil  service  board  (1880- 
90),  and  member  of  the  State 
Forestry  Commission  (1884). 
He  prosecuted  John  Y.  McKane 
for  the  Coney  Island  election 
frauds  of  1893;  was  an  inde- 
pendent Democratic  nominee  for 
mayor  of  Brooklyn  in  1895,  and 
in  1901  was  the  Democratic  can- 
didate for  mayor  of  New  York. 
He  was  counsel  for  the  Rapid 
Transit  Commission  during  the 
contest  for  and  construction  of 
the  svibway,  and  was  for  several 
years  counsel  for  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad.  In  1906  he  made 
an  able  defense  of  Algernon 
Cropsey,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman  on  trial  for  heresy. 
In  1909,  as  chairman  of  a  con- 
ference at  Saratoga,  he  helped  to 
organize  the  Democratic  League, 
for  the  purpose  of  harmonizing 
the  better  elements  of  the  party. 
During  1910-11  he  was  support- 
ed by  independent  Democrats  as 
candidate  for  U.  S.  Senator 
from  New  York,  against  Wil- 
liam Sheehan,  the  regular  party 
candidate.  A  deadlock  ensued, 
lasting  until  Judge  O'Gorman 
(q.  v.)  was  chosen  as  a  compro- 
mise candidate,  shortly  after 
Shepard's  withdrawal  from  the 
contest  on  Feb.  26.  He  died  of 
pneumonia,  July  28,  1911.  For 
many  years  he  was  chairman  of 
the  board  of  trustees  of  the  Col- 
lege of  the  City  of  New  York. 
He  wrote  Martin  Van  Bur  en 
('American  Statesmen'  Series)  ; 
Memoirs  of  Dugdale ;  besides 
numerous  monographs  on  eco- 
nomic and  political  subjects. 

Shepherd  Kings,  or  Hyk- 
sos.    See  Egypt. 

Shepherd  of  Hermas.  See 
Hermas. 

Shepherd's  Dog.  See  Old 
English  Sheep  Dog. 

Shepherd's  Purse,  a  popular 
name  given  to  Capsella  bursa 
pastoris,  a  common  cruciferous 
plant,  the  size  of  which  varies 
from  a  few  inches  to  a  few  feet. 
It  bears  pinnatifid  root  leaves 
and  arrow-shaped  stem  leaves. 
The  little  white  flowers  are 
followed  by  two-valved  seed- 
pouches.  It  flowers  throughout 
the  spring,  summer,  and  autumn. 


Shepley,  George  Forster 
(1819-78),  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Saco,  Me.  He  was 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1837, 
and  studied  law  at  Harvard. 
During  1853-61  he  was  U.  S. 
district  attorney  for  Maine.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  Democratic 
national  convention  of  1860,  and 
in  1861  became  colonel  of  the 
Twelfth  Maine  Regiment  of 
Volunteers.  He  took  part  in  the 
expedition  against  New  Orleans  ; 
was  for  a  time  commandant  and 
mayor  of  the  city,  and  during 
1862-64  was  military  governor 
of  Louisiana.  He  afterward 
served  in  the  operations  against 
Richmond,  and  was  the  first  mili- 
tary governor  of  that  city. 

In  1869  Shepley  became  U.  S. 
Circuit  judge  for  the  first  cir- 
cuit of  Maine.  Consult  C.  Lan- 
man,  Biographical  Annals  of  the 
Civil  Government  of  the  United 
States  (1887);  F.  B.  Heitman, 
Historical  Register  and  Diction- 
ary of  the  United  States  Army 
(1903)  ;  A.  F.  Moulton,  Memo- 
rials of  Maine  (1916). 

Sheppard,  Jack  (1702-24), 
English  highwayman,  was  born 
in  Stepney,  London,  and  took  to 
the  road  about  1720.  Having 
offended  Jonathan  Wild,  the 
chief  broker  of  stolen  goods,  he 
was  betrayed  and  captured.  He 
was  condemned  to  death,  but 
made  a  series  of  most  remarka- 
ble escapes,  only  to  be  recap- 
tured each  time  and  finally 
hanged  at  Tyburn  a  month  be- 
fore he  was  twenty-two.  His 
childhood  was  spent  in  a  poor- 
house,  and  as  a  lad  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  carpenter,  from 
whom  he  ran  away  and  was  ar- 
rested for  the  first  time.  After 
this  he  turned  to  robbery  as  a 
trade.  His  escapes  were  effected 
both  by  himself  and  with  out- 
side help,  notably  of  'Edgeworth 
Bess.'  After  the  last  one  he 
was  loaded  with  chains  in  his 
cell  in  Newgate  prison,  on  the 
site  of  which  the  Central  Crimi- 
nal Court  now  stands.  Daniel 
Defoe  is  supposed  to  be  the  au- 
thor of  A  Narrative  of  all  the 
Robberies,  etc.,  of  John  Shep- 
pard (1724). 

Sheppey,  island,  Kent,  Eng- 
land, east  of  Medway  mouth. 
The  surface  is  generally  flat. 
Seed  crops  (e.g.,  mustard,  ca- 
nary) are  largely  grown,  and 
sheep  are  reared.  Area,  35 
square  miles  ;  pop.  about  26,000. 

Shepstone,  Sir  Theophilus 
(1817-93),  South  African  ad- 
ministrator and  statesman. 
When  Natal  became  a  separate 
colony,  he  was  made  secretary 
for  native  affairs,  and  carried 
out  a  policy  of  preserving  na- 
tive customs  and  institutions. 
He  is  best  known  for  his  ac- 
tion (1877)  in  declaring  the 
Transvaal  to  be   British  terri- 


Sheraton 


KR 


161 


Sheridan 


tory,  of  which  he  became  admin- 
istrator— a  post  which  he  held 
only  till  1879.  He  retired  from 
public  service  in  1880.  He  vehe- 
mently opposed  the  grant  of  re- 
sponsible government  in  Natal. 

Sheraton,  Thomas  (1751- 
1806),  English  furniture  designer, 
was  born  at  Stockton-upon-Tees. 
He  settled  in  London  in  1700, and 
busied  himself  with  the  publica- 
tion of  manuals  of  design.  He 
was  an  enthusiastic  Baptist,  and 
wrote  various  theological  and 
religious  works.  See  Heaton's 
Furniture  of  the  18th  Century 
(1892),  and  Morse's  Furniture 
of  the  Olden  Time  (1902). 

Sherbrooke,  city,  Quebec, 
Canada,  co.  seat  of  Sherbrooke 
CO.,  100  m.  E.  by  s.  of  Montreal, 
on  the  St.  Francis  R.,  and  on  the 
Grand  Trunk,  Canadian  Pacific, 
and  Quebec  Central  railroads. 
Excellent  water  power  is  afforded 
by  the  river.  It  has  lumber, 
paper,  woolen,  hosiery,  evapor- 
ated milk  and  textile  mills.  Other 
manufactures  are  clothing,  elec- 
trical supplies,  and  foundry  and 
machine  shop  products.  The  dis- 
trict is  rich  in  mineral  wealth, 
containing  mines  of  iron,  copper, 
and  asbestos.  It  is  an  important 
shipping  point  for  these  products, 
and  for  lumber,  pulp,  and  lime. 
Pop.  (1941)  35,651. 

Sherbrooke.  Robert  Lowe, 
Viscount(1811-92), British  poli- 
tician, was  born  at  Bingham, 
Nottinghamshire,  He  spent 
eight  years  (1842-50)  in  Sydney, 
Australia,  and  for  seven  of  them 
sat  in  the  legislative  council  of 
New  South  Wales.  Returning 
to  England  in  1850,  he  entered 
the  House  of  Commons  in  1852, 
and  remained  a  member  till 
1880,  when  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage.  In  Palmerston's  first 
ministry  (1855-58)  he  was  joint- 
secretary  of  the  Board  of  Con- 
trol, and  then  vice-president  of 
the  Board  of  Trade,  and  pay- 
master-general. He  was  vice- 
president  of  the  Education  De- 
partment in  Palmerston's  sec- 
ond administration  from  1859  to 
1864.  Lowe,  who  was  described 
as  the  eloquent  champion  of  the 
middle  classes,  was  one  of  the 
Adullamites,  and  in  the  course 
of  the  debates  he  made  'a  series 
of  speeches  on  the  perils  of  de- 
mocracy, which,  in  polished 
beauty  of  diction,  force  of  argu- 
ment, and  aptness  of  illustrative 
quotation,  are  entitled  to  rank 
with  the  most  famous  orations 
ever  delivered  in  Parliament.' 
In  1882  Lowe  joined  Gladstone's 
first  government  as  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer,  and  for  the 
first  time  obtained  cabinet  rank. 
He  remained  at  the  Treasury 
till  1873.  The  most  notable 
incident  of  his  tenure  of  office 
was  the  unpopular  proposal  in 
his  budget  of  1871  to  tax  lucifer 
matches.    He  was  transferred  to 


the  Home  Office  in  1873,  but  on 
the  dissolution  of  Parliament  in 
January,  1874,  his  official  career 
came  to  an  end.  Lowe  was  for 
some  sixteen  years  a  leader  writer 
on  the  London  Times. 

Shere  All,  or  Shir  All  See 
Afghanistan. 

Sheridan,  city  Wyoming,  co. 
seat  of  Sheridan  co.,  100  m.  s.E. 
of  Billings,  Mont.,  on  the  Bur- 


lington,  Missouri  Railroad.  The 
leading  industries  are  agriculture 
and  coal  mining.  A  state  hospi- 
tal is  situated  here.  The  city 
hall,  court  house  and  Carnegie 
Library  are  noteworthy.  The 
district  abounds  in  fish  and  game. 
The  place  was  settled  in  1882  and 
incorporated  in  1884.  The  county 
was  the  scene  of  three  mem- 
orable Indian  fights,  that  of  Gen. 
Connor  at  the  mouth  of  Wolf 
creek  in  1865,  the  Fetterman 
fight  on  Massacre  Hill,  in  which 
every  white  man  was  killed, 
1866,  and  the  Great  Wagon  Box 
fight,  1867.  Pop.  (1930)  8,536; 
(1940)  10,529. 


Sheridan,  Philip  Henry 
(1831-88),  American  general, 
born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.  His  par- 
ents had  just  emigrated  from  Ire- 
land and  soon  removed  to  Ohio, 
where  he  received  a  common- 
school  education  and  was  em- 
ployed in  a  country  store,  when 
he  received  an  appointment  to 
West  Point  in  1848.  He  gradu- 
ated in  1853,  having  been  sus- 


pended for  a  year  because  of  a 
breach  of  discipline,  and  received 
a  commission  in  the  First  Infan- 
try. His  first  assignment  to 
duty  was  on  the  Rio  Grande,  but 
he  was  soon  ordered  to  Califor- 
nia, and  later  to  Oregon,  and 
served  with  distinction  in  the 
Indian  wars  in  that  territory.  He 
reached  the  rank  of  captain  in 
1861,  was  ordered  East,  and 
served  as  chief  commissary  of  the 
Army  of  southwest  Missouri  in 
the  Pea  Ridge  campaign.  He 
was  afterwards  on  the  staff  of 
Gen.  Halleck,  and  in  April,  1862. 
was  appointed  by  the  governor  of 
Michigan  colonel  of  its  Second 


Sheridan 


KR 


162 


Sheriff 


Regiment  of  Cavalry,  then  serv- 
ing with  Halleck's  army.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  defeating  a 
superior  force  of  Confederate 
cavalry  at  Booneville.  was  made 
brigadier  general  of  volunteers, 
and  in  July  was  ordered  to  the 
Army  of  the  Cumberland,  in 
Kentucky.  He  was  given  com- 
mand of  a  brigade  and  later  of  a 
division  of  infantry  in  Gilbert's 
corps,  and  afterwards  of  a  divi- 
sion in  McCook's  corps  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Perryville 
and  Stone  river.  At  the  latter 
battle  the  entire  Federal  line  to 
the  right  of  Sheridan's  division 
had  been  forced  back,  and  only 
his  desperate  resistance  and  hard 
fighting  saved  the  army  from 
destruction.  He  was  made  major 
general  of  volunteers  early  in 
1863  and  commanded  his  divi- 
sion in  the  Chickamauga  and 
Chattanooga  campaigns,  taking 
a  prominent  part  in  the  assault 
on  Missionary  Ridge.  When 
Grant  became  commander  in 
chief  Sheridan  was  appointed  on 
his  recommendation  to  command 
the  Cavalry  Corps  of  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac. 

Sheridan  rendered  valuable 
service  in  the  Wilderness  cam- 
paign, and  on  May  9,  1864, 
started  on  a  raid  against  Lee's 
line  of  supplies,  during  which  he 
defeated  Stuart's  cavalry  at  Yel- 
low Tavern,  May  11,  destroyed 
several  miles  of  the  Virginia  Cen- 
tral and  Fredericksburg  railroads 
and  even  entered  the  outer  de- 
fenses of  Richmond.  On  the  31st 
he  drove  the  Confederate  calvary 
out  of  Old  Cold  Harbor,  and  held 
that  place  against  several  as- 
saults by  infantry  until  the  ar- 
rival of  reinforcements.  In  June 
he  led  a  raid  in  the  direction  of 
Charlottesville,  which  was  only 
partially  successful.  He  was  or- 
dered to  take  command  of  the 
forces  in  the  Shenandoah  valley 
in  August,  after  Early's  raid  on 
Washington,  and  in  a  briUiant 
campaign  in  which  he  defeated 
that  general  at  the  Opequan, 
Fisher's  Hill  and  Cedar  Creek, 
completely  cleared  the  valley  of 
Confederates  and  by  his  destruc- 
tion of  grain  and  other  property 
rendered  it  useless  to  them  as  a 
source  of  supply.  At  Cedar 
Creek,  Oct.  19,  1864,  he  was  at 
Winchester,  twenty  miles  from 
the  battlefield  when  the  action 
began,  and  his  ride  to  the  field 
has  become  famous.  On  the  re- 
sumption of  operations  in  the 
spring,  Sheridan  set  out  with 
10,000  cavalry  on  February  27, 
186.5,  marched  by  way  of  Staun- 
ton and  Charlottesville,  and 
after  defeating  several  small 
bodies  of  Confederate  cavalry, 
rejoined  Grant's  army  before 
Petersburg  on  March  19.  His 
defeat  of  Pickett  at  Five  Forks, 
April  1,  compelled  Lee  to  evacu  - 


ate Richmond  and  Petersburg, 
and  he  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  events  leading  up  to  that 
general's  surrender  at  Appomat- 
tox. He  had  become  a  major- 
general  in  the  regular  army,  be- 
came lieutenant  general  in  1869, 
and  commander  in  chief  of  the 
army  in  1883.  He  accompanied 
the  German  armies  during  the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  and  was 
in  command  in  Louisiana  and 
Texas  during  various  periods  in 
the  reconstruction  of  those  states 
He  died  at  Nonquitt,  Mass.,  Aug. 
5,  1888.  He  published  his  Per- 
sonal Memoirs  (1888).  Consult 
Hergesheimer,  Sheridan  (1931). 

Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley 
(1751-1816),  British  dramatist, 
politician,  and  wit,  born  in  Dub- 
lin. He  married  secretly  the 
singer  Elizabeth  Linley,  and  for 
her  fought  two  duels  with  a  heart- 
less libertine,  Captain  Mathews. 
In  the  first  of  these  encounters 
Sheridan  was  victorious;  in  the 
second  he  was  dangerously 
wounded.  He  then  settled  in 
London,  and  his  comedy,  The 


Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan. 


Rivals,  was  produced  at  Covent 
Garden  in  January,  1775,  and 
soon  became  a  firm  favorite  with 
the  theatre-going  public.  In 
May  and  November  of  the  same 
year  Sheridan  produced  the 
amusing  farce  of  St.  Patrick's 
Day,  or  the  Scheming  Lieutenant, 
and  his  musical  comedy,  The 
Duenna.  The  latter  achieved  a 
great  triumph;  the  music  was 
composed  by  his  father-in-law, 
Linley.  Sheridan,  with  his 
father-in-law  and  Dr.  Ford,  on 
the  retirement  of  Garrick  from 
Drury  Lane,  purchased  the  great 
player's  interest  in  that  theatre, 
and  after  June,  1776,  was  its 
responsible  manager.  There,  on 
May  8,  1777,  The  School  for 
Scandal  was  produced.  For 
sheer  wit,  for  keenness  of  satiric 


portraiture,  for  effectiveness  of 
situation  it  is  unapproached  by 
any  play  since  Elizabethan  times, 
save  by  Congreve's  Way  of  the 
World.  The  profits  ot  this  drama 
enabled  Sheridan  to  purchase  the 
remainder  of  the  shares  of  Drury 
Lane.  In  1779  his  last  play.  The 
Critic,  was  produced  with  un- 
abated success,  the  characters  of 
Sir  Fretful  Plagiary  and  Puff 
being  recognized  as  portraits  of 
contemporary  personages.  Mean- 
time he  had  become  intimate 
with  the  Whig  leaders,  being  al- 
ways a  welcome  figure  at  Brooks' 
Club,  the  rendezvous  of  the 
party.  Fox  repeatedly  urged 
him  to  enter  Parliament.  At 
last  he  became  (1780)  m.p.  for 
Stafford,  and  in  the  Marquis  of 
Rockingham's  ministry  he  was 
appointed  under-secretary  of 
state.  Four  months  later,  in  the 
Shelburne  ministry,  he  became 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury;  but 
he  soon  followed  Fox  into  oppo- 
sition. Sheridan  opposed  the 
war  with  the  American  colonies, 
and  for  his  speeches  in  their  be- 
half the  United  States  Congress 
offered  him  a  gift  of  $100,000, 
but  this  he  declined  to  accept. 
It  was  in  1787  that  Sheridan 
gave  a  wonderful  display  of  his 
oratorical  powers  in  his  speech 
for  the  impeachment  of  Warren 
Hastings.  Sheridan  was  twice  in 
office  after  this — in  the  Adding- 
ton  ministry  (1800),  and  in  the 
Fox-Grenville  ministry  (1806), 
formed  after  the  death  of  Pitt. 
In  1809  he  was  brought  to  the 
brink  of  ruin  by  the  destruction 
by  fire  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre. 
Through  the  kindness  of  his 
friend  the  Prince  Regent  (after- 
wards George  iv)  he  was  enabled 
to  stave  off  the  evil  day  for  a 
season;  but  it  came  in  1812,  when 
he  was  defeated  for  Stafford. 
Ere  long  he  was  confined  in  a 
sponging-house,  and  from  this 
indignity  he  never  recovered. 
Nevertheless  he  did  not  die  in 
poverty.  He  was  given  a  splen- 
did funeral  in  Westminster  Ab- 
bey. The  Rivals  and  The  School 
for  Scandal  have  been  edited  by 
Brander  Matthews  (1884),  and 
in  Macmillan's  Library  of  Eng- 
lish Classics  (1900).  See  Lives 
of  Sheridan  by  T.  Moore  (1825), 
Eraser  Rae  (1896),  and  Mrs. 
Oliphant  in  English  Men  of  Let- 
ters Series  (1883). 

Sherif,  or  Shereef,  a  Moham- 
medan title  indicating  that  the 
holder  is  descended  from  the 
prophet  through  his  daughter 
Fatima  and  her  husband  Ali. 
The  distinguishing  mark  is  the 
prophet's  color — green;  the  men 
wear  a  green  turban,  the  women 
a  green  veil. 

Sheriff.  A  county  official 
vested  with  certain  executive  and 
administrative  powers  by  the 
state.    The  office  is  one  of  great 


Sheriff 


KR 


163 


Sherman 


antiquity.  In  England  the  sher- 
iff was  formerly  the  king's  prin- 
cipal officer  in  a  county,  and  exer- 
cised powers  and  duties  with 
regard  to  its  military,  financial, 
judicial,  and  ministerial  affairs. 
At  the  present  time  in  counties 
outside  the  Central  Criminal 
Court  disttict  the  sheriff  attends 
the  judges  when  on  circuit  in  his 
county,  and  he  is  the  returning 
officer  at  parliamentary  elec- 
tions. The  other  duties  of  the 
office,  which  are  connected  with 
the  summoning  of  juries,  the 
execution  of  civil  processes,  the 
hearing  of  compensation  cases, 
and  the  attendance  at  the  exe- 
cution of  criminals,  are  per- 
formed by  the  under-sheriff  or 
the  deputy-sheriff.  In  cities  and 
towns  which  are  of  themselves 
counties  the  sheriff  is  appointed 
annually  by  the  town  council. 

In  the  United  States  the  prin- 
cipal duties  of  the  sheriff  of  a 
county  are  generally  the  preser- 
vation of  the  peace  and  the  exe- 
cution of  the  mandates  of  the 
courts.  He  is  relieved  of  a  part 
of  his  duties  as  a  peace  officer 
by  the  police  in  municipalities, 
but  is  not  entirely  superseded. 
When  there  is  a  serious  disturb- 
ance of  the  peace,  as  a  riot,  the 
sheriff  usually  assumes  control, 
appoints  deputies,  whom  he  may 
arm,  and  exercises  his  power  to 
the  fullest  extent  to  restore 
peaceful  conditions;  only  when 
he  acknowledges  failure,  or  the 
situation  is  obviously  beyond  his 
control,  is  the  state  militia  called 
out.  The  sheriff  is  also  respon- 
sible for  the  custody  and  care  of 
prisoners. 

As  an  officer  of  the  courts  it  is 
his  duty  to  attend  to  the  execu- 
tion or  service  of  all  writs,  war- 
rants, orders,  summonses,  and 
other  mandates  of  the  court 
which  are  placed  in  his  hands. 
He  levies  executions  and  sells 
the  property  vseized;  attaches 
property,  and  holds  it  pending 
litigation;  serves  process  fo*-  at- 
torneys; and  makes  civil  arrests. 
A  sheriff  may  demand  indemnity 
by  bond  or  other  security  before 
seizing  property  under  legal  proc- 
ess, as  he  is  responsible  if  he 
levies  upon  the  property  of  a  per- 
son not  named  in  the  execution, 
warrant  of  attachment,  or  other 
process.  He  is  also  liable  for  any 
damage  resulting  from  undue  de- 
lay, or  other  negligence  in  the 
performance  of  his  duties.  In 
certain  cases  a  sheriff  may  sum- 
mon a  jury  to  try  title  to  personal 
property  taken  by  him  under 
process  of  the  court,  and  which  is 
claimed  by  some  one  other  than 
the  person  named  in  the  process. 
In  many  states  the  sheriff  of  a 
county  summons  special  juries, 
for  other  purposes,  as  to  try 
the  sanity  of  a  person;  and  also 
has   charge    of    the    panels  of 


grand  and  petty  jurors  for  the 
courts. 

The  office  of  sheriff  is  generally 
an  elective  one,  and  the  sheriff 
is  usually  empowered  to  appoint 
deputies  to  assist  him.  He  may 
also,  at  any  time  when  neces- 
sary, summon  any  adult  citizen 
to  aid  him  in  the  arrest  of  a 
person  charged  with  crime.  A 
citizen  refusing  to  obey  such  a 
summons  is  liable  to  a  statutory 
penalty  varying  in  the  different 
states.  Consult  Murfree's  Sher- 
iffs; Crocker's  Sheriffs. 

Sherkot,  town,  India,  in  the 
United  Provinces,  59  miles  north- 
east of  Meerut.  Carpets  are 
manufactured.    Pop.  16,000. 

Sherlock,  Thomas  (1678- 
1761),  English  ecclesiastic,  who, 
as  master  of  the  Temple,  was  an 
exceedingly  popular  preacher.  In 
1714  he  became  master  of  St. 
Catherine's  Hall,  Cambridge, 
and  in  the  following  year  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  university.  He 
was  appointed  dean  of  Chichester 
in  1715.  He  was  deeply  involved 
in  the  Bangorian  controversy 
as  to  the  extent  of  ecclesias- 
tical authority,  and  in  1728 
succeeded  Benjamin  Hoadly  as 
bishop  of  Bangor  (1728),  being 
later  transferred  to  Salisburv 
(1734),  and  to  London  (1748). 
His  best  took.  The  Tryal  of  the 
Witnesses  of  the  Resurrection  of 
Jesus,  was  published  anony- 
mously (1729). 

Sherlock,  William  (?1641- 
1707),  English  divine,  was  born 
in  Southwark,  London,  became 
rector  of  St.  Georges,  Botolph 
Lane,  London  (1669),  and  in 
1691  was  appointed  dean  of  St. 
Paul's,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
he  had  figured  prominently 
among  the  non- jurors.  He  was 
engaged  in  controversies  with 
John  Owen,  the  Puritan  theo- 
logian, and  about  1690  with  the 
Socinians.  He  wrote  The  Divine 
Providence  (1694;  ed.  by  T.  O. 
Summers,  1853;  3d  edition  1875). 

Sherman,  city,  Texas,  county 
seat  of  Grayson  county,  on  the 
Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas, 
the  St.  Louis-San  Francisco,  the 
St.  Louis  Southwestern,  the  Tex- 
as and  Pacific,  and  the  Southern 
Pacific  railroads;  62  miles  north- 
east of  Dallas.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Austin  College  (Presbyterian). 
It  is  an  important  manufactur- 
ing center,  reporting  62  indus- 
trial establishments.  These  in- 
clude flour  mills,  cotton  mills, 
cotton-seed  oil  refineries,  gar- 
ment factories,  foundries  and 
machine  shops.  Cotton  growing, 
stock-raising,  and  farming  are 
extensively  carried  on  in  the  sur- 
rounding country.  Sherman  was 
settled  in  1848.  It  was  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1895,  and  adopted 
commission  government  in  1915. 
Pop.  (1930)  15,713;  (1940)  17. 
156. 


Sherman,  Frank  Dempster 
(1860-1916),  American  poet  and 
educator,  was  born  in  Peekskill, 
N.  Y.  He  was  graduated  from 
Columbia  University  (1884), 
studied  at  Harvard,  and  in  1887 
became  a  fellow  of  Columbia. 
He  was  appointed  instructor  in 
architecture  there  in  1888,  was 
promoted  adjunct  professor  in 
1891,  and  became  professor  of 
graphics  in  1904.  He  pub- 
lished Madrigals  and  Catches 
(1887);  New  Waggings  of  Old 
Tales  (with  J.  K.  Bangs,  1887); 
Lyrics  for  a  Lute  (1890);  Little- 
Folk  Lyrics  (1892);  Lyrics  of  Joy 
(1904);  A  Southern  Flight  (with 
Clinton  ScoUard,  1906),  He  was 
a  member  of  the  National  In- 
stitute of  Arts  and  Letters. 

Sherman,  James  School- 
craft (185.5-1912),  American 
statesman,  was  born  near  Utica, 
N.  Y.  He  was  graduated  from 
Hamilton  College  in  1878,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1880. 
He  was  mayor  of  Utica  in  1884-  6, 
and  served  continuously  as  a 
Representative  in  Congress  from 
1887  to  1909  (except  1891-3). 
His  most  important  appoint- 
ments, while  in  Congress,  were 
those  of  chairman  of  the  Indian 
Affairs  Committee,  and  member 
of  the  Rules  Committee  and  of 
the  Committee  on  Interstate 
and  Foreign  Commerce.  He  was 
chairman  of  the  New  York  State 
Republican  conventions  of  1895, 
1900,  and  1908;  and  was  chair- 
man of  the  National  Republican 
Congressional  Committee  in 
charge  of  the  1906  campaign. 
In  1908  he  was  elected  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States. 
He  was  renominated  by  the  Re- 
publican Party  in  1912;  but  he 
died  five  days  before  the  election, 
Oct.  30.  1912. 

Sherman,  John  (1823-1900), 
American  statesman,  brother  of 
W.  T.  Sherman  (q.  v.),  was  born 
in  Lancaster.  O.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  at  Springfield, 
O.,  in  1844.  His  principal  in- 
terest, however,  was  in  politics. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Whig 
National  Conventions  of  1848 
and  1852;  was  one  of  the  organ- 
izers of  the  Republican  Party  in 
Ohio;  and  in  1855  presided  over 
the  first  state  convention.  From 
1855  to  1861  he  was  a  Repre- 
sentative in  Congress,  taking  an 
active  part  in  debate,  and  exert- 
ing a  powerful  influence.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Congres- 
sional committee  sent  in  1856  to 
investigate  the  Kansas  troubles, 
especially  the  election  frauds; 
and  joined  with  W.  A.  Howard 
in  presenting  the  majority  re- 
port, which  had  considerable 
influence  in  Congress  and  in  the 
country.  In  1859-60  he  was  Re- 
publican candidate  for  the  speak- 
ership of  the  House,  the  contest 
being  almost  unparalleled  for  its 


Sherman 


KR 


164 


Sherman 


stubbornness  and  bitterness.  On 
the  twenty-fifth  ballot  he  was 
within  three  votes  of  election,  but 
eventually  withdrew.  From  1861 
to  1877  he  was  a  member  of  the 
U.  S.  Senate,  and  in  this  body 
was  even  more  influential  than  in 
the  House.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Senate  committee  on  finance, 
of  which  he  was  long  chairman; 
he  advocated  the  issue  of  'legal 
tenders';  he  was  the  author  of  the 
Refunding  Act  of  1870,  and  in 
1874  he  began  to  urge  the  re- 
sumption  of   specie  payments. 


measures  of  this  period — the 
Anti-Trust  Act  of  1890  and  the 
Silver  Purchase  Act  of  the  same 
year — are  associated  with  his 
name. 

Beginning  in  1880  Sherman 
was  a  prominent  candidate  in 
Republican  national  conven- 
tions, for  the  presidential  nomi- 
nation, and  in  the  convention  of 
1888  led  for  six  ballots.  In  1897 
he  became  Secretary  of  State  in 
the  cabinet  of  President  McKin- 
ley,  but  owing  to  his  advanced 
age  was  unable  to  meet  the  re- 


John  Sherman 


During  the  contest  for  the  presi- 
dency in  1876-7  between  Tilden 
and  Hayes,  he  took  a  prominent 
part  on  the  side  of  Hayes;  he  was 
a  member  of  the  Electoral  Com- 
mission, and  in  1877-81  was 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in 
President  Hayes'  cabinet.  In 
this  capacity  he  won  a  high 
standing  among  the  public  finan- 
ciers of  the  country,  his  greatest 
service  being  the  resumption  of 
specie  payments  (Jan.  1,  1879). 
From  1881  to  1897  Sherman  was 
again  a  member  of  the  U.  S. 
Senate,  and  again  took  an  influ- 
ential part  in  legislation,  espe- 
cially concerning  financial  mat- 
ters.  Two  of  the  most  important 


quirements  of  his  office  in  the 
critical  period  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  Spanish-American 
War,  and  in  April  1898  resigned. 
He  died  on  Oct.  22,  1900.  He 
published  Selected  Speeches  and 
Reports  on  Finance  and  Taxation, 
1859-78  (1879)  and  Recollections 
of  Forty  Years  in  the  House,  Sen- 
ate, and  Cabinet  (1895).  Consult 
his  correspondence  with  his 
brother,  General  Sherman,  Let- 
ters of  Two  Brothers  (1896),  and 
Burton's  Life. 

Sherman,  Roger  (1721-93). 
one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  was  born 
in  Newton,  Mass.  He  became 
a  shoemaker,  engaged  in  mer- 


cantile pursuits,  studied  law. 
and  having  removed  to  New 
Milford  in  1743  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1754.  In  1761  he  took 
up  his  residence  in  New  Haven. 
He  was  a  judge  of  the  superior 
court  in  1766-89,  senator  of  the 
colony  and  state  from  1766  to 
1785,  and  mayor  of  New  Haven 
in  1784-93.  While  thus  continu- 
ously holding  office  in  his  own 
state,  he  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  politics  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary period,  serving  in  all  the 
congresses  from  1774  to  1784. 
In  1776  he  was  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  committee  to  draft 
the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Consti- 
tutional Convention  of  1787.  in 
which  he  took  a  conservative 
stand,  opposed  popular  elections, 
and  favored  the  equal  represen- 
tation of  the  states  in  Congress. 
He  acquiesced,  however,  in  the 
final  compromise,  which  limited 
equal  representation  to  one  house. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  first 
Congress  under  the  Constitution 
and  a  United  States  Senator  in 
1791-3.  Consult  Boutelle's  Life 
of  Roger  Sherman. 

Sherman,  William  Tecum- 
SEH  (1820-91).  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Lancaster,  O.,  Feb. 
8.  1820.  He  was  graduated  from 
West  Point  in  1840.  was  given  a 
commission  in  the  artillery,  and 
after  serving  in  various  military 
posts  on  the  Atlantic  coast  was 
ordered  to  California  at  the  time 
of  the  Mexican  War.  In  1850 
he  returned  to  the  east,  and  in 
1853  resigned  his  commission. 
He  engaged  for  a  time  in  bank- 
ing, in  San  Francisco,  but  again 
returned  to  the  east  and  in  1860 
became  superintendent  of  the 
Louisiana  State  Military  Acad- 
emy. When  secession  became 
imminent,  he  resigned,  went 
North,  and  accepted  the  presi- 
dency of  a  street  railway  com- 
pany in  St.  Louis. 

Following  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War,  Sherman  was  ap- 
pointed colonel  of  the  Thirteenth 
Infantry  in  the  regular  army 
(May  1861)  and  while  engaged 
in  recruiting  his  regiment  was 
made  brigadier  general  of  vol- 
unteers and  ordered  to  Wash- 
ington. He  commanded  a  bri- 
gade of  Tyler's  division  at  Bull 
Run  and  on  Oct.  17,  1861,  suc- 
ceeded General  Anderson  in  com- 
mand in  Kentucky.  His  estimate 
that  200,000  men  were  required 
to  conquer  the  Mississippi 
Valley  lost  him  the  confidence  of 
the  administration,  and  though 
afterward  fully  justified,  brought 
upon  him  serious  criticism.  At 
his  own  request  he  was  relieved 
of  his  command  and  ordered  to 
report  to  Halleck.  who  com- 
manded in  Missouri.  Sherman 
was  given  a  division  in  the  Army 
of  the  Tennessee  in  February 


Sherman 


KR 


165 


Sherman 


1862,  and  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Shiloh.  There 
has  been  a  bitter  controversy  as 
to  whether  on  the  morning  of  the 
battle  (April  6)  he  permitted 
himself  to  be  surprised,  but  it 
can  not  be  questioned  that  he 
fought  throughout  the  day 
with  the  greatest  courage  and 
determination.  He  led  his  divi- 
sion during  the  advance  on  Cor- 
inth, became  major  general  of 
volunteers  May  1,  and  during 
the  summer  and  autumn  com- 
manded at  Memphis.  He  made 
an  unsuccessful  assault  on  Chick- 
asaw Bluff  Dec.  29,  1862,  in  an 
attempt  to  capture  Vicksburg. 
and  on  Jan.  11.  1863,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  McClernand,  captured 
Arkansas  Post  on  the  Arkansas 
River  with  its  garrison  of  5,000 
men.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  all  the  operations  leading  up 
to  the  surrender  of  Vicksburg, 
being  in  command  of  the  15th 
army  corps  of  Grant's  army,  and 
was  rewarded  for  his  services  by 
the  rank  of  brigadier  general  in 
the  regular  army. 

On  October  16,  when  Grant 
was  appointed  to  the  general 
command  in  the  west,  Sherman 
succeeded  him  in  command  of 
the  Army  of  the  Tennessee.  He 
was  at  once  ordered  to  the  relief 
of  Chattanooga,  and  took  a  dis- 
tinguished part  in  the  operations 
resulting  in  the  Confederate  re- 
treat, and  later  marched  to  the 
relief  of  Burnside  at  Knoxville. 
In  January  and  February  1864, 
he  led  an  expedition  from  Vicks- 
burg across  Mississippi  to  Merid- 
ian, destroying  the  railroads  and 
Confederate  stores.  He  suc- 
ceeded Grant  in  command  of  the 
Military  Division  of  the  Missis- 
sippi in  March  1864,  and  imme- 
diately prepared  for  a  campaign 
against  Atlanta.  He  had  under 
his  immediate  command  the 
armies  of  the  Cumberland,  the 
Ohio,  and  the  Tennessee, 
amounting  to  about  100.000 
men,  was  opposed  by  Joseph 
E.  Johnston  with  from  60,000  to 
70.000.  In  a  brilliant  campaign 
beginning  May  4,  in  which  he 
fought  the  battles  of  Dalton. 
Resaca,  New  Hope  Church,  and 
Kenesaw  Mountain,  he  ma- 
neuvered Johnston  out  of  position 
after  position,  until  the  latter 
was  relieved  of  his  command  on 
July  17.  Hood,  the  new  Confed- 
erate commander,  made  several 
desperate  attacks  on  the  Federal 
army,  but  each  one  failed,  with 
great  loss  to  the  attacking  army, 
and  he  was  finally  obliged  to 
evacuate  Atlanta,  which  Sher- 
man occupied  on  Sept.  2.  Hood 
now  moved  toward  Tennessee, 
expecting  to  oblige  Sherman  to 
follow  him;  but  the  latter,  after 
re-enforcing  Thomas,  left  him  at 
Nashville  to  resist  Hood's  inva- 
sion, and  after  destroying  the 


railroad  in  his  rear,  and  so  break- 
ing his  connection  with  the  North 
began  his  famous  'march  to  the 
sea.' 

The  army,  62,000  strong,  left 
Atlanta  Nov.  15,  and  reached 
the  coast  at  Savannah  on  Dec. 
13,  having  devastated  a  strip 
through  Georgia  fifty  miles  wide. 


Sherman  moved  out  from 
Goldsboro  against  Johnston  on 
April  10,  and  on  April  18  pre- 
liminary articles  of  surrender 
were  agreed  upon  between  the 
two  generals,  subject  to  the 
ratification  of  their  governments. 
Sherman  having  unwisely  per- 
mitted matters  pertaining  to  the 


William  Tecumseh  Sherman 


Savannah  capitulated  on  Dec. 
21.  Sherman's  army  began  its 
northern  advance  Feb.  1,  1865, 
occupied  Columbia,  S.  C,  Feb. 
17,  defeated  the  Confederates 
at  Bentonville  March  19,  and 
on  March  23  united  with 
Schofield  at  Goldsboro,  N.  C, 
having  marched  425  miles  in 
fifty  days.  This  campaign  from 
Savannah  to  Goldsboro  is  con- 
sidered by  many  as  Sherman's 
greatest  achievement. 


future  civil  administration  of  the 
states  in  rebellion  to  be  a  part  of 
the  terms  of  surrender,  the 
agreement  was  promptly  repudi- 
ated by  the  administration  and 
he  was  ordered  to  resume  hostili- 
ties. Notice  was  sent  to  Johns- 
ton on  April  14  that  the  truce 
arranged  on  the  18th  would  be 
terminated  in  forty-eight  hours, 
and  he  surrendered  on  the  26th, 
acropting  practically  the  same 
terms  previously  given  Lee. 


Sherman 


KR 


ICG 


8herwoort 


Sherman's  course  in  permit- 
ting matters  of  governmental 
policy  to  be  made  a  subject  of 
military  agreement  was  unjusti- 
fiable, but  his  treatment  by  Sec- 
retary Stanton  has  been  severely 
criticized.  A  bulletin  was  given 
to  the  press  by  the  War  Depart- 
ment on  April  24  charging  by 
plain  implication  that  Sherman 
had  been  bribed  to  give  favor- 
able terms  to  the  enemy.  He 
was  deeply  affronted,  and  on  the 
occasion  of  the  grand  review  of 
his  army  in  Washington  refused 


to  take  the  Secretary's  offered 
hand.  He  had  been  made  a 
major  general  in  the  regular 
army  during  the  Atlanta  cam- 
paign and  in  1866  he  became  lieu- 
tenant general.  He  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  Military  Division  of 
the  Mississippi,  with  headquar- 
ters at  St.  Louis,  from  1865  until 
the  inauguration  of  Grant  as 
President  in  1869,  when  he  suc- 
ceeded him  in  command  of  the 
army  with  the  rank  of  general. 
He  retired  in  1883,  and  spent  the 
last  years  of  his  life  in  New 
York,  where  he  died  on  Feb.  14, 
1891.  He  published  his  Memoirs 
in  two  volumes  in  1875. 


Sherman  was  a  man  of  great 
energy  and  force  of  character, 
and  ranks  as  one  of  the  ablest 
military  commanders  of  history. 
He  has  been  accused  of  unneces- 
sary destruction  of  property  in 
his  campaigns,  through  Georgia 
and  the  Carolinas,  but  in  his 
view  severity  was  in  the  end  the 
truest  humanity,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  supplies  which  might  be 
used  to  maintain  the  enemy's 
armies  he  believed  to  be  one  of 
the  quickest  means  of  ending 
the  war.     The  charge  that  he 


ordered  the  burning  of  Colum- 
bia, S.  C  has  been  completely 
disproved.  Consult,  besides  his 
Meynoirs,  Force's  biography. 

Sherry,  a  stimulating  and  in- 
vigorating wine,  pale  golden  to 
brown  in  color,  produced  around 
Xeres  de  la  Frontera  in  Andalu- 
sia, southwest  Spain.  Both  red 
and  white  varieties  of  grapes, 
carefully  ripened,  picked  over, 
and  sometimes  even  dried  in  the 
sun  for  a  short  period,  are  em- 
ployed in  the  production  of  the 
must.  Fermentation  continues 
until  the  end  of  the  year,  when 
the  new  wine  is  drawn  off  from 
the  deposit  or  lees.   Grape  spirit. 


brandy,  or  'patent  still'  grain 
spirit  is  added  to  fortify  and 
preserve  it.  With  medium  dry 
wines  a  small  quantity  of  sugar 
is  used,  and  to  some  others 
crushed  bitter  almond  kernels 
are  added  in  order  to  give  the 
nutty  flavor.  Various  coloring 
matters  are  also  necessary.  When 
first  prepared  the  wine  is  very 
strong  and  harsh,  but  in  a  few 
years  it  tones  down  and  mel- 
lows. The  quantity  of  alcohol 
in  the  finished  product  varies 
from  15  to  34  per  cent  by  vol- 
ume. 

The  chief  classes  are:  Amon- 
tillado, one  of  the  highest  qual- 
ity, a  fine,  dry,  delicate  wine 
of  excellent  bouquet;  Montilla, 
a  pale,  light,  nutty  dry  class  of 
wine,  less  fortified  than  some 
others;  Manzanilla,  a  light  but 
very  dry  class  of  sherry.  Among 
others  are  Vino  de  Pasto,  Oloroso 
Solera,  and  Emperador,  a  soft, 
generous,  pale  golden  wine,  one 
of  the  best  of  the  dessert  sherries. 
California  wines  are  prepared  to 
imitate  the  Spanish  brands. 

Sherwood,  Mary  Martha 
(1775-1851).  English  writer  of  re- 
ligious stories  for  the  young,  was 
born  in  Stanford  in  Worcester- 
shire. She  is  chiefly  remembered 
for  Little  Henry  and  his  Bearer 
and  The  Fairchild  Family  (1818). 
Consult  Darton's  The  Life  and 
Times  of  Mrs.  Sherwood. 

Sherwood,  Robert  Emmet 
(1896-  ),  author  and  drama- 
tist, was  born  in  New  Rochelle, 
N.  Y.  and  was  graduated  from 
Harvard  University  (1917). 
He  was  dramatic  editor  of 
Vanity  Fair  (1919-1920),  and 
associate  editor  of  Life  (1920- 
1924).  He  was  special  assistant 
to  the  Secretary  of  War  (1940) 
and  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
(1945).  He  received  the  Pulitzer 
Prize  for  Idiot's  Delight  (1936), 
Abe  Lincoln  in  Illinois  (1939), 
and  There  Shall  Be  No  Night 
(1941).  Other  successful  plays 
were  Road  to  Rome  (1927),  Re- 
union in  Vienna  (1931)  and  The 
Petri  fied  Forest  (1934). 

Sherwood,  William  Hall 
(1854-1911),  American  pianist, 
teacher,  and  composer,  was  born 
in  Lyons,  N.  Y.,  was  graduated 
from  the  Lyons  Musical  Acad- 
emy, of  which  his  father  was 
principal,  and  subsequetnly  stud- 
ied under  William  Mason  in 
New  York  City  and  under  Kul- 
lak,  Deppe,  and  Liszt  in  Europe, 
After  two  years  of  concert  work 
in  Germany  (1882-4),  he  re- 
turned to  America  to  teach  piano 
in  the  New  England  Conserva- 
tory, Boston.  In  1889  he  went 
to  Chicago,  and  there,  after  ten 
years'  work  as  head  of  the  piano 
department  in  the  Chicago  Con- 
servatory, evStablished  the  Sher- 
wood Piano  School.  His  compo- 
sitions (all  for  pianoforte)  include 


Shetland  Islands 


Sherwood  Forest 


167 


Shield 


a  suite,  a  Scherzo-Caprice,  a 
Gypsy  Dance,  and  many  minor 
pieces. 

Sherwood  Forest,  ancient  royal 
forest,  in  Nottinghamshire,  Eng- 
land, the  traditional  retreat  of 
Robin  Hood.  It  includes  the 
district  of  'The  Dukeries,'  where 
are  the  parks  and  mansions  of 
Clumber,  Welbeck,  and  Thores- 
by. 

Shetland,  or  Zetland  (Norse 
Hjallland),  a  group  of  100  islands, 
27  of  which  are  inhabited,  lying 
northeast  of  the  mainland  of 
Scotland.  They  have  an  area  of 
about  550  square  miles;  the 
largest  are  Mainland,  Yell,  Unst, 
Fetlar,  Bressay,  and  Whalsay. 
Mainland,  which  comprises  about 
half  the  area,  has  a  coast-line 
of  such  irregularity  that  no  point 
is  more  than  4  miles  from  the 
sea.  The  islands  seldom  rise  to 
more  than  500  ft.  above  sea 
level,  the  highest  point  being 
Ronas  Hill  (1,472  ft.)  on  Main- 
land. Much  of  the  soil  is  peaty, 
and  barely  one-sixth  is  under 
cultivation.  Oats,  barley,  po- 
tatoes, and  turnips  are  raised. 
Cattle  and  sheep  are  grazed,  and 
the  small,  sturdy  Shetland  ponies 
and  Shetland  wool  are  well 
known.  Fishing  is  one  of  the 
chief  occupations,  and  whaling 
is  of  importance.  Household  in- 
dustries include  the  knitting  of 
shawls  and  stockings.  Originally 
settled  by  Norsemen,  the  islands 
remained  under  Norse  rule  until 
the  marriage  of  James  in.  of 
Scotland  to  Margaret,  princess 
of  Norway.  During  the  Great 
War,  Lerwick,  the  chief  town, 
was  established  as  a  naval  base, 
being  the  assembling  and  return- 
ing point  of  the  North  Sea  con- 
voys.  Pop.  (1921)  25,520. 

Shetland  Pony,  a  small  pony 
native  to  the  Shetland  Islands 
(q.  v.),  about  200  miles  north 
of  Scotland.  They  range  in 
height  from  36  to  44  inches,  and 
weigh  about  350  pounds  (for  40 
inches  of  height).  The  coat  is 
long  and  heavy  in  winter,  and 
the  foretop,  mane,  and  tail  at  all 
times.  In  England,  vShetland 
ponies  are  used  in  mines  for  haul- 
ing coal  cars.  Their  use  in  the 
United  States  is  almost  exclu- 
sively for  children. 

Shewbread.   See  Showbread. 

Sheyenne  River,  a  stream  of 
North  Dakota,  rises  in  the  north 
central  part  of  the  State  and 
flows  first  in  a  general  easterly 
direction,  then  south,  and  then 
toward  the  east  and  north  to 
join  the  Red  River  (of  the 
North)  about  10  miles  north  of 
Fargo.   Length  (est.)  300  miles. 

Shibboleth,  the  word  used  by 
Jephthah  at  the  fords  of  the 
Jordan  as  a  test  of  the  nation- 
ality of  the  fugitive  Ephraimites 
whose  pronunciation  'Sibboleth' 
betrayed  them  (Judg.  xii.  6). 


Shiel,  Loch,  fresh-water  loch 
(17K  miles  by  1  mile)  in  Argyll- 
shire and  Inverness-shire,  Scot- 
land, 18  miles  from  Fort  William. 
It  drains  by  the  river  Shiel  into 
Loch  Moidart,  an  arm  of  the 
Atlantic.  On  Aug.  19,  1745,  at 
Glenfinnan,  at  the  head  of  the 


loch.  Prince  Charlie  raised  his 
standard. 

Shield,  a  piece  of  defensive 
armor  borne  on  the  left  arm  to 
ward  off  missiles  and  the  strokes 
of  the  sword.  The  earliest 
shields  were  probably  of  wood, 
strengthened  with  folds  of  rough 
hides.  In  the  latter  portion  of 
the  bronze  age  circular  shields 
were  hammered  out  of  sheet 
bronze;  the  handle  was  riveted 
into  the  shield,  and  there  was 
a  more  or  less  projecting  boss  or 
umbo.   As  the  bronze  was  ham- 


mered out  to  an  extreme  thin- 
ness, it  is  probable  that  a  stout 
lining  of  leather  was  affixed. 
These  shields  were  ornamented 
with  a  pattern  resembUng  two 
intertwisted  snakes,  as  in  the 
Coveney  shield,  or  with  a  series 
of    concentric    rings,  between 


which  are  circles  of  small  studs. 
One  of  the  largest  of  this  latter 
variety  (27>^  in.  in  diameter) 
was  found  at  Mitchelhill  in 
Aberdeenshire.  Some  of  the 
early  gold  coins  of  Cunobeline 
show  shields  both  of  a  circular 
and  of  a  long  and  double-pointed 
form. 

The  Homeric  heroes  are  de- 
scribed as  carrying  shields  large 
enough  to  cover  the  whole  man. 
These  shields  were  of  osiers 
covered  with  several  folds  of  ox 
hide,  and  bound  round  the  edge 


Types  of  Shields 


Vol.  XL— Oct.  '25 


Shield 


168 


Shields 


with  metal.  In  their  earhest 
form  they  were  worn  fastened  to 
the  waist  by  a  belt;  at  a  later 
period  they  were  carried  by  the 
arm  passing  through  a  set  of 
straps. 

The  Roman  shields  were  of 
two  types — the  clipeus  and  the 
scutum.  The  original  form  is 
said  to  have  been  square.  Both 
were  large.  On  his  scutum  the 
Roman  soldier  usually  inscribed 
his  own  name  and  sometimes 
that  of  his  commander. 

Mediaeval  shields  differ  widely 


is  that  known  as  'heater-shaped,' 
a  type  common  during  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies. The  targe  of  the  Scotch 
Highlands,  made  of  wood  and 
leather,  and  studded  with  brass 
decoratively  applied,  is  a  rever- 
sion to  the  early  circular  form. 

Shields  of  North  American 
Indians  are  highly''  prized  by 
collectors  and  make  up  an  im- 
portant part  of  ethnological  col- 
lections. So  far  as  is  known, 
shields  were  used  by  the  Mex- 
ican,  the  Pueblo,   and  all  the 


North  American  Indian  Shield 


in  shape,  size,  and  the  amount 
of  decoration.  Probably  the 
earliest  form  was  circular, 
deeply  convex,  and  fitted  with  a 
projecting  sharp-pointed  boss. 
It  was  usually  of  wood  with  a 
rim  of  metal.  The  early  Nor- 
mans are  said  to  have  intro- 
duced the  kite-shaped  shield, 
and  it  was  on  these  that  armorial 
bearings  were  first  placed,  though 
the  origin  of  the  art  of  heraldry 
is  traceable  to  the  time  of 
iEschylus  (b.  B.C.  525),  who 
represents  the  seven  chiefs  who 
marched  against  Thebes  as  car- 
rying shields  thus  decorated. 
The  best-known  heraldic  shield 

Vol.  XI.— Oct.  '25 


plains  tribes.  The  ancient  Mex- 
ican shield  was  of  leather  and 
reeds,  but  among  the  plains 
Indians  a  disk  of  thickened, 
hardened  buffalo  hide  was  em- 
ployed. While  such  a  shield  was 
a  protection  against  arrows,  it 
seems  to  have  been  considered 
chiefly  in  the  light  of  a  charm 
or  talisman.  This  was  true  of 
all  shields  bearing  painted  de- 
signs and  decorations  of  feathers 
or  other  objects.  When  a  young 
man  was  of  the  proper  age  to 
go  on  the  war-path  he  made 
presents  to  some  successful  war- 
rior, who,  having  had  a  shield 
prepared,  would  paint  upon  it 


the  symbols  of  some  dream  ex- 
perience. The  form  of  these  ex- 
periences was  usually  as  follows: 
Some  animal,  or  animal-person, 
would  appear  before  the  dreamer 
and  offer  to  give  him  power  to 
overcome  his  enemies  and  to  es- 
cape injury  in  battle.  This  was 
interpreted  as  implying  that  if 
some  part  or  symbol  of  the  ani- 
mal making  the  communication 
was  placed  upon  the  shield  it 
would  stand  as  a  perpetual 
prayer  to  the  source  of  power, 
and  thus  insure  its  action  in  be- 
half of  the  bearer  of  the  shield. 
Many  tribes  still  use  shields 
made  of  cloth  bearing  such  sym- 
bolic designs. 

See  also  Armor. 

Shield,  William  (1748-1829). 
English  musical  composer,  was 
born  at  Swalwell,  in  Durham. 
He  produced  several  comic  and 
other  operas,  including  The  Flitch 
of  Bacon  (1778),  Rosina  (1783), 
The  Woodman  (1792).  He  wrote 
several  popular  songs,  such  as 
The  Ploughboy  and  The  Wolf, 
and  credit  is  claimed  for  him  as 
the  author  of  the  tunes  of  Auld 
Lang  Syne  and  Comin'  through 
the  Rye.  He  was  master  of  the 
king's  musicians  at  the  time  of 
his  death. 

Shields,  North,  seaport  and 
market  town,  Northumberland, 
England,  forming  a  part  of 
Tynemouth,  is  situated  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Tyne;  8  miles 
northeast  of  Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
It  has  shipyards  and  fishing  in- 
terests. A  ferry  connects  it  with 
South  Shields  (q.  v.). 

Shields,  South,  county  bor- 
ough and  seaport,  Durham, 
England,  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Tyne,  9  miles  east  of  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne.  Interesting  features 
are  the  parish  church  of  St. 
Hilda,  rebuilt  about  1811,  but 
still  preserving  its  ancient  tower; 
the  town  hall,  dating  from  1768; 
the  police  buildings,  pubHc  li- 
brary and  museum,  and  mer- 
cantile marine  school  (founded 
1861).  Industries  include  the 
manufacture  of  glass  and  chemi- 
cals, shipbuilding,  and  paint  and 
varnish  works.  There  are  exten- 
sive docks  and  a  large  export 
trade  in  coal.  On  the  Lawe,  an 
eminence %icluded  in  the  modern 
town,  are  remains  of  a  Roman 
camp. 

South  Shields  was  founded  in 
the  thirteenth  century,  but  its 
commercial  development  was 
greatly  hindered  by  the  action  of 
Henry  iii.,  who  at  the  instance  of 
the  burgesses  of  Newcastle, 
ordered  that  no  quays  be  built 
here  and  that  no  vessels  be  laden 
or  unladen.  The  town  is  further 
interesting  as  the  scene  of  the 
launching  of  the  first  lifeboat,  in 
1790.     Pop.  (1921),  19,104. 

Shields,  Charles  Woodruff 
(1825-1904),   American  theolo- 


Shields 


169 


Sbllob 


gian,  was  born  in  New  Albany, 
Ind.  He  was  graduated  from 
Princeton  College  in  1844,  and 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary 
in  1848.  He  was  pastor  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  at  Hemp- 
stead, L.  I.  (1849-50),  and  of  the 
Second  Presbyterian  Church, 
Philadelphia  (1850-65).  In  1865 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  the 
harmony  of  science  and  religion 
at  Princeton,  a  post  he  held  till 
his  death.  In  1896  he  entered 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  com- 
munion. He  was  a  strong  advo- 
cate of  church  unity.  He  wrote: 
Religion  and  Science  in  Relation 
to  Philosophy  (1875);  The  Order 
of  the  Sciences  (1882);  Essays  on 
Christian  Unity  (1892);  The  His- 
toric Episcopate  (1892);  The 
United  Church  of  the  United 
States  (1896);  Scientific  Evidences 
of  Revealed  Religion  (1900). 

Shields,  James  (1810-79), 
American  soldier  and  public  of- 
ficial, was  born  in  Dungannon, 
County  Tyrone,  Ireland,  and 
emigrated  to  the  United  States 
in  1826.  In  1832  he  began  to 
practise  law  in  Kaskaskia,  111., 
and  entered  the  political  sphere 
as  a  Democrat.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Illinois  house  of  repre- 
sentatives (1836-8);  State  au- 
ditor (1841-3) ;  judge  of  the  State 
supreme  court  (1843-5);  and 
commissioner  of  the  U.  S.  Gen- 
eral Land  Office  (1845-7).  In 
the  Mexican  War  he  served  as  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers 
under  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor  on 
the  Rio  Grande,  under  Gen.  John 
E.  Wool  in  Chihuahua,  and  under 
Gen.  Winfield  Scott  in  the  south- 
ern campaign.  He  was  brevetted 
major-general  for  gallantry  at 
Cerro  Gordo,  where  he  was  se- 
verely wounded,  and  he  was 
again  wounded  at  Chapultepec. 
In  1849-55  he  was  U.  S.  Senator 
from  Illinois,  and  in  1858-9  from 
Minnesota.  In  August,  1861,  he 
was  commissioned  a  Federal 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers; 
and  in  March,  1862,  succeeded  to 
the  command  of  General  Lander's 
division.  He  was  in  command  at 
the  successful  engagement  at 
Winchester,  being  severely 
wounded  (March  23,  1862),  but 
was  defeated  by  'vStonewall' 
Jackson  at  Port  Republic  (June 
9).  In  March,  1863,  he  resigned 
his  commission. 

Shigatse,  she-gat'sa,  or  Digar- 
CHi,  town,  Tibet,  near  the  upper 
Brahmaputra  or  Sanpo;  140 
miles  southwest  of  Lhassa,  at  an 
altitude  of  11,000  feet.  Near 
here  is  the  Tashi-lunpo  monas- 
tery, the  residence  of  the  Rimpo- 
che  Lama,  one  of  the  Tibetan  in- 
carnations of  Buddha;  conse- 
quently it  is  one  of  the  holiest 
places  of  the  Buddhist  world. 
Pop.  12,000. 

Shiites,  she'its  (also  Sheeahs 
Of  Shiahs;  'sectaries,'  from  the 
Arabic  shtah,  'a  party'),  the  name 


given  by  orthodox  Moslems  or 
Sunnites  (q.v.)  to  All's  followers, 
who  call  themselves  al-adeltyyah, 
'the  right  people.'  They  were 
the  champions  of  All's  right  to  be 
Mohammed's  successor  as  being 
his  cousin  and  son-in-law;  and 
after  Ali's  death  they  took  the 
part  of  his  sons  Hasan,  Hosain, 
and  Mohammed  ibn  al-Hana- 
fiyyah. 

Shiites  reject  the  'traditional 
law,'  and  pin  their  faith  to  the 
dicta  of  twelve  imams  or  leaders, 
the  lineal  descendants  of  Ali. 
They  are  essentially  mystics,  and 
their  morals  are  correspondingly 
lax.  Differences  of  opinion 
among  themselves  have  led  to 
endless  disputes,  and  this  sect 
itself  is  divided  into  over  thirty 
denominations.  All  Shiites  al- 
legorize the  Koran ;  but  the  ultra- 
Shiites,  founded  by  Abdallah  ibn 
Saba,  a  converted  Jew  of  Yemen, 
differed  from  the  moderate  Shi- 
ites or  Zaidites  in  believing  in  the 
transmigration  of  souls,  and  in 
calling  Ali  and  his  legitimate  suc- 
cessors incarnations  of  God.  The 
moderate  Shiism  that  has  been 
the  national  religion  of  Persia 
since  the  native  royal  line  of  Safi- 
ides  ascended  the  throne  in  1499 
is  more  Koranic  than  Sunnism. 
Shiism  has  spread  through  Af- 
ghanistan into  India,  but  toward 
the  west  has  made  no  way.  The 
Shiites  pilgrimage  to  Kerbela, 
near  ancient  Babylon,  and  to 
Meshed  in  Northeast  Persia,  be- 
sides Mecca.  Yemen  is  predom- 
inantly Shiite.  Their  total  num- 
ber is  estimated  at  10,000,000. 
See  Mohammedanism. 

Shikari.    See  Shekarry. 

Shikarpur,  chief  town,  Shik- 
arpur  district,  Sindh,  India;  180 
miles  north  of  Haidarabad,  on 
the  railway  to  Quetta  and  Pishin. 
It  occupies  a  low  site,  the  adja- 
cent country  being  often  inun- 
dated, but  the  soil  is  fertile,  and 
yields  heavy  crops  of  grain  and 
fruits.  Carpets,  coarse  cottons, 
furniture,  and  pottery  are  made 
in  the  town.    Pop.  50,000. 

Shikarpur,  shik-ar-pobr',  town, 
Buland-shahr  district.  United 
Provinces,  India;  55  miles  south- 
east of  Meerut.    Pop.  12,500. 

Shikohabad,  town.  United 
Provinces,  India;  40  miles  east  of 
Agra.    Pop.  10^000.  _ 

Shikoku,  she'ko'koo,  smallest 
of  the  four  main  islands  of  Japan, 
south  of  Hondo,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Inland  Sea. 
Area,  7,030  square  miles.  Pop. 
3,300,000.    See  Japan. 

Shil'don,  town,  Durham,  Eng- 
land ;  3  miles  southeast  of  Bishop 
Auckland.  There  are  large  rail- 
way shops,  foundries,  coal  mines, 
and  quarries.  Pop.  urban  district 
of  Shildon  and  East  Thickley 
(1911),  13,488. 

Shilka  (shel'ka)  River,  Asiatic 
Russia,  in  Transbaikalia,  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  Onon  and 


Ingoda,  44  miles  southwest  of 
Nerchinski.  After  flowing  north- 
east for  about  300  miles  it 
unites  at  Ust  Stryelka  with  the 
Argun  to  form  the  Amur  River 
(q.v.). 

Shillaber,  Benjamin  Pen- 
hallow  (1814-90),  American 
humorist,  was  born  in  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.,  and  after  serving 
his  apprenticeship  as  a  printer 
removed  to  Boston.  After  a 
visit  to  British  Guiana  (1837)  he 
became  editor  of  the  Boston  Post 
(1840-  50),  The  Carpet  Bag,  a 
comic  paper  (1851-3),  and  The 
Saturday  Evening  Gazette  (1856— 
66).  His  humorous  sketches  of 
'Mrs.  Partington'  and  her  son 
'Ike'  gained  him  world-wide 
fame.  Among  his  works  are: 
Life  and  Sayings  of  Mrs.  Parting- 
ton (1854);  Partingtonian  Patch- 
work (1873) ;  Lines  in  Pleasant 
Places  —  a  volume  of  poems 
(1875);  Ike  and  His  Friend 
(1879);  Wideswathe  (1884). 

Shillelagh,  shi-la'lii,  the  cudgel 
of  wood  carried  by  the  conven- 
tional Irishman,  ready  for  in- 
stant use.  The  name  is  borrowed 
from  the  once  famous  oak  forest 
of  Shillelagh  in  the  southwest 
corner  of  County  Wicklow. 

Shilling  is  a  current  silver 
coin  of  Great  Britain,  being  equal 
to  the  twentieth  part  of  a  British 
sovereign  in  nominal  value,  or 
about  a  fourth  part  of  an  Amer- 
ican dollar.    Its  name  is  most 


Shilling,  Time  of  Henry  VII. 

probably  derived  from  a  root 
skil,  'to  divide.'  The  old  Saxon 
coin  of  this  name  was  worth 
about  10  cents.  The  modern 
shilling  was  first  coined  by  Henry 
VII.  in  1504;  milled  shillings  were 
first  coined  by  Charles  ii.  in  1662. 

Formerly  the  word  shilling  was 
widely  used  in  the  United  States 
to  denote  different  values  in 
different  parts,  and  in  certain 
localities  is  still  occasionally  met 
with.  A  'Mexican  shilling'  or 
'bit'  is  equivalent  to  12>2  cents. 
See  Pine-Tree  Shilling. 

Shi'loh  (modern  Seilun),  a 
town  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  the 
first  permanent  resting  place  of 
the  Tabernacle,  the  home  of  Eli 
and  Samuel,  and  long  the  re- 
ligious centre  of  Israel.  The  site 
is  a  ruined  village  20  miles  north 
of  Jerusalem.  The  flat  ground 
to  the  north  of  the  ruins  is 
thought  to  be  the  site  where  the 
sanctuary  of  the  Ark  was  located, 
which  in  Samuel's  time  was  some 
kind  of  permanent  building  with 
doors  (1  Sam.  iii.  15).  The  sanc- 
tuary was  probably  destroyed  by 
the  Philistines  (c/.  Jer,  vii.  12) 


Shiloh,  Battle  of 


170 


Shinto 


Shiloh,  or  Pittsburg  Landing, 
Battle  of,  a  battle  of  the  Civil 
War,  fought  on  April  6-7,  1862, 
at  and  near  Pittsburg  Landing 
on  the  Tennessee  River,  20  miles 
north  of  Corinth,  Miss.,  between 
the  Federal  Armies  of  the  Ten- 
nessee under  General  Grant  and 
of  the  Ohio  under  General  Buell, 
and  the  Confederate  Army  of  the 
Mississippi  under  Generals  A.  S. 
Johnston  and  P.  G.  T.  Beaure- 
gard. 

After  the  loss  of  Fort  Donelson 
(q.v.),  in  February,  1862,  Johns- 
ton concentrated  his  army  at 
Corinth,  Miss.  The  Federal 
army  was  ordered  to  ascend  the 
Tennessee  River,  for  the  purpose 
of  cutting  railroad  connections 
with  the  south,  and  Sherman  es- 
tablished division  headquarters 
at  Shiloh  Church,  2%.  miles 
southwest  of  Pittsburg  Landing. 
When  Grant,  who  had  been  tem- 
porarily relieved  of  his  command, 
was  restored,  and  arrived  at 
Savannah,  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  river  (March  17),  he  contin- 
ued to  send  troops  across  the 
river,  but  awaited  the  arrival  of 
Buell,  who  had  been  ordered 
from  Nashville  to  co-operate. 
Meanwhile,  as  an  offensive  move- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  Confed- 
erate forces  was  not  expected,  no 
entrenchments  and  no  particular 
lines  of  battle  were  formed  on  the 
west  side  of  the  river.  Even  as 
late  as  April  5,  Sherman  thought 
the  Confederate  forces  at  his 
front  were  only  skirmishers, 
though  in  reality  Hardee's  corps 
had  taken  position  not  more  than 
a  mile  and  a, half  away. 

Early  on  Sunday  morning, 
April  6,  the  pickets  of  Prentiss' 
division  were  driven  in,  and  the 
Confederate  attack  followed  at 
once.  Before  ten  o'clock  much 
pf  the  Federal  camp  had  been 
captured.  Though  the  Federal 
troops  generally  fought  bravely, 
from  5,000  to  10,000  raw  recruits 
became  panic-stricken  and  re- 
treated in  disorder  to  the  river, 
and  many  swam  across.  About 
5  o'clock  Prentiss  and  a  large 
part  of  his  division,  amounting 
to  2,200  men,  were  forced  to 
surrender.  Johnston  was  mor- 
tally wounded  about  2  p.m.,  and 
died  soon  after.  Beauregard  as- 
sumed command,  after  some 
delay,  and  the  Federal  line  was 
forced  back  almost  to  the  river 
bank,  where  it  was  partially  pro- 
tected by  gunboats.  Just  as  a 
fimal  assault  was  being  made  the 
vanguard  of  Buell's  army  ar- 
rived, and  the  Confederate  ad- 
vance was  checked. 

During  the  night  the  Confed- 
erate army  occupied  the  Federal 
camp;  but  meanwhile  Gen.  Lew 
Wallace,  who  had  been  encamped 
at  Crump's  Landing,  five  miles 
down  the  river,  arrived  with 
5,000  troops,  and  the  greater  part 
of  Buell's  army  crossed  the  river 


and  was  placed  in  line  of  battle. 
Early  in  the  morning  Buell  ad- 
vanced to  the  attack.  Wallace's 
fresh  troops  were  engaged  upon 
Grant's  right;  the  regiments  shat- 
tered by  the  previous  day's  fight- 
ing had  been  re-formed  during 
the  night;  and  Sherman  and 
McClernand  pressed  their  way 
toward  their  camps  of  the  day 
before.  The  Confederates  con- 
tested every  foot  of  ground  as 
stubbornly  as  their  opponents 
had  done  the  day  before,  but  by 
five  o'clock  the  Federal  forces 
had  regained  the  ground  lost  on 
the  first  day.  Beauregard,  how- 
ever, withdrew  in  good  order,  and 
retired  unmolested  to  Corinth. 

Though  General  Grant  claimed 
that  his  forces  were  not  surprised, 
and  that  he  was  satisfied  with 
the  result  of  the  first  day's  battle, 
many  authorities  have  inclined 
to  the  belief  that  only  the  death 
of  Johnston  and  the  timely  ar- 
rival of  Buell  prevented  a  serious 
disaster.  Others  have  pointed 
out  that  the  authority  was  di- 
vided, that  important  orders  were 
undelivered,  that  the  direction  of 
the  battle,  clecisive-  only  as  a 
Confederate  repulse,  devolved  by 
force  of  circumstances  upon  sub- 
ordinate officers,  and  that  there 
was  no  consistent  plan  of  attack 
or  defence. 

On  the  first  day.  Grant's  army 
numbered  more  than  33,000  ef- 
fective troops;  at  the  close  of  the 
second  day,  more  than  60,000 
Federal  troops  were  on  the 
ground.  The  Confederate  forces 
included  fully  40,000.  The  Fed- 
eral losses  were  1,754  killed,  8,408 
wounded,  and  2,855  missing; 
total,  13,047.  The  Confederate 
losses  were  1,723  killed.  8,012 
wounded,  and  957  missing;  total 
10,694. 

In  1894  Congress  passed  an  Act 
providing  for  the  purchase  of 
3,700  acres  of  land,  covering  the 
field  of  battle,  which  is  now 
known  as  Shiloh  National  Mili- 
tary Park,  and  is  a  national  cem- 
etery. 

Consult  Grant's  Memoirs; 
Sherman's  Memoirs;  Van  Home's 
History  of  the  Army  of  the  Cum- 
berland; Swinton's  Twelve  Deci- 
sive Battles  of  the  War. 

Shimoda,  she-mo'da,  or  Si- 
MODA,  town,  Hondo,  Japan;  56 
miles  southwest  of  Yokohama, 
on  Izu  peninsula.  It  was  opened 
in  1854  to  foreign  commerce. 
Pop.  9,000. 

Shimoga,  she-mo'ga,  town, 
capital  of  Shimoga  district,  My- 
sore, India;  87  miles  northeast  of 
Mangalore.  Pop.  6,000.  The 
district  has  an  area  of  4,020 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
533,000.  The  industries  include 
sandalwood  carving,  cotton  cloth, 
blankets,  pottery,  iron,  copper, 
and  brass  goods. 

Shimonoselii,  she'mo-no-sa'ke 
(formerly  A  kamagaseki) ,  fortified 


seaport  in  Southwest  Hondo, 
Japan,  on  the  Inland  Sea,  near 
its  west  entrance,  opposite  Moji. 
It  has  been  open  to  foreign  trade 
since  1890.  In  1864  it  was  partly 
destroyed  during  a  bombardment 
by  a  combined  fleet  of  British, 
American,  Dutch,  and  French 
vessels.  The  treaty  signed  at 
Shimonoseki  in  April,  1895,  put 
an  end  to  the  war  between  Japan 
and  China.  The  trade  is  valued 
at  over  $25,000,000  annually. 
Pop.  60,000. 

Shi'nar.   See  Babylonia. 

Shiner,  the  popular  name  of 
various  small  silvery  fishes, 
chiefly  belonging  to  the  minnow 
family,  and  found  in  streams 
from  Maine  to  Louisiana.  See 
Dace;  Minnow. 

Shingit,  or  Shingeti,  town. 
Western  Sahara,  in  the  Adrar 
oasis.    Pop.  4,000. 

Shing-liing.    vSee  Feng-tien. 

Shingles,  thin,  flat  pieces  of 
wood,  rectangular  in  shape,  gen- 
erally about  eighteen  inches  long 
and  from  three  to  twelve  inches 
in  width,  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
thick  at  one  end,  and  tapering  to 
less  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
at  the  other;  used  for  covering 
roofs  or  the  sides  of  wooden 
buildings.  Shingles  are  made 
mainly  of  cedar,  but  white  pine, 
cypress,  and  yellow  pine  are  also 
used. 

Shingles,  the  popular  name 
for  the  skin  disease  Herpes  zos- 
ter.   See  Herpes. 

Shingu,  town,  Hondo,  Japan; 
75  miles  southeast  of  Osaka. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Shinjo,  town,  Hondo,  Japan; 
36  miles  north  of  Yamagata. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Shinnecock  Bay,  a  bay  on  the 
■south  shore  of  Long  Island,  in 
Suffolk  county;  10  miles  long, 
and,  from  3  to  4  miles  wide. 

Shin'necock  Hills,  summer  re- 
sort, Suffolk  county.  Long  Island, 
N.  Y.,  included  in  Southampton 
township,  between  Shinnecock 
and  Peconic  Bays,  and  on  the 
Long  Island  Railroad;  65  miles 
east  of  Brooklyn.  The  Shinne- 
cock Indian  Reservation,  300 
acres  in  extent,  is  in  the  vicinity. 

Shinnecock  Indians,  a  tribe  of 
North  American  Indians  of  Al- 
gonquin stock,  who  formerly 
lived  in  the  eastern  part  of  Long 
Island,  and  probably  on  the 
neighboring  shore  of  Connecti- 
cut. They  lived  in  dome-shaped 
lodges,  thatched  with  grass.  The 
tribe  now  numbers  about  150, 
with  a  large  intermixture  of 
negro  blood.  The  Indian  lan- 
guage and  customs  have  long 
been  abandoned. 

Shinto,  Shintoism  (Japanese, 
Kami  no  Michi,  'the  Way  of  the 
Gods'),  the  ancient  mythology 
and  religion  of  Japan.  The  char- 
acteristics of  Shintoism  in  its 
pure  form  are  'the  absence  of  an 
ethical  and  doctrinal  code,  of 


Ship 


KFF 


171 


Shipbuilding 


idol  worship,  of  priestcraft,  and 
of  any  teachings  concerning  a  fu- 
ture state,  and  the  deification  of 
heroes,  emperors,  and  great  men, 
together  with  the  worship  of  cer- 
tain forces  and -objects  in  nature.' 
The  principal  divinity  is  the  sun 
goddess  Amaterasu,  from  whom 
the  Mikado  is  held  to  be  descend- 
ed. After  the  restoration  the 
government  attempted  to  free 
Shintoism  from  the  Buddhist  in- 
novations which  had  contami- 
nated it,  and  to  revive  it  in  its 
pure  form  as  the  national  re- 
ligion. 

Shinto  temples  are  destitute  of 
ecclesiastical  paraphernalia.  A 
metal  mirror  generally  stands  on 
the  altar,  but  even  this  is  a 
Buddhist  innovation.  The  spirit 
of  the  enshrined  deity  is  supposed 
to  be  in  a  case,  which  is  exposed 
to  view  only  on  the  day  of  the 
deity's  annual  festival.  The 
worship  consists  simply  in  wash- 
ing the  face  in  a  font,  striking  a 
bell,  throwing  a  few  cash  into 
the  money  box,  and  praying 
silently  for  a  few  seconds;  never- 
theless, long  pilgrimages  to  fa- 
mous shrines  and  to  the  summits 
of  sacred  mountains  are  often 
taken  to  accomplish  this. 

Shintoism  is  rather  an  engine 
of  government  than  a  religion;  it 
keeps  its  hold  on  the  masses 
chiefly  through  its  being  inter- 
woven with  reverence  for  an- 
cestors and  patriotic  ideas.  At 
present  it  represents  principally 
the  patriotism  of  the  people,  and 
provides  the  religious  ceremonial 
now  used  at  court.  Consult 
Griffis'  Religions  of  Japan. 

Ship.  See  Shipbuilding; 
Shipping;  Sails  and  Rigging; 
Seamanship;  Navies;  Battle- 
ship; Navigation;  Navigation 
Laws. 

Shipbuilding.  Historical  De- 
velopmeni. — The  oldest  authentic 
pictures  or  accounts  of  ships 
are  those  of  the  Egyptians,  and 
their  date  is  about  3000  B.C. 
Whether  the  Egyptians  were  the 
first  to  build  vessels  of  consider- 
able size  is  unknown;  but  that 
other  nations  were  contempora- 
neous builders  at  the  date  men- 
tioned is  evinced  by  the  fact  that 
the  vessels  mentioned  were  war- 
ships. 

One  of  the  most  ancient  types 
of  vessels  shown  on  the  Egyptian 
monuments  had  40  oars,  and  was 
probably  100  feet  long.  It  had  a 
mast  made  of  two  spars,  with  the 
heels  slightly  apart  and  lashed 
together  at  the  heads,  which  were 
supported  by  a  stay  and  several 
backstays  or  shrouds.  The  sail 
was  nearly  square,  bent  to  a  yard, 
and  had  sheets  and  braces;  and 
the  masts  were,  at  least  in  some 
instances,  fitted  to  be  unstepped 
and  carried  on  a  frame  above  the 
deck.  In  a  later  type  the  mast 
consisted  of  a  single  spar  with  a 
square    sail    set    between  two 


yards.  Some  of  these  vessels 
were  used  on  the  Nile,  and  some 
in  the  Red  Sea. 

The  Chaldseans  undoubtedly 
possessed  ships,  but  possibly  not 
at  so  early  a  date  as  the  Egyp- 
tians, though  there  is  reason  to 
believe  they  were  more  enter- 
prising navigators  than  the  latter. 
The  Assyrians  were  fresh-water 
sailors,  and  ventured  on  seagoing 
vessels  only  when  they  were 
manned  by  the  Phoenicians,  over 
whom  Assyria  held  suzerainty 
for  a  considerable  period.  The 
Persians  were  not  themselves  sea- 
faring; and  though  Persia  was 
for  a  long  time  mistress  of  the 
Mediterranean,  it  was  through 
utilizing  the  maritime  ability  of 
the  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  Egyp- 
tians, Cypriots,  and  others. 

While  the  Greeks  were  good 
sailors  and  bold  fighters  on  the 
sea,  the  Phoenicians  were  un- 
doubtedly the  greatest  seafaring 
people  of  antiquity.  They  never 
formed  a  compact  nation,  and 
were  divided  into  two  or  more 
separate  states,  usually  inde- 
pendent of  each  other;  but 
throughout  the  greater  part  of 
their  two  or  three  thousand  years 
of  existence  they  were  under  the 
suzerainty  of  or  tributary  to 
Egypt,  Chaldsea,  Babylonia,  As- 
syria, Persia,  or  Rome.  During 
nearly  the  whole  of  this  period 
they  were  the  greatest  shipbuild- 
ers and  navigators  of  the  world. 
To  them  is  attributed  much  of 
the  elegance  of  form,  fighting  ca- 
pacity, and  seagoing  qualities  of 
ships  of  their  time.  Whether 
they  were  the  first  to  build  a 
trireme  or  not,  they  established  it 
as  the  standard  ship  of  war,  and 
it  so  remained  without  much 
change  from  about  700  B.C.  until 
the  Battle  of  Actium  (b.c.  31). 

The  trireme  was  a  vessel  of 
considerable  size.  Its  exact  di- 
mensions doubtless  varied,  but 
the  Attic  trireme  of  about  300 
B.C.  was  100  to  140  feet  in  length, 
had  a  breadth  of  15  to  25  feet, 
and  carried  200  to  250  men.  The 
hull  was  framed  and  planked 
much  like  mediaeval  and  modern 
wooden  vessels.  The  stem  was 
curved  to  form  a  swan-breasted 
bow.  In  the  centre  of  the  curve, 
a  short  distance  above  the  water, 
there  was  a  heavy  projecting 
timber  ending  in  a  three-pronged 
beak  covered  with  brass.  Above 
this  was  a  second  beak,  or  more 
properly  a  figurehead,  though  it 
was  strong  enough  to  inflict  dam- 
age on  another  vessel,  as  were 
also  the  catheads  on  either  side 
of  the  bow.  The  stern  post  was 
carried  high  above  and  over  the 
poop  to  an  ornament  called  the 
aplustre;  curving  backward  was 
the  cheniscus.  Most  triremes 
had  at  least  one  mast,  with  a 
single  square  sail  bent  to  a  yard. 
The  central  part  of  a  trireme  was 
partly  decked  over,  and  there 


were  gangways  along  the  outside 
of  the  rail  and  projecting  over  the 
side,  a  construction  permitted  by 
the  'tumble  home'  of  the  sides. 
At  the  bow  and  stern  there  rose  a 
series  of  decks  or  platforms;  in 
later  types,  these  were  surmount- 
ed by  a  tower.  On  the  decks, 
platforms,  and  gangways  so 
formed  the  sailors  operated  the 
sails,  and  assisted  the  men  at 
arms  to  fight  the  enemy.  The 
rowers  sat  on  small  seats  at- 
tached to  the  side  and  supported 
by  diagonal  timbers.  While  ar- 
ranged in  three  tiers  or  banks,  the 
oarsmen  were  not  directly  above 
each  other.  The  oars  of  each 
bank  were  nearly  of  the  same 
length,  but  were  longer  than 
those  of  the  bank  next  below. 
(See  Trireme.) 

Galleys  of  four  or  five  banks  of 
oars  were  not  uncommon  during 
the  century  or  two  immediately 
preceding  the  Christian  era,  and 
those  of  forty  banks  are  said  to 
have  been  built.  But  the  larger 
craft  were  unwieldy,  rarely  any 
faster,  and  generally  much  slower, 
so  that  their  use  was  excep- 
tional. Speed  was  of  paramount 
importance,  and  handiness  not 
much  less,  for  the  greatest  weap- 
on was  the  beak;  though  in  the 
melee  of  battle,  hand-to-hand 
fighting  took  place,  to  the  great 
detriment  of  the  oars  and  con- 
fusion of  the  rowers.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  triremes,  or  heavy 
fighting  ships,  nearly  all  ancient 
fleets  had  a  certain  number  of 
smaller  vessels  carryimg  their 
oars  in  one  bank.  These  were 
very  much  lighter  and  somewhat 
faster.  They  were  designated  as 
triaconters  (30  oars),  pentaconters 
(50  oars),  etc. 

The  merchant  galleys  of  the 
ancient  world  were  broader  than 
the  war  craft,  deeper  in  the  water 
(when  loaded),  and  less  high 
above  it.  Naturally,  they  made 
a  greater  use  of  sails  for  propul- 
sion. The  earlier  vessels  were 
small,  and  were  very  commonly 
hauled  up  on  shore  during  the 
winter  season.  But  the  greater 
safety  and  economy  of  the  larger 
craft  soon  caused  an  increase  of 
dimensions,  and  general  improve- 
ment in  speed  and  sea-going  qual- 
ities. Some  of  the  larger  sailing 
galleys  were  able  to  carry  from 
200  to  800  passengers  and  very 
heavy  freights.  Many  of  these 
vessels  made  excellent  passages 
under  sail,  attaining  a  speed  of 
9  or  10  knots. 

The  development  of  the  galley 
was  slow.  Its  principal  changes 
were  at  first  in  the  direction  of 
size,  increase  in  deck  space,  and 
of  the  number  of  fighting  men. 
The  installation  of  warlike  appli- 
ances on  the  deck  followed,  and 
the  Romans  erected  fighting 
towers  at  the  bow  and  stern. 
The  Battle  of  Actium  showed  the 
advantage  in  speed  of  a  class  of 


Shipbuilding 


KFF 


172 


Shipbuilding 


light  biremes  called  Liburnian 
galleys.  Single-banked  vessels, 
with  large  oars,  and  several  men 
at  each  of  them,  soon  became 
common,  though  biremes  called 
droniones  were  in  use  until  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  improvement 
of  war  engines  and  appliances 
continued,  Greek  fire  being  one 
of  great  importance.  This  was 
eventually  discharged  on  the 
decks  of  the  enemy  through 
tubes  in  the  bow,  and  that  ar- 
rangement may  have  led  to  the 
development  of  gunpowder  and 
guns.    (See  Greek  Fire.) 

When  cannon  were  invented 
they  were  placed  behind  a  shel- 
ter or  parapet  in  the  bows  ;  and 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
early  guns  not  only  occupied  a 
similar  position  to  that  of  the 
tubes,  but,  like  them,  were 
breech-loading,  and  had  charg- 
ing pieces  resembling  those  be- 
lieved to  have  been  fitted  in  the 
tubes.  As  time  went  on,  and  an 
increasing  use  was  made  of 
sails,  guns  firing  in  broadside 
were  added  to  the  battery  ;  but  it 
was  not  until  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century  that  port 
holes  were  invented,  and  guns 
began  to  be  carried  on  covered 
decks. 

The  sailing  vessels  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  were  of  many  types, 
and  were  fitted  with  one,  two, 
three,  or  four  masts.  The  sails 
were  put  on  in  almost  every  con- 
ceivable way.  Near  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century  ships  of 
1,000  to  1,500  tons  burden  were 
built,  some  carrying  as  many  as 
1,000  passengers.  The  crusades 
did  much  to  develop  shipbuild- 
ing -and  commerce,  especially  as 
regards  the  Italian  maritime 
states ;  and  the  wars  they  waged 
among  themselves,  with  the  East- 
ern Empire,  and  with  the  Mos- 
lem powers  greatly  improved  the 
design  of  war  vessels. 

As  late  as  the  twelfth  century 
the  nations  of  the  North  of  Eu- 
rope used  quite  small  craft ;  but 
about  this  time  their  boats  began 
to  improve  in  design  and  in  di- 
mensions. The  fall  of  Constan- 
tinople and  the  decline  of  sea 
power  in  the  Italian  states 
seemed  to  check  maritime  evolu- 
tion in  that  direction  for  a  time, 
but  the  discovery  of  America  in- 
fused new  life  into  it.  The  long 
voyages  necessitated  the  sole  use 
of  sails,  and  the  restriction  as  to 
size  which  the  use  of  oars  en- 
tailed was  then  no  longer  felt. 

Lure  of  trade,  thirst  for  more 
devastating  combat  effect,  reduc- 
tion of  disaster  hazards,  im- 
proved equipment  and  better  ac- 
commodations provision,  appear 
to  have  constituted  the  funda- 
mental reasons  for  the  almost 
uninterrupted  and  complete  drift 
away  from  the  cumbersome  and 
unwieldy  craft  of  the  fifteenth 


century  to  the  clipper  and  its 
kindred  type  vessel  built  four 
centuries  later  for  operation  in 
international  commerce.  Not- 
withstanding that  the  finest  spec- 
imens of  sail  craft  of  wood  con- 
struction were  built  in  the  years 
between  1850  and  1900,  that  pe- 
riod may  be  said  to  have  doomed 
the  continued  supremacy  of  sails 
as  a  propulsion  medium  and 
wood  as  a  structural  fundamen- 
tal, the  gradual  substitution  of 
steam  and  steel,  respectively, 
producing  the  more  or  less  rev- 
olutionary transition  almost  con- 
currently. Notable  sailing  ves- 
sels of  the  latter  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  included 
many  record  creators,  among 
which  were  the  Lightning, 
Glory  of  the  Seas,  Cutty  Sark, 
Ariel,  Great  Republic,  Tacping, 
Flying  Cloud,  Red  Jacket,  Ther- 
mopylae, four-masted  barque 
Richelieu,  and  five-masted  full- 
rigged  ship  Preussen. 

Thus,  when  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury dawned,  sailing  ships  were 
well  on  their  way  to  become,  be- 
cause befitting,  the  focus  only  of 
a  great  romance  and  glorious 
tradition.  In  1936,  a  few  ves- 
sels typical  of  the  1850-1900  era 
were  still  operating  in  overseas 
trade ;  otherwise,  except  those 
set  apart  as  memorials  or  being 
maintained  as  a  training  ground 
for  budding  ships'  officers,  what 
did  not  succumb  to  the  sea  in  its 
fury  was  requisitioned  to  assume 
the  undignified  role  of  coal 
hulk.  It  has  been  said  that  as 
long  as  the  America's  Cup  main- 
tained its  challenge,  sails  will 
not  disappear  from  the  seven 
seas.  Again,  fishing,  general 
trading,  and  pleasure  schooners 
with  their  two  to  five  tall  masts 
of  more  or  less  equal  height  and 
installed  auxiliary  motors  may 
be  expected  to  retain  their  sails 
equipment  if  for  no  less  valid 
reason  than  that  of  economy  of 
operation.  Svirviving  as  they 
have  done  and  apparently  pros- 
pering since  the  demise  of  the 
clippers  and  other  full-rigged 
ships,  schooners  retain  for  the 
most  part  and  in  most  cases  a 
strict  adherence  to  established 
nineteenth  century  practice.  In 
the  fore-and-aft  type,  equip- 
ment consists  of  fore-and-aft 
sails  only,  while  the  topsail  type 
boasts  a  square  fore  topsail  and, 
not  infrequently,  topgallant  sail 
and  royal. 

According  to  the  1936-1937 
edition  of  Lloyd's  Register  Book 
of  Shipping,  world  tonnage  of 
real  sailing  vessels  (windjam- 
mers) amounted  to  only  some 
374,000  gross  tons  in  which 
were  included  nine  ships  of  be- 
tween 3,000  and  3,400  gross 
tons  each.  Of  the  total  tonnage, 
97,000  was  owned  in  the  United 
States;  56,000  in  Finland;  41,- 


000  in  Italy;  18,000  in  France; 
15,000  in  Portugal;  14,000  in 
Peru,  and  10,000  in  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland.  Tonnage  of 
world  shipping  of  100  gross  tons 
and  over — steamers,  motorships, 
sail  and  other  non-propelling 
craft — at  same  date  amounted  to 
65,063,643  tons.  From  the 
small  tonnage  of  genuine  sailing 
vessels,  it  appears  to  be  only  a 
matter  of  time  until  that  rem- 
nant will  vanish  from  the  sphere 
of  commerce  conveyance. 

Notwithstanding  the  numer- 
ous improvements  effected  and 
the  considerable  degree  of  ex- 
pansion achieved  previous  to 
and  following  the  advent  and  un- 
questionable establishment  of 
steam  as  a  motive  power,  ship- 
building in  both  its  wood  and 
iron  constituents  retained  to  a 
great  ^  extent  many  'rule  of 
thumb'  practices  and  the  charac- 
teristics of  its  chief  exponents. 
Not  until  about  1871  did  these 
wholly  unsatisfactory  aspects  of 
the  situation  begin  to  disappear. 
In  that  year  a  Froude  ship  model 
testing  tank  was  installed  at 
Torquay,  England,  by  order  of 
the  British  Government.  This 
notable  and  unique  source  of 
knowledge  concerning  vessel  de- 
sign and  performance  promptly 
directed  attention  to  other  more 
or  less  unscientific  and  crude 
methods  and  processes  employed 
throughout  the  industry,  also  to 
the  materials  of  construction 
relative  to  strengths  and  shapes 
and  particularly  as  regarded 
steel,  then  coming  more  and 
more  into  favor.  Of  course,  the 
entire  blame  for  wastefulness  of 
fuel  and  unprofitable  and  unsat- 
isfactory service  of  the  early 
steamships  did  not  attach  wholly 
to  the  vessels  as  such.  They 
were  'fuel  eaters,'  these  early 
engines  and  boilers,  so  much  so 
that_  for  long  voyages,  transat- 
lantic for  instance,  fuel  space  so 
usurped  the  pay  space  of  pas- 
sengers and  freight  as  to  make 
service  operation  well-nigh  un- 
profitable. Many  steamships  of 
the  middle  and  even  later  dec- 
ades of  the  19th  century  were 
sail-equipped — mostly  fore-and- 
aft  rigged — the  combination  fea- 
ture being  expressive  of  an  idea 
that  the  drain  of  fuel  from  the 
bunkers  might  at  least  be  tem- 
porarily arrested  when  winds 
were  favorable  enough  to  pro- 
ceed under  sail  alone.  As  with 
ship  forms  and  constructional 
materials,  two  to  three  decades 
before  1900  saw  the  steam  en- 
gine evolve  from  a  crude  single 
cylinder  reciprocating  machine 
into  compound,  triple,  and  quad- 
ruple status  of  that  type,  and 
the  equally  crude  box  form 
boiler  of  little  better  than  atmos- 
pheric pressure  expand  into  the 
huge  smoketube  and  watertube 


Shipbuilding 


KFF 


173 


Shipbuilding 


units  of  from  two  to  three  hun- 
dred pounds  per  square  inch 
working  pressure.  In  the  years 
immediately  preceding  1900,  the 
steam  turbine  had  begun  to  as- 
sume front  rank  importance  as 
a  medium  for  steamship  propul- 
sion. In  passing,  it  may  be  of 
interest  to  point  out  that  in  the 
early  days  of  steam  navigation 
wood  as  a  hull  constituent 
limited  the  length  of  vessels  to 
something  under  three  hundred 
feet.  In  1843,  the  Great  Britain 
of  322  feet  length  not  only  es- 
tablished the  reputation  of  iron 
as  a  suitable  constructional  ma- 
terial but  proved  that  wood  ship- 
building could  not  longer  hope 
to  compete. 

Power  Propulsion, — Paddle 
wheels  were  used  by  the  Chinese 
in  very  ancient  times.  The  Ro- 
mans fitted  them  to  some  of  their 
Liburnian  galleys,  using  three  or 
more  pairs  of  wheels,  and  driv- 
ing them  by  oxen  on  a  tread- 
mill. 

The  first  man  to  suggest  the 
use  of  steam  to  propel  a  vessel 
was  Solomon  de  Cans,  who  was 
confined  by  the  French  govern- 
ment as  a  madman  because  he 
repeatedly  importuned  it  to  carry 
out  his  ideas.  This  was  in  1640 
or  earlier.  In  1690,  Denis 
Papin,  of  Blois,  France,  in- 
vented his  steam  cylinder,  and 
suggested  its  application  to  the 
propulsion  of  ships  by  driving 
paddle  wheels.  In  1698  the  idea 
of  steam-driven  paddle  wheels 
was  suggested  by  Thomas  Sa- 
vary,  an  Englishman.  Savary 
made  no  effort  to  carry  out  his 
ideas,  but  Papin  built  a  small 
paddle  steamboat  which  he  used 
in  the  Fulda  in  1707.  Notwith- 
standing his  complete  success,  he 
was  called  a  charlatan  and  a  fool, 
and  his  boat  was  destroyed  by 
boatmen  who  feared  that  their 
livelihood  was  in  danger.  Papin 
died  three  years  later.  In  1736, 
Jonathan  Hulls  designed  a  stern- 
wheel  boat  to  be  driven  by  steam, 
and  described  his  engine  and 
mechanism  with  much  detail,  but 
was  unable  to  get  money  to 
carry  out  his  ideas.  Like  Papin, 
he  was  ridiculed  and  abused  by 
his  contemporaries. 

Watt's  successful  development 
of  the  steam  engine,  and  the 
general  acceptance  of  its  value 
and  importance,  gave  a  great  im- 
petus to  power  propulsion  of 
ships.  Watt  himself,  in  1770, 
suggested  driving  them  by  means 
of  one  of  his  engines  operating 
a  screw  propeller.  The  Marquis 
Jouffroy  began  experiments  on 
the  Seine  in  1778,  and  was  par- 
tially successful.  In  1785,  James 
Rumsey  exhibited  his  steamboat 
on  the  Potomac,  and  showed  that 
it  could  move  against  the  cur- 
rent. In  1788  John  Fitch,  after 
several   partial   successes,  built 


the  first  really  successful  steam- 
boat. About  the  end  of  July, 
1788,  she  was  propelled  by  steam 
from  Philadelphia  to  Burling- 
ton, a  distance  of  20  miles,  and 
made  this  trip  several  times  af- 
terward. In  1788  and  1789  Mil- 
lar and  Symington  made  their 
successful  experiments  in  Scot- 
land, attaining  a  speed  of  6.5  to 
7  miles  per  hour.  In  1789,  John 
Fitch  built  a  new  and  faster 
boat  at  Philadelphia  which,  in  a 
public  test,  made  8  miles  per 
hour.  During  the  summer  of 
1790  this  boat  plied  regularly  be- 
tween Philadelphia  and  Trenton, 
carrying  passengers  and  freight. 
After  having  run  between  two 
and  three  thousand  miles  in  this 
service,  she  was  laid  up  in  the 
autumn  of  1790  for  lack  of  suffi- 
cient patronage  to  pay  operating 
expenses.  This  boat  was  never 
given  a  special  name.  She  was 
called  and  advertised  as  'The 
Steamboat.'  As  there  was  no 
other  steamboat  in  commercial 
use,  and  never  had  been,  this 
designation  was  sufficient  to 
identify  her.  In  1796,  Fitch 
equipped  a  yawl  18  feet  long  with 
an  engine  and  screw  propeller  ; 
the  experiment  was  successful, 
and  showed  the  practicability  of 
the  screw. 

In  1802  William  Symington, 
who  was  associated  with  Patrick 
Millar  in  his  experiments,  built 
a  stern- wheel  tew  boat  called  the 
Charlotte  Diindas,  which  was 
eminently  successful,  but  no 
more  so  than  'The  Steamboat'  of 
Fitch,  built  twelve  years  before, 
and  was,  like  the  latter,  soon  laid 
up  for  lack  of  profitable  employ- 
ment. 

Though  Robert  Fulton  (q.  v.) 
had  been  studying  the  subject 
for  some  years,  his  first  model 
was  made  in  1802.  He  tried  his 
first  large  boat  on  the  Seine  in 
1804,  but  it  lacked  speed.  Com- 
ing to  America  shortly  after- 
ward, he  began  the  construction 
of  the  Clermont,  which  was 
launched  in  1807,  and  which 
made  her  first  trip  on  Aug.  7  of 
that  year.  Her  success  was  due 
not  only  to  her  capabilities,  but 
because  she  was  able  at  once  to 
enter  a  remunerative  trade. 

The  development  of  steam 
navigation  now  proceeded  rapid- 
ly. In  a  few  years  steamboats 
covered  the  rivers  and  inshore 
waters  of  the  civilized  world.  In 
1815  the  Demologos  was  built 
for  the  U.  S.  Navy.  She  was 
not  only  the  first  steam  man-of- 
war,  but  no  other  was  built  for 
many  years.  She  was  by  far  the 
most  powerful  ship  of  her  time, 
her  protection  was  on  a  par  with 
her  gun  power,  and  she  had  a 
speed  of  six  to  seven  knots.  In 
1819  the  first  steam  vessel  (the 
Savannah)  crossed  the  Atlantic, 
largely  by  assistance  of  her  sails. 


She  was  followed  in  1828  by  the 
Dutch  steamer  Curagao,  in  1832 
by  the  Royal  William,  and  in 
1838  by  the  Sirius  and  the  Great 
Western,  which  established 
trans-Atlantic  traffic. 

In  1836  both  John  Ericsson 
(q.  v.)  and  F.  P.  Smith  took  out 
patents  for  screw  propellers,  and 
both  built  small  vessels  which 
were  successful,  but  the  impor- 
tance of  the  invention  was  not 
realized  in  England.  Captain  R. 
F.  Stockton,  U.  S.  Navy,  saw 
Ericsson's  boat  in  England,  and 
became  an  enthusiastic  advocate 
of  the  screw  for  warship  propul- 
sion. Ericsson  built  two  small 
vessels  for  the  U.  S.  Navy  under 
his  direction,  and  shortly  after- 
ward accompanied  Stockton  to 
the  United  States.  In  1843  the 
U.  S.  Ship  Princeton,  the  first 
screw  war  steamer,  was  com- 
pleted, and  achieved  a  marked 
success  in  speed  and  other  quali- 
ties. Notwithstanding  thess  fa- 
vorable results,  paddle  war 
steamers  continued  in  favor  for 
yet  a  few  years  before  their  total 
disappearance.  On  the  other 
hand,  paddle  merchant  steamers, 
particularly  those  of  the  pleas- 
ure type  of  the  late  19th  and 
early  20th  centuries  were  oper- 
ating in  1936  with  but  little 
change  of  vogue  or  greatly  di- 
minished popularity. 

In  the  meantime  came  the 
change  from  wood  to  iron  in  hull 
construction.  The  first  iron 
steamer,  the  Aaron  Manby,  was 
built  in  1820,  and  in  1822  was 
launched  the  Garryowen,  the 
first  to  have  a  system  of  water- 
tight compartments.  Then  ex- 
tensive use  of  iron  enabled  an 
increase  to  be  made  in  the  size 
of  ships.  The  Great  Western  had 
a  length  of  205  feet,  and  the 
Sirius  was  still  smaller.  By  a 
comparatively  steady  increase  a 
length  of  375  feet  was  reached 
in  the  Persia  (1855);  in  the 
meantime,  the  Great  Eastern 
(q.  V.)  was  designed,  though  not 
completed  until  1858.  She  had 
a  double  bottom  and  complete 
cellular  subdivision,  and  aside 
from  her  dimensions  was  a  great 
advance  upon  contemporary  con- 
struction. Her  size  was  too 
great  for  the  existing  traffic  and 
harbor  depths,  however,  and  she 
was  a  commercial  failure.  Her 
length  of  679.5  feet  was  not 
reached  by  another  ship  vmtil  the 
completion  of  the  Oceanic  in 
1899. 

Superliner  Era  Emergence. 

— It  remains  to  be  seen  whether 
the  Cunard  White  Star  liner 
King  George  V  of  1940  will  still 
further  enhance  the  four-decade 
shipbuilding  and  marine  engi- 
neering achievement  already  es- 
tablished ;  yet,  being  the  cen- 
tenary year  of  the  Cunard  as  a 
transatlantic  trade  and  travel  or- 


Shipbuilding 


KFF 


174 


Shipbuilding 


ganization,  it  may  well  be  ex- 
pected that  here,  there,  and  yon- 
der, both  the  Normandie  of  1935 
and  the  Queen  Mary  of  1936 
will  be  bettered  and  outclassed 
as  was  the  Mauretania  when  the 
Bremen  of  1929  and  the  Europa 
of  1930  made  their  debut  as  con- 
tenders for  primacy  of  the  'At- 
lantic Ferry.'  One  must  not 
overlook  the  notable  fleet  of  sis- 
ter liners  from  which  the  two 
giants  have  evolved — the  Mau- 
retania, Liisitania,  Leviathan 
(ex-Vaterland),  Olympic,  Aqui- 
I  tania,  Berengaria  (ex-Impera- 
^  tor),  Majestic  (ex-Bismarck), 
Manhattan,  Washington,  Rex, 
Conte  Di  Savoia,  Bremen  and 
Europa,  to  name  but  a  few. 

Queen  Mary,  Britain's 
Shipping  Masterpiece, — This 
ship  may  be  said  to  constitute  the 
latest  link  in  the  Cunard  White 
Star  express  service  between 
Southampton,  Cherbourg  and 
New  York  and  is  the  culmina- 
tion of  almost  a  century's  expe- 
rience of  the  needs  of  North  At- 
lantic trade  and  travel.  Size, 
speed,  power  and  dignity  are  in- 
dividually and  collectively  sug- 
gested by  the  vessel's  massive 
hull,  clean-cut  cruiser  stern  and 
three  shapely  smokestacks. 
Structurally  there  are  embodied 
the  latest  advances  in  naval 
architecture,  marine  engineering 
and  scientific  research.  Again, 
great  artists  and  craftsmen  have 
given  of  their  best  to  ensure  the 
aesthetic  in  the  vessel's  saloons 
and  lounges,  while  designers  and 
decorators  have  won  new  tri- 
umphs in  planning  the  huge  pub- 
lic rooms  and,  no  less  so,  the 
numerous  staterooms  of  the  va- 
rious passenger  classes.  Essen- 
tially the  Queen  Mary  is  a  ship 
sturdily  constructed  to  withstand 
greater  stresses  than  ever  likely 
to  be  encountered  and  no  less 
well-found  of  equipment  as  re- 
gards the  most  modern  apparatus 
and  appliances  for  safety  and 
navigation.  In  each  class  of  pas- 
senger accommodations  there 
may  be  observed  spaciousness, 
comfort  and  refinement. 

The  Queen  Mary  was  built  at 
Clydebank,  Dumbartonshire, 
Scotland,  by  John  Brown  &  Co. 
Launching  took  place  Sept.  26, 
1934  and  start  of  the  maiden 
voyage  to  New  York  on  May  27, 
1936.  Leading  dimensions  and 
components  of  the  ship  are : 
Length  O.  A.  1020  ft.  Length 
W.  L.  1004  ft.  Length  B.  P. 
965  ft.  Beam  Mid.  118  ft. 
Depth  Mid.  to  'C  deck  (bulk- 
head deck)  55  ft.  3  ins.  Depth 
Mid.  to  promenade  deck 
(strength  deck)  92  ft.  6  ins. 
Depth  Mid.  to  top  of  lounge 
structure,  124  ft.  Load  draft 
for  scantlings,  38  ft.  10  ins. 
Gross  tonnage,  80,773.  Horse 
power,  200,000.    With  reference 


to  the  last  named,  more  horse 
power  has  been  packed  into  an 
ocean  liner  than  ever  before, 
being  primarily  so  specified  that 
service  maintenance  would  be 
assured  under  almost  any  weath- 
er conditions.  Unofficially  cred- 
ited with  a  speed  of  32.84  knots 
during  its  trial  trips,  the  Queen 
Mary  was  expected  to  become 
the  first  four-day  ship.  Passen- 
ger capacities  are:  Cabin,  776; 
Tourist,  784  and  Third,  579; 
officers  and  crew  number  1,101. 
The  hull  structure  comprises 
twelve  decks  from  the  sun  deck 
down  to  the  lower  decks  which 
are  discontinued  in  way  of  the 
machinery  spaces. 

On  Aug.  23,  1936  the  Queen 
Mary  made  a  record  crossing  be- 
tween Cherbourg  and  Ambrose 
Channel  Lightship  (3,097  miles) 
in  4  days,  7  hrs.  12  min.  She 
made  the  return  trip  Aug.  30, 
between  the  same  lightship  and 
the  Scilly  Isles  in  3  days,  23  hrs. 
57  min.,  a  west-east  record 
crossing. 

Motive  power  is  derived 
through  a  system  of  Parsons  sin- 
gle-reduction geared  turbines 
which  are  supplied  with  steain 
generated  in  twenty-four  water- 
tube  boilers  operated  on  the 
closed  stokehold  system  of 
forced  draught.  The  boilers  are 
designed  to  generate  steam  to  a 
working  pressure  of  400  pounds 
per  sq.  inch  and  of  700  degrees 
F.  temperature.  Propulsion  is 
achieved  through  four  screws, 
each  driven  by  an  independent 
set  of  single-reduction  geared  im- 
pulse-reaction type  turbines  ar- 
ranged in  two  separate  compart- 
ments. The  machinery  for  the 
outer  screws  is  installed  in  the 
forward  engine  room  and  that 
for  the  inner  screws  in  the  after 
engine  room. 

Apart  from  the  actual  mech- 
anisms of  propulsion,  the  Queen 
Mary  is  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses an  'all-electric'  ship  ;  thus, 
seven  turbo  generators  capable 
of  delivering  approximately  10,- 
000  kilowatts  per  hour  form  an 
important  section  of  the  ves- 
sel's electrical  status.  ^  Aside 
from  a  myriad  applications  of 
electrical  energy  in  miscellane- 
ous directions,  all  the  steering 
gear,  deck  machinery,  and  an- 
choring and  mooring  equipment 
are  also  electrically  operated. 
These  include  a  powerful  elec- 
tric-hydraulic steering  gear, 
anchor  cable  and  capstan  ma- 
chinery, cargo,  mail,  and  bag- 
gage winches  and  hoists,  life- 
boat installation,  steam  whistles 
and  searchlights.  Each  one  of 
the  lifeboats  installed  is 
equipped  with  high  speed  Die- 
sel engine  power.  Their  ca- 
pacity is  such  that  any  one  of 
them  can  accommodate  more 
passengers  than  the  total  com- 


plement of  the  first  Cunard 
steamship  Britannia. 

French  Line  Flagship  Nor- 
mandie,— This  vessel  is  also  a 
masterpiece  of  shipbuilding  and 
marine  engineering  practice, 
navigational  and  safety  appa- 
ratus and  equipment  installation, 
while  artistic  and  decorative  ap- 
pointment, luxuriousness  and 
restfulness  of  the  various  public 
rooms  and  staterooms  fully  meet 
the  needs  and  satisfy  the  tastes 
of  the  most  exacting  travel  vo- 
tarist.  Passing  over  a  mass  of 
relatively  minor  differentiating 
detail  other  than  a  modified  form 
of  bulbous  bow  and  a  decided 
'flare'  forward,  the  major  and 
most  marked  divergence  from 
the  Queen  Mary  lies  in  the  first- 
time  installation  on  a  French 
ship  of  great  tonnage  of  turbo- 
electric  propulsion  equipment. 
It  completed  the  triangle,  so  to 
speak,  of  steam  turbine,  Diesel 
motor,  and  electric  drive,  two 
phases  only  of  which  had  previ- 
ously been  established.  The 
160,000  horse-power  installed  in 
the  Normandie  signalizes  the 
vessel  as  the  largest  commercial 
electrically  propelled  craft 
afloat ;  the  record  for  aggregate 
power  was  previously  held  by 
the  U.S.S.  Saratoga  and  Lex- 
ington. On  the  Normandie,  four 
steam  turbines  drive  four  alter- 
nators, the  three-phase  current 
from  which  is  delivered  to  four 
synchronous  propulsion  motors 
located  aft ;  the  latter  being  di- 
rect-connected to  four  propeller 
shafts.  Steam  of  400  lbs.  pres- 
sure per  sq.  inch  and  350  de- 
grees Centigrade  temperature,  is 
generated  in  and  supplied  to  the 
turbines  by  twenty-nine  water- 
tube  type  boilers.  Two  of  the  fifty- 
six  lifeboats  carried  are  motor 
propelled.  Leading  dimensions 
and  associated  data  relative  to 
the  ship's  hull  are :  Length  O.  A. 
1029  ft.  Length  B.  P.  963  ft. 
Beam  at  main  deck  117  ft.  9  ins. 
Molded  depth  to  promenade  deck, 
91  ft.  4  ins.  Loaded  draft,  36  ft. 
7  ins.  Gross  register,  82,799 
tons.  The  hull  is  divided 
throughout  its  length  by  eleven 
athwartship  bulkheads.  Of  the 
eleven  decks,  five  are  contin- 
uous throughout  the  vessel's 
length. 

Ship  Propulsion  Progress, 

— Broadly  speaking,  the  recipro- 
cating marine  steam  engine  has 
had  a  century  of  existence,  be- 
ginning with  low  revolutions 
and  low  pressures,  finally  con- 
forming to  efficient  propeller 
speeds  for  merchant  ship 
adoption.  Marine  steam  tur- 
bines have  seen  from  three 
to  four  decades  of  service,  be- 
ginning with  high  revolutions 
and  ending  at  around  140  per 
minute  at  the  propeller.  Large 
oil  engines  for  marine  applica- 


Shipbuilding 


KFF 


175 


Shipbuilding 


tion  have  been  developed  for 
about  25  years ;  the  tendency 
here  too  is  in  the  direction  of 
revolutions  reduction,  taking  a 
broad  view  of  the  situation.  The 
direct  Diesel  engine  drive  re- 
mains open  for  further  exam- 
ination. As  a  rule,  the  engine 
speeds  are  theoretically  too  high 
for  single  screw  propulsion,  yet 
propeller  performance  is  not 
everything.  What  in  the  end 
counts  is  the  actual  running  cost 
of  a  ship's  operation  year-in  and 
year-out.  Geared-turbine  oil- 
fired  steamers  have  shown  good 
propeller  performance  but,  with 
cheap  and  poor  coal  coupled  with 
gearing  difficulties,  offer  dovibt- 
ful  prospects. 

The  development  of  ship  pro- 
pulsion machinery  may  be  said 
to  have  kept  pace  with  every  ad- 
vance made  in  vessel  design,  size 
and  type.  Careful  balancing  of 
weight  and  rotary  effort  about 
the  crankshaft  had  scarcely 
brought  the  triple  and  quadruple 
expansion,  reciprocating  steam 
engine  to  about  its  limit  of  per- 
fection when  the  steam  turbine 
entered  upon  its  career.  The 
first  successful  application  was 
consummated  in  1897  by  Sir 
Charles  A.  Parsons  (1854- 
1931)  and  his  experimental  ves- 
sel the  Turbinia.  Many  and  far- 
reaching  have  been  the  improve- 
ments effected  in  the  four-decade 
interval  yet  the  need  hardly  ex- 
ists for  a  presentation  here  of 
any  detail.  That  most  large  and 
fast  liners  are  more  or  less  simi- 
larly equipped,  in  generous  de- 
gree substantiate  the  achieve- 
ment record  to  date.  Before  the 
close  of  the  first  decade  of  the 
20th  century,  internal  combus- 
tion engines  as  ship  propulsion 
mediums  were  the  subject  of 
considerable  attention  and  specu- 
lation. It  is  generally  accepted 
that  the  first  practical  and  com- 
mercial sea-going  motorship  was 
the  1,200  d.w.  ton  oil  tanker 
Vulcanus  built  in  1910.  Its  en- 
gine operated  on  the  four-stroke 
cycle  system.  The  first  ocean- 
going motorship  with  passenger 
accommodations  appeared  in 
1912  when  the  7,400  d.w.  ton 
Selandia  crossed  from  Copen- 
hagen to  the  Thames  on  its 
maiden  voyage  to  the  east.  Pro- 
pulsion was  effected  through 
twin  sets  of  four-stroke  cycle 
engines  of  2,500  collective 
horsepower  at  140  r.p.m.  A 
'milestone'  was  reached  in  De- 
cember 1924  with  completion  of 
the  Aorangi,  the  world's  largest 
oil  motor  passenger  liner  of  18,- 
000  tons  gross  register,  600  ft. 
length,  72  ft.  beam,  and  46  ft. 
6  ins.  depth  to  lowest  weather 
deck,  with  an  additional  four 
decks  below  and  two  above.  Ac- 
commodations were  provided  for 
740  passengers  and  a  crew  of 


330.  The  propulsion  installa- 
tion consisted  of  four  Fairfield- 
Sulzer-Diesel  2-stroke  cycle  sin- 
gle-acting engines. 

The  mammoth  liner,  by  virtue 
of  its  size,  is  naturally  restricted 
to  North  Atlantic  service  in 
which  the  motorship  and  espe- 
cially the  cargo  motorship  do  not 
as  yet  show  up  as  well  in  econ- 
omy of  operation  as  they  do  on 
other  routes  and  services.  The 
Gripsholin  of  the  Swedish  Amer- 
ica Line  of  Gothenburg  has  the 
distinction  of  being  the  first  oil- 
motor  passenger  liner  to  enter 
and  maintain  a  regular  service 
on  the  North  Atlantic.  This 
vessel,  of  about  17,000  gross 
tons  and  16,000  horsepower  is 
twin-screw-propelled  by  double- 
acting  engines  of  4-stroke  cycle 
type.  Considering  the  efficiency 
and  economy  obtainable  as  be- 
tween burning  oil  in  steam  boiler 
furnaces  and  applying  it  asapow- 
er  producer  to  the  Diesel  engine 
direct,  the  latter  is  superior  to 
the  former.  While  the  total 
weight  of  marine  Diesel  installa- 
tions, when  compared  with  those 
of  steam  of  equal  power,  is  open 
to  difference  of  opinion,  it  may 
be  accepted  that  the  weight  of 
fuel  required  is  but  one-fourth 
that  of  coal  for  the  steamer  and 
the  space  occupied  about  one- 
fifth. 

Electric  propulsion,  in  spite  of 
its  rather  tardy  challenge  to 
those  just  outlined,  may  be  cred- 
ited with  a  structural  back- 
ground perhaps  far  outweighing 
any  resultant  disadvantages. 
The  background  was  that  of  the 
application  of  the  electric  motor 
to  the  driving  of  individual  ma- 
chines or  groups  of  them,  lead- 
ing in  due  course  to  the  displace- 
ment of  steam  as  the  motive 
power  of  ship  deck  and  engine- 
room  auxiliaries.  To  electrical- 
ly propel  the  ship  itself  was  the 
natural  sequence.  Turbo-elec- 
tric drive  with  alternating  cur- 
rent has  for  the  most  part  been 
adopted  for  installation  on  ves- 
sels of  substantial  size  and  ton- 
nage. Aside  from  the  French 
Normandie,  the  Panama  Pacific 
liners  Virginia,  Pennsylvania 
and  California,  and  the  last  con- 
structed capital  ships  of  the 
United  States  Navy,  may  be 
cited  as  examples.  Where  Die- 
sel electric  drive  has  been  in- 
stalled, direct  current  apparatus 
predominates.  It  permits  of 
simple  control,  all  maneuvring 
being  accomplished  electrically 
without  speed  change.  For 
barges,  tugs,  ferries,  and  coast- 
wise vessels  of  moderate  size, 
bridge  control  offers  many  ad- 
vantages. Among  a  number  of 
claims  made  on  behalf  of  electric 
propulsion  are  those  of  a  wide 
cruising  radius,  reliability,  re- 
finement of  control,  reserve  pow- 


er, flexibility  of  machinery  ar- 
rangement, and  low  consumption 
of  fuel  when  en  route  and  in 
port. 

Because  of  its  somewhat  di- 
rect bearing  on  the  subject,  a 
Washington  dispatch  to  the  New 
York  Times  of  August  8,  1936, 
is  authority  for  the  statement 
that  'A  return  to  direct  steam 
drive  and  innovations  in  design 
and  weight  distribution  are  ex- 
pected to  make  the  two  new  bat- 
tleships slated  to  be  built  next 
year  speedier  than  the  compara- 
ble battleships  of  any  other  na- 
tion. The  projected  return  to 
direct  steam  propulsion  is  a  de- 
parture in  American  battleship 
construction,  since  the  last  five 
were  electrically  propelled. 
During  the  thirteen  years  since 
the  last  battleship  was  launched, 
the  Navy  has  built  and  tested 
ten  new  cruisers  whose  speedy 
performances  have  foreshad- 
owed the  speedier  battleships  of 
the  future.'  In  a  classified  dis- 
tribution of  propelling  machin- 
ery installed  in  world  shipping 
the  1936-1937  edition  of  Lloyd's 
Register  lists  1,632  steamers  of 
11,319,169  tons  fitted  with  tur- 
bine engines  or  a  combination  of 
steam  turbines  and  reciprocat- 
ing engines,  and  6,128  vessels 
(including  auxiliary  craft)  of 
12,290,599  tons  fitted  with  inter- 
nal combustion  engines.  Steam 
turbines  and  reciprocating  steam 
engines  in  combination  are  rep- 
resented by  400  vessels  of  2,- 
210,357  total  tonnage.  A  fur- 
ther interesting  feature  is  to  be 
found  in  the  case  of  99  vessels 
of  604,573  total  tonnage;  here 
electric  propulsion  has  been 
adopted,  the  motors  being  sup- 
plied with  current  from  genera- 
tors which  are  driven  either  by 
steam  turbines  or  oil  engines. 
Of  the  99  vessels  so  equipped,  58 
of  286,168  tons  were  owned  in 
the  United  States.  Again,  of 
those  exceeding  20,000  gross  tons 
and  electrically  propelled,  five  fly 
the  British  flag,  two  were  Ameri- 
can and  one  French.  Of  29,197 
steamers  and  motorships  of  100 
gross  tons  and  upward,  3,706 
were  twin  screw  and  115  had 
triple  or  quadruple  screws.  Al- 
though few  paddle  steamers  are 
now  being  built,  325  of  246,790 
tons  were  still  in  existence.' 
The  tonnage  of  steamers  using 
coal  as  fuel  amounted  to  31,- 
948,000  tons  or  slightly  less  than 
50  per  cent  of  the  tonnage  of  the 
world's  merchant  marine.  In 
the  twelve  months  ended  June 
1936,  motorship  tonnage  in- 
creased by  986,000  tons  and  that 
of  vessels  equipped  with  steam 
turbines  by  47,000  tons.  On  the 
other  hand,  vessels  fitted  solely 
with  reciprocating  steam  engines 
decreased    by     1,097,000  tons. 

Development    of    the  steam 


Shipbuilding 


KFF 


176 


Shipbuilding 


boiler  has  been  somewhat  less 
spectacular  than  its  ship  and  en- 
gine associates,  yet  it  was  no 
less  progressive  in  its  own  rath- 
er limited  sphere.  The  cylindri- 
cal smoke-tube  type  still  main- 
tains much  of  its  old-time  favor 
with  most  types  of  merchant 
vessels,  exceptions  constituting 
the  more  prominent  superliners 
and  naval  craft.  Although  cost- 
ing more  for  service  upkeep,  the 
water-tube  type  is  better  adapted 
to  carry  the  higher  working 
pressures  now  current.  Besides 
being  considerably  lighter  on  a 
cornparative  power  capacity 
basis,  repair  and  renewal  of  con- 
stituent parts  can  be  more  read- 
ily undertaken.  Raising  steam 
and  maintenance  of  a  given 
pressure  are  other  desirable  fea- 
tures of  the  water-tube  type 
boiler.  Oil  fuel,  which  has  con- 
tributed much  to  the  convenience 
and  comfort  of  steam  genera- 
tion, may  be  said  to  have  wholly 
displaced  coal  on  naval  ships 
and,  indicative  of  the  extent  to 
which  oil  has  achieved  world 
merchant  marine  favor,  no  less 
than  3,895  steamers  of  19,766,- 
668  gross  tons  burn  it  in  their 
boiler  furnaces.  The  20th  cen- 
tury has  witnessed  unprece- 
dented development  in  the  mer- 
chant fleets  of  the  world,  steam 
and  motor  tonnage  having  in- 
creased from  24,008,883  tons  in 
1901  to  64,004,885  tons  in  1936. 
Aside  from  the  galaxy  of  liners 
and  superliners  that  have  been 
built  and  have  shed  lustre  on 
the  period,  a  rather  noteworthy 
development  otherwise  belongs 
to  the  huge  fleets  of  tankers, 
built,  operative  and  building 
throughout  the  world. 

^  Ship  Design  and  Construc- 
tion.— Shipbuilding  consists  of 
two  branches,  design  and  con- 
struction— the  former  the  theo- 
retical, the  latter  the  practical 
part  of  the  work.  It  will  be 
convenient  to  consider  first  the 
principles  of  design. 

Measurement. — It  is  mani- 
fest that  the  external  form 
should  be  such  as  to  give  the 
greatest  possible  buoyancy  or 
carrying  capacity  (with  a  given 
weight  of  hull)  consistent  with 
other  necessary  qualities.  It  is, 
therefore,  one  of  the  principal 
functions  of  design  to  ascertain 
what  shape  this  external  form 
should  take  to  attain  the  ends  in 
view.  A  vessel  floating  freely 
in  still  water  displaces  a  volume 
of  water  equal  in  weight  to  its 
own,  and  this  weight  expressed 
in  tons  is  called  the  vessel's  dis- 
placement. The  weight  is  sup- 
ported by  the  vertical  compo- 
nents of  the  water  pressure,  and 
the  sum  of  these  vertical  com- 
ponents is  termed  the  buoyancy. 
Displacement  tonnage  repre- 
sents the  weight  of  a  vessel  plus 


fuel,  stores,  and  cargo,  but  as 
the  three  last  named  items  are 
variable  quantities  and  the 
weight  of  the  vessel  a  well-nigh 
constant  quantity,  merchant  ship 
size  is  based  rather  on  measure- 
ment tonnage  or  internal  capac- 
ity. Displacement  tonnage 
measurement  does  not  distin- 
guish between  fast  and  slow  ves- 
sels of  like  rating.  The  former 
with  restricted  cargo  spaces  com- 
paratively will  have  relatively 
restricted  earning  power  on  a 
weight  basis  ;  on  the  other  hand, 
the  latter  will  have  large  cargo 
and  small  machinery  spaces, 
therefore  greater  potential 
earning  power.  The  fast  vessel, 
under  the  circumstances,  would 
be  unfairly  discriminated 
against.  Dead-weight  tonnage, 
which  is  the  difference  between 
the  displacement  or  weight  of  a 
vessel  when  fully  loaded  and  its 
weight  when  light,  would  obvi- 
ously be  favorable  to  the  fast 
ship  carrying  little  cargo  and  cor- 
respondingly disadvantageous  to 
its  slower  rival.  Gross  tonnage 
is  measured  and  reckoned  in 
terms  of  one  hundred  cubic  feet 
being  the  equivalent  of  one  ton. 

The  tonnage  deck  is  usually 
defined  as  the  upper  deck  of  ves- 
sels having  one  or  two  decks. 
In  all  other  vessels  it  is  recog- 
nized as  the  second  continuous 
deck  from  below.  The  upper 
deck  is  understood  to  be  the  up- 
permost deck  with  properly 
closed  openings  of  such  a  nature 
that  any  space  underneath  can 
be  regarded  as  closed-in.  Ton- 
nage under  the  tonnage  deck  is 
known  as  under-deck  tonnage 
and  that  between  the  upper  deck 
and  the  tonnage  deck  as  'tween 
deck  tonnage  where  there  are 
one  or  more  ''tween  decks. 
Summarized,  gross  tonnage  is 
the  aggregate  of  the  under-deck 
tonnage,  the  'tween  deck  ton- 
nage, and  the  tonnage  of  any 
closed-in  spaces  above  the  up- 
per deck.  Net  or  registered 
tonnage  constitutes  in  all  sys- 
tems the  gross  tonnage  less  cer- 
tain deductions  on  account  of 
non-earning  spaces.  In  the  dif- 
ferent systems  the  deductions  al- 
lowable vary  more  or  less,  Brit- 
ish authorities  being  considered 
the  most  generous  in  permitting 
exemptions.  War  vessels  are 
for  the  most  part  classified  on  a 
displacement  basis,  but  as  this 
varies  with  the  amount  of  coal 
and  stores  on  board,  certain  con- 
ditions of  loading  are  assumed 
as  standards,  and  these  are  gen- 
erally normal  displacement  and 
full  load  displacement.  Normal 
displacement  is  a  purely  arbi- 
trary condition,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  that  of  average 
cruising  trim.  At  full  load  dis- 
placement the  full  supply  of  all 
stores  is  carried. 


Coefficient  of  Fineness. — 
Ships  of  different  models,  but 
of  the  same  length,  beam,  and 
draught,  may  have  quite  differ- 
ent displacements,  so  that  for 
certain  purposes  it  is  convenient 
to  express  the  difference  briefly. 
To  do  this  the  immersed  portion 
of  the  hull  is  compared  with  (a) 
that  of  a  parallelopipedon  of  the 
same  length  and  breadth  as  the 
ship  and  of  a  depth  equal  to  the 
ship's  mean  draught,  or  with  (b) 
a  prism  whose  length  is  that  of 
the  ship  and  whose  base  is  the 
midship  section  of  the  ship.  In 
the  first  method,  if  L,  B,  and  D 
are  respectively  the  length,  beam, 
and  mean  draught  of  the  ship, 
v  and  V  the  volumes  of  the  ship 
and  of  the  parallelopipedon,  and 
w  and  W  the  corresponding 
weights  or  displacements ;  then, 
since  35  cubic  feet  of  sea  water 
weighs  a  ton,  we  have 

V  ^      ^     w  X33  ^ 

V  W  LXBXD  ^' 
which  is  called  the  coefficient  of 
fineness  of  the  ship.  The  second 
method  is  more  accurate.  Using 
the  same  notation,  and  denoting 
the  area  of  the  midship  section 
(expressed  in  square  feet)  by  A, 
we  have 

WX35  ^ 
LX  A  ^' 
which  is  called  the  coefficient  of 
water  lines  or  prismatic  coeffi- 
cient. In  modern  merchant  ves- 
sels the  midship  section  ap- 
proaches a  rectangle  in  shape,  so 
that  for  such  vessels  the  two  co- 
efficients are  nearly  the  same. 
The  coefficient  of  fineness  varies 
from  40  to  75  per  cent,  and  the 
coefficient  of  water  lines  from 
55  to  83  per  cent. 

Stability. — The  stability  of 
a  ship  depends  upon  the  strength 
of  its  righting  force  in  a  trans- 
verse or  longitudinal  direction. 
The  vertical  components  of  the 
water  pressure  which  supports  a 
vessel  may  be  considered  to  act 
as  a  point  called  the  center  of 
buoyancy  (B,  Fig.  1)  ;  and  since 
the  weight  of  the  vessel  may  be 
considered  to  act  at  the  center 
of  gravity,  it  is  manifest  that 
when  the  vessel  is  floating  freely 
and  at  rest  in  still  water,  the 
centers  of  buoyancy  (B)  and 
gravity  (G)  must  be  in  the  same 
vertical  line  (see  Fig.  1).  If  the 
vessel  be  forcibly  inclined  (see 
Fig.  2)  the  position  of  the  center 
of  buoyancy  changee  to  (B'). 
The  buoyancy  acting  upward  at 
B'  and  the  weight  of  the  vessel 
acting  downward  at  G  form  a 
couple  tending  to  bring  the  ves- 
sel back  to  the  normal  position. 
If  w  expresses  the  weight  of  the 
ship,  the  force  of  this  couple  is 
w  X  GP,  which  is  called_  the 
moment  of  statical  stability. 
The  distance  GP  is  called  the 
righting  arm,  and  the  righting 


Speed  in  Knots 


SHIPBUILDING 

I-'undanientals  of  vShip  Desif^n  and  Construction. 

Vol.  XL— Page  177 


Shipbuilding 


KFF 


178 


Shipbuilding 


force  is  evidently  proportional  to 
it.  If  the  vertical  line  through 
B'  be  produced  until  it  intersects 
BG,  the  point  of  intersection 
(M)  is  called  the  transverse 
metacenter,  and  the  distance  GM 
is  called  the  transverse  metacen- 
tric height,  and  is  nearly  con- 
stant for  small  angles  of  heel. 
The  position  of  the  longitudinal 
metacenter  is  shown  in  Figs.  3 
and  4.  The  longitudinal  meta- 
centric height  and  righting  arm 
are  much  greater  than  the  trans- 
verse, so  that  the  danger  of 
large  vessels  turning  over  end- 
on  is  very  slight  (see  Figs.  3  and 
4).  When  a  vessel  is  forcibly 
inclined  in  still  water  the  right- 
ing force  is  that  of  the  couple  ; 
but  if  she  rolls  and  pitches  in 
rough  water  the  shape  of  the 
submerged  body  changes  rapidly, 
adding  to  or  subtracting  from 
the  force  due  to  the  couple. 

While  the  action  of  the  couple 
(i.e.,  the  moment  of  statical  sta- 
bility) upon  a  ship  inclined  in 
still  water  causes  her  to  roll 
toward  the  erect  position,  the 
motion  does  not  stop  there,  for 
the  ship  acts  like  a  pendulum, 
and  her  momentum  causes  her 
to  roll  almost  as  deeply  on  the 
other  side  of  the  vertical.  Dur- 
ing the  downward  part  of  the 
roll  the  motion  is  opposed  by  the 
righting  force  acting  in  the  op- 
posite direction,  and  it  eventually 
overcomes  the  ship's  momentum 
and  causes  her  to  roll  back 
again,  and  so  on  until  absolute 
rest  is  attained.  While  these 
rolls  are  of  less  and  less  ampli- 
tude, they  are  made  in  practi- 
cally equal  times,  and  the  time  of 
each  double  roll  is  called  the 
ship's  still-water  period.  In 
rough  water  the  period  is  ap- 
proximately the  same,  but  is 
slightly  increased  or  decreased 
by  the  action  of  the  waves. 

As  the  rolling  of  a  ship  in 
rough  water  is  caused  by  the 
action  of  the  waves,  their  size, 
direction,  and  period  (time  be- 
tween the  passage  of  wave  crests 
past  a  fixed  point)  are  of  great 
importance.  But  the  size  and 
direction  are  not  usually  dan- 
gerous factors  unless  the  wave 
period  corresponds  to  the  rolling 
period  of  the  ship.  In  that  case 
the  action  of  the  waves  is  cumu- 
lative, tending  always  to  increase 
the  amplitude  of  the  roll,  and,  if 
the  righting  power  is  inadequate, 
eventually  to  capsize  the  ship — a 
disaster  which  may  evidently 
be  avoided  by  steering  in  some 
other  direction.  From  the  fore- 
going facts  it  is  readily  under- 
stood that  if  a  ship  had  very  lit- 
tle righting  power  she  would  not 
tend  to  roll ;  that  if  she  did  roll, 
the  roll  might  prove  dangerous 
from  lack  of  power  to  check  it ; 
that  a  ship  with  strong  righting 
power  may  roll  deeply  and  will 


certainly  roll  quickly — perhaps 
too  quickly  and  jerkily.  These 
defects  are  cured  by  (a)  giving 
adequate  but  not  too  great  right- 
ing power,  and — if  necessary — 
arranging  weights  far  away 
from  the  center  of  gravity  to 
give  a  moment  of  inertia,  which 
will  increase  the  rolling  period 
without  affecting  the  righting 
force;  (b)  the  placing  of  deep 
bilge  keels  on  the  outside  of  the 
hull  near  the  turn  of  the  bilge. 
A  further  check  to  rolling 
through  small  angles  is  the 
water  chamber,  a  thwartship 
compartment  with  a  central  fore- 
and-aft  dam  or  similar  contriv- 
ance ;  when  partially  filled  with 
water  the  dam  holds  the  greater 
part  of  the  water  on  the  rising 
side,  and  so  decreases  the  action 
of  the  righting  force ;  but  the 
noise  and  jar  of  the  water  were 
found  to  be  intolerable.  Bilge 
keels  are  usually  of  sharp  wedge 
section,  the  base  resting  against 
the  ship's  side.  The  action  of 
bilge  keels  is  to  greatly  reduce 
the  amplitude  of  the  rolls,  in 
some  cases  from  30°  to  12°. 
They  add,  therefore,  to  both 
safety  and  comfort,  and  do  not 
materially  reduce  the  speed. 
Efforts  have  also  been  made  to 
reduce  the  rolling  of  ships  by 
means  of  gyroscope  control. 
(See  Gyroscope.) 

As  already  stated,  the  objec- 
tion to  deep  rolling — aside  from 
the  discomfort  it  causes — is  that 
the  roll  may  go  so  far  that  the 
righting  force  disappears ;  for 
this  varies  with  every  change  in 
inclination,  usually  becoming 
zero  at  or  about  90°  in  small 
craft,  and  60°  to  75°  in  larger 
vessels  (see  Fig.  6).  This  posi- 
tion is  reached  when  the  vertical 
rising  from  the  center  of  buoy- 
ance  passes  through  the  center 
of  gravity ;  any  further  roll  will 
cause  this  vertical  to  pass  be- 
tween the  center  of  gravity  and 
the  keel,  and  then  the  ship  must 
capsize. 

Vessels  designed  to  carry 
heavy  cargoes  have  a  very  high 
center  of  gravity  when  empty, 
and  in  this  condition  may  have 
so  little  stability  as  to  be  in  dan- 
ger of  capsizing  in  a  seaway. 
To  counteract  this,  ballast  of 
some  sort  has  to  be  carried.  It 
formerly  consisted  of  any  avail- 
able heavy  material ;  and  while 
some  was  carried  permanently, 
the  taking  on  board  and  dis- 
charging of  the  remainder  was  a 
matter  of  considerable  expense. 
Modern  steamers  are  fitted  with 
water-ballast  tanks  which  may  be 
filled  or  pumped  out  as  desired. 
The  fitting  of  ballast  tanks  in 
passenger  steamers  enables  the 
rolling  to  be  kept  as  easy  as  pos- 
sible consistent  with  safety,  and 
has  added  much  to  the  comfort 
of  ocean  traveJ. 


The  position  of  the  center  of 
gravity  and  the  metacentric 
height  are  readily  determined. 
If  a  weight  x  (Fig.  5),  which  is  on 
one  side  when  a  vessel  is  vertical, 
be  moved  across  the  ship  a  total 
distance  of  a  feet,  the  center  of 
gravity  will  move  parallel  to  the 
movement  of  and  be  at  some 
point  G'.  The  vessel  will  there- 
fore heel  through  the  angle  6. 
We  have  then,  if  zv  is  the  weight 
of  the  ship,  w  X  GO'  =  x  x  a; 

but  GG'  =  GM  tan  e  = 

w 

hence  GM  =  ^-^cot  0.  The 
w 

position  of  JVI  being  readily  cal- 
culated from  the  position  of  B 
(center  of  gravity  of  immersed 
body),  the  position  of  G  is  at 
once  known.  For  large  inclina- 
tions the  righting  arm  is  com- 
puted by  another  and  more  ac- 
curate method.  A  curve  giving 
the  righting  arm  of  an  ordinary 
vessel  for  any  degree  of  heel  is 
shown  in  Fig.  6. 

Model  Experiments. — The 
effect  upon  speed  of  variations  in 
the  form  of  the  hull  was  but  im- 
perfectly understood  until  within 
the  past  sixty  years,  and  there  is 
still  much  to  learn.  Until  the 
adoption  of  the  steam  engine  we 
were  without  power  susceptible 
of  exact  measurement,  but  soon 
after  this  took  place  information 
was  rapidly  gained  and  results 
compared.  A  really  scientific  in- 
vestigation of  the  problem,  how- 
ever, was  not  reached  until 
Froude  began  his  famous  exper- 
iments in  1886  in  a  new  and 
improved  model  tank  at  Haslar, 
England.  Much  that  had  been 
previously  guessed  at  he  defi- 
nitely proved,  some  time-hon- 
ored beliefs  were  shattered,  and 
a  great  deal  that  was  wholly  new 
was  discovered.  Indeed,  his 
work  is  the  foundation  of  a 
great  portion  of  all  we  know  of 
the  resistance  of  ships,  though 
his  discoveries  and  conclusions 
have  been  greatly  extended,  and 
in  some  minor  points  modified  by 
the  work  of  later  experimenters 
— a  model  tank  being  now  re- 
garded as  a  most  necessary 
means  of  ascertaining  the  best 
forms  for  speed  under  given 
conditions.  The  models  are  10 
to  25  feet  in  length — usually  12 
to  15  feet — and  are  towed  by  a 
travelling  car  containing  appara- 
tus which  records  the  speed, 
resistance,  etc. 

To  connect  the  data  thus  ob- 
tained with  similar  information 
for  the  full-sized  ship  we  must 
apply  Froude's  law,  which  is  as 
follows :  Tf  a  ship  be  D  times 
the  "dimensions,"  as  it  is  termed, 
of  the  model,  and  if  at  the  speeds 
Vi,  Vn,  Vs,  etc.,  the  measured 
resistances    of    the    model  are 


Shipbuilding 


KFF 


179 


Shipbuilding 


Ri^2,  Rs^etc,  tlien  for  speeds 
\/d"Vi,  VDV2,  VDVs  etc.,  of 
the  ship,  the  resistances  will  be 
D=^Ri,  D^Ro,  D^Rs,  etc.  To  the 
speeds  of  model  and  ship  thus 
related  it  is  convenient  to  apply 
the  term  corresponding  speeds. 
Thus,  if  a  ship  have  length, 
breadth,  and  depth  each  six- 
teen times  those  of  the  model, 
and  if  at  a  speed  of  2  knots  of 
the  model  the  ascertained  re- 
sistance is  a,  then  at  a  speed  of 
\/~l6  X  2  =  8  knots  of  the  ship, 
the  resistance  will  be  16X16 
X  16  X  a  =  4096a.  This  law 
was  effectively  demonstrated  by 
towing  a  full-sized  ship  and  her 
model  at  various  speeds.  By 
means  of  model  tank  experi- 
ments the  form  of  hull  best 
adapted  to  each  particular  _  size 
and  speed  is  readily  obtained, 
provided  we  add  to  the  model 
results  the  necessary  power  to 
overcome  friction  and  other 
losses  in  the  machinery,  propel- 
ler, etc. 

Resistance  to  Propulsion. 
— The  resistances  to  propulsion 
are  of  three  kinds — surface  fric- 
tion, wave  making,  and  eddy 
making.  In  a  vessel  of  fine  or 
moderately  fine  lines  (i.e.,  one 
fairly  sharp  at  both  ends)  the 
friction  between  the  skin  of  the 
ship  and  the  water  is  the  cause 
of  nearly  all  the  resistance  at  low 
speeds,  and  this  frictional  resist- 
ance varies  directly  as  the  area 
of  wetted  surface  and  as  the 
square  of  the  speed,  while  for 
rough  surfaces  the  resistance  is 
vastly  greater  than  for  smooth. 
The  wave-making  resistance  _  is 
unimportant  at  low  speeds  with 
vessels  of  fine  lines,  but  rapidly 
increases  with  the  speed. 

Other  things  being  equal,  a 
vessel  should  have  no^  greater 
fineness  of  lines  than  is  neces- 
sary to  enable  her  to  be  economi- 
cally driven  at  her  designed 
speed,  for  fineness  of  form 
means  loss  of  carrying  power  or 
increase  of  surface  friction  per 
unit  of  carrying  capacity  or  both. 
And  if  a  vessel  has  the  fullest 
lines  consistent  with  a  definite 
speed,  no  attempt  should  be 
made  to  drive  her  faster  than 
this.  Thus,  if  a  vessel  be  de- 
signed to  give  the  greatest  carry- 
ing capacity  for  a  speed  of  16 
knots,  the  expenditure  of  power 
to  drive  her  17  knots  may  be 
almost  twice  that  for  16.  The 
speed  curve  shown  in  Fig.  7  is 
that  of  a  vessel  designed  for  a 
maximum  speed  of  about  18 
knots.  At  a  point  a  little  beyond 
18  the  curve  becomes  nearly  ver- 
tical ;  so  that  if  the  horse  power 
required  for  18  knots  were 
doubled,  the  speed  would  proba- 
bly not  reach  19. 

The  waves  which  are  made  by 
vessels   passing    through  water 


are  of  three  types.  One  consists 
of  a  divergent  wave  which  forms 
at  the  bow,  rises  to  a  certain 
height  and  then  breaks  off,  when 
a  new  wave  of  similar  size  and 
direction  is  formed — and  so  on. 
The  crests  of  these  waves  are 
sharp,  and  make  an  angle  of  con- 
siderably less  than  90°  with  the 
course  of  the  vessel,  the  end  far- 
thest from  the  vessel's  side  being 
farthest  to  the  rear.  A  second 
set  of  waves  has  its  crests  at 
right  angles  to  the  course. 
These  waves  are  highest  at  the 
side  of  the  ship,  two  or  more  ap- 
pearing between  bow  and  stern, 
depending  upon  the  length  of  the 
ship.  Both  crests  and  hollows 
are  smoothly  rounded.  Lastly, 
there  are  the  divergent  stern 
waves,  somewhat  similar  to 
those  which  form  at  the  bow : 
these  waves  are  distorted  and 
reduced  in  height  by  the  action 
of  the  propeller.  The  height, 
length,  and  volume  of  waves  and 
the  speed  with  which  they  travel 
indicate  the  amount  of  power 
expended  in  producing  them. 

The  resistance  due  to  the 
formation  of  eddies  is  compara- 
tively unimportant.  Eddies  are 
formed  along  the  sides  of  vessels 
when  the  surface  is  very  rough, 
but  the  loss  thereby  is  a  small 
percentage  of  that  due  to  sur- 
face friction.  In  the  early  days 
of  steam  vessels  many  of  them 
were  so  bluff  at  the  bow  and 
stern  as  to  cause  eddies,  those  at 
the  stern  being  strongly  marked. 
The  results  were  high  bow 
waves,  a  dragging  of  the  water 
after  the  vessel,  and  a  great  loss 
of  power  and  speed. 

From  the  various  investiga- 
tions and  experiments  that  have 
been  made  we  deduce  that  if 
high  speed  is  an  object,  a  vessel 
must  have  fine  lines  (i.e.,  be 
very  sharp)  at  bow  and  stern, 
but  particularly  at  the  stern. 
That  the  surface  of  the  hull 
must  be  kept  as  smooth  as  pos- 
sible, and  that  the  shape  and  sta- 
bility should  be  such  as  to  re- 
duce rolling  and  pitching  to  a 
minimum.  The  fineness  of  the 
fore  body  is  necessary  to  keep 
down  the  height  of  the  bow 
wave ;  the  fineness  of  the  after 
body  is  not  only  necessary  in  or- 
der to  reduce  the  stern  wave,  but 
also  that  the  water  may  flow  in 
freely  and  solidly  to  the  propel- 
ler or  propellers. 

It  may  be  proper  to  remark 
here  that  the  position  of  the 
propellers  has  been  the  subject 
of  investigation.  They  have 
been  tried  at  the  bow,  at  the 
sides,  at  the  stern,  and  under- 
neath the  bottom,  but  the  posi- 
tion of  maximum  efficiency  was 
found  to  be  at  the  stern.  The 
most  efficient  shape  and  size  of 
propeller  is  difficult  to  determine 
exactly   in   any  particular  case. 


Where  the  conditions  differ  ma- 
terially from  those  with  which 
builders  are  familiar,  many  ex- 
periments are  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  determine  the  most  effi- 
cient design.  High-speed  pro- 
pellers are  usually  three-bladed, 
and  the  blades  are  narrower  than 
those  for  slower  craft.  Tugs 
have  broad-bladed  screws,  to 
give  the  desired  area  of  pressure 
without  too  great  diameter. 

Framing  and  Plating. — 
The  internal  structure  of  a  ship 
consists  of  frames,  beams,  knees, 
bulkheads,  decks,  etc.  (See  Fig. 
9.)  Wooden  vessels  have  a  keel, 
and  upon  it  are  laid  the  floor 
timbers,  which  are  curved  at  the 
'turn  of  the  bilge'  and  carried  up 
to  form  the  framing  of  the  sides. 
Over  the  floor  timbers,  parallel 
to  the  keel  and  through-bolted 
to  it,  is  the  keelson.  Deck  beams 
extend  from  side  to  side  under 
each  deck,  the  ends  joined  to  the 
frames  by  deep  knees.  Addi- 
tional strength  is  obtained  by 
'filling  timbers'  between  the 
floor  timbers  of  the  frames,  by 
outside  planking  and  inside 
'ceiling,'  and  by  transverse  and 
longitudinal  bulkheads.  Steel 
sailing  ships  had  an  external 
bar  keel,  but  steel  steamers  have 
no  projecting  external  keel.  The 
keel  plate  is  flat,  broad,  and 
thick.  The  vertical  keel  inside 
the  keel  plate  is  usually  two  feet 
or  more  in  depth,  and  extends 
to  the  bow  and  stern  to  meet  the 
castings  or  forgings  which  form 
the  stem  and  stern  post.  The 
frames  are  of  angle  (L-shape), 
I,  T  channel  (U-shape),  or  Z- 
section.  The  beams  are  usually 
of  T-bulb  riveted  directly  to  the 
frames,  the  end  being  split  and 
the  lower  half  bent  down  to 
form  a  brace  or  knee. 

Double  Bottom. — In  most 
large  ships  the  inner  sides  of  the 
frames  up  to  the  turn  of  the 
bilge  or  beyond  are  covered  with 
a  plating  which  forms  the  inner 
bottom.  (See  Fig.  9.)  At  inter- 
vals of  several  feet,  vertical  (or 
nearly  vertical)  fore-and-aft 
plating  is  worked  between  the 
frames  to  form  longitudinal 
stringers  ;  and  these,  with  the 
frames,  divide  the  space  (called 
the  double  bottom)  between  the 
inner  and  outer  bottoms  into 
num-erous  water-tight  compart- 
ments. To  reduce  unnecessary 
weight,  lightening  holes  are  cut 
in  the  frame  and  longitudinal 
plating,  and  these  reduce  the 
number  of  water-tight  compart- 
ments while  affording  access  to 
all  parts  of  each  compartment 
without  requiring  too  many  man- 
holes through  the  inner  bottom. 
This  cellular  double  bottom  adds 
considerably  to  the  strength  of 
the  hull,  and  greatly  to  the  safety 
of  the  ship  in  case  of  groimding, 
many  large  ships  having  safely 


Shipbuilding 


KFF 


180 


Shipbuilding 


reached  port  with  their  outer 
bottoms  badly  torn.  The  double- 
bottom  system  is  chiefly  due  to 
Brunei,  the  designer  of  the 
Great  Eastern  (1852),  in  which 
vessel  it  was  first  fully  devel- 
oped. The  Titanic  Disaster  (q. 
V.)  called  attention  to  the  desira- 
bility of  extending  the  double 
bottom  up  the  sides  as  far  as  the 
water  line,  and  this  was  still  fur- 
ther emphasized  by  the  sinking 
of  the  Empress  of  Ireland  (see 
Marine  Disasters).  Some 
large  passenger  steamers  have 
this  construction. 

Water-Tight  Compart- 
ments.— Above  the  inner  bottom 
most  ships  are  divided  into  many 
large  water-tight  compartments 
by  the  deck  plating  and  by 
longitudinal  and  transverse  bulk- 
heads, and  these  divisions  add 
to  the  stiffness  and  rigidity  of 
the  hull.  The  smaller  bulk- 
heads in  the  living  spaces  are 
not  usually  water-tight ;  and 
they  are  of  such  light  material 
as  to  add  but  little  to  the  struc- 
tural strength  in  any  direction. 
All  water-tight  compartments 
are  connected  by  drain  pipes  to 
the  pumps,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  pumped  out  if  water 
should  enter  in  quantities  not  too 
great  for  the  pumps  to  handle. 

Strength  of  Hull. — The 
strength  of  vessels  to  resist 
transverse  stress  is  usually 
greatly  in  excess  of  the  require- 
ments, but  in  a  longitudinal  di- 
rection the  case  is  different.  To 
secure  adequate  longittidinal  ri- 
gidity considerable  care  is  exer- 
cised in  the  design.  The  sides, 
decks,  and  fore-and-aft  bulk- 
heads give  most  of  the  fore-and- 
aft  strength.  If  a  vessel,  sup- 
ported at  the  ends,  sinks  in  the 
middle,  she  is  said  to  'sag,'  and 
if  supported  in  the  middle  and 
the  ends  droop  she  is  said  to 
'hog.'  When  a  vessel  is  floating 
in  rough  water,  'sagging'  strains 
may  be  produced  in  all  parts  not 
water  borne,  and  'hogging' 
strains  in  all  parts  which  are 
water  borne. 

Plans. — The  principal  char- 
acteristics of  a  vessel  having 
been  decided  upon,  a  preliminary 
set  of  drawings  is  made  to  deter- 
mine the  general  arrangement 
and  the  important  features. 
Based  upon  these,  calculations 
are  made  of  the  weights,  stabil- 
ity, trim,  strength,  speed,  etc. 
If  the  shape  of  the  hull  has  been 
determined  by  model  experi- 
ments, the  drawings  are  made  in 
accordance  with  the  ascertained 
results.  The  general  drawings 
embrace  three  plans,  called  the 
sheer  plan,  the  half-breadth  plan, 
and  the  body  plan,  and  represent 
the  lines  of  the  ship  as  developed 
upon  three  planes  at  right  angles 
to  each  other.  The  sheer  plan 
shows  the  lines  cut  out  of  the 


hull  by  planes  parallel  to  the  fore- 
and-aft  vertical  plane  through 
the  keel ;  the  half-breadth  plan 
shows  the  lines  cut  by  horizontal 
planes ;  and  the  body  plan  shows 
the  lines  cut  by  vertical  trans- 
verse planes.  From  these  prin- 
cipal drawings  the  detail  draw- 
ings are  prepared,  the  plans  of 
every  part  being  drawn  to  scale 
and  its  dimensions  marked.  The 
drawings  having  been  completed, 
the  ship  is  'laid  down'  on  the 
mould  loft  floor  in  its  full  size  as 
a  whole  or  in  parts.  The  'laying 
down'  consists  in  cutting  lines 
representing  those  which  appear 
on  the  plans.  From  the  mould 
loft  plans,  or  directly  by  meas- 
urement from  the  drawings,  the 
scrive  board,  moulds,  and  tem- 
plates are  prepared.  The  scrive 
board  is  in  effect  a  full-sized 
drawing  showing  the  shape  of 
every  frame  in  the  vessel,  but  it 
is  not  always  used,  templates 
being  sometimes  built  up  from 
the  smaller  drawings  and  carried 
directly  to  the  bending  slab 
where  the  frames  are  shaped. 
Detail  drawings  are  made  of  all 
parts,  showing,  on  a  convenient 
scale,  their  exact  shape  and  size. 

Construction. — After  the 
keel  plates  and  a  number  of  mid- 
ship frames  are  shaped  or  built 
up  (according  to  the  character 
of  the  framing),  the  keel  may 
be  laid  and  the  first  frames 
erected.  The  keel  plates  are 
laid  on  the  keel  blocks,  lined  up 
and  riveted  together.  The 
frames  are  then  erected  and  held 
in  place  by  braces,  cross  spawls, 
ribands,  or  similar  falsework. 
After  the  transverse  frames  are 
erected  and  riveted  to  the  keel, 
they  are  connected  by  the  inter- 
costal sections  of  the  longitudi- 
nals and  the  inner  and  outer 
plating.  The  stern  post  and 
stem  (in  a  steel  ship)  are  heavy 
castings  or  forgings,  and  are  not 
usually  put  in  place  until  the 
framing  has  so  far  proceeded 
that  they  may  be  quickly  sup- 
ported. After  the  frames  are 
up,  the  work  on  the  interior  is 
pushed  at  the  same  time  as  that 
on  the  exterior. 

The  plating  is  put  on  begin- 
ning at  the  keel,  the  plates  being 
trimmed  and  punched  before 
being  set  in  place.  The  edges 
are  lapped  or  flush.  If  flush, 
edge  strips  are  riveted  on  the 
inside  of  each  seam,  to  hold  the 
plates  together.  If  lapped,  the 
rivets  pass  through  the  plates 
where  they  lap.  The  ends  of 
plates  may  also  be  lapped,  but 
they  are  usually  butted  flush  and 
secured  with  inside  butt  straps. 
All  seams  are  made  water-tight 
by  caulking  with  a  tool  which 
forces  the  edges  of  the  metal 
into  close  contact. 

Launching. — After  the  out- 
side plating  or  planking  is  com- 


pleted and  caulked,  the  vessel 
may  be  launched  at  any  time. 
Large  vessels  are  usually  put  in 
the  water  before  the  machinery 
is  installed  and  while  much  of 
the_  interior  work  is  unfinished. 
This  admits  of  a  lighter  cradle 
being  used,  brings  less  pressure 
on  the  ways,  and  makes  an 
easier  launching ;  it  also  reduces 
the  height  to  which  weights  have 
to  be  hoisted.  Small  vessels  are 
occasionally  completed  on  the 
ways  and  launched  with  steam 
up  ready  for  preliminary  trials. 

To  effect  the  launch  a  wooden 
framework  called  the  cradle, 
resting  upon  the  launching 
ways,  is  built  under  the  ship  and 
fitted  to  her  bottom.  By  means 
of  wedges  the  upper  part  of  the 
cradle  is  forced  upward,  lifting 
the  vessel  off  the  keel  blocks 
and  building  ways  or  shores.  In 
some  instances  very  large  ves- 
sels are  supported  by  sand  boxes 
on  the  keel  blocks.  When  the 
bilge  shores  are  removed  the 
sand  is  allowed  to  escape,  and 
the  hull  then  settles  down  until 
it  rests  on  the  cradle.  The 
upper  side  of  the  launching 
ways  being  well  lubricated,  the 
cradle,  carrying  the  vessel, 
slides  down  the  ways  into  the 
water  as  soon  as  the  tie  plate 
is  cut,  dog-shore  knocked  out, 
or  the  holding  gear  released. 
The  cradle  then  breaks  up  and  is 
hauled  clear. 

Emergency  Fleet  Corpora" 
tion. — The  United  States  Ship- 
ping Board  Emergency  Fleet 
Corporation  was  organized  un- 
der law  on  April  18,  1917,  with 
a  capital  of  $50,000,000,  all  of 
which  was  subscribed  by  the 
Government.  The  Corporation 
was  to  contract  for  and  manage 
the  construction  of  new  ships  for 
the  Shipping  Board,  and  to  com- 
plete the  construction  of  ships 
already  building  under  private 
contract  that  had  been  com- 
mandeered. The  earliest  pro- 
gram drawn  was  well  beyond  the 
scope  of  already  established 
shipyards  ;  hence  a  huge  expan- 
sion of  these  was  at  once  set  on 
foot  and  a  start  was  made  in  new 
plant  creation.  So  broad  in  ex- 
tent was  participation  invited 
and  welcomed  that  steel,  con- 
crete, wood,  wood  and  steel 
(composite),  were  accepted 
without  too  close  scrutiny  indi- 
vidually as  basic  constituents  of 
vessel  hulls.  Steel  ships  were 
for  the  most  part  planned  in  a 
series  of  groups,  an  arrange- 
ment whereby  a  great  deal  of  the 
material  was  fabricated  in  struc- 
tural steel  plants  and  later 
erected  in  vessel  form  in  the 
shipyards  ;  hence  the  nomencla- 
ture, fabricated  ships.  No  at- 
tempt was  made  to  adhere  too 
strictly  to  generally  accepted 
practice  in  hull  design.  Deck 


Shipbuilding 


KFF 


181 


Shipbuilding 


sheer  was  reduced  or  altogether 
eliminated  and  curves  were 
avoided  whenever  possible.  The 
speed  of  construction  of  fabri- 
cated ships  was  most  remark- 
able, especially  after  the  inter- 
relation of  the  steel  mills,  struc- 
tural plants  and  shipyards  be- 
came adjusted  to  the  co-ordinate 
requirements  and  capacities  of 
each  other. 

Wooden  Ships. — Construc- 
tion of  these  was  undertaken 
largely  on  account  of  the  tempo- 
rary lack  of  facilities  for  imme- 
diate construction  of  a  huge 
steel  tonnage.  The  outcome  was 
not  altogether  satisfactory, 
though  some  four  hundred  were 
built,  launched,  and  equipped  for 
service  or  were  at  some  related 
stage  when  the  war  ended. 
They  may  have  contributed 
something  toward  defeat  of  the 
submarine  and  thereby  to  the 
cessation  of  hostilities ;  just 
then,  however,  their  commercial 
value  was  at  zero  and  their 
careers  at  an  end.  Save  for  a 
few  of  the  most  seaworthy,  all 
vanished  early.  In  extenuation, 
let  it  be  said,  wood  shipbuilding 
was  found  to  be  an  altogether 
lost  industry  and  the  supply  of 
ship  timber  too  remote  from 
most  shipyard  sites. 

Concrete  Ships. — Several 
concrete  ships  were  built  and 
completed  for  service  but  what 
service  they  actually  rendered 
may  be  passed  over.  Of  the  ships 
built  and  completed,  the  hulls 
were  three  or  more  inches  thick. 
One  of  the  more  noteworthy  ex- 
amples consisted  of  a  basket-like 
structure  of  steel  bars  and  rib- 
bons on  which  the  concrete  was 
molded.  Like  the  wood  ships, 
they  too  passed  out  of  sight  and 
mind. 

Composite  Ships. — Such 
ships  as  were  constructed  suf- 
fered in  great  degree  from  their 
close  kinship  to  their  wood  sis- 
ters, so  much  so  that  during  the 
construction  furor  and  after, 
they  enjoyed  neither  special  des- 
ignation nor  eulogy.  Due,  how- 
ever, to  the  nature  of  their  hull 
construction — steel  frames  and 
wood  planking — it  may  well  be 
inferred  that  of  such  of  the 
wood  ships  as  demonstrated  the 
greater  fitness  those  of  the  com- 
posite category  were  included. 

Under  the  fabrication  system 
mass  production  of  ships  and 
their  machinery  installations 
may  best  describe  the  magnitude 
and  scope  of  an  industry  hither- 
to rather  unspectacular  in 
achievement.  In  1917,  326 
ships  of  997,919  gross  tons  were 
built  or  building;  in  1918  the 
total  had  reached  929  of  3,033,- 
030  gross  tons,  only  to  be 
eclipsed  both  in  number  and  ton- 
nage in  the  peak  year  1919  when 
the  vessel  total  registered  1,051 


and  the  tonnage  total  4,075,385 
gross.  In  1920  a  sharp  drop 
was  recorded,  the  number  of 
vessels  and  their  aggregate  ton- 
nage declining  to  509  of  2,476,- 
253  gross.  The  year  1921  had 
to  its  credit  but  173  vessels  of 
1,015,377  gross  tons.  Naturally 
the  end  of  the  war  in  November 
1918  affected  the  Shipping  Board 
program  relative  to  the  immedi- 
ate and  not  over-distant  future, 
leading  to  sharp  curtailment  on 
every  hand.  It  was  quickly 
realized  too  that  there  was  a  sur- 
feit of  ships  and  that  too  many 
were  totally  unfit  to  carry  on 
competitively  in  post-war  trade. 
Many  uncompleted  construction 
contracts  were  cancelled. 

Wartime  Construction 
Abroad, — The  idea  of  stand- 
ardizing cargo  ships  was  not  new, 
but  conservatism  and  prejudice 
on  the  part  of  shipbuilders  and 
owners  had  hitherto  barred  even 
the  slightest  semblance  of  adop- 
tion. Grim  necessity  in  due 
course  swept  conservatism  and 
prejudice  aside.  Great  Britain, 
France  and  Italy  joining  the 
United  States  in  the  building  of 
standard  ships.  In  Great  Brit- 
ain most  cargo  carriers  were 
constructed  on  a  four-class  basis 
which  embraced  single-deck  steel 
steamers  of  8,000  d.w.  tons  ca- 
pacity and  unobstructed  holds  ; 
those  of  same  size  and  like  char- 
acteristics but  with  an  interme- 
diate cargo  deck  above  the  hold  ; 
steel  steamers  of  5,000  d.w.  tons, 
and  similar  craft  of  3,000  d.w. 
tons.  Naturally,  a  number  of 
other  type  and  class  groups  were 
constructed,  not  a  few  being  des- 
tined for  specific  services.  Ma- 
chinery installations  were  also 
standardized,  not  the  least  ad- 
vantage derived  therefrom  being 
their  production  in  plants  else- 
where, however  far  distant  from 
the  shipyards.  Particular  atten- 
tion was  given  to  the  features  of 
simplicity  and  economy  of  oper- 
ation in  machinery  and  the  pro- 
vision of  unusually  spacious 
hatchways.  Future  private 
ownership  of  the  vessels  was 
kept  in  mind,  and  as  the  event 
proved  when  the  government 
later  came  to  dispose  of  the 
ships,  it  had  been  a  prudent  and 
worth-while  exercise  of  fore- 
thought. The  fabricating  idea 
was  less  fully  developed  than  in 
the  United  States  because  of  the 
lack  in  number  and  size  of  struc- 
tural plants.  No  wood  or  com- 
posite ships  were  built  and  rein- 
forced concrete  construction  got 
only  a  modicum  of  considera- 
tion. In  Italy  several  vessels  of 
concrete  construction  were  built 
and  placed  in  service.  Mer- 
chant shipbuilding  in  both 
France  and  Italy  assumed  no  ab- 
normal activity  ;  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  vessel  output  was  under 


the  peacetime  average  in  the  for- 
mer country  and  only  slightly 
above  the  average  in  Italy.  In 
Holland,  Norway,  Sweden  and 
Denmark,  new  ship  construction 
was  wholly  dependent  on  exist- 
ent facilities,  and  no  excess  pro- 
duction over  normal  was  trace- 
able. In  the  case  of  Germany, 
the  years  1915  to  1920  inclusive 
offer  no  inkling  of  shipbuilding 
activity  or  its  specific  nature 
other  than  that  war  vessel  con- 
struction predominated.  All 
through  the  war  period  it  may  be 
said  that  Japan  increased  its 
shipbuilding  output  to  a  marked 
degree,  adhering,  however,  to 
the  best  design  and  construction 
practices. 

Post-War  World  Ship- 
building,— While  the  first  four- 
teen years  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury saw  many  notable  and  not 
a  few  famous  ships  built  and 
commissioned  into  service,  it  re- 
mained for  the  third  and  fourth 
decades  to  demonstrate  just  how 
far  naval  architecture,  shipbuild- 
ing and  marine  engineering  had 
progressed  since  then,  with  the 
war  years  thrown  in,  during 
which  all  manner  of  trade,  com- 
merce and  international  travel 
dwindled  to  the  vanishing  point. 
The  post-war  period  opened 
with  most  maritime  nations  not 
too  badly  off  in  cargo  tonnage, 
and  such  as  needed  more,  knew 
that  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  with  huge  surplus  ton- 
nages were  ready  and  anxious  to 
make  prompt  delivery  at  more  or 
less  bargain  prices.  Germany, 
of  all  the  maritime  countries  af- 
fected by  the  war,  hardly  pos- 
sessed even  the  nucleus  of  a 
merchant  marine  and,  naturally, 
having  regard  to  her  pre-war 
ocean  transportation  record,  she 
was  far  from  being  disposed  to 
erect  a  new  fleet  structure  on  the 
doubtful  foundation  of  what 
others  were  discarding.  Liners 
and  other  vessels  possessed  and 
in  service  before  the  war  had 
been  seized,  and  those  under 
construction  or  uncompleted  she 
was  forced  to  turn  over  to  the 
Allies  in  accordance  with  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles.  Of  her 
own  volition  Germany  has  re- 
created her  merchant  marine, 
the  material  evidence  being 
readily  judged  from  the  1,441 
vessels  of  3,829,666  gross  tons 
launched  during  the  period 
1921-1935.  With  the  exception 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
which  substantially  exceeded  the 
respective  totals,  no  other  mari- 
time nation  gave  the  least  sem- 
blance of  a  like  creditable  show- 
ing. Of  the  vessel  types  built — 
tankers,  cargo,  combination  car- 
go and  passenger,  liner  and  su- 
per-liner— in  the  last  named 
category,  the  Bremen  and  Eii- 
ropa  of  1929  and  1930  respeg- 


Shipbuilding 


KFF 


182 


Shipbuilding 


tively,  became  the  most  popular 
of  their  class  in  transatlantic 
travel. 

Between  1921  and  1935  inclu- 
sive, Italy's  contribution  to 
world  shipbuilding  consisted  of 
402  vessels  of  1,380,417  gross 
tons  of  varied  class  and  type, 
notable  among  them  being  the 
Rex  and  Conte  di  Savoia,  super- 
liners,  each  of  about  50,000  gross 
tons  and  26.5  knots  regvdar 
speed.  These  two  ships  entered 
service  in  the  Fall  of  1932  and 
almost  immediately  drew  favor- 
able comment  from  the  travel- 
ling public  and  especially  that 
section  of  it  which  is  partial  to 
the  southern  or  Mediterranean 
route  between  New  York  and 
Europe.  France's  contribution 
to  world  shipbuilding  in  the  same 
period  amounted  to  419  vessels 
of  1,362,222  gross  tons,  the 
Normandic  constituting  the 
unique  and  conspicuous  feature 
because  of  its  size,  speed,  and 
tonnage.  Merchant  ships  built 
and  launched  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  in  the  fifteen-year 
period  totalled  4,391  of  13,834,- 
133  gross  tons,  the  Queen 
Mary  overshadowing  all  else. 
Due  to  the  fact  that  in  1921  the 
United  States  was  still  build- 
ing and  launching  a  considerable 
remnant  of  its  war-created  pro- 
gram, 173  vessels  of  1,015,377 
gross  tons,  that  year's  output, 
the  aggregate  of  the  1921-1935 
inclusive  period  of  990  vessels 
of  2,786,036  gross  tons  consti- 
tutes a  somewhat  unfair  compar- 
ison with  the  others  already 
quoted.  Denmark,  Holland, 
Sweden  and  Japan,  in  number 
ajid  tonnage  of  vessels  built  and 
launched,  may  be  said  to  have 
compared  not  unfavorably  with 
United  States  outputs :  Japan 
more  particularly  because  of 
the  number  of  unit  additions  of 
both  fast  freighters  and  fast 
combination  freight  and  passen- 
ger ships. 

At  June  30,  1936,  a  world  to- 
tal of  1,951,005  gross  tons  was 
being  built  of  which  348,732 
tons  was  credited  to  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland,  365,179  tons  to 
Germany,  156,811  tons  to  Japan, 
148,005  tons  to  Holland,  124,- 
250  tons  to  Sweden,  90,275  tons 
to  the  United  States,  71,620  tons 
to  Denmark,  45,304  tons  to 
France,  10,235  tons  to  Italy,  and 
90,544  tons  to  other  countries. 
Motor  vessels  were  represented 
by  1,184,231  gross  tons  and  all 
type  or  class  ships  by  766,774 
gross  tons.  Six  ships  of  20,000 
gross  tons  and  over  were  in- 
cluded in  the  aggregate  total, 
four  being  credited  to  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  and  one 
each  to  Holland  and  Germany. 
Throughout  the  post-war  period, 
oil-tankers  formed  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  ship  construc- 


tion and,  in  view  of  the  steady 
growth  in  numbers  and  size  of 
oil-engine  propelled  vessels  of 
almost  every  type  and  class,  it 
may  be  inferred  that  tanker 
building  holds  great  future  pos- 
sibilities. Most  of  the  recent 
tankers  incorporate  in  their  hull 
interior  detail  one  or  other  sys- 
tem of  longitudinal  framing  in 
lieu  of  that  generally  known  as 
the  transverse  system.  In  the 
Isherwood  system  of  ship  con- 
struction the  transverse  frames 
and  beams  are  fitted  at  widely- 
spaced  intervals,  general  prac- 
tice having  established  this  at 
about  twelve  feet.  These  form 
complete  transverse  belts  arovmd 
the  vessel  hull  and  are  riveted 
direct  to  the  hull  plating  and 
deck,  their  strength  being  not 
less  than  the  number  of  trans- 
verse frames  fitted  ordinarily 
for  a  ship  of  corresponding 
length.  The  transverse  girder 
frames  are  slotted  around  their 
outer  edges  in  order  to  admit  of 
continuous  longitudinal  stiffen- 
ers  being  fitted  not  only  at  the 
decks  but  on  the  sides,  bottom 
and  tank  top.  The  fitting  of  the 
longitudinals  direct  to  the  plat- 
ing prevents  damage  to  the 
decks  through  buckling. 

The  outstanding  feature  of  a 
longitudinally  framed  ship  is 
that  for  given  dimensions  a  con- 
siderable saving  in  the  weight  of 
hull  material  is  effected.  A  sub- 
stantial increase  in  hull  strength 
is  noteworthy,  constituting  a 
two-fold  gain  over  the  ordinary 
transverse  system.  Tanker  in- 
teriors, with  their  multiplicity  of 
brackets,  indicate  that  there  is 
room  for  much  construction  sim- 
plification, with  resultant  de- 
creases in  tanker  costs  and 
maintenance.  In  the  Isherwood 
Bracketless  System  these  desir- 
able features  have  been  achieved. 
By  this  latest  constructional  de- 
velopment, the  corner  brackets 
are  eliminated  from  each  tank  by 
stopping  the  longitudinals  at  the 
sides  of  the  ship,  and  at  the  mid- 
dle line  bulkhead,  short  of  the 
transverse  bulkheads,  and  sup- 
porting thein  by  the  transverses 
at  the  sides  and  the  webs  on  the 
longitudinal  bulkhead ;  dealing 
in  like  manner  with  the  horizon- 
tal stiffeners  on  the  transverse 
bulkheads.  This  is  accomplished 
through  an  ingenious  disposition 
of  materials  and  scantlings. 
Spacing  of  transverses  and  sizes 
of  longitudinals  are  so  adjusted 
that  the  strength  of  the  longi- 
tudinals between  the  transverses 
coincides  with  the  strength  of 
the  longitudinals  between  the 
transverses  and  the  bulkheads. 
In  1908  the  Isherwood  system 
first  sought  endorsement  by 
Lloyd's  Register  of  Shipping,  but 
its  greatest  progress  and  achieve- 
ment have  ijeen  recorded  in  the 


post-war  period.  It  is  adaptable 
to  practically  all  types  of  ships, 
liners  included,  a  noteworthy  ex- 
ample of  the  latter  being  the 
President  Roosevelt  of  the 
United  States  Lines. 

Ship  design  and  ship  construc- 
tion are  the  results  of  a  long 
period  of  evolution,  yet  few- 
practical  applications  of  new- 
construction  methods  have  gone 
beyond  the  experimental  stage, 
hence  the  uniqueness  and  practi- 
cability of  the  Isherwood  systems 
have  led  to  almost  universal 
adoption.  Later  was  added  a 
new  departure  known  as  the 
Arcform  cargo  ship.  In  1936 
eight  vessels  already  built  were 
in  service  and  ten  more  were  un- 
der construction.  The  idea  em- 
bodied in  this  type  ship  is  reduc- 
tion of  the  wetted  surface  and 
relatively  the  reduction  of  hull 
resistance.  This  is  accomplished 
by  'fining'  the  bilge  yet  retaining 
the  same  midship  area,  the  lost 
area  at  the  bilge  being  compen- 
sated by  increasing  the  beam  at 
the  load  water-line.  The  trend 
since  the  early  years  of  this  cen- 
tury has  been  towards  making 
the  midship  section  coefficient 
greater  and  greater  until  to- 
day it  is  not  uncommon  to 
find  midship  coefficients  as 
high  as  .995,  which  is  a  box-like 
section  ;  the  dominating  idea  be- 
ing to  carry  as  much  dead  weight 
of  cargo  as  possible  without  in- 
creasing the  mean  angle  of  en- 
trance and  run.  Not  only  has 
this  box-shaped  section  become 
almost  universal  in  cargo  craft, 
but  it  is  quite  common  in  inter- 
mediate cargo  and  passenger 
ships  and  even  in  passenger 
ships.  Summarized,  the  Isher- 
wood-Arcform  design  of  ship 
gives,  with  any  method  of  fram- 
ing, reduced  fuel  consump- 
tion or  increased  speed,  im- 
proved ballast  condition,  in- 
creased cubic  capacity,  strength, 
dead-weight  carrying  capacity, 
and  stability  with  homogeneous 
cargoes.  Of  the  Arcform  vessels 
under  construction  in  1936,  two 
of  12,000  tons  each  were  tankers 
building  at  Kearney,  N.  J.,  and 
one  of  15,000  tons,  also  a  tanker, 
building  in  Holland.  The  re- 
spective arcforms  are  7  per  cent 
and  10  per  cent. 

See  Boat,  Bulkheads  ;  Ferry 
Boat;  Ice  Breaker;  Load 
Line;  Motor  Boats;  Navies; 
Navigation  ;  Navy,  United 
States  ;  Oil  Vessels  ;  Ship- 
ping, Merchant  ;  Steam  En- 
gine; Turbines,  Steam; 
Yacht. 

Bibliography, — H  i  s  t  o  r  i  c  a  1 

and  Sailing  Ships :  A.  Jal, 
Archcologie  Naval  (1840)  ;  F.  A. 
Parker,  Fleets  of  the  World — 
The  Galley  Period  (1876)  ;  L. 
Fincati,  Le  Triremi  (1881);  G. 
C.  V.  Holmes,  Ancient  and  Mod- 


Ship  Canal 


KFF 


183 


Shipping  Laws 


em  Ships  (1906);  B.  Lubbock, 
The  Blackzvall  Frigates  (1922) 
and  The  Last  of  the  Wind  jammers 
(1927)  ;  H.  I.  Chapell,  The  His- 
tory of  American  Sailing  Ships 
(1935)  ;  H.  W.  Van  Loon,  Ships 
and  How  They  Sailed  the  Seven 
Seas  (1935). 

For  Construction  and  Design, 
consult  W.  H.  White,  Manual  of 
Naval  Architecture  (1900)  ;  D. 
W.  Tavlor,  Speed  and  Pozver  of 
Ships  (1910-11);  G.  S.  Baker, 
Ship  Design,  Resistance  and 
Screw  Propulsion  (1933)  ;  H.  E. 
Rossell,  Riveting  and  Arc  IV eld- 
ing Ship  Construction  (1934)  ; 
Proceedings  of  the  Society  of 
Naval  Architects  and  Marine 
Engineers  (annual.  New  York)  ; 
Transactions  of  the  Institute  of 
Naval  Architects  (annual,  Lon- 
don ) . 

Ship  Canal.  See  Canal, 
Navigatiox  ;  Panama  Canal  ; 
Suez  Canal. 

Ship  Fever,  a  name  some- 
times given  to  Typhus  Fever 
(q.  v.). 

Ship'ka  Pass,  strategic  pass 
through  the  Balkan  Mountains, 
47  miles  northeast  of  Philippopo- 
lis,  at  an  altitude  of  4,370  feet. 
It  was  the  scene  of  severe  fight- 
ing in  the  Russo-Turkish  War 
(1877-8). 

Ship'ley,  town,  England,  in 
West  Riding,  Yorkshire,  on  the 
River  Aire ;  3  miles  northwest 
of  Bradford  (q.  v.),  of  which  it 
is  practically  a  suburb,  and  in 
the  industries  of  which  it  shares. 
Pop.  (1931)  30,243. 

_  Ship  Money  is  the  name 
given  to  a  tax  or  imposition 
levied  by  Charles  i  which  had 
momentous  results  in  English 
history.  His  object  was  to 
strengthen  the  fleet  against  the 
Dutch  and  French  without  the 
necessity  of  asking  Parliament 
for  subsidies.  In  1635  ship 
money  writs  were  issued  over 
the  whole  kingdom,  each  county 
being  ordered  to  provide  a  ship 
of  war  or  contribute  a  certain 
sum  in  lieu  thereof.  John  Hamp- 
den in  1637  refused  to  contribute 
his  share  of  the  levy,  and  an  ac- 
tion was  raised  against  him  at 
the  instance  of  the  King  in  the 
Court  of  Exchequer,  where  after 
lengthy  arguments  the  judges  by 
a  majority  decided  in  favor  of 
the  legality  of  the  King's  policy. 
Ship  money  was  abolished  by  the 
Long  Parliament  in  1641.  See 
England.  History. 

Ship'pensburg,  borough, 
Pennsylvania,  Cumberland  and 
Franklin  Counties,  on  the  Penn- 
sylvania, the  Western  Maryland, 
and  the  Philadelphia  and  Read- 
ing Railroads;  38  miles  south- 
west of  Harrisburg.  Here  is 
the  Cumberland  Valley  State 
Normal  School.  The  borough 
has  machine  shops,  hosiery  and 
clothing  mills,  and  furniture  fac- 


tories. It  was  settled  in  1750, 
and  was  a  base  of  operations 
against  the  Indians.  Pop.  (1920) 
4,372;  (1930)  4,345. 

Shipping  Articles,  articles 
of  agreement  between  the  mas- 
ter of  a  ship  and  the  seamen. 
See  Seamen,   Laws  Relating 

TO. 

Shipping  Laws  is  a  widely 
used  expression  which  has  no 
well-accepted  definition.  By 
some  it  is  regarded  as  practically 
equivalent  to  maritime  law  (q. 
V.)  ;  but  its  current  signification 
seems  to  be  that  body  of  national 
or  municipal  laws  (specific  legis- 
lative acts  and  regulations  au- 
thorized by  them)  which  apply 
to  the  building  of  ships  and  their 
equipment  for  operation,  though 
a  considerable  number  of  writers 
apparently  regard  certain  laws 
affecting  operation  and  naviga- 
tion as  also  included.  This  in- 
clusion would  make  the  term 
cover  nearly  the  whole  field  of 
municipal  maritime  law.  As- 
suming the  narrower  definition, 
we  may  naturally  divide  the  sub- 
ject into  (a)  building  and  (6) 
equipment  and  fitting  for  opera- 
tion. 

Building  includes  (1)  con- 
struction, (2)  survey  and  meas- 
urement, (3)  registry,  enrol- 
ment, etc.,  (4)  nationality,  own- 
ership, etc.,  (5)  subsidy  (build- 
ing). Equipment  comprises  (1) 
personnel  (officers  and  crew), 
(2)  material  equipment  for  safe 
and  efficient  navigation,  (3)  sub- 
sidy (navigation). 

Laws  applying  to  design  and 
construction  chiefly  concern  the 
seaworthiness  and  safety  of  the 
ship,  such  as  water-tight  bulk- 
heads and  doors,  collision  bulk- 
heads, double  bottoms,  quarters 
for  officers,  crew,  and  passen- 
gers, and  sanitary  arrangements. 
Matters  of  construction  affect- 
ing seaworthiness  and  safety  of 
ships  and  cirgo  ^re,  for  the  most 
part,  handled  by  the  marine  in- 
surance societies,  which  decline 
to  insure  ships  in  which  con- 
struction is  too  faulty,  penalize 
by  high  rates  inferior  construc- 
tion, encourage  by  low  rates 
that  which  is  best. 

Survey  and  measurement  may 
be  made  by  government  survey- 
ors or  by  those  of  insurance  so- 
cieties, and  the  act  approved  by 
the  government  authorities.  The 
measurement  includes  the  di- 
mensions of  the  ship,  the  gross 
and  net  tonnage  (q.  v.),  cargo 
and  passenger  capacity,  horse- 
power of  engines,  capacity  of 
boilers,  and  other  similar  mat- 
ters. 

Registry,  enrolment  and  li- 
censing are  made  pursuant  to 
survey  and  inspection.  Vessels 
in  the  foreign  trade  are  regis- 
tered ;  those  in  the  coasting  trade 
are  enrolled ;  while  fishing  ves- 


sels, small  craft,  etc.,  are  li- 
censed. The  certificate  in  each 
case  is  similar, 

A  vessel  acquires  a  definite  na- 
tionality only  after  it  is  admitted 
to  registry,  license,  etc. ;  and  the 
requirements  are  not  the  same 
in  the  shipping  laws  of  all  coun- 
tries. The  U.  S.  laws  provide 
that  the  vessel  must  be  wholly 
owned  either  by  an  American 
citizen  or  citizens,  or  by  a  cor- 
poration (q.  V.)  organized  under 
the  laws  of  the  United  States  or 
any  of  the  several  States,  and 
having  citizens  of  the  United 
States  as  president  and  manag- 
ing director.  Vessels  not  built 
in  the  United  States  may  be 
registered  in  the  foreign  com- 
merce, but  cannot  enter  the 
coasting  trade  unless  the  prop- 
erty of  the  Emergency  Fleet 
Corporation  (see  Shipbuild- 
ing). British  ships  must  be 
owned  by  British  subjects  or 
residents,  or  corporations  having 
their  principal  place  of  business 
in  some  part  of  the  British  Em- 
pire. Foreign  built  ships  may 
register  and  engage  in  any  trade. 
The  German  and  Norwegian 
laws  are  similar,  the  German 
somewhat  stricter  in  details.  At 
least  50  per  cent  of  the  value  of 
a  French  vessel  must  be  owned 
by  French  citizens,  and  the 
coasting  trade  is  limited  to 
French  vessels.  Japanese  ships 
must  be  wholly  owned  by  citi- 
zens or  corporations  all  of  whose 
directors  are  citizens  ;  the  coast- 
ing trade  is  reserved  to  Japanese 
ships. 

The  laws  in  regard  to  the  per- 
sonnel of  national  ships  are  too 
extensive  for  adequate  treatment 
here.  They  cover  the  national- 
ity of  officers  and  crew,  their 
number  and  qualifications,  health, 
hygiene,  safety,  food,  quarters, 
appointment,  shipment,  and  the 
like ;  the  safety,  health,  hygiene, 
quarters,  food,  etc.,  of  passen- 
gers are  also  considered.  In  U. 
S.  ships  the  master,  chief  engi- 
neer, and  all  officers  who  are  in 
charge  of  a  watch  on  deck  or  in 
the  engine  room  must  be  Ameri- 
can citizens.  The  percentage 
manning  of  American  ships  by 
alien  seamen  has  been  substan- 
tially reduced.  Foreigners  may 
be  officers  of  British,  German, 
and  Japanese  ships,  with  some 
restrictions,  chiefly  as  regards 
subsidized  vessels.  All  officers 
of  French  vessels  must  be  citi- 
zens of  France.  British,  Ger- 
man, and  Japanese  laws  have  no 
provisions  in  regard  to  nation- 
ality of  crews  except  in  subsi- 
dized vessels.  In  Norwegian 
vessels  two-thirds  of  the  crew 
must  be  citizens,  and  in  French 
ships  three-fourths.  For  the 
laws  concerning  subsidies  for 
the  operation  of  shipping,  see 
SuBsiniKs.    See  Navigation. 


Shipping,  Merchant 


KFF 


183  A 


Shipping,  Merchant 


Shipping,  Merchant.  Mer- 
chant shipping  is  the  instrument 
by  which  international  trade  by 
sea  is  carried  on.  But  for  cen- 
turies merchant  vessels  were  or- 
dinarily armed  against  pirates, 
and  in  case  of  war  were  promptly 
converted  into  war  vessels  or 
privateers.  The  successfvil  naval 
battles  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion were  fought  by  armed 
American  merchantmen. 

Historical. — The  greatest 
maritime  merchants  of  antiquity 
were  the  Chaldseans,  Phoenicians, 
Egyptians,  Greeks,  Chinese, 
Arabs,  and  Hindoos.  The  use 
of  trading  vessels  by  the  Egyp- 
tians and  Chaldaeans  extends  be- 
yond the  dawn  of  history.  Of 
the  Chinese,  Arabs,  and  Hindoos 
we  have  no  definite  information  ; 
when  first  known  to  the  Western 
World  they  had  been  navigators 
for  many  centuries. 

The  shipping  of  Egypt  was 
mainly  confined  to  the  Nile,  the 
Red  Sea,  and  her  Mediterranean 
littoral.  The  Chaldaeans  were 
apparently  bolder,  trading  both 
to  India  and  Africa.  But  the 
Phoenicians  were  par  excellence 
the  greatest  and  iDoldest  sailors 
of  antiquity.  Though  possessing 
but  a  narrow  strip  of  coast,  and 
nearly  always  under  the  suze- 
rainty of  one  of  the  great  em- 
pires of  their  day,  they  filled  the 
Mediterranean  with  their  ships, 
and  traded  as  far  as  the  Canary 
Islands  and  Britain.  They 
planted  maritime  colonies  in  Eu- 
rope and  Africa,  and  one  of 
these,  Carthage,  became  greater 
than  either  of  the  mother  cities 
6f  Tyre  and  Sidon. 

The  greatest  rivals  of  the 
Phoenicians  were  the  Greeks. 
While  those  of  Europe  retained 
their  nationality  and  freedom 
imtil  conquered  by  Rome,  the 
Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  passed 
through  the  same  vicissitudes  of 
subjection  as  did  the  Phoeni- 
cians ;  and  like  the  latter,  they 
manned  the  war  galleys  of  the 
suzerains.  Again  like  the  Phoe- 
nicians, their  merchant  trade 
was  their  own.  A  thousand 
years  before  Christ,  Corinth, 
Rhodes,  and  other  Greek  cities 
were  centers  of  maritime  trade 
and  founders  of  colonies  in  Cen- 
tral and  in  Western  Europe. 
Rhodes — and  possibly  other  cit- 
ies— had  a  code  of  laws  for  the 
regulation  of  her  shipping  which 
is,  in  part  at  least,  the  basis  of 
modern  maritime  law.  The 
maritime  code  is  therefore  older 
than  Roman  civil  law.  Lord 
Mansfield  referred  to  it  as  'the 
ancientest  law  in  the  world.' 
Among  its  provisions  was  the 
following :  Tf  to  lighten  and 
save  the  ship,  merchandise  must 
be  thrown  overboard,  what  is 
thus  abandoned  for  the  benefit 
of  all  must  be  made  good  by  the 


contribution  of  all' — a  rule 
which  still  holds  good  in  ques- 
tions of  jettison  and  average. 

Ancient  merchant  ships  were 
small,  and  were  not  much  i:sed 
in  the  stormy  season.  Most 
were  of  a  size  which  permitted 
them  to  be  hauled  up  on  the 
beach  if  bad  weather  was  antici- 
pated. Those  intended  for  long 
voyages  and  fitted  chiefly  for 
propulsion  by  sails  were  much 
broader  than  the  ones  designed 
for  war  or  local  traffic.  The 
diminutive  size  precluded  them 
from  carrying  on  long  voyages 
any  cargo  that  could  not  pay  a 
large  profit  or  a  high  freight 
rate.  This,  of  course,  greatly 
limited  maritime  trade. 

After  the  decline  of  the  Greek 
states  the  maritime  commerce  of 
the  Mediterranean  almost  disap- 
peared, but  eventually  revived 
through  the  protection  of  the 
Eastern  empire  and  the  rise  of 
Venice,  Genoa,  and  other  Italian 
cities,  though  their  trade  was 
harried  and  interfered  with  by 
the  Mohammedan  conquerors  of 
Asia  Minor  and  the  African 
Coast.  Venice  increased  in 
power  until  she  was  the  mistress 
of  the  Mediterranean  and  of  the 
Eastern  empire.  She  also 
founded  the  first  real  merchant 
marine.  The  invasion  of  the 
Turks  destroyed  much  of  her 
trade,  but  did  not  replace  it  by  a 
mercantile  marine  of  their  own. 
The  seafaring  races  about  the 
North  Sea  were  now  becoming 
traders  as  well  as  rovers  and 
fighters,  and  the  sceptre  not  only 
of  sea  power  but  of  sea  trade 
passed  to  England,  where  it  has 
ever  since  remained. 

The  early  policy  of  maritime 
nations  in  respect  to  shipping 
was  always  protection,  some- 
times to  an  extent  which  forbade 
competition.  Thus,  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  Richard  ii  con- 
fined English  trade  to  English 
ships.  In  1663  the  British  gov- 
ernment proclaimed  that  'no 
commodity  of  a  growth,  produc- 
tion, or  manufacture  of  Europe 
shall  be  imported  into  the  Brit- 
ish plantations,  but  such  as  are 
laden  and  put  on  board  in  Eng- 
land, Wales,  or  Berwick-on- 
Tweed,  and  in  English-built  ship- 
ping whereof  the  master  and 
three-fourths  of  the  crew  are 
English.'  This  proclamation  was 
due  to  the  jealousy  of  British 
shipowners  concerning  the 
American  colonists,  who  had, 
within  forty  years  of  the  landing 
of  the  Mayflower,  so  developed 
their  merchant  marine  as  to  seri- 
ously interfere  with  British 
trade.  During  the  reign  of 
George  iii  an  act  was  passed 
forbidding  the  importation  of 
sugar  from  the  British  West  In- 
dia colonies  except  in  British 
bottoms. 


United  States, — Notwith- 
standing these  and  other  restric- 
tive acts,  the  shipping  of  the 
colonies  increased  steadily  until 
the  Revolution,  when  Massachu- 
setts owned  one  sea-going  vessel 
for  every  hundred  inhabitants, 
and  one-third  the  vessels  flying 
the  British  flag  were  American. 
The  colonies  were  too  poor  to 
build  a  great  navy,  but  the  nu- 
merous vessels  of  the  merchant 
marine  and  the  excellent  quality 
of  their  seamen  enabled  them  to 
commission  hundreds  of  priva- 
teers. In  1781  the  number  was 
449,  carrying  6,735  guns.  They 
cruised  about  the  British  Isles 
and  captured  prizes  in  sight  of 
British  ports,  raising  insurance 
rates  to  a  hitherto  unknown  fig- 
ure, and  seriously  interfering 
with  British  industries  of  all 
kinds. 

After  the  war  the  merchant 
shipping  of  the  States  was  well- 
nigh  destroyed,  and  the  ineffi- 
cient government  afforded  no 
protection.  A  further  blow 
was  dealt  by  the  interdic- 
tion of  all  trade  with  the 
British  West  Indies.  The  cost 
of  building  ships  was  at  that 
time  less  in  America  than  in 
England,  but  the  purchase  of 
American-built  ships  was  for- 
bidden by  a  British  order-in- 
council.  American  navigators, 
finding  little  trade  left  for  them 
in  the  West  Indies,  went  farther 
abroad — to  Holland,  France, 
Germany,  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Just  as  the  Mediterranean 
business  was  becoming  lucrative 
the  Dey  of  Algiers  discovered 
that  American  vessels  were  be- 
coming numerous  and  were  with- 
out naval  protection.  Many 
were  seized,  and  their  crews  re- 
duced to  slavery. 

Nevertheless,  there  was  some 
gain  in  the  foreign  shipping  ton- 
nage before  1789.  In  that  year 
the  Constitutional  government 
took  possession  of  affairs,  and  in 
one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  new 
Congress  was  a  section  for  the 
relief  of  shipping.  This  pro- 
vided for  a  reduction  of  10  per 
cent  in  the  duties  laid  upon  im- 
ports when  carried  by  American 
ships.  A  tonnage  bill  laid  a  tax 
of  6  cents  on  American-built 
ships  if  owned  by  Americans,  30 
cents  if  owned  by  foreigners, 
and  50  cents  if  foreign  built  and 
foreign  owned.  Heavy  specific 
duties  were  laid  upon  tea  if 
brought  from  the  East  in  other 
than  American  ships,  and  even  if 
brought  in  American  bottoms 
from  any  port  in  Europe.  All 
ships  were  in  theory  admitted  to 
the  coasting  trade,  but  they  were 
practically  excluded  because  for- 
eign ships  paid  the  tonnage  tax 
every  time  they  entered  port, 
while  American  vessels  paid  it 
but  once  a  year. 


Shipping:,  Merchant 


KFF 


183  B  Shipping,  Merchant 


The  effect  of  this  legislation 
was  instantaneous.  The  regis- 
tered tonnage  in  the  foreign 
trade  increased  from  123,893 
tons  in  1789  to  346,254  in  1790  ; 
363,110  in  1791;  411,438  in 
1792;  367,734  in  1793;  and 
438,863  in  1794. 

The  percentage  of  imports 
carried  in  American  ships  was 
17.5  per  cent  in  1789,  41  in  1790, 
58  in  1791,  67  in  1792,  82  in 
1793,  and  91  in  1794.  The  drop 
of  tonnage  in  1793  was  due  to 
the  depredations  of  the  Dey  of 
Algiers  and  the  interference 
with  trade  which  they  occa- 
sioned. 

At  this  time  in  France  the 
Revolution  had  driven_  all  for- 
mer friends  of  America  from 
power,  and  the  semblance  of  gov- 
ernment during  the  Reign  of 
Terror  permitted  all  things. 
When  the  United  States  refused 
to  allow  its  territory  to  be  used 
as  a  recruiting  ground  for 
French  forces,  their  anger 
turned  against  it.  The  French 
picaroons  (styled  letters  of 
marque,  but  little  better  than 
pirates)  in  the  West  Indies  cap- 
tured and  confiscated  American 
merchantmen  on  the  flimsiest 
pretexts  or  on  no  pretext  at  all. 
The  ill-controlled  men-of-war 
followed  suit.  The  conditions 
became  so  intolerable  that  the 
naval  vessels  which  had  been 
commenced  for  use  against  Al- 
giers were  completed,  added  to, 
and  the  Navy  Department  estab- 
lished. At  first  the  instructions 
to  the  naval  commanders  were  to 
attack  only  such  French  vessels 
as  were  found  to  be  interfering 
with  our  commerce ;  but  as 
nearly  all  were  doing  so,  hostili- 
ties became  general.  After  driv- 
ing from  the  sea  the  small  priva- 
teers and  crushing  the  French 
naval  force  by  a  series  of  bril- 
liant victories,  the  United  States 
brought  the  French  government 
to  terms. 

Nevertheless,  from  that  time 
(1800)  until  the  War  of  1812 
American  shipping  suffered  from 
the  jealousy  and  animosity  of 
France  and  her  allies,  as  well  as 
from  England  and  hers.  Inter- 
national law,  treaties,  right,  jus- 
tice, and  the  accepted  rules  of 
trade  and  neutrality  were  wholly 
disregarded.  By  orders-in-coun- 
cil  the  British  forbade  nevitrals 
to  trade  with  France,  or  else  be 
regarded  as  enemies  ;  France  re- 
torted by  her  Milan  and  Berlin 
Decrees.  Both  declared  'paper' 
blockades  that  they  could  not 
and  did  not  try  to  enforce.  The 
United  States  was  the  only  im- 
portant neutral  nation.  It  was 
engaged  not  only  in  its  own  for- 
eign commerce,  but  had  a  large 
carrying  trade  between  the  dif- 
ferent warring  states.  In  addi- 
tion  to  her  other  indefensible 


acts,  England  began  to  enforce 
more  strictly  than  ever  her  claim 
to  the  right  of  impressment.  By 
1807  millions  of  dollars  worth 
of  American  vessels  and  cargoes 
had  been  seized  and  confiscated, 
and  6,000  American  seamen 
were  serving  against  their  will  in 
the  British  navy.  President 
Jefferson  and  Congress  were  for 
peace  at  any  price ;  and  their 
policy  culminated  in  that  final 
achievement  of  self-immolation 
and  absurdity,  the  Embargo 
(q.  v.)  Act  of  Dec.  22,  1807. 
It  was  directed  against  the  in- 
terests of  the  warring  powers, 
and  was  designed  to  save  Amer- 
ican ships  from  capture  and  con- 
fiscation, and  her  seamen  from 
imprisonment ;  but  it  was  a  most 
disastrous  failure.  It  lasted  for 
fifteen  months,  cost  the  country 
more  than  $100,000,000,  and 
nearly  destroyed  the  shipping 
and  shipbuilding  industries. 
For  one-tenth  its  money  cost  to 
the  people,  the  United  States 
could  have  equipped  a  navy  that 
would  have  quickly  stopped  the 
depredations,  and  prevented  the 
War  of  1812,  as  that  conflict 
was  engendered  by  the  British 
treatment  of  the  American  mer- 
chant marine  and  sailors.  Mad- 
ison, who  succeeded  Jefferson  in 
1809,  soon  saw  that  war  was 
inevitable.  Nevertheless,  he  and 
his  advisers  were  so  greatly  im- 
pressed by  England's  naval  pres- 
tige and  great  fleet  that  they  re- 
garded as  useless  any  attempt  to 
meet  it  at  sea,  and  therefore 
made  no  naval  preparations. 

The  conflict  was  brought  to  an 
end  by  the  destruction  or  cap- 
ture of  millions  of  dollars  worth 
of  British  ships  by  American 
vessels  which,  as  in  the  Revolu- 
tion, sought  their  prey  in  the 
very  entrances  to  British  har- 
bors. Notvyithstanding  the  bril- 
liant victories  of  the  American 
navy,  it  was  so  few  in  numbers 
that  two-thirds  of  the  captures 
were  made  by  privateers.  The 
tonnage  of  American  vessels  in 
the  foreign  trade  reached  its 
highest  point  in  1810 — 980,000 
tons. 

By  the  close  of  the  War  of 
1812,  conditions  in  Europe  had 
utterly  changed.  War  had 
ceased  ;  the  various  peoples  were 
engaged  in  picking  up  the 
threads  of  their  own  commerce ; 
few  foreign  ships  were  needed  ; 
and  the  shipping  of  the  United 
States  was  soon  driven  back  to 
its  own  carrying  trade,  foreign 
and  domestic.  The  Reciprocity 
Act  of  1815  offered  the  removal 
of  the  tonnage  and  preferential 
duties  imposed  by  previous  leg- 
islation. Fortunately,  only 
Great  Britain,  Sweden,  and  Al- 
giers accepted  the  offer  at  the 
t'me,  and  the  effect  was  not  no- 
ticed in  the  large  opportunities 


offered  by  America's  growing- 
commerce.  The  proportion  of 
that  commerce  carried  in  Amer- 
ican bottoms  increased  for  three 
reasons.  The  first  of  these  was 
the  establishment  in  the  trans- 
atlantic trade  under  the  Ameri- 
can flag  of  a  number  of  fine  sail- 
ing packet  lines  which  were 
managed,  financed,  and  sailed  in 
the  most  admirable  way.  The 
second  was  that  European  na- 
tions were  too  busy  building  up 
their  home  trade  to  compete  in  a 
foreign  one.  The  third  was  the 
loss  of  the  carrying  business  in 
Europe,  which  forced  more 
American  ships  into  the  trade  to 
and  from  home  ports. 

The  apparent  prosperity  of  the 
merchant  service  led  the  Ameri- 
can people  to  believe  that  its 
flourishing  condition  was  solely 
due  to  Yankee  enterprise  and  ef- 
ficiency. To  a  large  extent  this 
was  true,  but  not  wholly.  Our 
legislators,  in  the  pride  of  suc- 
cess, now  began  to  show  that 
reaching  for  the  ideal  which  is 
ethically  praiseworthy,  but  prac- 
tically often  fatal.  In  1828  an- 
other act  of  Congress  renewed 
the  offers  of  reciprocity  in  ton- 
nage taxes  and  trade.  This  time 
it  was  generally  accepted,  and 
over  thirty  treaties  and  conven- 
tions were  signed  in  which  the 
last  particle  of  protection  was 
removed  from  American  ship- 
ping. Foreign  nations  accepted 
the  reciprocity  idea  in  principle, 
but  killed  it  by  various  subter- 
fuges, the  most  notable  being 
shipbuilding  and  navigation  sub- 
sidies. 

Steam  propulsion  now  became 
important  in  ocean  navigation. 
For  twenty-five  years  after  the 
building  of  the  Clermont  steam- 
boats were  used  only  in  interior 
or  coastal  waters  or  on  short 
ocean  voyages.  The  first  steam 
vessel  to  cross  the  Atlantic  was 
the  Savannah,  in  1819,  but  she 
was  really  a  sailing  ship,  and  her 
steam  machinery  only  auxiliary. 
The  first  full-powered  steamer  to 
make  the  trip  was  the  Curagao, 
which  started  on  her  initial  voy- 
age to  the  Dutch  West  Indies  on 
Aug.  12,  1828.  She  made  sev- 
eral later  voyages  but  for  some 
reason — probably  financial — the 
enterprise  was  given  up.  The 
next  steamer  to  cross  was  the 
Royal  William,  built  at  Quebec 
in  1831  for  the  Quebec  and  Hal- 
ifax Steamer  Navigation  Com- 
pany. She  crossed  to  England 
in  1832,  carrying  no  cargo  but 
coal,  and  was  there  sold  to  the 
Spanish  government. 

During  the  next  six  years 
steamer  lines  were  established  all 
over  Europe,  along  the  United 
States  coast,  and  to  the  West 
Indies.  Transatlantic  naviga- 
tion was  now  possible ;  and  an 
American,    Junius     Smith,  in 


Shipping,  Merchant 


KFF 


183  C 


Shipping,  Merchant 


1836  organized  the  British  and 
American  Steam  Navigation 
Company.  After  many  delays  in 
the  building  of  a  suitable  vessel, 
the  company  chartered  the 
steamer  Sirius  (700  tons)  for 
the  first  trip.  In  the  same  year 
the  Great  Western  Railway  de- 
cided to  build  vessels  for  the 
transatlantic  trade,  and  began 
work  on  the  Great  Western 
(1,320  tons).  The  Sirius  sailed 
from  Cork  on  April  4,  1838,  and 
the  Great  Western  left  Bristol 
on  April  8  ;  both  vessels  arrived 
in  New  York  on  April  23. 

Transatlantic  steamship  navi- 
gation was  thus  inaugurated, 
but  it  was  soon  found  that  there 
was  no  money  in  the  business. 
Samuel  Cunard,  of  Halifax,  was 
one  of  the  first  to  realize  the 
necessity  of  government  help, 
and  through  his  efforts  the  Cu- 
nard Line  was  started  with  a 
subsidy  of  $425,000  per  annum 
from  the  British  government. 
The  first  ship  of  the  line,  the 
Britannia,  crossed  the  ocean  in 
1840.  The  subsidy  was  soon  in- 
creased to  $850,000,  and  the 
western  terminus  for  the  prin- 
cipal steamers  changed  from 
Boston  to  New  York.  Other 
lines  were  afterward  started  with 
even  more  liberal  help — the 
Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Com- 
pany to  the  West  Indies  and 
South  America,  the  Pacific 
Steam  Navigation  Company  to 
the  west  coast  of  South  America, 
and  lines  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  Australia,  and  India. 

The  American  government  did 
not  assist  its  shipping  interests 
until  1845,  when  several  trans- 
atlantic lines  were  established  as 
a  result  of  a  postal  subsidy. 
About  the  same  time  (1845-8) 
contracts  were  made  for  lines  to 
the  West  Indies,  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  and  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  from  Panama  north.  In 
1855  Congress  repealed  the  Mail 
Subsidy  Act,  following  which 
American  transatlantic  com- 
panies suspended  operations  and 
sold  their  vessels.  The  trade 
now  fell  almost  solely  into  the 
hands  of  the  British. 

The  famous  clipper  ship  was 
the  last  expiring  effort  of  sail  to 
hold  its  own  with  steam  on  long 
voyages  and  with  heavy  freight. 
It  was  moderately  successful, 
only  delaying  the  final  victory  of 
steam  for  a  few  years.  The  first 
ship  of  the  type  was  the  Rain- 
how,  built  at  Baltimore,  1843. 

The  Civil  War  gave  the  final 
blow  to  American  foreign  trade. 
Foreign  commerce  decreased,  in- 
surance rose  high,  wages  ad- 
vanced, seamen  and  firemen 
went  into  the  navy,  and  capital 
was  attracted  to  undertakings 
offering  better  returns.  In  the 
meantime,  foreign  lines  in  great 
numbers  had  appeared — English, 


French,  German,  Belgian,  Dutch 
Austrian,  Italian,  Spanish ; 
while  Norway  and  Sweden  had 
captured  a  large  part  of  the  sail- 
ing-ship business. 

Shipping,  During  and  Fol- 
lowing the  World  War. — At 
the  outbreak  of  the  World  War 
in  1914,  American  commerce 
was  paralyzed  because  of  the 
lack  of  an  American  merchant 
marine  and  the  fact  that  the 
United  States  depended  almost 
entirely  on  the  shipping  of  the 
nations  at  war.  This  brought 
forcibly  home  to  Congress  the 
vital  need  of  an  American  mer- 
chant marine  and  resulted  in  the 
introduction  of  the  Government 
Ship  Purchase  Bill,  which, 
though  bitterly  opposed  by  ship- 
ping and  corporation  interests, 
was  finally  passed  in  1916. 

After  the  first  shock  of  the 
war  had  passed,  foreign  ships 
began  to  come  under  the  Ameri- 
can flag  in  order  to  secure  its 
protection,  the  United  States 
then  being  a  neutral.  American- 
controlled  steamship  companies 
that  had  been  operating  their 
ships  under  the  British  flag 
transferred  their  ships  to  the 
American  flag.  No  attempt  was 
made  by  the  United  States  to 
regulate  or  restrict  ocean  freight 
rates,  with  the  result  that  they 
rose  to  extraordinary  heights. 

British  shipowners  did  not 
fare  so  well.  Early  in  the  war 
Great  Britain  commandeered  the 
shipping  under  the  British  flag 
and  fixed  the  compensation  at 
figures  that  afforded  the  owners 
good  profits,  though  not  equal  to 
those  of  American  shipowners. 

In  1914,  American  shipping 
was  in  poor  condition,  amount- 
ing to  only  2,970,284  gross  tons, 
of  which  943,376  tons  were  sail- 
ing vessels.  This  condition  was 
due  to  lack  of  interest  on  the 
part  of  American  capitalists, 
who,  because  of  the  generally 
unprofitable  conditions,  had  long 
since  ceased  to  invest  in  ship- 
ping enterprises.  The  cost  of 
an  American-built  ship  was  ap- 
proximately 40  to  50  per  cent 
higher  than  for  one  built  in  Eng- 
land. This  represented  a  larger 
capital  investment,  and  there- 
fore higher  insurance  and  inter- 
est charges.  American  crews 
demanded  higher  wages ;  vict- 
ualling cost  more,  and  the  ex- 
pense of  upkeep  was  also  higher 
in  America  than  in  foreign  coun- 
tries. Consequently  many 
American-controlled  steamship 
companies  operated  their  fleets, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  under  Brit- 
ish or  other  foreign  flags. 

While  the  importance  of  _  the 
development  of  an  American 
merchant  marine,  adequate  for 
the  country's  needs,  was  recog- 
nized and  agitated,  it  was  not 
conceded  possible,  by  those  in- 


formed, without  the  aid  of  a  sub- 
sidy. For  years,  such  relief  had 
been  sought,  but  numerous  at- 
tempts to  secure  a  subvention 
had  met  with  strong  opposition. 

In  1891,  the  United  States 
granted  postal  mail  contracts  to 
several  lines,  notably  the  Ameri- 
can Line  and  Ward  Line.  A 
ship  subsidy  bill  was  passed  by 
both  branches  of  Congress  in 
1907,  but  was  defeated  through 
failure  to  agree  on  amendments. 

In  1923,  a  subsidy  bill  seemed 
sure  of  enactment,  but  was  killed 
in  the  Senate  by  a  filibuster. 
This  bill  had  previously  passed 
the  House  of  Representatives  by 
a  substantial  majority,  and  had 
the  whole-hearted  support  of 
President  Harding,  who  strongly 
urged  its  passage. 

Great  Britain  gives  postal  sub- 
sidies to  practically  all  its  liner 
services,  and  has  done  so  as  far 
back  as  1840,  when  the  Cunard 
Line  was  established.  France 
has  freely  subsidized  shipping, 
more  so,  in  fact,  than  any  other 
nation. 

Chiefly  because  of  its  lower 
cost  of  operation  and  efficiency 
of  operation  the  British  mer- 
chant marine  has  forged  far 
ahead  of  ^11  others  in  the  world, 
but  the  cheapest  water  transpor- 
tation in  the  world  is  under  the 
American  flag,  on  ships  built  in 
American  shipyards,  and 
manned  by  American  crews, 
namely,  the  shipping  on  the 
Great  Lakes. 

In  1915  Congress  passed  the 
Seamen's  Act.  Previous  to  the 
enactment  of  this  law,  a  seaman 
who  signed  on  for  a  stated  pe- 
riod, usually  six  months,  could 
be  arrested  and  taken  back  to  his 
ship  and  placed  in  irons  should 
he  seek  to  leave  his  ship  before 
the  time  for  which  he  had 
signed-on  had  expired.  The 
Seamen's  Act  abolished  this 
practice.  As  a  consequence,  a 
seaman  arriving  in  an  American 
port  on  a  foreign  ship  can  leave 
his  ship,  with  no  more  penalty 
than  the  loss  of  half  of  the 
wages  due  him,  and  can  sign  up 
with  an  American  ship  at  the 
higher  wages  obtainable  there. 
Foreign  ships  running  to  Amer- 
ican ports,  in  a  few  trades,  in 
order  to  retain  their  crews,  are 
therefore  compelled  ^  to  pay 
wages  in  keeping  with  those 
paid  on  American  ships,  but  in 
practically  all  other  trades 
throughout  the  world  crews  of 
foreign  vesels  are  paid  accord- 
ing to  the  wage  scale  of  their 
respective  countries,  which  is 
considerably  lower  than  Ameri- 
can wages. 

Shipping  in  England,  even  be- 
fore the  war,  was  highly  profit- 
able. Pre-war  profits  of  steam- 
ship companies,  as  shown  by  an- 
nual reports  taken  from  the  Lon- 


Shipping,  Merchant 


KFF 


183  D 


Shipping,  Merchant 


don  Stock  Exchange  Year  Book 
for  1914,  ranged  from  15  per 
cent  to  150  per  cent  per  annum. 

Inasmvich  as  American  pri- 
vate interests  did  not  engage  in 
ocean  shipping  under  the  Ameri- 
can flag,  because  of  its  gener- 
ally unprofitable  character,  the 
crisis  created  by  the  war  led 
Congress  to  appropriate  funds  to 
enable  the  Government  to  build 
and  operate   merchant  ships. 

After  the  passage  of  this  meas- 
ure a  Shipping  Board  was  cre- 
ated. In  addition  to  advancing 
money  to  most  of  the  private 
contractors,  the  Shipping  Board 
financed  the  construction  of 
three  colossal  shipyards :  the 
Hog  Island  yard  at  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  for  which  operation,  includ- 
ing the  ships  built  therein,  it  ap- 
pointed the  American  Interna- 
tional Corporation  as  its  agents  ; 
the  yard  at  Chester,  Pa.,  for 
which  it  appointed  the  Mer- 
chants' Shipbuilding  Corpora- 
tion as  its  agents ;  and  the 
yard  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  for  which 
it  appointed  the  Submarine  Boat 
Corporation  as  its  agents.  The 
full  war  powers  of  the  Govern- 
ment were  put  back  of  the  pri- 
vate contractors.  Transporta- 
tion of  material  to  the  shipyards 
added  greatly  to  the  congestion 
and  demoralization  of  the  rail- 
roads at  a  time  when  they  were 
most  sorely  needed. 

After  the  war,  the  Shipping 
Board  turned  most  of  the  ves- 
sels over  to  managing  and  oper- 
ating agents  in  an  endeavor  to 
encourage  the  upbuilding  of  an 
American  merchant  marine. 
Many  of  these  operators,  most 
of  whom  sprang  up  during  and 
immediately  after  the  war,  were 
inexperienced  and  financially  tm- 
sound  ;  consequently,  the  experi- 
ment proved  a  failure  financially 
and  otherwise,  and  with  the  de- 
pression of  1920  many  of  them 
went  bankrupt.  Others,  finan- 
cially stronger,  encouraged  by 
their  success  during  the  war, 
bought  additional  tonnage  from 
the  Board  at  the  high  prices  then 
asked.  Subsequently  in  1921, 
failing  in  their  efforts  to  have 
the  purchase  price  of  their  ton- 
nage reduced  to  a  _  parity  with 
the  price  then  existing,  more 
failed,  and  their  tonnage  was 
turned  back  to  the  Board. 
Gradually  the  Board  consoli- 
dated services  and  trade  routes, 
while  others  were  discontinued 
entirely. 

In  contrast  to  the  experience 
of  the  American  people  with 
their  Government  merchant  ma- 
rine, other  governments,  notably 
the  Canadian  and  the  Australian 
Governments,  which  had  been 
compelled  to  establish  and  oper- 
ate shipping  facilities  of  their 
own  without  the  intermediation 
of  private  agencies,  decided  to 


continue  and  to  enlarge  their 
merchant  marines.  But  the  re- 
sults showed  no  improvement 
over  the  American  method. 
Canadian  tonnage,  however,  is 
still  operated  on  trade  routes 
that  were  established  to  the 
West  Indies,  Australia  and  Eu- 
rope. 

In  1920  through  the  efforts  of 
the  Shipping  Board  a  bill  known 
as  the  Jones  Bill  was  introduced. 
This  directed  the  Board  to  sell 
all  of  the  Government's  ships  on 
such  terms  as  the  Board  chose  to 
make,  the  only  restriction  being 
that  payment  for  same  should 
not  be  deferred  for  more  than 
fifteen  years  after  the  making  of 
the  contract  of  sale.  This  bill 
contained  other  far-reaching  pro- 
visions, the  most  important  of 
which  were :  the  exemption  of 
American  steamship  companies 
from  excess  and  war-profit  taxes 
for  a  period  of  ten  years,  pro- 
vided the  amount  of  this  exemp- 
tion be  reinvested  in  new  ships  ; 
the  abrogation  by  the  United 
States  of  all  treaties  which  re- 
strict the  United  States  from 
imposing  discriminating  customs 
duties  on  imports  or  discrimina- 
tory tonnage  dues  on  foreign 
vessels  in  favor  of  vessels  en- 
tering the  United  States  which 
were  of  American  registry  ;  the 
granting  of  preferential  railroad 
rates  for  freight  entering  or 
leaving  the  country  in  American 
bottoms.  In  compliance  with  the 
Jones  Bill,  the  Shipping  Board 
placed  its  ships  on  sale  but  the 
prices  per  d.w.  ton  were  so  much 
higher  than  those  of  similar 
ships  on  sale  in  Great  Britain 
that  not  a  single  bid  was  re- 
ceived. By  1925  the  better  type 
of  cargo  carrier  was  purchasable 
around  $30  per  d.w.  ton.  Not- 
withstanding that  this  figure 
represented  a  huge  loss  on  the 
capital  investment,  there  was  no 
help  for  it  but  to  bow  to  the 
inevitable. 

While  the  question  as  to 
whether  United  States  merchant 
shipping  should  be  governmen- 
tally  or  privately  controlled  over- 
shadowed all  else  in  importance 
since  the  Armistice  and  right 
through  until  1936,  foreign  mar- 
itime nations  were  far  from  lag- 
gard in  adding  to  and  strength- 
ening their  merchant  fleets,  in 
spite  of  the  burdensome  eco- 
nomic handicaps  imposed  as  an 
aftermath  of  war.  In  this  con- 
nection, it  is  worthy  of  note  that 
in  1935  the  American  merchant 
marine,  while  ranking  second  in 
ownership  of  gross  tonnage  vol- 
ume, ranked  fifth  in  speeds  and 
eighth  in  age  fitness.  In  the 
elapsed  ten  years,  Great  Britain 
built  617  sea-going  freighters 
each  of  2000  gross  tons  or  more 
while  in  the  same  period  the 
United    States    launched  only 


seven  such  craft  of  which  but 
two  were  employed  in  general 
trade,  the  others  being  more  or 
less  employed  as  colliers,  freight 
car  ferries,  etc. 

Although  the  1935-1936  edi- 
tion of  Lloyd's  Register  of  Ship- 
ping credited  the  American  mer- 
chant marine  with  12,145,000 
tons  and  classified  it  as  being  all 
equipped  for  sea  service  except 
2,480,000  tons  employed  in 
Great  Lakes  trade,  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  nearly  1,700,- 
000  tons  represented  craft  rated 
between  100  and  2000  tons;  that 
3,000,000  tons  belonged  to  coast- 
al services  and  perhaps  well 
over  1,000,000  tons  could  be 
based  on  idle  Shipping  Board 
vessels.  Summarized  and  as  of 
1936,  the  related  status  of  the 
merchant  fleets  of  various  na- 
tions appears  to  emphasize  to  its 
disadvantage  the  speed  and  age 
of  .  American  merchant  vessel 
tonnage.  Eight  nations  owned 
29,633,000  gross  tons  out  of  a 
total  of  35,900,000  gross  tons 
operated  in  freight  and  passen- 
ger trades  and  internationally 
competitive.  Great  Britain 
owned  13,205,000  tons,  the 
United  States  3,065,000  tons, 
Japan  2,969,000  tons,  Germany 
2,740,000  tons,  France,  2,250,- 
000  tons,  Italy  2,132,000  tons, 
Netherlands  1,757,000  tons,  and 
Norway  1,515,000  tons.  Vessels 
aged  ten  years  or  less  totalled 
8,423,000  tons,  Great  Britain 
again  leading  with  4,321,000 
tons  and  the  United  States  in 
eighth  place  with  only  297,000 
tons.  France  in  seventh  place 
had  527,000  tons.  In  the  cate- 
gory of  vessels  with  speeds  of 
twelve  knots  and  upwards  to- 
talling nearly  18,000,000  tons. 
Great  Britain  had  8,320,000 
tons,  Germany  1,941,000  tons. 
United  States  1,555,000  tons, 
Japan  1,551,000  tons,  France 
1,492,000  tons,  Netherlands 
1,340,000  tons,  Italy  1,119,000 
tons,  and  Norway  597,000  tons. 
From  this  it  will  be  seen  that 
in  volume  of  tonnage  Great  Brit- 
ain outranks  the  United  States 
more  than  4  to  1  ;  in  speed  of 
twelve  knots  or  more  by  5  to  1, 
and  in  ships  of  less  than  ten 
years  old  by  14  to  1.  It  goes 
without  saying  that  the  weak- 
ness in  both  carrying  power  and 
efficiency  of  that  part  of  the 
American  merchant  marine 
which  operates  in  foreign  trade 
is  so  clearly  demonstrated  as  to 
remove  beyond  all  doubt  every 
trace  of  competitive  fitness.  In 
the  American  foreign  trade  fleet, 
vessels  of  ten  knots  speed  pre- 
dominate while  eighty-five  per 
cent  of  the  entire  tonnage  is 
fourteen  years  old  or  more. 
Similar  weaknesses  are  appar- 
ent too  in  American  domestic 
trade  and  tanker  fleets.  Con- 


Shipping,  Merchant 


KFF 


183  E 


Ship  Railway 


cerning  the  latter,  probably  92 
per  cent  relates  to  vessels  of  less 
than  twelve  knots ;  in  addition, 
88  per  cent  of  the  entire  tanker 
tonnage  is  also  fourteen  years 
old  or  more. 

For  a  number  of  years  follow- 
ing the  Armistice  the  United 
States  Government  through  the 
Shipping  Board  Merchant  Fleet 
Corporation  operated  its  big  fleet 
of  ships  at  a  huge  financial  loss. 
In  1927,  President  Coolidge  op- 
posed expansion  of  the  merchant 
marine  by  the  Government  and 
favored  the  sale  of  the  fleet  to 
private  concerns  with  sufficient 
guarantees  that  it  would  be  kept 
active.  This  policy  was  dili- 
gently followed.  Of  the  vessel 
services  sold  by  the  Shipping 
Board  most  were  transferred  to 
routes  on  which  American  flag 
craft  in  pre-war  days  were  con- 
spicuous by  their  absence.  Nat- 
urally an  increase  in  foreign 
trade  and  commerce  transported 
in  American  bottoms  was  the  re- 
sult. Enactment  of  the  Jones- 
White  Bill  in  1928  as  supple- 
menting and  amending  the 
Merchant  Marine  Act  of  1920  may 
be  considered  the  most  progres- 
sive move  ever  made  in  Ameri- 
can shipping  annals.  Its  avowed 
object  was  development  of  the 
American  merchant  marine  to  at 
least  the  point  from  which  51 
per  cent  of  American  commerce 
would  be  transported  by  Amer- 
ican ships  :  to  serve  as  well  as  a 
naval  or  military  auxiliary  in 
time  of  war  or  national  emer- 
gency, and  ultimately  to  be  pri- 
vately owned  and  operated  by 
Arnerican  citizens.  It  provided 
for  a  construction  loan  fund  to 
aid  citizens  of  the  United  States 
in  the  building  of  vessels  for 
service  on  routes  approved  by 
the  Shipping  Board.  The  Act 
also  provided  for  compensation 
to  American  foreign  trade  ves- 
sels through  mail  contracts  to 
offset  as  far  as  possible  the 
higher  cost  of  American  ship 
operation. 

The  Ship  Subsidy  Bill  passed 
by  Congress  in  1936  and  signed 
by  President  Roosevelt  on  June 
30  marked  the  end  of  a  long- 
standing fictitious  situation  by 
displacing  with  actual  subsidies 
to  shipbuilders  and  operators  the 
ocean  mail  contracts.  The  legis- 
lation also  set  up  a  new  govern- 
ment agency  consisting  of  five 
members  to  administer  its  pro- 
visions. The  new  agency  was 
styled  the  National  Maritime 
Commission.  The  Merchant 
Shipping  Bureau  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce,  which  pre- 
viously had  replaced  the  Ship- 
ping Board,  was  in  due  course 
expected  to  be  absorbed  by  the 
commission.  The  new  Ship 
Subsidy  Bill  authorized  the 
granting  of  direct  aid  up  to  the 


equivalent  of  SO  per  cent  con- 
struction cost  to  ship  operators. 
It  provided  for  differentials  in 
subsidies  between  East  and 
West  Coasts.  Companies  re- 
ceiving Federal  aid  were  for- 
bidden to  pay  their  execu- 
tives salaries  in  excess  of  $25,- 
000  a  year.  Subsidies  may  be 
paid  to  ship  operators  after  an 
investigation  established  what 
differentials  in  cost  of  operation 
existed  between  American  ships 
and  foreign  vessels  competing  in 
the  same  trade.  A  number  of 
stipulations  on  the  conduct  of 
the  merchant  marine  were  in- 
cluded in  the  measure. 

See  Shipbuilding;  Subsi- 
dies; Tonnage;  Trade;  Navi- 
gation; Blockade;  Contra- 
band OF  War;  Declaration  of 
Paris;  Privateer;  Prize. 

Bibliography. — W.  D.  Lind- 
say, History  of  Merchant  Ship- 
ping and  Ancient  Commerce 
(1874-76);  H.  Fry,  History  of 
North  Atlantic  Steam  Naviga- 
tion (1896)  ;  W.  L.  Marvin, 
American  Merchant  Marine 
(1902);  R.  G.  Plumb,  History 
of  the  Navigation  of  the  Great 
Lakes  (1911)  ;  J.  R.  Spears,  The 
Story  of  the  American  Merchant 
Marine  (1915)  ;  B.  Lubbock,  The 
China  Clippers  (1919)  and  The 
Colonial  Clippers _  (1921)  ;  E.  K. 
Chatterton,  Sailing  Ships  and 
Their  Story  (1923)  ;  C.  E.  Cart- 
wright,  The  Tale  of  Our  Mer- 
chant Ships  (1924);  C.  Jones, 
British  Merchant  Shipping 
(1922);  E.  B.  Pollister,  The 
Modern  Trend  in  Merchant  Ships 
(1930)  ;  E.  W.  Blocksidge,  Mer- 
chant Ships  and  Shipping 
(1933);  B.  Barton,  Merchant 
Adventure  (1936)  ;  Lloyd's 
Register  of  Shipping  (annual)  ; 
Annual  Reports  of  the  U.  S. 
Commissioners  of  Navigation ; 
Department  of  Commerce  Year 
Book. 

Shipping  of  Canada.  See 

Canada,  Shipping. 

Shipping  Subsidies,  govern- 
ment grants  in  aid  of  shipping. 
They  may  take  the  form  of  boun- 
ties for  the  construction  and  op- 
eration of  ships,  of  postal  sub- 
ventions or  payments  for  carry- 
ing government  supplies,  or  of 
payments  to  shippers  whose  ves- 
sels conform  to  certain  required 
standards  and  are  held  in  readi- 
ness for  government  service  in 
time  of  war.  See  Shipping; 
Subsidies. 

Ship  Railway.  The  trans- 
porting of  boats  and  small  vessels 
overland,  around  falls  and  rapids 
or  across  narrow  necks  of  land 
separating  navigable  waters,  has 
been  common  practice  for  thou- 
sands of  years.  The  operation 
was  carried  out  by  simple  porter- 
age or  by  means  of  light,  tem- 
porary skids.  The  earliest  at- 
tempts  to   move   large  vessels 


seem  to  have  been  made  in 
Egypt,  though  the  dates  are  un- 
certain ;  and  in  no  case  do  the 
ways  on  which  the  vessels  were 
moved  seem  to  have  been  per- 
manent. 

The  first  permanent  railway  or 
ways  for  moving  ships  of  con- 
siderable size  over  a  long  distance 
on  land  is  supposed  to  have  been 
built  by  the  (jreeks  previous  to 
427  B.C.,  when  it  is  known  to 
have  been  used.  It  was  capable 
of  transporting  galleys  149  feet 
long,  16  feet  wide,  8.5  feet 
draught,  and  a  displacement  of 
about  300  tons.  Other  ship  rail- 
ways were  built  by  the  Danes, 
Venetians,  and  Turks. 

In  the  nineteenth  century 
many  ship  railways  for  the  car- 
riage of  large  vessels  were  pro- 
posed or  planned,  and  some  were 
commenced  ;  but  none  of  any  im- 
portance were  completed.  De 
Lesseps'  first  solution  of  the 
problem  at  Suez  was  a  ship  rail- 
way for  which  he  submitted  a 
plan  in  1860.  In  1889  Captain 
Jarnes  B.  Eads  (q.  v.),  who 
achieved  such  success  in  the 
Mississippi,  proposed  a  ship  rail- 
way across  the  Isthmus  of  Te- 
huantepec  to  transport  ships  of 
6,000  tons  or  less  from  the  At- 
lantic to  the  Pacific,  a  distance  of 
ISO  miles.  The  project  was  kept 
before  the  public  for  many  years, 
but  failed  to  obtain  financial  sup- 
port. In  1888  the  Chignecto 
Ship  Railway  was  actually  com- 
menced. This  was  designed  to 
save  the  long  and  stormy  voyage 
from  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  the 
ports  of  New  Brunswick  to  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence — a  dis- 
tance of  400  or  500  miles.  The 
length  was  about  17  miles,  and 
vessels  of  2,000  tons  or  less  were 
to  be  carried.  In  1891,  after 
about  three-fourths  of  the  un- 
dertaking was  completed,  faith 
in  the  project  became  so 
weakened  that  work  was  stopped 
from  lack  of  money  to  carry 
it  on. 

In  most  of  the  ship  railway 
schemes  which  have  been  at- 
tempted or  proposed  the  vessel 
was  to  be  carried  in  a  framework 
called  a  cradle,  supported  on 
many  wheels  running  on  a  num- 
ber of  heavy  tracks.  Changes  of 
grade  made  it  necessary  to  raise 
or  lower  the  ends  of  the  cradle 
automatically,  and  hydraulic  pis- 
tons above  the  pivots  of  the  vari- 
ous trucks  were  interconnected' 
so  that  the  weight  was  kept  con- 
stantly distributed  in  the  manner 
designed.  Change  in  curves  was 
met  by  means  of  a  sub-cradle 
over  the  central  truck  or  by  other 
means.  Haulage  was  to  be  ef- 
fected by  locomotives  of  special 
type  or  by  cable.  Some  designs 
provided  for  small  vessels  to  be 
carried  floating  in  a  tank  instead 
9f  supported  by  a  cradle. 


Ships 


183  F 


Shiras 


Marine  Railways  are  struc- 
tures used  fcJr  the  cleaning  or  re- 
pairing of  the  under-water  body 
of  small  vessels.  Inclined  ways, 
somewhat  similar  to  those  for 
launching  vessels,  but  heavier  in 
proportion  to  the  weight  carried, 
extend  from  deep  water  to  a  dis- 
tance ashore  sufficient  to  allow 
the  vessel  to  be  hauled  complete- 
ly out  of  the  water.  On  these 
rests  a  cradle,  usually  supported 
on  many  small  trucks  or  rollers — 
or  else  the  rollers  are  set  in  the 
ways.  The  cradle  is  run  down 
to  the  end  of  the  ways,  the  vessel 
brought  over  it,  and  both  hauled 
in  until  the  hull  settles  on  the 
chocks  and  blocks  on  the  cradle 
prepared  to  receive  it.  The  cradle 
carrying  the  vessel  is  then  hauled 
up  the  ways  by  means  of  chains 
operated  by  an  engine  at  the  up- 
per end. 

Ships.  See  Shipbuilding; 
Shipping. 

Ship's  Company.  This  term 
is  used  to  designate  the  comple- 
ment of  officers  and  men  assigned 
to  a  warship  in  commission  or 
in  reserve.  In  battleships  of  the 
United  States  Navy,  the  comple- 
ment of  officers  is  about  as  fol- 
lows: captain,  executive  officer 
(usually  a  commander  or  lieuten- 
ant-commander),  first  lieutenant, 
navigator,  senior  engineer  officer, 
and  ordnance  officer  (lieutenant- 
commanders  or  lieutenants) ; 
eight  to  ten  divisional  officers 
(generally  of  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant and  ensign) ;  two  or  three 
officers  (of  about  the  same  rank) 
for  engine-room  duty;  six  to 
twelve  ensigns  (recent  graduates) 
acting  as  junior  officers  of  divi- 
sions, aids,  etc. 

In  vessels  detailed  as  flagships 
the  number  of  officers  is  in- 
creased by  those  serving  on  the 
admiral's  staff.  There  is  a  senior 
marine  officer  (usually  a  cap- 
tain), a  junior  marine  officer 
(either  a  first  or  second  lieu- 
tenant), a  senior  surgeon  and  an 
assistant  surgeon,  a  paymaster 
and  chaplain,  and  several  ensigns. 

Of  late  years  other  commis- 
sioned officers  are  found  on  bat- 
tleships, such  as  a  chief  boat- 
swain, chief  gunner,  chief  carpen- 
ter, and  one  or  more  chief  ma- 
chinists, all  of  whom  rank  with 
ensign.  There  are  usually  an 
additional  gunner,  boatswain, 
three  machinists,  and  sometimes 
a  pharmacist — all  termed  war- 
rant officers.  Next  come  the 
crew,  consisting  of  chief  petty 
officers,  petty  officers  of  the  first, 
second,  and  third  classes,  sea- 
men, ordinary  seamen,  appren- 
tice seamen,  messmen,  marines, 
etc.  There  are  the  usual  ser- 
geants, corporals,  music,  etc., 
with  the  marines. 

The  number  of  officers  and 
men  comprising  the  ship's  com- 
pany of  naval  vessels  in  full  com- 
mission is  about  as  follows: 
Vol.  XL— Oct.  '20 


Battle  cruisers   1,400 

Battleships,  new  type   900  to  1,400 

Battleships,  old  type   GOO"  900 

Armored  cruisers   600  "  800 

Light  cruisers   250  "  800 

Gunboats   120  "  220 

Destroyers   50  "  125 

.  Torpedo  boats   25  "  35 

Submarines   8  "  75 


When  placed  in  reserve  the 
ship's  company  is  generally  re- 
duced to  about  one-third  of  the 
full  complement. 

Ship's  Manifest.  See  Mani- 
fest. 

Ship's  Papers.  A  merchant 
vessel  is  required  to  carry  certain 
documents  which  are  called  the 
'ship's  papers.'  These  concern: 
(a)  evidence  of  nationality;  (b) 
ownership  and  charter;  (c)  cargo; 
(d)  navigation;  (e)  officers,  crew, 
and  passengers;  (/)  health  and  in- 
spection. 

Evidence  of  nationality  of  U. 
S.  vessels  is  given  by:  (1)  certifi- 
cate of  registry  (foreign  trade); 
(2)  certificate  of  enrolment 
(coasting  trade) ;  (3)  license 
(yachts,  small  vessels,  vessels  en- 
gaged in  fisheries,  etc.) ;  (4)  con- 
sul's certificate  for  vessels  pur- 
chased abroad  and  not  eligible 
for  registry.  The  certificate  of 
registry  should  give  the  name, 
character,  nationality,  and  own- 
ership (name  or  names)  of  the 
vessel;  also  its  rig,  dimensions, 
tonnage,  dates  of  building  and 
registry,  signal  number  (interna- 
tional code) ,  name  of  master,  and 
the  signatures  and  seals  of  the 
officers  issuing  the  certificate. 

The  principal  evidence  of  na- 
tionality of  foreign  vessels  is: 
Austrian,  royal  license  and  certifi- 
cate of  registry;  British,  certifi- 
cate of  registry;  Brazil,  Portugal 
and  Sweden,  passport;  Denmark, 
certificate  of  nationality  and  reg- 
istry; Germany  and  Norway,  cer- 
tificate of  nationality;  Russia  and 
Spain,  patent  authorizing  the 
use  of  the  flag.  Further  evi- 
dence of  nationality  is  given  in 
the  papers  concerning  ownership 
and  charter,  which  are:  (1)  Sea 
letcer  or  passport  issued  by  the 
collector  of  a  port  to  certify  to 
national  character  and  owner- 
ship; (2)  charter  party  (q.  v.),  if 
the  vessel  is  chartered;  (3)  bill  of 
sale  (if  vessel  has  been  sold  by 
citizens  of  a  foreign  country  and 
not  yet  registered). 

The  papers  affecting  the  cargo 
are:  (1)  manifest,  or  general 
statement  of  cargo  (see  Mani- 
fest); (2)  bills  of  lading  (ac- 
knowledgment that  goods  have 
been  received  on  board);  (3)  in- 
voices (detailed  statement  of 
each  lot  of  goods).  The  naviga- 
tion papers  are:  (1)  clearance 
(permission  of  the  port  authori- 
ties for  the  vessel  to  sail  for  a 
foreign  port) ;  log  book,  or  record 
of  the  ship's  voyage  (see  Log 
Book)  ;  permit  (if  a  fishing  ves- 
sel) to  visit  a  foreign  port.  Pa- 


pers concerning  the  officers,  crew, 
and  passengers  are:  (1)  officers' 
licenses;  (2)  muster  roll  and  ship- 
ping articles  (usually  in  one — 
comprising  list  of  crew  and  their 
signed  agreement  to  serve);  (3) 
passenger  list  (if  passengers  are 
carried). 

The  bill  of  health  is  a  state- 
ment by  the  port  authorities  in 
regard  to  the  prevalence  or  ab- 
sence of  epidemic  or  infectious 
disease  (see  Bill  of  Health). 
The  certificate  of  inspection 
states  that  the  laws  of  the  coun- 
try affecting  health,  safety,  lad- 
ing, etc.,  have  been  complied 
with. 

Not  all  these  papers  are  ob- 
ligatory. Thus,  vessels  in  the 
U.  S.  coasting  trade  are  not  re- 
quired to  have  a  clearance  or 
certificate  of  registry;  in  place  of 
the  latter  they  have  a  similar 
document  called  certificate  of 
enrolment.  In  time  of  war,  for 
their  own  protection,  neutral 
merchant  vessels  must  possess 
official  papers  showing  national- 
ity, ownership,  cargo  (and  its 
ownership  and  consignees),  clear- 
ance and  destination,  ports  en- 
tered, course  ptirsued,  and  inci- 
dents of  voyage  (log  book). 

Shipton,  Ursula  (1488-c. 
1560),  known  as  Mother  Ship- 
ton,  reputed  prophetess,  whose 
name  first  appears  in  a  tract 
dated  1 64 1,  prophesying  the 
death  of  Cromwell,  Wolsey,  Earl 
Percy,  and  others,  the  narrative 
being  now  regarded  as  a  fiction. 
Eighteen  other  prophecies  asso- 
ciated with  her  name  were  given 
in  Lilly's  Collection  of  Ancient 
and  Moderne  Prophesies  (1645). 
Richard  Head  next  published 
(1667)  Life  and  Death  of  Mother 
Shipton,  in  which  it  was  stated 
that  Ursula  Sonthiel  (1488-1561) 
married  Toby  Shipton  at 
Knaresborough,  and  after  ac- 
qiairing  a  reputation  as  a  proph- 
etess, died  at  Clifton.  Her 
prophecies  foretold  the  invention 
of  the  steam  engine  and  the  elec- 
tric telegraph,  and  the  end  of  the 
world  in  1881;  but  these  were 
additions  made  by  a  certain 
Charles  Hindley  in  1871,  who 
acknowledged  the  fraud  in  1873. 
Consult  Harrison's  Mother  Ship- 
Ion  Investigated. 

Shipworm.  See  Teredo. 

Shipwreck.    See  Marine 
Disasters;  Wreck;  Salvage. 
.      Shirakawa,  she'ra-ka'wa, 
,  town,    Hondo,    Japan,    on  the 
Northern   Railway;    100  miles 
northeast  of  Tokyo.    Pop.  9,000. 

Shi'ras,  George,  Jr.  (1832), 
American  jurist,  was  born  in 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Yale  University  (1853; 
LL.D.  1883),  and  from  the  Yale 
Law  School  (1854),  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1856.  He 
practised  law  in  Pittsburgh  until 
1892,  when  he  was  appointed  an 
Associate  Justice  of  the  U.  S. 


Shlraz 


184 


Shock 


Supreme  Court.  In  1894,  on  the 
reargument  of  the  Income  Tax 
case  before  that  court,  he 
changed  his  vote,  originally  given 
for  the  constitutionality  of  the 
Act,  and  thus  decided  the  matter 
the  other  way.  In  1903,  on 
reaching  the  age  limit,  he  retired 
under  the  provisions  of  the  Act 
of  Congress. 

Shiraz,  she-raz',  a  celebrated 
city  of  Southern  Persia,  and  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Fars, 
is  situated  in  a  pleasant  valley, 
with  a  delightful  climate;  155 
miles  southeast  of  Ispahan.  The 
wine  of  Shiraz,  which  is  very 
strong  and  resembles  Tokay,  is 
famous  throughout  the  East. 
Rose  water  is  prepared  in  large 
quantities.  Inlaid  articles  in 
wood  and  metal,  glass,  and  wool- 
lens are  made  here.  Other  ex- 
ports are  gums,  opium,  cotton, 
and  skins.  The  town  has  been 
several  times  almost  destroyed 
by  earthquake.  It  has  since 
been  partially  rebuilt  in  a  some- 
what inferior  style.  Shiraz  was 
the  birthplace  of  the  poets  Hafiz 
and  Sa'di,  whose  tombs  are 
nearby.  In  the  pre-Mohamme- 
dan  era  it  was  a  Zoroastrian 
town,  and  2  miles  northeast  is 
ths  famous  Zoroastrian  temple  of 
M333lla.    Pop.  55,000. 

S  ilrebrook,  village  and  ecclesi- 
astical district,  Derbyshire,  Eng- 
land; 4  miles  northwest  of  Mans- 
field.   Pop.  6,600._ 

S  liire  River,  she'ra,  in  South- 
east Africa,  issues  from  the 
southeast  corner  of  Lake  Nyasa, 
flows  southwest,  and  beyond  the 
rapids  and  the  Murchison  Falls 
(-where  the  river  descends  some 
1,200  feet  altogether)  takes  a 
southeasterly  course,  and  joins 
the  Zambezi  near  Shamo.  It  is 
navigable  to  Chiromo,  and  for 
smaller  vessels  as  far  as  Katun- 
ga.  It  is  also  navigable  from 
Lake  Nyasa  south  as  far  as 
Matope.  Total  length,  over 
300  miles.  The  Shire  was  dis- 
covered by  Livingstone  during 
the  Zambezi  expedition  (1858— 
63). 

Shirland,  parish  and  village, 
Derbyshire,  England;  2  miles 
northwest  of  Alfreton.  Pop.  3,- 
900. 

Shirlaw,  shdr'lo,  Walter 
(1838-1909),  American  painter, 
was  born  in  Paisley,  Scotland. 
In  1840  his  parents  settled  in 
Chicago,  where  he  was  educated 
in  the  public  schools,  and  became 
an  engraver  of  bank  notes.  Later 
he  turned  to  art,  and  helped  or- 
ganize the  Chicago  National 
Academy  of  Design  (1868).  Af- 
ter a  course  of  study  at  Munich 
0870-77)  he  returned  to  Amer- 
ica, where  his  genre,  decorative, 
and  illustrative  work  attracted 
wide  attention.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  and  the  first  presi- 
dent (1878)  of  the  Society  of 
American  Artists,  and  he  was 
Vol.  XI.— Oct.  '20 


elected  to  the  National  Academy 
in  1888.  Among  his  noted  pic- 
tures are:  Tuning  the  Bell  (1874) ; 
Sheep  Shearing  in  the  Bavarian 
Mountains  (1876);  Goose  Girl 
(1878);  Marble  Quarry  (1880); 
Street  Scene  in  Brittany  (1906); 
Rolling  Steel  Plates;  Emptying  the 
Crucible.  He  also  executed  nu- 
merous successful  designs  for 
stained  glass  and  for  mural  deco- 
rations. 

Shirley,  sher'li,  James  (1596- 
1666),  English  poet  and  drama- 
tist, was  born  in  London.  He 
took  orders,  and  held  for  a  short 
time  a  living  at  or  near  St. 
Albans,  but,  becoming  a  Catholic, 
resigned  it,  and  in  1623-4  was 
master  of  St.  Albans  Grammar 
School.  In  1625  he  returned 
to  London,  and  wrote  plays, 
chiefly  for  the  Cockpit  in  Drury 
Lane.  In  1636  he  settled  in 
Dublin,  and  wrote  for  a  theatre 
newly  opened  there,  but  returned 
to  London  in  1640,  where  the 
suppression  of  stage  plays  in 
1642  ended  his  livelihood.  The 
Restoration  revived  his  pla-^  S, 
but  brought  him  no  better  for- 
tune; and  Wood  tells  us  that  he 
and  his  second  wife  died  on  the 
same  day  distracted  by  the 
Great  Fire.  His  plays  include: 
Love  Tricks  (1625);  The  Witty 
Fair  One  (1628);  The  Wedding 

(1629)  ;     The    Grateful  Servant 

(1630)  ;    School    of  Compliment 

(1631)  ;  The  Traitor  (16S5);  The 
Gamester  (1637);  The  Lady  of 
Pleasure  (1637);  The  Ball  (with 
Chapman,  1639);  The  Coro- 
nation (with  Fletcher,  1640);  The 
Cardinal  (1641).  As  a  writer  of 
masques  Shirley  is  second  only 
to  Ben  Jonson.  His  complete 
Works  were  edited  by  Gifford 
and  Dyce. 

Shirley,  William  (1693- 
1771),  American,  colonial  gov- 
ernor, was  born  in  Preston,  Sus- 
sex county,  England.  After 
studying  law  he  entered  the 
Middle  Temple,  and  in  1731 
came  to  Massachusetts,  where  he 
was  appointed  'the  king's  only 
advocate-general  in  America ' 
(1734).  He  was  a  commissioner 
to  settle  the  boundary  dispute 
with  Rhode  Island,  and  in  1741 
was  appointed  governor  of 
Massachusetts.  The  most  im- 
portant event  of  his  adminis- 
tration was  the  conquest  of 
Louisburg  in  1745,  which  was 
undertaken  at  his  suggestion, 
and  the  success  of  which  was 
largely  due  to  his  energy  and 
enthusiasm.  Shirley  had  a 
rooted  dislike  of  the  French,  and 
kept  up  active  agitation  for  their 
expulsion  from  Canada.  In  1755 
he  led  an  unsuccessful  expedition 
against  Fort  Niagara,  and  after 
the  death  of  Gen.  Edward  Brad- 
dock  (1755)  until  June,  1756,  he 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  forces  in  America.  In 
September,  1756,  he  was  recalled 


to  England,  and  later  became 
governor  of  the  Bahamas.  In 
1770  he  again  returned  to  Massa- 
chusetts, and  died  in  March  of 
the  following  year. 

Shirpur,  town,  Bombay  Presi- 
dency, India;  210  miles  northeast 
of  Bombay.    Pop.  10,000. 

Shirvan,  sher'van,  capital  of 
Shirvan  district,  Khorasan  prov- 
ince, Persia,  on  the  River  Atrak; 
122  miles  northwest  of  Meshed. 
Pop.  7,000. 

Shishak,  shi'shak  or  she'shak, 
or  Sheshonk,  the  name  of  sev- 
eral kings  of  Egypt,  of  the  Bubas- 
tite  or  Twenty-second  Dynasty. 
Shishak  I.  is  mentioned  in  1 
Kings  XIV.  25  and  2  Chron.  xii. 
Jeroboam  fled  to  Shishak  from 
the  pursuit  of  Solomon,  who 
wished  to  kill  him,  and  lived 
there  during  the  lifetime  of 
Solomon.  In  the  fifth  year  of 
Rehoboam,  Shishak  marched  on 
Jerusalem  with  an  army  of 
12.000  chariots,  60,000  cavalry, 
and  an  innumerable  number  of 
infantry.  He  invaded  Judah, 
reduced  its  fenced  cities,  and 
plundered  the  Temple  and  Pal- 
ace. He  added  a  court  to  the 
great  Temple  at  Karnak,  and 
placed  near  it  a  monument  of  his 
conquests,  bearing  the  names  of 
the  cities  he  had  captured. 

Shitomir.    See  Jitomir. 

Shittim  Wood,  the  wood  of 
which  the  Hebrew  Tabernacle  is 
said  to  have  been  largely  made, 
is  the  wood  of  the  shittah  (Aca- 
cia seyal),  a  thorny  tree  that  still 
flourishes  on  the  western  shores 
of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Shizuoka,  she'zu-o'ka,  town, 
capital  of  Shizuoka  prefecture, 
Japan;  95  miles  southwest  of 
Tokyo.    Pop.  42,000. 

Shklov,  shklof,  town,  Moghi- 
lev  government,  Western  Russia, 
on  the  River  Dnieper;  18  miles 
north  of  Moghilev  city.  It  is  a 
river  port.    Pop.  13,000. 

Shoa,  sho'a,  former  kingdom, 
now  the  southern  division  of  Ab- 
yssinia, Africa,  covering  an  area 
of  over  20.000  square  miles.  The 
country  is  elevated,  consisting 
largely  of  plateaus  3,000  feet 
above  sea  level,  traversed  by 
ranges  of  mountains,  which  reach 
their  culmination  in  Mount  Met- 
atite,  at  an  elevation  of  10,700 
feet.  The  people,  who  are  partly 
Abyssinians  and  partly  (Dallas, 
number  about  1,500,000.  The 
chief  town  is  Adis  Adeba  (q.  v.), 
the  present  capital  of  Abyssinia. 
In  1889  the  king  of  Shoa,  Mene- 
lik,  was  made  king  of  all  Ab- 
yssinia, and  Shoa  was  incorpo- 
rated with  the  rest  of  Menelik's 
dominions.    See  Abyssinia. 

Shock,  a  suddenly  produced 
depression  of  all  the  bodily  func- 
tions. Its  chief  characteristics 
are  lowered  activity  of  the  car- 
diac and  respiratory  systems, 
with  depression  of  the  sensory 
functions  and  fall  of  the  sur- 


Shoddy 

5ace  temperature.  Shock  varies 
with  the  temperament,  and  with 
the  physical  and  mental  condition 
of  the  patient.  It  is  usually  im- 
mediate in  its  effects,  but  may  be 
deferred  in  those  who  are  under 
intense  mental  preoccupation  _  or 
excitement.  Burns  and  crushing 
injuries  are  rnore  apt  tc  produce 
the  condition  than  are  incised 
wounds,  unless  the  latter  are 
complicated  by  severe  haemor- 
rhage. A  sUght  degree  of  shock 
in  cases  of  haemorrhage  is  often 
beneficial,  since  it  lowers  the 
blood  pressure  and  allows^  of 
the  sealing  of  the  vessels.  Since 
the  introduction  of  anaesthetics, 
operations  are  much  less  fre- 
quently followed  by  collapse, 
tnough  this  may  still  occur  even 
while  the  patient  is  anaesthetized. 
The  cause  of  shock  is  most  prob- 
ably a  reflex  inhibition  of  the 
splanchnic  nerves,  leading  to 
sudden  paralysis  and  great  dila- 
tation of^all  the  abdominal  blood- 
vessels, which  become  engorged 
with  blood  at  the  expense  of  the 
rest  of  the  body.  Recovery  is 
frequently  heralded  by  an  attack 
of  vomiting.  In  the  graver 
cases  a  fatal  result  may  follow 
the  collapse  almost  immediately, 
or  the  torpid  condition  may  be 
transformed  int9  ^  state  of  pros- 
tration with  excitement,  in  which 
the  respiration  is  hurried,  and 
the  skin  is  hot  and  flushed.  Such 
a  patient  often  exhibits  intense 
headache,  thirst,  and  suppression 
of  urine,  and  becomes  restless, 
excited,  and  delirious.  Death 
may  ensue  from  exhaustion.  The 
patient  must  be  kept  at  rest  in 
the  recumbent  position  with  the 
head  low.  External  warmth 
must  be  supplied  by  means  of 
hot  blankets  and  hot-water  bot- 
tles; mustard  may  be  applied 
over  the  heart,  and  friction  of 
the  limbs  is  sometimes  useful. 
Should  the  patient  be  unable 
to  swallow,  alcohol  and  other 
stimulants,  such  as  ammonium 
carbonate,  may_  be  introduced  by 
the  bowel,  while  ether  may  be 
injected  subcutancously.  In  pro- 
found shock  artificial  respira- 
tion may  be  required,  and  benefit 
has  in  some  cases  been  derived 
from  electrical  stimulation  of 
the  phrenic  nerves,  the  electrodes 
being  applied  to  the  neck  and  to 
the  epigastrium.  In  shock  after 
severe  haemorrhage,  transfusion 
of  blood  or  of  saline  solution  may 
be  advisable.  As  soon  as  possible 
nourishment  ought  to  be  admin- 
istered in  a  form  easy  of  assimila- 
tion and  along  with  diffusible 
stimulants. 

vShoddy.  See  Woollen  Tex- 
tiles. 

S  h  o  e  -  b  i  1 1 ,  or  Whale-heAd 
(Balccmceps  rex),  a  large  and  very 
remarkable  bird  found  only  in 
the  marshes  round  the  White 
Ni!'j  and  its  affluents,  regarded 
Vol.  XL— 13. 


185 

by  some  authorities  as  an  aber- 
rant heron,  and  ^  by  others  as  a 
stork.  The  special  peculiarity  is 
the  bill,  which  is  very  large, 
broad,  and  depressed,  and  down 
the  middle  of  the  upper  portion 


bears  a  strong  ridge  which  ends 
in  a  prominent  hook.  There  is 
a  short  crest;  the  j)lumage  _  is 
brownish-gray,  the  wings,  tails, 
and  feet  being  black.  The  bird, 
which  is  rare,  feeds  on  fish  caught 
while  wading. 

Shoeblacking.  See  Black- 
ing. 

Shoeburyness,  cape,  in  Essex, 
England,  on  Thames,  opposite 
Sheerness.  The  School  of  Gun- 
nery and  Royal  Artillery  works 
are  established  here.  Pop.  (1901) 
4,081. 

Shoes,  Manufacture  of.  The 
manufacture  of  shoes  in  the 
United  States  dates  back  to  the 
landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  for  one  of 
the  passengers  on  the  Mayflower 
was  a  shoemaker  with  a  supply  of 
hides.  By  the  end  of  the  17th 
century  shoe  making  was  a  flour- 
ishing industry  in  New  England, 
and  during  the  Revolution  all  the 
shoes  worn  by  the  Continental 
army  were  made  in  Massachu- 
setts. Up  to  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century  the  manufacture  of  shoes 
in  the  United  States  was  strictly  a 
hand  process.  Shoes  were  hand 
sewed,  nailed  with  copper,  or 
pegged  with  wood.  The  cobbler 
worked  at  his  bench,  with  a  few 
simple  tools,  and  labored  over 
each  shoe  until  it  was  complete. 
The  few  factories  were  little  less 
primitive,  dividing  the  various 
stages  of  the  labor  among  several 
workmen,  although  no  machinery 
was  employed. 

The  first  successful  application 
of  machinery  to  American  shoe 
manufacture  was  made  in  1845. 
In  this  year  was  invented  a  rolling 
machine  for  softening  leather,  and 
almost  immediately  afterward 
there  was  introduced  a  wax-thread 


Shoes 

sewing  machine  for  sewing  the 
uppers,  a  buffing  machine  for 
removing  the  grain  from  sole- 
leather,  a  machine  for  making 
pegs,  and  a  peg-driving  machine; 
a  splitting  machine  for  sole 
leather  soon  afterward  came  into 
extensive  use.  The  McKay 
sewing  machine,  introduced  in 
18G0,  had  probably  more  to  do 
with  revolutionizing  the  shoe 
industr}'  than  any  other  machine 
before  or  since  invented.  In  this 
the  shoe  was  placed  on  a  saddle  or 
horn,  and  the  thread  passed  from 
the  outsole  through  the  sole  and 
insole,  forming  a  loop  stitch.  The 
next  important  invention  was  a 
machine  for  compressing  and 
nailing  heels.  An  epoch  in  shoe 
manufacture  was  marked  by  the 
introduction  of  the  Goodyear  out- 
sole  lock-stitch  machine  about 
1860.  This  united  the  outsole  tc 
the  welt  by  a  chain-stitch  from  a 
channel  in  the  outsole.  This 
appliance  was  soon  afterv/ard 
improved  upon,  so  that  in  one 
operation  it  prepared  and  trimmed 
the  insole,  and  rounded  and  chan- 
neled the  outsole,  as  well  as 
making  the  actual  stitches.  From 
this  machine  was  developed  the 
Goodyear  welt  system,  which  is 
now  employed  almost  universallv 
for  making  the  better  grades  o'l 
shoes.  In  the  early  70's  a  machine 
was  invented  for  automatically 
drawing  the  shoe-upper  over  the 
last  to  allow  of  its  being  tacked  by 
hand.  In  comparatively  recent 
times  a  lasting-machine  has  been 
introduced  which  not  only  fits  the 
upper  to  the  last  but  tacks  it  as 
well.  Numerous  other  shoe- 
making  appliances  have  been  per- 
fected in  recent  years,  among 
them  a  machine  designed  to 
attach  the  soles  with  wire  instead 
of  the  usual  waxed  thread.  Al- 
most all  of  the  improvements  in 
machinery  for  shoe  manufacture 
have  been  made  in  the  United 
States,  and  American  made  shoes 
are  acknowledged  to  be  the  best 
in  the  world,  both  as  regards  style 
and  durability. 

In  modern  shoe  manufacture 
almost  the  only  hand  process  now 
employed  is  the  first  one,  that  of 
cutting  the  leather  for  the  uppers. 
This  is  done  by  men  laying  the 
skin  over  a  bench,  placing  the 
pattern  ypon  it,  and  cutting  out 
the  piece  of  leather,  which  is 
shaped  close  to  the  metal  or  brass- 
bound  cardboard  pattern.  In  this 
manner  the  vamps,  quarters,  tops, 
side  linings,  stays,  facings,  and 
other  trimmings  are  cut.  The 
various  component  parts  having 
been  cut,  are  passed,  in  dozen  pair 
lots  or  more,  into  the  machine 
room  to  be  stitched  together.  The 
first  machine  employed  is  one 
with  a  rapidly  revolving  circular 
knife  for  'skiving'  or  beveling  the 
edges  of  the  leathers  that  have  to 
be  seamed  or  folded,  after  which 


8boes 


186 


Shoes, 


IN&IOE  LINlNiO.LOOP.ftiBACK  STAY  JOINtD    TOOtTH  ER  .  tY  E  LETS  MADE 


f^iAtL&  F  oncto  INTO 

MfiCb  fkACtO  IN  MOULD 

MAMNO  THE 


THE  FINISHED  SHOE 


The  Manufacture  of  a  Shoe. 


Fig.  1,  the  parts  of  a  shoe  as  cut  out  of  the  skin  (drawn  to  scale).  Fig.  2,  the  two  pieces 
of  upper,  inside  lining,  leather  back-stay,  and  loop,  all  sewn  together.  Fig.  3,  quarter, 
vamp  and  toe-cap  sewn  together,  and  attached  to  the  upper  :  the  quarter  is  cut  smaller 
than  the  upper,  stretched,  and  joined  at  a.  The  toe  and  sides  are  pulled  over  the  block, 
and  nailed  loosely  to  the  inner  sole  ('  rough  rounding  ').  Fig.  4,  vamp  and  quarter  are 
sewn  to  the  'feather '  (1,  B);  the  welt  is  sewn  through  channel  and  feather  (2);  the  middle 
sole  (3)  is  laid  on,  and  then  the  outer  sole  (4),  the  dotted  line  shows  the  shape  of  the  piece. 
Fig.  6,  stages  in  the  construction  of  the  heel. 


the  parts  are  carefully  pasted 
together  and  jDassed  to  the  ma- 
chines to  be  stitched,  and  finally 
hammered  off  under  a  little  power- 
hammer  to  level  the  seams.  Here, 
also,  the  eyelets  are  put  in  by  a 
machine  that  punches  a  hole, 
feeds  in  the  eyelet,  and  clinches 
it  all  at  one  stroke. 

The  completed  upper  is  now 
passed  to  the  sole-leatner  depart- 
ment, the  first  section  of  which 
is  usually  styled  the  assembling 
toom.    In  it  the  uppers  and  lasts 


and  the  component  parts  of  the 
bottom — soles,  insoles,  etc. — are 
assembled  together.^  These  bot- 
tom parts  are  cut  in  the  rough- 
stuff  department  from  butts, 
bends,  shoulders,  and  bellies  under 

Sowerful  eccentric  presses,  with 
ies  shaped  to  the  various  lasts 
and  parts  required.  The  soles  and 
insoles  are  levelled  and  passed 
through  heavy  rolling-machines, 
which  harden  the  leather  and 
remove  all  surface  irregularities. 
The  heels  arc  built  with  'lifts'  in 


shaped  moulds  in  a  machine 
which  nails  them  loosely  together, 
and  then  they  are  crushed  in  a 
machine  which  brings  a  pressure 
of  several  tons  to  bear  on  them, 
and  so  makes  them  into  a  solid 
heel.  The  top  lift,  however,  is  not 
added  until  the  heel  has  been 
nailed  to  the  shoe.  These  parts 
are  then  sent  to  the  assembling 
room  to  join  the  uppers. 

The  uppers,  lasts,  and  bottom 
parts  are  now  started  through  the 
making  and  finishing  rooms.  The 
insole  is  placed  on  the  lasting 
machine,  and  the  upper  is  then 
added,  being  moulcled  into  the 
shape  of  the  last,  the  machine 
twisting  it  in  with  pincers,  and 
driving  in  tacks  to  hold  it  to  the 
insole,  just  as  a  man  would  do  by 
hand.  By  the  Goodyear  welt 
process  the  upper  is  nailed  flat 
down  to  the  insole,  but  is  brought 
up  against  a  lip  previously  cut  in 
the  latter.  It  stands  out  with  this 
lip  vertically  from  the  insole,  the 
tacks  only  holding  it  temporarily. 
The  shoe  is  now  welted,  the  ma- 
chine sewing  through  the  lip  and 
upper  with  a  curved  needle,  and 
through  the  welt,  which  the  ma- 
chine holds  in  position,  binding 
the  three  together,  all  this  being 
done  on  the  outside,  the  last  still 
remaining  in  the  shoe.  The  shoe 
being  now  welted,  the  seam,  as  it 
is  called,  is  trimmed  level,  the 
welt  beaten  out  straight,  and  the 
bottom  packed  level  with  felt  or 
other  material.  The  outsole  is 
now  laid  on,  and  held  in  position 
with  nails,  paste,  or  rubber 
cement.  The  shoe  is  now  sent  to 
the  rounding  machine,  which  cuts 
the  channel  in  the  outsole  to 
receive  the  stitch;  from  there  it 
passes  again  through  the  sewing 
machine,  which  stitches  through 
the  welt  outside  of  the  upper. 
After  this  it  is  passed  to  the  level- 
ling machine,  which  rolls  down  the 
sole  with  considerable  pressure 
levelling  it,  and  mouldingit  into  the 
waist  of  the  last.  The  shoe  is  now 
ready  for  heeling.  This  is  done  on 
a  machine  that  nails  the  previously 
built  heel  on  at  one  stroke. 
Another  machine  drives  slugs 
round  the  wearing  part  of  the 
top-piece,  making  its  own  slugs 
from  a  continuous  wire,  and  driv- 
ing them  home  so  rapidly  that 
the  operation  cannot  be  followed 
by  the  eye. 

The  shoe  is  now  technically 
'made,'  and  is  passed  to  the 
finishing  room.  The  first  opera- 
tion here  is  cutting  down  the 
breast  of  the  heel  with  a  guillo- 
tine knife  regulated  to  reach  the 
sole  but  not  mark  it.  The  second 
operation  is  trimming  the  heel  to 
the  desired  shape,  which  is  done 
by  revolving  knives  running  at  a 
very  high  speed.  The  heel  is  after- 
wards smoothed  with  sandpaper. 
A  similar  operation  trims  the  edge 
of  the  sole  smooth,  and  then  tne 


Shofar 


KR 


187 


Shooting 


sole-edge  and  heel  are  colored 
and  burnished  with  hot  irons  by 
machinery.  The  shoe  is  then 
passed  forward  to  have  the  bot- 
toms buffed,  colored,  and  pol- 
ished. The  completed  shoe  is 
then  cleaned,  treed,  and  packed 
for  shipment. 

Consult  Hide  and  Leather 
(weekly);  Shoe  and  Leather  Re- 
porter (weekly):  H.  G.  Bennett, 
The  Manufacture  of  Leather 
(1909);  F.  H.  Nichols.  The  Build- 
ing of  a  Shoe  (1912) ;  W.  H.  Doo- 
ley.  A  Manual  of  Shoemaking 
(1912);  H.  H.  Proctor,  The  Mak- 
ing of  Leather  (1915);  P.  N. 
Hasluck,  Boot  Making  and  Mend- 
ing (1915);  F.  Plucknett,  Intro- 
duction to  the  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Boot  and  Shoe  Manufacture 
(1916);  F.  J.  Allen,  The  Shoe 
Industry  (1916). 

Shofar,  Schofar  or  Shofer, 
the  ancient  ram's  horn  of  the  He- 
brews, consisted  of  a  natural  horn 
curled  up  at  the  bell  end.  It  has 
a  short  conical  bore  of  large  cal- 
iber. At  best  it  is  capable  only  of 
producing  the  fundamental  oc- 
tave and  twelfth. 

Sho-gi,  the  game  of  chess  as 
played  by  the  Japanese  educated 
classes.  It  was  introduced  from 
China  in  early  times  and  is  still 
popular  in  Japan.  It  is  played  on 
a  board  divided  into  81  squares, 
nine  on  a  side,  with  twenty  peices 
on  each  side,  arranged  on  the 
three  outer  rows.  The  pieces  are 
flat  and  punt-shaped  with  the 
smaller  end  toward  the  front,  and 
they  represent,  by  means  of 
different  inscriptions,  the  O  or 
Sho,  King-General  with  whose 
checkmate  the  game  ends;  his 
two  aides,  the  Kin  and  Ghin, 
Gold  and  Silver  Generals  (two 
each);  Ka-ma,  horse  or  knight 
(two) ;  Yari,  spearman  (two) ;  one 
Hisha,  or  flying  chariot  (rook) ; 
one  Kaku  (bishop) ;  and  nine  Hio 
or  Fu,  soldiers  or  pawns.  All 
the  pieces,  as  in  chess,  have 
different  functions.  For  details 
of  this  old-time,  popular  game, 
consult  E.  Falkener's  Games  An- 
cient and  Oriental  (1892). 

Shogun,  sho'goon',  was  the 
name  applied  during  the  exis- 
tence of  the  feudal  system  in 
Japan  to  the  hereditary  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army. 
When  in  the  sixth  century  a.d. 
the  Mikado  adopted  the  Chinese 
military  system  he  conferred  this 
title  on  the  commanders  of  his 
expeditionary  army.  The  post  in 
time  became  hereditary,  and  the 
Shogun  completely  eclipsed  in 
real  power  the  Mikado  (q.v.) 
himself.  The  post  was  abolished 
in  1867.   See  Japan,  History. 

Shola,  sho'lii,  or  Solah,  the 
white  pith  of  the  leguminous 
plant  Aeschynomene  aspera,  a  na- 
tive of  India.  With  this  sub- 
stance, which  is  exceedingly 
light,  the  natives  make  a  great 
variety  of  useful  articles,  espe- 
cially  hats,   which   being  very 


light  and  cool,  are  in  much  de- 
mand. 

Sholapur,  sho'la-pdbr,  town, 
India;  capital  of  Sholapur  dis- 
trict Bombay,  147  miles  south- 
east of  Poona.  An  important 
railway  station  and  trade  center, 
with  manufactures  of  silk  and 
cotton.  Pop.  (1941)  212,620. 
Sholapur  district  has  an  area  of 
4,542  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of  877,520. 

Shonts,  Theodore  Perry 
(1856-1919),  American  engineer 
and  railway  official,  born  in 
Crawford  county.  Pa.;  was  grad- 
uated from  Monmouth  College 
(1876).  He  was  admitted  to  the 
Iowa  bar,  and  practiced  law  in 
Centerville.  In  1882  he  became 
interested  in  the  construction  of 
a  railway  between  Centerville  and 
Albia.  now  a  part  of  the  Burling- 
ton system.  He  built  the  Indi- 
ana, Illinois,  and  Iowa  Railroad, 
of  which  he  was  president,  and  in 
1893  he  reorganized  the  Toledo, 
St.  Louis,  and  Western  Railroad. 
In  1905  President  Roosevelt  ap- 
pointed him  chairman  of  the 
Panama  Canal  Commission,  and 
he  played  an  important  part  in 
the  drawing  up  of  the  plans  for 
the  Panama  Canal  (q.  v.).  After 
February  1907,  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Interborough-Met.ro- 
politan  Company  (now  Inter- 
borough  Consolidated  Corpora- 
tion) and  the  Interborough 
Rapid  Transit  Company  of  New 
York  City;  and  he  was  later 
made  head  of  the  New  York  Rail- 
ways Company  and  the  Rapid 
Transit  Subway  Construction 
Company.  He  also  served  as 
president  of  many  other  railway 
companies,  and  was  a  director  in 
numerous  corporations. 

Shooting,  as  a  sport,  includes 
a  variety  of  branches  each  with 
an  enthusiastic  following.  Many 
to  whom  firearms  appeal  more 
particularly  as  weapons  of  the 
chase  hold  that  big  game  hunting 
with  the  rifle  has  unequaled  at- 
tractions. (See  Hunting  for 
Big  Game).  With  others,  field 
shooting  with  the  shotgun  in 
pursuit  of  game  birds  takes  high 
rank.  This  sport  is  almost  uni- 
versally practiced  with  the  aid  of 
dogs,  which  add  markedly  to  the 
pleasure  to  be  derived  as  well  as 
to  the  success  of  the  hunter.  The 
ruffed  grouse,  wild  turkey,  quail, 
woodcock,  and  snipe  furnish  ex- 
cellent sport;  while  the  introduc- 
tion of  pheasants  into  the  United 
States  has  been  attended  with  a 
fair  degree  of  success.  (See 
Grouse;  Quail;  Pheasant; 
etc.)  In  the  southern  states  the 
opossum  and  his  first  cousin  the 
raccoon  afford  many  pleasant 
moonlight  hunts  by  packs  of 
dogs  trained  for  this  purpose. 

For  field  shooting,  the  double- 
barrel  hammerless  shotgun  is  the 
typical  arm.  (See  Shotgun.) 
Smokeless  powders,  because  of 
their  absence  of  smoke,  lessened 


recoil,  and  greater  cleanliness, 
have  generally  displaced  black 
powder.  Sporting  models  of  the 
military  rifle,  but  using  soft  point 
bullets,  have  superseded  the 
heavy  express  arms  of  other  days. 
(See  Rifle.)  Repeating  and 
semi-automatic  shotguns  and  ri- 
fles have  been  developed  to  a 
high  state  of  efficiency;  but  while 
used  by  some  hunters,  they  are 
condemned  by  the  better  class  of 
sportsmen.  Small  game,  such  as 
rabbits  (See  Rabbit)  and  squir- 
rels, are  hunted  with  rifles  of  .22, 
.25,  .28,  and  .32  caliber  frequent- 
ly equipped  with  telescope  sights. 
The  accuracy  of  such  weapons 
is  remarkable,  and  their  light 
weight  and  slight  recoil  result  in 
their  use  to  the  exclusion  of  arms 
of  larger  caliber. 

During  their  migrations,  ducks 
of  all  varieties,  though  their  num- 
bers have  noticeably  decreased  in 
recent  years,  furnish  sport  for 
many  hunters.  Various  meth- 
ods are  in  vogue  in  connection 
with  duck  shooting,  though  the 
laws  of  most  states  tend  to  uni- 
formity in  prohibiting  the  moles- 
tation of  wild  fowl  during  the 
breeding  season.    (See  Duck.) 

Target  Shooting. — Shooting  at 
targets  with  rifles,  revolvers,  and 
pistols  has  long  been  a  recog- 
nized pastime  in  America,  and 
there  are  many  clubs  devoted  ex- 
clusively to  that  purpose. 
Ranges  200  yards  in  length  have 
been  most  popular  in  recent 
years,  and  a  high  degree  of  skill 
has  been  developed.  The  record 
scores  have  been  made  with  the 
improved  schuetzen  type  of  rifle, 
an  arm  weighing  from  13  to  16 
pounds,  with  a  set  or  hair  trigger 
and  peep  or  telescope  sights. 
The  calibers  most  in  use  are  .32, 
.33,  and  .38.  The  bullet  is  of 
lead  and  tin,  grooved  and  lubri- 
cated, and  for  the  most  accurate 
results  is  loaded  from  the  muzzle, 
thus  centering  and  fitting  per- 
fectly in  the  rifling.  The  shell, 
charged  with  black  powder  and 
primed  with  a  few  grains  and 
smokeless  to  aid  in  cleaning  the 
bore,  is  inserted  at  the  breech. 

The  target  in  general  use  for 
offhand  shooting  at  200  yards  is 
the  Standard  American,  the  di- 
mensions of  which  are  as  follows: 
10  circle,  3.36  inches;  9  circle, 
5.54;  8  circle,  8;  7  circle,  11;  6 
circle,  14.8;  5  circle,  19.68;  4 
circle,  26;  3  circle,  34.22;  2  circle, 
46;  and  balance  of  target  4x6 
feet,  counting  1.  The  bull's  eye 
includes  either  the  8  or  7  circles, 
as  individual  riflemen  may  elect. 

For  indoor  rifle  shooting  or 
gallery  shooting  the  usual  dis- 
tance is  25  yards,  and  the  caliber 
of  the  rifle  is  limited  to  .22.  No 
restrictions  are  made  as  to 
weight,  sights,  or  trigger  pull, 
and  the  schuetzen  type  of  weap- 
on is  in  general  use.  The  ring 
target,  with  3/^-inch  center  count- 
ing 25,   }/^-inch.  rings  counting 


Shooting 

down  to  1,  and  the  bull's  eye  in- 
cluding the  22  ring,  is  generally 
used. 

The  National  Rifle  Associa- 
tion was  organized  in  1871,  and 
the  National  Board  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Rifle  Practice  in  the 
United  States  was  established 
under  the  War  Department  in 
1904.  Through  the  National 
Association  this  Board  makes  the 
rules  for  the  national  matches, 
and  formulates  plans  for  the  gen- 
eral promotion  of  rifle  practice 
throughout  the  United  States 
among  civilians,  colleges,  and 
secondary  schools.  The  modern 
military  type  of  rifle,  which  is  es- 
pecially adapted  to  long-range 
firing,  is  prescribed  by  the  shoot- 
ing rules  of  the  Association,  and 
the  regulation  military  targets 
are  used. 

The  dimensions  of  these  tar- 
gets are  as  follows:  third  class  for 
200  and  300  yards — bull's  eye  8 
inches,  center  26  inches,  inner  46 
inches,  outer  4x6  feet;  second 
class  for  500  and  600  yards — 
bull's  eye  22  inches,  center  38 
inches,  inner  54  inches,  outer  6  x 
6  feet;  first  class  for  800,900,  and 
1,000  yards — bull's  eye  3  feet, 
center  43^  feet,  inner  6  feet 
square,  outer  12  x  6  feet.  The 
bull's  eye  counts  5,  center  4,  in- 
ner 3,  and  outer  2.  At  200  yards 
the  position  required  is  standing, 
the  body  and  arm  being  free  from 
any  artificial  support;  at  300 
yards,  kneeling  or  sitting;  at  500 
yards  and  over,  the  prone  posi- 
tion. 

Regulations  for  gallery  shoot- 
ing permit  the  use  of  any  .22 
caliber  rifle  weighing  not  over  10 
pounds,  and  prescribe  the  Na- 
tional Rifle  Association  indoor 
target  at  50  or  75  feet. 

Target  shooting  with  revolver 
and  pistol  has  developed  as  a 
popular  pastime  within  the  last 
half  century.  Fifty  yards  is  the 
range  generally  adopted,  though 
military  competitions  sometimes 
include  a  75-yard  stage,  and  good 
shooting  has  been  done  at  100 
yards  and  over. 

According  to  the  rules  of  the 
U.  S.  Revolver  Association,  the 
recognized  national  organization 
of  the  revolver  and  pistol  marks- 
men of  the  United  States,  target 
revolvers  are  limited  to  a  length 
of  barrel,  including  the  cylinder, 
of  10  inches,  and  a  minimum 
trigger  pull  of  2^  pounds.  Sights 
may  be  adjustable,  but  they  must 
be  strictly  open,  in  front  of  the 
hammer,  and  not  over  10  inches 
apart.  The  most  popular  weap- 
ons are  .32,  .38,  and  .44  caliber 
though  pistols  of  any  caliber  may 
be  used.  The  maximum  length 
of  the  barrel  is  placed  at  10 
inches,  and  the  minimum  trigger 
pull  at  2  pounds. 

Military  revolvers  or  pistols 
are  defined  as  revolvers  or  maga- 


zine pistols  adopted  by  any  civil- 
ized government  for  the  arma- 
ment of  its  army  or  navy.  The 
maximum  weight  allowed  is  2% 
pounds,  the  maximum  length  of 
barrel  7)4  inches,  and  the  mini- 
mum trigger  pull  4  pounds.  For 
pocket  revolvers  the  maximum 
weight  is  2  pounds,  the  maxi- 
mum length  of  barrel  4  inches, 
and  the  minimum  trigger  pull  4 
pounds. 

The  Standard  American  rifle 
target  is  used  in  practice  with 
target  revolvers  and  pistols  at  50 
yards,  and  Target  L  (U.  S. 
Army)  for  military  revolver  com- 
petitions. This  has  a  bull's  eye 
of  5  inches  diameter,  counting 
10,  and  6  concentric  rings  1% 
inches  apart,  counting  9,  8,  7,  6, 
5  and  4  respectively.  The  4  ring 
is  26  inches  in  diameter,  the  3 
ring  46  inches,  and  the  rest  of  the 
target  4  X  6  feet.  Indoor  revolver 
and  pistol  clubs  adopt  a  range  of 
20  yards,  using  the  Standard 
American  target  with  a  2.72  inch 
bull's  eye. 

For  trap  shooting,  see  Pigeon 
Shooting.  See  also  Hunting 
FOR  Big  Game;  Game  and  Game 
Laws;  Target;  Rifle;  Revol- 
ver. Consult  A.  Askins,  Rifles 
and  Rifle  Shooting  (1912);  W.  A. 
Bruette,  Guncraft  (1912);  L.  R. 
Tippins,  Rifle  Shooting  (1913); 
A.  L.  A.  Himmelwright,  Pistol 
and  Revolver  Shooting  (rev.  ed., 
1915);  W.  H.  Miller,  Rifles  and 
Shotguns  (1917);  Annual  Report 
of  Rifle  Shooting  in  the  United 
States  (National  Board  for  the 
Promotion  of  Rifle  Practice). 

Shooting  Star.  See  Cowslip. 

Shooting  Stars.  See  Meteor- 
ites. 

Shore.  See  Seashore,  Coast; 

Shore,  Jane  (1445?-1527?)  a 
woman  of  singular  wit  and 
beauty,  wife  of  a  London  gold- 
smith, who  subsequently  became 
the  mistress  of  Edward  iv.  She 
lived  till  Edward's  death  in  the 
greatest  luxury,  enjoying  great 
power  through  his  favor.  When 
he  died  she  became  a  companion 
of  Thomas  Grey,  Marquis  of 
Dorset.  She  was  tried  for  witch- 
craft by  order  of  the  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  afterward  Richard 
III,  and  condemned  (1483)  to 
walk  in  penitential  garb,  with  a 
taper  in  her  hand  and  attired 
only  in  her  kirtle,  an  incident 
utilized  by  Shakespeare  in  his 
Richard  III. 

Shore  Birds.  See  Limicolae. 

Shoreditch,  a  borough  of 
London,  England.  See  London. 

Shoreham,  William  of.  See 
William  of  Shoreham. 

Shore  Larlt,  or  Horned  Lark 
(Otocorys  alpestris),  a  bird  found 
in  the  northern  parts  of  North 
America,  and  the  only  true 
(alaudine)  lark  on  the  continent. 
It  is  a  small  ground-keeping,  yet 
often     high-flying     bird,  with 


Shoring 

brownish  streaked  plumage,  and 
conspicuous  black  feathers  form- 
ing a  little  erectile  'horn'  on  each 
side  behind  the  head.  The  shore 
larks  sing  in  spring  with  great 
brilliancy  while  hovering  high 
in  the  air  over  the  place  where, 
among  the  grass,  their  mates  are 
attending  to  their  nests  and 
speckled  eggs, 

Shorey,  Paul  (1857-1934), 
American  Greek  scholar,  was 
born  in  Davenport,  la.,  and  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  (1878), 
subsequently  studying  at  the 
Universities  of  Leipzig,  Bonn, 
and  Munich  (ph.d.  1884).  He 
was  professor  of  Greek  at  Bryn 
Mawr  from  1885  to  1892,  and  in 
the  latter  year  accepted  the  same 
chair  at  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago (head  of  the  department 
after  1896).  In  1901-02  he  was 
professor  at  the  American  wSchool 
of  Classical  Studies  in  Athens; 
and  in  1913-14  Roosevelt  Ex- 
change professor  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Berlin.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  National  Institute  of  Arts 
and  Letters.  In  1910  he  served 
as  president  of  the  American 
Philological  Association.  He 
published:  De  Paltonis  Idearum 
Doctrina  (1884);  The  Idea  of  Good 
in  Plato's  Republic  (1895);  The 
Odes  and  Epodes  of  Horace  ( 1 898 ) ; 
The  Unity  of  Plato's  Thought 
(1903). 

Shoring  refers  to  the  support- 
ing of  walls  from  which  the 
natural  or  original  supports  have 
been  temporarily  removed.  The 
shoring  timbers  are  10  or  12  in. 
square.  One  is  first  placed  against 
the  wall  to  be  shored,  and  holes 


Shoring 

are  cut  through  the  upright  plank 
from  4  to  6  inches  into  the  wall. 
Into  this  mortise  is  fitted  a  scant- 
ling, termed  a  needle,  with  a 
cleating  piece  above.  This  forms 
an  abutment  for  one  end  of  the 


Short 


KR 


189 


Shorthand 


shore  (see  Fig.  p.  188),  the  other 
end  of  which  is  firmly  fixed  in  the 
ground.  A  method  frequently 
adopted  in  remodeling  or  altering 
existing  structures,  so  that  the 
under  part  may  be  taken  out  and 
steel  girders  substituted  for  the 
purpose  of  supporting  the  wall 
above,  is  known  as  a  raking  shore. 

Short,  William  (1759-1849), 
American  diplomat,  was  born  in 
Spring  Garden,  Surrey  county, 
Va.  He  was  secretary  of  legation 
at  Paris  in  1784-92,  being  charge 
d'affaires  in  1790-92,  and  with 
William  Carmichael  was  com- 
missioner to  Spain  in  1792-94, 
striving  unsuccessfully  to  secure 
a  treaty  of  commerce  and  the 
settlement  of  the  questions  of 
boundary  and  the  navigation  of 
the  Mississippi.  He  was  minister 
to  Spain  in  1794  and  in  1808  was 
sent  to  Europe  by  Jefferson  with 
instructions  to  proceed  to  St.  Pe- 
tersburg as  minister  as  soon  as 
the  senate  had  confirmed  his 
nomination.  The  nomination, 
however,  was  unanimously  re- 
jected for  the  avowed  reason  that 
a  minister  at  the  Russian  court 
was  an  unnecessary  expense. 

Shorter,  Clement  King 
(1856-1926),  English  author  and 
journalist,  was  born  in  London. 
In  1891  he  joined  the  staff  of  the 
Illustrated  London  News,  of  which 
he  became  editor.  During  his 
tenure  of  this  office  he  added  The 
Sketch,  English  Illustrated  Maga- 
zine, and  The  Album  to  his 
editorial  responsibilities.  He 
severed  his  connection  with  the 
Illustrated  London  News  in  1900, 
and  became  editor  of  The  Sphere, 
a  weekly  illustrated  journal,  and 
later  of  The  Tatler,  another  illus- 
trated weekly,  to  which  he 
contributed  a  special  column  of 
journalistic  gossip.  Among  his 
publications  are  Charlotte  Bronte 
and  Her  Circle  (1896),  Sixty 
Years  of  Victorian  Literature 
(1897),  Charlotte  Bronte  and  her 
Sisters  (1905),  and  George  Bor- 
row (1905). 

Shorter,  Mrs.  Clement.  See 
SiGERsoN,  Dora. 

Shorthand,  or  Stenography, 
is  best  defined  as  a  system  of 
handwriting  that  reduces  the 
number  of  muscular  movements 
required  to  represent  words  and 
sentences  in  graphic  outline;  op- 
posed to  longhand.  This  defini- 
tion excludes  mechanical  devices, 
such  as  the  shorthand  machine  or 
the  phonograph,  or  mere  codes  of 
longhand  breves  (abbreviations), 
which  will  be  briefly  referred  to 
later. 

Antiquity. — The  art  of  short- 
hand is  very  ancient.  The  de- 
motic writing  of  the  Egyptians 
was  virtually  a  popular  short- 
hand form  of  the  hieratic  writing 
of  the  priests.  Whether  the  an- 
cient Hebrews  or  the  Greeks  had 
a  system  of  shorthand  writing  for 


their  languages  is  still  uncertain. 
All  authorities  are  agreed,  how- 
ever, that  the  history  of  short- 
hand begins  definitely  not  later 
than  63  B.C.,  when  Marcus  Tul- 
lius  Tiro,  a  freedman  of  Cicero's, 
evolved  the  Tironian  notes. 
These  Tironian  notes  involved 
not  only  shorthand  signs  for  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  derived  to 
some  extent  from  the  Roman 
capital  letters,  but  also  many 
more  or  less  arbitrary  abbrevia- 
tions; 5,000  at  least  in  Tiro's  day, 
thousands  more  in  the  course  of 
their  later  evolution.  They 
formed  the  apparently  quite  uni- 
form basis  of  Roman  shorthand 
writing,  which  attained  to  con- 
siderable importance  during  the 
imperial  era  and,  with  various 
corruptions  and  modifications, 
lasted  well  down  into  the  Middle 
Ages,  probably  till  about  the 
10th  century.  The  latest  surviv- 
ing example  of  the  Tiro- 
nian notes  is  a  codex  of 
Louis  the  Pious,  written  in  the 
9th  century. 

Early  Modern  Shorthand. — 
The  era  of  modern  shorthand 
dawned  first  in  England  in  1588, 
with  Timothy  Bright's  quaint 
publication,  grandiloquently  de- 
dicated to  Queen  Elizabeth  and 
securing  from  her  a  royal  grant  of 
exclusive  rights  for  fifteen  years. 
Credit  for  the  first  alphabetic  or 
workable  system,  which  set  the 
pattern  followed  more  or  less 
closely  for  at  least  one  hundred 
years,  belongs  to  John  Willis, 
who  published  anonymously  in 
1602  The  Art  of  Stenographie. 
In  the  250  years  from  Bright  to 
Isaac  Pitman,  who  is  justly  re- 
garded as  the  father  of  modern 
English  shorthand,  more  than 
180  different  systems  were  pub- 
lished for  English  alone.  Among 
all  these,  Shelton  (1620)  is  in- 
teresting as  being  the  system  in 
which  Samuel  Pepys  kept  his 
famous  diary;  Gurney  (1750)  as 
the  system  of  most  enduring 
vitality,  being  the  system  chiefly 
UvSed  for  British  parliamentary 
reporting  until  comparatively  re- 
cent times;  Byron  (1767)  as 
showing  the  first  practical  recog- 
nition and  application  ot  the  need 
for  a  scientific  study  of  the 
sounds  of  English  and  the  signs 
of  shorthand  as  a  basis  for  the 
shorthand  art;  Taylor  as  the 
system  which,  by  virtue  of  a 
rugged  simplicity,  exerted  a  more 
profound  influence  on  the  short- 
hand of  more  European  coun- 
tries than  any  other  English  lan- 
guage system  before  or  since. 

The  system  of  Gould,  first 
published  in  1820  in  the  United 
States,  is  interesting  as  having 
dominated  shorthand  in  the 
United  States  for  the  succeeding 
generation  quite  as  completely  as 
Pitmanic  shorthand  dominated 
the  generation  following  its  intro- 


duction to  the  United  States  in 
1853,  or  as  Gregg  shorthand  in  its 
turn  dominates  the  United  States 
field  today. 

Modern  Shorthand. — Nearly  a 
thousand  different  systems  of 
shorthand  have  been  published 
for  English  alone  within  the  past 
one  hundred  years.  Among  them 
all,  the  outstanding  feature  of 
modern  English  language  short- 
hand has  been  Pitmanic  short- 
hand. The  original  invention 
and  subsequent  modifications  by 
Sir  Isaac  Pitnam  (q.v.)  have 
been  subjected  to  a  host  of  adap- 
tations and  variations  but  the 
resemblances  of  the  principal 
Pitmanic  systems  are  far  more 
important  than  their  differences. 
Among  the  leading  variations  of 
the  parent  Isaac  Pitnam  system 
have  been  the  Benn  Pitman 
(q.  v.),  Graham,  and  Munson 
systems  and  more  recently  Suc- 
cess. Although  largely  displaced 
today  by  Gregg  (1867-1948) 
shorthand  for  the  training  of 
business  office  stenographers. 
Pitmanic  shorthand  is  still  used 
by  the  great  majority  of  ver- 
batim reporters  and  its  impor- 
tance to  the  shorthand  reporting 
profession  is  so  great  that  the 
National  Shorthand  Reporters 
Association  has  maintained  for 
twenty  years  a  Standardization 
Committee,  to  standardize  so  far 
as  practicable,  Pitmanic  report- 
ing shorthand.  This  standard- 
ized form  is  used  in  the  Pitmanic 
shorthand  alphabet  and  speci- 
mens herewith. 

While  Isaac  Pitnam  did  not 
achieve  his  life-long  dream  of 
shorthand  for  universal  use,  a 
destiny  for  which  Pitmanic  short- 
hand is  essentially  unsuited,  he 
did  exert  a  more  profound  influ- 
ence on  English  language  short- 
hand than  any  other  shorthand 
inventor,  and  the  complete  and 
rational  phonetic  basis  which  he 
established  represents  the  great- 
est and  most  enduring  contribu- 
tion to  modern  shorthand. 

Among  the  most  important 
non-Pitmanic  systems  of  the 
modern  period  must  be  men- 
tioned Lindsley's  Takigrafy,  first 
published  in  1864  and  an  impor- 
tant factor  for  the  next  thirty 
years;  Cross's  Eclectic  Shorthand, 
first  published  in  1877,  and  Per- 
nin's  Universal  Phonography,  first 
published  in  1877,  important 
both  for  itself  and  as  leading 
directly  through  Sloan-Duployan 
shorthand  (1882)  and  Malone's 
Script  Phonography  (1885,  1886) 
to  Gregg  Shorthand,  first  pub- 
lished as  Light  Line  Phonography 
in  1888,  which,  taken  to  Amer- 
ica by  Gregg  in  1893,  has  since 
achieved  an  almost  unprece- 
dented success  and  is  todav 
taught  in  most  of  the  public  high 
schools  and  private  business 
schools  of  the  United  States. 


Alphabets  and  apecimens 
of 

representative  shorthand  systema 
1-Pitmanic  Shorthand (NSRA)        2-Gregg  Shorthaqd       3-General  Shorthand 

Consonants 

p\Jtdkgfv^liszS  scJjmnqrlwyh 


/  \  ^  ^  i  i  )  )  J  J  /  /  ^ 

Z   C  C  ^  rj  /        /    /  _ 

Z  7  6  /  ^  I  /  fP /  7  9 


Vowels 

aaaeoi      loououmddid  tu 


-I     J     J      '\  J 


3  / 


t       t  '  ♦  /        .  / 

Specimens 


5  <^  J^/^^^S^-^/c  2A^^^^f^ 


Vol.  XL— Page  190 


Sbortband  KR  lOl  Shorthand 


Shorthand  in  Other  Languages. 

— In  other  countries,  for  other 
languages,  modern  shorthand  has 
developed  along  altogether  dif- 
ferent lines,  differing  not  merely 
in  textbooks  and  in  systems,  as 
might  be  expected,  but  in  some 
of  the  most  basic  structural 
features. 

In  France,  two  systems,  both 
wholly  geometric  in  type,  largely 
divide  the  field:  Prevost-Delau- 
nay,  a  disjoined  vowel  type, 
which  predominates  among  re- 
porters and  in  and  about  Paris, 
and  Duploye,  a  simpler  and 
joined  vowel  type,  which  pre- 
dominates among  stenographers 
and  for  personal  use  and  in  the 
provinces. 

In  Germany,  where  shorthand 
is  more  widely  used  for  general 
personal  non-vocational  purposes 
than  in  any  other  country, 
Gabelsbergers  Shorthand  (1834) 
at  once  established  the  true 
script  type  of  shorthand  as  the 
dominant  type.  Next  in  im- 
portance to  Gabelsberger's  fun- 
damental work,  was  that  of 
Stolze  (1841).  Schrey  (1887)  be- 
came in  1897  Stolze-Schrey, 
which  till  1924  divided  about 
equally  with  Gabelsberger  at 
least  nine-tenths  of  the  whole 
German  shorthand  field.  In  1924, 
the  German  government  promul- 
gated officially  a  compromise 
unification  system,  the  Reichs- 
kurzschrift,  to  be  henceforth  the 
only  system  taught  officially  in 
the  public  schools,  and  a  civil 
service  requirement  in  many 
government  departments. 

In  other  languages  and  coun- 
tries shorthand  has  largely  fol- 
lowed the  lead  of  English,  French, 
or  German  shorthand.  The  lead- 
ing Spanish  system  is  that  of 
Marti  (1800),  derived  from 
Taylor.  The  first  dominant 
Italian  system  was  that  of  Aman- 
ti  (1809),  also  derived  from  Tay- 
lor. Later,  the  shorthand  ma- 
chine of  Michela  (1863)  achieved 
considerable  importance,  and, 
still  later,  an  adaptation  of  Ga- 
belsberger to  Italian  by  Noe 
(1865).  In  general,  the  short- 
hand of  the  European  countries, 
for  languages  other  than  French, 
has  been  a  more  or  less  direct 
outgrowth  of  the  German  script 
systems,  particularly  Gabels- 
berger, and  in  more  recent  years 
Stolze-Schrey. 

Shorthand  Structure. — All  mod- 
ern shorthand  systems  worthy  of 
serious  consideration  write  pho- 
netically— that  is  by  signs  for 
sounds,  disregarding  the  complex 
and  cumbersome  irregularities  of 
our  current  conventional  speiliiig. 
A  shorthand  system  consists  es- 
sentially of  a  basic  alphabet  of 
simple  signs,  representing  the 
simple  sounds  of  the  language; 
various  characteristic  devices  for 
expressing  more  than  one  sound 
per  sign — the  Pitmanic  append- 


ages and  length  devices,  the 
Gregg  blends,  the  General  Short- 
hand compends;  general  rules  for 
using  and  joining  the  basic  ma- 
terial; and  specific  breves  for 
affixes,  words,  and  phrases.  The 
most  fundamental  differences 
between  shorthand  systems  are 
found  in  the  structure  of  the 
basic  alphabet,  which  may  be 
either  geometric  or  script  or 
some  compromise  between  the 
two. 

A  geometric  shorthand  system 
selects  for  its  basic  material  the 
geometrically  simplest  signs — 
straight  lines  and  segments  of 
simple  curves,  differentiated  by 
slope,  shading,  length,  etc.;  dots 
and  dashes,  hooks,  circles,  etc. — • 
which  are  usually  simplest  to 
write  when  standing  alone  but 
present  various  serious  difficul- 
ties when  joined  together  in  prac- 
tical writing.  A  script  shorthand 
system  selects  for  its  basic  ma- 
terial the  grapically  simplest 
signs — those  signs  easiest  to 
write  and  to  read  when  joined  to- 
gether in  actual  writing — even 
though  such  signs  may  be  of  less 
simple  geonietric  form  or  slower 
to  write  when  standing  alone. 
Pitmanic  shorthand  is  the  out- 
standing example  of  geometric 
shorthand.  Gregg  shorthand  is 
often  referrred  to  as  a  script 
shorthand  system  but  is  in  fact  a 
hybrid  type  which  must  be  classi- 
fied as  semi-geometric,  script- 
geometric,  or  semi-script,  since  it 
uses,  like  Pitmanic  shorthand, 
the  geometrically  simplest  signs, 
merely  excluding  from  the  ac- 
cepted geometric  material  a  sub- 
stantial proportion  of  the  least 
facile  signs,  such  as  those  of  left 
diagonal  or  vertical  slope.  The 
true  script  type  of  shorthand  is 
virtually  unknown  in  the  United 
States  as  yet,  though  highly  de- 
veloped abroad.  General  Short- 
hand (Dewey)  is  the  most  repre- 
sentative English  language  short- 
hand system  of  the  true  script 
type. 

Shorthand  Attributes. — There 
are  three  and  only  three  essential 
characteristics  or  functional  at- 
tributes of  shorthand  in  any 
language,  regardless  of  style  or 
structural  type:  brevity,  legi- 
bility, and  simplicity. 

Brevity,  or  ease  and  speed  of 
writing,  which  most  people  think 
of  first  in  connection  with  short- 
hand, is  in  fact  the  least  difficult 
factor  to  secure,  and  historically 
the  first  to  have  been  achieved. 
The  Gurney  system,  first  pub- 
lished in  1750,  with  whose  diffi- 
cul»^ie«  Ci^arles  Dickens  struggled 
a  century  ago,  as  told  in  David 
Copperfield,  has  proved  equal  to 
the  most  difficult  task  of  report- 
ing the  British  Parliament  down 
to  the  present  day. 

A  high  standard  of  legibility, 
or  ease  and  certainty  of  reading, 
is  much  harder  to  secure,  and 


remains  today  the  greatest  weak- 
ness of  business  office  stenogra- 
phy. The  stenographer  who 
can  not  read  another's  notes  is 
still  the  rule  rather  than  the  ex- 
ception, and  the  stenographer 
who  can  not  read  her  own  notes 
accurately  when  the>  a  t  'cold, 
is  still  all  too  common. 

Real  simplicity,  in  harmony 
with  the  inescapable  t^honetic 
facts  of  English,  without  sacrifice 
of  brevity  or  legibility,  is  most 
difficult  of  all  to  secure,  and  is 
still  the  chief  obstacle  to  the 
dream  of  so  many  shorthand 
authors  for  so  many  years — 
shorthand  for  general  personal 
use. 

Fields   of  Shorthand    Use. — 

There  are  today  three  main 
broadly  marked  fields  of  short- 
hand use.  which  may  be  desig- 
nated as  reporting,  business,  and 
personal;  to  which  correspond 
three  somewhat  differentiated 
styles  of  shorthand  writing.  A 
different  style  of  shorthand  by 
no  means  requires  a  different 
shorthand  system,  any  more  than 
a  different  model  of  motorcar  re- 
quires a  different  make,  yet  it  is  a 
fact  that  in  the  United  States 
today,  each  field  is  covered  pri- 
marily by  a  different  system,  of 
fundamentally  different  type. 

A  reporting  style  of  shorthand 
will  be  used  for  court  and  legisla- 
tive, convention  and  commission, 
reporting  and  public  addresses, 
and  in  general  all  verbatim  re- 
porting purposes,  where  the 
speaker  ignores  the  shorthand 
writer.  It  must  make  brevity 
the  paramount  consideration, 
with  such  sacrifice  of  easy  legi- 
bility and  simplicity  as  may  be 
necessary.  It  must  reach  a  mini- 
mum sustained  speed  of  150  to 
180  words  per  minute,  and  may 
reach ,  momentarily,  speeds  as 
high  as  280  to  300  words  per 
minute.  The  reporting  style  of 
any  system  of  shorthand  will  re- 
quire at  least  1,000  hours  of 
effective  study  for  mastery. 
Successful  verbatim  reporting 
requires  in  addition  a  high  stand- 
ard of  natural  ability  and  of 
general  education. 

A  business  style  of  shorthand 
will  be  used  chiefly  for  business 
office  dictation  of  correspondence. 
It  must  achieve  the  maximum 
possible  legibility  with  reason- 
able brevity  and  simplicity. 
From  80  to  125  words  per  minute, 
with  the  actual  average  below 
100  words  per  minute,  is  the 
normal  shorthand  speed  in  busi- 
ness offices  today.  Effective 
mastery  of  a  business  style  of 
shorthand  of  any  first-class  sys- 
tem requires  today  at  least  300 
hours'  study,  despite  the  ever- 
present  claims  of  shorthand  char- 
latans to  develop  a  vocational 
standard  of  shorthand  ability  in 
anj'^thing  from  a  few  weeks  to  a 
few  hours.    There  are  nearly  a 


Shorthand 


KR 


192 


Shoulder 


million  stenographers  and  secre- 
taries in  the  United  States  today 
— about  99  per  cent  of  the  whole 
field  of  present-day  stenographic 
use. 

Specduoriting  is  a  scientific 
system  of  shorthand  which  uses 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet  instead 
of  signs  or  symbols.  In  view  of 
the  fact  that  every  individual 
has  acquired  habits  of  writing 
and  reading  the  letters  used  in 
Speedwriting,  it  takes  approxi- 
mately %  of  the  time  usually 
allowed  in  other  systems  to  mas- 
ter it.  Speeds  up  to  150  words 
per  minute  can  be  acquired 
which  is  more  than  the  speed 
usually  required  for  every  day 
shorthand  users.  Notes  can  be 
read  back  with  a  greater  degree 
of  accuracy  than  can  be  done  in 
other  shorthands.  Another  ad- 
vantage is  that  any  speedwriter 
can  read  another's  notes,  which 
can  not  be  done  by  users  of  Gregg 
and  Pitman. 

A  personal  style  of  shorthand 
will  be  used  for  personal  corres- 
pondence, original  composition 
of  every  description,  lecture,  con- 
ference, and  telephone  notes,  and 
in  fact  almost  any  or  all  of  the 
present  purposes  of  longhand. 
Such  a  style  must  achieve  maxi- 
mum simplicity  without  sacrifice 
of  explicit  legibility  and  with  a 
reasonable  degree  of  brevity. 

The  shorthand  alphabets  and 
specimens  herewith  illustrate  by 
Pitmanic  shorthand,  a  reporting 
style  of  geometric  shorthand; 
by  Gregg  shorthand,  a  business 
style  of  hybrid  (script-geometric) 
shorthand ;  and  by  General  short- 
hand, an  essentially  personal 
style  of  shorthand  of  the  true 
script  type.  The  specimen  in 
each  case  is  the  first  sentence  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence: 
When,  in  the  course  of  human 
events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one 
people  to  dissolve  the  political 
bonds  which  have  connected  them 
with  another,  and  to  assume  among 
the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separ- 
ate and  equal  station  to  which  the 
laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God 
entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the 
opinions  of  mankind  requires  that 
they  should  declare  the  causes 
which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

Shorthand  Subslitutes. — Vari- 
ous substitutes  for  handwritten 
shorthand,  including  the  short- 
hand machine,  the  phonograph, 
and  notehand,  have  been  pro- 
posed and  tried,  with  varying 
success. 

The  shorthand  machine  is 
essentially  a  light,  quiet  portable 
typewriter  of  limited  keyboard 
on  which  one  may  strike  several 
keys  at  once  as  well  as  singly.  It 
writes  in  ordinary  Roman  letters 
(phonetic  print  letters  would  be 
better)  on  a  long  narrow  paper 
tape.  The  best  known  machine 
in  the  stenotype. 

The  phonograph  for  business 
office  dictation  has  certain  impor- 


tant advantages  over  any  short- 
hand. For  the  dictator,  it  per- 
mits dictation  at  any  time  or 
place,  independent  of  the  sten- 
ographer. For  the  transcriber,  it 
saves  the  time  and  interruptions 
of  dictation  and,  in  a  large  office, 
facilitates  an  equitable  division 
of  work  among  the  transcribers. 
Where  many  corrections  in  the 
course  of  dictation  are  necessary 
or  usual,  the  phonograph  method 
is  not  convenient.  For  verbatim 
reporting  which  requires  the 
constant  exercise  of  a  high  degree 
of  discriminating  intelligence,  the 
phonograph  is  entirely  inade- 
quate and  unsuitable;  but  in  the 
immense  field  of  business  office 
dictation  it  has  great  possibili- 
ties of  usefulness. 

Notehand,  or  any  system  of 
shortening  either  longhand  or 
typewriting  by  systematic  abbre- 
viation, using  only  the  familiar 
Roman  alphabet,  is  of  great 
value  in  personal  note-taking,  as 
a  partial  substitute  for  shorthand 
for  personal  use.  Since  about  100 
of  the  commonest  words  of  Eng- 
lish make  up  by  their  frequent 
repetitions  at  least  half  of  all  the 
words  we  read  or  write,  a  simple 
code  of  breves  for  words  will 
materially  increase  one's  writing 
speed  with  little  effort.  As  a 
substitute  for  vocational  short- 
hand, however,  such  devices  are 
totally  inadequate,  becoming  il- 
legible long  before  a  satisfactory 
vocational  standard  of  speed  is 
reached. 

Shorthand  Literature.  —  The 
two  greatest  shorthand  collec- 
tions of  the  world  are  that  of  the 
Stenographische  Landesamt  at 
Dresden,  with  nearly  2.5,000  vol- 
umes, largely  of  European  origin, 
and  the  collection  sponsored  by 
the  National  Shorthand  Re- 
porters Association  at  the  New 
York  Public  Library,  with  more 
than  25,000  volumes,  mainly 
with  English  language  short- 
hand. 

Shorthouse,  Joseph  Henry 
(1834-1903).  English  novelist, 
was  born  in  Birmingham,  where 
he  became  a  manufacturer  of 
chemicals.  In  1881  he  published 
his  romance,  John  Inglesant, 
and  its  remarkable  qualities 
both  of  matter  and  manner  at- 
tracted much  attention.  It  was 
followed  by  The  Little  School- 
master Mark  (1883),  Sir  Percival 
(1886),  A  Teacher  of  the  Violin 
(1888),  The  Countess  Eve  (1888), 
and  Blanche,  Lady  Falaise  (1891). 

Shoshone,  sh5-sho'ne,  or 
Snake,  the  name  used  for  one  of 
the  great  divisions  of  the  North 
American  Indians,  whose  original 
domain  extended  from  Oregon 
and  Idaho  nearly  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  from  Montana 
and  Wyoming  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  The  Shoshone  stock  lan- 
guage, of  which  there  are  over 
forty  distinct  dialects,  shows 
strong  phonetic  and  some  lexical 


affinities  with  Aztec.  This  fact 
lends  support  to  the  now  gener- 
ally accepted  theory  that  the 
Aztec  and  other  Nahua  tribes 
came  from  beyond  the  Rio  Gran- 
de and  belonged  to  the  Shoshone 
connection.  (See  Aztecs.)  The 
chief  divisions  of  this  stock  are 
the  Bannock,  Comanche,  Paiute, 
Shoshone  and  Ute.  As  a  whole, 
the  Shoshone  were  roving  In- 
dians similar  to  the  Sioux  and 
other  tribes  of  the  Great  Plains. 

Shoshone  Falls,  celebrated 
waterfall  in  Snake  River,  south 
Idaho.  It  descends  the  first  30 
feet  through  several  rocky  chan- 
nels, and  then  in  one  sheet  1,000 
feet  in  width  falls  more  than  190 
feet  into  a  dark  green  lake. 

Shotgun.  A  term  employed 
to  denote  a  small,  smooth-bore 
firearm,  single  or  double-barreled 
designed  to  fire  a  charge  of  shot 
pellets  at  short  range.  The  most 
commonly  used  shotgun  is  the 
double-barreled  type  of  12  gauge. 
Such  a  gun,  with  the  ordinary 
game  load,  should,  at  30  yards, 
spread  the  shot  over  a  thirty-inch 
circle,  and  so  uniformly  as  to 
leave  no  space  large  enough  to 
admit  of  the  escape  of  a  bird  as 
large,  say,  as  a  quail.  A  stronger 
shooting  gun,  i.e.  one  which  will 
propel  shot  farther,  is  required 
for  ducks  and  for  ruffed  grouse. 
The  regularity  of  a  gun's  'pattern' 
{i.e.  the  area  over  which  the  shot 
is  scattered)  depends  upon  the 
quality,  as  well  as  upon  the  size 
of  the  shot,  the  kind  and  quan- 
tity of  powder  used,  and  the  bor- 
ing of  gun  barrels. 

The  repeating  shotgun,  pro- 
vided with  a  magazine  carrying 
four  or  five  shells  and  operated 
by  a  mechanism  similar  in  prin- 
ciple to  those  used  for  repeating 
rifles,  has  been  brought  to  a 
high  state  of  efficiency.  Many 
sportsmen  are  prejudiced  against 
these  guns,  because  the  rapidity 
with  which  they  can  be  used 
lessens  the  need  of  skill  on  the 
part  of  the  shooter,  and  increases 
the  mere  'slaughter'  of  game. 
This  class  of  sportsmen  is, 
naturally,  even  more  violently 
opposed  to  'automatic'  shotguns 
— weapons  in  which  the  recoil  is 
used  to  reload  the  gun,  making 
very  rapid  fire  possible.  Their 
use  is  forbidden  in  some  states. 
See  also  Shooting. 

Shoulder,  a  ball  and  socket 
joint,  the  large,  globular  head  of 
the  humerus  being  received  into 
the  shallow,  glenoid  cavity  of  the 
scapula.  It  is  well  supplied  with 
blood-vessels  and  nerves,  and  is 
capable  of  movement  in  every 
direction.  Movements  of  the 
scapula  at  the  coraco-clavicular 
articulation  and  of  the  clavicle 
at  the  tserno-clavicular  joint  in- 
crease the  range  of  elevation  of 
the  arm,  and  strengthen  the 
shoulder  by  furnishing  an  elastic 
spring  whose  mobility  diminishes 
the  risk  of  sudden  strain.  From 


Shoulder  Straps 


KR 


193 


Shreve 


the  anatomical  structure,  how- 
ever, dislocation  is  more  common 
at  the  shoulder  than  at  any  other 
joint;  but  as  a  rule  it  is  easily- 
reduced  if  treated  soon  after  the 
injury.  In  old-standing  luxations 
reduction  is  difficult,  and  often 
leads  to  serious  damage  of  sur- 
rounding parts.  After  reduction 
of  a  dislocation  the  arm  must  be 


Shoulder  Bones  and  Ligaments  (A) 
and  Section  through  Joint  (B) 

1.  Humerus.  2.  Glenoid  cavity.  3.  Scapula. 
4.  Tendon  of  biceps.  5.  Capsular  ligament. 
6.  Acromion.  7.  Coracoid  process.  8. 
Clavicle.   9.  Synovial  membrane  and  sac. 

kept  at  rest  for  about  ten  days, 
at  the  end  of  which  period  gentle 
passive  movement  should  gener- 
ally be  begun. 

Shoulder  Straps.  See  Uni- 
forms, Military  and  Naval. 

Shovel,  Steam.  See  Steam 
Shovel. 

ShoT'ell,  Sir  Clowdisley 
(1650-1707),  English  admiral, 
was  born  in  Norfolk.  In  1675, 
when  serving  with  Sir  John  Nar- 
brough,  he  led  the  boats  of  the 
squadron  in  an  attack  on  the 
shipping  in  the  harbor  of  Tripoli. 
At  the  battle  of  Bantry  Bay,  in 
1689,  he  again  distinguished  him- 
self, and  earned  a  knighthood. 
He  took  part  in  the  battle  off 
Cape  Barfleur  in  1702;  and 
served  under  Rooke  at  the  battle 
of  Vigo  (1702),  and  at  the  battle 
of  Malaga  (1704).  He  was  then 
appointed  rear  admiral  of  Eng- 
land, and  commander  in  chief  in 
the  Mediterranean,  where,  in 
1705,  with  the  Earl  of  Peter- 
borough, he  effected  the  reduc- 
tion of  Barcelona.  On  the  home- 
ward voyage  his  ship  was 
wrecked  on  one  of  the  Scilly  Is- 
lands; he  was  cast  ashore,  and 
murdered  by  a  woman  who  later 
confessed  her  crime.  His  body 
was  taken  to  England  and  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Shoveller  (Spatula  clypeala), 
also  called  Spoon  Bill,  or  Boat 
Bill,  a  large  duck,  occurrmg  in 
Europe,  Asia,  North  America, 
and  North  Africa.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  great  size  of 
the  fiat  bill,  which  is  longer  than 
the  head,  compressed  at  the  base, 
and  very  broad  at  the  tip,  the 


upper  portion  overhanging  the 
lower.  The  drake  is  brightly  col- 
ored, being  chiefly  dark  brown, 
with  a  green  head,  white  neck, 
and  chestnut  underparts;  some 
of  the  scapulars  are  black  with 


Shoveller 


white  stripes,  and  the  anterior 
wing  coverts  pale  blue.  The  duck 
is  more  soberly  colored.  Shov- 
ellers feed  on  water  plants, 
worms,  insects,  and  mollusks, 
and  are  greatly  prized  for  the 
table. 

Showbrcad,  or  Presence 
Bread,  the  twelve  loaves  of 
bread  which,  according  to  the 
ancient  Jewish  ritual,  were  set 
upon  a  table  of  acacia  wood, over- 
laid with  gold  (Ex.  XXV,  23-30), 
in  the  holy  place.  The  bread 
was  renewed  every  Sabbath,  and 
the  old  loaves  were  eaten  by  the 
priests  in  the  Sanctuary.  The 
showbread  is  said  to  have  sym- 
bolized the  constant  communion 
of  Jehovah's  people  with  Him  in 
those  things  which  His  bounty 
provided,  and  which  they  en- 
joyed in  His  presence  and  used  in 
His  service. 

Shower  of  Fishes,  a  phe- 
nomenon caused  by  the  strong 
updraught  which  occurs  in  the 
center  of  a  tornado,  passing  over 
the  surface  of  water.  A  column 
of  water  (waterspout)  is  formed 
in  the  vortex,  and  fish,  especi- 
ally such  as  habitually  swim  near 
the  surface  in  shoals,  may  read- 
ily be  swept  up  and  showered 
down  upon  the  land.  In  1817  a 
shower  of  herrings,  which  varied 
in  size  from  one  and  a  half  to 
three  inches,  fell  near  Edinburgh, 
while  other  similar  showers  fell 
near  Loch  Leven  in  1825,  and  in 
Ross-shire,  about  three  miles 
from  Cromarty  Firth,  in  1828. 

Shra'dy,  George  Frederick 
(1837-1907),  American  surgeon, 
was  born  in  New  York  City.  He 
was  graduated  from  N.  Y.  Col- 
lege of  Physicians  and  Surgeons 
in  1858;  was  assistant  surgeon  in 
the  U.  S.  Army  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  later  consulting  sur- 
geon to  several  New  York  hospi- 
tals. He  was  General  Grant's 
physician  during  his  last  illness, 
and  also  attended  President  Gar- 
field. He  was  editor  of  the  Medi- 
cal Journal  for  over  thirty  years, 
and  wrote  on  medical,  surgical, 
social,  and  scientific  subjects. 


Shrady,  Henry  Merwin 
(1871-1922),  American  sculptor, 
was  born  in  New  York  City.  He 
was  graduated  from  Columbia 
University  in  1894,  and  studied 
law,  but  abandoned  it  for  mod- 
eling. In  1901  he  won  the  first 
prize  in  a  competition  for  an 
equestrian  statue  of  Washington 
for  Brooklyn,  and  the  next  year 
he  received  the  commission  for  a 
Grant  Memorial  in  Washington. 
In  1903  he  was  commissioned  by 
the  Holland  Society  of  New  York 
to  make  an  equestrian  statue  of 
William  the  Silent  for  New  York 
City.  He  also  executed  the  sta- 
tue of  Washington  for  the  Brook- 
lyn terminal  of  the  Williamsburg 
Bridge,  an  equestrian  statue  of 
General  Williams  for  Detroit. and 
statues  of  General  Lee  (Char- 
lotteville,  Va.)  and  Jay  Cooke 
(Duluth).  He  was  a  member  of 
the  National  Institute  of  Arts 
and  Letters. 

Shrap'nel,  a  form  of  case  shot 
designed  to  be  ruptured  by  a 
bursting  charge  during  flight. 
It  was  invented  by  Henry  Shrap- 
nel (q.  v.).   See  Ammunition. 

Shrapnel,  Henry(1761-1842) 
English  inventor,  was  born  in 
Bradford-on-Avon.  Wiltshire.  In 
1784  he  began  the  experiments 
which  led  to  the  invention  of  the 
shell  that  bears  his  name.  In 
1803  it  was  recommended  for 
adoption,  and  has  now  super- 
seded the  old  type  of  case  shot. 

Shreve,HENRY  Miller(1785- 
1854).  American  inventor,  was 
born  in  Burlington  county,  N.  J. 
In  1810  he  was  engaged  in  trans- 
porting lead  between  the  Galena 
River  and  New  Orleans,  and  in 
1812  was  a  blockade  runner  on 
behalf  of  the  U.  S.  Army.  In 
the  battle  of  New  Orleans  he 
commanded  a  field  battery.  In 
1815  he  became  interested  in  the 
Enterprise,  the  first  steamer  that 
ascended  the  Mississippi  as  far 
as  Louisville.  Subsequently  he 
placed  the  Washington  on  the 
river  trade,  and  demonstrated 
the  superiority  of  her  machinery, 
which  he  had  designed,  to  that 
in  Fulton's  latest  vessel.  Fulton 
claimed  the  exclusive  right  to 
navigate  all  vessels  'propelled  by 
fire  and  steam'  on  the  river  and 
began  suit,  but  after  much  liti- 
gation Shreve  won.  In  1826-4] 
he  was  superintendent  of  western 
river  improvements.  While  hold- 
ing that  position  he  removed  an 
obstruction  to  navigation,  known 
as  the  'Great  Red  River  raft.' 
which  consisted  of  an  accumula- 
tion of  trees,  logs  and  debris  more 
than  160  miles  in  length.  In  1829 
he  designed  a  steam  battering 
ram. 

Shreve,  Samuel  Henry(1829- 
84).  American  civil  engineer. was 
born  in  Trenton.  N.  J.  He  was 
graduated  from  Princeton  in 
1848,  and  studied  law  and  then 
civil  engineering  at  Harvard. 
He  spent  many  years  as  superin- 


Shreveport 


KR 


194 


Shrewsbury 


tendent  of  construction  on  rail- 
roads in  the  eastern  states,  and 
built  a  number  of  important 
roads.  In  1875  he  settled  in  New 
York  and  became  engineer  to  the 
New  York  Rapid  Transit  Com- 
mission. He  was  afterward  con- 
sulting engineer  to  the  N.  Y. 
Metropolitan  Elevated  Railroad 
Company,  and  engineer-in-chief 
to  the  Brooklyn  Elevated  Rail- 
road. He  was  author  of  The 
Strength  of  Bridges  and  Roofs. 

Shreve'port,  city,  Louisiana, 
county  seat  of  Caddo  parish,  on 
the  Red  River,  and  on  the  Kan- 
sas City  Southern,  Illinois  Cen- 
tral, the  Louisiana  and  Arkan- 
sas, the  Southern  Pacific,  the 
St.  Louis  Southwestern,  and  the 
Texas  and  Pacific  railroads;  170 
miles  west  of  Vicksburg,  Missis- 
sippi. The  Jefferson  Highway, 
the  Dixie-Overland  Highway, 
and  the  Old  Spanish  Trail  pass 
through  the  city.  Educational 
institutions  include  two  high 
schools,  parochial  schools,  Cen- 
tenary College,  Foster  Hall  (a 
college  for  girls),  and  two  busi- 
ness and  four  private  schools. 

Shreveport  is  a  commercial 
center  shipping  cotton,  oil,  and 
lumber.  Industries  include  metal 
products,  petroleum  production 
and  refining,  lumber  and  logging, 
paper  products,  food  processing, 
ceramics  and  glass,  etc.  The 
surrounding  district  raises  cot- 
ton, corn,  grain,  and  feed  crops; 
it  has  an  abundant  supply  of 
natural  oil  and  gas,  which  is 
piped  into  the  city,  and  is  one  of 
the  largest  oil  fields  of  the  South. 
Shreveport  was  settled  in  1833 
and  incorporated  six  years  later. 
The  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment was  adopted  in  1910.  It  is 
noted  for  its  many  beautiful 
homes  and  gardens.  It  is  the 
home  of  the  Louisiana  State  Fair, 
and  on  the  fair  grounds  is  the 
unique  exhibit  building.  Pop. 
(1930)  76,655;  (1940)  98,167. 

Shrew,  a  family  (Soricidae)  of 
Insectivora,  mouse-like  in  ap- 
pearance, characterized  by  long, 
pointed  snouts,  by  rounded  ears. 


Pigmy  Shrew 


pressed  close  to  the  sides  of  the 
head,  and  by  the  peculiar  nature 
of  the  teeth.  The  first  upper  in- 
cisors are  always  different  from 
the  other  teeth,  being  long  and 
sickle-shaped,  usually  with  a 
cusp  posteriorly,  while  the  cor- 
responding teeth  in  the  lower  jaw 
project  horizontally  forward  and 
are  also  long.  With  one  excep- 
tion, shrews  have  never  more 


than  six  teeth  at  each  side  of  the 
lower  jaw.  They  are  furnished 
with  scent  glands,  secreting  a 
substance  of  strong  and  disagree- 
able odor,  apparently  a  means  of 
defense.  The  animals  are  found 
through  the  greater  part  of  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere,  and  also  in 
North  America.  They  hibernate 
during     the     winter  months. 


Common  Shrew 


Shrews  are  retiring  in  habit,  but 
extremely  pugnacious.  They  feed 
upon  insects,  worms,  snails,  and 
slugs,  and  even  the  flesh  of 
weaker  members  of  the  same 
species.  They  are  attacked  in 
turn  by  weasels,  cats,  and  owls. 

To  the  genus  Crocidura,  or 
Musk  Shrews,  belong  the  largest 
members  of  the  family.  A  num- 
ber of  species  are  known,  of 
which  C.  suaveolens  is  European, 
while  C.  coerulea,  which  may 
reach  a  length  of  six  inches,  is 
the  so-called  musk-rat  of  India. 
To  the  genus  Anurosorex  belong 
two  Central  Asiatic  species, 
which  in  some  points  of  structure 
and  in  habits  closely  resemble  the 
mole.  North  America  has  several 
genera  and  many  species,  of 
which  the  best  known  are  the 
Short-tailed  or  Mole  Shrew 
(Blarina)  and  the  Long-tailed 
Shrew  Mouse  (Sorex).  Other 
varieties,  as  the  Water  Shrew, 
are  aquatic  in  habit. 

Shrew  Mole,  or  Web-footed 
Mole  {Scalops  aquaticus),  the 
American  representative  of  the 
Old  World  mole  (Talpa).  In  gen- 


Shrew  Mole  (Scalops  aquaticus) 


eral  appearance  the  animal 
closely  resembles  a  mole;  but  the 
hind  feet  are  webbed,  the  tail  is 
short  and  nearly  naked,  and 
there  are  only  thirty-six  instead 
of  forty-four  teeth.  The  genus  is 
exclusively  American.  Related 
are  two  other  genera — Scapanus, 
including  the  Hairy-tailed  Moles; 
and  Condylura,  with  the  single 
species  C.  cristata,  the  Star-nose 
of  North  America,  so  named  from 


the  ring  of  tentacles  at  the  end 
of  the  muzzle.  Its  habits  resemble 
those  of  other  moles.  See  also 
Mole. 

Shrewsbury,  shrooz'ber-i  or 
shroz'-,  England,  capital  of 
Shropshire,  on  the  Severn,  43 
miles  northwest  of  Birmingham. 
It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  high 
ground  in  a  bend  of  the  river, 
here  crossed  by  five  bridges  con- 
necting with  the  suburbs  of  Al> 
bey  Forcgate,  Coleham,  Belle- 
vue,  Kingsland,  and  Frankwell. 
It  has  a  number  of  interesting 
old  churches — the  parish  church 
of  St.  Mary,  a  handsome  cruci- 
form edifice  retaining  portions 
of  Norman  building,  and  with 
a  14th-century  Jesse  window;  the 
church  of  Holy  Cross,  rich  in 
ancient  monuments,  formerly 
connected  with  a  Benedictine 
abbey,  founded  soon  after  the 
conquest;  a  fragment  of  Old  St. 
Chad  on  the  site  of  a  palace  of 
the  princes  of  Powis,  and  St. 
Julian's  and  St.  Alkmund's  both 
representing  ancient  foundations. 
The  grammar  school,  founded 
1551,  was  transferred  to  the  sub- 
urb of  Kingsland  in  1882.  The 
old  buildings  are  occupied  by  the 
free  library  and  museum.  Other 
public  buildings  are  the  county 
and  town  hall,  post  office,  gen- 
eral market,  old  market  hall 
(1596),  railway  station,  jail,  and 
military  barracks.  There  are 
monuments  to  Darwin  (educated 
here),  and  to  the  soldiers  who 
fell  in  South  Africa  (1903),  a 
statue  of  Lord  Clive  (m.p.  for 
Shrewsbury,  1761-74),  a  lofty 
columnar  monument  (1816)  to 
Lord  Hill,  and  the  Clement  me- 
morial. The  castle,  erected  in 
the  11th  century  on  the  site  of  a 
Saxon  fortress,  overlooks  the 
river.  It  was  captured  in  1645  by 
the  Parliamentary  forces,  and  in 
the  reign  of  James  ii  partially 
demolished.  Two  towers,  the 
connecting  keep  (time  of  Henry 
III),  and  other  portions  remain, 
the  whole  converted  into  a  mod- 
ern residence.  The  Quarry  and 
Abbey  Gardens  are  beautiful 
pleasure  grounds,  bordering  the 
Severn.  Glass-staining  is  a  spe- 
cial industry,  and  there  are  agri- 
cultural implement  works,  foun- 
dries, and  linen  yarn  factories. 
Athelstan  established  a  mint 
here.  Near  the  town  was  fought 
in  1403,  the  battle  in  which  Hot- 
spur was  slain.    Pop.  32,370. 

Shrewsbury,  town,  Massa- 
chusetts, Worcester  county;  5 
miles  northeast  of  Worcester. 
Pop.  (1945  est.)  9,694. 

Shrewsbury,  Charles  Tal- 
bot, Duke  of  (1660-1718), 
English  statesman,  was  born  of 
an  intriguing  family,  and  lived 
true  to  the  family  traditions.  In 
1679  he  left  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  took  an  active  part 
against  James  ii,  and  was  largely 


Shrewsbury 


KR 


195 


Shrimp 


instrumental  in  bringing  to  Eng- 
land the  Prince  of  Orange. 
Though  secretary  of  state  under 
William,  he  was  constitutionally 
timid  and  vacillating,  and  also, 
for  a  time  at  least,  insincere,  for 
he  intrigued  with  the  Jacobite 
court  of  St.  Germains.  With  the 
Whigs  he  never  was  in  perfect 
harmony,  and  during  Queen 
Anne's  reign  he  gradually  came 


otherwise  very  similar  logger- 
head {L.  ludovicianus) .  The  for- 
mer is  a  northern  bird,  not  seen 
in  the  United  States  or  southern 
Canada  except  as  a  winter  visi- 
tor, where  it  haunts  the  road- 
sides, open  fields  and  farmsteads 
and  catches  mice  and  small  birds, 
killing  them  by  a  blow  of  its 
hawk-like  beak.  Its  feet  are  too 
weak  to  hold  the  prey  firmly 


southern  bird,  making  its  nest  (in 
orchard  trees  and  the  like) 
throughout  the  southern  United 
States.  Europe  has  four  species 
of  shrikes  resembling  ours  in 
habits  and  appearance  except 
that  some  of  them  have  more 
color  in  their  plumage. 

With  the  shrikes  in  the  family 
Lanidae  is  included  a  number  of 
other  more  or  less  closely  related 


Views  in  Shrewsbury,  England. 
1  English  Bridge.   2.  Shrewsbury  School.  3.  Abbey  Church.   4.  Free  Library  (formerly  the  Grammar  School).  (Photos  by  Frith.) 


to  be  the  associate  of  the  Tories. 
After  the  death  of  Anne  he  se- 
cured the  Protestant  successsion, 
and  whatever  his  Jacobite  in- 
trigues, he  loyally  supported  the 
throne  in  1715.  See  his  Corre- 
spondence, ed.  by  Coxe  (1821). 

Shrewsbury,  John  Talbot, 
FIRST  Earl  of  (1388- 1453), Eng- 
lish soldier.  After  service  in  Ire- 
land, of  which  he  was  three  times 
governor,  he  went  to  the  French 
wars,  where  he  took  part  in  more 
than  forty  battles  and  sieges. 
He  was  checked  at  Orleans  by 
Joan  of  Arc,  and  was  taken  pris- 
oner at  Patay  (1429),  and  finally 
in  1453  fell  at  Castillon-on-Dor- 
dogne.  He  was  created  Earl  of 
Shrewsbury  in  1442. 

Shrike,  the  name  of  a  sub- 
family (Lanidae)  of  passerine 
birds,  whose  members  are  widely 
distributed  over  the  Old  World, 
while  only  two  species  occur  in 
the  New,  the  great  northern 
shrike  (Lanius  horealis)  which  is 
gray,  with  black  frontlet  and 
wing-quills;  and  the  smaller,  but 


while  it  tears  it  to  pieces,  and  the 
bird  therefore  impales  its  quarry 
on  a  thorn,  the  spike  of  a  barbed- 
wire  fence,  or  some  other  sharp 
point,  so  as  to  eat  it  easily. 
Hence  'butcher-bird'  is  a  natural 


Shrike. 


and  widely  spread  name  for  all 
the  shrikes.  The  loggerhead  has 
very   similar   habits,   but   is  a 


birds,  such  as  the  shrike-tits 
which  are  Australian,  and  the 
wood-shrikes. 

Shrimp  (Crangon),  a  genus  of 
decapod  Crustacea,  whose  most 
familiar  member,  the  common 
shrimp  (C.  vulgaris),  is  found  on 
sandy  shores  all  around  the 
North  Atlantic,  and  is  caught  for 
food.  The  shrimp  turns  brown 
when  boiled,  instead  of  bright  red 
like  the  prawn.  It  has  a  de- 
pressed carapace  and  a  minute 
rostrum.  The  color  shows  a 
marked  correspondence  with  the 
color  of  the  sand  in  which  it  lives. 
As  it  occurs  chiefly  in  shallow 
water,  shrimping  (an  industry 
important  in  Great  Britain,  but 
of  little  account  in  U.  S.  except 
in  the  south)  is  carried  on  usually 
by  wading,  the  shrimper  pushing 
a  wide-mouthed  net  in  front  of 
him.  Shrimps  are  extensively 
caught  for  market  in  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay.  There  are  a  consider- 
able number  of  other  species  of 
this  genus,  and  the  term  is 
equally  applicable  to  the  mem 


Shropshire 


KR 


196 


Shunt 


bers  of  a  number  of  allied  genera. 
By  extension  it  is  also  applied  to 
amphipods,  such  as  the  skeleton 
shrimp  (Caprella)  and  the  fresh- 


Shrimp. 


water  shrimp  {Gamtnarus  piilex), 
as  well  as  to  certain  Entomos- 
traca,  such  as  the  brine  shrimp. 

Shropshire,  or  Salop,  inland 
CO.,  England,  on  border  of  Wales. 
The  N.  is  occupied  chiefly  by  a 
continuation  of  the  Cheshire 
plain,  with  many  small  meres; 
the  w.  is  hilly;  and  in  the  s.  are 
several  parallel  ranges,  generally 
N.E.  and  s.w.  The  country  is 
drained  almost  entirely  to  the 
Severn.  There  are  several  small 
coal  fields,  and  iron  and  lime- 
stone are  worked;  barytes,  lead, 
and  zinc  are  other  minerals.  More 
than  half  the  cultivated  land  is 
under  pasture,  and  cattle  and 
sheep  are  reared.  Manufactures 
include  pig  iron,  agricultural  im- 
plements, earthenware,  mosaic 
and  other  tiles,  and  bricks.  The 
Romans  had  many  stations  in  the 
county  {e.g.  Wroxeter,  otherwise 
Uriconium).  Under  the  Saxons 
it  formed  part  of  Mercia;  in  the 
w.  is  Offa's  Dyke.  There  are  re- 
mains of  several  ancient  earth- 
works (Bradbury  Ring)  and  of 
monastic  establishments  (Shrews- 
bury Abbey,  Cluniac  Priory  at 
Wenlock).  Area  (anc.  co),  1,347 
sq.  m.     Pop.  244,156. 

Shrouds,  ropes  or  chains  ex- 
tending from  the  heads  of  the 
masts  or  bowsprit  to  the  sides  of 
the  ship,  to  the  edges  of  the  tops, 
or  to  ends  of  outriggers,  and  are 
designed  to  support  the  masts 
from  side  pressure.  Lower 
shrouds,  which  support  the  lower 
masts,  are  usually  fitted  in  pairs, 
the  rope  passing  around  the  mast 
head  and  extending  down  to  form 
two  shrouds.  The  ends  are  set 
up  with  dead-eyes  and  lanyards 
(as  in  the  illustration)  or  with 
rigging  screws.  Shrouds  take 
their  names  from  the  spar  they 
support,  thus:  main  shrouds, 
fore-topmast  shrouds,  bowsprit 
shrouds,  etc. 


Shrove  Tuesday,  the  day  be- 
fore Ash- Wednesday,  so  called 
in  the  English  Church  from  the 
custom  which  enjoined  con- 
fession of  sins  and  shriving  im- 
mediately before  the  Lenten 
fast.  It  was  an  ancient  custom 
that,  after  confession  and  abso- 
lution on  this  particular  Tues- 
day, the  people  should  partake 
of  pancakes. 

Shrub,  a  woody-stemmed  per- 
ennial plant,  which  may  be  either 
deciduous  or  evergreen.  The 
gardener  uses  shrubs  for  their 
individual  beauty,  for  their  dec- 
orative value  in  masses,  and  for 
purposes  of  screens  or  shelters. 
Lilacs,  syringas,  rhododendrons, 
laurels,   barberries,  viburnums. 


Shrouds. 


and  Daphnes  may  be  taken  as 
representatives  of  this  section. 
There  are  two  courses  open  to  the 
planter — one,  to  arrange  the 
plants  far  enough  apart  to  allow 
for  several  seasons'  growth;  and 
the  other,  to  plant  somewhat 
closer,  and  remove  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  the  plants  when  they 
are  beginning  to  touch  each  other. 
Until  the  shrubs  occupy  the  whole 


space,  the  borders  can  be  made 
bright  with  bulbs  in  spring  and 
annuals  in  summer.  Very  little 
pruning  is  required,  and  in  the 
case  of  flowering  shrubs  it  should 
be  limited  to  the  removal  in  the 
winter  of  the  old  and  exhausted 
growths.  The  pruning  should 
invariably  be  done  with  a  knife, 
as  shears  disfigure  the  leaves. 
Among  the  flowering  shrubs 
specially  worthy  of  considera- 
tion are  Magnolia  stellata,  M. 
conspicua,  azaleas,  rhododen- 
drons, brooms,  flowering  al- 
monds, plums,  peaches,  and 
cherries,  Pyrus,  japonica,  Phil- 
adelphus  coronarius,  P.  aureus, 
the  flowering  currant,  lilacs, 
Forsythia  suspensa,  Choisia  tor- 
nata,  Weigela  grandiflora,  the 
barberries,  and  Hydrangea  pan- 
iculata.  See  Gordon,  The  Book 
of  Shrubs  (1901);  Newhall, 
Shrubs  of  Northeastern  America; 
Garden  and  Forest;  and  Bailey, 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticul- 
ture (1904). 

Shubricl£,  William  Bran- 
ford  (1790-1874),  American 
naval  officer,  born  on  Bull's  Is- 
land, S.  C.  He  entered  the  Navy 
as  midshipman,  and  in  the  War 
of  1812  was  a  lieutenant  on  the 
Constitution  in  the  battle  with 
the  Cyane  and  the  Levant.  In  the 
Mexican  War  he  commanded  the 
Pacific  squadron,  and  in  1859  the 
squadron  sent  to  demand  repar- 
ation from  Paraguay,  an  Amer- 
ican steamer  having  been  fired 
upon.  He  secured  an  apology 
and  the  promise  of  a  money  in- 
demnity. He  was  retired  as  a 
rear  admiral  in  December  1861, 
having  remained  loyal  to  the 
government  upon  the  secession 
of  his  native  state. 

Shu  men  or  Shumla  fort, 
town,  Bulgaria,  at  base  of  Balkan 
Mts.,  56  m.  by  rail  N.w.  of  Varna; 
is  a  military  center,  and  exports 
wine,  cloth,  and  copper  goods. 
It  was  formerly  a  place  of  great 
strategic  importance,  and  was 
occupied  by  the  Russians  in 
1878.    Pop.  (1942)  25,486. 

Shunt,  in  electricity,  is  a  con- 
ductor placed  between  two  points 
in  closed  circuit,  to  divert  or 
shunt  part  of  the  current.  Thus, 
a  D  B  is  a  shunt  between  the 
points  a  and  b.  This  is  simply 
a  case  of  a  branched  or  divided 
circuit,  and  in  such  a  circuit 
it  is  a  well-known  law  that 
current  in  a  c  B  _  resist,  of  a  p  b 
current  in  A  d  B  resist,  of  a  c  b. 
Also  if  R,  Ri  and  R2,  be  the  resist- 
ance between  a  and  B,  due  to  the 
divided  circuit  and  the  resistance 
of  A  D  B  and  a  c  B  respectively, 

11,1a,- 
=  1 — -.A  shunt  IS  very  often 

R      Ri  R2 

placed  across  the  terminals  of  a 
galvanometer,  so  that  only  a 
small  part  of  the  current  may 
pass  through  its  coils.    When  a 


Sburl 


KR 


197 


8huya 


shunt  is  to  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, it  is  specially  constructed  to 
suit  the  instrument  with  which  it 
is  to  be  used,  and  has  several  re- 
sistances, each  of  which  is  an  ali- 
quot part  of  the  resistance  of  the 
galvanometer,  as  shown  in  figure 

"ig^^^'g^-   "a  plug  be  in- 

serted  at  c,  the  current  through 

the  galvanometer  is  only  ^qqq 

and   the   current   through  the 
999 

shunt  is  Yqoo  total  current 

in  circuit.  If  G  =  resistance  of  gal- 
vanometer, s=  that  of  shunt, 
and  R  =  total  resistance  in  cir- 
cuit between  the  points  c  and  d 
across  which  the  shunt  is  placed, 

then  -  =  — I — .  Applying  this 

R       G  S 
^  u  •        1      1  ,  999 

to  the  above  gives  -  =  -  H  = 

^  R     G  G 

1000  .  G  .     .  .  ,  . 

  •  •  R  =  TTr;:^^;       total  resis- 

G  1000' 

tance  between  c  and  g  is  only 

^  ,  or  resistance  in  circuit  has 
1000 


999 

been  lessened  by  -    —  g, 
1000 


and 


999 

hence  a  resistance  equal  to  G 

1000 

must  be  inserted  in  the  main 
circuit  to  bring  c  to  its  original 
value.  When  this  is  done  the 
shunt  is  said  to  be  'compen- 
sated.'   Similarly,  when  B  E  and 

99  9 

A  F  are  used,  and  —  of  g  re- 

100  10 
spectively  must  be  inserted  for 
compensation. 

In  all  the  arc  lamps  in  common 
use,  the  coil,  by  means  of  which 


Galuanom*t»r 


Twnm^iMiz  c 

999 


1 

99 


1 


To  Battvry 


the  automatic  maintenance  of 
the  arc  is  kept  up,  is  placed  as  a 
shunt  across  the  terminals  of  the 
lamp.  In  many  dynamos  a  shunt 
coil  is  placed  across  its  poles — 
i.e.,  between  its  brushes — and  is 
wound  round  the  field  magnets. 
By  this  means  the  current  gen- 
erated by  the  dynamo,  as  it 
passes  out  by  the  brushes,  di- 
vides into  two  parts;  one  goes 


round  the  field-magnets  and 
magnetizes  them;  the  other  goes 
round  the  external  circuit  and 
does  work  either  in  producing 
light  or  in  driving  motors.  A 
similar  shunt  is  to  be  found  in 
many  motors. 

Shurl,  shoo're,  or  Shiuri, 
town,  Japan,  in  Okinawa,  one  of 
the  Luchu  or  Ryukyu  Archipel- 
ago, of  which  it  is  the  capital.  It 
was  formerly  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  the  native  kings,  and 
ruins  of  the  castle  may  still  be 
seen. 

Shurt'leff  College,  Baptist 
coeducational  institution  in  Al- 
ton, 111.,  founded  in  1827.  Its 
organization  comprises  a  college 
of  liberal  arts  and  a  conservatory 
of  music.  The  collegiate  courses 
lead  to  the  bachelor's  degree  in 
arts  or  science,  and  the  courses 
in  music  to  the  bachelor's  degree 
in  music. 

Shusha,  town,  Azerbaijan,  in 
the  autonomous  Karabakh  Ter- 
ritory, It  grows  fruit  and  is  fa- 
mous for  its  carpets  and  silks. 
Shusha  was  the  capital  of  Kara- 
bakh khanate  before  the  Russian 
occupation. 

Shushan.    See  Susa. 

Shushwap,  shoo'swop,  a 
North  American  Indian  tribe  of 
Salish  stock,  inhabiting  the  in- 
terior of  British  Columbia,  along 
the  Fraser  River,  and  around 
Shushwap  Lake.  It  is  a  hunt- 
ing and  fishing  tribe,  and  the 
women  are  skilful  in  basketry 
and  the  making  of  mats.  Un- 
like the  neighboring  tribes,  they 
live  in  underground  circular 
houses  and  do  not  possess  a  clan 
system.  They  have  many  curi- 
ous customs  in  regard  to  mar- 
riage, burial,  and  other  cere- 
monies. At  the  present  time  the 
number  of  Shushwaps  is  prob- 
ably about  2,200. 

Shuster,  shoo'star,  Iran,  for- 
mer capital  of  the  province  of 
Khuzistan,  on  the  Karun  River; 
2.50  miles  southwest  of  Ispahan. 
The  town  is  in  a  dilapidated  con- 
dition, chief  among  the  ruins  be- 
ing those  of  the  citadel  situated 
on  a  lofty  eminence  overlooking 
the  town.  The  Mosque  of  Mas- 
jed-i-Juma  is  of  interest.  Pop. 
about  20,000. 

Shuster,  George  N.  (1894- 
),  educator,  president  of 
Hunter  College  (1940).  He  wrote 
English  Literature  (1926);  The 
Catholic  Church  and  Current 
Literature  (1929),  and  edited 
Hitler's  Mein  Kampf  (1939). 

Shuster,  William  Morgan 
(1877-  ),  American  lawyer  and 
financial  expert,  was  born  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Columbian  College  and 
Law  School  (now  George  Wash- 
ington University).  He  entered 
the  War  Department  in  1898; 
was  employed  in  the  customs 
service    in    Cuba  (1899-1901); 


was  collector  of  customs  for  the 
Philippine  Islands  (1901-06); 
and  was  a  member  of  the  Philip- 
pine Commission  and  secretary 
of  public  instruction  for  the 
Philippine  Islands  (1906-09). 
As  chairman  of  the  Code  Com- 
mittee, he  did  important  work  in 
codifying  the  American  legisla- 
tion for  the  Philippine  Islands 
covering  a  period  of  ten  years. 
In  1911  he  was  appointed  treas- 
urer general  and  financial  ad- 
viser for  the  Persian  Empire, 
which  position  he  filled  with 
marked  ability  until  1912,  when, 
following  the  destruction  of  the 
Nationalist  government,  he  re- 
signed. He  returned  to  New 
York,  and  in  1915  became  presi- 
dent of  The  Century  Company, 
of  that  city.  He  wrote  The 
Strangling  of  Persia  (1912). 

Shute,  Henry  Augustus 
(1856-1943),  American  author, 
was  born  in  Exeter,  N.  H,  He 
was  graduated  from  Harvard 
University  in  1879  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1882.  In 
1883  he  became  judge  of  the  po- 
lice court  in  Exeter,  N.  H.  He 
is  the  author  of  many  popular 
and  amusing  books  about  boys, 
among  which  are:  Real  Diary  of 
a  Real  Boy  (1902);  Letters  to 
Beany  and  Love  Letters  of  Plupy 
Shute  (1905);  Real  Boys  (1906), 
The  Country  Band  (1908),  Pulpy 
(1910);  A  Country  Lawyer  (1911)  ] 
Misadventures  of  Three  Good 
Boys  (1914);  Brite  and  Fair 
(1918);  The  Real  Diary  of  the 
Worst  Farmer  (1919);  Chadwick 
and  Shute,  Gob  Printers  (1927); 
Plupy,  The  Wirst  Yet  (1929). 

Shute,  John.  See  Barring- 
ton. 

Shut'tle,  an  instrument  used 
in  weaving  cloth,  by  which  the 
threads  of  the  weft  are  passed 
between  the  threads  of  the  warp. 
It  is  a  sort  of  boat-shaped  wood- 
en carriage,  containing  the  bob- 
bin on  which  the  weft  is  wound. 
In  olden  times  the  weaver  moved 
the  shuttle  with  his  hands,  but 
this  is  now  done  automatically 
by  machinery.   See  Cotton. 

Shuttleworth.  See  Kay- 
Shuttleworth. 

Shuvaloff,  shu-va'lof,  Peter 
Andreievitch  (1827-89), 
Russian  soldier  and  diplomat. 
As  governor-general  of  the  Baltic 
provinces  (1864)  he  distinguished 
himself  by  repressing  Nihilism 
and  other  forms  of  revolutionary 
agitation.  He  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  political  police,  and 
became  the  confidential  agent  of 
Emperor  Alexander  ii.  He  was 
ambassador  to  Great  Britain ; 
and  in  1878,  after  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War,  he  conducted  the 
negotiations  with  Lord  Salisbury 
which  led  to  the  Berlin  Congress. 

Shuya,  ancient  town,  central 
Russia,  in  Vladimir  government; 
63  miles  northwest  of  Vladimir 


Shwan-pan 


KR 


197A 


^tant 


city.  It  has  manufactures  of 
fioap,  cotton,  calico,  linen,  and 
cloth,  dyeworks,  and  trade  in 
hides  and  furs.  Pop.  about 
35,500. 

Shwan-pan,  or  Suan-pan. 
See  Abacus. 

Shwedaung,  shwa-downg', 
town.  Lower  Burma,  in  Prome 
district,  on  the  Irawadi  River ; 
1 1  miles  southwest  of  Prome. 
Weaving  is  the  chief  industry, 
and  rice  is  exported.  Pop. 
10,000. 

SiaFagogue,  a  substance 
which  increases  the  flow  of  sa- 
liva. Some  drugs  effect  this  by 
direct  contact  with  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth — e.g., 
dilute  acids,  ether,  tobacco,  mus- 
tard, and  spices  ;  others  by  act- 
ing upon  the  salivary  glands— 
e.g.,  potassium  iodide,  jaborandi, 
mercurial  salts,  and  physostigma. 

Sialkot,  se'al-kot,  or  Seal- 
KOTE,  municipal  town,  India, 
Sialkot  district,  Punjab,  66  miles 
northeast  of  Lahore,  Notable 
buildings  are  the  church,  with  a 
lofty  steeple,  and  the  old  fort. 
A  mile  to  the  north  is  a  military 
cantonment.  Excellent  paper  and 
cloth  are  manufactured.  Pop. 
100.973. 

Slam',  or  Thailand,  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom  of  Asia,  20° 
north  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  which 
separates  the  Malay  from  the 
Indo-China  Peninsula.  Its  area 
is  about  200,148  square  miles. 
The  natives  call  their  country 
Muang-Thai',  meaning  'the  king- 
dom of  the  free.'  Within  com- 
paratively recent  years  the  limits 
of  Siam  have  varied  consider- 
ably, especially  by  the  definition 
of  the  French  sphere  of  influence 
in  the  East. 

The  kingdom  is  bounded  on  the 
west  by  Burma  and  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Mekong  and  the  French  protec- 
torates of  Luang  Prabang  and 
Cambodia.  Formerly  the  Lai 
Mountains  were  claimed  as  the 
eastern  boundary,  but  in  1893 
the  French  pressed  the  claims  of 
Annam  to  the  territory  between 
the  mountains  and  the  river,  and 
the  Siamese  were  compelled  to 
retire.  The  most  important  part 
of  Siam  lies  in  the  valley  of  the 
Menam,  the  country  of  the  true 
Siamese.  The  boundaries  on  the 
Bay  of  Bengal  reach  from 
Burma  in  a  southerly  line  to  the 
northern  frontier  of  Kelantan 
and  Kedah  in  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula in  the  latitude  of  about  7 
deg.  north.  The  island  of  Puket, 
containing  enormous  deposits  of 
tin  ore,  is  included  in  Siam.  The 
boundary  line  runs  southeast 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Perlis 
River  across  the  Peninsula 
slightly  to  the  north  of  Kota 
Bharu,  the  capital  of  Kelantan. 
By  the  treaty  of  1909  Siam  ceded 
to  Great  Britain  her  Malay  de- 


pendencies of  Perlis,  Kedah,  Ke- 
lantan, and  Trengganu,  and  the 
boundary  was  delimited  during 
1909-10.  Siam  also  comprises 
a  great  part  of  the  ancient  do- 
main of  Lao,  but  the  rich  and 
valuable  possession  of  Battam- 
bang,  once  a  part  of  the  king- 
dom of  Cambodia,  was  ceded  to 
France  in  1907.  A  treaty  in 
1904  between  France  and  Siam 
settled  some  disputed  points  over 
the  frontier  between  Siam  and 
Cambodia  and  Siam  and  French 
Indo-China. 

By  the  1907  treaty  the  terri- 
tories of  Battambang,  Sien-reap 
and  Angkor  were  handed  to 
France  in  exchange  for  the  dis- 
trict of  Krat  and  some  slight 
concessions  in  Dansai  (Laos). 
France  then  agreed  to  the  grad- 
ual abandonment  of  the  extra- 
territorial privileges  hitherto  en- 
joyed by  French  Asiatic  subjects 
and  proteges  in  Siam.  The  vari- 
ous dependencies  and  outskirts 
are  peopled  by  a  variety  of  races, 
some  unique,  others  representing 
every  form  and  shade  of  the 
transition  between  the  original 
race  and  the  Annamites  on  the 
east  and  the  Malays  and  Bur- 
mese on  the  south  and  west.  The 
former  capital  of  Siam  was  Ayut- 
hia,  on  the  Menam  River  (liter- 
ally the  'Mother  of  Waters'), 
about  90  miles  from  its  mouth. 
In  1767  desperate  combats  be- 
tween Siamese  and  Burmese 
ended  in  the  capture  and  de- 
struction of  that  city  by  the  vic- 
torious Burmese  general  and  the 
consequent  exodus  of  the  con- 
quered. They  moved  down  the 
river  about  60  miles,  and  there 
founded  the  present  populous  and 
flourishing  city  of  Bangkok.  The 
chief  of  the  Siamese  army  ral- 
lied the  scattered  troops  and, 
building  a  walled  city  at  Dhon- 
buri  {i.e.,  Bangkok  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  river,  the  modern 
capital  being  mainly  on  the  east 
bank),  declared  himself  King  un- 
der the  title  P'ya  Tak.  In  1782 
P'ya  Tak  became  insane,  and  the 
kingdom  passed  to  his  most  dis- 
tinguished general,  named  Chao 
P'ya  Chakkri,  who  founded  the 
present  dynasty. 

The  geography  of  Siam  falls 
naturally  into  four  main  divi- 
sions, Northern,  Central,  Eastern 
and  Southern.  Northern  Siam 
embraces  about  60,000  square 
miles  and  consists  of  a  series  of 
roughly  parallel  hill  ranges  and 
valleys  trending  north  and  south. 
Increasing  in  elevation  towards 
west  and  north,  they  reach 
heights  of  over  6,000  feet.  They 
are  all  thickly  forested,  except 
where  scarred  by  tribal  clearings 
or  bare  rock.  Numerous  streams 
drain  the  hills  ;  those  on  the  ex- 
treme west  join  the  Salween ; 
those  on  the  extreme  north,  the 
Mekong ;    the    remainder  flow 


southwards  into  four  streams 
which  join  to  form  the  Menam. 
The  soil  is  rich.  The  town  of 
Chiengmai  lies  in  the  heart  of 
this  region  and  is  connected  with 
Bangkok  by  rail. 

Central  Siam,  about  50,000 
square  miles,  is  practically  a  vast 
plain  extending  from  the  moun- 
tains on  the  borders  of  Burma  on 
the  west  to  the  ridge  which 
bounds  eastern  Siam  on  the  east, 
and  for  300  miles  from  the  north 
to  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam 
in  the  south.  The  general  dead 
level  is  broken  in  places  by  small 
hills.  Lying  slightly  above  sea 
level,  the  plain  is  subject  to  regu- 
lar annual  inundations.  Sluggish 
streams  drain  the  region,  of 
which  the  Menam  is  the  chief. 
About  a  quarter  of  the  area  is 
under  cultivation;  belts  and 
patches  of  jungle  occur  north- 
wards and  in  the  east  and  west 
littoral  districts,  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  plain  consists  of  wide 
expanses  thinly  spotted  with  tall 
Palmyra  palms  and  clumps  of 
bamboo  (marking  the  presence 
of  villages),  or  is  entirely  tree- 
less. An  irrigation  system  con- 
structed in  recent  years  has 
opened  up  considerable  tracts  in 
this  region  north  of  Bangkok. 

Eastern  Siam  covers  about 
65,000  square  miles  and  consists 
of  a  huge  shallow  basin  encircled 
by  hills,  between  which  and  the 
Mekong  lies  a  strip  of  country, 
and  the  whole  region  forms  the 
boundary  of  the  kingdom.  About 
20  people  to  the  square  mile, 
some  million  and  a  quarter,  Laos, 
Siamese  and  Cambodians,  in- 
habit the  territory,  eking  out  a 
precarious  existence  from  a  re- 
luctant soil,  damp  and  muddy 
half  the  year,  and  dry  and  hot  the 
other  half.  Epidemics  and  dis- 
eases haunt  both  humans  and 
cattle. 

Southern  Siam,  with  an  area 
of  about  25,000  square  miles, 
comprises  all  the  narrower  part 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  far- 
ther north  a  strip  between  Lower 
Burma  and  the  Gulf  of  Siam. 
The  natural  scenery  is  very 
beautiful,  making  a  picture,  re- 
peated with  minor  variations,  of 
cerulean  blue  water,  golden 
beaches,  villages  nestling  among 
tall  palm  trees,  with  miles  of 
evergreen  jungle  rolling  behind 
these,  and  at  the  back  of  all  the 
magnificent  purple  mountains 
towering  into  the  sky.  Though 
generally  of  a  hilly  character, 
the  east  coast  district  comprises 
several  broad  open  plains  with  a 
light  but  rich  soil  where  crops 
of  rice  are  grown  and  large  herds 
of  cattle  raised.  The  most  fer- 
tile plains  are  situated  round 
about  the  towns  of  Lakon  and 
Patalung,  where  a  large  popula- 
tion lives  and  prospers  on  agri- 
culture and  fishing.     Here-  in- 


©  livTton  Holmes,  from  Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 

SCENES  IN  SIAM 


1.  One  of  the  Many  Fine  Temples  of  Bangkok,  a  Good  Example  of  vSiamese  Architecture 

2.  Houses  Built  in  the  Menam  River,  the  Chief  Highway  of  the  Siamese  Interior 

Vol.  XI.—  Vol,.  XT.— Page  197  B 


Siam 


197  C 


Siam 


deed,  is  an  idyllic  earthly  para- 
dise, plenty  of  food,  little  or  no 
disease,  and  an  equable  climate 
— a  great  contrast  to  Eastern 
Siam,  It  is  through  the  delight- 
ful east  coast  of  Southern  Siam 
that  the  railway  between  Malaya 
and  Bangkok  nms.  The  west- 
ern coast  is  more  indented  than 
the  eastern  and  resembles  that 
of  Tenasserim  (Burma)  to  the 
north.  On  one  of  the  islands  lies 
the  town  of  Puket,  long  famous 
for  its  tin  mines,  and  with  a 
large  Chinese  population. 

Siam  has  one  great  river  of  its 
own — the  Menam,  which  with  its 
tributaries  lies  completely  within 
Siamese  territory.  The  Salween 
and  the  Mekong,  on  the  other 
hand,  form  the  boundary  lines  of 
the  country  for  considerable  dis- 
tances. The  Menam  (or  Menam 
Chao  Phaya)  is  to  Siam  what  the 
Nile  is  to  Egypt.  The  river  is 
thronged  with  craft  of  all  kinds, 
a  highway,  a  sewer,  and  the  sole 
water  supply  for  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  people.  Bangkok  be- 
strides the  Menam  and  is  re- 
markable for  its  size  relative  to 
the  total  population  of  the  coun- 
try— over  600,000 — and  it  han- 
tlles  85  per  cent,  of  the  foreign 
trade  of  Siam.  Its  position  amid 
iiuimnerable  sidecreeks  has  made 
the  city  a  Venice  of  the  East. 

The  climate  and  seasons  in 
Siam  resemble  those  of  India — 
the  so-called  cold  season  from 
the  end  of  October  to  February, 
the  hot  season  from  March  to 
May  and  the  rains  from  June  to 
October.  Central  Siam  benefits 
from  the  cooling  winds  from  the 
Gulf  of  Siam  from  March  to 
October ;  the  basin  of  Eastern 
Siam  is  cut  off  from  these  and 
suffers  greater  extremes  as  well 
as  a  lower  rainfall.  The  south 
of  Siam,  in  the  Peninsula,  has 
a  short  dry  season  and  a  small 
annual  range. 

The  teak  forests  of  the  north- 
west are  cominercially  impor- 
tant ;  the  cutting  of  the  timber  is 
a  great  industry  and  is  mainly 
under  British  management.  The 
logs  are  floated  down  the  Menam 
to  Bangkok  or  down  the  Salween 
to  Moulmein  in  Burma.  The 
chief  product  of  Siam  is  rice, 
which  forms  both  the  national 
food  and  the  staple  article  of  ex- 
port. The  crop  normally  covers 
an  area  of  over  4,000.000  acres. 
Other  crops  of  note  are  pepper, 
tobacco  and  betel-nuts  ;  rubber  in 
the  extreme  south.  Both  fauna 
and  flora  in  Southern  Siam 
gradually  merge  into  those  char- 
acteristic of  Malaya.  Elephants, 
tigers,  and  several  kinds  of  deer 
are  abundant,  and  there  is  a  great 
variety  of  birds,  reptiles  and 
fish. 

The  chief  geological  character- 
istics of  .Siam  are  immense  beds 
nf   limestone   rocks   resting  on 
1 1 3-1-2 


sandstone  and  much  broken  by 
frequent  intrusions  of  granite, 
(jold,  silver,  coal,  copper,  lead, 
iron,  petroleum,  wolfram  and 
salt  are  found  in  limited  amounts, 
and  large  quantities  of  tin  are 
worked.  Sapphires,  garnets,  ru- 
bies and  topaz  crystals  occur  in 
the  northerji  part. 

The  only  manufacturing  in- 
dustry of  any  importance  is  rice- 
milling,  which  is  steadily  grow- 
ing and  is  carried  on  in  most 
places  by  means  of  modern  ma- 
chinery. There  are  almost  a 
hundred  rice  mills  in  and  about 
Bangkok.  Boat  building  and 
pottery  making  are  practised  on 
a  modest  scale.  The  chief  port 
is  Bangkok,  but  ships  of  heavy 
draught  have  to  transfer  their 
cargoes  at  Paknam  on  the  coast, 
owing  to  a  bar  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  which  permits  the  pas- 
sage of  vessels  drawing  13  feet 
only.  About  1,000  vessels  visit 
Bangkok  annually ;  roughly  a 
third  of  the  tonnage  is  British. 

Until  recent  years  the  rivers 
and  canals  were  the  chief  means 
of  internal  communication  and 
transport.  The  first  railway  line, 
from  Bangkok  to  Paknam,  was 
opened  by  King  Chulalongkorn 
on  April  11,  1893.  Mainly  a  pas- 
senger, line,  it  has  not  been  able 
to  build  up  any  freight  traffic 
worth  mentioning,  though  the 
dividend  averages  7  per  cent. 
Another  railway,  a  Government 
line  via  Ayuthia  to  Korat,  was 
the  first  important  line  completed. 
The  first  section,  from  Bangkok 
to  Ayuthia,  about  50  miles,  was 
opened  in  1897  ;  another  section, 
to  Gengkoi,  followed  the  same 
year ;  a  third,  to  Hinlap,  was 
opened  in  1898  ;  and  the  whole 
line  completed  in  1900.  The  con- 
struction of  a  line  branching  oft" 
the  Korat  line  near  Ayuthia  and 
intended  to  open  up  the  country 
to  Chiengmai,  was  opened  in 
1898;  other  sections  came,  Lop- 
buri-Paknampo ;  Pitsanulok  in 
1907,  and  the  final  link,  to 
Chiengmai,  was  opened  to  traf- 
fic Jan.  1,  1922.  The  line  run- 
ning south-west  to  Petchaburi, 
Tia  Ratburi,  was  opened  in  1903. 
This  southern  line  was  continued 
in  1909  from  Petchaburi,  and 
now  runs  to  the  Kedah  frontier 
at  Padang  Besar  and  to  the  Ke- 
lantan  frontier  at  Sungei  Golok. 
.A.  through  rail  service  was 
opened  between  Bangkok  and 
Penang  in  1918  ;  the  Eastern  line 
from  Bangkok  to  Patriev  was 
completed  in  1908.  It  now  runs 
to  Aranya  Prades  near  the  Cam- 
bodian frontier,  while  the  Korat 
line  has  been  extended  to  Ubon. 

The  World  War  interrupted 
railroad  construction  in  Siam.  In 
1930  there  were  1,774  miles  of 
State  Railways  open  to  traffic, 
and  1 1  1  miles  under  construc- 
tion.    The  Southern  Line  con- 


nects (through  Penang)  with  the 
Federated  Malay  States  Railway 
to  Singapore.  The  Northern  and 
Southern  systems  are  linked  to- 
gether by  means  of  a  railway 
bridge  over  the  Menam  since 
1927.  Both  lines  are  under  one 
management. 

Some  private  lines  (66  miles) 
are  operated  by  companies  and 
form  connection  in  parts  with  the 
State  Lines.  There  were  1,300 
miles  of  highways  in  1930.  Post 
offices  (1929-30)  numbered  832. 
In  those  years  there  were  581 
telegraph  offices,  with  a  length 
of  wire  of  8,251  miles  (lines, 
4,905  miles).  In  1929-30  there 
were  18  telephone  exchanges 
with  3,162  subscribers;  number 
of  calls  were  13,880,220.  Three 
wireless  stations  (Telefunken 
system)  operate  in  Bangkok,  Sin- 
gora  (Senggora),  and  Koh-Khan, 
two  under  the  Navy  Department 
and  the  last  under  the  Post  and 
Telegraph  Department.  In  1929 
a  new,  high-powered  station  was 
added  in  Bangkok.  Direct  wire- 
less commercial  communication 
operates  with  France,  Germany, 
(ireat  Britain,  Philippine  Islands, 
Hong  Kong  and  Java. 

Currency  reform  in  1928  abol- 
ished the  tical,  long  the  monetary 
unit  of  Siam.  The  unit  of  cur- 
rency now  is  the  silver  baht,  di- 
vided, as  was  the  tical,  into  100 
satang.  The  baht  rates  at  eleveti 
to  the  pound  sterling,  and  is 
worth,  roughly,  44  cents  Ameri- 
can. Other  silver  coins  are  50 
and  25  satang.  Nickel  coins  are 
10  and  5  satang;  bronze,  1  sa- 
tang. In  1902  there  began  the 
issue  of  5,  10,  20,  100  and  1,000 
tical  notes;  in  1918,  1  tical  notes 
were  added. 

By  the  1929-30  census  the 
population  was  11,506,207,  over 
two-thirds  Siamese.  The  Sia- 
mese are  a  small,  well-propor- 
tioned race  with  olive  skin  and 
black  hair.  They  are  essentially 
peaceful  and  inclined  to  indolence. 
There  is  no  hereditary  nobility. 
The  position  of  women  is  much 
better  than  in  many  Oriental 
states,  and  they  enjoy  many  legal 
and  actual  rights.  Though  po- 
lygamy is  legal,  it  is  rare  among 
the  peasants.  The  language  is 
monosyllabic  and  has  five  tones, 
somewhat  like  the  Chinese,  which 
makes  its  acquisition  difficult  for 
Westerners.  The  alphabet  con- 
sists of  44  consonants  and  32 
vowels,  which  latter  are  written 
over,  under,  and  at  either  side 
of  the  consonant,  not  unlike  the 
vowel  signs  in  Arabic.  There  is 
little  literature  of  value..  The 
sacred  books  are  written  in  Pali. 

The  state  religion  is  Bud- 
dhism, of  the  Hinayana  or  'Les- 
ser Vehicle'  school,  with  more 
than  16,000  temples  and  133,000 
priests.  There  are  many  Mo- 
hanuuedans   (Malays),  and  the 


Siam 


KFP 


197  D 


Siam 


northern  tribes  practice  Shaman- 
ism. French  Jesuit  missionaries 
have  long  been  established,  and 
British  and  American  societies 
work  in  Bangkok  and  other  parts 
of  Siam  proper.  The  greatest 
toleration  prevails,  and  Christian 
missionaries  are  often  assisted 
by  the  government  in  education- 
al and  medical  work. 

Education —For  many  gen- 
erations education  was  princi- 
pally of  a  religious  nature,  the 
boys  having  to  spend  some 
months  in  Buddhist  monasteries. 
Elementary  education  is  now 
free  and  compulsory  (since 
1921)  for  boys  and  girls.  In  1871 
King  Chulalongkorn  founded  a 
school  to  teach  the  native  lan- 
guage, arithmetic  and  govern- 
ment service  methods.  English 
was  soon  added,  though  this 
training  was  intended  only  for 
sons  and  relatives  of  officials.  A 
royal  decree  in  1898  made  it  in- 
cumbent upon  the  priests  to  pro- 
vide 'general  knowledge.'  There 
are  429  government  schools. 
There  are  10,768  local  elemen- 
tary schools  with  1,325,891  pu- 
pils (over  80  per  cent  girls). 

Higher  education  is  provided 
by  the  Chulalankarana  Univer- 
sity in  Bangkok  (1917),  organ- 
ized in  three  faculties,  medicine, 
arts  and  sciences,  and  engineer- 
ing. A  new  University  of  Moral 
and  Political  Sciences  was 
founded  in  1934  for  the  teach- 
ing of  law,  politics  and  econom- 
ics, and  the  training  of  Civil 
servants.  The  Department  of 
Education  was  established  in 
1887.  Training  is  also  given  in 
agriculture,  and  for  nurses  and 
midwives.  There  are  also  mili- 
tary and  naval  colleges  and  a 
Law  School.  Some  of  the  upper 
classes  send  their  sons  abroad 
for  study  ;  while  a  large  number 
of  promising  students  are  sent 
to  Europe  and  the  United  States 
supported  by  the  government 
and  the  royal  purse. 

Public  Health— Since  1917, 
when  the  International  Health 
Board  of  the  Rockefeller  Foun- 
dation carried  its  work  to  Siam, 
the  government  has  labored  for 
the  wide  dissemination  of  medi- 
cal treatment  and  preventive 
work,  in  which  foreign  experts 
have  been  employed.  The  be- 
ginning of  the  government's  ef- 
forts for  public  health  dates  from 
the  opening  of  a  medical  school 
in  1889.  Shortly  afterwards,  an 
American  physician  at  Bangkok 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the 
health  conditions  in  the  capital, 
and  the  first  public  health  decree 
was  issued  in  1897.  The  gov- 
ernment supports  numerous  hos- 
pitals and  dispensaries. 

There  is  a  hospital  in  Bangkok 
for  Chinese  exclusively ;  other 
hospitals  in  the  interior  were, 
originally,     missionary  enter- 


prises. The  missionary  leper  in- 
stitution at  Chiengmai  dates  back 
to  the  early  part  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. Infant  and  maternal  work, 
with  nursing,  has  made  great 
progress,  while  particular  atten- 
tion is  devoted  to  epidemic  dis- 
eases— plague,  cholera,  small- 
pox and  cerebrospinal  meningi- 
tis. There  is  also  a  Siamese  Red 
Cross  which,  in  conjunction  with 
the  Rockefeller  group,  leads  an 
educational  campaign  against 
hookworm  disease.  The  Red 
Cross  also  has  charge  of  the  Pas- 
teur Institute,  opened  in  1905. 

Defense, — The  Military  Serv- 
ice Act  (June  1,  1937)  made 
every  able-bodied  man  between 
18  and  30  years  of  age  liable  to 
serve  two  years  with  the  colors  ; 
seven  years  in  the  first  reserve ; 
ten  years  in  the  second  reserve, 
and  six  years  in  the  third  re- 
serve. The  army  has  26  battal- 
ions of  infantry,  4  regiments  and 
1  squadron  of  cavalry,  two  anti- 
aircraft sections,  9  groups  of  ar- 
tillery and  2  battalions  of  engi- 
neers. The  total  personnel  is 
about  30,000. 

The  navy  includes  2  sea  gun- 
boats, 4  coast  defense  gunboats, 
3  sloops,  1  destroyer,  7  seagoing 
torpedo  boats,  3  small  torpedo 
boats,  8  motor  torpedo  boats,  4 
submarines,  2  minelayers,  and  11 
transport  vessels.  Most  of  the 
ships  were  built  in  Japan  and 
Italy.  The  mouth  of  the  Menam 
is  fortified. 

^  Government. — Siam  was,  un- 
til 1932,  an  absolute  monarchy, 
the  person  of  the  king  being  sa- 
cred. A  brief  military  revolu- 
tion in  June,  1932,  resulted  in  a 
constitutional  monarchy  being 
set  up,  with  power  vested  in  the 
people,  including  votes  for  wom- 
en. The  king  exercises  his  legis- 
lative powers  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Assembly  of  the 
People's  Representatives,  and 
the  executive  power  through  the 
State  Council  of  14  to  24  mem- 
bers. The  president  and  14 
members  of  the  Council  are  se- 
lected from  the  Assembly,  one 
half  nominated  by  the  king  and 
the  remainder  elected  by  popular 
vote  for  four  years.  After  ten 
years  all  the  members  were  to  be 
elected  by  popular  vote. 

The  Ministers  are  directed  by 
State  Councillors.  For  local  ad- 
ministration the  country  is  di- 
vided into  70  provinces  called 
Changwads,  under  Commission- 
ers responsible  to  the  Minister  of 
the  Interior.  Subdivisions  are 
406  Districts  and  5,087  Com- 
munes. The  census  of  1937 
showed  a  population  of  14,464,- 
489,  an  increase  of  2,958,282 
over  the  1929  census.  Estimated 
population  in  1940  was  15,718,- 
000. 

Foreign    Relations. — S  o  m  e 

European  nations  and  the  United 


States  enjoyed  extraterritorial 
jurisdiction  until  the  close  of  the 
First  World  War.  France  had 
renounced  such  rights  in  1907  ; 
Great  Britain  followed  two  years 
later.  These  concessions  were 
based  upon  the  modernization  of 
Siamese  judicial  procedure.  In 
1936  Siam  denounced  all  her  ex- 
isting treaties  with  foreign  coun- 
tries and  negotiations  for  new 
ones  began.  Siam's  full  sover- 
eignty was  recognized  by  Great 
Britain  in  1926. 

With  Siam's  entry  into  the 
First  World  War  on  the  side  of 
the  Allies  (July,  1917),  her 
struggle  for  full  autonomy  and 
territorial  integrity  entered  its 
final  phase.  Germany  and  Aus- 
tria-Hungary lost  their  extrater- 
ritorial and  all  other  rights  fol- 
lowing Siam's  declaration  of 
war.  Then,  in  1920,  by  the  Si- 
amese-American treaty  (Dec. 
16),  the  United  States  granted 
to  Siam  legal  jurisdiction  over 
American  nationals. 

Under  the  absolutist  regime  a 
majority  of  the  foreign  judges 
held  their  positions  on  the  initia- 
tive of  the  Siamese,  even  those 
who  had  a  treaty  status  sat  as 
individual  foreigners  and  not  as 
representatives  of  a  specific  for- 
eign government. 

History. — Siam  has  been  de- 
fined as  a  'treaty-defended  buffer 
state  between  British  and  French 
territory  in  the  Indo-Chinese 
peninsula.'  Its  modern  history 
begins  from  1511,  when  Portu- 
guese traders  arrived  at  Siamese 
ports,  followed  by  other  adven- 
turous foreigners.  As  was  the 
case  in  other  Oriental  countries, 
the  foreign  trader  fell  into  dis- 
faror  for  many  years,  but  in 
Siam,  as  later  in  Japan,  was  wel- 
comed eventually,  although  it 
meant  for  the  country  foreign 
impositions  on  the  freedom  of 
the  state,  such  as  foreign  dictat- 
ed tariffs  and  extraterritoriality. 

Among  the  early  arrivals  was 
the  son  of  a  Levantine  innkeep- 
er, ^  Constantine  Faulkon,  who 
arrived  at  Ayuthia  in  1659  and 
soon  became  adviser  to  the  rul- 
ing monarch.  For  many  years  he 
served  Siamese  interests  faith- 
fully by  encouraging  commerce 
with  foreigners.  But  in  1688  he 
swerved  into  a  plot  with  French 
missionaries  to  bring  the  land 
under  French  political  control. 
The  Siamese  revolted  against 
the  ruling  house,  drove  it  out. 
murdered  Faulkon  and  expelled 
the  French  ships  and  soldiers. 
Then  came  a  long  period  of  dis- 
order and,  eventually,  the  Bur- 
mese war,  when  Bangkok  was 
founded  after  defeat,  in  1767. 

It  was  king  Monghkut  who 
in  1851  decided  to  modernize  Si- 
am's entire  government  to  secure 
for  his  country  a  place  of  equal- 
ity among  the  nations.  This  en- 


Siam 


KFP 


198 


Sian-fa 


lightened  ruler  had  spent  27 
years  of  his  manhood  as  a  Bud- 
dhist monk,  studying  Western 
civilization  and  learning  Eng- 
lish, French  and  Latin  from 
American  and  French  mission- 
aries. He  ruled  from  1851  to 
1868.  Chulalongkorn  succeeded 
his  father  Monghkut  at  the  age 
of  15  and  reigned  42  years,  dur- 
ing which  long  period  he  intro- 
duced progressive  reforms  and 


Hin,  on  the  coast.  Soldiers  and 
sailors  seized  strategic  points  of 
the  city  and  arrested  a  number 
of  the  royal  princes,  whom  they 
held  as  hostages. 

The  plot  had  been  brewing  for 
some  years  among  a  small  group 
of  young  civilians  who  were  ed- 
ucated in  Europe.  They  suc- 
ceeded in  winning  over  to  their 
cause  some  younger  officers  of 
both  the  army  and  navy  to  bring 


sent  several  of  his  sons  to  be 
educated  in  England.  He  abol- 
ished slavery  and  established  lib- 
erty of  conscience.  Chulalong- 
korn was  succeeded  in  1910  by 
his  son  Rama  vi,  who  died  in 
1925  and  was  followed  by  his 
younger  brother,  Prajadhipok. 
Both  these  monarchs  received 
part  of  their  education  in  Eng- 
land and  France.  The  latter, 
with  his  queen,  Rambai  Barni, 
visited  the  United  States  in  1931. 

On  June  24,  1932,  there  was 
staged  in  Bangkok  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  revolutions  re- 
corded in  history.  It  was  a 
peaceful  event  from  start  to  fin- 
ish. The  king  and  (|ueen  were 
away  at  a  small  village  at  Hua 


about,  by  force  if  necessary,  a 
change  in  the  form  of  govern- 
ment. The  king  was  invited  to 
return  to  Bangkok — as  a  consti- 
tutional sovereign.  Siam  thus 
became  a  democracy. 

The  king  was  threatened  with 
blindness,  which  caused  him  to 
travel  many  thousands  of  miles 
for  operations  in  England  and 
the  United  States.  While  on  a 
visit  to  England  in  1935  Pra- 
jadhipok made  certain  demands 
for  royal  prerogatives  which 
were  rejected  by  the  National 
Assembly,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  abdicated  his  throne 
and  became  Prince  of  Sukho- 
daya.  His  nephew,  Prince 
Ananda  Mahidol,  then  an  11- 


year-old  schoolboy  in  Switzer- 
land, was  chosen  as  king. 
Ananda,  who  was  born  in  Eu- 
rope, lived  for  a  time  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  where  his  father, 
Prince  Mahidol,  attended  Har- 
vard Medical  School. 

During  the  king's  minority  a 
Council  of  Regency  of  three  of- 
ficials was  appointed  to  conduct 
the  government.  In  the  Second 
World  War,  Siam  became  a  pup- 
pet of  Japan  until  1945  and  was 
technically  at  war  with  the 
United  Nations,  though  resisting 
underground.  The  young  king 
came  of  age  in  1942  but  did  not 
return  to  Siam  until  three  years 
later.  On  June  9,  1946  the  king 
was  fatally  shot  in  his  palace. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  broth- 
er, Phumiphon  Aduldet. 

Consult  Carter,  The  Kingdom 
of  Siam  (1904);  Thompson, 
Lotus  Latid  (1906)  ;  Wales,  Si- 
amese State  Ceremonies  (1932); 
idem.  Ancient  Siamese  Govern- 
ment and  Administration  (1934)  ; 
Riviere,  Siam  (1937)  ;  Wood,  A 
History  of  Siam  (1926)  ;  Pierre 
Loti,  Siam  (1923)  ;  Sir  J.  Bow- 
ring,  The  Kingdom  and  People 
of  Siam  (2  vols.  1857)  ;  Thomp- 
son, Thailand,  The  New  Siam 
(1941). 

Siam,  Gulf  of,  a  branch  of 
the  China  Sea,  between  the  Ma- 
lay Peninsula  on  the  west  and 
Cambodia  and  Cochin-China  on 
the  east,  235  miles  wide  at  its 
mouth,  and  extending  inland  470 
miles. 

Siamese  Twins,  Chang  and 
Eng  (1811-74),  an  instance  of 
the  monstrosity  known  as  'dou- 
ble.' The  twins  exhibited  them- 
selves in  various  parts  of  the 
world.  After  their  death  a  post- 
mortem examination  showed  that 
they  were  united  by  a  fleshy 
band,  situated  between  the  xiphi- 
sterna  and  the  umbilici,  contain- 
ing peritoneal  and  hepatic  tis- 
sues. The  twins  engaged  in 
farming  in  southern  United 
States  before  the  Civil  War. 
They  adopted  the  name  of  'Bunk- 
er' and  left  a  numerous  progeny 
by  twin  sisters.  _ 

Sian-fu,    seng'a-foo',  Sing- 

ANFU,    HSIAN-FU,    Or  SlGAN-PU. 

formerly  Chang-an,  provincial 
capital  of  Shensi,  northwest 
China ;  about  250  miles  west  of 
Honanfu  railroad  station.  It  is 
situated  on  a  lofty  plateau  a  few 
miles  south  of  the  Wei  River, 
the  chief  tributary  of  the  Yellow 
River  (Hoang-ho).  The  city  is 
surrounded  by  walls  measuring 
nearly  12  miles  in  circumference 
and  35  feet  in  height,  and  having 
four  gates  surmounted  by  tow- 
ers. In  the  N.E.  part  is  the  Man- 
chu  quarter,  including  a  large 
tract  of  walled  land  where  stood 
the  ancient  imperial  palace  ;  the 
N.w.  part  is  mainly  Mohamme- 
dan,   and    contains    the  oldest 


2 


c/2 


^  3 


Q  5  .. 
W  >  bo 
H  -.S 


"I 


Siang-tau 


KFI 


199 


Siberia 


mosque  in  China ;  in  the  s.w. 
part  are  the  governor's  Yamen 
and  many  residences  ;  while  the 
s.E.  corner  boasts  the  'Peilin,'  a 
valuable  collection  of  ancient 
carved  tablets.  Little  shipping 
is  seen,  the  Hoang-ho  not  being 
navigable  to  any  extent  in  Shensi 
and  West  Honan.  The  transit 
caravan  trade  is  important,  how- 
ever, for  here  converge  the  great 
trade  routes  from  the  north, 
south,  and  east.  The  Roman 
Catholics,  English  Baptists,  and 
Scandinavian  Alliance  Missions 
maintain  stations  in  Sian-fu. 
Pop.  about  1,000,000. 

Sian-fu  is  a  city  of  great  his- 
torical interest.  Under  various 
names  its  history  extends  con- 
tinuously down  to  the  present 
time  from  the  days  of  the  Chow 
dynasty  (1100  B.C.),  when  it  was 
the  capital  of  China.  It  was  a 
great  center  of  Christian  mis- 
sions and  Nestorian  influence  in 
the  7th  and  8th  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era.  In  871  the  fa- 
mous Nestorian  Tablet  was 
erected  here,  giving  among  other 
things  a  vague  and  figurative  ab- 
stract of  Christian  doctrine. 
The  Tablet  was  accidentally  un- 
earthed in  1625,  and  re-erected 
on  a  stone  tortoise.  In  1907  the 
Danish  explorer  Frits  v.  Holm 
procured  a  monolith  replica  of 
the  monument,  which  was  exhib- 
ited in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  New  York  from  1908  to  1916, 
and  was  subsequently  placed  in 
the  Lateran  Palace  in  Rome. 
Sian-fu  became  the  temporary 
capital  of  China  when  the  Em- 
press Dowager  Tze-Hsi  and  Em- 
peror Kwang-Hsu  fled  thither 
from  Peking  in  1900,  during  the 
Boxer  rising.  In  1911  the  city 
joined  the  revolt  against  the 
Manchus. 

Siang-'tau.   See  Hsiang-tau. 

Siaton,  se-a-ton',  pueblo, 
Philippines,  on  Negros  Island, 
26  miles  southwest  of  Duma- 
guete.    Pop.  14,000. 

Sibalom,  se-ba-lom',  pueblo, 
Antique  province,  Panay,  Phil- 
ippine Islands;  10  miles  n.e.  of 
San  Jose  de  Buenavista.  Pop. 
17,700. 

Sibelius,  se-ba'li-us,  Jean 
ri865-  ),  Finnish  composer, 
was  born  in  Tavastehus.  He 
studied  music  in  Helsingfors  and 
later  in  Berlin  and  Vienna.  Re- 
turning to  Finland  in  1893,  he 
became  principal  of  the  Helsing- 
fors Conservatorium,  devoting 
much  of  his  time,  however,  to 
composition.  In  1900  he  toured 
Scandinavia,  Germany,  France, 
and  Belgium  and  in  1914  visited 
America  to  produce  his  Daugh- 
ters of  the  Ocean,  at  the  Nor- 
folk, Conn.,  festival.  His  work 
shows  marked  individuality  and 
a  strong  leaning  toward  his  na- 
tive folk-music.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  several  Symphonies, 


The  Swan  of  Tnonela,  Overture 
and  Suite  of  Karelia,  Finlandia, 
Pohjola's  Daughter,  The  Maid  in 
the  Tower  (an  opera),  incidental 
music  to  Pelleas  ct  Melisande, 
Konig  Christian  II,  and  Kuo- 
lema.  He  also  composed  more 
than  100  songs. 

Siberia  (Russ.  Sibir)  is  a 
vast  Russian  territory  in  north- 
ern Asia,  extending  from  the 
Ural  Mountains  to  Bering  Strait, 
about  5,000  miles  across  ;  and  in 
the  west,  from  the  Arctic  Ocean 
in  the  north  to  the  Mongolian 
border  in  the  south,  about  2,300 
miles,  with  a  total  area  of  about 
5,200,000  square  miles.  This 
northern  part  of  Asiatic  Russia 
consists  of  several  autonomous, 
semi-autonomous  and  territorial 
areas.  The  coast  line  measures 
19,300  miles,  of  which  rather 
more  than  half  skirts  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  The  Amur  River  marks 
the  southern  boundary  in  part  on 
the  east,  cutting  through  the 
Great  Khingan,  between  which 
and  the  Sayan  Mountains  on  the 
west  the  plateau  of  Transbai- 
kalia extends  across  the  bound- 
ary. 

Siberia  extends  west  to  the 
Urals  only  in  the  north,  and  is 
divided  from  the  steppes  by  a 
conventional  line  crossing  the 
basin  of  the  Ob.  A  mountainous 
arc  extends  from  Bering  Strait 
southwest  to  the  Transbaikal 
plateau,  and  is  continued  north- 
west by  ranges  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Yenisei,  one  of  which, 
the  Pitski,  crosses  that  river  at 
the  'Gates,'  not  far  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Stony  Tunguska, 
and  ends  in  low  hills  at  the 
source-region  of  the  Taz  River. 
Within  this  arc  lie  several  other 
elevations,  running  more  or  less 
from  west  to  east,  chief  of  which 
are  the  Siverma  Mountains 
(2,000  feet),  and  the  great 
Verkhoyansk  arc,  extending 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Olenek  to 
the  Stanovoi  range  on  the 
Anadyr  boundary. 

That  much  remains  to  be 
learnt  of  this  region  was  shown 
by  the  discovery  of  S.  V.  Obru- 
chev  in  1926  of  a  hitherto  un- 
known range  rising  to  heights  of 
10,000  feet,  which  forms  an  in- 
ner arc  parallel  to  the  outer  arc 
composed  of  the  Verkhoyansk- 
Kolymsk-Anadyrsk  range.  From 
the  Sayan  Mountains  ranges  rvm 
northeast,  enclosing  the  basin  of 
Lake  Baikal.  On  the  shores  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  the  country 
frec|uently  rises  into  tablelands 
or  forms  low  plains,  as  along  the 
Indigirka  and  Kolima.  Nearly 
the  entire  northwestern  section 
is  covered  by  the  great  Siberian 
swamp,  the  most  extensive  in  the 
world.  South  of  the  great  arc 
the  surface  is  much  diversified 
by  mountains,  on  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk  and  in  the  Amur  re- 


gion by  spurs  of  the  Stanovoi ; 
in  the  Ussuri  districts  by  the 
Sikhota-alin ;  while  the  Little 
Khingan  crosses  the  Amur. 

Owing  to  the  configuration 
the  principal  rivers  —  Ob,  Yeni- 
sei and  Lena  —  flow  into  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  and  only  one  im- 
portant stream,  the  Amur,  de- 
bouches on  the  east  coast.  The 
rivers,  all  slow  and  navigable  al- 
most to  their  sources,  form  the 
chief  highways  of  Siberia. 
Their  great  disadvantage  is  that 
they  are  closed  to  navigation  by 
ice  more  than  half  the  year. 
Lakes,  salt  and  fresh,  are  nu- 
merous in  the  basin  of  the  Ob, 
and  also  within  the  great 
mountain  arc.  The  largest  and 
most  important  is  Lake  Baikal 
(area  13,300  square  miles).  See 
Baikal,  Lake. 

Climate, — In  Siberia  the  eter- 
nal cold  of  the  northern  tundra 
contrasts  with  the  burning  heat 
of  the  arid  steppes  of  Kazakstan, 
the  level  prairie  lands  with  some 
of  the  greatest  mountain  ranges 
in  the  world.  There  are  no  pro- 
tecting mountain  ranges  against 
the  cold  winds  from  the  Arctic, 
which  have  full  play  to  sweep 
across  the  vast  plain  which,  in- 
deed, is  actually  inclined  north- 
wards to  receive  their  entire 
force — right  down  to  the  Cri- 
mean movmtains  and  the  Cau- 
casus. The  continental  charac- 
ter of  Siberian  climate  makes  for 
greater  dryness,  a  severer  winter 
and  hotter  summer  than  the 
lands  of  Western  Europe  which, 
as  a  rule,  are  nearer  salt  water 
and  especially  the  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

In  the  northern  section  the 
ground  is  perpetually  frozen  to 
a  great  depth  —  in  the  Vitim  dis- 
trict the  frost  reaching  300  feet 
below  the  surface.  During  the 
long  winter  the  Lena-Vitim 
gold-mining  district  remains  cut 
off  from  civilization  and  the  rail- 
roads. Only  at  the  end  of  spring 
does  transportation  become  pos- 
sible again. 

The  farther  east  one  passes 
from  the  moderating  inflvience  of 
the  Atlantic  and  the  seas  of  the 
temperate  zone,  the  greater  be- 
comes the  difference  in  the  tem- 
peratures of  the  summer  and  win- 
ter months.  The  remains  of 
mammoths  and  other  animals  are 
found  intact  in  the  frozen  depths. 
In  winter  the  isotherms  circle 
round  Verkhoyansk  (67^°  n., 
134^°  E.),  said  to  be  the  coldest 
inhabited  place  in  the  world. 
Here  the  mean  for  the  year  is 
about  zero,  and  the  absolute 
maximum  and  minimum  are  88° 
and  —89°  p.,  so  that  the  range  is 
177°.  In  summer  the  surface 
thaws,  and  the  whole  northern 
country  is  covered  with  deep 
mud. 

In  the  south,  at  Irkutsk,  in 


Siberia 


KFI 


200 


Siberia 


Transbaikalia,  and  on  the  Amur, 
the  annual  mean  is  32°  or  less, 
and  even  at  Vladivostok  the  har- 
bor is  frozen  for  more  than  three 
months.  But  the  summer  mean 
is  over  60°,  and  therefore  crops 
ripen.  Western  Siberia  has  a 
better  climate,  with  an  annual 
mean  of  37 ^  tempera- 
ture of  67°  in  July.  The  pre- 
cipitation also  increases  toward 
the  south.  It  is  very  slight  along 
the  Arctic  coast,  and  only  14 
inches  in  the  Irkutsk  region  ;  but 
it  is  20  inches  at  Nikolaievsk 
(mouth  of  the  Amur)  and  19  in 
Western  Siberia. 

Flora  and  Fauna, — Owing  to 
the  cold  and  dryness  of  the  Arc- 
tic littoral,  the  surface  is  covered 
with  tundra  vegetation  down  to 
about  66°  N.  lat.  Then  follows 
the  forest  zone  (taiga)  which, 
along  the  rivers,  sends  out 
tongues  northward.  The  forests 
are  chiefly  coniferous,  pine, 
spruce,  fir  and  larch  predominat- 
ing. The  deciduous  trees  are 
oak,  elm,  ash  and  maple. 
Birches,  alders,  willows  and  pop- 
lars fringe  the  streams.  The 
agricultural  zone  extends  from 
the  Baraba  Steppe  (Tomsk)  east 
along  Southern  Siberia.  Fur- 
bearing  animals  are  hunted  by 
natives  and  Russian  settlers,  and 
the  most  valuable,  the  sable,  has 
been  almost  exterminated  in  the 
Yakutsk  region.  The  chief  fur 
trade  is  in  polar  hare  and  fox, 
otter,  red  fox,  ermine,  wolf,  bear 
and  squirrel.  Reindeer  are  typi- 
cal for  the  tundra,  as  also  are 
multitudes  of  wading  and  swim- 
ming birds,  especially  the  tundra 
swan,  geese  and  barnacles.  All 
over  the  taiga  are  to  be  found 
brown  bears,  lynx,  wolverines, 
wolves,  and  more  than  200  spe- 
cies of  birds.  Typical  of  the 
steppes  are  the  large  jerboa,  mar- 
mot, crownsnipe,  bustard,  etc. 
The  lakes  swarm  with  fish — 
salmon,  sturgeon  and  allied 
forms.  The  Eskimo  dog  and  the 
reindeer  are  used  as  dravight  ani- 
mals in  the  north,  and  the  camel 
in  the  south. 

Mineral  Resources* — Siberia 
is  incalculably  rich  in  mineral 
deposits,  particularly  in  coal. 
There  are  vast  deposits  of  iron 
ore.  Until  recent  years  most  at- 
tention was  paid  to  gold-mining, 
but  numerous  expeditions  des- 
patched by  the  Soviet  govern- 
ment have  located  deposits  of  sil- 
ver, copper,  graphite,  zinc,  plat- 
inum, manganese,  marble,  emer- 
alds, and  lapis  lazuli.  The  min- 
eral extracting  industry  of  Si- 
beria is  as  yet  but  poorly  devel- 
oped though  considerable  effort 
is  being  devoted  to  increase  out- 
put. 

Agriculture  is  the  main  occu- 
pation ;  eight  out  of  ten  persons 
are  thus  employed,  and  three- 
quarters  of  the  total  income  of 


the  country  is  derived  from  this 
source.  Animal-breeding  is 
greatly  developed,  as  also  the 
butter-making  in  connection 
therewith.  In  the  south  is  found 
the  fertile  black  earth  region  so 
favorable  to  the  cultivation  of 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye  and 
vegetables.  Market-gardening  is 
everywhere  a  favorite  occupa- 
tion, and  of  late  years  cotton  has 
been  raised  in  the  s.w.  Cattle- 
grazing  and  horse-breeding  are 
important  industries,  especially 
among  the  Cossacks,  Buriats  and 
Kirghiz.  Reindeer  take  the 
place  of  cattle  in  the  north  and 
east  and  in  the  Sayan  Moun- 
tains. 

Industries  are  as  yet  in  their 
infancy.  In  pre-revolutionary 
times  (before  1917)  Siberia 
served  as  raw  material  basis  for 
European  Russia  in  a  number  of 
branches  of  industry.  At  pres- 
ent the  first  place  is  occupied  by 
local  industry,  followed  by  gold- 
mining  and  dressing  of  hides  and 
furs.  In  Eastern  and  Northern 
Siberia  mining,  hunting  and  lum- 
bering are  the  chief  occupations. 
Distilling  and  brewing  are  carried 
on,  and  there  are  match  factories, 
soap  and  tallow  works,  saw  mills, 
oil  refineries,  flovir  mills,  brick 
works  and  potteries.  On  the 
peninsula  of  Kamchatka,  Eastern 
Siberia,  there  are  great  modern 
floating  and  land  canneries, 
where  salmon,  crab  meat  and 
boneless  sturgeon  are  canned. 

Transportation, — Naviga- 
tion on  the  rivers  is  open  only 
about  five  months  a  year  in  their 
upper  courses  and  three  at  their 
mouths.  But  this  defect  has 
been  in  part  compensated  by  the 
construction  of  the  great  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway  from  the  Urals 
to  Vladivostok.  (See  Siberian 
Railway).  An  important  cara- 
van route  runs  from  Irkutsk 
through  Kiakhta  to  Peiping,  by 
which  Chinese  and  Mongolian 
wares,  tea  principally,  are  im- 
ported. Another  important  out- 
let is  Tiumen,  where  the  naviga- 
ble waters  of  the  Ob  are  con- 
nected by  rail  with  Perm  in  the 
basin  of  the  Volga. 

Population, -;~ln  1939  the 
population  of  Siberia  was  about 
9,000,000,  the  great  majority  be- 
ing Russian  or  of  other  Slav  na- 
tionalities. Cossacks  are  dis- 
tributed in  villages  over  all  the 
southern  part,  especially  on  the 
Amur  frontier  and  in  the  north 
of  the  Ussuri  District.  The  na- 
tive tribes  include  Kirghiz  in  the 
southwest,  Buriats  in  Irkutsk, 
Southern  Yeniseisk  and  Trans- 
baikalia, Tungusi  tribes  from  the 
Arctic  shore  to  the  Ussuri  Dis- 
trict, Ainus  and  Gilyaki  in  Sak- 
halin, Yakuts  in  the  Lena  basin, 
Lamuti  on  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk, 
Chukchi  in  the  northeast,  Sa- 
moyeds  and  Ostiaks  west  of  the 


Anabara  River.  Other  tribes  of 
the  Far  Eastern  Region  are  the 
Goldi,  Samogiri,  Malegri,  Oro- 
chi  ;  in  Kamchatka  are  the  Kor- 
yaki,  also  Chukchi,  Samoyeds 
and  Lamuti  ;  along  the  Zeya 
River,  Manchurians,  and  near 
the  Chinese  border,  Chinese  and 
Koreans. 

Most  of  the  Far  Eastern  peo- 
ple are  semi-civilized  and  many 
are  nomadic,  roaming  by  tribes 
through  the  taiga  and  along  the 
coast,  living  by  hunting,  fishing 
and  raising  reindeer.  At  several 
points  along  the  coast  what  are 
known  as  'cultural  combines' 
have  been  established  where  a 
school,  hospital,  veterinary  sta- 
tion, moving-picture  theatre  and 
workshops  are  all  combined  in 
one  institution.  These  centers, 
under  the  direction  of  experi- 
enced teachers,  play  an  important 
part  in  the  cultural  development 
of  the  country,  opening  to  the 
natives  a  hitherto  unknown 
world. 

Prior  to  the  World  War  thou- 
sands of  convicts  were  brought 
into  the  country  annually  to  work 
in  the  government  mines  or  be 
assigned  to  private  mine  owners 
and  manufacturers.  The  land 
was,  in  fact,  regarded  as  a  penal 
colony  for  three  hundred  years 
by  tsarist  and  imperial  Russia. 
About  a  million  persons  were 
thus  exiled  since  the  dawn  of  the 
19th  century,  but  in  1900  the  em- 
peror substituted  imprisonment 
as  penalty  for  offenses  which 
heretofore  involved  exile  to  Si- 
beria. 

Religion  and  Education, — 

The  only  recognized  religion — so 
far  as  it  is  permitted — is  that  of 
the  Orthodox  Church,  though 
dissenters  are  allowed  much  free- 
dom. Many  natives  have  been 
baptized,  though  most  of  these 
cleaye  to  their  old  faiths — Sha- 
manism, Lamaism,  or  Islam. 
Religion  is  not  encouraged  un- 
der Soviet  rule.  Education  has 
progressed  in  Western  Siberia 
and  numerous  schools  are  in  op- 
eration. 

History, — Study  of  early  Chi- 
nese annals  indicates  that  in  the 
second  and  third  centuries  of 
the  Christian  era  Central  and 
Western  Siberia  were  inhabited 
by  various  Finnish  tribes.  Dur- 
ing the  fourth  to  the  sixth  cen- 
turies certain  Turkish  tribes 
known  as  Hunni  began  mingling 
with  the  Finnish  aborigines  and 
by  the  11th  century  the  Finns 
had  become  greatly  modified  by 
Turkish  stock,  and  a  population 
had  been  formed  in  which  both 
racial  elements  existed  about 
e(|ually.  In  the  13th  century  the 
generals  of  the  Great  Khan  of 
Mongolia  penetrated  Siberia  and 
subjugated  the  tribes  along  the 
Yenisei,  Ob  and  Irtish,  forcing 
the  others  to  retreat  to  the  north. 


Siberia  :  Principal  Street,  Vladivostok. 


Wide  World  Photos. 


Shaman,  a  Religious  Leader  of  Nomadic  (ioldi  Tribe, 

Vol.  XL— Page  201 


Siberia 


KFI 


202 


Siberian  Railway 


The  power  of  the  Mongols  weak- 
ening in  the  14th  century,  the  in- 
habitants of  Southern  Siberia  re- 
volted and  established  an  inde- 
pendent khanate  with  headquar- 
ters at  Sibir. 

This  khanate  during  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries  was  disturbed 
by  internal  dissension  and  at 
length  Ivan  the  Terrible,  the 
Muscovite  Tsar,  determined  to 
bring  it  under  Russian  protec- 
tion. In  this  attempt  he  was 
ably  aided  by  Yermak,  a  Russian 
Cossack,  and  Anika  Strogonof, 
a  man  of  considerable  wealth, 
who  prepared  an  expedition  to 
Sibir  in  1579  and  after  18 
months  of  hardships  met  and 
completely  routed  the  forces  of 
Kutchum  Khan.  The  Cossack 
victors  built  forts  and  stockades 
along  the  shores  of  the  principal 
Siberian  rivers,  steadily  advanc- 
ing and  acquiring  new  territory, 
and  before  the  end  of  the  17th 
century  had  established  them- 
selves as  far  south  as  Lake 
Baikal. 

In  1643  a  party  of  Cossacks 
set  out  to  explore  the  territory 
of  the  Amur,  reaching  the  movith 
of  that  river,  and  in  1649  an- 
other expedition  under  Khabaroff 
started  to  visit  this  new  territory 
with  the  idea  of  bringing  it  into 
subjection  to  the  Tsar.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  the  struggle 
with  the  Manchus  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Amur  and  of  Man- 
churia, which  was  temporarily 
ended  by  the  Treaty  of  Ner- 
chinsk (1689),  by  which  the 
boundary  between  China  and 
Russia  was  clearly  defined.  The 
two  succeeding  centuries  wit- 
nessed various  attempts  by  Rus- 
sia to .  obtain  an  outlet  to  the 
Pacific  and  the  right  to  free  nav- 
igation of  the  Amvir,  but  little 
was  accomplished  until  the  mid- 
dle of  the  19th  century. 

In  1847  Count  Muravieff  was 
appointed  governor  of  Eastern 
Siberia  and  he  at  once  gave  his 
attention  to  the  Amur  question 
with  the  result  that  in  1854, 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  Crime- 
an War,  he  led  an  expedition 
down  the  river.  After  peace  was 
declared  in  1856,  Muravieff  suc- 
ceeded in  negotiating  the  Treaty 
of  Aigun  (1858),  by  which  the 
Amur  was  declared  to  be  the 
boundary  between  China  and 
Siberia,  the  left  bank  to  belong 
to  Russia.  In  1860  the  Peking 
Treaty  gave  Russia  the  Ussuri 
districts  and  Vladivostok  was 
founded.  In  1872  this  became 
the  chief  naval  station  of  Russia 
on  the  Pacific,  superseding  the 
icebound  port  of  Nicolayevsk. 
In  1895  Russia  established  a  na- 
val station  at  Port  Arthur  and 
obtained  the  lease  of  the  free 
port  of  Dalny  in  the  Liaotung 
Peninsula.  Both  of  these  she 
lost  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War 


(1904-5),  and  Vladivostok  again 
became  the  chief  port. 

The  Russian  Revolution  in 
1917  was  welcomed  generally  in 
Siberia  and  most  of  the  popula- 
tion was  content  with  the  aboli- 
tion of  tsarism ;  but  a  discon- 
tented minority  started  a  Bol- 
shevistic propaganda  and  Siberia 
was.  soon  involved  in  civil  war. 
The  Bolsheviki  gained  control 
and  maintained  a  sort  of  soviet 
government  which  was  inter- 
rupted by  the  influx  of  some  40,- 
000  Czechoslovak  troops  who, 
having  deserted  to  Russia  prior 
to  its  withdrawal  from  the  war, 
secured  permission  to  retire 
from  Russian  territory  via  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railroad  and 
Vladivostok.  By  the  end  of 
June,  1918,  they  had  won  control 
throughout  Western  Siberia. 
Soon  after  this  the  Siberian 
(anti-Bolshevik)  Government 
was  created,  and  Admiral  Kol- 
chak  became  the  head  of  the 
counter-revolutionary  forces.  A 
period  of  foreign  intervention 
followed,  dviring  which  Ameri- 
can, Japanese,  and  other  for- 
eign troops  entered  Siberia. 
Meantime  Kolchak  had  fallen 
from  power,  was  captured  and 
shot,  and  intervention  became  in- 
creasingly unpopular.  Conse- 
quently, by  December,  1919,  all 
but  the  Japanese  troops  with- 
drew, their  final  evacuation  not 
taking  place  until  November, 
1922. 

In  April,  1920,  a  new  state 
known  as  the  Far  Eastern  Re- 
public was  constituted  in  Siberia, 
consisting  of  the  former  prov- 
inces of  Transbaikal,  Amur, 
Primorsk  and  northern  Sakhalin. 
It  was  recognized  by  the  Russian 
Soviet  Republic  alone.  In  1922 
it  voluntarily  dissolved  and 
handed  back  to  Moscow  the  pow- 
ers it  had  received  from  her,  be- 
coming again  an  integral  part  of 
the  Russian  commonwealth. 

In  1925—6  Siberia  was  politi- 
cally divided  into  the  Western 
Siberian  Region  with  the  capital 
at  Novo-Sibirsk,  and  the  Far- 
Eastern  Siberian  Region  (capi- 
tal, Irkutsk),  the  latter  division 
being  regarded  as  the  Union's 
economic  bulwark  on  the  Pacific. 
For  this  reason  there  were  in- 
cluded in  it  the  Okhotsk  littoral, 
Kamchatka  and  the  Anadyr- 
Chukot  area.  Principal  cities  of 
the  Regions,  besides  the  capitals, 
are  Omsk,  Tomsk,  Barnaul, 
Krasnoyarsk  and  Buisk. 

Consult  Intourist  Co.,  Pocket 
Guide  to  the  Soviet  Union;  A. 
Rado  (ed.),  Giiidc-Book  to  the 
Soviet  Union;  C.  G.  Channing, 
Siberia's  Untouched  Treasure 
(1924);  M.  P.  Price,  Siberia 
(1912);  A.  Noble,  Siberian 
Days  (1928);  J.  B.  Wood,  In- 
credible Siberia  (1928)  ;  M. 
Burr,     In     Bolshevik  Siberia 


(1931);  I.  A.  Lopatin,  Russian 
Asia  (1933);  P.  Lucchini,  Se- 
crets of  Siberia  (1934). 

Siberian  Railway,  or  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway,  strictly 
speaking,  the  railway  reaching 
from  Leningrad  to  the  Japan 
Sea.  Construction  began  in 
1892  and  continued,  with  inter- 
ruptions, for  a  number  of  years^ 
In  1895  the  section  from  Chelya- 
binsk to  the  Ob  was  completed  ; 
in  1897  from  the  Ob  to  Irkutsk. 
The  difficult  section  around  Lake 
Baikal  took  from  1899  to  1904, 
and  that  from  Khabarovsk  to 
Vladivostok  was  not  finished  un- 
til 1904.  As  originally  planned, 
the  line  followed  the  Amur  River, 
but  the  building  of  this  part  of 
the  line  was  deferred,  and  by  spe- 
cial treaty  with  China,  the  Chi- 
nese Eastern  Railway  was  built 
across  northern  Manchuria 
through  Hailar,  Tsitsihar  and 
Harbin  to  Vladivostok,  thus 
shortening  the  route  consider- 
ably. The  section  along  the 
Amur  was  not  built  until  1915, 
completing  the  Siberian  Railway 
as  first  planned. 

Several  branch  lines  connect 
the  trunk  line  with  important 
points.  There  are  also  several 
local  spur  lines.  This  great 
railroad  made  possible  the  devel- 
opment of  Siberian  industry  and 
trade.  In  1900  the  freight  ton- 
nage carried  was  2,566,000 ;  in 
1930  it  was  19,116,000  tons,  and 
has  steadily  increased  since  then. 

It  had  long  been  realized  that 
a  single  trunk  line  was  inade- 
quate to  serve  so  vast  a  terri- 
tory, and  plans  were  being 
studied  for  a  second  transconti- 
nental line,  to  be  known  as  the 
Great  Northern  Route,  to  run 
north  of  the  trunk  line. 

The  outside  world  heard  no 
more  of  this  project  until,  on 
Dec.  19,  1937,  an  official  radio 
broadcast  from  Moscow  an- 
nounced completion  of  a  new 
1,800-mile  railroad  paralleling 
the  Far-Eastern  section  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway.  The 
new  line,  constructed  with  ut- 
most secrecy  because  of  its  tre- 
mendous military  importance, 
runs  from  Karymskaya,  east  of 
Lake  Baikal,  to  Khabarovsk,  150 
miles  from  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
At  Khabarovsk  it  joins  the 
Trans-Siberian,  a  branch  of 
which  runs  from  there  down  to 
Vladivostok.  Building  of  the 
new  railway,  which  lies  to  the 
north  of  the  double-tracked 
Trans-Siberian  line,  took  nearly 
four  years.  Its  construction 
had  been  carried  on  at  top  speed, 
to  provide  the  Soviet  Army  with 
sufficient  transportation  facilities 
to  wage  defensive  warfare  in 
Far  Eastern  Siberia  and  along 
the  shores  of  the  Pacific. 

Imperial  Russia's  inability  to 
move  troops  and  supplies  rapidly 


Sibley 


KFI 


203 


Sicily 


across  Siberia  was  a  fatal  weak- 
ness in  the  war  (1904)  with 
Japan.  It  was  believed  the  line 
would  have  great  commercial 
value.  Cut  through  the  heart  of 
a  veritable  empire,  it  opened  up 
a  region  rich  in  minerals,  timber, 
farmlands  and  fur-bearing  an- 
imals. 

Sibley,  Henry  Hopkins 
(181 6-86 ) ,  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Nachitoches,  La.  He 
was  graduated  from  the  U.  S. 
Military  Academy  in  1838; 
fought  against  the  Seminoles  and 
in  the  Mexican  War.  He  partic- 
ipated in  the  Utah  expedition, 
and  in  operations  against  the 
Navahos.  In  May,  1861,  he  re- 
signed from  the  army.  He  was 
commissioned  brigadier-general 
in  the  Confederate  army  ;  fought 
the  battle  of  Valverde,  and  occu- 
pied most  of  New  Mexico  ;  but 
was  afterward  driven  out. 

Sibley,  Hiram  (1807-88), 
American  financier,  was  born  in 
North  Adams,  Mass.  In  1838 
he  became  a  banker  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y.  He  was  one  of  the  organ- 
izers and  first  president  of  the 
Western  Union  Telegraph  Com- 
pany, and  while  president  ex- 
pended $3,000,000  on  a  projected 
telegraph  line  to  Europe  across 
Bering  Strait,  which  was  aban- 
doned on  the  completion  of  the 
Atlantic  cable  in  1866.  He  also 
founded  the  Sibley  College  of 
Mechanical  Engineering  at  Cor- 
nell University. 

Sibong°a,  se-bong'a,  town  Ce- 
bu,  Philippine  Islands  ;  27  miles 
s.w.  of  Cebu.    Pop.  27,000. 

Sibthorpia,  sib-th6r'pi-a,  a 
genus  of  prostrate  herbaceous 
plants,  with  five-parted,  yellow 
or  red  flowers,  belonging  to  the 
order  Scrophulariaceae.  The 
Cornish  money-wort,  S.  cxtropcca, 
is  a  dainty  little  plant,  with 
threadlike  stems  and  notched, 
more  or  less  circular  leaves, 
which  bears  very  small,  pale- 
colored  flowers  in  late  summer. 
The  Madeira  species,  6".  pcrc- 
grina,  is  a  pretty  greenhouse  trail- 
ing plant,  bearing  yellow  flowers 
in  summer. 

Sibyl,  in  ancient  mythology, 
a  prophetess.  Babylonian,  Lib- 
yan, Delphian,  Cimmerian,  Ery- 
thrjean,  Samian,  Cumaean,  Phry- 
gian, and  Tiburtine  sibyls  are 
mentioned  ;  but  the  most  famous 
is  the  sibyl  of  Cumae  in  Italy, 
who  conducted  yEneas  to  the 
lower  world,  and  who  came  to 
King  Tarquin  and  offered  him 
the  nine  Sibylline  books  at  a 
great  price,  which  he  rejected 
with  scorn.  Next  day  she 
burned  three,  and  offered  him 
the  six  at  the  same  price  ;  again 
he  refused  to  buy.  The  next  day 
again  she  burned  three  more,  and 
offered  him  the  remaining  three 
still  j^t  the  same  price  ;  then  he 
bought  them. 


Sicilian  Vespers,  a  revolt  of 
the  Sicilians  against  the  misgov- 
ernment  of  Charles  of  Anjou  in 
1282.    See  Sicilies. 

Sicilies,  Kingdom  of  the 
Two,  was  virtually  created  by 
the  Norman  conquest  in  the  11th 
century,  when  S.  Italy  and  Sicily 
were  united  in  the  hands  of  one 
family,  the  sons  of  the  Norman 
Tancred  of  Hauteville.  Robert 
Guiscard,  the  most  famous  of 
this  Norman  family,  svibjugated 
(1060)  most  of  S.  Italy,  while 
his  younger  brother  Roger  con- 
quered (1061-91)  Sicily  from 
the  Saracens.  Between  1127  and 
1140  these  two  regions  became 
united  under  the  son  of  the  latter, 
Roger  II,  who  added  the  parts 
of  S.  Italy  which  Robert  Guis- 
card had  not  conquered.  He 
welded  them  all  into  one  do- 
minion, and  was  crowned  king 
of  Naples  and  Sicily  in  1130. 
It  was  impossible,  however,  to 
form  a  united  nationality  out  of 
the  heterogeneous  elements  com- 
posing the  population — Greek, 
Italian,  Saracen.  Lombard,  and 
Norman  ;  and  this  want  of  vmity 
accounts  for  much  of  the  confu- 
sion of  the  later  history  of  the 
Sicilies  ;  while  the  Norman  dom- 
ination gave  a  fevidal  character 
to  the  government  and  institu- 
tions which  differentiated  them 
from  the  rest  of  Italy.  The 
earlier  Normans  were  allies  of 
the  popes  ^gainst  the  emperors. 
Robert  Guiscard  and  Roger  ii, 
in  order  to  strengthen  their  hold 
on  their  conqviests,  consented  to 
do  homage  for  them  to  the  pa- 
pacy, thus  giving  it  a  claim  to 
the  position  of  feudal  overlord, 
which  became  a  matter  of  vital 
importance  when  the  Norman 
line  died  out  and  the  kingdom 
passed  by  marriage  to  the  Ho- 
henstaufen  emperor,  Henry  vi, 
and  then  to  his  son,  Frederick  ii 
(1197).  Frederick  make  his 
court  in  Sicily,  and  initiated  a 
high  culture  and  a  strong  admin- 
istration. He  hoped  to  build  up 
an  Italian  kingdojp  from  this 
center  ;  but  the  popes  insisted  on 
homage,  and  on  keeping  the  Sic- 
ilies separate  from  the  empire. 
Round  this  dispute  raged  the 
great  struggles  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury. Urban  iv  granted  (1265) 
the  kingdom  to  Charles  of  Anjou, 
brother  of  Louis  ix  of  France. 
Frederick's  illegitimate  son  Man- 
fred was  killed  at  Benevento 
(1266);  an  attempt  of  the  last 
Hohenstaufen,  Conradin,  Fred- 
erick's grandson,  to  recover  his 
inheritance  was  defeated  at  Tagl- 
iacozzo  (1268),  and  the  Ange- 
vins  founded  a  new  dynasty  in  S. 
Italy.  In  1282,  however,  Sicily 
revolted  from  their  tyrannous 
government,  the  first  outbreak 
being  the  massacre  of  the  French 
at  Palermo,  known  as  the  Sicil- 
ian Vespers.     The  island  then 


gave  itself  to  an  Aragonese  dy- 
nasty, so  that  its  hi.story  and  that 
of  Naples  once  more  became  dis- 
tinct. From  1442-58  they  were 
again  held  by  one  king,  Alfonso 
of  Aragon  and  were  finally  re- 
united by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic 
of  Aragon  and  Sicily,  who  con- 
quered Naples  in  1504.  The 
Sicilies  now  became  Spanish  de- 
pendencies, and  were  ruled  by 
tyrannous  and  greedy  viceroys, 
who  utterly  neglected  the  welfare 
of  the  country,  and  only  thought 
of  collecting  money  for  them- 
selves and  for  the  royal  ex- 
chequer. The  people  were  so 
crushed  by  taxation  that  again 
and  again  mere  starvation  drove 
them  to  revolt ;  but  the  rebellions 
were  in  every  instance  unsuc- 
cessful. 

The  Sicilies,  like  other  Italian 
states,  were  used  as  pawns  in  the 
diplomatic  game  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury; but  in  1738  they  became 
the  property  of  Don  Carlos,  of 
the  Bourbon  house  of  Spain.  In 
his  family  they  remained  till 
1861,  with  the  exception  of  the 
period  of  the  French  Revolution, 
when  the  mainland  state  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  French,  and 
formed  a  kingdom,  first  for  Jo- 
seph Bonaparte  (1806).  and  then 
for  Joachim  Murat  (1808-15). 
The  possession  of  an  independent 
monarch  did  not,  however,  bring 
much  amelioration  to  the  lot  of 
the  Sicilians  ;  an  attempt  to  se- 
cure a  constitution  was  put  down 
with  the  help  of  Austrian  force 
in  1821.  Ferdinand  ii  (1830- 
59)  was  perhaps  the  worst  ruler 
that  the  country  had  ever  known. 
In  1848  Sicily  broke  out  into  re- 
bellion, and  extorted  a  constitu- 
tion ;  but  the  failure  of  the  war 
of  Italian  independence  enabled 
Ferdinand  to  reassert  his  ab- 
solutism, and  the  cruel  bombard- 
ment of  Messina  which  he  sanc- 
tioned earned  for  him  the  title 
of  'King  Bomba.'  With  the  aid 
of  Garibaldi,  however, .  the  last 
Bourbon,  Francis  ii,  was  ex- 
pelled in  1860,  and  the  Two 
Sicilies  were  united  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italy. 

Sicily,  island  in  Mediterra- 
nean, lies  s.w.  of  Italy,  of  which 
kingdom  it  forms  an  integral  part. 
It  is  triangular  in  shape  (anc. 
Trinacria) ,  and  has  an  area  of 
9,935  sq.  m.  It  is  an  elevated 
region,  comparatively  little  of  its 
surface  being  below  1,000  ft. 
Apart  from  the  Nebrodici  and 
Madonie  (6,840  ft.)  mountains 
along  the  n.,  there  are  no  par- 
ticularly well-defined  ranges  ;  but 
there  are  several  detached  peaks, 
such  as  the  great  volcano  of  Etna 
(11,870  ft.)  in  the  e.,  and  Monte 
San  Giuliano  (anc.  Eryx),  2,460 
ft.,  in  the  extreme  n.vv.  The 
rivers  are  short,  and  useless  for 
navigation  ;  the  largest  are  the 
Simeto,  flowing  e.,  and  the  Salso 


Sicily 


KFI 


204 


Sickles 


(anc.  Himera)  and  the  Platani 
(anc.  Halycus),  both  flowing  s. 
In  ancient  times  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  and  the  exceptionally 
genial  climate,  made  the  island 
famous  for  its  wheat  and  wine 
and  honey.  Its  principal  prod- 
ucts are  wheat,  wine,  oranges, 
almonds,  prickly  pear,  and  vari- 
ous other  fruits,  olive  oil,  su- 
mach, carob  beans,  cream  of  tar- 
tar, sulphur,  salt,  tobacco,  licorice, 
and  silk ;  while  the  seas  yield 
tunny  and  anchovies,  and  (irreg- 
vilarly)  coral.  Manufacturing 
industry  is  not  very  extensive, 
the  chief  branches  being  leather, 
glass,  gloves,  iron,  furniture,  and 
vehicles.  Malaria  is  a  fatal 
scourge  in  many  parts,  especially 
in  the  s.e.  The  people,  who 
numbered  4,000,078  in  1936,  are 
generally  poor  and  not  well  edu- 
cated, but  sober  and  industrious. 
The  practice  of  private  ven- 
geance {mafia)  has  been  stamped 
out  and  no  longer  usurps  the 
place  of  the  law.  There  are 
three  universities — at  Catania, 
Messina,  and  Palermo.  See  fur- 
ther under  Italy. 

The  earliest  inhabitants,  prob- 
ably of  the  original  Iberian  race 
which  inhabited  most  of  S.  Eu- 
rope, were  called  Sicani.  They 
were  generally  regarded  as  indig- 
enous, but  more  probably  were 
immigrants  from  Italy,  as  were 
certainly  the  Siculi  or  Sicels, 
who  gave  their  name  to  the 
island.  They  were  of  the  same 
nationality  as  the  mass  of  the 
Italian  peoples,  being  also  akin 
to  the  early  population  of  Greece 
and  the  vEgean  islands.  Thucyd- 
ides  dates  their  invasion  of  Sicily 
at  about  1000  B.C.,  but  more 
probably  it  took  place  at  an 
earlier  date.  A  third  race,  the 
Elymi,  occupied  the  n.w.  corner 
of  the  island.  Their  racial  affini- 
ties are  uncertain,  but  probably 
they  too  were  of  Iberian  race. 
When  Sicily  first  appears  clearly 
in  history,  the  Sicels  had  occu- 
pied the  whole  of  the  e.  half  of 
the  island,  thrusting  the  Sicani- 
ans  back  to  the  w.  Phoenician 
trading-posts  had  been  estab- 
lished at  various  points  along  the 
coast  ;  but  they  too  were  gradu- 
ally driven  by  Greek  colonization 
to  the  extreme  w.,  where  they 
had  three  towns — Motya,  Panor- 
mus,  and  Soloeis.  This  Greek 
colonization  began  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  8th  century  b.c,  and 
was  practically  completed  in  a 
century  and  a  half.  The  chief 
colonies  were  Naxos,  Syracuse, 
Catania,  Leontine,  Zancle  (after- 
wards Messina),  Himera,  Me- 
gara  Hybljea,  Gela,  Selinus, 
Acragas  (Lat.  Agrigentum,  now 
Girgenti),  Acrae,  Casmenae,  and 
Camarina.  Originally  their  con- 
stitutions were  probably  aris- 
tocratic; but  during  the  7th 
century    b.c.    despots    ruled  in 


most  of  them,  particularly  Pha- 
laris  in  Agrigentum,  Cleander  at 
Gela,  and  Terillus  at  Himera. 
Cleander  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Hippocrates,  and  he  by 
Gelon,  who  in  485  made  himself 
master  of  Syracuse,  and  raised 
that  city  to  the  leading  position 
in  the  island — an  honor  previ- 
ously shared  between  Gela  and 
Agrigentum.  Gelon's  rule  was 
made  memorable  by  his  decisive 
defeat  of  the  Carthaginians  at 
Himera  in  480  b.c,  which  deliv- 
ered the  Greek  states  from  Punic 
aggression  for  seventy  years. 
His  .  brother  Hiero  succeeded 
him.  After  his  death,  in  467, 
democratic  governments  were  set 
up  in  most  of  the  cities,  which 
for  the  next  half-century  en- 
joyed tranquillity  and  reached 
their  highest  prosperity.  In  413 
the  defeat  by  Syracuse  of  the 
Athenian  expedition  greatly  in- 
creased the  power  of  that  city. 
From  405  to  367  Dionysius  was 
tyrant  of  Syracuse,  and  ruled 
over  most  of  Sicily  ;  but  he  failed 
to  make  a  complete  resistance 
to  the  Carthaginians,  who  in  408 
had  destroyed  Selinus,  and  in 
406  Acragas.  During  most  of 
his  reign  the  w.  part  of  Sicily,  as 
far  as  the  river  Halycus,  be- 
longed to  Carthage.  The  fall  of 
his  dynasty  in  343,  owing  to  the 
liberator  Timoleon,  set  the  cities 
free  for  a  time  ;  and  Timoleon's 
great  victory  over  the  Carthagin- 
ians, at  the  river  Crimisus  in 
339  put  a  check  upon  their  ag- 
gressions. But  in  317  a  fresh 
tyranny  was  established  at  Syra- 
cuse by  Agathocles,  who  failed 
to  offer  an  equally  successful  re- 
sistance to  Carthage.  After  his 
death,  in  289,  confusion  pre- 
vailed in  the  island  until  Hiero  ii 
established  a  royal  power  at  Syr- 
acuse, and  Sicily  was  roughly 
divided  between  him  and  the 
Carthaginians.  The  first  Punic 
War  (264-241  b.c.)  brought  the 
Romans  into  Sicily.  At  its  con- 
clusion they  had  expelled  the 
Carthaginians  entirely  from  the 
island,  and  ruled  it  as  a  province, 
with  the  exception  of  Hiero's  do- 
minions ;  but  they  too  were  added 
to  the  province  through  the  de- 
fection of  Hiero's  grandson  Hie- 
ronymus  from  the  Roman  alli- 
ance during  the  second  Punic 
War,  and  his  conquest  by  Mar- 
cellus  in  212.  In  210  the  whole 
island  submitted  to  Rome.  For 
over  six  hundred  years  Sicily 
was  part  of  the  Roman  empire  ; 
and  except  for  disturbances 
caused  by  slave  rebellions  from 
135  to  132  B.C.,  and  again  from 
102  to  99  B.C.,  it  enjoyed  tran- 
quillity and  good  government  on 
the  whole.  During  the  first  two 
centuries  of  its  subjection  it  was 
the  chief  source  of  the  Roman 
corn  supply  ;  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  empire  it  fell  into  a 


state  of  decay,  and  pasturage 
took  the  place  of  agriculture. 
When  conquered  by  Rome,  Sic- 
ily was  a  thoroughly  Greek 
country ;  apparently  all  its  in- 
habitants spoke  Greek,  the  Sicel 
and  other  old  languages  having 
disappeared.  It  was  under  Ro- 
man rule  that  Palermo,  the  an- 
cient Panormus,  became  the 
chief  city  of  the  island,  as  it  still 
is,  instead  of  Syracuse.  In  the 
middle  of  the  5th  century  a.d. 
Genseric  conquered  the  whole 
island,  and  attached  it  to  the 
Vandal  kingdom.  Belisarius  re- 
stored it  in  535  a.d.  to  the  East- 
ern empire,  by  which  it  was  gov- 
erned until  it  was  taken  by  the 
Saracens,  who  first  landed  in  827 
A.D.,  but  did  not  capture  Syra- 
cuse until  878.  The  Byzantine 
emperors,  aided  by  the  Normans, 
partially  reconquered  it  (1038- 
50)  ;  the  Norman  Roger  Guis- 
card  conquered  it  completely  af- 
ter a  long  struggle  (1061-91), 
and  held  it  for  himself.  The 
story  is  continued  at  Sicilies, 
Kingdom  of  the  Two.  See 
E.  A.  Freeman's  History. 

Sickingen,  Franz  von  (1481- 
1523),  captain  of  German  Lands- 
knechte,  was  born  at  the  castle  of 
Ebernburg,  near  Kreuznach,  and 
entered  the  service  of  Francis  i 
of  France,  but  afterwards  aban- 
doned it  for  that  of  the  emperor 
Charles  v.  He  was  a  strenuous 
advocate  of  the  Reformation. 
He  laid  siege  to  Treves  (1522), 
and  after  defeat  by  its  bishop 
retired  to  his  fortress  at  Ebern- 
burg, where  he  was  besieged 
in  turn,  and  died  from 
wounds.  See  Life,  in  German, 
by  Ulmann  (1872)  and  Bremer 
(1885). 

Sickles,  Daniel  Edgar 
(1825-1914),  American  soldier, 
born  in  New  York  city.  He  at- 
tended the  University  of  New 
York,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1844.  He  was  elected 
to  the  legislature  as  a  Democrat 
three  years  later  ;  became  secre- 
tary of  legation  at  London  in 
1853;  in  1855  was  elected 
to  the  state  senate,  and  dur- 
ing 1857-61  was  a  member  of 
the  national  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. In  the  Civil  War  he 
served  in  the  Peninsula  campaign, 
at  Antietam  and  Fredericksburg ; 
was  appointed  major-general  in 
March,  1863,  and  fought  at  Chan- 
cellorsville  and  at  Gettysburg, 
where  he  lost  a  leg.  He  was  ap- 
pointed colonel  in  the  regular 
army  in  July,  1866;  was  for  a 
time  in  command  of  the  second 
military  district  including  the 
Carolinas,  but  showed  himself 
so  energetic  that  he  was  relieved, 
and  in  1869  was  retired  with  the 
rank  of  major-general.  He  was 
minister  to  Spain  during  1869- 
73  ;  was  president  for  a  time  of 
the   New  York  board  of  civil 


Sicyon 


KR 


205 


Sldgwlck 


Service  commissioners;  was  sher- 
iff of  New  York  county  in  1890. 
and  in  1892  was  once  more  elec- 
ted to  Congress  as  a  Democrat. 

Sicyon,  ancient  Greek  city  in 
N.E.  Peloponnesus,  on  w.  bank 
of  Asopus,  2  m.  from  the  sea. 
Homer  speaks  of  it  as  being  sub- 
ject to  the  Achaean  Agamemnon. 
Later  it  was  seized  by  Dorians 
from  Argos;  but  during  the  rule 
of  its  tyrants  in  the  7th  and  6th 
centuries  B.C.,  of  whom  the  chief 
was  Cleisthenes,  it  threw  off  the 
domination  of  Argos  and  joined 
the  Spartan  League.  It  was 
founded  a  second  time  by  Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes  in  303  B.C.,  and 
was  prosperous  in  the  3d  cen- 
tury, thanks  largely  to  its  famous 
citizen  Aratus.  who  brought  it 
into  the  Achaean  League.  Ruins 
of  the  theatre,  the  racecourse, 
and  an  aqueduct  still  remain. 

Slddhartha.   See  Buddha. 

Siddons,  Mrs.  Sarah  (1755- 
1831),  English  tragic  actress, 
born  at  Brecon  in  S.  Wales,  was 
the  daughter  of  Roger  Kemble, 
an  actor,  and  sister  of  John  Philip 
Kemble,  the  tragedian.  She 
traveled  with  her  father's  com- 
pany, one  of  whom,  Siddons,  she 
married  in  1773.  She  played 
with  Garrick's  company  at 
Drury  Lane  (1775),  and  after  an 
interval  in  the  provinces 
achieved  a  triumph  at  the  same 
theatre  as  Isabella  in  The  Fatal 
Marriage  (1782).  During  that 
season  she  appeared  as  Euphra- 
sia, Zara,  Jane  Shore,  Belvidera, 
and  Calista.  Her  other  favorite 
characters  were  Lady  Macbeth, 
Queen  Katherine,  Constance, 
Portia,  Isabella,  Desdemona, 
Imogen,  Hermoine,  and  Volum- 
nia.  She  took  her  leave  of  the 
stage  in  1812,  and  made  her  final 
appearance  at  Covent  Garden, 
June  9,  1818.  On  the  stage  Mrs. 
Siddons  displayed  great  origin- 
ality, and  in  private  life  she  bore 
an  unblemished  character  and 
reputation.  See  Boaden,  Mem- 
oirs of  the  Life  of  Mrs.  Siddons 
(1832),  Campbell,  Life  of  Sarah 
Siddons  (1834),  and  Matthews 
and  Hutton,  Actors  and  Actresses 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  (1886). 

Sldebones.  See  Horse — Dis- 
eases of. 

Sidereal  Clock,  a  clock  set 
and  regulated  so  as  to  keep  sid- 
ereal time,  and  show  Oh,  Om. 
Os.  when  the  vernal  equinox  is 
on  the  local  meridian.  At  any 
given  moment,  accordingly,  the 
reading  of  such  a  timepiece  gives 
the  hour-angle  of  the  first  point 
of  Aries,  and  also,  what  comes  to 
the  same  thing,  the  right  ascen- 
sion of  any  object  just  then  cross- 
ing the  meridian. 

Siderite,  Chalybite,  or  Fer- 
rous Carbonate,  is  one  of  the 
group  of  carbonates  of  which 
calcite  is  the  most  important 
member.    When  crystallized  it 


usually  forms  rhombohedra, 
which  sometimes  have  curved 
faces,  and  it  is  pale  yellow  and 
transparent  when  fresh,  but  cov- 
ered with  an  opaque  brown  crust 
when  weathered.  It  contains  62 
per  cent  of  ferous  oxide,  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  3.5,  and  a  hard- 
ness of  8.  When  heated  before 
the  blowpipe  it  becomes  mag- 
netic. The  clay  ironstone  and 
blackband  ores  of  iron  are  mas- 
sive varieties  and  are  important 
in  the  Appalachian  region.  In 
the  Carbonfierous  strata  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Ohio,  W.  Virginia,  and 
Kentucky,  they  are  abundant.  A 
noted  vein  of  crystalline  siderite 
occurs  at  Roxbury,  Conn.  The 
Cleveland  ironstone  of  the  north 
of  England  is  largely  composed 
of  it.  It  weathers  to  limonite  or 
haematite,  and  is,  in  this  way, 
the  original  source  of  many  ore 
beds  of  that  class.  Important 
deposits  of  massive  siderite  occur 
in  Westphalia,  Bohemia,  Saxony, 
and  France. 

Slderostat,  an  instrument  de- 
scribed by  Foucault  for  transmit- 
ting a  beam  of  light  along  the 
optical  axis  of  a  fixed  horizontal 
telescope.  It  consists  essentially 
of  a  plane  mirror  moved  by  clock- 
work so  as  to  keep  pace  with 
the  heavenly  bodies.  The  great 
Paris  refractor  (1900)  is  mounted 
in  connection  with  a  siderostat, 
the  mirror  of  which  is  seventy- 
nine  inches  in  diameter,  and 
weighs  three  and  three-quarter 
tons.  Of  late  the  coelostat,  an 
improved  form  of  siderostat,  has 
come  into  use,  especially  as  an 
adjunct  to  solar  researches.  Its 
mirror  rotates  once  in  48  hours 
round  a  line  in  its  own  plane 
parallel  to  the  earth's  axis. 
And  since  the  rate  of  motion  is 
doubled  by  reflection,  the  image 
of  the  sky  thus  viewed  is  com- 


Siderostat,  built  by  Sir  Howard 
Grubb  for  the  Smithsonian  Ob- 
servatory, Washington,  D.  C. 


pletely  at  rest,  the  apparatus 
acting  as  an  equatorial.  A  hori- 
zontal position  can  not,  however, 
be  given  to  the  observing  tele- 
scope unless  a  second  mirror  be 
employed,  as  in  the  coelostat 
mounted  at  the  Smithsonian 
Astrophysical  Observatory  in 
Washington,  in  1903.    In  prin- 


ciple, this  instrument  was  de- 
vised by  August  in  1839;  it  was 
perfected  by  Lippmann  in  1895. 

Sideroxylon,  a  genus  of  tropi- 
cal trees  and  shrubs  belonging  to 
the  order  Sapotacac.  They  bear 
usually  coriaceous  leaves  and 
small  flowers,  followed  by  globose 
berries.  The  berries  of  some  of 
the  species  have  a  sweet  taste, 
and  are  known  as  miraculous 
berries. 

Side-saddle  Flower.  A  name 
sometimes  given  to  the  Sarra- 
cenia. 

Sidesmen,  Synodsmen, 
Questman,  or  Testes  Synod- 
ales,  were  two  or  three  persons 
generally  elected  yearly  in  Easter 
week  by  the  minister  and  church- 
wardens in  each  parish  of  Eng- 
land, and  sworn  to  present  here- 
tics and  other  heretical  persons 
before  the  ecclesiastical  courts. 
Their  duties  are  now  limited  to 
assisting  the  churchwardens. 

Sidgwick,  Henry  (1838- 
1900),  English  philosopher,  was 
born  at  Skipton  in  Yorkshire, 
and  became  a  fellow  and  lecturer 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
In  1883  he  was  elected  professor 
of  moral  philosophy  in  the  uni- 
versity, and  held  the  offlce  till 
his  death.  His  reputation  was 
made  by  his  Methods  of  Ethics 
(1874;  6th  ed.  1901).  Character- 
ized, like  all  his  writings,  by  the 
utmost  carefulness  in  the  defini- 
tion, elaboration,  and  exact  ex- 
pression of  conceptions,  and  by  a 
truly  remarkable  candor  and  im- 
partiality in  argument,  it  was 
speedily  recognized  as  a  classical 
work  on  the  subject.  In  it  the 
author  sought  to  separate  and 
combine  the  elements  of  truth 
on  both  sides  of  the  controversy 
between  intuitionists  and  utili- 
tarians. He  accepted  the  utili- 
tarian end  of  the  universal  happi- 
ness, but  maintained  that  that 
end  could  only  be  authoritative 
for  the  individual,  in  virtue  of 
certain  ultimate  intuitions,  by 
which  the  fundamental  principles 
of  man's  duty  were  defined.  Two 
other  important  works  from  his 
pen  were  Principles  of  Political 
Economy  (1883)  and  Elements  of 
Politics  (1891),  besides  an  out- 
line History  of  Ethics  (1886)  and 
a  small  volume  on  Practical 
Ethics  (1898).  Since  his  death 
several  volumes  have  been  edited 
from  his  lectures  and  papers — 
viz.  Scope  of  Philosophy  (1902); 
Ethics  of  Green,  Spencer,  and 
Martineau  (1902);  Philosophy 
of  Kant  (1905);  Development  of 
European  Polity  (1904) ;  and  Mis- 
cellaneous Essays{190A).  He  was 
concerned  in  the  foundation  of 
the  Society  for  Psychical  Re- 
search, and  took  an  active  inter- 
est in  the  higher  education  of 
women,  especially  in  Newnham 
College,  Cambridge.  His  widow, 
Eleanor  Mildred  Sidgwick  (d. 
1936),  a  sister  of  the  first  Earl  of 


Sidi-bel-Abb^s 


KR 


206 


Slebold 


Balfour  (1848-1930),  was  prin- 
cipal of  Newnham  College  from 
1892  until  her  death.  See  Life 
(1906)  by  A.  S.  and  E.  M.  S. 
Sidgwick. 

SIdi-bel-Abbes,  town,  capital 
of  an  arrondissement,  depart- 
ment of  Oran,  Algeria,  38  m.  s,  of 
Oran;  exports  grain,  alfa,  and 
cattle.    Pop.  51,094. 

Sidlaw  Hills,  a  range  of  hills, 
Scotland,  running  from  Kinnoul 
Hill,  near  Perth,  in  a  n.e.  direc- 
tion through  Forfarshire  to  the 
coast  at  Stonehaven.  They  are 
mainly  of  Old  Red  Sandstone 
formation.  The  highest  summit 
is  King's  Seat  (1,235  ft.).  Dun- 
sinnan,  or  Dunsinane,  is  men- 
tioned in  Macbeth. 

Sid  mouth,  Henry  Adding- 
TON,  Viscount  (1757-1844), 
British  politician,  born  at  Read- 
ing; was  returned  as  member  for 
Devizes  (1784);  elected  Speaker 
(1789);  and  on  the  retirement  of 
his  friend  Pitt  (1801)  was  called 
on  to  form  a  ministry.  The  most 
memorable  event  of  his  short 
administration  was  the  Peace  of 
Amiens,  after  which  he  resigned, 
Pitt  succeeding  him.  He  was 
made  a  peer  (1805);  became 
Lord  Privy  Seal  under  Fox  and 
Grenville  (1806);  and  president 
of  the  Council  under  Percival 
(1812),  on  whose  assassination 
in  the  same  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed Home  Secretary,  a  post 
which  he  held  for  the  next  eleven 
years,  retiring  from  official  life 
in  1824.  See  Life  by  Pellew 
(1847). 

Sidney.  City,  Ohio  co.  seat  of 
Shelby  co.,  65  m.  w.n.vv.  of  Co- 
lumbus, on  the  Miami  R.,  and  on 
the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chi- 
cago and  St.  Louis  and  the  Cin- 
cinnati, Hamilton  and  Dayton 
railroads.  It  is  a  manufacturing 
center  producing  carriages, 
wheel  stock,  whips,  brooms, 
wooden  ware,  churns,  fiour, 
leather,  hollow  ware,  scrapers, 
wheel  barrows,  newspaper  fold- 
ers, automobile  bendings,  bicycle 
rims,  band  saws,  etc.  It  has  a 
public  library,  court  house  and 
Monumental  Building.  The  first 
settlement  here  was  made  about 
1810.  It  was  incorporated  in 
1819  and  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1897.  Pop.  (1930)  9,301;  (1940) 
9,790. 

Sidney,  village,  Delaware  co.. 
New  York,  29  m.  n.e.  by  E.  of 
Binghamton  on  the  Susquehanna 
R.  and  on  the  N.  Y.  Ontario 
and  W.  and  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  railroads.  Its  manu- 
factures include  silk  gloves, 
carriages,  novelties,  toys,  cigars, 
etc.  It  is  a  dairying  center.  It 
was  settled  in  1772  and  incor- 
porated in  1888. 

Sidney,  Algernon  (1622-83). 
English  republican  and  patriot, 
the  nephew  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney. 
In  1642  he  served  against  the 
Irish    rebels,    and    having  de- 


clared himself  for  Parliament, 
was  wounded  at  Marston  Moor; 
but  being  opposed  to  the  ag- 
grandizement of  Cromwell,  he 
went  into  retirement.  At  the 
Restoration  he  betook  himself  to 
the  Continent,  and  there  lived  till 
a  pardon  was  procured  for  him 
in  1677.  Returning  later  to  the 
Continent,  he  endeavored  to 
separate  Louis  xiv  from  his  alli- 
ance with  Charles  ii,  and  some 
of  his  dealings  with  that  sov- 
ereign can  be  justified  only  by 
political  exigencies,  if  at  all.  In 
1680  he  returned  to  England,  and 
in  1682  the  court  party  got  him 
involved  in  the  general  massacre 
of  notables  by  Judge  Jeffreys  on 
the  occasion  of  the  Rye  House 
Plot.  He  was  condemned  and 
executed  on  Tower  Hill,  London. 
His  Discourses  concerning  Gov- 
ernment, which  played  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  evidence  against 
him,  did  not  appear  in  print  till 
1698,  when  they  were  published 
in  London.  See  Sidney  Papers 
and  Life  by  Mead  ley  (1813)  and 
Life  and  Times  of  Algernon  Sid- 
ney by  Ewald  fl873),  also  Life 
by  Van  Santvoord  (1851). 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip  (1554-86), 
English  soldier  and  poet,  was 
born  at  Penshurst,  Kent.  He 
was  with  Walsingham  at  Paris 
during  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew. In  1574  he  carried 
on  diplomacy  for  Burghley  in 


Sir  Philip  Sidney. 


Venice.  For  some  years  after 
his  return  home  in  1575  his  life 
was  mostly  spent  at  court,  de- 
fending his  father's  Irish  policy 
and  holding  converse  with  Spen- 
ser, Sir  E.  Dyer,  Gabriel  Harvey, 
and  other  poets  and  scholars.  He 
wrote  The  Lady  of  the  May  for  a 
royal  entertainment  in  1578,  and 
in  1579  was  stung  by  Thomas 
Gosson's  railing  at  the  stage  into 


composing  his  Apology  for  Poetry. 
Then  he  quarrelled  with  Lord 
Oxford,  and  fell  into  disfavor 
with  Elizabeth  as  a  result  of 
Leicester's  marriage  and  his  own 
protest  against  the  Anjou  match. 
He  retired  in  1580  to  the  house 
of  his  sister,  Mary,  Lady  Pem- 
broke, at  Wilton,  and  wrote  the 
Arcadia  (c.  1581).  Elizabeth  re- 
lented, and  he  returned  to  court. 
Hitherto  his  love  affair  with 
Penelope  Devereux  had  been  but 
trifling.  After  her  marriage  with 
Lord  Rich  in  1581  it  flamed  into 
the  passion  of  the  Astrophel  and 
Stella  sonnets.  When  Elizabeth 
sent  Leicester  with  troops  to  the 
Netherlands,  she  made  Sidney 
governor  of  Flushing.  Before 
Zutphen  he  was  mortally  wound- 
ed, and  behaved  with  a  chivalry 
which  has  impressed  itself  upon 
history.  Collected  Poems  (ed. 
Grosart,  1873,  1877);  Selections: 
A  Cabinet  of  Gems  by  Philip 
Sidney  (ed.  G.  Macdonald,  1891). 
See  Biography,  by  Fulke  Greville 
(1652);  ed.  Grosart,  (1870),  by  T. 
Zouch  (1809),  by  J.  Lloyd(1862), 
by  H.  R.  Fox  Bourne  (1862, 1891), 
by  J.  A.  Symonds  (1886);  Corres- 
spondence  of  Sidney  and  H.  Lan- 
guet  (ed.  S.  A.  Pears,  1845);  The 
Works  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  by 
E.  J.  Morley  (1901);  Miscellan- 
eous Works  (1860);  Davis'  Life 
and  Times  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney 
(1859);  and  Ely's  Chaucer,  Spen- 
ser, and  Sidney  (1894). 

Sidon  (modern  Saida),  Syria, 
the  largest  seaport  and  capital  of 
ancient  Phoenicia,  25  m.  s.  of 
Beirut,  Syria;  now  exports  olive 
oil,  oranges,  and  lemons.  Fine 
gardens  surround  the  town.  In 
ancient  times  it  was  specially 
famous  for  purple  dyes.  Pop. 
13,000. 

Sidonius,  whose  full  name 
was  Gaius  Sollius  Sidonius 
Apollinaris  (431-482  or  484 
A.D.).  was  one  of  the  last  poets  of 
ancient  Rome.  He  was  a  native 
of  Lyons  in  Gaul,  and  married 
the  daughter  of  Flavins  Avitus, 
who  became  emperor  in  456  a.d. 
As  a  reward  for  a  panegyric  on 
him  Sidonius  was  made  a  senator 
and  prefect  of  the  city  of  Rome. 
But  the  fall  of  Avitus  caused  .Si- 
donius to  be  imprisoned  at  Lyons; 
however,  he  purchased  forgive- 
ness by  a  second  panegyric,  on 
Avitus'  successor  Majorian, 
which  won  him  the  title  of  count. 
A  third  panegyric  on  Anthemius 
gained  him  the  title  of  patrician 
and  his  reappointment  to  the  of- 
fice of  city  prefect.  Five  years 
afterwards  he  was  compelled  to 
accept  the  bishopric  of  Clermont, 
in  Auvergne.  His  writings  con- 
sist of  Poems  and  Letters.  His 
prose  approaches  the  language  of 
daily  life,  and  is  full  of  barba- 
risms. Editions  by  Sismond 
(1652)  and  Mohr  (Teubner 
Series). 

Siebold,     Karl  Theodor 


Slebold 


KR 


207 


Stena 


Ernst  von  (1804-85),  German 
physiologist,  born  at  Wiirzburg, 
became  successively  professor  of 
zoology  and  comparative  ana- 
tomy at  Erlangen  (1840).  Frei- 
burg (1845),  and  Munich  (1853). 
Among  other  works  he  wrote  a 
Lehrbuch  der  Vergleichenden  Ana- 
tomie  der  ivirbellosen  Tiere  (Eng. 
trans.)  Manual  of  Comparative 
Anatomy  of  the  Invertebrates, 
(1848). 

Siebold,  Philipp  Franz  von 
(1796-1866),  German  explorer, 
was  born  at  Wiirzburg,  and  ac- 
companied the  Dutch  expedition 
to  Japan  as  physician  and  natu- 
ralist (1823),  spending  seven 
years  in  scientific  researches  in 
that  country.  He  wrote  a  valu- 
able Epitome  Linguce  Japonicce 
(1824),  Flora  Japonica  (1834), 
Catalogus  Librorum  Japon- 
icorum  (1845),  and  Fauna  Jap- 
onica (1833). 

Si e dice,  or  Syedlets,  prov- 
ince, Poland,  bounded  on  w.  by 
Drov.  Warsaw,  with  an  area  of 
5,535  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of 
775,316.  The  surface  is  gener- 
ally very  fiat,  but  in  parts  thickly 
wooded;  the  whole  area  belongs 
to  the  Vistula  basin.  Agriculture 
is  the  principal  employment.  Of 
the  population,  40  per  cent  are 
estimated  to  belong  to  the  Ortho- 
dox Church  and  to  be  Russians, 
43  per  cent  Roman  Catholics  and 
Poles,  15  per  cent  Jews. 

Siedlce,  town,  Poland,  cap. 
of  Siedlce  gov.,  53  m.  E.s.E.  of 
Warsaw,  in  a  marshy  region.  It 
is  an  episcopal  see  (Roman 
Catholic)  and  has  a  famous  cas- 
tle and  bakeries.  Pop.  36,927 
more  than  two-thirds  Jews. 

Stege.  It  has  been  roughly 
estimated  that  a  besieging  army 
should  be  about  three  or  four 
times  as  numerous  as  the  garri- 
son of  the  place  besieged.  The 
first  operation  is  to  invest  the 
place  by  surrounding  it  in  such  a 
way  as  to  cut  off  all  communica- 
tion between  the  garrison  and 
the  outer  world  and  starving 
them  out  or  capturing  the  place 
by  assault.  The  side  to  be  at- 
tacked will  then  be  selected,  the 
determining  factors  being  the 
ease  with  which  trenches  can  be 
dug,  the  local  weakness  of  the 
works,  the  effect  of  success  in 
that  quarter,  and  the  besieger's 
own  security  and  ease  of  supply. 
Then  artillery  and  engineer 
parks  are  established  out  of  gun- 
fire range  of  the  place,  where  easy 
communications  with  the  base  of 
supply  exist.  After  the  parks  are 
equipped  a  'first  artillery  posi- 
tion' is  established.  This  con- 
sists of  batteries  armed  with 
guns  to  silence  the  fire  of  the  de- 
fence over  the  ground  to  be 
crossed  by  the  attack.  The  bat- 
teries all  open  fire  simultan- 
eously, generally  at  daybreak, 
and  when  the  enemy's  fire  has 
been  subdued,  the  'first  parallel' 
is  begun  at  night,  about  1,000 


yards  from  the  fortress.  This  is 
a  wide  trench,  concave  to  the 
fortress  attacked,  and  meant 
to  shelter  the  troops  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  protect  the  working 
parties  and  the  siege  works  them- 
selves by  repelling  the  sorties  of 
the  enemy,  should  they  endeavor 
to  destroy  them.  From  the  first, 
parallel  approaches  are  exca- 
vated in  a  zigzag  direction  so  as 
to  prevent  the  enemy  enfilading 
(or  firing  along)  them.  While 
these  are  being  constructed,  the 
existence  of  the  first  parallel 
will  allow  a  second  artillery  posi- 
tion to  be  taken  up  nearer  the 
place.  From  the  approaches  a 
'second  parallel'  is  constructed 
400  or  500  yards  from  the  for- 
tress, and  then  a  third  at  the  foot 
of  the  'glacis'  or  slope  outside 
the  place.  The  last  parallel  will 
contain  the  troops  who  are  ul- 
timately to  rush  in  and  assault 
the  place  through  the  breaches. 
After  the  'third  parallel'  is  com- 
pleted, batteries  for  sweeping  the 
lines  of  works  and  breaching  the 
ramparts  are  constructed,  some 
of  which  are  usually  placed  in 
the  first  parallel.  Mining  is  em- 
ployed when  the  besieging  force 
has  worked  its  way  quite  close  up 
to  the  fortress,  and  the  mines  as- 
sist in  making  breaches.  Ditches 
are  filled  up  by  casting  into  them 
fagots,  fascines,  and  other  ma- 
terials and,  finally,  the  breaches 
are  assaulted.  The  methods  by 
which  the  siege  works  have  to 
be  constructed  vary  as  the  ap- 
proach to  the  enemy  increases 
the  difficulties:  'common  trench 
work,'  'flying  trench  work,'  and 
several  kinds  of  'sap'  have  to 
be  successively  employed.  All 
siege  works  are  carried  on  day 
and  night.  During  recent  wars 
the  most  notable  sieges  have  been 
those  of  Metz,  Strasbourg,  and 
Paris,  in  the  Franco-German 
War  of  1870-71;  Plevna  (1877) 
in  the  Russo-Turkish  War;  Lady- 
smith  and  Kimberley  (1901),  in 
the  S.  African  War;  and  Port 
Arthur  (1904-5),  in  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War.  The  experiences 
of  the  Japanese  in  the  last  named 
have  had  a  far-reaching  effect 
upon  the  theory  of  modern  sieges. 

Siege  Gun.  See  Artillery. 
Guns, 

Siegen,  town,  Germany,  in 
Westphalia,  on  Sieg  R.,  47  m.  by 
rail  E.  of  Cologne.  It  manufac- 
tures leather,  cloth,  paper,  and 
machinery,  and  is  the  center  of 
an  iron-ore  district.   Pop.  32,736. 

Siegen,  Ludwig  von  (1609- 
80),  artist,  of  German  extraction, 
born  at  Utrecht,  and  the  inventor 
of  mezzotint  engraving,  his  first 
production  in  this  art  being  a 
portrait  (about  1640)  of  Amelia 
Elizabeth,  mother  of  the  land- 
grave of  Hesse.  Siegen  imparted 
his  secret  to  Prince  Rupert,  who 
introduced  it  into  England. 
Among  his  best  mezzotints  are 
a  Holy  Family,  after  Annibale 


Caracci,  and  a  portrait  of  Fer- 
dinand III  of  Austria. 

Sigfried,    or    Sigfrid.  See 

NiBELUNGENLIED. 

Slemans,  Ernst  Werner 
von  (1816-92),  German  elec- 
trical engineer,  was  born  at 
Lenthe,  Hanover.  He  con- 
structed the  first  telegraph  line 
in  Germany.  After  the  founding 
of  the  firm  of  Siemens  and  Hal- 
ske  (1847),  he  devoted  himself  to 
electrical  engineering.  To  him 
we  owe,  in  particular,  improve- 
ments in  telegraphic  apparatus, 
galvanometers,  and  methods  of 
testing  lines  and  cables,  the  use 
of  gutta-percha  as  an  insulator, 
and  the  construction  of  a  unit  of 
resistance.  He  also  investigated 
the  use  of  selenium  in  photo- 
meters, and  the  causes  of  the 
motion  of  the  air,  and  appears  to 
have  been  an  independent  dis- 
coverer of  the  principle  of  the 
dynamo.  His  collected  Papers 
have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish (1892-9),  as  also  have  his 
Recollections  (1893). 

Siemens,  Sir  William  (Karl 
Wilhelm)  (1823-83),  German- 
English  electrician,  was  born  at 
Lenthe,  Hanover.  In  1844  he 
went  to  England,  and  was  natu- 
ralized in  1859.  His  first  im- 
portant work  was  the  devising  of 
the  system  of  regenerative  heat- 
ing, the  principle  of  which  is 
that  the  heat  contained  in  the 
products  of  an  action  are  made 
to  warm  up  the  materials  about 
to  be  used.  This  idea,  although 
unsuccessful  when  first  applied 
to  the  steam-engine,  eventually 
revolutionized  furnace  practice, 
and  rendered  the  open  hearth  or 
Siemens-Martin  process  of  steel 
manufacture  practicable.  The 
idea  was  also  applied  to  gas 
burners  for  illumination.  He 
also  invented  the  electric  resist- 
ance pyrometer  and  water  py- 
rometer, instruments  capable  of 
the  highest  accuracy.  Besides 
his  more  purely  scientific  work, 
he  rendered  much  service  in 
the  laying  of  telegraphic  cables, 
including  the  Indo-European, 
North  China,  direct  United 
States,  and  other  Atlantic  lines, 
and  he  also  laid  the  electric 
tramway  at  Portrush,  one  of  the 
first  in  the  kingdom  (opened  in 
1883).  He  was  knighted  in  1882. 
See  Life  by  Pole  (1888)  and 
Scientific  Works  (ed.  Bamber, 
1889). 

Siemens-Martin  Process. 

See  Steel. 

Siena.  province,  Italy, 
bounded  n.  by  province  Florence 
and  s.  bv  province  Rome.  Area, 
1,471  sq.  m.;  pop.  216,000.  The 
principal  products  are  wheat, 
wine,  olives,  and  silk. 

Siena,  town,  capital  of  above. 
30  m.  by  rail  s.  of  Florence.  It 
is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  has  several 
interesting  public  buildings, 
and  is  exceptionally  rich  in 
works  of  art.    The  cathedral,  a 


SlenkiewIcK 


KR 


208 


Sierra  Madre 


splendid  example  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, was  built  in  the  i:sth  and 
14th  centuries.  Its  most  note- 
worthy features  are  the  west 
fagade,  a  pulpit  by  Niccolo  Pi- 
sano,  a  font  (1428),  mosaics,  and 
frescoes  by  Pinturicchio.  The 
university  was  founded  in  1203. 
The  Piazza  del  Campo,  cele- 
brated by  Dante  in  his  Purga- 
torio,  contains  the  Loggie  di  San 
Paolo,  the  seat  of  a  commercial 
tribunal  in  the  middle  ages. 
Siena  was  the  center  of  an  art 
school;  the  chief  representatives 
were  Buoninsegna,  Sodoma,  and 
Peruzzi.  Here  were  born  Pope 
Pius  II,  Ochino,  the  two  Socini, 
Agostino,  and  Delia  Querela. 
Pop.  47,688. 

Sienkiewicz,  Henryk  (1846- 
1916),  Polish  novelist,  born  at 
Wola  Okrzeiska,  district  Lukow, 
government  of  Siedlce,  of  an  old 
and  noble  family.  On  account  of 
the  Russian  War  his  family  re- 
moved to  Warsaw,  where  Henryk 
received  his  education  at  the 
gymnasium  and  at  the  Warsaw 
University,  He  inherited  from 
his  mother,  Stephani  Cieciszew- 
ska,  who  was  a  gifted  writer  of 
verse,  his  leaning  toward  literary 
work,  and  is  said  to  have  begun 
with  a  series  of  critical  articles  in 
1869.  In  1870,  or  perhaps  ear- 
lier, he  wrote  his  first  novel,  In 
Vain,  and  in  1872  published  No- 
body Is  a  Prophet  in  His  Own 
Country.  He  visited  the  U.  S.  in 
1876,  having  already  traveled 
extensively  in  Poland,  Russia, 
France,  Germany,  and  England, 
and  joined  Mme.  Modjeska's 
Polish  colony  near  Los  Angeles, 
Calif.  His  American  experiences 
were  described  in  letters  to  the 
Warsaw  Gazette.  They  were 
signed  'Litwos,'  a  pseudonym 
also  attached  to  his  early  short 
stories,  such  as  'Hania,'  'Yanko 
the  Musician,'  'Memoirs  of  a 
Teacher  from  Posen,'  'In  the 
New  Promised  Land,'  'Across 
the  Prairie,'  etc.,  some  of  these 
being  descriptive  of  the  life  of  the 
Polish  exiles  with  whom  he  had 
been  associated.  The  writing  of 
a  story,  'In  Tartar  Captivity,' 
first  gave  him  the  idea  of  his 
great  tiilogy  of  historical  ro- 
mances dealing  with  the  resis- 
tance of  the  Poles  to  the  Cos- 
sack, Swedish,  and  Turkish  in- 
roads from  1648  to  1872.  Of 
these.  With  Fire  and  SwordilSS4) 
is  pre-eminently  superior,  the 
others.  The  Deluge  (1886)  and 
Pan  Michael  (1887-  8),  being  too 
closely  crowded  with  chracters 
and  events.  The  writing  of 
them  gave  him  at  once  a  repre- 
sentative position  as  the  na- 
tional interpreter  of  Polish  his- 
tory and  sentiment.  The  author 
has  said  that  he  'prepared  for  a 
novel  by  reading  every  book  and 
document  referring  to  it,  in  all 
languages,  that  I  can  lay  hold  of.' 


He  followed  the  trilogy  with 
Without  Dogma  (1890),  a  psycho- 
logical story  of  19th  century  life, 
in  diary  form,  presenting  the 
theory  that  without  faith  there 
can  be  no  love.  In  1891  he  vis- 
ited Egypt  and  other  parts  of 
Africa,  and  wrote  Let'ers  from 
Africa.  Three  years  afterwards 
he  published  another  psvcho- 
logical  novel.  Children  of  the  Soil, 
setting  forth  the  shams  of  mod- 
ern life  as  he  had  observed  them. 
His  romance  of  the  days  of 
Nero's  persecution  of  the  early 
Christians,  Quo  Vadis  (1896), 
was  preceded  by  a  short  story  in 
a  similar  vein,  'Anthea,'  For  its 
proper  treatment  he  traveled  in 
Italy  and  Greece,  visiting  the 
scenes  indicated,  and  giving 
great  attention  to  research  in  an- 
cient history  and  literature. 

Quo  Vadis  was  immensely 
popular  in  the  U.  S.,  and  was 
dramatized  and  produced  both  in 
that  country  and  in  England. 
It  is  as  the  interpreter  of  the 
Poles,  however,  that  Sienkiewicz 
is  looked  up  to  in  his  own  coun- 
try, and  in  recognition  of  this 
character  he  was,  in  1901,  on  the 
25th  anniversary  of  his  regular 
entrance  into  literature,  pre- 
sented with  an  estate  of  300 
acres  at  Oblengorek  in  Russian 
Poland,  the  gift  of  the  Polish  na- 
tion. His  'official'  home  was  at 
Warsaw,  and  to  this  he  was  con- 
fined for  a  time  in  1905  for  sign- 
ing a  protest  against  the  Russifi- 
cation  of  the  Polish  schools.  The 
same  year  he  received  the  Nobel 
prize  for  'the  most  important 
work  of  idealistic  tendency.'  He 
was  nominated  as  a  candidate  for 
the  Duma  of  1906  by  the  Polish 
Nationalists,  but  declined  to 
enter  public  life.  Shortly  before 
the  election  he  delivered  to  his 
Polish  compatriots  an  important 
speech  on  the  necessity  of  Polish 
so  idarity  in  voting,  as  against 
the  Socialistic  and  Jewish  ele- 
ments. Among  his  more  recent 
books  than  those  mentioned  are 
The  Knights  of  the  Cross  (1900) 
and  On  the  Field  of  Glory  (1906). 
His  novels  and  short  stories  have 
been  translated  into  English  by 
Jeremiah  Curtin  and  Iza  Young. 
See  S.  C.  de  Soissons  in  North 
Amer.  Rev.  (Aug.  1902)  and  L.  E. 
Van  Norman  in  The  Outlook 
(Aug.  3,  1902);  also  Lives  bv 
Chmielowski  (1901)  and  Nowin- 
ski  (1901). 

Sienna  consists  of  hydrated 
ferric  oxide  along  with  manga- 
nese dioxide  and  more  or  less 
earthy  matter.  When  'raw'  it  is 
a  dull  brown  color,  but  becomes 
much  brighter  and  redder  in  tone 
when  heated  or  'burned.'  Both 
varieties  are  used  as  pigments, 
and  are  permanent  and  harm- 
less. 

Sierra,  the  name  applied  to 
mountain  ranges  with  serrated 


or  saw-like  ridges,  as  the  Sierra 
Nevada  in  Spain,  the  Sierra 
Madre  in  Mexico,  and  the  Sierra 
Nevada  in  the  United  States. 

Sierra  Leone,  a  British  colony 
and  protectorate  on  the  w.  coast 
of  Africa,  between  Liberia  and 
French  Guinea,  with  a  coast-line 
of  210  m.  The  colony  extends 
inland  to  a  varying  distance  of 
from  8m.  to  20  m.,  and  includes 
Sherbro  and  other  islands.  The 
surface  rises  in  Sugar  Loaf  Mt. 
to  3,000  ft.  The  capital  is  Free- 
town (1944,  86,000  pop.)  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Rokel,  navigable 
for  40  m.  Its  harbor  is  the  best 
on  the  w.  coast  of  Africa,  and  is 
well  fortified.  Freetown  is  a 
coaling  station,  and  is  an  im- 
portant trading  center.  Other 
rivers  are  the  Great  and  Little 
Scarcies  and  the  Sherbro.  The 
protectorate  extends  180  m.  in- 
land to  the  source  region  of  the 
Niger.  The  northern  part  of  the 
territory  is  hilly.  Mount  Daro, 
near  the  Niber,  rising  to  4,396 
ft;  but  the  southern  part  is  low 
and  swampy  near  the  coast.  The 
temperature  is  high,  averaging 
83°  F.,  and  the  rainfall  at  Free- 
town is  138  in.,  but  much  less 
in  the  interor.  Sierra  Leone  has 
been  known  as  the  'White  Man's 
Grave.'    The  chief  exports  are 


Sierra  Leone. 


palm  oil  and  kernels,  rice,  gin- 
ger, iron  ore,  chromite,  kola- 
nuts,  and  india-rubber.  Sierra 
Leone  was  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese  Pedro  da  Cintra  in 
1462.  At  the  end  of  the  18th 
century  the  Sierra  Leone  Com- 
pany founded  a  colony  for  freed 
slaves,  but  ceded  its  rights  to  the 
crown  in  1807.  Area  of  colony. 
2,500  sq.  m.;  population  (est. 
1940)  121,100.  Area  of  pro- 
tectorate, 27,669  sq.  m.;  popula- 
tion about  2,000,000, 

Sierra  Madre,  Mexico,  the 
mountains  which,  in  two  chains, 
the  Oriental  and  the  Occidental 
enclose  the  central  plateau.  They 
converge  toward  the  south  in  the 
state  of  Oaxaca,  and  extend  into 


sierra  Maestra 


KR 


209 


Sleyfts 


Central  America.  No  structural 
connection  is  traceable  with  the 
Rocky  Mountains  or  with  the 
Andes.  The  highest  peaks  occur 
in  the  Sierra  Madre  Occidental, 
and  attain  altitudes  of  8,000  to 
9,500  feet.  The  eastern  range 
reaches  7,000  to  8,000  feet,  and 
includes  the  great  volcanoes 
Orizaba,  Popocatepetl  (qq.v.), 
and  others.  The  formation  of 
the  western  range,  instead  of  be- 
ing volcanic,  is  composed  mainly 
of  cretaceous  and  earlier  lime- 
stones. 

Sierra  Maestra,  se-er'a  ma- 
es'tra,  or  Macaca,  mountain 
range,  Cuba,  extending  along  the 
southern  coast  from  Cape  Cruz 
to  Guantanamo.  Its  summit, 
Pico  Turquino  (8.400  ft.),  is  the 
highest  point  of  Cuba. 

Sierra  Morena,  mo-ra-na, 
mountain  range  (7,900  ft.)  of 
southern  Spain,  dividing  the  val- 
leys of  the  Guadiana  and  the 
Guadalquivir.  Lead,  silver, 
quicksilver,  and  coal  exist,  and 
tin  ore  is  mined  at  Rio  Tinto  in 
the  west. 

Sierra  Nevada,  ne-va'da; 
Span,  pron.,  na-va'xHa  ('Snowy 
Range"),  a  mountain  range 
about  500  miles  long  in  eastern 
California,  separating  the  Great 
Basin  region  of  Nevada  from  the 
interior  valley  of  California,  and 
continuous  with  the  Cascade 
(q.v.)  Range  of  Oregon  and 
Washington.  Structurally  the 
range  is  carved  out  of  a  great 
fault  block,  tilted  slightly  to  the 
west  so  that,  on  a  broad  view,  it 
slopes  gently  westward  and 
abruptly  and  precipitously  east- 
ward. All  parts  are  much  dis- 
sected by  stream  gorges,  so  that 
the  region  is  extremely  rugged. 
Alpine  glaciers  have  existed  on 
many  of  the  slopes  and  several 
still  remain  on  Mount  Shasta. 
The  crest  line  averages  over  11,- 
000  feet  elevation,  and  the  range 
presents  an  unusually  massive 
aspect  from  the  eastern  side, 
where  it  rises  about  5,000  feet 
above  the  Great  Basin  level. 
Granite  forms  the  core  of  the 
range,  with  associated  schists  and 
slates  on  either  side,  which  are  in 
turn  overlaid  on  the  western  by 
later  marine  sediments  and  ig- 
neous materials.  Volcanic  ac- 
tion has  been  extensive,  some  of 
the  greatest  individual  moun- 
tains being  extinct  volcanoes. 
The  highest  peaks  are  Mount 
Whitney  (q.v.),  14,502  feet,  the 
highest  peak  in  the  continental 
United  States;  Mount  William- 
son, 14,500  feet;  Fisherman's 
Peak,  14,448  feet;  Mount  Tyn- 
dall,  14,386  feet;  and  Mount 
Shasta,  14,380  feet. 

The  chief  passes  are  important 
transportation  routes,  such  as 
Truckee  at  5,818  feet,  traversed 
by  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad, 
and  Tehachipi  at  3,966  feet,  trav- 


ersed by  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railroad.  Yosemite  Valley,  not- 
ed for  its  falls  and  scenery,  lies  on 
the  western  side  (see  Yosemite 
National  Park).  The  well- 
watered  western  slope  is  the 
home  of  the  giant  redwoods. 
The  'Mother  Lode'  gold  belt,  an 
extremely  complex  and  persistent 
system  of  mineral  veins,  lies  in 
the  metamorphic  slates  of  the 
western  slope.  This  is  the  source 
also  of  the  gold  of  the  auriferous 
gravels  of  California.  Some  of 
the  gravels  of  ancient  stream 
courses,  even  those  covered  by 
later  lava  flows,  have  been  mined 
on  a  large  scale.  Consult  King, 
Mountaineering  in  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada; John  Muir,  My  First  Sum- 
mer in  the  Sierra  (1911). 

Sierra  Nevada,  mountain 
range  in  southern  Spain,  running 
east  and  west  parallel  to  the 
Mediterranean  Coast,  through 
the  province  of  Granada  to  the 
frontier  of  Almeria — about  60 
miles  long.  The  southern  por- 
tion is  called  the  Alpujarras,  and 
contains  some  of  the  grandest 
mountain  scenery  in  Europe.  The 
highest  points  are  Mulhacen 
(11,420  feet).  Veleta  (11,146  feet) 
Alcazaba.  and  Machos. 

Sierra  Nevada  de  Merida, 
da  ma're-THa.  mountain  group 
south  of  town  of  Merida.  in  Ven- 
ezuela, about  250  miles  long. 
The  highest  summits  are  Picacho 
de  la  Sierra  (15,420  ft.),  Coluna 
(15,400  ft.),  and  Concha  (15, 
100  ft.). 

Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa 
Marta.  See  Santa  Marta. 

Sierra  Pacaraima.    See  Pa- 

CARAIMA. 

Sieur  de  Monte  National 
Monument.  See  National 
Parks. 

Sievelting,  se've-king,  Mar- 
tinus  (1867),  Dutch  pianist,  was 
born  in  Amsterdam,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  his  father  and  of  Ront- 
gen  at  the  Leipzig  Conservatory. 
He  began  concert  work  in  1889, 
playing  in  all  the  European 
capitals.  In  1895  he  made  the 
first  of  several  visits  to  the 
United  States,  where  he  appeared 
as  solo  pianist  with  the  Thomas 
and  other  orchestras. 

Sievers,  ze'vers,  Eduard 
(1850-1932)  German  philologist, 
was  born  at  Lippoldsberg  in 
Hesse-Nassau.  He  was  success- 
ively professor  of  philology  at 
Jena  (1871-83),  Tubingen  (1883- 
87),  Halle  (1887-92).  and  Leip- 
zig (1892).  His  works  include: 
Angelsdchsische  Grammatik  (18S2; 
Eng.  trans.);  Der  Heliand  und 
die  Angelsdchsische  Genesis 
(1875);  Zum  A  gelsdchsische  Vo- 
kalismus  (1900);  Grundciige  der 
Phonetik  (5th  ed.  1901);  Met- 
rische  Studien  (3  vols.,  1901-05). 

Sievershausen,  village,  Ger- 
many. Prussia.  15  miles  east  of 
Hanover,  noted  for  the  victory  of 


Maurice  of  Saxony  over  Albert  of 
Brandenburg  in  1553. 

Sievsli,  town,  Russia,  govern- 
ment of  Orel;  90  miles  southwest 
of  Orel  city.    Pop.  9,000. 

Sieyfes,  si-a-yes'.  Emmanuel 
Joseph,  Comte  (1748-1836), 
French  revolutionist,  who  as  the 
Abbe  Sieves  figures  prominently 
in  the  p'rench  Revolution,  was 
born  in  Frejus.  He  became 
canon  in  the  diocese  of  Treguier 
(1775).  next  chancellor  and  vicar- 
general  of  the  diocese  of  Char- 
tres,  and  was  sent  by  the  latter 
to  the  Chambre  Superieure  of  the 
Clergy  of  France.  Between  the 
dissolution  of  the  Assembly  of 
Notables  and  the  reunion  of  the 
Constituent  Assembly  he  pub- 
lished three  famous  pamphlets 
which  carried  his  name  over  the 
length  and  breadth  of  France: 
Vues  sur  les  Moyens  d' Execu- 
tion, Essai  sur  les  Privileges,  and, 
the  most  famous  of  all,  Qu'est- 
ce  Que  le  Tiers-Etat?  He  was 
elected  one  of  the  deputies  for 
Paris,  and  it  was  on  his  mo- 
tion (June  10,  1789)  that  the 
tiers-Hat  sent  a  final  invitation 
to  the  noblesse  and  clergy  to 
join  them,  with  the  intimation 
that  if  they  refused  they  would 
constitute  themselves  into  the 
States-General. 

Seven  days  later  the  National 
Assembly  was  formed,  the  name 
being  due  to  the  suggestion  of 
Sieyes.  He  took  part  in  the 
memorable  declaration  of  the 
Rights  of  Man  (Aug.  26,  1789). 
He  was  elected  to  the  National 
Convention,  sat  in  the  center, 
voted  for  the  king's  death  sans 
phrase;  but  as  the  Revolution 
grew  sank  into  'philosophic  si- 
lence,' his  heart  filled  with  dis- 
dain alike  at  its  illogical  excesses 
and  the  bombastic  rhetoric  of  its 
leaders.  He  and  Rewbell,  in 
1795,  organized  the  Batavian  re- 
public on  the  model  of  the  French 
republic,  and  brought  about  a 
treaty  between  France  and  Hol- 
land. He  sat  in  the  Council  of 
Ancients,  and  did  not  interfere 
with  the  policy  of  the  Directory. 
He  took  no  part  in  the  coup  d'etat 
of  Fructidor,  1797. 

In  1798  the  Abbe  Sieyes  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  Berlin  to  try 
to  persuade  the  Prussian  king  to 
make  an  offensive  and  defensive 
alliance  with  France;  but  he 
failed.  In  May,  1799,  he  was 
elected  to  the  Directory,  and 
then,  like  Barras  a  traitor  to  the 
republic,  he  plunged  into  a  web 
of  dark  intrigues  with  a  view  to 
find  a  soldier  who  would  be  con- 
tent to  be  an  instrument.  Bona- 
parte (q.v.)  returned  from  Egypt 
on  Oct.  25,  1799,  and  together 
they  plotted  the  revolution  of  the 
18th  Brumaire  (Nov.  9,  1799), 
the  result  of  which  was  the  insti- 
tution of  the  Consulate  of  Sieyes, 
Bonaparte,  and  Roger  Ducos. 


Sirton 


KR 


^10 


Sights 


But  Sieyes  soon  discovered  in  his 
new  ally  a  master.  Finding 
himself  befooled  by  Bonaparte, 
he  threw  up  his  consulship  in  dis- 
gust. After  the  Restoration  he 
was  exiled,  and  lived  in  Belgium 
till  1830.  Consult  Mignet, 
Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie 
et  les  Travaux  de  Sieyes; 
Bigeon,  Sieyes. 

Strton,  Sir  Clifford  (1861- 
1929),  Canadian  public  official, 
was  born  in  Middlesex,  Ontario. 
He  was  graduated  from  Victoria 
University,  Cobourg  (1880),  and 
was  called  to  the  Manitoba  bar  in 
1882.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Manitoba  legislature  (1888-96), 
and  provincial  attorney-general 
(1891-6).  From  1896  to  1911 
he  was  Minister  of  the  Interior 
in  the  Cabinet  of  Sir  Wilfrid 
Laurier,  and  in  that  office  greatly 
stimulated  immigration  into 
Canada.  In  1911  he  resigned 
from  the  Laurier  Cabinet  because 
of  his  opposition  to  the  proposed 
reciprocity  agreement  with  the 
United  States.  He  was  agent  for 
the  British  government  on  the 
Alaska  Boundary  Tribunal 
(1903);  Canadian  representative 
at  the  International  Conference 
on  Conservation  of  Resources, 
Washington  (1909);  and  became 
chairman  of  the  Commission 
for  Conservation  of  Natural  Re- 
sources (1909).  He  was  knighted 
in  1915. 

Sigel,  se'gd,  Franz  (1824- 
1902),  German- American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Sinsheim,  Baden, 
and  was  graduated  from  the 
Karlsruhe  military  school.  He 
resigned  his  commission  in  the 
grand  ducal  army  in  1847,  and 
joined  in  the  insurrections  of 
1848-9,  becoming  provisional 
minister  of  war  and  adjutant  to 
General  Mieroslawski.  Later  he 
retired  to  Switzerland  and  to 
England,  and  in  1852  migrated 
to  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  where  he  was 
a  journalist  and  school  teacher. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
he  raised  a  German  regiment  and 
artillery  company,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  struggle  for 
Missouri.  He  made  an  orderly 
retreat  after  the  engagement  at 
Carthage  (May,  1861),  and  ren- 
dered conspicuous  service  at  Wil- 
son's Creek  (q.v.),  assuming 
command  after  the  death  of  Gen- 
eral Lyon  (q.v.).  As  a  brigadier 
general  of  volunteers  he  led  a 
successful  charge  at  the  Battle  of 
Pea  Ridge;  was  promoted  major 
general  and  given  command  at 
Harper's  Ferry;  commanded  a 
corps  under  Pope  in  the  Manas- 
sas campaign;  and  while  in  com- 
mand of  the  Department  of  West 
Virginia  was  defeated  by  Breck- 
enridge  at  New  Market.  In 
1865  he  resigned  from  the  army; 
was  register  of  New  York  City  in 
1871-4;  U.  S.  pension  agent  in 
1886-9;  and  edited  the  New 
York  Monthly,  a  German-Ameri- 
can periodical. 


Slgerson,  sij'er-sun,  Dora 
(Mrs.  Clement  Shorter) 
(1866-1918),  Irish  poetess,  was 
born  in  Dublin.  Her  published 
works,  which  are  more  remark- 
able for  beauty  of  ideas  than  for 
finished  workmanship,  and  deal 
in  large  part  with  Irish  folklore, 
are  as  follows:  Verses  (1894); 
The  Fairy  Changeling,  and  Other 
Poems  (1897);  My  Lady's  Slip- 
per (1898);  Ballads  and  Poems 
(1899);  The  Father  Confessor 
(stories,  1900);  The  Woman  Who 
Went  to  Hell,  and  Other  Ballads 
(1902);  As  the  Sparks  Fly  Up- 
ward (1904);  The  Country  House 
Party  (1905);  The  Story  and  Song 
of  Earl  Roderick  (1905);  Through 
Wintry  Terrors  (novel,  1907); 
Collected  Poems  (1909);  The 
Troubadour  (1910);  New  Poems 
(1912);  Love  of  Ireland  (ballads, 
1916). 

Sigfrted,  or  Siegfried.  See 

NiBELUNGENLIED. 

sight.  For  the  organ  of  sight, 
its  anatomy,  physiology,  defects, 
and  diseases,  see  Eye;  also 
Blindness;  Color  Blindness; 
Optics.  For  the  theory  of  vision, 
see  Vision. 

Sights  for  heavy  guns  and 
small  arms  are  devices  for  cor- 
rectly aiming  these  weapons. 
When  a  projectile  leaves  the  bore 
of  a  gun  it  is  moving  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  axis  of  the  bore  and  at 
a  high  velocity,  but  is  acted  upon 
be  forces  that  cause  it  to  deflect 
from  its  original  linear  path  (see 
Projectiles.  These  forces  are 
gravity,  pressure  of  the  air,  and 
movement  of  the  gun.  The  gyro- 
scopic force  of  rotation  tends  nor- 
mally to  keep  the  projectile  in  its 
original  path,  but,  acted  upon  by 
the  resistance  of  the  air,  it  also 
causes  certain  deflections.  If 
the  air  is  movmg  across  the  line 
of  fire  it  tends  to  press  the  pro- 
jectile out  of  its  path.  If  the  gun 
itself  is  moving  (as  on  a  ship), 
another  deflecting  force  comes 
into  play.  Varying  density  of 
the  atmosphere  and  inequalities 
of  the  powder  (due  to  age,  mois- 
ture, etc.)  also  have  their  ef- 
fect. 

Sights  are  of  no  value  unless 
the  guns  themselves  possess  con- 
siderable accuracy.  Consequent- 
ly they  were  not  fitted  to  heavy 
guns  until  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  when  gunnery  became 
a  serious  study  and  guns  more  ac- 
curate weapons.  In  1801  a  pro- 
posal to  fit  sights  to  naval  guns 
was  referred  to  Lord  Nelson.  He 
said  he  would  be  glad  to  see  and 
use  them,  but  hoped  to  be  able  to 
get  so  near  the  enemy  that  his 
shots  could  not  miss.  During 
the  War  of  1812,  sights  of  their 
own  devising  were  used  by  offi- 
cers of  American  ships,  and  some 
cf  the  superiority  in  gunnery 
shown  by  the  Americans  was  due 
to  them.  As  the  range  of  guns 
increased  and  the  paths  of  suc- 
cessive projectiles  fired  from  the 


same  piece  became  more  uniform, 
sights  steadily  improved  until,  in 
1892,  Admiral  Fiske  (q.  v.)  of  the 
U.  S.  Navy  brought  out  a  prac- 
ticable sight  of  the  telescope 
type.  This  was  an  enormous 
step  in  advance,  and  made  mod- 
ern gunnery  possible. 

Short-range  weapons,  like 
shotguns  and  revolvers,  are  still 
fitted  with  very  simple  sights — ■ 
the  front  one  being  a  pointed  bit 
of  metal,  while  the  rear  one  is  a 
simple  notch  or  omitted  alto- 
gether. In  long-range  small 
arms  the  front  sight  is  of  'knife- 
edge'  type;  or  consists  of  a  small 
bead  on  a  short  pin,  or  of  a  circle 
— the  bead  and  circle  usually  be- 
ing combined.  The  rear  sight  is 
a  notch  of  some  sort  or  a  peep- 
hole through  a  smaU  circular 
plate;  in  either  case  it  is  suscep- 
tible of  being  raised  for  increase 
of  range  and  of  a  side  movement 
to  correct  for  lateral  deflection  or 
movement  of  the  object  at  which 
aimed.  For  long-range  shooting 
telescope  sights  are  fitted  to  some 
sporting  and  military  rifles. 

Modern  sights  for  heavy  guns 
are  much  more  complicated. 
The  great  range  of  the  guns  now 
used,  the  cost  of  each  shot,  and 
the  importance  oi  every  hit  make 
the  correction  of  errors  most  nec- 
essary; and  the  sights  are  there- 
fore as  efficient  as  science,  care, 
and  money  can  make  them. 
Practically  all  are  telescopic,  for 
the  advantages  of  the  telescopic 
type  are  manifold.  By  the  use 
of  suitable  lenses  and  proper  ar- 
rangement, the  target  is  magni- 
fied sufficiently  to  render  the 
pointing  as  accurate  as  at  close 
range;  by  means  of  prisms,  the 
line  of  sight  can  be  bent  or  turned 
in  any  direction  that  is  conve- 
nient for  the  gun  pointer;  while 
not  the  least  of  the  telescope's 
advantages  is  the  bringing  of  the 
target  and  sighting  point  (cross- 
hairs) together  in  the  focus  of  the 
telescope.  When  using  the  old- 
fashioned  front  and  rear  sights 
the  eye  endeavors  to  bring  three 
objects  in  line — the  two  sights 
and  the  target.  Since  each  is  at 
a  different  distance,  only  one  can 
be  clearly  seen  at  a  time,  and  the 
error  due  to  this  state  of  affairs  is 
considerable — inadmissibly  great 
at  long  ranges. 

A  telescope  sight  is  not  at- 
tached to  the  gun,  but  to  the 
sleeve  or  slide  in  which  the  gun 
travels  during  recoil;  and  it  is 
firmly  clamped  to  a  pivot  bar 
which  has  movement  in  eleva- 
tion and  in  azimuth,  separate 
scales  being  provided  for  each. 
The  scales  are  either  flat  or  mul- 
tiplying. A  flat  scale  is  a  gradu- 
ated plate  over  which  passes  a 
pointer  connected  to  the  pivot 
bar.  A  multiplying  scale  is  on  a 
drum  or  a  cylinder  connected  to 
the  bar  by  a  worm  shaft  or  gear- 
ing. By  means  of  these  devices 
the  pointing  of  a  gun  is  made  as 


Sight,  Second 


KFP 


211 


Signal  Corps 


accurate  as  the  varying  charac- 
ters of  the  deflecting  causes  per- 
mit. Sights  are  adjusted  from 
time  to  time  by  bore  sighting,  a 
procedure  by  which  the  line  of 
sight  through  the  telescope  is 
brought  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  bore  (using  temporary  sights 
in  the  bore)  while  the  pointers 
of  the  deflection  and  elevation 
scales  are  kept  at  zero.  To  cor- 
rect for  variations  in  the  powder 
and  for  certain  other  errors,  cali- 
bration (i.e.,  test)  firing  is  re- 
sorted to,  the  zero  of  the  sights 
being  adjusted  to  allow  for  the 
mean  observed  error  of  the  shots. 
On  naval  guns  and  many  land 
pieces  there  are  two  sets  of 
sights — one  each  side — for  the 
use  of  the  gun  pointer  and 
trainer. 

Field  and  siege  guns,  which 
are  often  so  placed  that  the  tar- 
get can  not  be  seen,  may  be  laid 
in  azimuth  by  panoramic  or  pris- 
matic sights  or  by  other  means, 
and  in  elevation  by  a  gunner's 
quadrant.  The  latter  consists  of 
a  graduated  drum  or  circular 
scale  carried  on  a  pivot  bar  on 
which  is  mounted  a  second 
pivoted  bar  supporting  the  spirit 
level. 

Prismatic  sights  have  tele- 
scopes of  the  usual  power  and 
with  the  customary  fittings,  but 
the  line  of  sight  between  the  ob- 
ject glass  and  the  eyepiece  is 
bent  through  one  or  more  angles. 
This  enables  the  sighting  hole  to 
be  cut  through  the  side  of  a  tur- 
ret instead  of  through  its  front, 
and  permits  the  pointer  of  a  gun 
using  high-angle  fire  (especially 
an  anti-aircraft  piece)  to  stand 
erect,  or  nearly  so,  even  if  the 
gun  is  pointed  vertically. 

In  operating  a  modern  gun  the 
adjustment  of  the  sight  is  ef- 
fected by  the  sight  setter  on  in- 
formation given  by  the  division 
crfficer  or  battery  commander, 
leaving  the  gun  pointer  (who 
fires  the  piece)  free  to  carry  on 
his  own  duty  without  interrup- 
tion. See  Gunnery;  Guns; 
Projectiles  ;  Target  Prac- 
tice. 

Sigrht,  Second.  See  Second 
Sight. 

Sigillaria,  sij-i-la'ri-a  (Latin 
sigillum,  'a  seal'),  a  family  of 
fossil  plants,  which  ranges  from 
the  Devonian  to  the  Permian 
system,  but  is  more  especially 
abundant  in  Carboniferous 
strata.  The  plants  had  slender, 
pillar-like  trunks,  some  of  which 
attained  a  diameter  of  5  feet  and 
were  proportionately  tall,  reach- 
ing a  height  of  SO  to  70  feet. 
The  columnar  stems  are  ribbed 
and  fluted  longitudinally  in  a 
very  regular  manner,  the  flut- 
ings  being  marked  by  rows  or 
whorls  of  scars  left  by  fallen 
leaves.  The  fruit  is  still  un- 
known, some  botanists  supposing 


that  Sigillaria  had  cones  like 
those  of  lycopods,  while  others 
think  it  probable  that  the  fruit 
resembled  that  of  yew  trees.  The 
structure  of  the  stem  is  pecul- 
iar :  the  external  rind  or  coat  is 
hard,  beneath  that  is  a  great 
thickness  of  cellular  tissue  trav- 
ersed by  rope-like  bands  of 
fibers  forming  an  inner  bark, 
while  in  the  center  is  a  com- 
paratively small  firm  woody 
axis.  See  Lepidodendron  ;  Stig- 

MARIA. 

Sig-ismund,  sij'is-mund 
(1368-1437),  Holy  Roman  Em- 
peror, son  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  iv.  He  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther as  margrave  of  Branden- 
burg (1378)  ;  married  Mary,  the 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Louis 
the  Great,  king  of  Hungary,  and 
on  the  death  of  the  latter  as- 
cended the  Hungarian  throne.  In 
1396  he  led  a  crusade  against 
the  Turks,  but  suffered  a  crush- 
ing defeat_  at  Nicopolis.  A  popu- 
lar uprising  deposed  him  in 
1401,  but  with  the  aid  of  mer- 
cenary troops  he  recovered  his 
throne.  Sigismund  was  elected 
Holy  Roman  emperor  in  1410. 
He  was  the  author  and  protector 
of  the  Council  of  Constance, 
called  together  for  the  purpose 
of  ending  the  Hussite  and  other 
schisms  ;  but  the  martyrdom  of 
John  Huss  led  to  the  Hussite 
War  (see  Hussites,  War  of 
the). 

Sigismund,  three  kings  of 
Poland,  of  the  Jagello  dynasty. 
Sigismund  i  (1466-1548)  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  Alexander  in 
1507.  His  reign  was  notable  for 
the  constant  wars  waged  with 
Basil,  tsar  of  Russia,  and  for 
the  intrigues  of  his  wife  (Bona 
Sforza  of  Milan)  against  the 
Reformation.  His  code  of  laws 
for  Lithuania  shows  an  enlight- 
ened prince,  anxiovis  for  the  wel- 
fare of  his  people,  as  against  the 
tyranny  of  the  nobles.  In  his 
reign  Copernicus  (q.  v.)  flour- 
ished.— He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Sigismund  ii  (1520-72), 
surnamed  Augustus,  who  reigned 
from  1548  to  1572,  and  was  in 
his  later  years  continually  at  war 
with  Ivan  the  Terrible  of  Russia 
and  with  the  Swedes.  He  was 
at  first  favorable  to  Protestant- 
ism, then  permitted  severe  per- 
secution of  the  reformers,  but 
finally  _  was  compelled  to  allow 
a  nominal  toleration  in  spiritual 
matters. — Sigismund  hi  (1566- 
1632)  was  a  Swedish  prince,  the 
son  of  King  John  iii  of  Sweden 
and  Catherine,  sister  of  Sigis- 
mund II,  and  was  elected  to  the 
throne  on  the  death  of  Stephen 
Bathori.  During  his  reign,  from 
1587  to  1632,  rebellions  among 
the  nobles  were  frequent.  Though 
he  finally  crushed  them  at  the 
Battle  of  Guzow,  the  spark  was 
only   smothered,   not  quenched. 


He  also  had  several  wars  with 
the  Turks,  the  great  victory  of 
Chodkiewicz  (his  general)  over 
them  at  Khotin  (September, 
1622)  forming  the  theme  of 
more  than  one  Polish  epic.  He 
was  a  bitter  persecutor  of  the 
Protestants.  For  twelve  years 
(1592  to  1604)  he  was  also  king 
of  Sweden,  being  eventually  de- 
posed by  the  Swedish  estates. 
See  Poland,  History. 

Sigmaringen.   See  Hohen- 

ZOLLERN. 

Sigmaringen,  town,  Ger- 
many, Prussia,  on  the  Danube; 
30  miles  northeast  of  Constance. 
Pop.^  5,210. 

Sigma  Xi,  sig'ma  zi  or  kse, 
an  honorary  scientific  college 
fraternity  that  derives  its  name 
from  the  initials  of  the  two 
Greek  words  Hirovbdv  "Evvoves 
('companions  in  zealous  re- 
search'), founded  in  1886  at 
Cornell  University.  Its  object 
is  to  encourage  original  inves- 
tigation in  science,  pure  and  ap- 
plied, by  meeting  for  the  discus- 
sion of  scientific  subjects  ;  by  the 
publication  of  such  scientific 
rnatters  as  may  be  deemed  de- 
sirable ;  by  establishing  frater- 
nal relations  among  invtistiga- 
tors  in  the  scientific  centers ; 
and  by  granting  the  privilege  of 
membership  to  such  students  as 
have  during  their  college  course 
given  special  promise  of  future 
achievement.  It  admits  as  active 
members  resident  professors,  in- 
structors, graduate  students,  and 
undergraduates  ;  as  alumni  mem- 
bers former  active  members  and 
any  graduate  of  the  institution 
of  not  less  than  five  years'  stand- 
ing ;  and  as  honorary  members 
scientific  workers  who  have 
achieved  eminence  in  some  work 
of  pure  or  applied  science.  The 
badge  or  insignia  is  a  gold  watch 
chain  pendant,  with  a  monogram 
of  the  two  Greek  letters.  The  so- 
ciety has  93  chapters,  and  about 
45,000  members. 

Sigmoid  Flexure.  See  In- 
testines. 

Signa,  commune.  Italy,  on  the 
Arno  ;  8  miles  west  of  Florence. 
Pop.  8,500. 

Signakh,  town,  Russian 
Transcaucasia,  government  of 
Tiflis;  50  miles  east  of  Tiflis 
city.  Pop.  9,000. 

Signal  Corps,  U.  S.  Army, 
one  of  the  principal  branches  of 
the  army,  whose  duties  are  con- 
nected with  the  collection  and 
transmission  of  military  knowl- 
edge. The  Chief  Signal  Officer, 
a  major  general,  has  the  direc- 
tion of  all  matters  pertaining  to 
military  cables,  military  tele- 
graph and  telephone  lines  and 
field  trains,  radio  and  radar  in- 
stallations. He  must  also  super- 
vise the  development  and  use  of 
improved  signal  codes ;  must, 
through      modern  laboratory 


Sigrnallingr,  Military  KFP 


211  A 


Sig:nalling,  Naval 


methods,  develop  new  and  better 
signal  equipment ;  and  must, 
when  war  strikes,  be  ready  to 
merge  all  necessary  civilian 
means  to  communication  with 
existing  military  equipment  to 
take  the  field  in  the  communica- 
tion service  of  combat  and  sup- 
ply troops.  The  father  of  the 
United  States  Signal  Corps  was 
Major  (later  Brigadier  General) 
Albert  James  Myer,  a  surgeon, 
who  was  given  the  rank  of  Ma- 
jor, June  27,  1860,  as  Signal  Of- 
ficer, the  first  such  appointment 
in  history. 

The  first  Signal  Officer  put 
into  use  the  wigwag  system — 
hand  flags  by  day,  torches  or 
lanterns  by  night.  The  flaming 
torch  and  crossed  signal  flags  in- 
signia of  the  Corps  commemo- 
rate this  beginning.  From  these 
crude  signal  beginnings  to  the 
use  of  radio  relay  in  the  Second 
World  War  and  radar  spotting 
is  a  far  cry  but,  in  the  years  of 
its  existence,  the  U.  S.  Army 
Signal  Corps  has  practically  led 
the  world  in  devising  and  oper- 
ating the  most  modern  means  of 
observation  and  communication. 
See  Signalling,  Military  ; 
Telegraph,  Military. 

Signalling,  Military.  Mili- 
tary signals  are  of  two  types, 
visual  and  sound.  In  simple 
form,  signals  were  used  in  very 
ancient  times.  For  fleet  opera- 
tions, Aeneas  Tacitus  (300  B.C.) 
proposed  a  signal  code.  Polybius 
(204-125  B.C.)  described  the 
code  of  Tacitus  and  proposed 
one  of  his  own.  From  this  point 
forward,  the  trend  of  code  pat- 
terns was  definitely  towards  sim- 
plification. Improvement  in  the 
tools  of  war  made  necessary  bet- 
ter code  systems  and  in  early 
days  this  was  particularly  so  in 
naval  operations. 

Visual  signals  are  made  dur- 
ing the  day  by  means  of  flags, 
heliographs,  heliostats,  shapes 
(e.g.,  panel  signals  laid  on  the 
ground  to  be  read  from  the  air 
by  flying  pilots),  smoke,  and 
semaphores.  By  night,  visual 
signals  are  made  by  flame, 
torches,  lanterns,  lamps,  flash- 
lights, rockets,  night  helio- 
graphs, searchlight,  and  para- 
chute flares.  In  modern  warfare, 
airplane  scouting  and  observa- 
tion balloons  have  considerably 
curtailed  the  use  and  efficiency 
of  visual  signalling. 

Sound  signals  are  made  by 
bugles,  drums,  gongs,  ^un  shots, 
horns,  steam  or  air  whistles,  tel- 
egraph (line  or  radio),  and  tele- 
phone. 

Ordinary  day  signals  are  sent 
by  flags  or  mechanical  sema- 
phores. The  flag  signals  most 
used  are  of  two  types — the  wig- 
wag and  the  hand  semaphore. 
The  wigwag  flag  is  two  to  three 
feet  square,  and  mounted  on  a 


staff  from  four  to  six  feet  long. 
For  fast,  short-distance  work  the 
small  flag  and  short  staff  are 
used.  Both  transmit  with  the 
telegraph  code;  a  wave  to  the 
right  corresponding  to  a  dot ; 
one  to  the  left,  a  dash  ;  one  to  the 
front,  interval.  The  hand  sema- 
phore is  faster,  but  can  not  be 
seen  so  far.  Two  small  flags  on 
short  staves  are  used,  one  in  each 
hand.  The  code  is  that  of  the 
two-armed  semaphore,  each  po- 
sition forming  a  letter.  Mechani- 
cal semaphores  are  less  portable 
than  flags,  and  are  not  much 
used  except  from  stations  hav- 
ing some  degree  of  permanence. 
(See  Semaphore). 

For  long  distance  day  signal- 
ling, heliographs  are  commonly 
employed,  the  self-adjusting  he- 
liostat  being  too  heavy  and  com- 
plicated for  ordinary  service. 
The  usual  type  of  military  helio- 
graph consists  of  a  reflecting 
mirror,  a  transmitting  mirror, 
and  an  occulting  shutter.  Its 
easy  working  range  is  30  to  40 
miles  under  fair  conditions,  but 
double  this  distance  has  been 
covered.  (See  Heliograph). 

For  signalling  at  night,  oil 
acetylene  lanterns  fitted  with 
hoods  and  occulting  shutters  are 
useful.  If  supplied  with  a  long 
tube  for  surrounding  the  ray, 
svich  a  lantern  may  be  operated 
with  considerable  secrecy,  pro- 
vided the  exact  direction  of  the 
receiving  station  is  known.  Elec- 
tric lamps  with  operating 
switches  ^  are  useful  where  the 
current  is  obtainable.  Night  he- 
liographs with  artificial  light  are 
sometimes  used,  but  are  not 
common.  Field  or  fortress 
searchlights  are  used  in  two 
ways — with  occulting  shutters 
and  without.  In  the  latter  case 
they  are  directed  vertically  (or 
nearly  so),  and  operated  like  the 
wigwag — a  swing  to  the  right 
signifying  a  dot,  to  the  left  a 
dash,  to  the  front  an  interval. 
When  employed  in  this  way  the 
signals  may  be  read  for  50  miles 
or  more  over  intervening  hills  or 
mountains. 

In  all^  armies,  certain  men 
are  specially  trained  in  signal- 
ling. All  enlisted  men  are  given 
some  signal  instruction,  and  the 
non-commissioned  officers  must 
be  reasonably  expert  in  the  hand 
semaphore,  wigwag,  and  arm 
signals.  Arm  signals  are  used  by 
the  patrol  leader,  squad  leader, 
and  others  when  in  extended  or- 
der, and  all  men  are  required  to 
be  familiar  with  their  significa- 
tions, which  include  forward 
march,  halt,  double  time,  squads 
right,  squads  left,  to  the  rear, 
assemble,  enemy  in  sight  in  small 
numbers,  enemy  in  sight  in  force, 
have  important  information. 

In  wartime,  messages  from 
first-line  trenches  are  common- 


ly sent  by  telegraph,  but  circum- 
stances sometimes  permit  visual 
signalling  up  and  down  the  line 
and  to  the  rear,  especially  simple 
arbitrary  signals  of  urgent  char- 
acter. 

In  permanent  works,  and  par- 
ticularly in  those  which  have 
communication  with  naval  ves- 
sels, the  4-lamp  ardois  (see 
Signalling,  Naval)  is  very 
convenient.  Torches  on  the  end 
of  a  staff  and  used  like  a  wigwag 
flag  were  formerly  in  vogue,  but 
are  not  desirable  when  near  the 
enemy  in  time  of  war.  A  simple 
night  signalling  equipment  con- 
sists of  two  oil  lanterns,  one  of 
which  is  placed  at  the  operator's 
feet,  but  where  it  can  be  seen 
from  the  receiving  station.  The 
other  is  moved  to  the  right  to 
form  a  dot,  to  the  left  for  a 
dash,  up  and  down  for  an  inter- 
val. 

All  the  night  signal  apparatus 
which  have  been  described  use 
the  telegraph  code  or  (in  some 
foreign  armies)  one  of  similar 
type.  In  the  ardois  each  display 
is  a  letter,  figure,  or  arbitrary 
signal.  In  time  of  war,  signals  of 
importance  are  blinded  by  the 
use  of  a  secret  code,  or  in  some 
other  fashion,  so  that  their  mean- 
ing can  not  be  determined  by  the 
enemy. 

Sound  signals,  aside  from  those 
of  the  bugle,  telegraph,  and  tele- 
phone, are  very  little  used  in 
military  operations  except  in 
connection  with  the  water  trans- 
port service  or  in  other  special 
cases.  See  Signal  Corps  ;  Sig- 
nalling. Naval. 

Signalling,  Naval.  Signals  of 
simple  form  were  of  course  used 
in  very  ancient  times,  for  the 
idea  of  them  is  common  with  the 
least  civilized  tribes  and  races. 
Reasoning  from  analogy  and 
from  such  information  as  we 
possess,  we  may  conclude  that 
the  development  of  naval  signals 
went  hand  in  hand  with  that  of 
the  war  vessels  and  of  naval  tac- 
tics. The  demand  for  a  compre- 
hensive code  in  fleet  operations 
in  order  to  provide  for  unfore- 
seen contingencies  is  shown  in 
the  code  of  Aeneas  Tacitus,  pro- 
posed by  him  about  300  B.C.,  and 
described  by  Polybius  (204-125 
B.C.),  and  one  devised  by  Polyb- 
ius by  which  any  word  could  be 
spelled.  To  what  extent  these 
codes  were  used  is  not  known, 
but  it  is  probable  that  they  were 
found  too  cumbrous  for  ordinary 
use.  At  any  rate,  the  codes  of  la- 
ter centuries  were  much  simpler. 
Doubtless  the  battle  tactics  of 
the  gallery  period  had  something 
to  do  with  this.  The  vessels  were 
comparatively  small,  slow,  and 
under  good  control  by  means  of 
their  oars ;  they  were  usually 
near  enough  to  each  other  to 
pass  the  word  by  voice ;  and  the 


Sigrnalling,  Naval 


KFP 


211  B  Signalling,  Naval 


evolutions  performed,  the  arms 
used,  and  the  methods  of  attack 
were  of  simple  character.  All 
sorts  of  signals  were  employed — 
torches,  flames,  flags,  banners, 
pennants,  shapes,  sound  signals 
(drums,  gongs,  horns,  etc.)  ; 
flags,  torches,  flames,  banners 
were  displayed  in  unusual  posi- 
tions or  in  special  numbers ; 
sails  were  loosed  and  hoisted  one 
or  more  times. 

When  sails  definitely  displaced 
oars  as  the  motive  power  of  war- 
ships, the  latter  grew  rapidly  in 
size — also  in  unwieldiness ;  and 
the  size  and  number  of  the  guns 


of  different  signals  could  be 
transmitted,  and  a  system  em- 
ploying thirty  flags — including 
one  for  each  letter — was  certain- 
ly in  use  by  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  About  1780, 
Admiral  Kempenfelt  of  the  Brit- 
ish navy  devised  a  code  which 
used  flags  for  day  work  and  lan- 
terns for  the  night.  From  these 
two  systems  the  day  and  night 
signals  of  the  present  day  are  in 
a  great  measure  derived.  In  1792, 
McArthur,  secretary  to  Ad- 
miral Lord  Howe,  devised  a  day 
code  that  was  adopted  by  the 
British  Admiralty   in   1792  as 


own  tactical  and  administrative 
signals.  In  1816  a  code  diction- 
ary was  issued,  but  no  regular 
method  of  arrangement  was  fol- 
lowed, and  the  code  was  defec- 
tive in  other  respects.  In  1846, 
H.  J.  Rogers,  superintendent  of 
telegraphs,  devised  a  code  which 
was  adopted  by  the  Navy  De- 
partment. It  consisted  at  first  of 
nine  flags  (one  for  each  numeral 
from  1  to  9)  and  five  pennants. 
In  1861,  Rogers'  code  was  re- 
vised and  rearranged  ;  a  flag  for 
zero  was  added,  three  pennants 
for  repeaters,  and  a  number  of 
other  flags  and  pennants. 


Signal  Practice  on  an  American  Battleship. 


increased  with  the  dimensions  of 
the  ships.  The  complications 
thereby  introduced  into  naval 
war  rendered  the  simple  codes 
inadequate,  and  attempts  were 
made  to  develop  better  ones.  The 
first  of  these  to  be  extensively 
used  appears  to  be  one  adopted 
about  1665  by  the  Duke  of  York 
(afterward  James  ii  of  Eng- 
land) while  in  command  of  the 
British  fleet  which  was  operat- 
ing against  the  Dutch.  The  de- 
tails of  the  system  are  not  known. 
It  is  believed  by  some  that  sepa- 
rate flags  were  used  for  each  of 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  What- 
ever the  means,  a  large  number  ' 


Lord  Howe's  code.  This  had  13 
flags  which,  by  inversion,  com- 
bination, and  shift  of  hoist  to 
fly,  could  be  made  to  represent 
the  twenty-six  letters  of  the 
alphabet  and  other  significations. 
Nelson's  famous  signal  at  Traf- 
algar was  made  with  this  code. 

The  first  U.  S.  naval  code  was 
adopted  in  1795,  and  was  similar 
to  some  of  the  British  develop- 
ments of  King  James'  code. 
There  were  twenty-six  flags  (one 
for  each  letter)  and  a  number  of 
pennants.  No  code  dictionary 
was  prepared,  and  except  for  a 
few  general  signals  each  squad- 
ron   commander    prepared  his 


In  1887,  the  British  Board  of 
Trade  was  charged  with  bring- 
ing the  international  signal 
book  up  to  date.  In  1889  the  re- 
sult of  its  work  was  published. 
The  number  of  flags  was  in- 
creased to  26  plus  a  code  or  an- 
swering pennant.  With  this  in- 
crease, many  of  the  more  impor- 
tant signals  could  be  made  by 
single  or  2-flag  hoists,  general 
signals  by  3-flag  hoists,  and  geo- 
graphical signals  by  4-flag  hoists. 

During  the  war  period,  1914- 
18,  this  code  was  severely  tested 
and  proved  inadequate,  princi- 
pally in  that  it  was  not  interna- 
tional in  scope.  After  the  war,  it 


Signallingt  Naval 


KFP 


212 


Signalling,  Naval 


was  proposed  that  revision  of  the 
code  should  be  considered  by 
the  International  Radiotelegraph 
Conference  to  be  held  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  in  1927.  This  con- 
ference brought  out  a  new  code. 
It  was  comprehended  in  two  vol- 
umes, one  for  radiotelegraphy, 
the  other  for  visual  signaling. 
The  number  of  flags  was  in- 
creased by  the  addition  of  10 
numeral  pennants  and  3  substi- 
tute (repeater)  flags.  The  numer- 
al pennants  made  possible  sig- 
naling of  numbers,  times,  lati- 
tude, longitude,  courses,  bearing, 
etc.,  without  making  use  of  code 


mercial  code  (see  Signal,  Ma- 
rine) and  contain  signals  of 
various  kinds — tactical,  adminis- 
trative, urgent,  geographical, 
spelling,  and  phrase.  The  signals 
given  in  the  books  are  designed 
primarily  for  transmission  by 
flags,  but  they  can  be  sent  by 
other  means. 

Shape  signals  consist  of  hol- 
low drums,  cones,  balls,  and  the 
like,  visible  at  long  distances. 
Visibility  of  flags  is  limited  to 
three  or  four  miles,  and  they  are 
sometimes  difiicult  to  see  at  a 
few  hundred  yards  when  the 
wind  is  unfavorable. 


accurately  reflecting  the  sun's 
ray  to  the  distant  station,  and 
an  occulting  shutter  or  a  device 
to  throw  the  ray  slightly  out  of 
alignment  and  bring  it  back. 
The  telegraph  code  is  used.  (See 
Heliograph). 

In  the  United  States  Navy  the 
six  standard  night  signals  are 
the  ardois,  the  'winker,'  the  sem- 
aphore with  lighted  arms,  two 
lanterns  (see  Signalling,  Mili- 
tary), a  wigwag  torch,  and  the 
searchlight.  The  ardois  consists 
of  four  double  lanterns  arranged 
vertically.  Each  lantern  may  be 
made  to  show  white  or  red,  and 


Navy  Signalling — International  Code  Flags. 


groups.  The  repeater  flags  made 
possible  the  use  of  any  combina- 
tion of  four  letters  or  four  fig- 
ures. Morse  signalling  methods 
were  amended  to  bring  them  in 
line  with  radiotelegraphy,  in  so 
far  as  was  possible  and  practi- 
cable. The  use  of  distant  signals 
and  of  fixed  semaphores  was 
abandoned.  Signal  letters  of 
ships  were  designated  to  be  the 
same  as  their  radio  call  signs, 
consisting  of  four  letters,  which 
definitely  indicate  nationality  of 
the  ship. 

The  new  code,  known  as  The 
1931  International  Code  of  Sig- 
nals, was  printed  in  English, 
French,  German,  Italian,  Japa- 
nese, Spanish,  and  Norwegian. 

Code  books  in  most  navifis  are 
based  on  the  international  com- 


Motion  signals  are  chiefly  of 
the  semaphore  and  wigwag  types. 

In  the  wigwag  type,  the  oper- 
ator uses  a  single  flag  on  a  staff 
of  convenient  length.  The  code 
used  in  the  U.  S.  Navy  is  the 
Continental  Morse  telegraph 
code — a  wave  to  the  right  sig- 
nifying a  dot ;  to  the  left,  a  dash  ; 
down  in  front,  interval  (once, 
end  of  word  ;  twice,  end  of  sen- 
tence ;  three  times,  end  of  mes- 
sage). It  is  slower  than  the  flag 
semaphore,  but  as  the  flag  used 
may  be  quite  large  and  the  pole 
long  it  may  be  read  much  far- 
ther. 

Heliograph  signals  are  not 
used  in  the  Navy  except  by 
shore  parties.  A  heliograph  sig- 
nal apparatus  consists  essentially 
of  a  reflecting  mirror,  means  of 


the  apparatus  is  operated  by  a 
keyboard  like  that  of  a  typewrit- 
er. The  code  used  is  the  tele- 
graphic, a  red  light  signifying  a 
dot  and  the  white  a  dash ;  each 
display  is  a  letter.  Winker  lights 
are  operated  by  a  key,  and  are 
simple  white  lights  installed 
singly  or  in  pairs.  The  telegraph 
code  is  used.  Searchlights  are 
used  for  long-distance  signal- 
ling, and  are  operated  with  an 
occulting  shutter  or  by  waving 
the  beam_  to  the  right  or  left  as 
in  the  wigwag. 

In  time  of  war,  naval  vessels 
carry  no  light,  and  do  not  us** 
the  ordinary  visual  night  signal* 
except  in  cases  of  emergency 
For  necessary  night  signalling 
between  adjacent  ships,  an  elec- 
tric light  is  placed  in  the  rear 


Signals,  Marine 


KFP 


213 


Signorelli 


end  of  a  tin  tube  (3  inches  in 
diameter  and  2  feet  long)  and 
operated  by  a  contact  key. 

Sound  signals,  except  the  si- 
ren, trumpet,  and  gun,  use  the 
telegraph  code.  The  most  impor- 
tant is  the  radio.  The  submarine 
signalling  is  effected  through  the 
water  by  a  bell  and  a  receiver 
attached  to  the  inner  side  of  the 
hull  plating  below  water.  The 
whistle  gives  a  short  toot  for  a 
dot,  and  a  longer  blast  for  a 
dash. 

See  Signalling,  Military  ; 
Fog  Signals;  Rule  of  the 
Road  at  Sea. 

Sigrnals,  Marine.  Signals 
used  in  the  merchant  marine,  by 
establishments  connected  there- 
with, and  in  connection  with 
navigation  and  seafaring  in  gen- 
eral, are  similar  to  those  used 
in  naval  services  except  for  the 
variations  brought  about  by  the 
different  requirements. 

All  merchant  vessels  are  fitted 
with  radio  apparatus,  and  com- 
munication between  ships  so 
equipped  is  usually_  by  that 
means.  Flags  employing  the  in- 
ternational signal  code  are  also 
used.  This  was  first  published  by 
the  British  in  1856,  and  has  since 
been  adopted  by  all  maritime 
nations.  In  the  original  code,  x, 
z,  and  the  vowels  were  not  used, 
but  in  a  recent  revision  these 
were  included.  The  present  code 
flags  are  shown  in  the  plate  on 
page  212.  It  consists  of  a  code 
pennant,  five  other  pennants, 
two  swallow-tail  flags,  and  nine- 
teen rectangular  flags.  Each,  ex- 
cept the  code  pennant,  represents 
a  letter  of  the  alphabet. 

These  flags  or  pennants  may 
be  hoisted  singly  or  2,  3,  or  4  at  a 
time.  One-flag  signals  are  used 
for  such  signals  as  'pilot  wanted,' 
T  am  about  to  sail,'  'the  ship  is 
in  (juarantine,'  etc.  Two-flag 
signals  are  urgent  and  impor- 
tant. Three-flag  signals  cover 
all  ordinary  messages.  Four-flag 
signals  are  geographical  (names 
of  countries,  seaports,  islands, 
capes,  bays,  etc.),  code  'number' 
of  vessels,  etc.  Each  nation  as- 
signs a  signal  'number'  to  every 
new  ship  when  she  is  registered 
or  enrolled,  if  she  is  large 
enough  to  be  entitled  to  such  a 
distinction.  These  designations 
do  not  appear  in  the  signal  book, 
but  each  nation  issues  a  list  of 
its  documented  vessels  (see 
Ship's  Papers),  and  such  lists 
give  the  names  and  code  'num- 
bers' of  all  vessels  large  enough 
to  receive  the  license.  In  deter- 
mining a  vessel's  name  from  her 
signal  number  it  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  know  her  national- 
ity. This  is  shown  by  her  colors, 
which  she  must  display  when 
'making  her  number.'  Each  sig- 
nal in  the  international  signal 
book — whether    it    expresses  a 


sentence,  a  phrase,  or  a  word — 
has  the  same  meaning  in  the  sig- 
nal books  of  all  nations,  irre- 
spective of  the  difference  in 
language,  so  that  an  Italian  and 
a  Swede  may  converse  by  signal 
without  understanding  the  oth- 
er's language.  In  this  respect, 
the  international  signal  is  supe- 
rior to  the  radio  telegraph  mes- 
sage, which  may  require  transla- 
tion. Nations  having  languages 
in  which  Roman  characters  are 
not  used,  or  used  in  part  only, 
adapt  the  book  to  their  own 
needs ;  so  far  as  international 
communication  is  concerned  the 
letters  are  merely  signs  desig- 
nating the  flags  ;  but  the  signifi- 
cation and  ease  of  communica- 
tion is  unimpaired. 

The  American  edition  of  the 
international  code  is  published 
by  the  Hydrographic  Office  of 
the  U.  S.  Navy.  It  is  printed  by 
the  Government  Printing  Office 
in  Washington. 

See  Signalling,  Naval. 

Signals,  Block.  See  Rail- 
roads. 

Signals,  Fog.  See  Fog  Sig- 
nals. 

Sig'nature,  in  printing.  See 
Book. 

Signature.  In  law,  one's  sig- 
nature may  consist  of  his  name, 
or  some  mark  or  sign  designed  to 
represent  it,  affixed  to  a  written 
instrument  to  attest  his  approval 
or_  ratification  of  its  contents. 
Initials  of  a  name  have  been  held 
sufficient.  It  may  be  printed  or 
written  by  lead  pencil.  It  may 
generally  be  affixed  by  another, 
if  duly  authorized.  It  need  not  be 
at  the  end  of  an  instrument,  un- 
less subscription  is  required. 

Signboards  were  known  to 
both  Greeks  and  Romans.  There 
are  allusions  to  them  in  classic 
writers ;  and  specimens  have 
been  found  at  Pompeii  and  Her- 
culaneum,  sometimes  painted, 
but  oftener  carved.  During  the 
illiterate  Middle  Ages  of  Europe 
every  trade  had  its  emblem, 
some  of  which  have  survived  to 
our  day,  as  the  chemist's  pestle 
and  mortar,  the  pawnbroker's 
three  balls,  and  the  barber's  pole 
and  basin.  Besides  these  trade 
emblems,  every  individual  trader 
might  have  his  own  special  de- 
vice. During  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  huge  paint- 
ed signs  came  greatly  into  vogue 
in  European  countries.  They 
were  suspended  either  from  pro- 
jecting metal  work,  from  a  post 
or  an  obelisk,  or  from  a  sort  of 
miniature  triumphal  archway.  A 
good  many  signboards  have  been 
painted  by  great  artists,  as  Hol- 
bein, Correggio,  Paul  Potter, 
Hogarth.  Wilson,  Morland, 
David  Cox,  'Old'  Crome,  Sam 
Bough,  and  Millais,  some  of 
which  are  still  extant. 

Sig'net  is  the  name  of  one  of 


the  seals  used  by  the  British  sec- 
retaries of  state  to  authenticate 
royal  warrants.  In  Scotland 
there  is  a  special  signet  under 
which  most  judicial  writs  issu- 
ing in  the  name  of  the  sovereign 
must  still  pass. 

Sig'nia  (modern  Segni),  a 
town,  Italy,  in  ancient  Latium, 
noted  for  its  temple  of  Jupiter, 
its  wine,  its  pears,  and  for  the 
manufacture  of  a  peculiar  kind 
of  cement  used  for  pavements 
and  reservoirs.  In  the  Roman 
wars  with  the  Volscians  it  was 
an  important  outpost  for  Rome, 
to  which  it  was  always  a  faithful 
dependency,  except  during  the 
Latin  revolt  of  340  B.C.  Parts  of 
the  ancient  cyclopean  walls  still 
exist.  Pop.  7,459. 

Sign  Language,  a  means  of 
communication  among  the  North 
American  Indians,  especially  the 
Indians  of  the  Plains,  in  which 
ideas  were  conveyed  by  move- 
ments and  positions  of  the  hands. 
It  differs  from  that  employed  by 
civilized  people  for  conversing 
with  mutes  in  that  it  is  based 
upon  ideas,  and  not  upon  the 
phonetics  of  any  one  language. 
The  conditions  under  which  the 
North  American  Indians  lived 
were  such  as  to  bring  together 
small  groups  of  people  witTi  com- 
mon interests  but  with  different 
speech ;  and  to  overcome  this 
difficulty  of  communication  they 
devised  their  sign  language.  And 
it  is  doubtless  due  to  this  that 
the  many  Plain  tribes  came  to 
have  a  uniform  culture  and  the 
germs  of  nationality. 

A  few  examples  may  be  of- 
fered :  The  common  sign  for 
horse  is  to  hold  the  left  hand  in 
front  of  the  left  breast,  fingers 
extended  and  pointing  forward, 
and  then  place  the  first  and  sec- 
ond fingers  of  the  right  hand  as- 
tride the  left  index  finger.  The 
idea  represented  is  riding.  To  lie 
is  expressed  by  parting  the  first 
and  second  fingers  as  the  hand  is 
carried  forward  and  out  from 
the  face.  The  idea  is  that  the 
speech  goes^  in  two  directions  at 
once.  Rain  is  expressed  by  hold- 
ing the  hands  in  front  of  the 
body  at  about  the  height  of  the 
head,  and  with  the  fingers  ex- 
tended move  the  hand  up  and 
down  by  a  wrist  motion.  The 
idea  is  that  the  clouds  throw  the 
water  down.  See  Language. 
Consult  Clark's  The  Indian  Sign 
Language. 

Sig"norelIi,  sen-yo-rel'le, 
LucA  (1441-1523),  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Cortona ;  was 
master  of  Michelangelo,  and 
kinsman  to  his  biographer,  Va- 
sari.  He  worked  with  Piero  della 
Francesca  and  with  Melozzo  da 
Forli  on  the  frescoes  in  San 
Francesco  at  Arezzo.  and  thus 
developed  his  broad  methods  and 
grand  style ;  he  was  influenced 


Sigourney 


KFP 


214 


Sikeston 


also  by  Donatello's  statues,  and 
by  Antonio  Pollaiuolo.  He  set- 
tled in  Cortona  when  thirty- 
eight,  and  was  elected  (1479)  to 
an  important  civic  position.  He 
painted  in  Perugia  Cathedral  in 
1484,  at  Volterra  in  1491,  and 
executed  the  frescoes  at  Monte 
Oliveto  in  1497.  In  1499  he  was 
commissioned  to  decorate  the 
Capella  Nuova  of  the  Orvieto 
Cathedral,  and  finished  it  in  four 
years.  In  1508  he  visited  Rome, 
but  his  paintings  in  the  Vatican 
were  afterward  destroyed  to  give 
space  to  Raphael.  He  was  es- 
sentially the  painter  of  the  dig- 
nity of  life,  of  the  human  form 
in  vigorous  aspects  ;  preoccupied 
with  the  expression   of  move- 


(1841);  Pleasant  Letters  from 
Pleasant  Lands  (1841);  Scenes 
in  My  Native  Land  (1844)  ; 
Myrtis  (1846)  ;  Letters  to  My 
Pupils  (1850)  ;  Past  Meridian 
(1854);  The  Man  of  Us  and 
Other  Poems  (1862).  Her  auto- 
biography was  published  under 
the  title  Letters  of  Life. 

Sigsbee,  sigz'be,  Charles 
DwiGHT  (1845-1923),  Ameri- 
can naval  officer,  born  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  was  graduated  from  the 
U.  S.  Naval  Academy  (1863). 
He  saw  active  service  in  the 
Civil  War,  notably  at  Mobile 
Bay,  and  Fort  Fisher.  He  served 
on  the  Asiatic  station  (1865-9)  ; 
with  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey 
(1874-8),  sounding  the  Gulf  of 


Jon  (1811-79),  Icelandic  states- 
man and  author,  born  in  the  west 
of  Iceland  ;  became  secretary  to 
the  bishop  of  Iceland  (1830).  It 
was  mainly  through  his  efforts 
that  Iceland  obtained  (1871-4) 
a  constitution  from  Denmark, 
and  he  was  the  most  prominent 
Icelander  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. His  most  important  works 
are :  The  Speakers  of  the  Lazu 
and  Law-Men  in  Iceland;  Con- 
tributions to  Iceland  Literature 
and  History ;  an  edition  of  the 
Sagas  (1843-7)  ;  a  collection  of 
Icelandic  laws  (17  vols.)  ;  Dip- 
lomatarium  Islandicum  (1857). 

Sihun  River  (ancient  Sarus), 
Asia  Minor,  rises  in  the  east, 
flows  nearly   300   miles  south- 


Signalling  Aircraft  for  Landings  with  a  Colored  Light  System  during  Army  Maneuvers 


ment,  he  was  intensely  realistic, 
with  a  keen  sense  of  the  beauty 
of  decoration.  His  work  can  be 
seen  at  Cortona,  Florence,  Ber- 
lin, London,  and  there  are  fine 
drawings  in  the  Louvre,  Uffizi 
(Florence),  at  Dresden,  Wind- 
sor, and  in  the  British  Museum. 
Consult  Luca  Signorclli,  by 
Maud  Cruttwell. 

Sigourney,  sigVr-ni,  Lydia 
Howard  (Huntley),  (1791- 
1865),  American  writer,  was 
born  in  Norwich,  Conn.  In  1809, 
with  Ann  _  Maria  Hyde,  she 
opened  a  private  school  at  Nor- 
wich, which  in  1815  was  re- 
moved to  Hartford.  In  1819  she 
married  Charles  .Sigourney,  a 
merchant  of  Hartford.  Among 
the  best  of  her  works  are  :  I^et- 
ters  to  Young  Ladies  (1833)  ; 
Pocahontas   and    Other  Poems 


Mexico  ;  and  as  hydrographer  of 
the  Navy  Department  (1893-7). 
He  was  in  command  of  the  bat- 
tleship Maine  when  she  was  de- 
stroyed in  Havana  Harbor  on 
Feb.  15.  1898  (see  Maine),  and 
displayed  high  qualities  of  cour- 
age and  self-possession.  During 
the  Spanish-American  War  he 
commanded  the  cruiser  St.  Paul ; 
and  was  subsequently  chief  in- 
telligence officer,  in  command  of 
the  South  Atlantic  squadron,  and 
of  the  second  division  of  the  At- 
lantic fleet.  He  was  made  rear 
admiral  in  1903,  and  retired  in 
1907.  He  was  awarded  the  Red 
Eagle  of  Prussia  for  his  deep- 
sea  explorations.  He  published  : 
Deep  Sea  Sounding  and  Dredg- 
ing, U.  S.  Coast  Survey  (1880)  ; 
The  Story  of  the  Maine  (1899). 
Sigurdsson,  sc'gdbrds-son. 


west,  past  the  town  of  Adana 
into  the  Mediterranean  Sea  near 
Mersina. 

Sika,  a  small  deer  native  to 
Japan  and  China,  naturalized  in 
European  parks,  with  brown 
coat  in  winter  and  spotted  coat 
in  summer. 

Sikandarabad,  se-kun'da-ra- 
bad',  municipal  town,  India, 
Bulandshahr  district,  United 
Provinces  ;  30  miles  southeast  of 
Delhi.  Fine  muslin  is  manufac- 
tured. Pop.  20,000. 

Sikandra  Rao,  se-kun'dra 
ra'o,  municipal  town,  India,  Ali- 
garh  district,  United  Provinces  ; 
43  miles  northeast  of  Agra. 
Pop.  12,000. 

Sikeston,  city,  Missouri, 
Scott  county,  on  the  St.  Louis 
and  San  Francisco  and  the  St. 
Louis,     Iron     Mountain,  and 


Sikhs 


KFP 


215 


Silesia 


Southern  railroads;  165  miles 
southeast  of  St.  Louis.  It  has 
flour  mills,  a  shoe  factory  and  a 
cotton  oil  mill.  Pop.  (1930)  5,- 
676;  (1940)  7,944. 

Sikhs,  siks.  originated  in  the 
Punjab,  about  1510,  as  a  reli- 
gious sect,  founded  by  Nanak 
(born  a  Hindu),  who  preached 
a  faith  borrowed  from  both  Mo- 
hammedanism and  Hinduism. 
By  reforming  and  purifying  the 
old  faiths,  he  sought  to  unite 
Hindus  and  Mussulmen  in  the 
bonds  of  a  new  common  religion. 
Under  Nanak  and  his  immediate 
successors,  who  were  termed 
gurus,  or  leaders,  the  sect  was 
wholly  religious.  Later,  however, 
it  assumed  political  importance, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century  Guru  Govind  (1675- 
1708)  undertook  the  overthrow 
of  the  Mogul  empire  and  the 
establishment  of  the  Sikhs  as  an 
independent  power.  He  added 
fresh  sacred  writings  to  the 
Granth  (the  Sikh  Scriptures), 
instituted  the  pahiil,  or  baptis- 
mal ceremony,  and  commanded 
the  daily  duty  of  carrying  arms. 
Under  the  name  Khdlsa  ('the 
pure  brotherhood'),  the  sect  in- 
creased rapidly  and  ultimately 
became  dominant  in  the  Punjab. 

Early  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury Maharajah  Ran  jit  Singh 
(the  lion  of  the  Punjab)  deter- 
mined to  gain  possession  of 
Lahore,  nominally  under  the 
rule  of  Afghanistan.  This  he 
did  in  1798,  later  organizing  an 
army  on  European  lines  for  the 
further  extension  of  his  sway, 
which,  however,  was  checked  by 
the  British.  In  1845  the  Sikhs 
made  predatory  incursions  into 
British  territory  south  of  the 
Jehlum.  War  resulted,  and  in 
1846,  after  the  hard-fought 
battles  of  Mudki,  Ferozshah, 
Aliwal,  and  Sobraon,  in  which 
Sir  Hugh  Gough  defeated  the 
Sikh  forces,  a  peace  was  made 
by  which  the  country  southeast 
of  the  Jehlum  became  British. 
Lahore  was  occupied,  and  Dhu- 
leep  Singh  (son  of  Ranjit)  was 
set  on  the  throne  of  the  Punjab. 
After  two  years  of  peace,  a 
rebellion  broke  out  at  Multan, 
in  April  1848,  the  Sikhs  allying 
themselves  secretly  with  their 
former  enemies  the  Afghans. 
The  British  had  hardly  quelled 
this  rebellion  before  a  fresh  war 
broke  out  (in  1849).  and  the  Sikh 
po\yer  was  finally  broken  by  a 
series  of  battles  culminating  in 
the  bloody  victories  of  Chilian- 
wala  and  Gujarat.  The  Punjab 
was  annexed  on  March  29.  1849. 
Henceforth  the  Sikhs  were  loyal 
adherents  to  British  rule,  espe- 
cially during  the  mutiny  of  1857. 

The  Sikhs  in  India  number 
(1941)  5,691,447.  Consult 
Payne's  A  Short  History  of  the 
Sikhs  (1915). 


Si-kiangr,  se-kyang',  or  West 
River,  the  most  important 
waterway  of  southern  China,  is 
formed  by  two  main  head- 
streams,  the  Yukiang  from  the 
borders  of  Tong-king  and  the 
Hun-shui  from  the  west  of  the 
province  of  Yun-nan.  Joining  at 
Sin-Chau,  they  flow  mainly  east 
through  Kwang-si  and  Kwang- 
tung,  and  reach  the  China  Sea 
by  an  extensive  delta,  on  one 
branch  of  which,  the  Canton 
River  (q.  v.),  the  city  of  Canton 
is  situated.  The  main  stream  is 
over  1,650  miles  long. 

Sik'kim,  feudatory  state, 
northeastern  India,  in  the  East- 
ern Himalayas,  between  Tibet 
on  the  north  and  Darjeeling  on 
the  south,  and  Bhutan  and 
Nepal  on  the  east  and  west  re- 
spectively;  area,  2,818  square 
miles.  It  has  dense  forests  of 
oak,  maple,  and  chestnut ;  copper 
is  mined ;  and  rice,  corn,  millet, 
tea,  and  cotton  are  grown.  The 
leading  industries  are  ivory 
carving,  gold  embroidery,  and 
silk  weaving.  Beside  the  natives, 
called  Lepchas,  who  are  akin  to 
the  Tibetans,  the  inhabitants  in- 
clude Bhutas  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  Nepalese.  The  state  reli- 
gion is  Lamaism,  but  a  majority 
of  the  people  are  Hindus.  Sik- 
kim  is  governed  by  a  maharajah 
imder  British  supervision.  Tum- 
long  is  the  capital.  Pop.  (1941) 
121,520. 

Sikorsky,  IG9R  I.  (1889- 
),  aeronautical  engineer, 
was  born  in  Kiev,  Russia  and 
was  educated  at  the  Naval  Col- 
lege in  Leningrad  and  at  the  In- 
stitute of  Technology  in  Kiev. 
He  was  a  pioneer  in  the  design 
and  construction  of  flying  craft. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1919  and  became  a  citizen  in 
1928_.  He  developed  the  Sikorsky 
multimotored  amphibian,  the 
first  successful  helicopter  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere,  and  sev- 
eral other  types  of  planes. 

Si'las,  or  SiLvANUs,  one  of 
the  chief  men  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian church  at  Jerusalem.  He 
was  chosen  by  the  apostles  and 
elders  to  accompany  Paul  on  his 
missionary  jovirney  to  Syria  and 
Cilicia  (Acts  xv  and  xvi). 

_  Silay,  se-li',  pueblo,  Philip- 
pine Islands,  in  the  province  of 
Negros  Occidental,  on  Guimaras 
Strait,  9  miles  north  of  Bacolod. 
Pop.  23,328. 

Sil'chester,  town,  England, 
in  Hampshire,  7  miles  north  of 
Basingstoke.  Near  by  is  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Roman  city 
Calleva  Atrchatum,  which  is 
enclosed  by  remains  of  an  old 
wall.  Excavations,  begun  sys- 
tematically in  1890,  have  dis- 
closed the  general  plan  of  the 
principal  buildings,  including  the 
forum,  a  large  hall,  temples, 
public  baths  (1904),  a  Christian 


church  (1892)  believed  to  be 
the  oldest  in  Britain,  and  many 
villas.  Without  the  walls,  was  a 
large  amphitheatre.  Most  of  the 
movable  objects  discovered  are 
now  in  Reading  Museum.  Con- 
sult Davis'  Romano- British  City 
of  Silchester. 

Silene,  sl-le'ne,  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  order 
Caryophyllaceae,  of  which  ex- 
amples are  the  moss  campion, 
bladder  campion,  sea  campion, 
and  catchflies.  See  Catchfly. 

Sile'nus,  in  ancient  Greek 
mythology,  a  companion  of 
Dionysus,  variously  represented 
as  a  son  of  Hermes  and  of  Pan. 
He  is  generally  depicted  as  a  fat, 
jolly  old  man,  bald,  and  with  a 
snub  nose ;  he  always  carries  a 
^  wine_-bag,^  and  is  usually  drunk. 

Silesia,  si-le'shi-a  (Ger. 
Schlcsicn) ,  Germany,  former 
province  of  Prussia,  was  divided 
between  Prussia  and  Poland, 
1,628  square  miles  being  in  Po- 
land and  14,026  square  miles  in 
Prussia.  The  greater  portion  be- 
longs to  the  basin  of  the  Oder. 
Along  the  southern  border  rise 
the  Sudetic  Mountains  (Rie- 
sengebirge,  Eulenbebirge,  Glatz 
Mountains,  Katzbach  Moun- 
tains). The  district  has  exten- 
sive coal  mines,  great  iron  fields, 
vast  deposits  of  zinc  and  lead, 
and  considerable  amounts  of  sil- 
ver, copper,  and  cobalt,  as  well 
as  many  mineral  springs.  It  is 
also  an  important  manufactur- 
ing region,  the  chief  industries 
being  the  production  of  textiles 
and  of  iron  and  other  metals, 
brewing,  distilling,  tanning,  flour 
milling,  and  the  manufacture  of 
cotton,  linen,  and  woolen  goods, 
iron,  gloves,  carpets,  sugar,  pa- 
per, leather  wares,  chemicals,  to- 
bacco, glass,  porcelain,  and  ce- 
ment. Cereals  (oats  rye,  wheat, 
and  barley),  potatoes,  beets,  hay, 
and  forage  plants  are  raised. 

From  the  beginning  of  the 
10th  century  to  nearly  the  mid- 
dle of  the  14th,  the  greater  part 
of  Silesia  was  subject  to  the  Pol- 
ish crown,  but  was  extensively 
colonized  by  Germans.  The  suze- 
rainty then  passed  to  the  crown 
of  Bohemia.  In  1740-2  Fred- 
erick the  Great  laid  claim  to  it, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War  the  larger  portion 
was  ceded  to  Prussia.  At  the 
close  of  the  First  World  War,  to 
meet  the  conflicting  demands  of 
the  German  and  Polish  elements 
of  the  population,  the  Peace 
Conference  at  Versailles  con- 
stituted Upper  Silesia  a  plebi- 
scite area.  The  plebiscite  of 
March  1912  showed  a  marked 
preference  for  Germany,  but  the 
division  of  the  territory  caused 
such  serious  disorders  that  the 
League  of  Nations  was  called  on 
to  settle  the  rival  demands.  The 
southern   and  eastern  districts, 


Silesia 


KFP 


216 


Silicon 


of  some  1,300  square  miles,  were 
turned  over  to  Poland,  and  it 
was  provided  that  for  fifteen 
years  all  of  Upper  Silesia  should 
be  under  the  supervision  of  a 
mixed  commission  of  Poles  and 
Germans.  The  defeat  of  Ger- 
many in  the  Second  World  War 
(1939-45)  left  the  question  of 
the  status  of  Silesia  to  the  peace 
treaty  which  is  still  pending. 

Silesia,  former  duchy  and 
crown  land  of  Austria,  since  the 
First  World  War  belonging  to 
Czechoslovakia;  area  1,719 
square  miles.  The  country  is 
mountainous,  being  traversed  by 
the  Sudetic  Mountains  and  spurs 
of  the  Carpathians ;  the  princi- 
pal rivers  are  the  Oder  and  the 
Vistula.  Agriculture  is  of  impor- 
tance, flax  being  grown  over 
large  areas.  The  chief  mineral  * 
deposits  are  coal,  lignite,  iron, 
and  marble.  Linen  and  woolen 
goods,  porcelain,  alcohol,  chemi- 
cals, and  beet  sugar  are  manu- 
factured. Pop.  738,000. 

Silhouette,sil-oo-et',ETiENNE 
De  (1709—67),  from  whose  name 
the  process  of  profile  shadow- 
drawing  has  been  derived,  was 
born  in  Limoges,  and  was  one 
of  the  three  delegates  chosen  to 
demarcate  the  frontier  between 
the  British  and  French  terri- 
tories in  Acadia  in  North 
America  (1749).  Ten  years 
later  he  became  minister  of 
finance  to  Louis  xv,  but  having 
called  upon  the  people  to  practice 
many  unpopular  economies,  in 
order  to  improve  the  govern- 
ment's financial  position,  was 
soon  dismissed,  and  his  name 
became  a  part  of  the  current 
slang  of  the  day,  denoting  any- 
thing reduced  to  its  simplest 
form.  In  a  spirit  of  irony  French 
caricaturists  reduced  their  por- 
traits to  mere  outline  and  al- 
though the  other  economies  of 
Silhouette  soon  disappeared,  the 
outline  picture  continued  to 
flourish  under  the  name  Silhou- 
ette. Silhouettes  are  usually- 
made  of  black  paper  on  a  white 
ground  but  many  beautiful  ones 
have  been  painted  on  ivory, 
porcelain  and  glass,  and  color 
has  been  used  to  enhance  their 
life-like  character. 

Silicic  Acid,  si-lis'ik,  ordinarily 
represented  by  the  formula, 
H2Si03,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
acid  from  which  the  numerous 
and  complex  silicates  are  de- 
rived. It  is  prepared  by  the 
dialysis  of  a  solution  of  a  soluble 
silicate  to  which  an  acid  has 
been  added.  It  forms  a  jelly-like 
solution  from  which  silicon  diox- 
ide is  precipitated  on  prolonged 
heating  and  evaporation.  The 
silicates  occur  widely  distributed 
in  nature,  forming  the  basis  of 
most  rocks.  They  may  be 
prepared  by  fusing  silicon  diox- 
ide, usually  in  the  form  of  fine 


quartz  sand,  with  the  appro- 
priate metallic  oxide.  Except 
those  of  the  alkali  metals,  the 
silicates  are  insoluble  in  water 
and  are  not  easily  decomposed 
by  acids. 

Glass,  made  by  the  fusion  of 
sand  with  lime  and  soda,  is  the 
most  important  of  the  artificially 
prepared  silicates.  The  lime- 
soda  glasses  consist  essentially  of 
a  fused  mixture  of  calcium  and 
sodium  silicates  and  are  mar- 
keted as  window  glass,  plate 
glass,  and  ordinary  bottle  glass. 
The  lead  glasses  are  similar 
'used  mixtures  of  silicates  in 
which  lead  largely  replaces  lime. 
They  are  ordinarily  used  for  cut 
glass  and  other  objects  requiring 
a  high  refractive  index.  The 
borosilicate  glasses,  extensively 
used  tor  baking  ware,  consist 
of  mixtures  of  silicates  and 
borates,  ordinarily  considered 
compounds  of  the  two,  of  metals 
made  by  fusing  borax  in  the 
glass  mixture.      (See  Glass.) 

The  silicate  of  sodium  is  also 
an  important  article  of  com- 
merce, under  the  name,  water 
glass.  It  is  largely  used  in 
certain  types  of  laundry  soaps 
to  increase  their  detergent  prop- 
erties and  as  an  adhesive  in  the 
manufacture  of  cardboard  boxes 
and  shipping  containers.  It  is 
employed  to  some  extent  as  a 
size  in  paper  pulp  products,  and 
small  amounts  are  used  in  the 
preservation  of  eggs.  (See 
Soluble  Glass.)  Other  widely 
used  commercial  silicates  are 
earthenware,  asbestos,  granite, 
and  smalt  (qq.v.). 

Sirtcon,  Si,  atomic  weight 
28.1,  is  a  non-metallic  element, 
which,  though  not  found  free, 
is  in  combination  more  widely 
distributed  in  the  solid  crust 
of  the  earth  than  any  other 
element  except  oxygen.  It  is 
chiefly  found  as  its  oxide,  silica, 
Si02,  both  free  and  in  combina- 
tion with  the  metallic  oxides  as 
silicates.  The  chief  forms  of 
silica  that  occur  naturally  are 
quartz  or  rock  crystal,  in  which 
the  silica  is  pure  and  trans- 
parent, and  cairngorm,  ame- 
thyst, smoky  and  milky  quartz, 
in  which  the  crystals  are  colored 
by  impurities.  Flint,  chalcedony, 
agate,  and  jasper  are  amorphous 
silica;  opal  is  hydrated  silica; 
most  sand  is  also  silica  in  fine 
particles,  and  in  a  more  or  less 
impure  state;  while  kieselguhr 
consists  of  the  siliceous  skeletons 
of  Diatomaceae.  Silicates  of 
widely  differing  composition,  of 
great  variety  and  complexity, 
are  distributed  in  all  parts  of 
the  earth,  both  as  separate 
minerals  and  as  components  of 
such  rocks  as  granite  and  ba- 
salt. Of  the  former,  olivine, 
hornblende,  asbestos,  serpen- 
tine, topaz,  clay,  feldspar,  mica, 
and  beryl  are  examples. 


The  element  silicon  exists  in 
two  allotropic  varieties,  one  of 
which,  the  amorphous  form, 
may  be  obtained  by  heating 
fine  sand  and  magnesium  powder, 
2Mg  +  Si02  =  2MgO  +  Si,  and 
dissolving  out  the  magnesium 
oxide  with  acid.  The  product  is  a 
dark  brown  powder  of  very  high 
melting-point.  It  burns  in  air, 
and  dissolves  in  caustic  soda 
solution,  evolving  hydrogen. 
Crystalline  silicon  is  prepared 
by  heating  quartz,  wood  char- 
coal, lime,  and  manganese  oxide 
in  an  electric  furnace.  It  is  used 
industrially  in  the  manufacture 
of  ferro  silicon  and  iron  silicon 
alloys  resistant  to  corrosion. 
The  crystals  obtained  by  this 
process  are  lustrous,  black  octa- 
hedra,  having  a  hardness  greater 
than  that  of  glass.  Crystalline 
silicon  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
2.49  and  is  highly  resistant  to 
chemical  action,  being  unat- 
tacked  by  any  acid  except  a 
mixture  of  nitric  and  hydro- 
fluoric acids.  It  is  converted  to 
the  silicate  with  the  evolution  of 
hydrogen  by  boiling  with  strong 
sodium  hydroxide  solution.  It 
will  not  burn  in  an  atmosphere 
of  oxygen  even  at  a  red  heat, 
and  is  a  conductor  of  the  electric 
current.  The  amorphous  form 
burns  easily  in  oxygen,  is  an 
electrical  insulator,  and  is  con- 
verted into  the  crystalline  form 
by  heating  near  its  melting  point 
(1420°  C). 

Of  the  compounds  of  silicon, 
the  dioxide,  silica,  Si02,  is  the 
chief.  It  can  be  prepared  artifi- 
cially in  an  amorphous  form  by 
the  action  of  acid  on  sodium 
silicate  or  by  passing  silicon 
fluoride  into  water,  and  after 
washing  with  water  strongly 
heating  the  product.  Pure  silica 
is  a  hard  (h.  =  7),  clear,  colorless, 
and  transparent  solid,  insol- 
uble in  water,  and  highly  re- 
sistant to  chemical  action.  The 
hexagonal  crystals  are  of  two 
kinds,  showing  right  and  left 
hand  hemihedral  faces,  one  being 
the  mirror  image  of  the  other, 
and  twisting  the  plane  of  polar- 
ized light  opposite  ways  when  it  is 
passed  through  them  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  prism. 

When  it  is  fused  at  the  high 
temperature  of  the  oxy-hydrogen 
blowpipe  or  of  the  electric 
arc,  silica  forms  a  viscous 
liquid,  that  can  be  drawn  into 
fine  threads,  and  when  solid 
again  is  no  longer  optically 
active,  but  possesses  valuable 
properties  in  very  nearly  per- 
fect elasticity,  power  of  resisting 
high  and  sudden  changes  of 
temperature  and  the  action  of 
acids  and  water.  Quartz  is  thus 
a  most  valuable  material  for  the 
construction  of  scientific  appara- 
tus, particularly  in  the  applica- 
tion of  the  drawn  fibers,  as  sug- 
gested by  Boys,  for  the  delicate 


Silicosis 


217 


Silk 


suspensions  of  galvanometers; 
in  the  use  of  blown  quartz  flasks, 
tubes,  thermometers  for  special 
purposes;  while  its  transparency 
to  ultra-violet  light,  and  the 
polarizing  properties  of  the  crys- 
tals, render  it  invaluable  for 
optical  uses.  Its  resistance  to 
wear  and  atmospheric  influence 
also  makes  it  useful  for  orna- 
mental purposes,  for  standard 
weights,  and  for  mortars  for 
grinding  minerals.  (See  Quartz.) 

As  prepared  artificially,  silica 
is  an  amorphous  white  solid,  the 
product  obtained  by  the  reac- 
tions in  aqueous  solutions  being 
united  with  water  to  form  a 
silicic  acid  of  undetermined  con- 
stitution. If  prepared  by  the 
reaction  of  dilute  solutions  of 
sodium  silicate  and  hydrochloric 
acid,  the  silicic  acid  remains  dis- 
solved, the  solution  being  sep- 
arable from  the  salt  and  excess 
of  acid  by  dialysis.  On  evapora- 
tion of  the  solution  a  glassy  mass 
results,  that  does  not  redissolve; 
but  the  solution,  which  does  not 
affect  litmus,  and  shows  no 
marked  chemical  properties,  soon 
sets  to  a  jelly. 

For  silicon  steel,  see  Steel. 

Silicosis,  a  disease  of  the  lungs, 
due  to  the  inhalation  of  stone 
dust,  known  also  as  Grinders 
Disease.  It  is  characterized  by 
the  formation  of  fibrous  tissue 
throughout  the  lung  substance, 
and  its  principal  manifestation 
is  shortness  of  breath  on  exer- 
tion. Tuberculosis  is  a  frequent 
terminal  stage.  Periodic  ex- 
amination of  workers  in  dusty 
trades  and  removal  of  those  in 
the  early  stages  of  the  disease 
from  the  dust-laden  atmosphere 
are  important  preventive  meas- 
ures. The  substitution  of  com- 
position wheels  (i.e.,  wheels 
manufactured  of  abrasives  con- 
taining little  or  no  free  silica) 
for  sandstone  wheels  in  the 
grinding  industries  also  tends  to 
minimize  the  occurrence  of  the 
condition. 

Sllique,  sil-ek'  or  sil'ik,  the 
fruit  of  certain  cruciferous  plants, 
as  the  mustard  and  radish,  con- 
sisting of  a  pair  of  valves  which 
separate  from  a  central  septum. 

Sllis'tria  (anc.  Duroslorum) , 
town,  Roumania,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube;  60  miles 
southeast  of  Bucharest.  It  is  an 
important  trade  centre,  with 
cloth  factories,  distilleries,  tan- 
neries, and  tobacco  factories. 
It  was  a  Bulgarian  possession 
from  1878  to  1913,  but  was 
seized  by  Roumania  in  the  Bal- 
kan Wars  and  awarded  to  her 
by  the  treaty  of  Bucharest 
(1913).  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Germans  in  1916.    Pop.  12,000. 

Sil'Ius  {c.  25  to  100  A.D.), 
Italian  poet,  whose  full  name 
was  Gaius  Silius  Italicus,  won 
distinction  as  an  advocate,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  judicial 
board  of  the  centumviri;  in  68 


(Nero's  last  year)  he  was  made 
consul,  and  afterwards  governed 
the  province  of  Asia.  The  latter 
years  of  his  life  he  passed  in 
studious  retirement,  either  at 
Puteoli  or  in  the  house  known 
as  Virgil's,  near  Naples.  He 
starved  himself  to  death  be- 
cause of  the  pain  caused  by  an 
incurable  disease.  He  wrote  a 
dull  epic  poem  Punica,  on  the 
chief  events  of  the  Second  Punic 
War.  It  has  been  edited  by 
Bauer  (1890-2)  and  was  trans- 
lated into  English  verse  by 
Ross  (1672). 


Silique 


Siljan,  sil'yan,  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  lakes  of  Central 
Sweden,  formed  by  the  Dal 
River  and  known  as  the  'eye'  of 
Dalecarlia. 

Silk,  the  fibre  produced  by 
the  silkworm  to  form  its  cocoon. 
It  is  exceedingly  fine  and  strong, 
consisting  of  fibroin,  a  horny 
substance,  insoluble  in  water, 
which  forms  the  core  of  the 
fibre,  and  an  outer  coating  of 
serecin,  or  silk  gum,  a  gelatinous 
substance  to  which  is  added  an 
insignificant  amount  of  waxy 
coloring  matter. 

The  history  of  silk  textiles 
dates  from  about  2600  B.C., 
when  Hoang-Ti,  emperor  of 
China,  induced  his  queen  to 
examine  the  silkworms  and  as- 
certain whether  their  fibres  could 
be  fashioned  into  garments. 
Some  two  thousand  years  later 
the  Chinese  gave  silk  to  the 
Persians,  and  they  in  turn  car- 
ried it  to  the  Western  nations, 
but  the  secret  of  its  production 
was  for  centuries  jealously 
guarded.  .  In  the  first  and  second 
centuries  B.C.  the  Greek  and 
Roman  aristocracy  used  silken 
garments,  but  until  the  sixth 
century  a.d.  all  raw  silk  was 
imported  from  China,  and  the 
export  of  silkworm  eggs  from 
that  country  was  forbidden  on 
pain  of  death.  In  555,  however, 
the  Emperor  Justinian  bribed 
two  Nestorian  monks  to  journe}' 


to  China  and  bring  back  a  quan- 
tity of  the  eggs.  This  was  the 
beginning  in  Europe  of  an  indus- 
try which  soon  spread  rapidly 
over  the  Mediterranean  coun- 
tries, reaching  Italy  in  the  six- 
teenth and  France  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century. 

Silk  culture  in  the  United 
States  had  its  inception  in  Vir- 
ginia in  1622,  since  which  time 
it  has  been  attempted  in  many 
other  States,  with  varying  re- 
sults, on  the  whole  unsuccessful. 
The  raising  of  the  worms  re- 
quires infinite  patience  and  pains- 
taking attention,  making  it  es- 
sentially a  household  process, 
manifestly  unsuited  to  most 
Western  peoples. 

The  manufacture  of  silk  in 
America  began  in  New  England 
early  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
steam-power  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  sewing  silk  was  intro- 
duced in  1810,  and  improved 
machinery  quickly  followed,  un- 
til before  the  Civil  War  a  great 
trade  had  grown  up  in  twist, 
dress  trimmings,  ribbons,  and 
woven  silk  goods.  Laces  were 
manufactured  at  Brooklyn  in 
1871,  and  since  1876  tapestry, 
velvets,  and  dress  silks  have  been 
produced  in  increasing  quantities 
and  excellent  qualities.  The 
centre  of  the  industry  is  Pater- 
son,  N.  J. 

The  Silkworm. — The  silkworm 
most  commonly  employed  for 
the  production  of  raw  silk  is 
Bombyx  mori,  extensively  culti- 
vated in  China,  Japan,  Italy, 
France,  and  Spain.  The  eggs 
are  laid  in  the  summer  on  the 
leaves  of  the  mulberry  tree,  and 
soon  change  from  pink  to  a  dark 
grey,  remaining  that  color  until 
hatched  the  following  spring. 
The  larva  or  caterpillar  at  once 
attacks  the  mulberry  leaf,  and 
feeds  voraciously  for  a  month  or 
six  weeks,  meantime  growing 
rapidly  until  it  measures  about 
three  inches  in  length.  During 
this  time  it  sheds  its  skin  four 
times,  the  molting  periods  being 
characterized  by  a  cessation  from 
feeding  and  a  condition  of  torpor. 
About  ten  days  after  the  fourth 
molt  the  creature  ceases  to  eat, 
attaches  itself  to  a  twig,  and 
begins  to  spin  its  cocoon  from  a 
glutinous  secretion  contained  in 
two  tubular  glands,  one  on  each 
side  of  its  body.  Out  of  two 
openings  in  its  head,  called 
'spinnerets,'  proceed  two  slender 
filaments  of  this  glutinous  sub- 
stance. These  stick  side  by  side 
and  form  a  flat  thread,  which 
the  silkworm,  by  turning  its 
head  from  side  to  side,  folds 
around  its  body,  until  it  is  com- 
pletely embedded  in  the  silky 
covering;  this  usually  occupies 
about  three  days,  after  which 
the  insect  rests  in  the  pupa  state. 
When  unmolested,  it  is  ready  to 
emerge  in  two  or  three  weeks, 
and  bore  its  way  out  at  the  end 

Vol.  XL— Oct.  '25 


silk 


217  A 


Silk 


of  the  cocoon,  to  appear  as  a 
small  ashy-white,  feeble  moth. 
Mating  takes  place  at  once,  the 
eggs  are  laid,  and  within  a  week 
the  cycle  of  life  is  complete. 
This  is  the  natural  course  of 
events,  but  since  the  exit  of  the 
moth  from  the  cocoon  cuts  the 
silken  fibres,  the  silk  grower  al- 
lows only  as  many  insects  to 
emerge  as  may  be  necessary  to 
produce  eggs  for  next  year's 
crop;  the  others  are  stifled  by 
being  placed  in  a  heated  oven. 

Silkworms  are  subject  to  a 
number  of  diseases,  of  which  the 
most  important  are  pebrine,  an 
epidemic  disease  characterized 


in  factories  called  filatures.  In 
front  of  each  operator  is  a  basin 
of  water,  the  temperature  of 
which  is  regulated  by  a  steam- 
pipe  or  a  fire,  and  overhead  is  a 
slowly  turning  reel.  The  cocoons 
are  first  assorted  as  to  color  and 
similarity  of  texture,  and  the 
outside  flossy  covering  is  re- 
moved. They  then  are  placed 
in  the  water,  which  softens  the 
natural  gum  in  the  silk  and  al- 
lows it  to  be  wound  off.  The 
filaments  are  gathered  together, 
from  4  to  18  for  two  threads, 
passed  through  two  glass  or 
metal  guides,  brought  together, 
and  twisted  around  each  other 


silk  for  the  weaver,  which  is 
known  as  'silk  throwing,'  con- 
sists in  cleaning,  assorting,  and 
doubling  to  the  necessary  thick- 
ness, and  twisting  to  give  the 
strength  desired.  The  singles 
are  frequently  used  for  warps 
for  light  fabrics,  and  although 
some  of  this  silk  is  exceedingly 
fine  (five  hundred  thousand 
yards  of  length  in  one  pound 
weight,  technically  known  as 
'9  denier  silk'),  it  is  quite  strong 
enough  to  be  woven  in  a  power 
loom.  For  the  warp  of  heavier 
fabrics  a  silk  known  as  'organ- 
zine'  is  required.  For  this, 
singles  are  twisted  one  way  on 


Silkworms 

1.  Bomhyx  mori,  male;  2.  female.  3.  Cocoon  reared  in  Italy;  4.  variety  reared  at  Drome.  5.  Mulberry  leaf,  the  food  of  Bombyx 
tnori.  6.  Larva.  7.  Tussur  moth  (Anthema  mylitta),  male.  8.  Tussur  cocoon.  9.  Cocoon  opened,  showing  chrysalis.  10.  Larva. 
11.  Ficus  Benjaminii  leaf,  food  of  tussur  moth.  12.  Tussur  silk  fibres  and  cross  sections.  13.  Silk  fibres  of  Bombyx  mori.  14.  Same, 
with  cross  sections. 


by  slow,  irregular  development 
of  the  worms;  flacherie  or  flac- 
cidity,  a  fatal  form  of  indigestion, 
due  to  careless  preservation  of 
the  eggs,  overfeeding,  fermenta- 
tion or  other  unfavorable  leaf 
conditions,  lack  of  ventilation, 
and  other  causes;  galtine,  mani- 
fested by  torpor,  dysentery,  and 
emaciation;  calcino  or  muscar- 
dine,  due  to  a  minute  fungus 
which  causes  the  worm  to  turn 
red,  die,  and  dry  up,  after  which 
it  becomes  covered  with  a  white 
chalky  efflorescence. 

Manufacture. — The  first  proc- 
ess in  manufacturing  is  to  wind 
as  much  silk  as  possible  off  the 
cocoons  into  hanks.  In  Europe 
and  in  some  Oriental  towns  this 
is  done  with  improved  machinery 


several  times,  again  separated, 
and  passed  upward  over  a  hori- 
zontal rod  to  the  reel.  The 
threads,  which  are  known  as 
'singles,'  are  then  reeled  into  large 
hanks  called  'knots,'  the  hanks 
are  gathered  into  bunches  called 
'mosses,'  and  these  into  bundles 
known  as  'books.'  In  this  form 
Asiatic  silk  is  imported  into 
Europe  and  the  United  States. 
The  quantity  of  such  silk  ob- 
tained from  one  cocoon  is  small — 
seldom  as  much  as  a  thousand, 
generally  not  more  than  five  or 
six  hundred  yards.  The  remainder 
of  the  cocoon,  which  is  either  too 
flossy  or  too  entangled  to  be 
wound,  forms  the  material  from 
which  spun  silk  is  prepared. 
The   further   preparation  of 


the  single  thread,  and  then  two 
or  more  threads  twisted  the  oppo- 
site way  on  the  double  or  plied 
thread — thus  giving  strength  and 
elasticity.  Silk  known  as  'tram' 
for  weft  has  no  twist  on  the 
single  thread,  and  only  a  slight 
twist  on  the  double  or  plied 
thread.  Heavier  threads  for 
sewing,  embroideries,  and  fringes 
are  made  from  the  singles  by 
doubling  up  the  requisite  num- 
ber of  strands. 

At  first  spun  silk,  which  is 
made  from  the  waste  portions  of 
the  cocoons  and  the  fluff  and 
cleanings  from  thrown  silk,  was 
carded  like  woollen  yarn — a 
method  adapted  to  produce  felt- 
ing, but  to  injure  lustre.  This 
process  is  still  employed,  pro- 


VoL.  XI —Oct.  '25 


silk 

ducing  'short  spun  silk';  but  it 
has  been  largely  superseded  by 
combing  in  the  same  way  as  is 
done  with  wool.  The  fibres  are 
straightened,  equalized,  and 
twisted.  The  straightening  is 
done  by  steel  combs,  which  re- 
move impurities,  lay  the  fibres 
all  one  way,  and  deliver  them  in 
the  form  of  a  ribbon  or  'sliver.' 
Groups  of  slivers  are  run  to- 
gether again  and  again,  and 
drawn  out,  till  at  length  an 
equalized  and  level  thread  is 
produced.  This  is  finally  twisted 
to  the  required  degree,  but  the 
product  is  inferior  in  lustre  to 
thrown  silk. 

Silk  fabrics  are  produced  by 
methods  of  weaving  similar  to 
those  employed  for  other  textiles 
(see  Cotton),  though  special 
contrivances  have  been  devised 
to  handle  the  delicate  threads  of 
a  material  so  valuable.  In  their 
manufacture,  dyeing  and  finish- 
ing are  most  important  opera- 
tions. Thrown  silk,  before  being 
dyed,  is  boiled  in  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  fine  white  soap,  to  ex- 
tract the  natural  gum.  In  'boil- 
ing off,'  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  the  weight  is  lost,  and 
manufacturers  to  make  up  for 
this  loss  have  resorted  to  the 
practice  of  'loading,'  that  is  per- 
mitting the  silk  to  absorb,  dur- 
ing the  process  of  manufacture, 
sufficient  tin,  lead,  iron,  zinc,  or 
other  metallic  salts,  to  make  up 
for  this  loss,  or  even  to  exceed  it. 
In  small  quantities  loading  is  not 
injurious,  but  excessive  loading 
seriously  impairs  the  strength 
and  endurance  of  the  fibre.  After 
boiling  off,  the  silk  is  dyed  and 
put  into  a  steam  finisher,'  which 
brightens  it  and  gives  it  a  lus- 
trous, glossy  appearance.  The 
hanks,  which  come  quite  stiff 
from  the  'finisher,'  are  placed  on 
the  'stringer,'  which,  by  twisting 
them  in  different  directions, 
makes  them  smooth  and  soft. 
Finally  the  silk  is  again  wound 
on  bobbins,  and  spooled,  skeined, 
or  balled  as  it  is  wanted. 

Many  varieties  of  silk  fabrics 
are  produced,  depending  upon 
the  method  of  weaving.  Thus 
we  have  plain  weaves,  as  in  the 
China  silks,  India  silks,  and 
taffetas;  poplins,  bengalines, 
grosgrain  silks,  failles,  moires, 
and  other  ribbed  silks,  in  which 
a  corded  effect  is  produced  by 
varying  the  size  of  threads  in 
the  warp  or  weft  or  by  the  use  of 
filling  threads;  twill  weaves,  as 
in  foulards  and  surahs;  satins,  so 
woven  that  nearly  all  the  warp 
is  brought  to  the  surface  and 
nearly  all  the  weft  left  under- 
neath; gauze  weaves,  giving  an 
open-work  eff  ect ;  velvets,  plushes, 
and  other  pile  fabrics;  brocades, 
in  which  there  is  a  raised  design, 
often  of  gold  or  silver  threads; 
changeable  or  shot  silks,  with 
the  warp  of  one  color  and  woof 
of  another;  crepes,  in  which  a 

Vol.  XL— Oct.  '25 


218 

pebbly  effect  is  produced  by 
twists  in  the  yarn  and  by  tension 
in  weaving;  damasks,  in  which 
the  ground  and  figures  are  of 
contrasting  weaves;  and  double 
face  materials,  as  crepe-back 
satin. 

For  figured  silks  the  patterns 
are  produced  by  weaving,  espe- 
cially on  Jacquard  looms  (see 
Cotton),  or  by  printing  from 
copper  rollers  on  which  the  de- 
sign is  etched,  a  separate  roller 
being  used  for  each  color  (cf. 
Calico  Printing)  , 

Various  finishing  processes  are 
applied  to  the  woven  silk.  Prac- 
tically all  silk  is  calendared  to 
add  to  its  lustre.  Soft  silks  may 
be  stiffened  by  treatment  with 
glue,  after  which  they  are  passed 
through  a  breaking  machine  to 
make  them  more  pliable.  A 
moire  finish  is  given  by  folding 
corded  silk  and  then  submitting 
it  to  heavy  pressure  between 
heated  rollers,  or  by  using  rollers 
upon  which  the  desired  grain  is 
engraved. 

Wild  Silks. — Besides  the  mul- 
berry-feeding silkworm  there  are 
other  species  which  yield  what 
are  usually  spoken  of  as  wild 
silks.  The  most  important  of 
this  class  is  the  tussur  worm 
{Anlhercea  pernyi),  an  cak  feeder, 
produced  largely  in  China;  a 
similar  species  is  also  cultivated 
in  India.  The  cocoon  gives  off 
a  coarse  filament,  which  is  flat 
like  a  ribbon,  and  of  a  peculiar 
glittering  appearance.  It  is  of  a 
yellowish-brown  color,  which 
cannot  be  discharged  by  boiling; 
but  it  dyes  well,  though  requir- 
ing special  treatment  by  stretch- 
ing and  steaming  to  bring  up  the 
lustre.  The  natural  tint  is 
pleasing  and  durable,  and  un- 
dyed  tussur  (or  tussahr)  cloths 
are  not  only  much  worn  in  the 
East,  but  are  largely  imported 
into  the  United  States  and  Eu- 
rope. Pongee  belongs  to  this 
class.  The  only  other  so-called 
wild  silks  which  are  of  com- 
mercial value  are  eria  (Attacus 
ricini)  and  muga  {Anther cea  as- 
sama);  but  they  cannot  be 
profitably  reeled  and  serve  for 
spun  silk  only. 

Artificial  Silk  is  made  from 
cellulose,  obtained  either  from 
wood  pulp  or  from  specially  pre- 
pared cotton.  The  manufacture 
involves  three  main  processes: 
(1)  The  cellulose  solution,  being 
forced  under  high  pressure 
through  glass  tubes  or  steel 
plates  provided  with  capillary 
openings,  emerges  in  the  form  of 
filaments.  (2)  These  filaments 
are  passed  through  various  pre- 
cipitating solutions  to  cause 
them  to  coagulate  and,  where 
necessary,  to  render  them  non- 
inflammable.  (3)  The  filaments, 
thus  prepared,  are  spun  into 
threads.  In  the  past  few  years, 
the  use  of  artificial  silk  has  in- 
creased enormously,  particularly 


Silk 

in  the  knit-goods  industry,  where 
its  lustre  and  elasticity  make  it 
especially  desirable.  It  dyes 
brilliantly,  and  the  filaments  can 
be  moulded  into  any  desired 
shape.  It  is  made  into  fabrics, 
ribbons,  braid,  and  imitation 
straw,  grass,  and  horse  hair. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  sensitive 
to  treatment  with  soap,  alkalies, 
and  bleaches;  and  when  wet  is 
not  as  strong  as  natural  silk, 
the  cellulose  having  a  tendency 
to  return  to  the  jelly  state  in 
the  presence  of  water.  Under 
improved  methods  of  manufac- 
ture, however,  the  fabric  has  at- 
tained a  high  position  on  its 
own  merits,  while  by  no  means 
proving  a  formidable  rival  to  the 
genuine  article. 

Several  varieties  of  artificial 
silk  are  on  the  market.  Chardonnel 
artificial  silk  is  prepared  by 
treating  cotton  with  nitric  acid, 
and  dissolving  the  resulting 
nitro-cellulose  in  a  mixture  of 
alcohol  and  ether.  The  collodion 
jelly  thus  obtained  is  then  forced 
through  capillary  tubes,  and 
treated  as  already  described. 
Cupro-ammonium  silk  is  made 
by  dissolving  cellulose  in  a  solu- 
tion of  copper  hydroxide  in  am- 
monia water,  and  pressing  into 
threads  that  take  on  a  glossy  ap- 
pearance. Viscose  silk  (cellulose 
xanthogenate)  is  made  by  treat- 
ing wood  pulp  with  caustic  soda 
and  carbon  disulphide;  the  solu- 
tion is  pressed  into  threads  which 
are  made  glossy  (mercerized)  by 
stretching  and  treating  with 
caustic  soda.  Acetate  silk  is 
prepared  by  the  action  of  acetyl 
chloride  on  cotton,  dissolving  in 
chloroform,  and  moulding.  This 
product  is  also  formed  into 
sheets,  like  celluloid,  and  called 
Cellit,  which  because  of  its 
non-inflammability  is  especially 
adapted  for  moving  picture  films. 
Cellit  is  also  used  as  a  water- 
proof covering  for  paper,  leather, 
cloth,  wood,  etc. 

In  1924  a  committee  of  the 
National  Retail  Dry  Goods 
Association  (U.  S.)  suggested  the 
word  'rayon'  as  a  name  for  all 
artificial  silk  and  this  has  been 
generally  adopted  by  the  manu- 
facturers. 

Statistics. — China  and  Japan 
are  the  greatest  producers  of 
raw  silk.  The  Japanese  crop  in 
1923  was  approximately  47,- 
000,000  pounds.  In  that  year 
the  amount  of  raw  silk  exported 
from  Asia  was  57,439,000  pounds. 
The  European  production  was 
8,841,000,  and  that  of  the  Le- 
vant 1,543,000  pounds.  Tussah 
silk  production  was  2,034,000 
pounds,  making  a  grand  total 
of  69,857,000  pounds. 

The  United  States  is  the 
greatest  silk  manufacturing  coun- 
try in  the  world.  According  to 
the  Census  of  Manufactures  for 
1923,  establishments  for  the  pro- 
duction of  silk  fabrics,  not  in- 


silk  Cotton 

eluding  hosiery  or  other  knit 
goods,  numbered  1,598,  with  an 
average  of  125,234  wage  earners, 
and  a  product  valued  at  $761,- 
322,119.  Of  these  establishments 
754  were  in  New  Jersey,  455  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  250  in  New 
York.  Of  the  total  value, 
814,728,743  represented  spun 
silk. 

In  1924  the  production  of 
artificial  silk  in  the  United 
States  was  estimated  at  38,- 
850,000  pounds,  an  increase  of 
almost  10  per  cent,  over  that 
of  1923.  Exports  of  artificial 
silk  products  from  the  United 
States  in  1923  were  valued  at 
$6,596,452. 

Raw  silk  imported  into  the 
United  States  in  1923  amounted 
to  49,505,581  pounds,  valued  at 
$391,942,417,  the  largest  amount 
coming  from  Tapan. 

Consult  Sheffeld's  Silk:  Its 
Origin,  Culture  and  Manufac- 
ture; Hooper's  Silk:  Its  Produc- 
tion and  Manufacture;  Chattick's 
Silk  Manufacturing  and  Its  Prob- 
lems; Manchester's  The  Story  of 
Silk  (1924). 

Silk  Cotton,  the  fibre  which 
fills  the  interstices  between  the 
seeds  in  the  large,  woody  capsules 
of  certain  tropical  trees  belong- 
ing to  the  order  Malvaceae. 
The  fibre  is  too  short  to  be  used 
except  for  packing  purposes.  It 
is  extensively  utilized  in  stuffing 
pillows,  cushions,  mattresses,  and 
the  like.  Among  the  trees  from 
which  silk  cotton  is  obtained  are 
Ochroma  lagopos,  Eriodendron  an- 
fractuosum,  and  Bomhax  mala- 
baricum. 

Silkworm.    See  Silk. 

Silkworm  Gut,  a  strong  ma- 
terial used  by  anglers  for  dressing 
the  hook  ends  of  fishing-lines, 
and  in  surgery  as  a  suture  ma- 
terial. It  is  obtained  from  the 
caterpillars  of  the  ordinary  silk- 
worm when  these  are  about  to 
spin  their  cocoons.  The  worm 
is  immersed  in  vinegar  for  a 
time,  and  the  long  glutinous 
thread  formed  by  the  silky 
secretion  of  the  caterpillar  is  re- 
moved and  dried.  It  is  chiefly 
prepared  in  Spain  and  Italy, 
though  some  exports  are  made 
from  other  silk-growing  coun- 
tries. It  is  less  pliable  than 
catgut  for  sutures  and  less  ab- 
sorbable. 

Sill,  Edward  Rowland  (1841- 
87),  American  poet,  essayist,  and 
educator,  was  born  in  Windsor, 
Conn.  He  was  graduated  from 
Yale  in  1861,  then  passed  several 
years  in  California  on  account 
of  poor  health,  and  in  1866 
studied  divinity  at  Harvard.  He 
was  occupied  as  a  teacher  and 
with  literary  work  in  New  York 
and  Ohio  until  1871,  when  he 
became  principal  of  the  Oak- 
land, Cal.,  high  school.  From 
1874  to  1882  he  was  professor  of 
English  literature  at  the  Univer- 


219 

sity  of  California,  afterward  re- 
siding at  Cuyahoga  Falls,  N,  Y. 
His  lyrics  are  marked  by  melody 
and  insight.  He  published  Her- 
mione,  and  Other  Poems  (1867), 
and  The  Hermitage,  and  Later 
Poems  (1867).  Posthumous  vol- 
umes are  Venus  of  Milo,  and 
Other  Poems  (1888),  Prose  of 
Edward  Rowland  Sill  (1900), 
Complete  Poems  (1906). 

Sill,  Joshua  Woodrow  (1831- 
62),  American  soldier,  was  born 
in  Chillicothe,  O.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1853,  and  was 
an  instructor  at  that  institution 
during  1854-7.  He  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  adjutant-gen- 
eral of  Ohio  in  April,  1861,  was 
promoted  colonel  in  August  1861, 
and  brigadier-general  in  July 
1862.  He  fought  at  Rich  Moun- 
tain and  Perrvville  and  was 
killed  in  the  Battle  of  Stone 
River  while  gallantly  endeavor- 
ing to  rally  his  brigade. 

Siriiman,  Benj.a.min  (1779- 
1864),  American  scientist,  was 
born  in  North  Stratford,  now 
Trumbull,  Conn.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Yale  in  1796,  and 
soon  after  his  graduation  was 
invited  to  accept  a  professorship 
of  chemistry  and  natural  history 
in  that  institution.  He  accepted 
the  call,  and  after  studying  in 
Philadelphia  and  in  Edinburgh, 
returned  to  New  Haven,  and  in 
1806  entered  upon  his  duties. 
Besides  teaching,  he  gave  the 
first  course  of  lectures  before  the 
Lowell  Institute  in  Boston;  and 
was  called  to  many  other  cities, 
where  his  brilliant  experiments, 
striking  diagrams,  and  delight- 
ful presentation  of  scientific 
themes  made  him  a  most  popular 
lecturer.  He  represented  his 
college  at  public  functions  and 
secured  for  it  many  important 
donations,  including  the  Clark 
telescope,  the  collection  of  min- 
erals made  by  Col.  George  Gibbs, 
and  the  Trumbull  Gallery  of 
Paintings.  He  was  also  influ- 
ential in  promoting  the  geological 
survey  of  Connecticut.  In  the 
organization  of  the  Medical 
School  at  Yale  College  he  was 
particularly  active,  and  his  influ- 
ence in  the  foundation  of  the 
vSheffield  School  was  noteworthy. 
His  contributions  to  the  progress 
of  science  were  for  the  most  part 
indirect.  He  inspired  many  who 
became  teachers  and  investi- 
gators; but  his  influence  was 
chiefly  exerted  in  the  establish- 
ment and  maintenance  of  the 
American  Journal  of  Science, 
which  from  the  time  of  its  com- 
mencement in  1818  remained  for 
many  years  in  the  charge  of  suc- 
cessive members  of  his  family. 
For  twenty  years  he  was  the  sole 
editor,  and  for  eight  years  more 
the  senior  editor  of  that  journal. 
He  also  published  several  vol- 
umes of  notes  on  his  travels  in 


SUo 

Europe  and  America.  Consult 
Fisher's  Memoir  (2  vols.). 

Silliman,  Benjamin  (1816-85), 
American  chemist,  son  of  Ben- 
jamin Silliman  (q.  v.),  was 
born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.  He 
was  graduated  from  Yale  in 
1837  and  at  once  became  assist- 
ant to  his  father.  From  1849  to 
1853  he  was  professor  of  medical 
chemistry  and  toxicology  in  the 
University  of  Louisville,  Ky., 
and  in  1854  he  succeeded  his 
father  as  professor  of  chemistry 
at  Yale.  In  1842  he  had  fitted 
up  a  private  chemical  laboratory, 
where  with  the  assistance  of  his 
pupils  he  made  many  valuable 
experiments,  the  result  being 
that  in  1846  the  Yale  trustees 
yielded  to  his  request  for  a 
similar  laboratory  for  the  uni- 
versity, and  established  the  Case 
School  of  Applied  Science,  which 
later  became  the  Sheffield  Scien- 
tific School.  In  1870  he  resigned 
his  chair  of  general  and  applied 
chemistry  but  remained  as  lec- 
turer in  the  medical  department 
until  his  death.  He  lectured  on 
scientific  subjects,  notably  agri- 
cultural chemistry,  was  editor 
of  the  American  Journal  of 
Science  (1845-85),  and  with 
Charles  Goodrich  edited  the 
World  of  Science,  Art  and  Indus- 
try. His  publications  include 
First  Principles  of  Chemistry 
(1846);  Principles  of  Physics 
(1858);  American  Contributions 
to  Chemistry  (1875). 

Sil'Iimanite,  a  fibrous  silicate 
of  aluminium,  AhSiOs,  with  a 
composition  similar  to  that  of 
cyanite.  It  is  found  in  certain 
gneisses  and  schists. 

Sills,  Kenneth  Charles  Mor- 
ton (1879-  ),  American  edu- 
cator, was  born  in  Halifax, 
Nova  Scotia.  He  was  graduated 
from  Bowdoin  College  (1901) 
and  studied  at  Harvard  (a.m. 
1903)  and  Columbia,  was  assist- 
ant in  English  at  Harvard 
(1901-03),  instructor  in  English 
and  the  classics  at  Bowdoin 
(1903-04),  and  tutor  in  English 
at  Columbia  University  (1904- 
05).  He  returned  to  Bowdoin 
College  as  adjuvant  professor  of 
Latin  in  1906,  and  was  subse- 
quently Winkley  professor  of 
Latin  language  and  literature 
there  (1907-  ),  dean  (1910- 
18),  acting  president  (1917-18), 
and  president  (1918-  ). 

Si'lo,  a  specially-constructed 
building  for  storing  ensilage 
(q.  v.).  Originally  a  pit  in  the 
earth,  the  silo  is  now  a  surface 
structure  of  any  convenient 
form  and  depth,  strongly  built 
and  air-tight.  It  is  generally 
constructed  of  wood,  but  various 
other  materials,  notably  con- 
crete, are  used.  The  circular 
form  of  silo  is  more  expensive 
to  construct,  but  it  is  more  con- 
venient and  economical  in  use  be- 
cause it  permits  uniform  packing 

Vol.  XL— Oct.  '25 


Slloam 


220 


Sllyanus 


and  settling  and  prevents  the 

waste  caused  by  loosely  packed 
corners.  Square  silos  should 
have  their  corners  boarded 
across.  The  inside  sheathing 
should  run  perpendicular  to  the 
bottom,  and  where  stone,  brick, 
or  cement  is  used  the  inside  walls 
should  have  a  smooth  dressing  of 
Portland  cement.  The  size  de- 
pends on  the  number  of  animals 
to  be  fed,  calculating  a  cubic 
foot  of  ensilage  to  weigh  35  to 
40  pounds,  which  is  about  the 
daily  ration  of  a  dairy  cow  weigh- 
ing 1,000  pounds.  One  cow  will, 
therefore,  consume  180  cubic 
feet  of  ensilage,  or  about  3M 
tons  during  a  period  of  six 
months.  No  account  is  made  in 
this  calculation  for  spoiled  ensil- 
age and  waste,  and  a  liberal  al- 
lowance should  be  made  for  this. 
A  circular  silo  14  feet  in  diam- 
eter and  30  feet  deep  will  hold 
90  tons  of  ensilage,  and  a  silo  15 
feet  square  and  20  feet  deep  will 
hold  94  tons. 

Silo'am,  or  Shiloah,  a  rock- 
cut  pool  or  reservoir  at  the 
south  wall  of  Jerusalem,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Tyropoeon 
Valley  (now  Birket  Silwan).  Its 
waters  were  believed  to  have 
healing  properties  (John  ix.  7). 
The  Siloam  inscription,  discov- 
ered 1880,  cut  on  the  rock  of  a 
conduit,  leading  from  the  Vir- 
gin's Spring,  500  yards  to  the 
north,  to  the  Pool  of  Siloam,  re- 
cords the  construction  of  the 
conduit.  Its  date  is  put  by  most 
scholars  as  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah,  about  700  B.C.  (see 
2  Kings  XX.  20).  The  tower  of 
Siloam  (Luke  xiii,  4)  may  have 
been  part  of  the  wall  near  the 
pool. 

Siloam  Springs,  town,  Arkan- 
sas, in  Benton  county,  on  the 
Kansas  City  Southern  Railroad; 
229  miles  south  of  Kansas  City. 
It  is  the  seat  of  John  E.  Brown 
College.  Industrial  estabHsh- 
ments  include  a  canning  factory, 
ice  plant,  creamery,  and  flour 
and  meal  mills.  Siloam  Springs 
is  situated  in  the  picturesque 
Ozark  region  and  is  a  popular 
summer  resort.  Pop.  (1910) 
2,405;  (1920)  2,569. 

Siloti,  se'lo-te,  Alexander, 
Russian  pianist,  was  born  in 
vSouth  Russia.  He  made  his 
first  appearance  at  a  symphony 
concert,  given  by  the  Imperial 
Moscow  Musical  Society  in  1880, 
and  after  this  studied  for  several 
years  (1883-6)  with  Liszt.  He 
was  professor  in  the  Moscow 
Conservatoire  from  1889  to  1891, 
and  from  1891  to  1900  lived 
abroad,  making  concert  tours  in 
Europe  and  America  (1897).  He 
conducted  his  own  concerts  in 
Petrograd  for  15  seasons.  After 
the  Russian  Revolution  he  was 
manager  of  the  vState  Opera 
(1917)  but  fled  from  Russia 
during  the  Bolshevist  regime. 


SlFphium,  a  genus   of  tall, 

coarse  perennials  of  North  Amer- 
ica, with  resinous  juice,  from 
which  they  are  known  also  as 
Rosinweed.  They  bear  corymbs 
or  panicles  of  yellow  flowers. 
Species  include  the  Compass  or 
Polar  Plant  (S.  lancinatum) , 
known  also  as  Pilot  Weed,  Rosin- 
weed and  Turpentine  Weed, 
whose  leaves  generally  turn  their 
edges  north  and  south;  the 
Prairie  Dock  {S.  terebinthina- 
ceum);  Whorled  Rosinweed  (S. 
Irifoliatum) ;  Asterisk  Rosinweed 
{S.  asteriscus) ;  Indian  Cup  or 
Cup  Plant  (5.  perfoliatum) . 

Sllu'res,  an  ancient  people 
inhabiting  the  southeast  of  Wales 
and  the  adjoining  English  area. 
They  were  a  dark  and  curly- 
haired  race,  and  were  probably 
of  a  non-Aryan  stock — Iberian 
or  Euskarian — though  ultimately 
Celticized  in  language  and  man- 
ners. Less  civilized  than  their 
British  neighbors,  they  were  more 
warlike,  and  offered  fierce  resist- 
ance to  the  Roman  commanders 
who  invaded  their  country.  From 
them  the  name  Silurian  has  been 
given  to  a  geological  formation 
(see  Silurian). 

Silu'rian,  in  geology,  a  general 
name  for  those  rocks  which  are 
post-Cambrian  and  pre-Devo- 
nian.  Many  writers  recognize 
two  systems  as  occupying  this 
interval — a  lower  or  Ordovician 
(see  Ordovician),  and  an  upper 
or  Silurian;  but  others  prefer  the 
terms  Lower  Silurian  and  Upper 
Silurian.  The  Silurian  proper  or 
Upper  Silurian  rocks  consist 
mainly  of  conglomerates,  sand- 
stones, and  shales,  with  a  few 
important  beds  of  limestone.  The 
Silurian  series  as  worked  out 
in  New  York  is  the  standard 
for  America,  having  been  first 
worked  out  in  detail  in  that 
State. 

The  subdivisions  are: 
(3)  Cayugan — 

Manlius  limestone. 

Rondout  waterline. 

Cobleskill  limestone. 

Salina  beds. 
(2)  Niagaran — 

Guelph  dolomite. 

Lockport  limestone. 

Rochester  shale. 

Clinton  beds. 
(1)  Oswegan — 

Medina  sandstone. 

Oneida  conglomerate. 

Shawaugunk  grit. 
There  is  widespread  uncon- 
formity between  this  series  and 
the  preceding  Ordovician  in 
America.  The  interval  was  one 
of  mountain  making,  especially 
along  the  North  Atlantic  border. 
The  Silurian  strata  are  most 
heavily  developed  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  United  States,  border- 
ing the  new  mountain  ranges. 
Important  beds  of  waterlime 
used   for  the  manufacture  of 


natural  cements  occur;  and  the 
Clinton  iron  ores  traced  through- 
out the  Appalachian  belt  and  as 
far  west  as  Wisconsin  also  belong 
in  the  Silurian.  As  more  or  less 
isolated  areas  rise  to  the  surface 
in  the  interior  of  the  continent, 
it  is  probable  that  Silurian  strata, 
concealed  under  younger  forma- 
tions, extend  throughout  the  in- 
terior continental  basin;  and 
they  reappear  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

In  Europe  the  sequence  of 
formations  in  the  type  district, 
the  Welsh  borders,  as  established 
by  Murchison,  are: 

(3)  Ludlow  limestone. 

(2)  Wenlock  limestone. 

(1)  Llandovery  or  Tarannon, 
corresponding  closely  to  the  three 
larger  subdivisions  in  America. 

The  best-known  areas  of  Silu- 
rian rocks  on  the  Continent  are 
those  of  Sweden,  Bohemia,  and 
Brittany.  The  limestones  and 
shales  of  the  island  of  Gothland 
have  long  been  famous  for  the 
number  and  perfection  of  the 
fossils  which  they  contain.  Silu- 
rian rocks  are  also  present  in  the 
Western  Alps  and  in  Southern 
Russia.  The  number  of  fossils 
obtained  from  some  of  the  lime- 
stones is  enormous.  In  many 
respects  the  fauna  is  a  continua- 
tion of  that  of  the  Ordovician. 
Fishes  are  characteristic  of  the 
highest  Silurian  strata.  They 
belong  to  strange  types,  the 
affinities  of  which  are  not  always 
clear,  and  include  forms  which 
are  among  the  most  interesting 
vertebrates  known  to  science. 
The  rise  of  the  crinoids  was  a 
dominant  feature,  and  the  in- 
auguration of  reef  building  among 
corals  is  notable.  Near  the  close 
of  the  period  a  remarkable 
crustacean  fauna,  represented  by 
Eurypterus  and  Pterogotus,  was 
developed.  There  is  evidence 
also  of  the  existence  of  seaweeds, 
lycopods,  and  ferns.  In  most 
parts  of  the  globe  the  Ordovician 
and  Silurian  rocks  have  been 
much  folded,  crushed,  and  com- 
pressed. The  shales  have  often 
been  converted  into  slates.  Con- 
sult Murchison's  Siluria  and 
text-books  on  Geology. 

Siluridae.    See  Cat-fish. 

Silva,  Antonio  Jose  da  (1705- 
39),  Portuguese  dramatist,  was 
born  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  went 
to  Lisbon,  where  he  became  one 
of  the  earliest  writers  of  librettos 
for  comic  operas  in  Portugal. 
They  were  produced  anony- 
mously, all  that  was  known  of 
the  author  being  that  he  was  a 
Jew.  His  principal  vaudevilles 
were  Dom  Quixote,  and  the 
Esopaida.  Silva  was  burned  by 
the  Inquisition. 

Silva'nus,  in  ancient  Latin 
mythology,  the  god  of  the  fields 
and  forests;  he  also  watched  over 
the  boundaries  of  cultivated 
lands,   and  in  particular  over 


Vol.  XI.— Oct.  '25 


Silver 


KSH 


221 


Silver  City 


plantations.  Later  writers  iden- 
tified him  with  the  Greek  Pan 
and  with  Faunus.  The  poets 
represent  him  as  a  cheerful  old 
man.  in  love  with  Pomona. 

Silver,  Ag,  atomic  No.  47 ; 
atomic  weight,  107.880,  a  metal- 
lic element  that  occurs  native  in 
masses,  scales,  and  twisted  wire- 
like filaments,  also  alloyed  with 
gold,  copper,  platinvim,  and  mer- 
cury, and  in  combination.  Of 
these  compounds  the  chief  are 
the  sulphide,  argentite,  AgsS, 
stephanite  or  brittle  silver  ore, 
AgsSbS,  pyragyrite  or  ruby  sil- 
ver ore,  Ag.?SbS,  and  silver  chlo- 
ride or  horn  silver,  AgCl  ;  similar 
compounds  with  arsenic  and  cop- 
per sulphides  also  occur.  Lead 
ores  and  copper  pyrites  yield  in 
the  aggregate  a  quite  consider- 
able amount.  The  principal  sil- 
ver-producing countries  are  Mex- 
ico, United  States,  Canada,  Peru, 
British  India,  Australia  and  New 
Zealand. 

Silver  is  a  pure  white  metal 
having  a  brilliant  lustre,  it  is  a 
little  harder  than  gold,  and  is 
excelled  only  by  that  metal  in 
malleability  and  ductility.  Its 
tenacity  is  about  17  tons  per 
square  inch  ;  its  specific  gravity  is 
10.5  ;  it  melts  at  960°  c,  is  vola- 
tile at  very  high  temperatures, 
and  it  excels  all  other  metals  as  a 
conductor  of  heat  and  electricity. 
Silver  undergoes  no  change  in 
water  or  pure  air,  though  when 
melted  in  air  it  absorbs  oxygen  to 
the  extent  of  22  times  its  volume, 
which  is  expelled  (spitting)  on 
cooling.  It  is  tarnished  by  the 
presence  of  sulphur  compounds, 
owing  to  the  formation  of  silver 
sulphide.  Silver  forms  colloidal 
solutions  if  reduced  in  alkaline 
liquids,  and  these  dry  up  to  col- 
ored masses,  which  behave  dif- 
ferently from  the  ordinary  form 
of  the  metal. 

The  metal  is  obtained  from  its 
ores  by  two  main  types  of  proc- 
ess, known  as  wet  and  dry. 

Dry  Processes, — Silver  and 
gold  may  be  extracted  from  most 
gold-  and  silver-bearing  ores  and 
products  by  smelting  with  lead 
ores,  the  reduced  lead  acting  as  a 
vehicle  for  the  collection  of  the 
silver  and  gold,  which  are  after- 
wards separated  by  Pattinson's 
or  Parke's  processes.  (See 
Lead),  The  precious  metals 
may  be  collected  equally  effectu- 
ally by  smelting  with  copper  ores 
in  reverberatory  or  blast  fur- 
naces, the  resultant  copper  mat- 
ter being  then  separated  from  the 
siliceous  slag  and  converted  into 
crude  copper,  generally  by  Bes- 
semerizing.  (See  Copper).  The 
silver  is  obtained  from  the  crude 
copper  by  electrolytic  refining. 

Wet  Processes. — The  patio 
amalgamation  process  has  been 
in  use  for  more  than  three  cen- 
turies.   It  depends  on  the  power 


of  mercury  to  combine  with  sil- 
ver, forming  an  amalgam,  which 
is  separated  from  the  ground  ore 
and  subset|uently  distilled ;  the 
volatile  mercury  passes  off  and  is 
condensed  for  further  use,  the 
residual  crude  silver  being  then 
refined  by  fusion  methods.  In 
this  process  the  ore  is  ground 
very  fine,  transferred  to  a  cir- 
cular paved  space,  and  thorough- 
ly mixed  with  common  salt  by 
the  treading  of  mules  or  horses, 
roasted  copper  pyrites,  known  as 
'magistral,'  being  afterwards 
added.  Mercury  is  then  intro- 
duced, and  the  incorporation  con- 
tinued as  before,  resulting  finally 
in  the  formation  of  the  silver 
amalgam,  which  is  then  removed, 
washed,  dried,  and  the  mercury 
distilled  off.  In  amalgamation 
in  pans — the  Washoe  process — 
the  ores  are  crushed,  then 
stamped  to  a  fine  powder,  and 
in  a  wet  state  put  into  cast-iron 
pans  containing  revolving  mul- 
lers,  where  the  powder  is  ground 
to  a  thick  pulp  with  mercury,  to 
amalgamate  the  silver  set  free 
chiefly  by  the  iron  of  the  pan. 
Refractory  ores  are  roasted  with 
salt  before  treatment  in  the 
pan. 

The  Augustin  process  was  for- 
merly used  for  argentiferous 
copper  mattes.  The  material, 
after  fine  crushing,  is  roasted  to 
expel  sulphur,  ground,  and  again 
roasted  with  salt  to  form  silver 
chloride.  It  is  then  treated  with 
a  hot  solution  of  common  salt, 
which  dissolves  the  silver  chlo- 
ride, from  which  the  silver  is 
precipitated  by  copper.  The 
Ziervogel  process  is  used  to  a 
slight  extent  for  extracting  silver 
from  copper  mattes.  The  matte 
is  roasted  so  as  to  transform  the 
silver  sulphide  into  silver  sul- 
phate, which  is  then  leached  out 
by  water  and  the  silver  precipi- 
tated by  metallic  copper.  The 
Von  Patera  process,  as  modified 
by  Kiss  and  Russell,  depends  on 
the  solubility  of  silver  chloride  in 
sodium,  or  calcium  thiosulphate, 
followed  by  precipitation  by  so- 
dium sulphide.  The  silver  sul- 
phide is  then  roasted,  and  the 
silver  set  free.  The  cyanide 
process  is  extensively  used  in  the 
recovery  of  silver  from  its  ores, 
the  general  process  being  the 
same  as  with  gold  (q.  v.). 

The  separation  of  silver  from 
gold,  called  'parting'  (see  Gold), 
is  accomplished  by  dissolving  the 
silver  in  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid, 
leaving  the  gold  as  the  residue. 
The  two  metals  may  also  be  sepa- 
rated by  electrolytic  processes. 
(For  electrolysis  of  silver  see 
Electrometallurgy). 

The  most  important  oxide  of 
silver  is  AgoO,  obtained  by  treat- 
ing silver  with  certain  oxides.  It 
is  decomposed  into  the  metal  and 
oxygen  on  heating.     Silver  ni- 


trate, or  'lunar  caustic,'  is  pre- 
pared by  dissolving  the  metal  in 
nitric  acid.  It  forms  monoclinic 
crystals  that  melt  at  200°  c,  and 
are  readily  soluble  in  water.  It 
constitutes  the  starting-point  for 
the  preparation  of  other  silver 
compovmds.  Silver  chloride 
(horn  silver),  bromide,  and  io- 
dide are  obtained  by  adding  a 
soluble  halide  to  silver  nitrate 
solution.  They  are  white  to  pale 
yellow  insoluble  solids,  and  are 
particularly  valuable  due  to  their 
property  of  being  affected  by 
light.  This  action  is  made  use  of 
in  various  photographic  proc- 
esses. Silver,  on  account  of  its 
unalterability  in  air,  is  largely 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  or- 
naments, of  spoons,  forks,  and 
dishes  for  table  use,  and  for  coin- 
age. It  is  also  largely  used  for 
electroplating  baser  metals,  for 
ornament,  or  protection.  Silver 
is  also  deposited  chemically  for 
the  purpose  of  silvering  mirrors  ; 
the  reduction  by  a  tartrate  or  by 
grape  sugar  in  alkaline  solutions 
is  the  process  most  frequently 
employed.  In  medicine,  silver 
salts  are  used  externally  as  a 
caustic.  Silver  ores  occur  in  the 
rocks  of  various  geological  ages, 
and  are  generally  associated  with 
the  ores  of  gold,  lead,  zinc,  cop- 
per, cobalt,  and  antimony. 

Consult  J.  Percy,  Silver  and 
Gold  (1880);  C.  A.  Stetefeldt, 
Lixiviation  of  Silver  Ores  (tech- 
nical :  1890);  W.  Gowland, 
Metallurgy  of  the  Non-Ferrous 
Metals  (1914);  B.  White,  Sil- 
ver: Its  History  and  Romance 
(1920);  H.  M.  Bratter,  Silver 
Market  Dictionary  (1933). 

Silver  Agreement. — This 
important  international  conven- 
tion was  secured  by  Senator  Key 
Pittman  of  Nevada  at  the  World 
Monetary  Conference  held  in 
London,  1933,  and  signed  July 
22.  The  signatories  were  the 
United  States,  Canada,  Australia, 
China,  India,  Mexico,  Peru  and 
Spain,  and  the  agreement  became 
effective  April  24,  1934. 

By  this  instrument  India, 
which  held  large  stocks  of  de- 
monetized silver,  agreed  to  re- 
strict sales  for  four  years  to  an 
average  of  35,000,000  ounces  an- 
nually. Sales  of  silver  by  Spain 
were  not  to  average  more  than 
5,000,000  ounces  annually,  while 
China  undertook  to  refrain  from 
selling  any. 

Silver  City,  town.  New  Mex- 
ico, county  seat  of  Grant  county, 
on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe  Railroad;  165  miles 
N.w.  of  El  Paso.  It  is  the  head- 
quarters of  a  mining  and  ranch- 
ing country,  and  a  health  resort 
for  tuberculous  patients.  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  State  Teachers 
College  and  of  St.  Mary's  Acad- 
emy (R.  C).  The  place  was 
settled  in  1873  and  incorporated 


Silver  Creek 


KSH 


222 


Silversmiths'  Work 


in  1878.  Pop.  (1930)  3,519; 
(1938  est.)  5,000. 

Silver  Creek,  village,  New 
York,  in  Chautauqua  county,  on 
a  small  bay  on  the  shore  of  Lake 
Erie,  and  on  the  New  York,  Chi- 
cago and  St.  Louis,  the  New 
York  Central,  and  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroads ;  30  miles  s.w. 
of  Buffalo.  Its  manufactures  in- 
clude grain-cleaning  machinery, 
U.  S.  post  office  cancelling  ma- 
chines and  furniture.  It  has 
noted  vineyards  and  natural  gas 
abounds  in  the  region.  It  was 
settled  about  1810,  and  incorpo- 
rated in  1856.  Pop.  (1930) 
3,160. 

Silver  Purchase  Act  (U.  S.) 
1934,  was  approved  by  the  Presi- 
dent on  June  19.  The  act  de- 
clared it  to  be  the  policy  of  the 
United  States  to  increase  the 
amount  of  silver  in  its  monetary 
stocks  with  the  aim  of  having 
and  maintaining  one-fourth  of 
their  monetary  value  in  silver, 
and  three-fourths  in  gold,  and 
the  Treasury  was  directed  to  pur- 
chase silver  at  home  or  abroad 
to  achieve  this  end.  The  Presi- 
dent was  also  authorized  by  ex- 
ecutive order  to  require  the  de- 
livery to  the  Government  of  all 
silver  within  the  country  in  ex- 
change for  coin  or  currency. 

By  the  terms  of  the  Silver 
Coinage  Act  of  1933  the  Govern- 
ment accepted  the  entire  produc- 
tion of  virgin  silver  at  a  price 
to  be  proclaimed  by  the  Presi- 
dent. At  first  the  price  was  set 
at  64.64  cents  per  ounce;  then, 
later,  raised  to  77.57  cents  per 
ounce. 

An  authority  on  gold  and  sil- 
ver problems,  Walter  Renyon 
Ingalls,  of  New  York,  wrote : 
'Silver  is  dominated  by  the  myth 
that  its  production  in  the  United 
States  engages  several  hundred 
thousands  of  men  and  the  idea 
that  the  possession  by  the  Treas- 
ury of  a  great  quantity  of  silver 
bullion  is  economically  beneficial. 
Hence  the  payment  of  a  bonus- 
price  for  all  domestically  Tono- 
pah.  Sunshine  and  the  Presidio 
mined  silver  and  the  purchase  of 
large  quantities  of  foreign  silver. 
In  fact,  upward  of  50  per  cent 
of  the  domestic  production  of 
silver  is  supplied  by  a  dozen  large 
companies,  whereof  only  three, 
viz.,  Tonopah,  Sunshine  and  the 
Presidio  mine  of  the  American 
Metal  Co.,  may  be  classed  as 
straight  silver  mines.  In  respect 
of  the  other  major  producers,  and 
likewise  as  to  the  smaller  pro- 
ducers, their  silver  is  in  the  main 
recovered  as  a  by-product  in 
the  treatment  of  copper,  lead  and 
zinc  ores.  A  premium  for  sil- 
ver naturally  assists  in  the  min- 
ing of  such  ores.' — The  Ameri- 
can Year  Book,  1938. 

Silversmiths*  Work.  In  an- 
cient times  all  work  in  the  pre- 


cious metals  and  the  setting  of 
stones  and  gems  were  included 
in  one  industry,  but  now  gold- 
smiths' and  silversmiths'  work 
are  distinct  industries.  In  France 
during  the  Revolution  and  the 
revolutionary  wars  thousands 
of  beautiful  examples  of  silver- 
smiths' work  were  destroyed  at 
home  and  also  in  Spain,  in  order 
that  the  metal  might  be  used  for 
other  purposes.  Much  church 
plate  and  large  quantities  of 
corporation  and  collegiate  silver 
plate  were  destroyed  in  England 
at  the  Reformation  and  during 
the  civil  wars  of  the  17th  century. 

The  use  of  silver  for  vessels  of 
all  kinds  was  common  among  the 
Greeks,  and  even  to  a  greater 
extent  among  the  Romans.  A 
beautiful  little  two-handled  cup 
of  Greek  manufacture  (4th  cen- 
tury B.C.),  with  a  delicately  mod- 
elled band  of  ornament  in  relief, 
is  typical  of  the  best  era  of  Greek 
art.  Most  of  the  early  specimens 
are,  however,  of  Roman  times. 
Of  these,  the  collection  discovered 
at  Hildesheim  in  Hanover  in 
1868,  and  consisting  of  complete 
table  service  for  three  persons,  is 
perhaps  of  most  importance.  It 
includes  salt  cellars,  wine  vessels, 
cups  and  ladles,  stew  pans, 
dishes,  and  vases  of  beautiful 
design,  with  embossed  ornaments 
of  figures  and  foliage.  These  are 
of  the  1st  to  4th  century  a.d. 
Other  treasures  of  Graeco-Roman 
work  of  the  1st  century  have  been 
discovered  near  Pompeii ;  and 
at  Bernay  and  Montcornet  in 
France  beautiful  collections  of 
Gallc-Roman  work  of  the  2d  and 
3d  centuries  have  been  found. 
From  the  decline  of  Roman  su- 
premacy down  to  the  15th  cen- 
tury the  finest  silversmiths'  work 
was  executed  for  ecclesiastical 
use. 

In  Germany,  at  Nuremberg 
and  Augsburg,  the  silversmiths 
of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries 
were  noted  for  the  elaborate 
standing  cups,  generally  deco- 
rated with  bulbous  ornament  and 
chasing  resembling  pine  forms. 
Cellini's  treatise  supplies  a  good 
description  of  the  methods  in  use 
during  the  16th  century  in  Italy. 
In  England,  silversmiths'  work 
revived  after  the  restoration. 
Tankards,  cups,  toilet  sets,  and 
punch  or  Monteith  bowls  and  ta- 
ble ware  formed  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  silversmiths'  out- 
put during  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  18th 
century  the  revival  of  classic 
Greek  forms  and  the  influence 
in  England  of  Flaxman,  the 
brothers  Adam,  and  other  sculp- 
tors and  architects  made  itself 
strongly  felt  in  the  silversmiths' 
art ;  and  the  Dutch  style  of  de- 
sign, which  had  affected  the  work 
of  the   preceding  period,  gave 


place  to  the  more  severe  and 
refined  classic  shapes.  Sheffield 
plate  or  copper,  with  a  thin  sheet 
of  silver  on  each  side,  was  intro- 
duced in  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century.  The  methods  of  work- 
ing were  similar  to  those  used  in 
silver  plate  ;  but  the  manufacture 
has  been  superseded  by  electro- 
plated silver  on  white  metal. 

In  working  silver  it  is  neces- 
sary to  add  a  small  quantity  of 
baser  metal.  This  admixture 
causes  it  to  be  harder  and  more 
durable ;  but  at  the  same  time  it 
opens  the  door  to  fraud.  Hence 
from  the  13th  century  onwards 
regulations  were  made  to  control 
the  works  executed  by  British 
silversmiths,  and  to  ensure  that 
the  metal  used  by  them  was  of 
the  requisite  standard  of  purity. 
The  standard  was  11  oz.  2  dwt. 
The  Goldsmiths'  Company  in 
London  was  the  first  body  de- 
puted to  test  and  hall-mark  these 
goods.  The  test  was  decided  by 
rubbing  the  ware  upon  a  stone, 
hence  the  phrase  'testing  by  the 
touch'  applied  to  the  process ; 
subsequently  the  more  scientific 
methods  of  assaying  were  adopt- 
ed. Several  provincial  cities 
were  afterwards  allowed  to  hall- 
mark ware.  At  the  present  time 
the  following  cities  of  Great 
Britain  and  Eire  have  halls 
where  silver  is  assayed  and 
hall-marked — London,  Birming- 
ham, Chester,  Dublin,  Edinburgh, 
Glasgow,  Sheffield.  The  hall- 
mark proper  denotes  the  city  in 
which  the  work  has  been  marked. 
London  is  represented  by  a  leop- 
ard's head  within  a  shield,  and 
this  has  been  in  use  with  some 
variations  since  1300.  The  mark 
of  Birmingham  is  an  anchor  ;  of 
Chester,  the  city  coat  of  arms 
and  a  sword  ;  of  Dublin,  a  harp 
crowned ;  of  Edinburgh,  a  cas- 
tle ;  of  Glasgow,  a  tree,  fish  and 
bell,  while  the  hall-mark  of  Shef- 
field is  a  crown. 

The  date  mark  denotes  the  ex- 
act year  in  which  the  work  was 
marked,  and  consists  of  a  letter, 
which  is  changed  every  year. 
This  system  dates  back  to  the 
15th  century.  Goods  made 
abroad  and  imported  are  marked 
in  a  special  manner,  and  hall- 
marks are  used  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, but  vary  considerably  from 
those  in  use  in  Great  Britain.  In 
America  there  is  no  system  for 
stamping  silver  and  gold,  but 
legislation  has  been  proposed  in 
certain  States  making  it  an  of- 
fence to  stamp  'sterling'  on  sil- 
verware that  does  not  comply 
with  trade  standards. 

In  Great  Britain  the  manufac- 
ture of  silver  ware  is  carried  on 
chiefly  in  Birmingham,  London, 
and  Sheffield.  The  continental 
capitals  and  cities,  ^  especially 
Paris,  Berlin,  and  Vienna,  also 
manufacture   largely.     In  the 


Silver  Thaw 


223 


Simeon 


United  States,  Rhode  Island,  es- 
pecially Providence,  and  Newark, 
New  Jersey,  are  important  cen- 
ters of  the  industry.  Cups  and 
circular  shapes  are  often  spun  on 
a  wooden  mould  or  chuck  in  a 
lathe  instead  of  being  hammered 
out  as  formerly.  Dies  and  stamp- 
ing presses  are  also  used.  Tea 
sets,  vases,  and  dinner  ware  are 
struck  in  two  or  more  pieces  by 
means  of  dies  and  stamps,  and 
afterwards  soldered  together. 
Casting  is  largely  resorted  to  for 
handles  and  innumerable  small 
articles,  such  as  waist  and  cloak 
clasps.  Electroplate,  which  is  a 
branch  of  silversmiths'  work, 
comprises  nearly  all  the  articles 
that  can  be  made  in  silver,  but 
for  which  white  metal  of  baser 
quality  is  used,  and  afterwards 
coated  with  a  layer  of  silver 
deposited  by  electro-processes. 
(See  Electrodeposition.) 
Nevertheless  there  are  many 
processes  in  which  hand  labor  is 
still  employed.  Salvers,  cups, 
tea  and  coffee  sets,  and  plates  are 
mostly  fashioned  on  steel  stakes 
or  tools  with  different  shaped 
heads,  on  which  the  silver  sheet 
is  hammered  by  means  of  ham- 
mers of  various  shapes. 

The  work  of  early  American 
silversmiths  was  largely  in  imi- 
tation of  articles  of  English  or 
Dutch  origin.  The  most  noted 
member  of  the  craft  in  colonial 
times  was  Paul  Revere,  of  Revo- 
lutionary fame,  who  established 
himself  in  Boston  about  1760. 
With  the  introduction  of  ma- 
chinery the  making  of  silverware 
passed  from  the  shops  of  the 
artist-artisan  into  factories.  The 
immense  business  done  by  a  few 
large  manufacturing  firms  makes 
possible,  however,  the  employ- 
ment of  highly  skilled  designers, 
so  that  the  finer  work  done  in 
the  United  States  compares  well 
w'ith  that  of  Europe. 

Silver  Thaw,  Glazed  Frost, 
or  IcE-STORMj  an  accumulation 
of  smooth  ice  on  trees,  rocks,  and 
other  objects,  formed  when  rain, 
falling  with  a  temperature  below 
freezing,  and  perhaps  itself  cooled 
below  the  normal  freezing  point 
of  water,  congeals  upon  the  cold 
surfaces.  It  occurs  when  a  warm, 
humid  upper  air  current,  pene- 
trating a  region  that  has  been 
cooled  by  radiation  during  a  peri- 
od of  clear,  anti-cyclonic  weath- 
er, makes  the  temperature  of  the 
upper  strata  warm  enough  for 
rain  while  it  remains  much  cold- 
er below,  an  inversion  of  the  nor- 
mal conditions.  On  Ben  Nevis, 
Scotland,  silver  thaw  frequently 
occurs  and  in  the  United  States 
the  phenomenon  is  fairly  com- 
mon, although  by  no  means  fre- 
quent, in  New  England.  The 
accumulation  of  ice  is  sometimes 
sufficient  to  break  off  the  branch- 
es of  trees. 


Silverton,  mining  district,  in 
the  western  part  of  New  South 
Wales,  Australia,  18  miles  from 
the  South  Australian  border,  in 
the  Barrier  Ranges  silver  mining 
region,  17  miles  northwest  of 
Broken  Hill. 

Silvester.    See  Sylvester. 

Silvestre,  sel-ves'tr',  Paul 
Armand  (1837-1901),  French 
litterateur,  was  born  in  Paris.  He 
entered  the  ministry  of  finance 
(1869),  afterwards  becoming  in- 
spector of  finance  and  deputy 
chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Archives. 
He  was  a  prolific  writer  in  prose 
and  verse,  contributing  'Rabelai- 
sian' tales  to  Gil  Bias.  His  prose 
includes  Lcs  memoircs  d'lm 
galopin  (1882),  Contes  gras- 
sonillcts  (1883),  Lcs  cas  difficilcs 
(  1885),  and  Maima  (1888).  In 
verse  he  wrote  Les  renaissances 
(1869),  La  chanson  dcs  Jieiircs 
(1878),  and  Lc  chemin  dcs 
ctoiles  (1885),  as  well  as  words 
for  a  number  of  operas,  notably 
those  for  Saint- Saens's  Henry 
VIII  and  Massenet's  Grisclidis. 

Silvestre  de  Sacy.  See 
Sacy. 

Silvretta  Group.  See  Rh^- 
TiAN  Alps. 

Simbirsk,  renamed  Ulya- 
novsk, a  province  of  Russian 
S.F.S.R.,  west  of  the  Volga, 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Chu- 
vash and  Tatar  republics  ;  on  the 
w.  by  Penza  and  Nizhegorod 
provinces,  and  Samara  on  the  e. 
It  has  an  area  of  20,000  square 
miles.  Along  the  right  bank  of 
the  Volga,  which  forms  the  east- 
ern boundary  for  nearly  300 
miles,  run  the  Volga  highlands. 
The  south  and  southwest  are  bro- 
ken and  hilly,  in  the  northwest 
it  is  more  level,  but  all  over  the 
north  the  woodlands  are  compar- 
atively thick.  Simbirsk  belongs 
entirely  to  the  Volga  basin.  Be- 
sides the  Volga,  its  tributary,  the 
Sura,  is  the  only  navigable 
stream  (245  miles).  Lakes  and 
marshes  are  numerous.  The  dis- 
trict contains  deposits  of  coal, 
asphalt,  and  sulphur,  some  of 
which  were  worked  as  early  as 
Peter  the  Great's  time  ;  mineral 
springs  occur  at  Undory.  Near- 
ly all  the  soil  is  'black  earth,'  and 
Simbirsk  is  among  the  richest 
agricultural  districts  in  Russia. 
Potatoes  are  grown  and  also  flax 
and  hemp.  Market-gardening 
flourishes,  and  the  Volga  and 
Sura  fisheries  are  important.  In- 
dustries are  largely  concerned 
with  timber  ;  but  there  are  also 
distilleries,  tanneries,  glass  works, 
oil  works,  and  manufactures  of 
machinery  and  cloth  (the  last 
celebrated  from  the  18th  cen- 
tury).   Pop.  1,463,000. 

Simbirsk,  renamed  Ulya- 
novsk, town  in  U.S.S.R.,  capi- 
tal of  Ulyanovsk  province,  situ- 
ated on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Volga;  100  miles  s.vv.  of  Kazan. 


The  industries  include  breweries, 
brick  works,  flour  mills,  iron 
and  copper  foundries,  and  manu- 
factures candles,  soap,  malt  and 
potash.  The  town  was  founded 
in  1648  as  a  fort,  and  was  the 
scene  of  fighting  during  the  Civil 
War  of  1917-20.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  V.  I.  Ulyanov 
('Lenin').  The  town  has  a  re- 
gional study  museum  and  a  li- 
brary started  by  the  acquisition 
of  the  libraries  of  two  townsmen 
who  became  famous  in  Russian 
literature — Karamzin,  the  his- 
torian (1766-1826)  and  Gon- 
charov,  the  novelist  (1812- 
1891).    Pop.  (1933)  73,700. 

Simcoe,  sim'ko,  lake,  Canada, 
in  Ontario,  between  Simcoe  and 
Ontario  Counties  ;  about  30  miles 
long  and  18  miles  wide.  It  has 
densely  wooded  shores  and  fur- 
nishes excellent  bathing  and  fish- 
ing. It  drains  by  the  Severn  in- 
to Georgian  Bay,  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Lake  Huron. 

Simcoe,  town,  Ontario,  Can- 
ada, county  seat  of  Norfolk 
county,  on  the  Canadian  Nation- 
al and  Wabash  Railroads,  con- 
necting with  the  Canadian  Pa- 
cific Railroad;  37  miles  s.w.  of 
Hamilton.  A  beautiful  carillon 
with  23  bells  has  been  erected  as 
a  War  Memorial.  Industries  in- 
clude the  largest  canning  factory 
in  Canada,  tin-can  plant,  green- 
houses, knitting  factory,  pickle 
factory,  saw  mills,  woolen  and 
flour  mills.  Simcoe  is  the  cen- 
ter of  a  very  rich  fruit  and  dairy 
district.    Pop.  (1931)  5,226. 

Simcoe,  John  Graves  (1752- 
1806),  British  general,  was  born 
in  Exeter.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  and  in  1770  entered  the 
army.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
American  Revolutionary  War,  he 
bought  a  captaincy  in  the  40th 
foot,  which  regiment  he  com- 
manded at  the  battles  of  Brandy- 
wine  and  Monmouth.  Subse- 
quently he  raised  a  battalion 
called  the  Queen's  Rangers,  with 
which  he  did  good  service  in  the 
Royal  cause  in  the  South  during 
the  remainder  of  the  war.  Late 
in  1779,  while  engaged  on  a  small 
expedition,  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner and  narrowly  escaped  death. 
He  was  included  in  Lord  Corn- 
wallis'  capitulation  at  Yorktown. 
In  1791  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Upper  Canada.  He  was 
gazetted  colonel  in  1790  and  four 
years  afterwards  was  made  a 
major  general.  From  1796-97 
he  was  governor  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo, and  in  1798  was  promot- 
ed to  lieutenant  general  and  re- 
tired. 

Simeon,  sim'i-un.  a  tribe  of 
Israel,  united  with  Judah  for  the 
conquest  of  Canaan  (Judges  1) 
and  settled  in  the  extreme  s.w\ 
of  Palestine.  The  tribe  became 
merged  in  the  desert  tribes  and 
in  its  powerful  neighbor,  Judah. 


Simeon 


KSH 


224 


Simmons 


The  towns  which  were  assigned 
to  Simeon  in  the  distribution  of 
territory  by  Joshua  are  men- 
tioned in  Josh.  xix.  2-7. 

Simeon,  Charles  (1759- 
1836),  English  clergyman,  was 
born  in  Reading.  In  1782  he 
was  elected  fellow  of  King's 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
was  also  appointed  to  the  living 
of  Holy  Trinity  (1783),  which 
he  held  all  his  life.  He  was 
soon  recognized  as  a  power  far 
beyond  the  university,  and  be- 
came leader  of  the  Evangelicals. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
and  was  a  mainstay  of  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  His 
works  appeared  in  1840  in  21 
volumes. 


five  simian  retains  its  earlier 
zoological  meaning  of  pertaining 
to  monkey  or  ape  in  the  general 
sense. 

Simile.    See  Metaphor. 

Simla,  town,  India,  capital  of 
Simla  district,  in  the  Punjab,  on 
the  southern  slopes  of  the  Hima- 
layas ;  66  miles  northeast  of 
Ambala.  The  town  is  beautifully 
laid  out  and  is  a  sanitarium  and 
the  seat  of  the  government  of 
India  during  the  summer  months. 
The  viceregal  residences,  Mayo 
orphanage,  town  hall,  and  gov- 
ernment offices  are  its  chief 
architectural  features.  The  Eu- 
ropean houses  are  spread  over  a 
crescent-shaped  ridge  five  miles 
in  length  running  east  to  west. 
Prospect    Hill,   at   the  western 


medical  school  for  Japanese  stu- 
dents. 

Simmons,  Edward  Emerson 
(1852-1931),  American  painter, 
was  born  in  Concord,  Mass.  He 
was  graduated  (1874)  from  Har- 
vard and  studied  art  under 
Lefebvre  and  Boulanger  at  Paris, 
beginning  to  exhibit  in  1879.  At 
first  a  painter  of  easel  pictures, 
chiefly  figure  pieces,  in  1893  he 
shared  in  the  mural  decorations 
of  the  Columbian  Exposition 
buildings,  and  later  executed 
mural  work  for  court  houses  and 
hotels  in  New  York  City,  for  the 
Congressional  Library  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  the  Minn.  State 
Capitol,  the  Mass.  State  House, 
the  S.  Dak.  Capitol  and  other 
public  buildings.  He  also  deco- 


Simla:  the  Viceregal  Lodge 


Simeon  Stylites.  See  Sty- 
lit  KS. 

Simferopol,  sem-fer-6'p6l, 
town  and  capital  of  the  Crimean 
Republic  ;  30  miles  northeast  of 
Se\astopol.  It  consists  of  two 
parts — the  Moslem  or  Tatar 
town  to  the  south  and  the  Rus- 
sian town  to  the  north.  It  has 
a  fine  cathedral  in  the  Venetian 
style,  and  a  museum  of  antiqui- 
ties and  natural  history.  It  is 
famous  as  a  fruit  growing  region 
and  has  vineyards,  nursery  gar- 
dens and  extensive  orchards. 
Manufactures  include  soap, 
candles,  and  tobacco.  Pop. 
98,600.  _ 

Sim'ia,  the  genus  name  of  the 
orang,  while  .Simiid;e  is  the  fam- 
ily name  of  the  anthropoid  apes. 
Popularly,   however,  the  adjec- 


extremity,  is  7,140  feet  high. 
The  scenery  is  magnificent.  Pop. 
27,494.  Simla  Hill  States  is 
the  name  given  to  a  cluster  of 
twenty-seven  petty  states  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Simla. 

Sim'mons,  Duane  (1834- 
89),  American  physician,  was 
born  in  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y.  He 
studied  medicine  privately  and  in 
1859  went  to  Japan  as  a  mission- 
ary, accepting  a  position  in  the 
Japanese  civil  service.  In  1862- 
3  he  obtained  leave  of  absence  in 
order  to  improve  his  medical 
education,  and  studied  medicine 
in  the  hospitals  of  Berlin,  Ger- 
many. On  his  return  to  Japan 
he  did  valuable  work  in  improv- 
ing public  sanitation  and  hygiene. 
He  founded  the  Juzen  Hospital 
in   1869  and  established  a  free 


rated  the  Vanderbilt  home  at 
Hyde  Park,  N.  Y.  and  the  home 
of  Rockefeller  at  Tarrytown, 
N.  Y. 

Simmons,  Franklin  (1839- 
1913),  American  sculptor,  was 
born  in  Webster,  Me.  At  the 
close  of  the  Civil  War  he  settled 
in  Washington,  where  he  made 
medallion  portraits  in  marble  of 
Farragut,  Porter,  Grant,  Meade, 
Sheridan,  Thomas,  Sherman,  and 
Hooker.  In  1868  he  took  up  his 
residence  in  Rome.  Among  his 
important  works  are  statues  of 
Roger  Williams,  Governor  Pier- 
pont  of  Virginia,  Longfellow, 
and  General  Logan.  He  made 
the  statue  of  Grant  for  the  Grand 
Army  of  the  Rr]Miblir  Memorial 
in  the  rotunda  of  the  Capitol  at 
Washington,  and  a  large  number 


Simmons 


KSH 


225 


Simon 


of  ideal  figures,  such  as  Paris 
and  Helen  and  Grief  and  His- 
tory on  the  Peace  Monument  in 
Washington. 

Simmons,  Furnifold  Mc- 
Lendell  ( 1 85 4-/<?4o),  American 
legislator,  was  born  in  Jones 
County,  N.  C.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Trinity  College  (N.  C.) 
in  1873  ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1875  ;  and  was  member  of 
Congress  in  1887-89.  In  1893- 
6  he  was  collector  of  internal 
revenue  in  North  Carolina ; 
chairman  of  the  State  Demo- 
cratic executive  committee  for 
six  years  ;  was  U.  S.  Senator  for 
5  terms  (1901-31);  and  was  a 
former  member  of  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Commission  (re- 
signed 1928).  He  was  co-author 
of  the  Underwood-Simmons  Tar- 
if¥  Act.  1 913-21. /Hyi  l>0/'^4o 

Simmons  College,  a  non- 
sectarian  institution  for  women 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  founded  in 
1899  under  the  provisions  of  the 
will  of  John  Simmons,  and  de- 
signed to  afford  instruction  in 
such  branches  of  art,  science,  and 
industry  as  will  best  enable 
■women  to  earn  an  independent 
livelihood.  The  courses  of  study 
are  grouped  in  ten  schools  as 
follows  :  English,  library  science, 
social  studies,  social  work,  busi- 
ness and  secretarial  studies,  store 
service  education,  general  sci- 
ence, home  economics,  nursing 
and  physical  education.  With 
the  technical  subjects  essential 
to  specialization  are  associated 
related  academic  subjects.  The 
plan  of  instruction  provides  com- 
plete programs  of  four  or  five 
years  for  students  who  have  ful- 
filled the  requirements  for  ad- 
mission, and  affords  one  or  two 
year  technical  programs  for  those 
who  have  already  had  collegiate 
training. 

Simms,  William  Gilmore 
(1806-70),  American  author,  was 
born  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  the  son 
of  an  Irishman  who  emigrated  to 
that  city  soon  after  the  Revolu- 
tion. He  was  a  great  reader  from 
childhood  and  began  writing 
verses  in  honor  of  the  victories 
of  the  War  of  1812  at  the  age  of 
eight.  His  first  regular  publica- 
tion was  a  Monody  on  General 
Charles  Cotesworth  Pincknev 
(1825).  It  was  followed  by 
Lyrical  and  Other  Poems  (1827) 
and  Early  Lays  (1827).  In  1827 
Simms  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
at  Charleston,  and  practised  for 
a  year  with  some  success.  In 
1828  he  took  the  joint  editorship 
of  The  Tablet,  or  Southern 
Monthly  Literary  Gaaefte,  which 
continued  for  a  year.  In  1830- 
32  he  was  editor  and  part  pro- 
prietor of  the  Charleston  City 
Gazette,  which  he  conducted  in 
harmony  with  the  principles  of 
the  'Union  and  States  Rights' 
party,  incurring  much  hostility 


from  the  'Nullifiers'  or  Calhoun 
party. 

Meanwhile  he  had  published 
two  other  collections  of  poems  in 
1829  and  1830,  and  in  1832  ap- 
peared his  Atalantis :  a  Story  of 
the  Sea,  his  chief  poetical  pro- 
duction. In  1833  he  published 
his  first  novel,  Martin  Faber, 
partly  based  on  the  confessions 
of  a  murderer.  It  was  success- 
ful, and  Guy  Rivers:  a  Tale  of 
Georgia  (1834),  was  still  more 
so.  The  latter  was  followed  by 
The  Yeniassee :  a  Romance  of 
Carolina  (1835),  The  Partisan: 
a  Talc  of  the  Revolution  (1835), 
Border  Beagles  (1840),  The 
Kinsmen  (1841,  new  ed.  1854, 
entitled  The  Scout),  The  Wig- 
cvam  and  the  Cabin,  short  stories 
(1854-6),  Katharine  Walton 
(1851),  The  Stvord  and  the  Dis- 
taff (1852,  new  ed.  1854,  en- 
titled Woodcraft) ,  The  Forayers 
(  1855),  and  other  novels  and 
volumes  of  short  stories  dealing 
with  the  romantic  history  of  the 
Southern  States.  He  also  pub- 
lished several  local  histories  and 
biographies,  and  several  addi- 
tional books  of  verse.  His  metri- 
cal compositions  were  collected 
as  Poems  Descriptive,  Dramatic, 
Legendary,  and  Contemplative 
(2  vols.  1853).  His  separate 
publications  number  more  than 
sixty,  including  three  dramas, 
two  of  which  were  produced. 
During  1842-3  he  edited  the 
Magnolia,  or  Southern  Monthly, 
and  during  1845  the  Southern 
and  Western  Monthly  Magazine , 
the  latter  of  which  was  merged 
in  the  Southern  Literary  Mes- 
senger, which  he  edited  for  a 
time  after  1849.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  edited  a  little  paper. 
The  Phccnix,  at  Columbia,  S.  C, 
after  the  burning  of  that  city. 
His  country  seat,  'Woodlands,' 
was  twice  burned,  and  his  library 
with  it. 

Sim'nel,  Lambert  (  ?1475- 
1525),  pretender  to  the  English 
throne  who  tradition  says  was 
the  son  of  a  baker.  On  account 
of  his  resemblance  to  the  impris- 
oned Edward,  Earl  of  Warwick, 
a  priest  conceived  the  idea  of 
passing  him  off  as  the  young  earl. 
In  1486  the  young  impostor  was 
taken  to  Ireland,  where  most  of 
the  nobility  and  officials  declared 
in  his  favor.  He  was  crowned 
as  King  Edward  vi  in  Dublin 
(1487),  and  crossed  over  to  Eng- 
land, but  was  defeated  at  Stoke- 
upon-Trent.  He  was  taken 
prisoner,  pardoned,  made  a  scul- 
lion in  the  royal  kitchen,  and 
afterwards  a  falconer. 

Simois,  sim'o-is,  in  ancient 
Greek  legend,  one  of  the  rivers 
of  Troy,  the  other  being  the  Sca- 
mander.  They  rise  in  Mount 
Ida,  unite  in  the  plain  of  Troy, 
and,  flowing  northwest,  fall  into 
the  Hellespont. 


Simon,  Sir  John  (1816- 
1904),  English  surgeon,  was  born 
in  London.  He  was  joint  dem- 
onstrator of  anatomy  at  King's 
College,  London,  for  nine  years ; 
then  senior  assistant  surgeon  at 
King's  College  Hospital  (1840), 
lecturer  in  pathology  at  St. 
Thomas'  Hospital  (1847),  of- 
ficer of  health  for  the  city  of 
London  (1848),  and  medical 
officer  to  the  Local  Government 
Board  in  1855-76. 

Simon,  Sir  John  All.se- 
BROOK  (1873-  ),  British 
statesman,  was  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh and  Oxford.  Called  to 
the  bar  in  1899,  he  became  a 
King's  Counsel  in  1908,  and  en- 
tered Parliament  in  1906  as  Lib- 
eral member  for  Walthamstow. 
Among  the  numerous  posts  he 
filled  were  Solicitor-General, 
1910-13;  Attorney-General, 
1913-15;  Home  Secretary, 
1915-16;  Foreign  Secretary, 
1931-35,  and  again  Home  Secre- 
tary in  1935,  also  deputy  leader 
of  the  House  of  Commons.  He 
acted  as  a  counsel  for  the  Brit- 
ish Government  in  the  Alaska 
Boundary  Arbitration,  1903,  and 
leading  counsel  for  Newfound- 
land in  the  Labrador  Boundary 
Reference,  1926.  He  served  in 
the  Roval  Air  Force  during  the 
World  "War. 

Simon,  se-mon',  Jliles  Fran- 
cois (1814-96),  called  also 
Simon-Suisse,  French  philoso- 
pher and  legislator,  was  born  in 
Lorient.  After  a  few  years  of 
teaching  he  became  professor  of 
philosophy  (1839-51)  at  the 
Paris  Sorbonne.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly (1848)  ;  sat  in  the  Legis- 
lative Assembly  (1863)  for 
Paris  ;  became  minister  of  public 
instruction  (1870-3),  and  was 
premier  for  a  few  months  at  the 
beginning  of  1877.  He  was 
elected  to  the  French  Academy 
in  1875.  ^  His  many  publications 
include  Etudes  sur  la  thcodicee 
dc  Platon  et  d'Aristote  (1840)  ; 
Hisfoire  de  I'ecole  d' Alexandria 
(1844-5)  ;  manuals  on  Lc  devoir, 
La  liberie  civile,  Le  travail,  etc. ; 
Lc  gouvernement  de  Thiers 
(1878);  Victor  Cousin,  and  Lc 
soir  dc  ma  journce. 

Simon,  Richard  (1638- 
1712),  French  theologian,  the 
founder  of  modern  Biblical  crit- 
icism, was  born  in  Dieppe.  As 
a  member  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Oratory,  he  lectured  for  a 
time  at  Juilly,  and  was  commis- 
sioned to  catalogue  mss.  in  its 
library  at  Paris.  His  chief  work 
was  the  Histoire  critique  dn 
Vieux  Testament  (-1678),  in 
which  he  applied  literary  canons 
to  the  Old  Testament,  and  an- 
ticipated the  methods  and  con- 
clusions of  many  modern  schol- 
ars. Other  works  include  a  His- 
toire    critique     du     tcxtc  dn 


Simon  bar  Glora 


KSH 


226 


Simpson 


Nouveau  Testament  (1689),  and 
Histoire  critique  des  principaux 
commentateurs  du  Nouveau  Testa- 
ment (1693). 

Simon  bar  Giora,  si'mun  bar 
jo'ra,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Zealots  in  the  Judaeo-Roman 
War.  On  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
(70  A.D.)  Titus  took  him  to  Rome 
for  his  triumphal  procession, 
after  which  he  was  thrown  from 
the  Tarpeian  Rock. 

Simonds,  Frank  Herbert 
0878-1936),  American  journal- 
ist and  author,  was  born  in  Con- 
cord, Mass.  He  was  graduated 
from  Harvard  University  in  1900 
and  served  in  Porto  Rico  during 
the  Spanish- American  war. 
After  a  short  period  at  the  Uni- 
versity Settlement  in  New  York 
City  he  entered  the  field  of  jour- 
nalism becoming  correspondent 
for  the  New  York  Tribune  and 
the  New  York  Evening  Post.  In 
1913  he  became  editor  of  the 
New  York  Evening  Sun,  in 
1915-18  was  an  associate  editor 
of  the  Tribune,  and  from  1919- 
33  contributing  editor  to  the  Re- 
view of  Reviezvs.  His  publica- 
tions include  They  Shall  Not 
Pass —  Verdun  (1916)  ;  History 
of  the  World  War  (5  vols.)  ; 
They  Won  the  War  (1931); 
Can    America    Stay    at  Home 

(1932)  ;  ABC  of  the  War  Debts 

(1933)  . 

Simonides  of  Amorgos,  sl- 

mon'i-dez,  a  Greek  poet  who 
flourished  about  650  B.C.  He 
was  a  native  of  Samos,  but  led  a 
colony  to  Amorgos.  Only  a  few 
fragments  of  his  works,  which 
attack  entire  classes  rather  than 
individuals,  are  extant  (in 
Bergk's  Poeiae  Lyrici  Graeci, 
1877-82). 

Simonides  of  Ceos,  one  of 
the  greatest  of  lyric  poets,  is  said 
to  have  lived  from  556  to  467 
B.C.;  certainly  he  survived  the 
great  Persian  wars.  He  was 
born  at  lulls,  in  the  island  of 
Ceos;  became  intimate  at  Athens 
with  Hipparchus  and  Themisto- 
cles;  and  from  about  477  until  his 
death  was  under  the  patronage  of 
Hiero  at  Syracuse.  His  poems 
exhibit  that  perfection  of  metre, 
language,  and  thought  which 
marks  the  highest  Greek  genius; 
there  is  no  reckless  profusion  or 
disorder  in  his  writings;  they  have 
the  clearness  of  outline  and  exact 
proportions  of  an  ancient  statue. 
He  wrote  epinicial  odes,  like 
those  of  Pindar,  hymns,  drinking 
songs,  paeans,  elegies,  dirges,  and 
indeed  every  sort  of  lyric  poetry; 
but  it  was  in  epigram,  in  the 
Greek  sense,  that  he  excelled. 
The  fragment  of  his  lament  of 
Dariae  is  matchless  in  its  pathos, 
its  restraint,  and  its  beauty  of 
style.  In  the  variety  of  the  sub- 
jects of  which  he  treated,  his 
exquisite  choice  of  words,  and  his 
finished  versification,  vSimonides 


is  almost  unequalled.  The  frag- 
ments of  his  works  are  to  be 
found  in  Bergk's  Poetae  Lyrici 
Graeci  (1877-82).  Consult  also 
Brook's  Selections  from  the  Greek 
Lyric  Poets,  with  translations, 
Wright's  A  Short  History  of 
Greek  Literature. 

Si'mon  Ma'gus  {i.e.  'the  ma- 
gician'), a  Samaritan  of  New 
Testament  times,  credited  with 
supernatural  gifts.  According  to 
Acts  viii.9-24,  he  became  a  be- 
liever at  the  preaching  of  Philip, 
was  baptized,  and  afterwards 
sought  to  buy  from  Peter  and 
John  the  power  of  conff^rring  the 
Holy  Spirit.  (See  Simony.)  In 
the  Church  Fathers  he  figures  as 
the  author  of  all  heresy  (c/. 
Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  ii.  13-14), 
According  to  Justin  (c.  150  a.d.), 
Simon  and  Helena,  his  com- 
panion, went  to  Rome  and  were 
regarded  there  as  incarnations  of 
God  and  of  the  divine  creative 
thought  (Logos)  respectively. 
His  alleged  followers  in  the  2d 
century,  called  Simonians,  elab- 
orating the  legend,  saw  in  the 
pair  the  final  embodiments  of  the 
male  and  the  female  elements  in 
the  Deity,  the  female  being  man- 
kind, which  is  delivered  from  its 
earthly  or  cosmic  limitations  by 
the  voluntary  suffering  of  the 
male — i.e.  Simon — who  thus  be- 
comes a  pseudo-Messiah,  and 
has  been  regarded  as  the  parent 
of  Gnosticism.  The  centre  of  the 
legend  is  a  conflict  between  Si- 
mon and  Peter  in  Rome,  and  this 
led  the  Tubingen  School  to  claim 
that  Simon  is  not  an  historical 
character  at  all,  but  represents 
Paul — a  theory  not  widely  ac- 
cepted. The  fullest  form  appears 
in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  the 
pseudo-Clementine  Homilies  and 
Recognition,  and  the  apocryphal 
Acts  of  Peter  and  Paul;  certain 
features  reappear  in  the  Faust 
story.  See  Gnosticism  and 
works  mentioned  there. 
Simonoselci.     See  Shimono- 

SEKI. 

Simony,  sim'o-ni,  the  buying 
or  selling  of  holy  orders  or  ecclesi- 
astical preferment.  The  name  is 
derived  from  Simon  Magus,  who 
offered  the  Apostles  money  for  the 
power  to  work  miracles.  Simony 
has  always  been  severely  con- 
demned by  the  canon  law.  In 
England  a  law  of  Elizabeth 
(1589)  imposed  fines  of  £40  and 
£lO  on  persons  simoniacally  con- 
ferring orders,  and  the  recipients 
thereof  respectively,  and  the  act 
renders  void  simoniacal  presen- 
tations, and  imposes  penalties  for 
them.  The  ecclesiastical  courts 
have  jurisdiction  independently 
of  statute  law  to  deal  with  si- 
moniacal offences,  which  they 
may  punish  by  deprivation,  or 
even  by  degradation  from  holy 
orders,  _ 

Simoom,  si-moom',  a  hot, 
suffocating    wind,    laden  with 


clouds  of  sand,  experienced  in  the 
deserts  of  Africa,  Arabia,  as  well 
as  in  Sindh  and  Baluchistan. 
The  simoom  usually  lasts  only 
ten  minutes  or  so,  but  such  are 
the  heat,  dryness,  and  dustiness 
of  the  atmosphere  that  it  fre- 
quently overwhelms  caravans, 
suffocating  men  and  beasts.  Al- 
though no  rain  falls,  lightning  is 
sometimes  seen. 

Simplified  Spelling.  See 
Spelling  Reform, 

Sim'plon  Pass,  an  Alpine 
pass  (6,592  feet),  which  leads 
from  Brigue  in  the  upper  Rhone 
valley  (Swiss  canton  of  Valais)  to 
Domo  d'Ossola  in  Piedmont,  It 
is  traversed  by  a  fine  carriage 
road,  built  by  order  of  Napoleon 
in  1800-5,  and  by  a  railway 
tunnel  under  the  pass  begun  in 
1898,  and  formally  opened  by  the 
King  of  Italy  on  May  19,  1906. 
It  is  cut  at  an  elevation  of  only 
2,312  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is 
12J4  miles  long,  from  Brigue  to 
Iselle.  In  1921  a  second  Simplon 
Tunnel,  12^  miles  long,  was 
completed.  It  was  not  wholly  a 
new  construction  as  it  comprised 
the  enlarging  of  a  ventilation 
heading  made  parallel  to  the 
first  tunnel  at  its  construction. 
In  the  centre  of  the  tunnel  are 
always  two  guards,  one  Swiss 
and  one  Italian.  Electricity  is 
the  motive  power  for  all  trains  in 
the  tunnel. 

Simpson,  Sik  Alexander 
Russell  (1835-x916),  Scotch 
gynaecologist,  was  born  in  Bath- 
gate, Linlithgowshire.  After 
assisting  his  uncle.  Sir  James 
Simpson,  for  seven  years,  he 
practised  in  Glasgow,  whence  he 
was  recalled  to  the  Edinburgh 
chair  of  midwifery  on  Sir  James' 
death  in  1870.  He  retired  as 
professor  emeritus  in  1905  and 
was  knighted  in  1906.  He  wrote 
Contributions  to  Obstetrics  and 
Gyncecology  (1880)  and  many 
memoirs  and  papers  for  medical 
journals. 

Simpson,  Edward  (1824-88), 
American  naval  officer,  was  born 
in  New  York  City,  He  entered 
the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in 
1840;  was  graduated  in  1846  in 
the  first  class  which  went  out 
from  the  new  Naval  Academy; 
and  served  on  board  the  Vixen 
during  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz, 
In  1856,  as  a  lieutenant,  he 
assisted  in  the  capture  of  the 
'Barrier  Forts'  in  China.  He 
was  stationed  at  the  Naval 
Academy  during  1858-63;  com- 
manded the  monitor  Passaic  in 
the  operations  of  1863-64  against 
Charleston;  as  fleet  captain  of 
the  Gulf  Squadron  received  the 
surrender  of  Confederate  ships  on 
the  Tombigbee  river;  was  pro- 
moted rear  admiral  in  1884;  and 
was  retired  in  1886.  His  pub- 
lished works  include  Ordnance 
and  Naval  Gunnery  (1862);  The 
Naval  Mission  to  Europe  (2  vols. 


Simpson 


KSH 


227 


Sims 


1872) ;  and  Modern  Ships  of  War 
(1887). 

Simpson,  Sir  George  (1792- 
1860),  Canadian  statesman  and 
explorer,  was  born  in  Ross-shire, 
Scotland.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
eight  he  was  sent  to  America  as  a 
superintendent  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  (q.  v.)  and  brought 
about  an  amalgamation  of  that 
company  and  the  Northwestern 
Trading  Company.  Shortly  after 
this  he  was  made  governor  of  the 
northern  department,  and  then 
general  superintendent  of  the 
company  in  America.  In  1836 
he  sent  out  a  successful  expedi- 
tion to  the  unexplored  regions  of 
the  Canadian  Northwest,  and  in 
1841  accomplished  what  is  said 
to  be  the  first  'overland'  journey 
around  the  world,  an  account  of 
which  he  published  as  A  Narra- 
tive of  a  Journey  Around  the 
World. 

Simpson,  Sir  James  Young 
(181 1-70) ,  Scottish  physician,  was 
born  in  Bathgate,  Linlithgow- 
shire, and  when  only  twenty-nine 
years  old  was  appointed  professor 
of  midwifery  in  Edinburgh.  In 
1847  he  was  appointed  one  of 
Queen  Victoria's  physicians  for 
Scotland.  In  the  same  year,  after 
numerous  experiments  upon  him- 
self and  others,  he  read  to  the 
Medico-chirurgical  Society  a 
paper  upon  the  action  of  chloro- 
form, and  the  rest  of  his  life  was 
chiefly  devoted  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  anaesthetics,  in  which  he 
had  a  fierce  struggle  against  old- 
standing  prejudices.  He  was 
awarded  the  Montyon  prize  of 
the  French  Academy  of  Science 
in  1856,  and  was  created  a  baro- 
net in  1886. 

Simpson,  Matthew  (1810- 
84),  American  Methodist  Epis- 
copal bishop,  was  born  at  Cadiz, 
O.  He  was  graduated  from 
Madison  (now  Allegheny)  Col- 
lege (1832),  and  took  up  the 
practice  of  medicine,  which  he 
soon  abandoned  for  the  ministry. 
After  a  short  term  as  circuit 
preacher  in  Ohio,  he  was  pastor 
at  Pittsburgh  and  Williamsport, 
Pa.,  until  1837,  when  he  became 
vice-president  and  professor  of 
natural  science  in  Allegheny 
College.  From  1839  to  1841  he 
was  president  of  Indiana  Asbury 
(now  De  Pauw)  University,  and 
in  1852  was  elected  bishop.  He 
was  a  close  friend  .  of  President 
Lincoln,  who  greatly  admired  his 
oratorical  powers.  He  published 
A  Hundred  Years  of  Methodism 
(1876),  Cyclopcedia  of  Methodism 
(1878),  and  Yale  Lectures  on 
Preaching  (1879).  His  Sermons 
(1885)  appeared  posthumously. 

Simpson,  Thomas  (1710-61), 
a  self-taught  English  mathema- 
tician, was  born  at  Market  Bos- 
worth,  Leicestershire.  At  Nun- 
eaton he  acquired  a  local  repu- 
tation as  an  astrologer  and  wiz- 
ard, and  in  1735  settled  in  Lon- 


don, as  a  weaver  at  Spitalfields, 
where  he  studied  and  taught 
mathematics  in  his  leisure  time. 
In  1737  he  published  A  New 
Treatise  on  Fluxions,  republished 
as  The  Doctrine  and  Application 
of  Fluxions  in  1750.  In  1743  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  the  Royal  Academy, 
Woolwich,  and  in  1745  he  be- 
came a  fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety. 

Simpson  College,  a  co-edu- 
cational institution  of  learning 
affiliated  with  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  established  in 
Indianola,  Iowa,  in  1860_.  It 
comprises   a   college   of  liberal 


arts,  with  classical,  philosophical, 
•scientific  and  business  courses, 
and  a  conservatory  of  music. 
Complete  and  accredited  train- 
ing is  offered  for  preparation  of 
teachers. 

Simrock,  zim'rok,  Karl  Jo- 
seph (1802-76),  German  scholar 
and  poet,  was  born  at  Bonn, 
where  his  father  was  a  music 
publisher.  He  entered  the  Prus- 
sian government  service  (1823), 
from  which  he  was  dismissed 
seven  years  later  for  having 
written  a  poem  in  praise  of 
freedom.  He  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  the  early  literature  of 
his  own  country,  and  wrote 
voluminously.  His  chief  works 
are  his  rendering  into  modern 
German  of  the  Nibelungenlied 
(1827),  an  edition  of  Walther  von 


der  Vogelweide  (1833),  and  mod- 
ernized versions  of  Hartmann 
von  der  Aue's  Der  Arme  Heinrich 
(1830),  Wolfram  von  Eschen- 
bach's  Parzival  und  Tilurel 
(1842),  the  Eddas  (1851),  Beowulf 
(1859),  and  Heliand  (1856).  His 
Heldenbuch  (1843-9)  was  a  col- 
lection of  heroic  legends  from 
German  literature.  His  original 
works  include  Wieland  der 
Schmied  (1835).  He  also  edited 
the  valuable  Deutsche  Volks- 
bucher  (1839-67),  and  Handbuch 
der  Deutschen  Mythologie  (1853- 
5).  He  was,  moreover,  one  of  the 
early  students  of  Shakespeare, 
and   translated  several  of  his 


dramas  and  the  poems.  He  was 
professor  of  Old  German  language 
and  literature  at  Bonn  from  1850 
until  his  death. 

Sims,  George  Robert  (1847- 
1922),  English  journalist  and 
dramatist,  born  in  London.  He 
was  first  attached  to  Fun  (1874), 
and  was  associated  with  the  Weekly 
Dispatch  in  the  same  year.  In 
1877  he  began  to  write  for  The 
Referee  under  the  pseudonym  of 
'Dagonet.'  His  works  include 
The  Social  Kaleidoscope  (1879- 
81);  Ballads  of  Babylon  (1880); 
The  Theatre  of  Life  (1881) ;  Dago- 
net Ballads  (1881);  Mary  Jane's 
Memoirs  (1887) ;  Tales  of  To-day 
(1889);  Young  Mrs.  Caudle 
(1904) ;  For  Life  and  After  (19  i6) , 
and  The  Mysteries  of  Modern 
London  (1906).  Among  his  plays. 


Simplon  Pass  and  Tunnel. 


Sims 


KSH 


228 


Sin 


some  of  which  have  been  very 
popular  in  the  United  States, 
are:  The  Lights  o'  London;  The 
Romany  Rye ;  The  Harbour 
Lights ;  Master  and  Man. 

Sims,  James  Marion  (1813- 
83),  American  surgeon,  was  born 
near  Lancaster,  S.  C.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  Jefferson 
Medical  College,  Philadelphia, 
in  1835,  began  to  practise  in 
Montgomery,  Ala.,  and  in  1848 
founded  a  private  hospital  there, 
in  which  he  carried  out  a  series 
of  researches  on  vesicovaginal 
fistula,  during  the  years  1848-52, 
resulting  in  the  discovery  of 
methods  for  curing  that  condi- 
tion. While  doing  this  work  he 
invented  the  Sims  speculum,  and 
other  useful  surgical  instru- 
ments. In  1853  he  settled  in 
New  York  and  founded  the 
Woman's  Hospital  Association. 
In  1870  he  went  to  Sedan  as 
surgeon-in-chief  of  an  ambulance 
corps  composed  of  an  equal  nvnn- 
ber  of  Americans  and  English- 
me_n,  and  attended  to  the  injtiries 
which  Marshal  MacMahon  re- 
ceived from  the  fragments  of  an 
exploded  shell.  He  was  deco- 
rated by  the  kings  of  Spain, 
Italy,  Belgium,  and  Portugal. 
His  publications  include  :  Silver 
Sutures  in  Surgery  (1858)  ;  On 
Intrauterine  Fibroid  Tumors 
(1874)  ;  Clinical  Notes  on  Uter- 
ine Surgery  (1866)  ;  The  Dis- 
covery of  Ancpsthesia  (1877). 
Consult  The  Story  of  My  Life 
(1884),  edited  by  H.  M.  Sims. 

Sims,  Thomas.  See  Sims 
Case. 

Sims,  William  Sowden 
(1858-1936),  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  in  Canada  of 
United  States  parents.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Naval 
Academy  (1880),  and  was  pro- 
moted through  the  various  grades 
to  commander  (1907),  captain 
(1911),  rear  admiral  (Jan.  5, 
1917),  and  vice  admiral  (May 
28,  1917).  He  served  on  the 
North  Atlantic^  Pacific,  and 
China  Stations;  was  attache  at 
the  American  embassy  at  Paris 
and  at  St.  Petersburg  (1897- 
1900)  ;  and  aid  on  the  staf?  of 
the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Asiatic  fleet  (1901-2).  In  1902 
he  served  as  fleet  intelligence  of- 
ficer and  inspector  of  target  prac- 
tice for  the  Asiatic  fleet,  on  board 
the  Nczv  York,  and  from  1902  to 
1909  as  inspector  of  target  prac- 
tice at  the  Bureau  of  Navigation. 
He  commanded  the  battleship 
Minnesota  (1909-11),  was  a 
member  of  the  staff  of  the  Naval 
War  College,  Newport,  R.  I. 
(1911-13),  and  was  in  command 
of  the  Atlantic  Torpedo  Flotilla 
(1913-15).  On  February  16, 
1916,  he  was  appointed  com- 
mandant of  the  naval  station  at 
Narragansett  Bay  and  president 
of  the   Naval   War  College  at 


Newport.  Shortly  before  the 
United  States  entered  the  World 
War  (1917),  he  was  sent  as  a 
special  naval  representative  and 
observer  to  England.  From 
April  28,  1917  until  the  end  of 
hostilities,  he  was  in  command  of 
the  American  naval  operations  in 
European  waters.  In  1919  he 
resumed  the  presidency  of  the 
Naval  War  College,  retiring  in 
1922. 

Sims,  WiNFiELD  Scott 
(1844-1918),  American  inven- 
tor, was  born  in  New  York  City. 
He  served  in  the  Civil  War  and 
subsequently  studied  electrical 
engineering  and  devised  im- 
provements in  the  construction 
of  electro-magnets.  He  was  one 
of  the  earliest  experimenters 
with  motor  boats  driven  by  elec- 
tric machinery,  and  the  first  to 
utilize  electrically  driven  and 
guided  torpedoes  for  harbor  and 
coast  defense  purposes.  He  in- 
vented a  wireless  dirigible  tor- 
pedo and  the  Sims-Dudley  dyna- 
mite gun. 

Sims  Case,  a  celebrated  case 
arising  in  the  United  States  un- 
der the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  of 
1850.  On  April  3,  1851,  Thomas 
Sims,  a  negro,  was  arrested  by 
the  city  marshal  of  Boston  on  a 
false  charge  of  larceny,  and  later 
held  under  heavy  guard  in  the 
court  house  on  complaint  of 
James  Potter  of  Georgia,  who 
claimed  to  be  his  master.  After 
vainly  applying  to  several  judges 
of  the  State  supreme  court  for  a 
writ  of  habeas  corpus,  his  coun- 
sel obtained  one  from  Judge 
Woodbury,  who,  however,  after 
hearing  the  arguments,  refused 
to  take  the  negro  from  the  cus- 
tody of  the  United  States  mar- 
shal. Meanwhile  the  case  had 
aroused  great  excitement  in  Bos- 
ton, and  several  meetings  were 
held,  at  which  such  speakers  as 
Wendell  Phillips,  Theodore 
Parker,  William  Lloyd  Garrison, 
and  Thomas  Wentworth  Higgin- 
son  denounced  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Law  in  unsparing  terms.  Sims 
was,  however,  escorted  by  300 
armed  policemen  to  a  vessel  in 
the  harbor,  was  taken  to  Savan- 
nah, and  was  ultimately  sold  to 
a  brick-mason  in  Vicksburg, 
from  whence  in  1863  he  escaped 
to  the  besieging  army  under  Gen- 
eral Grant. 

Sims'bury,  town,  Hartford 
county,  Connecticut,  on  the 
Farmington  River,  and  the  Cen- 
tral New  England  and  New 
York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford 
Railroads  ;  14  miles  northwest  of 
Hartford.    Pop.  (1930)  3,625. 

Simson,  Robert  (1687- 
1768),  Scottish  mathematician. 
In  1711  he  became  professor  of 
mathematics  in  Glasgow,  occupy- 
ing the  chair  for  half  a  century. 
The  work  by  which  he  is  best 
known  is  his  Elements  of  Euclid, 


which  appeared  both  in  Latin 
and  English  in  1756,  and  was  the 
basis  of  nearly  all  the  editions 
published  for  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years  afterwards. 

Sin  is  any  voluntary  act  which 
violates  the  divine  will  as  re- 
vealed, or  the  corrupt  state  of 
the  spirit  from  which  such  viola- 
tion springs.  It  is  more  than 
natural  evil,  which  causes  pain, 
and  shocks  the  intellectual  or 
asthetic  ideal  of  the  world  ;  and 
more  than  moral  evil,  which 
offends  against  the  conscience. 
It  is  related,  however,  in  some 
manner  to  both.  Consciousness 
of  sin  is  organically  connected 
with  religion  ;  but  this  conscious- 
ness is  found  nowhere  so  intense 
as  in  Christianity,  with  its  pre- 
paratory stage  of  'Hebraism,'  as 
is  strikingly  evidenced  by  the  fact 
that  the  origin  of  sin  in  man  is 
narrated  in  the  Bible  in  immedi- 
ate connection  with  his  creation. 

The  problem  of  sin  exists  for 
philosophy  as  well  as  for  the- 
ology. Thus  pessimism,  which 
emphasizes  the  evil  side  of  hu- 
man life,  makes  sin  a  necessary 
outcome  of  the  nature  of  things ; 
while  optimism  (as  in  evolution- 
ary theories  generally)  regards 
it  as  the  vestige  of  the  animal 
stage  above  which  man  has  risen. 
Hegel  sees  in  sin  a  necessary 
step  in  the  progress  of  the  human 
spirit ;  Schleiermacher  traces  it 
to  the  sensuous  nature  of  man 
and  Ritschl  to  ignorance.  All 
these  tend  to  identify  it  with  nat- 
ural evil,  and  thus  allow  it  a  cer- 
tain relative  justification.  Yet  it 
is  possible  to  see  in  each  of  these 
theories,  not  error  pure  and 
simple,  but  rather  the  exaggera- 
tion of  some  aspect  prone  to  be 
ignored  by  the  more  orthodox 
view,  which  is  largely  founded 
on  the  story  of  Gen.  iii,  a  passage 
admittedly  of  difficult  interpreta- 
tion. In  the  rise  of  man  from  an 
animal  stage  to  a  point  where  the 
dawning  conscience  was  begin- 
ning to  review  instinctive  and 
natural  actions,  and  where  the 
consciousness  of  God  was  com- 
ing into  operation,  the  appetites 
would  still  play  a  large  part  as 
the  motive  force  of  man's  con- 
duct, and  when  indulged  in  in 
spite  of  the  incipient  checks, 
would  result  in  what  we  call  sin. 
Thus  the  actual  sin  would  be 
organically  traceable  to  natural 
propensity,  but  the  possibility  of 
its  being  sin  would  depend  upon 
a  moral  and  spiritual  judgment 
which  was  not  a  natural  product, 
and  would,  literally  enough,  im- 
ply a  'fall  upward.'  There  is 
nothing  in  this  necessarily  op- 
posed to  the  profound  views  of 
the  character  of  sin  found  in 
Scripture,  nor  anything  subver- 
sive of  the  need  of  that  great 
process  of  redemption  by  which 
God  would  bring  the  world  into 


Sinai 


KSH 


229 


Sinclair 


harmony  with  His  holy  purpose. 
The  "sin  unto  death'  (  1  John  v. 
16)  is  probably  the  sin  against 
the  Holy  Ghost — i.e.,  an  obdu- 
rate, impenitent  resistance  to  the 
grace  of  God. 

Throughout  the  Scriptures  sin 
appears  as  that  element  in  man 
which  puts  him  at  enmity  with 
God.  and  for  his  salvation  from 
its  guilt  and  power  required  the 
work  of  a  Redeemer.  Sin  is  not 
defined  in  Scripture,  and  it  was 
not  till  the  controversies  between 
Pelagius  and  Augustine,  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century,  that 
the  doctrine  received  full  devel- 
opment. Augustine  maintained 
that  Adam's  sin  completely  cor- 
rupted his  whole  nature  ;  that  the 
corruption  of  his  guilt  and  its 
penalty,  death,  pass  to  all  his  chil- 
dren ;  that  man  is  born  not  merely 
corrupt,  but  in  a  state  of  sin, 
guilt,  and  liability  to  punishment. 
The  Greek  Church  continued  to 
deny  hereditary  guilt,  and  to  af- 
firm man's  will  as  free  as  Adam's 
before  the  fall.  Duns  Scotus  and 
his  followers  admitted  that  man 
had  lost  by  Adam's  fall  justifia 
originalis,  but  laid  stress  on  the 
freedom  of  the  will.  Thomas 
Aquinas  taught  that  hereditary 
sin  is  truly  sin,  and  the  unbap- 
tized  infant  is  damned.  At  the 
Reformation  both  Luther  and 
Calvin  asserted  what  they  re- 
garded as  Augustinian  and  Paul- 
ine views.  Zwingli  looked  on 
hereditary  sin  as  an  inherited 
evil  or  disease ;  Arminians  and 
Socinians  practically  denied  he- 
reditary sin  altogether. 

See  Adam  and  Eve;  Atone- 
ment; Confession;  Augus- 
tine; Devil;  Ethics;  Evil; 
Fall;  Hell;  Jesus  Christ; 
Paul;  Pelagius;  Sacrifice; 
Will.  Consult  Julius  Miiller, 
Christian  Doctrine  of  Sin  (Eng. 
trans.)  ;  P.  Galtier,  Sin  and  Pen- 
ance;  D.  L.  Morse-Boycott,  Is 
It  a  Sinf  ;  M.  W.  Doggett,  The 
Tragedy  of  Sin. 

Sinai,  sT'ni  or  sT'na-i,  the  sa- 
cred mountain  on  which  Moses 
received  from  Jehovah  the  tables 
of  the  Ten  Commandments 
(Exod.  xix),  also  called  Mount 
Horeb  fDeut.  v.  2  /;  1  Kings 
xix.  8),  at  the  foot  of  which  the 
Israelites  encamped  for  over  a 
year.  The  so-called  Peninsula  of 
Sinai,  of  which  the  wilderness  of 
Sinai  is  the  central  hilly  region, 
is  the  southern  half  of  a  triangu- 
lar tract  between  the  Gulf  of 
Suez  and  the  Gulf  of  Akabah 
(northern  arms  of  the  Red  Sea), 
and  embraces  Mount  Um  Shomer 
(8,000  feet)  to  the  south  ;  Mount 
Serbal  (6,725  feet),  identified 
with  Sinai  by  Ebers,  Lepsius, 
and  others ;  Mount  Katerina 
(8,540  feet ;  on  which  is  the  Con- 
vent of  St.  Catherine),  the  high- 
est of  a  group  including  Mount 
Mu.sa  (i.e.,  Mount  of  Moses), 


the  traditional  site,  which  proba- 
bly suits  the  Biblical  data  better 
than  any  other — the  actual  peak 
of  promulgation  being  taken  as 
the  Rases-Sufsafeh  (6,937  feet). 
Some  investigators,  however, 
place  Sinai  outside  the  Peninsula 
altogether,  seeking  it  in  Eastern 
Mount  Seir  (Sayce),  south  of 
Kadesh  (Gratz),  or  east  of  the 
Gulf  of  Akabah  (Stade).  Mount 
Sinai  is  named  after  the  Baby- 
lonian moon  goddess  Sin,  and 
was  a  sacred  center  before  the 


Exodus.  The  old  turquoise 
mines  of  Wady  Maghara  and  the 
ancient  temple  at  Sarabit  el- 
Khadem  were  explored  by  Flin- 
ders Petrie  in  1904.  Consult  W. 
Flinders  Petrie,  Researches  in 
Sinai;  M.  J.  Rendall,  Sinai  in 
Spring. 

Sinaia,  se-ni'a,  town  and  mon- 
astery in  Prahova  county,  Rou- 
mania,  at  the  southern  foot  of 
the  Transylvania  Alps;  37  miles 
northwest  of  Ploesci.  Built  in 
1695,  it  served  as  a  shelter  and 
hostel  to  travelers  in  winter  ;  but 
since  King  Carol  i  built  a  palace 
there,  in  1873-84,  it  has  become 
the  fashionable  summer  resort  of 
the  Roumanian  gentry. 

Sinaloa,  se-na-l6'a,  a  Pacific 
coast  State  of  Mexico,  with  the 
Gulf  of  California  on  the  west. 


The  coast  lands  are  low,  with  a 
gradual  rise  toward  the  Sierra 
Madre  Mountains  in  the  east. 
Silver,  gold,  copper,  lead,  and 
iron  are  abundant.  The  State  is 
well  watered,  and  yields  grain, 
cotton,  tobacco,  sugar  cane,  cof- 
fee, fruit,  rubber,  and  dyewoods. 
The  capital  is  Culiacan  (q.  v.)  ; 
the  seaport  is  Altata.  Area,  22,- 
580  square  miles.  Pop.  (1930) 
395,618. 

Sinbad  the  Sailor.  See 
Sindbad. 


Sinclair',  John.  See  Pent- 
land,  Baron. 

Sinclair,  Sir  John  (1754- 
1835),  Scottish  public  ofiicial  and 
author,  was  born  at  Thurso  Cas- 
tle in  Caithness.  In  1780  he  en- 
tered Parliament,  and  in  1786 
was  made  a  baronet  by  Pitt.  At 
the  time  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution he  was  a  strong  advocate 
of  peace  with  the  colonies.  He 
became  interested  in  sheep  breed- 
ing and  in  wool,  and  founded  the 
British  Wool  Society.  He  also 
induced  Pitt  to  form  the  Board 
of  Agriculture  (1793),  of  which 
he  was  president  (1793-8  and 
1806-13).  In  1790  he  designed 
a  Statistical  Account  of  Scotland, 
in  21  vols.  (1791-9),  to  which 
he  added  the  Analysis  of  the 
Statistical  Account  (1825).  He 


Peninsula  of  Sinai. 


Sinclair 


KSH 


230 


Sines,  Curve  of 


wrote  also  on  medicine,  Ossian, 
philology,  and  the  currency. 

Sinclair,  Upton  (1878- 
),  American  author,  was 
born  in  Baltimore,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  the  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York  and  at  Columbia 
University.  He  began  the  com- 
position of  his  first  serious  novel 
at  the  age  of  twenty,  and  experi- 
enced many  hardships,  some  of 
which  are  set  forth  in  his  volume. 
The  Journal  of  Arthur  Stirling 
(1903).  His  book  The  Jungle, 
published  in  1906,  which  exposed 
the  deleterious  practices  followed 
in  the  meat-packing  industry,  at- 
tracted national  attention  ;  and  he 
assisted  in  the  Government  in- 
vestigation of  the  Chicago  stock 
yards  that  followed.  In  1906  he 
founded  the  Helicon  Home  Col- 
ony, a  co-operative  enterprise  at 
Englewood,  N.  J.  and  founded 
the  Intercollegiate  Socialist  So- 
ciety. He  was  Socialist  candi- 
date for  Congress  (Calif.)  in 
1920  ;  for  U.  S.  Senate  in  1922  ; 
for  governor  of  Calif,  in  1926 
and  1930  and  Democratic  candi- 
date for  governor  in  1934. 
Other  published  works  are  The 
Industrial  Republic  (1907); 
Sylvia  (1913)  ;  The  Cry  for  Jus- 
tice (1915)  ;  King  Coal  (1917)  ; 
The  Goose-Step  (1923);  Oil 
(1927);  Mental  Radio  (1930); 
The  Wet  Parade  (1931);  The 
Way  Out  (1933)  ;  We  People  of 
America  (1935)  ;  Depression  Is- 
land^ (1936)  ;  Co-op  (1936). 

Sind,  SiNDH,  or  SciNDE,  an 
avitonomous  Province  of  British 
India,  until  1936  a  Division  of 
Bombay  Presidency.  It  has  an 
area  of  46,378  square  miles.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Baluchistan  and  the  Punjab,  east 
by  Rajputana,  west  by  Baluchis- 
tan, and  south  by  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  the  Rann  of  Cutch. 
The  River  Indus  traverses  the 
province  from  north  to  south. 
Along  each  bank  of  the  river  is 
an  alluvial  tract  of  great  fertility. 
The  regions  beyond  the  reach  of 
the  Indus  consist,  for  the  most 
part,  of  barren  sand  dunes.  The 
Hala  Mountains,  which  separate 
Sind  from  Baluchistan,  run  par- 
allel with  the  valley  of  the  Lower 
Indus.  The  climate  is  very  dry 
and  sultry.  The  inhabitants  are 
engaged  principally  in  agricul- 
ture; grain,  oil  seeds,  cotton, 
indigo,  hemp,  and  tobacco  are 
raised.  The  manufactures  in- 
clude embroideries,  pottery,  car- 
pets, paper,  leather,  laccjuered 
ware,  swords,  and  cotton  goods. 
The  chief  exports  are  rice,  sugar, 
tea,  tobacco,  leather,  cotton  yarn, 
metals,  coal,  wool,  and  li(|uors. 
The  population  consists  of  the  na- 
tive Sintlis,  with  a  large  sprin- 
kling of  Baluchis  and  Afghans  ; 
the  greater  portion  of  them  are 
Mohammedans  of  the  Sunnite 
faith. 


Although  originally  subordi- 
nate to  Afghanistan,  the  rulers  of 
Sind,  at  the  period  when  it  came 
under  British  influence,  claimed 
semi-independent  authority.  The 
disastrous  retreat  of  the  British 
army  from  Kabul  (1841)  encour- 
aged the  rulers  to  repudiate  their 
treaty  engagements,  and  in  1843 
Sir  Charles  Napier  invaded  the 
province.  At  Meanee  he  won  a 
decisive  victory  which  led  to  the 
annexation  of  the  whole  terri- 
tory, except  Khairpur. 

The  population  of  Sind  at  the 
census  of  1931  was  3,887,000; 
Muslims  numbered  2,831,000  and 
Hindus  1,015,000.  The  chief 
language  is  Sindhi.  The  princi- 
pal town  and  port  is  Karachi 
(263,565). 

Sind'bad  the  Sailor,  or  Sin- 
bad,  a  character  in  one  of  the 
Arabian  Nights.  A  citizen  of 
Bagdad,  he  makes  seven  remark- 
able voyages,  in  which  he 
achieves  a  nvmiber  of  wonderful 
feats.  The  original  Sindbad  was 
an  early  Arabian  traveler  of  the 
ninth  century,  whose  narrative 
was  translated  into  French  by 
Langles. 

Sindhi  (the  language  of  Sind) 
and  Lahnda  or  Lahinda,  two 
closely  related  languages  of  the 
western  branch  of  the  Indo- 
Aryan  family,  to  which  Kash- 
miri also  belongs.  Consult  S.  F. 
Mirza,  Sindhi-English  Diction- 
ary (1879)  ;  W.  St.  Clair  Tisdall, 
Simplified  Panjabi  Grammar 
(1889). ^ 

Sin'dia,  a  family  of  Maratha 
(q.  V.)  chiefs  and  princes.  Rano- 
JEE  SiNDiA,  originally  a  'bearer  of 
slippers'  to  the  Peishwa  Bajerow, 
rose  to  the  highest  rank  of  Ma- 
ratha chiefs,  and  became  (1743) 
hereditary  governor  of  the  larger 
portion  of  the  province  of  Malwa. 
His  son  Madhajee  (1750-94) 
succeeded  him,  and  was  defeated 
at  the  Battle  of  Panipat  (1761)  ; 
but  he  soon  regained  the  Peish- 
wa's  possessions  in  Malwa  and 
Northern  Hindustan,  expelling 
the  Sikhs,  seizing  Delhi,  and  be- 
coming the  Peishwa's  deputy. 
By  the  British  he  was  recognized 
as  an  independent  prince  (1783). 
He  then  conquered  Agra  and 
Aligarh,  and  obtained  possession 
of  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Doab 
(1785),  to  which  he  added  the 
States  of  Udaipur,  Jaipur,  and 
Jodhpur.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  grand-nephew,  Daulat  Rao 
SiNDiA  (1794-1827),  who  had  a 
singularly  troubled  reign,  owing 
to  the  enmity  of  his  servant 
Holkar,  who  defeated  him.  But 
the  interference  of  the  British 
put  a  stop  to  Holkar's  career  of 
spoliation  and  bloodshed.  Then 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  (after- 
wards Duke  of  Wellington)  de- 
feated the  confederated  Marathas 
at  Delhi,  Assaye,  and  Cuttack, 
after  which  they  ceded  to  the 


British  the  Upper  Doab,  Delhi, 
Agra,  Meerut,  and  Cuttack, 
Holkar  being  allowed  to  retain 
Gwalior.  In  1818,  however,  the 
Maratha  power  was  wholly  de- 
stroyed, whereupon  Daulat  sub- 
mitted to  the  British,  retaining 
his  territories.  See  India.  His- 
tory. 

Sindibad.  See  Seven  Wise 
Masters. 

Sine.  See  Trigonometry  ; 
Sines,  Curve  of. 

Sin  Eating,  a  custom  prac- 
ticed, under  one  form  or  another, 
in  India,  Turkestan,  Tahiti,  the 
Hebrides,  and  in  Ireland,  Wales, 
and  the  Isle  of  Man.  The  idea 
was  akin  to  that  of  the  scapegoat, 
and  also  to  the  doctrine  of  trans- 
ference of  disease.  It  was  be- 
lieved that  a  professional  sin 
eater  could  take  upon  himself  the 
sins  of  another,  moribund  or 
dead.  In  most  cases  he  received 
money  as  for  performing  a  serv- 
ice. Consult  Fiona  Macleod 
(William  Sharp),  Sin  Eater ;  Sir 
J.  G.  Frazer,  Golden  Bough. 

Sinecure,  sm'i-kur,  an  office 
which  has  revenue  without  em- 
ployment ;  popularly,  any  posi- 
tion of  emolument  with  few  or  no 
duties.  In  the  canon  law  a  sin- 
ecure is  an  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fice, such  as  a  chaplainry,  can- 
onry,  or  chantry,  to  which  no 
cure  of  souls  is  attached,  and 
where  residence  is  not  required. 

Sines,  Curve  of,  sinz.  If  the 
magnitudes  of  angles  in  degrees 
or  circular  measure  be  set  oflf  as 
abscissae,  and  the  value  of  the 
sine  of  each  angle  be  set  oflf  as 
the  corresponding  ordinate,  and 
the  points  so  obtained  be  joined. 


Curve  of  Sines. 


the  curve  of  sines  is  obtained.  It 
represents  the  variation  of  a  sim- 
ple periodic  function  whose  equa- 
tion is  y  =  sin  x,  or  more  generally 
3J  =  A  sin  (xm.r-\-n) .  The  cosine 
curve  is  of  the  same  form,  since 
cos  .r  =  sin  (90°  — .r),  but  dififers 

in  phase  by  ^  or  90°.    This  curve 

is  the  simplest  form  of  wave,  and 
is  of  much  importance  in  the  the- 
ory of  recurring  disturbances  in 
alternating  currents,  in  simple 
harmonic  motions,  and  Fourier's 
Theorem.  In  the  form  y  =  a  cos 
(iit~mx),  where  t  denotes  time 
and  m  and  n  are  constants,  it  rep- 
resents a  simple  harmonic  wave 

7? 

motion  of  speed  — ,  in  which, 
ni 

when  X  is  constant,  we  have  the 


Sinew 


KSH 


231 


Singer 


rise  and  fall  at  any  place,  and 
when  t  is  constant  the  instanta- 
neous wave  surface. 

Sinew.    See  Tendons. 

Si-ngan-fu.    See  Sian-fu. 

Singapore,  sing-ga-p6r',  an 
island  and  fortified  British  naval 
base  off  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  to  which 
it  is  joined  by  a  causeway  ( opened 
in  1924)  3,465  feet  long,  across 
the  Strait  of  Johore.  With  the 
outlying  territories  of  Christmas 
Island,  Labuan  and  the  Keeling 
or  Cocos  Islands  (qq.  v.),  it  con- 
stitutes the  most  important  of  the 
Straits  Settlements.  The  island 
is  about  26  miles  long  and  14 
miles  broad,  covering  an  area  of 
206  or,  with  adjacent  islets,  223 
square  miles.  The  surface  is 
generally  low  and  undulating. 
The  climate  is  hot  and  damp,  but 
not  unhealthful.  The  flora  and 
fauna  are  those  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula.  The  principal  min- 
eral deposit  is  granite.  Para  rub- 
ber, pineapples  and  other  fruits, 
vegetables,  indigo,  cocoanuts, 
gambler,  pepper  and  gutta  percha 
are  produced.  Cattle,  pigs,  sheep 
and  goats  are  raised. 

In  the  13th  and  14th  centuries 
Singapore  was  a  Malay  city  of 
importance  till  it  was  destroyed 
by  the  Javanese  about  1365.  It 
then  remained  almost  uninhabited 
until  the  present  Settlement  was 
founded  in  1819  by  Sir  Stamford 
Raffles.  It  was  purchased  from 
the  Sultan  of  Johore  in  1824, 
remaining  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  East  India  Company  until 
1867,  when  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments became  a  crown  colony. 
Pop.  (1935)  587,321.  Chief 
City,  Singapore  (q.  v.).  See 
Straits  Settlements. 

Singapore,  city,  capital  of 
the  Straits  Settlements,  on  the 
southeastern  coast  of  the  island 
of  Singapore,  and  on  the  Strait 
of  Singapore.  It  has  a  magnifi- 
cent harbor,  easily  accessible,  and 
provided  with  excellent  shipping 
facilities.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  Government  House,  on 
the  outskirts  of  the  city,  the 
Court  House,  Town  Hall,  the 
Anglican  and  Roman  Catholic 
Cathedrals,  Raffles  College 
(opened  1929),  and  King  Ed- 
ward VII  College  of  Medicine. 
On  the  sea  front  is  a  fine  es- 
planade, close  to  which  stands  the 
Raffles  Institution,  a  government 
school.  Fort  Canning  crowns  a 
hill  above  the  city,  and  a  park 
and  botanical  garden  occupy  a 
neighboring  slope. 

Singapore  is  a  free  port,  situ- 
ated on  the  principal  waterway 
for  vessels  trading  between  Eu- 
rope or  India  and  the  Far  East, 
Australia  and  Netherlands  In- 
dies. It  is  defended  by  numer- 
ous batteries  and  forts,  and  is  a 
naval  coaling  station  and  depot. 
The  Tanjong  docks  and  wharves 


were  taken  over  by  the  Govern- 
ment in  1905.  The  King's  Dock 
(opened  in  1913)  is  the  largest 
east  of  Suez.  The  trade  is  most- 
ly transport.  Pop.  (1931)  445,- 
719. 


Singara,  sen-ga'ra,  or  Sinjar, 
a  strong  fortress  in  Northern 
Mesopotamia  ;  its  exact  site  is  not 
known.  Apparently  Trajan  first 
captured  it,  and  it  was  a  Roman 
colony  in  the  days  of  the  Em- 
perors Severus  and  Gordian. 
Near  it  Constantius  and  Sapor 
of  Persia  fought  (348)  an  inde- 
cisive battle.  In  the  reign  of 
Julian  it  was  captured  (361  to 
363_A.D.)^  by  the  Persians. 

Singeing.    See  Bleaching. 

Singen,  zing'cn,  town,  Baden, 
Germany;  18  miles  northwest  of 
Constance.    Pop.  8,'500. 

Singer,  Isaac  Merritt  (181 1- 
75),  American  inventor,  was  born 
in  Oswego,  N.  Y.  A  machinist 
by  trade,  he  became  interested  in 
the  sewing  machine  designed  by 
Elias  Howe  (q.  v.),  and  in  1851 
took  out  a  patent  for  a  machine 
of  his  own.  In  1852  he  patented 
an  improvement  in  the  tension 
device,  and  in  1854  an  attach- 
ment for  chain  stitch  embroidery. 
Other  features  of  his  machine 
were  the  fixed  horizontal  arm 
above  the  work  table,  the  verti- 
cal standard,  the  foot  treadle,  and 
the  self-adjusting  feeder.  He 
was  sued  by  Howe  for  infringe- 
ment of  the  latter's  patent  rights, 
but  a  compromise  was  reached 
whereby  Singer  paid  a  royalty. 
In  1863  his  firm  united  with  that 
of  Howe  and  others  to  form  the 
Singer  Manufacturing  Company. 
The  later  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  in  Paris  and  Torquay, 
England. 

Singer,  Isidore  (1859-  ), 
Jewish  author  and  editor,  was 


born  in  Weisskirchen,  Moravia, 
Austria,  and  was  educated  at  the 
Universities  of  Vienna  and  Ber- 
lin. In  1887  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  entered  the  service  of 
the  French  Foreign  Office,  and 


subsequently  founded  and  edited 
La  Vraic  Parole.  In  1895  he 
came  to  New  York,  where  he  was 
editor  of  The  Jcivish  Encyclo- 
pccdia  (12  vols.,  1901-5).  He 
published  Russia  at  the  Bar  of 
the  American  People  (1904)  ; 
Christ  or  God  (1908);  Social 
Justice  (1923)  ;  Theology  at  the 
Crossroads  (1928);  The  Chris- 
tians' Vindication  of  the  Jezvs 
(4  vols.  1934). 

Singer,  Otto  (1833-94),  Ger- 
man-American pianist  and  com- 
poser, was  born  in  Sora,  Saxony, 
and  studied  music  under  Mo- 
scheles  at  the  Leipzig  Conserva- 
tory, and  under  Liszt.  In  1867 
he  settled  in  New  York  City, 
where  he  taught,  in  the  Mason 
Thomas  Conservatory.  In  1873 
he  conducted  the  first  of  the  Cin- 
cinnati May  festivals,  becoming 
professor  of  the  piano  at  the  Cin- 
cinnati College  of  Music  (1873- 
93).  Among  his  compositions  are 
cantatas — the  Landing  of  the  Pil- 
grim Fathers  (1876)  and  Festi- 
val Ode  (1878),  several  sym- 
phonies, and  numerous  pieces  for 
the  piano. 

Singer,  William  H.,  Jr. 
(1868-Ii^»),  American  painter, 
born  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  exhibited  in  mu- 
seums and  galleries  at  The 
Hague,  Amsterdam,  Antwerp, 
the  Luxembourg,  Paris,  Munich, 
New  York  City,  Brooklyn,  Fort 
Worth,  Texas,  New  Orleans, 
and  Memphis,  Tennessee.  He 
was  awarded  a  silver  medal  at 
the  San  Francisco  Exposition, 
1915.      ,         -  '.a^ 


Singapore. 


Singhalese 


KSH 


231  A 


Single  Tax 


Singhalese.   See  Sinhalese. 

Singhara  Nut.    See  Trapa. 

Singhbhum,  sing-boom',  dis- 
trict, British  India,  in  the  Chota 
Nagpur  division  of  Behar  and 
Orissa.  The  headcjuarters  is 
Chaibasa.  Area  3,879  s(|.  miles. 
Pop.  about  760,000. 

Singing.  See  Voice;  Music; 
Opera;  Oratorio;  Sol-fa;  Sol- 
feggio; Song;  Sound. 

Singing  Flame.    vSee  Flame. 

Single-stick.    See  Fencing. 

Single  Tax,  the  plan  proposed 
by  Henry  George  (q.  v.)  whereby 
all  taxes  would  be  abolished  save 
one  tax  on  the  value  of  land,  irre- 
spective of  improvements.  The 
name  for  his  political  vsystem  was 
not  invented  by  Henry  George, 
but  came  by  accident.  Thomas 
G.  Shearman  (q.  v.),  a  distin- 
guished lawyer  of  New  York, 
made  a  speech  on  May  28,  1887, 
entitled  'The  Single  Tax.'  Henry 
George  adopted  the  name,  and 
gradually  it  came  to  stand  for 
George's  political  and  economic 
philosophy,  as  well  as  for  the  fis- 
cal method  he  advocated.  The 
single  tax  under  that  name  had 
been  proposed  by  the  famous 
French  physiocrats  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  to 
whom  George  dedicated  his  book, 
Protection  or  Free  Trade.  Herbert 
Spencer  (q.  v.)  presented  in  So- 
cial Statics,  in  1850,  the  philos- 
ophy of  the  'right  to  the  use  of 
the  earth' ;  but  the  book  was  little 
known  until  it  was  popularized 
by  George.  Then  Spencer  wrote 
Justice,  in  which  he  modified  the 
views  expressed  in  Social  Statics. 
George  replied  in  The  Perplexed 
Philosopher,  published  in  1892. 

In  1869  George  came  from  Cal- 
ifornia to  New  York,  which  he 
had  not  seen  since  boyhood.  He 
was  appalled  by  the  poverty  in 
the  midst  of  wealth,  and  made  a 
vow  'to  seek  out,  and  remedy,  if  I 
could,  the  cause  that  condemned 
little  children  to  lead  such  a  life 
as  you  know  them  to  lead  in  the 
squalid  districts.'  Speculating 
upon  the  fact  that  wages  after  a 
few  years  are  high  in  a  new  and 
poor  country  like  the  United 
States  in  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  and  low  in  an  old 
and  rich  country  like  England; 
high  in  the  unexploited  Western 
United  States,  and  relatively  low 
in  the  Eastern  States;  George 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  this 
inequality  in  the  existing  social 
and  economic  order  is  the  result 
of  some  radical  defect.  The  rapid 
progress  of  land  monopolization 
in  California  suggested  to  him 
that  the  connecting  cause  be- 
tween poverty  and  progress  lay 
in  the  appropriation  by  a  rela- 
tively small  class  of  the  natural 
resources  of  the  country.  So  long 
as  free  land  is  accessible  to  the 
man  without  means,  wages  re- 


main high  enough  to  afford  a 
comfortable  subsistence;  but  as 
soon  as  practically  all  fertile  land 
is  appropriated,  the  laborer  is 
compelled  to  pay  a  price  for  the 
use  of  land,  and  his  share  in  pro- 
duction declines  accordingly. 

Assuming  as  fundamental  ax- 
ioms that  what  a  man  produces 
by  his  labor  is  inalienably  his 
own,  and  that  what  nature  freely 
gives  is  the  common  heritage  of 
all  mankind,  Henry  George  con- 
cluded that  the  existing  system 
of  taxation  is  radically  unjust, 
since  it  takes  a  part  of  the  prod- 
uct of  each  man's  industry,  in 
the  shape  of  excise,  customs,  and 
general  property  taxes;  while  it 
leaves  in  the  hands  of  private 
individuals  the  'unearned  incre- 
ment,' or  rent,  of  land,  as  well  as 
royalties  for  the  use  of  mines, 
and  other  forms  of  income  from 
natural  resources.  Accordingly, 
he  proposed  to  abolish  all  taxes 
except  such  as  fell  upon  natural 
opportunities;  and  upon  the  lat- 
ter, taxation  should  be  so  heavy 
as  to  take  practically  all  the  an- 
nual rental  for  the  public  treas- 
ury. This  would  involve  a  careful 
distinction  between  that  part  of 
the  value  of  land  which  is  due 
to  improvements  made  by  in- 
dustry, and  that  part  which  is 
due  to  nature  or  to  the  growth 
of  society,  and  between  the  two 
corresponding  forms  of  income. 
This  distinction  was  already 
familiar  in  economics,  and  the 
income  from  the  land,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  income  from 
improvements,  was  generally 
known  to  economists  as  'pure 
rent.'  The  single  tax  thus  in- 
volved the  taxation  of  rent;  and 
since  the  value  of  land,  apart 
from  the  value  of  improvements 
thereon,  is  the  capitalization  of 
rent,  the  single  tax  involved  the 
reduction  of  the  selling  value  of 
all  land.  Since  they  regard  pri- 
vate ownership  of  land  rent  as 
inherently  unjust,  the  single  tax- 
ers  view  with  equanimity  its 
heavy  taxation;  and  they  reject 
any  plan  for  compensation  of 
land  owners,  holding  that  pres- 
ent possCvSsion  of  unearned  in- 
come does  not  create  a  perpetual 
title  to  it,  and  that  most  land 
owners  would  gain  more  than 
they  would  lose  by  the  change. 

The  full  application  of  George's 
system,  the  single  taxers  con- 
tend, would  equalize  opportunity 
and  abolish  all  poverty  not  due 
to  personal  inefiiciency.  It  would 
give  a  great  impetus  to  produc- 
tion, since  labor  and  capital 
would  be  freed  from  the  onerous 
taxes  now  resting  upon  them.  It 
would  throw  open  to  appropriate 
use  the  areas  of  land  now  held  for 
speculative  purposes,  since  no 
man  could  pay  heavy  taxes  on 
land  v.'hich  he  did  not  use  and 


which  would  not  increase  in  sell- 
ing value.  Thus  farms  and  build- 
ing sites  would  be  obtainable  by 
any  one  who  wished  to  use  them 
upon  payment  of  their  present 
value  for  the  use  for  which  they 
are  now  adapted. 

Some  opponents  of  the  single 
tax  deny  the  truth  of  the  assumed 
axioms  that  the  products  of  labor 
are  inalienably  the  laborer's,  and 
that  the  free  gifts  of  nature  be- 
long inalienably  to  all  mankind. 
They  allege  that  property  in  all 
its  forms  is  a  social  product, 
created  for  reasons  of  social  ex- 
pediency. Apart  from  social  in- 
stitutions, it  is  impossible  even  to 
say  what  is  actually  the  product 
of  labor,  under  modern  complex 
conditions  of  industry.  Each  per- 
son is  entitled  to  what  he  is  as- 
sured of  by  contracts,  express  or 
implied,  under  the  authority  of 
the  state.  The  income  from  land 
is  assured  to  the  owner  of  the  land 
in  the  same  way  that  wages  are 
assured  to  the  laborer.  The  two 
forms  of  income  rest  upon  the 
same  ethical  and  legal  founda- 
tion. 

The  opponents  of  the  single 
tax  argue  that  it  would  be  a  grave 
injustice  to  confiscate  the  land 
of  the  small  farmer,  purchased 
with  the  product  of  labor,  or  won 
by  the  hardships  of  pioneer  life, 
in  order  to  free  the  vast  masses 
of  personal  property  from  taxa- 
tion. They  claim  that  confisca- 
tion of  the  land  value  would  de- 
stroy the  value  of  all  mortgages 
secured  by  land;  and  this  would 
mean  the  ruin  of  the  savings 
banks,  which  have  invested 
heavily  in  this  form  of  security. 

Single  taxers  retort  that  the 
small  farmer  is  the  very  one  who 
pays  much  more  taxes  than  he 
should,  because  most  of  his  prop- 
erty is  in  improvements  on  land 
and  tangible  personal  property; 
and  that  under  the  single  tax  he 
would  pay  less  taxes  and  reap 
many  other  advantages.  As  to 
the  value  of  mortgages,  they  as- 
sert that  very  little  money  is 
loaned  on  vacant  land,  and  that 
in  most  cases  the  security  would 
be  improved. 

Opponents  of  the  single  tax 
further  deny  that  industry  as  a 
whole  would  be  stimulated  by  the 
redistribution  of  the  burden  of 
taxation.  They  contend  that  ab- 
solute ownership  of  land  is  re- 
quired to  encourage  improve- 
ments on  the  land;  that  to  trans- 
form all  freeholders  into  virtual 
tenants  of  the  state,  with  rentals 
arbitrarily  fixed  by  state  officials, 
would  be  to  remove  all  incentive 
from  the  small  farmer,  and  ac- 
celerate the  movement  from 
country  to  city;  and  that  the  im- 
possibility of  gains  accruing  from 
the  rise  in  value  of  land  would 
check  speculative  building  in  the 


single  Tax 


KSH 


231  B 


Singular  Points 


large  cities,  and  increase  the  evils 
of  urban  overcrowding. 

These  objections  are  of  course 
denied  by  single  taxers,  as  being 
based  on  erroneous  conclusions. 
They  assert  that  ownership  of 
land  would  not  be  disturbed,  and 
the  present  tendency  toward  ten- 
ant farming  would  be  checked; 
while  speculative  building,  which 
ruins  so  many  builders  and  house 
owners,  would  be  replaced  by  or- 
derly development. 

Further  objections  made  by 
students  of  finance  are  as  follows: 
PubUc  revenues  derived  from 
rentals  of  land  would  be  inelastic 
in  the  extreme;  they  would  bear 
no  relation  to  the  varying  needs 
of  government;  they  would  be 
wholly  inadequate  in  sparsely 
settled  communities,  and  unduly 
productive  in  well-developed  re- 
gions. With  such  a  revenue  sys- 
tem, no  progress  could  be  made 
toward  the  much-needed  separa- 
tion of  Federal,  State,  and  local 
revenues.  The  revenues  would 
necessarily  be  collected  by  one 
central  authority,  and  distributed 
by  that  authority  to  the  other 
governmental  agencies,  with  con- 
sequent annihilation  of  State  and 
local  autonomy.  Moreover,  taxes 
levied  for  other  than  fiscal  pur- 
poses, as  protective  duties  and 
taxes  upon  spirituous  liquors, 
would  fail  to  harmonize  with  a 
revenue  system  based  upon  land 
taxes. 

These  fiscal  objections  are  said 
by  single  taxers  to  be  made  by 
those  who  are  ignorant  of  statis- 
tics, as  well  as  facts  that  are  ob- 
vious to  the  ordinary  man  who 
uses  his  eyes.  Land  values  are  low 
in  country  townships  where  com- 
mon needs  are  small,  and  high  in 
congested  centres  where  many 
public  services  are  necessary. 
They  say  that  the  need  for  reve- 
nue is  automatically  met  by  the 
increased  rental  value;  that  mod- 
ern methods  of  administration 
show  there  is  little  real  need  for 
the  separation  of  sources  of  reve- 
nue; and  that  even  if  found  desir- 
able, they  can  be  separated  with- 
out violence  to  single-tax  prin- 
ciples. There  is  no  necessary  ob- 
jection to  fees  imposed  under  the 
police  power. 

In  the  lapse  of  time  since  Henry 
George  pubUshed  his  work  on 
Progress  and  Poverty  (1879),  the 
single  tax  agitation  has  developed 
in  different  places  and  in  the  va- 
rious nations  of  the  world  in  har- 
mony with  diverse  laws  and  cus- 
toms. In  the  United  States,  single 
taxers  of  to-day  emphasize  espe- 
cially the  need  of  levying  heavier 
taxes  upon  urban  land,  and  upon 
the  franchises  that  naturally  in- 
crease in  value  with  urban  devel- 
opment. They  have  been  active 
in  the  national  and  State  move- 
ments for  the  conservation  of 


national  resources;  for  municipal 
ownership  of  public  utilities,  and 
the  regulation  of  rates  of  private- 
ly operated  public  utilities;  for 
the  improvement  of  administra- 
tion of  tax  laws,  and  for  the  bet- 
terment of  tax  laws.  In  the 
manifold  social  and  economic  re- 
forms of  the  past  thirty  years, 
single  taxers  have  played  an  im- 
portant part,  sometimes  in  public 
office,  but  always  having  in  view 
the  advancement  of  the  economic 
principles  of  Henry  George. 

In  Western  Canada  most  of 
the  cities  have  abolished  taxes  on 
buildings,  and  British  Columbia 
imposes  a  tax  on  land  for  provin- 
cial purposes.  The  third  biennial 
report  of  the  Minnesota  Tax 
Commission  states  that:  'The 
most  striking  feature  in  a  study 
of  tax  reform  in  Western  Canada 
is  the  strong  trend  throughout 
the  country  in  the  direction  of  the 
single  tax  principle.' 

The  Australian  provinces  and 
New  Zealand  have  made  ad- 
vances toward  the  single  tax;  and 
recently  the  city  of  Sidney  imi- 
tated the  smaller  cities  in  abolish- 
ing taxes  on  improvements. 

In  Great  Britain,  propaganda 
has  been  active,  and  resulted  in 
certain  taxes  imposed  by  the 
Lloyd-George  budget  of  1909,  and 
the  more  important  measure  for 
the  first  complete  appraisal  of  all 
the  land  of  Great  Britain. 

In  the  German  Empire,  the 
first  step  was  taken  in  the  colony 
of  Kiao-chau  in  1898  by  the  im- 
position of  a  land  tax  of  6  per 
cent.,  and  a  tax  of  33 per  cent, 
on  the  increment  of  value  of  lands 
acquired  from  the  government. 
This  latter  provision  has  been 
copied  throughout  Germany,  both 
nationally  and  locally,  by  impos- 
ing a  tax  on  the  increment  of  land 
at  the  time  of  sale. 

There  are  single  tax  periodicals 
published  in  practically  all  Euro- 
pean countries,  and  an  especially 
active  propaganda  in  Denmark 
and  Norway.  In  South  Africa, 
the  agitation  has  resulted  in  legis- 
lation of  some  importance.  In 
both  China  and  Japan  statesmen 
of  first  rank  are  reported  to  be 
converts. 

The  logical  Latin  mind  takes 
kindly  to  the  philosophy  of  Henry 
George;  and  Brazil,  Argentina, 
and  Uruguay  have  made  progress 
toward  the  single  tax.  In  the 
state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  the 
law  of  1902  imposing  a  tax  on  real 
estate  was  amended  in  1913  to 
exempt  improvements;  and  the 
governor,  in  his  message  of  1916, 
commended  the  law.  In  1910  the 
mayor  of  Nictheroy,  capital  of 
the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  in  his 
message  announced  the  intention 
to  establish  a  land  tax  in  1917. 
In  Argentina  the  House  of  Depu- 
ties has  requested  the  Minister  of 


State  to  report  on  the  possibility 
of  raising  the  state  budget  by  the 
single  tax.  Uruguay  has  com- 
pleted a  system  of  valuation  of 
the  whole  country,  and  has  voted 
a  fixed  rate  of  tax  on  the  value  of 
land  exclusive  of  improvements. 

Consult  the  works  of  Henry 
George,  especially  his  Progress 
and  Poverty;  L.  F.  Post,  Taxa- 
tion of  Land  Values  (1915)  ; 
A.  N.  Young,  The  Single  Tax 
Movement  in  the  United  States 
(1916)  ;  C.  V.  Drysdale,  The 
F  allacies  of  Henry  George 
(1922)  ;  H.  G.  Brown,  The  Sin- 
gle-Tax Complex  (1924);  L.  F. 
Post,  IVhat  Is  the  Single  Tax? 
(1926)  ;  E.  J.  Burke,  Permanent 
Prosperity  Possible,  Unemploy- 
ment Unnecessary  (1932)  ;  J.  F. 
Muirhead,  Land  and  Unemploy- 
ment (1935);  E.  O.  Jorgensen, 
Did  Henry  George  Confuse  the 
Single  Tax?  (1936)  ;  J.  G.  Mor- 
ton, The  Philosophy  of  the  Sin- 
gle Tax. 

Singleton,  Esther  ( P-1930), 
American  author,  was  born  in 
Baltimore,  Md.  She  resided  in 
New  York  City  from  1887,  and 
contributed  musical  and  literary 
criticisms  to  leading  periodicals. 
Her  published  works  include  :  A 
Guide  to  the  Opera  (1899, 
1900);  Great  Pictures  (1899); 
The  Furniture  of  Our  Forefa- 
thers (2  vols.,  1900)  ;  Famous 
Paintings  (1902)  ;  Famous 
Women  (1904)  ;  Great  Portraits 
(1905);  Historic  Buildings  of 
America  (1907)  ;  Standard  Gal- 
leries, Holland  (1908)  ;  Famous 
Cathedrals  (1909);  The  Art  of 
the  Belgian  Galleries  (1909); 
Dutch  New  York  (1909)  ;  Fa- 
mous Sculpture  (1910)  ;  How 
to  Visit  the  Great  Picture  Gal- 
leries (1911)  ;  Furniture  (1911)  ; 
The  Shakespeare  Garden  (1922)  ; 
The  Collecting  of  Antiques 
(1926);  Dolls  (1928);  Old 
World  Masters  in  New  World 
Galleries  (1929);  Shakesperian 
Fantasias  (1929). 

Sing  Sing.    See  Ossining. 

Singular  Points.  In  general, 
the  portion  of  a  curve  close  to  any 
point  lies  on  one  side  of  the  tan- 
gent at  that  point.  Figs.  1,  2,  3 
may  be  imagined  to  represent 
portions  of  a  curve,  the  straight 
lines  representing  the  tangent  at 
the  point  considered  in  Figs.  2 
and  3,  which  may  meet  the  curve 
in  an  even  (2)  or  an  odd  (3)  num- 
ber of  coincident  points  at  the 
place  of  contact :  in  the  latter  case 
crossing  as  well  as  touching  the 
curve.  In  general,  the  tangent 
meets  the  curve  in  only  two  coin- 
cident points  at  the  place  of  con- 
tact, as  it  is  the  limiting  position 
of  the  secant  (Fig.  1)  through  two 
points  on  the  curve  which  coin- 
cide ultimately.  If  this  does  not 
occur,  there  is  some  form  of  singu- 


singultus 


KSH 


232 


Sinking  Fund 


larity.  This  subject  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  theory  of  equal 
roots  of  an  equation. 

Multiple  Point  is  one  through 
which  more  than  one  branch  of 
a  curve  passes.  A  double  point 
occurs  when  there  are  only  two 
•(branches,  and  therefore  two  tan- 
gents.   If  these  are  real  there  is 


Singular  Points. 


a  node  or  crunode  (4) ;  if  imagi- 
nary, a  conjugate  point  or  ac- 
node;  if  coincident,  a  cusp  (5). 
To  investigate,  transfer  the  origin 
to  the  singular  point,  whereupon 
the  branches  and  their  tangents 
may  be  easily  found. 

Singultus.    See  Hiccough. 

Sinliaiese,  sin-ha-lez',  or  Sing- 
halese, inhabitants  of  Ceylon, 
comprising  about  two-thirds  of 
the  population  of  the  island. 
Though  of  mixed  blood,  they  are 
essentially  of  the  white  race,  and 
their  language  belongs  to  the 
Aryan  family.  In  customs  and 
general  appearance,  they  have 
changed  little  in  more  than  2,000 
years.  They  are  Buddhists.  See 
Ceylon. 

Sinigaglia.    See  Senigallia. 

Sining-fu,  se-ning-fob',  town, 
China,  province  of  Kan-su,  on  the 
Si-Xing-Ho;  110  miles  north- 
west of  Lan-chou.  It  has  an  im- 
portant caravan  trade  with  Lhas- 
sa.    Pop.  about  60,000. 

Sin'i.ster,  in  heraldry,  a  term 
meaning  left — the  left  side.  See 
Heraldry. 

Sinjar.    See  Singara. 

Slnjirli,  sin-jir-le',  village  in 
Northern  Syria,  about  40  miles 
northeast  of  Alexandretta.  Vast 
ruins  of  an  ancient  city,  supposed 
to  have  been  a  capital  of  the  Hit- 
tites,  have  been  excavated  here. 

Sinlttioles.  Because  of  the  sol- 
ubility of  certain  rocks,  as  lime- 
stone, surface  waters,  in  passing 
through  them,  often  remove  ma- 
terial unevenly.    As  a  result,  a 


pitted  surface  form  is  produced, 
without  outlet  except  the  subter- 
ranean one.  Natural  bridges  re- 
sult from  the  preservation  of  por- 
tions of  the  roof  of  such  collapsed 
caverns.  Sinkholes  are  occasion- 
ally large  and  numerous  enough 
to  become  prominent  topographic 
features.   See  Caves. 

Sinldang,  sin-kyang',  or  Hsin- 
CHiANG,  province  of  China,  com- 
prising Chinese  or  Eastern  Turk- 
estan, Kulja,  and  Kashgaria.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Russian 
Turkestan,  Siberia,  and  Mongolia; 
on  the  east  by  the  Chinese  prov- 
ince of  Kan-su;  on  the  south  by 
Tibet  and  Kashmir;  and  on  the 
west  by  the  lofty  Pamirs.  The  Al- 
tin-Tagh  and  Kuenlun  Mountains 
wall  it  in  on  the  south,  and  the 
Tian-Shan  range  crosses  it  from 
east  to  west.  The  Tarim  River 
traverses  the  southern  part,  its 
basin  forming  the  great  Takla- 
makan  desert,  and  the  Hi  and 
its  tributaries  drain  the  section 
north  of  the  Tian-Shan. 

Cereals,  fruits,  and  vegetables 
are  grown  on  the  oases  fringing 
the  desert  and  in  the  Hi  valley. 
Camels,  oxen,  asses,  sheep,  and 
goats  are  raised,  and  wool  and 
silk  are  produced.  Gold  and  other 
minerals  occur,  and  jade  is  worked 
extensively.  The  inhabitants 
are  Turkis,  Hindus,  Mongols, 
Manchus,  and  Chinese.  The  pre- 
vailing religion  is  Mohammedan, 
and  the  principal  language  Turki. 
The  chief  cities  are  Tihwa-fu, 
the  capital  ;  Yarkand,  Khotan  and 
Kashgar.  Area,  705,769 ;  pop. 
(1936)  4,360,000.  See  Turk- 
estan, Chinese. 

Sinking,  or  the  excavation  and 
construction  of  shafts  and  wells. 
See  Shaft  Sinking. 

Sinking  Fund,  in  public  fi- 
nance, a  sum  annually  appropri- 
ated for  the  payment  of  the  public 
debt.  The  term  first  became  cur- 
rent in  English  finance  in  1716, 
when  such  of  the  revenues  as 
were  pledged  to  the  payment  of 
interest  and  principal  of  specific 
obligations  were  grouped  into 
four  funds,  one  of  which,  consist- 
ing of  the  surplus  of  pledged  rev- 
enues above  interest  payments, 
was  called  the  sinking  fund,  and 
was  applied  to  the  payment  of 
principal.  The  sums  thus  applied 
varied  from  year  to  year,  but  in- 
crease d  automatically  as  the 
annual  interest  charges  dimin- 
ished. 

In  1772  Dr.  Price  published  An 
Appeal  to  the  Public  on  the  Subject 
of  the  National  Debt,  in  which  he 
argued  that  a  sinking  fund  con- 
sisting of  a  small  annual  appro- 
priation, devoted  to  the  purchase 
of  public  stock,  the  interest  on 
which  should  be  regularly  applied 
to  further  purchases  of  public 
stock,  would  in  the  lapse  of  time 
extinguish  the  whole  debt,  which 


had  at  that  time  become  a  serious 
burden  upon  the  nation.  An  es- 
sential feature  of  the  scheme  was 
the  inviolability,  even  in  time  of 
war,  of  the  fund  thus  created.  In 
1786  the  scheme  was  adopted  by 
Pitt,  who  placed  a  fund  of  £l,- 
000,000  under  the  control  of  a 
special  board  of  commissioners, 
to  be  invested  in  public  stock, 
A  yearly  payment  of  £1,000,000 
was  to  be  added  to  the  sinking 
fund,  together  with  the  interest 
on  stocks  purchased.  In  the  war 
with  France  the  British  govern- 
ment was  compelled  to  borrow 
heavily  for  current  expenses;  pay- 
ments to  the  sinking  fund  could 
be  made  only  through  loans,  and 
the  rate  of  interest  at  which  the 
loans  were  raised  almost  invari- 
ably exceeded  the  rate  on  the 
debt  which  the  sinking  fund  was 
intended  to  cancel.  The  fatuity 
of  an  inviolable  sinking  fund  was 
not  exposed  until  1829,  when  the 
plan  was  abandoned. 

In  1830  a  plan  was  adopted  for 
setting  aside  annually  at  least 
£3,000,000  for  the  repayment  of 
the  debt;  but  constantly  recur- 
ring shortage  of  revenues  pre- 
vented the  carrying  out  of  the 
plan.  In  1875  a  new  sinking  fund 
was  created.  A  specific  sum,  larg- 
er than  the  interest  of  the  public 
debt,  was  to  be  set  aside  each 
year.  It  was  to  be  a  part  of  the 
regular  budget,  and  deficiencies 
in  the  sinking  fund  were  to  be 
treated  as  deficiencies  in  ordinary 
expenditure.  This  fund,  known  as 
the  'New  Sinking  Fund,'  is  still 
maintained. 

In  the  United  States,  the  first 
Federal  sinking  fund  was  created 
in  1790,  the  surplus  for  the  year 
from  import  and  tonnage  duties 
being  set  aside  for  debt  redemp- 
tion. The  sum  was  small,  and 
though  increased  in  1792  by  other 
funds,  with  the  provision  for  re- 
tention by  the  fund  of  interest 
on  Government  obligations  pur- 
chased, the  net  results  were  tri- 
fling. By  a  law  of  1802  the  annual 
fund  applicable  to  interest  pay- 
ment and  reduction  of  debt  was 
increased  to  $7,300,000.  In  the 
succeeding  j'ears  the  fund  was 
further  increased,  and  the  pro- 
cess of  debt  repayment  was  rapid. 
Sinking  fund  provisions  were  em- 
ployed in  connection  with  the 
loans  occasioned  by  the  War  of 
1812  and  the  Civil  War.  In 
neither  case  was  the  sinking  fund 
taken  seriously  by  the  financiers. 
When  a  surplus  revenue  ap- 
peared, as  was  usually  the  case, 
it  was  applied  to  debt  payment; 
when  revenues  fell  short,  no  at- 
tention was  paid  to  the  sinking 
fund.  The  chief  importance  of 
the  sinking  fund  in  American 
financial  history  is  that  it  has 
served  to  popularize  the  view  that 
provisions  looking  to  repayment 


Sin-le-Noble 


KSH 


233 


Slouan 


should  be  made  upon  the  creation 
of  a  loan. 

Sinking  funds  are  not  uncom- 
mon in  local  finance ;  they  may  be 
required  by  State  authority  to 
check  the  tendency  of  municipal- 
ities toward  reckless  financiering. 

Terminable  annuities  are  akin 
in  principle  to  inviolable  sinking 
funds.  Instead  of  paying  interest 
alone,  a  government  may  pay  a 
somewhat  larger  sum  annually, 
payments  to  cease,  say,  in  fifty 
years.  Such  payments  are  in  re- 
ality com  posed  of  two  distinguish- 
able parts:  interest,  and  part  pay- 
ment of  principal.  The  disad- 
vantages of  terminable  annuities 
are  the  same  as  those  of  an  in- 
violable sinking  fund — viz.,  the 
government  may  in  time  of  crisis 
be  compelled  to  borrow  at  a  high 
rate  to  make  payments  on  the 
principal  of  a  debt  bearing  a  low 
rate. 

Sinking  funds  are  not  uncom- 
monly maintained  by  private  cor- 
porations. When  such  funds  have 
for  their  purpose  the  replacement 
of  equipment  deteriorating  in 
process  of  operation,  their  main- 
tenance is  a  mark  of  sound  finan- 
cial policy.  As  in  public  finance, 
they  are  maintained,  on  occasion, 
through  the  proceeds  of  fresh 
loans. 

See  Debt,  Public;  Finance, 
Public. 

Sin-le-Noble,  san  le  no'b'l, 
commune,  France,  department  of 
Nord,  an  eastern  suburb  of 
Douai.  It  has  iron  foundries. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Sinnar,  town,  Bombay  Presi- 
dency, India;  100  miles  northeast 
of  Bombay.    Pop.  10,000. 

Sinn  Fein,  shin  fan  (Gaelic, 
'ourselves  alone'),  an  Irish  party, 
actively  dating  from  1906,  and 
taking  its  name  to  mean  both  for 
and  by  the  Irish  alone.  It  dis- 
claimed identity  alike  with  either 
of  the  two  old  parties  aiming  at 
Irish  autonomy,  the  Separatists, 
who  wished  recognized  total  inde- 
pendence, and  the  Parliamenta- 
rians, desiring  self-government 
with  nominal  English  connection, 
like  Canada  or  Australia.  In  the 
words  of  a  founder,  it  undertook 
'the  aid  and  support  of  all  move- 
ments originating  from  within 
Ireland,  instinct  with  national 
tradition,  and  not  looking  outside 
Ireland  for  accomplishment.' 

How  thoroughgoing  this  was 
meant  to  be,  an  authorized  list  of 
means  and  ends  indicates:  gov- 
ernmentally,  a  purely  Irish  par- 
liament, army  and  navy,  mint, 
civil  and  consular  service,  judici- 
ary, and  school  system;  indus- 
trially, 'economic  reorganization 
of  Ireland  by  its  own  people  on  a 
l)urely  Irish  basis,'  including  mer- 
chant marine,  stock  exchange, 
banks,  agricultural  workings;  in- 
lellectually,  the  use  of  Gaelic 
alone  in  official  or  business  mat- 
ters or  private  intercourse. 


Among  the  means  to  these  are  the 
boycott  of  all  English-made  arti- 
cles, all  English  institutions  in 
Ireland,  and  all  who  enlist  in  the 
English  army  or  navy;  the  non- 
recognition  of  all  English-made 
articles,  all  English  institutions 
in  Ireland,  and  all  who  enlist  in 
the  English  army  or  navy;  the 
non-recognition  of  all  English- 
made  laws;  and,  necessarily,  ex- 
pulsion from  public  or  private 
service  of  all  not  conversant  with 
Gaelic. 

The  Sinn  Fein,  as  such,  pro- 
fesses not  to  uphold  active  revo- 
lution, though  many  of  its  mem- 
bers and  leaders  were  prominent 
in  the  Dublin  revolution  of  1916. 
From  that  date  to  the  present 
(1922)  Sinn  Fein  leaders  have 
been  prominent  in  the  rioting, 
raiding,  and  lawlessness  that  have 
been  rampant  in  Ireland.  After 
the  passage  of  the  Home  Rule  bill 
Sinn  Feiners  steadily  denounced 
it  and  opposed  all  efforts  at  a 
peaceful  settlement.  See  Ire- 
land. 

Sinob.    See  Sinope. 

Si'non,  in  ancient  Greek  and 
Roman  legend,  a  cousin  of  Odys- 
seus, whom  he  accompanied  to 
the  Siege  of  Troy.  Having  allowed 
himself  to  be  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Trojans,  he  persuaded  them 
to  bring  the  wooden  horse  into 
the  citadel.  Then  at  midnight  he 
freed  the  Greek  warriors  which 
were  within  it.  His  name  has 
thus  become  proverbial  for  a 
treacherous  spy. 

Sinope,  si-no'-pe  (Turkish 
Sinob),  town,  Asia  Minor,  on  a 
promontory  on  the  coast  of  the 
Black  Sea;  220  miles  northwest 
of  Trebizond.  The  town  is  sur- 
rounded by  ancient  Byzantine 
walls,  and  has  a  ruined  castle  built 
under  Byzantine  influence.  There 
is  an  arsenal,  dockyard,  and 
prison.  The  harbor  is  the  finest 
on  the  northern  coast  of  Asia 
Minor.     Pop.  32,500. 

Ancient  Sinope  was  the  chief  of 
the  Greek  colonies  on  the  shores 
of  the  Euxine,  and  was  founded 
before  700  B.C.  by  settlers  from 
Miletus.  It  prospered  greatly, 
and  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  came 
into  friendly  relations  with  Ath- 
ens. In  183  B.C.  it  was  captured 
by  the  king  of  Pontus.  It  was  the 
birthplace  and  chief  residence  of 
Mithridates  the  Great.  In  72 
B.C.  it  capitulated  to  Lucullus, 
and  in  45  B.C.  was  made  a  Ro- 
man colony.  After  belonging 
successively  to  the  empire  of 
Trebizond  (from  1204)  and  the 
Seljuks,  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Turks  in  1470.  Sinope  was  the 
birthplace  of  Diogenes  the  cynic. 
The  bay  was  the  scene  of  a  naval 
engagement  on  Nov.  30,  1853, 
when  a  Turkish  squadron  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Russian  fleet. 

Sin'ter,  the  loose,  porous,  usu- 
ally friable  deposit  left  on  the 
evaporation  of  calcareous  or  sil- 


iceous waters.  Of  the  two  prin- 
cipal kinds  of  sinter,  calc-sinter 
is  the  more  common  (see  Calc- 
sinter).  Siliceous  sinter  is  prac- 
tically confined  to  a  few  districts, 
where  volcanoes  are  now  or  have 
been  recently  in  operation.  The 
best-known  localities  are  the  Yel- 
lowstone Park,  Iceland,  and  New 
Zealand.  Siliceous  sinter  (fiorite) 
is  really  a  porous  form  of  opal, 
and  dead  stumps  of  trees  per- 
meated by  heated  mineral  waters 
have  been  partly  converted  into 
wood  opal  or  petrified  by  im- 
pregnation with  silica  in  solution. 

Sinuessa,  sin-u-es'a,  a  Roman 
colony  in  Latium,  ancient  Italy; 
about  6  miles  north  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Volturnus.  It  was  founded 
in  296  B.C.  and  suffered  greatly 
in  the  Second  Punic  War.  The 
most  important  ruins  are  an  aque- 
duct and  fragments  of  a  trium- 
phal arch.  Near  Sinuessa  are  hot 
springs,  much  frequented  in  an- 
cient times. 

Si'nus,  in  anatomy,  a  term  for 
the  air  cavities  contained  in  the 
interior  of  certain  bones — as  the 
frontal,  ethmoid,  sphenoid,  tem- 
poral, and  superior  maxillary. 
The  frontal  sinuses  are  two  irreg- 
ular cavities  which  give  rise  to  the 
prominences  above  the  root  of 
the  nose  called  the  superciliary 
ridges.  They  are  larger  in  Euro- 
peans than  in  Negroes,  and  are 
imperfectly  developed  in  the  Aus- 
tralians. They  communicate  on 
each  side  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
nostril  by  a  funnel-shaped  open- 
ing, which  transmits  a  prolonga- 
tion of  mucous  membrane  to  line 
their  interior.  The  sphenoidal 
sinuses  are  two  irregular  cavities 
in  the  sphenoid  bone.  They  com- 
municate with  the  upper  and 
posterior  part  of  the  nose.  The 
ethmoid  sinuses  lie  in  the  lateral 
masses  of  the  ethmoid  bone  and 
open  into  the  cavities  of  the  nose. 

The  superior  maxillary  sinus, 
commonly  known  as  the  Antrum 
of  Highmore,  is  the  largest  of  the 
sinuses,  and  the  only  one  present 
in  the  infantile  skull.  It  also 
communicates  with  the  nasal  cav- 
ities.   (See  Nose.) 

In  pathology  the  term  sinus  in- 
dicates a  narrow  channel  leading 
from  an  abscess  cavity  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  body  or  limb,  formerly 
called  an  'issue.'  The  treatment 
of  a  sinus  is  by  treatment  of  the 
abscess. 

Sion,  se-6h  ,  or  Sitten  (Roman 
Sedunum),  picturesque  capital  of 
canton  Valais,  Switzerland,  on 
the  Sionne;  25  miles  east  of  St. 
Maurice.  It  has  three  ruined  cas- 
tles, several  ancient  bridges,  the 
thirteenth-century  church  of  St. 
Catherine,  and  a  fifteenth-cen- 
tury cathedral.    Pop.  7,000. 

Siouan,  sob'an,  one  of  the  large 
groups  of  North  American  In- 
dians, constitu  ting  a  distinct  stock 
of  languages.  At  the  time  of  their 
discovery  they  held  practically 


Sioux 


KSH 


234 


Sioux  Quartzite 


all  of  the  territory  drained  by  the 
Missouri,  the  Upper  Mississippi, 
and  the  Red  River  of  the  North. 
However,  they  were  never  con- 
federated in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word,  and  many  of  the  tribes  were 
constantly  at  war  with  one  an- 
other. The  main  divisions  were 
the  Dakota-Assiniboine  group, 
Dhegiha  group,  Chirwere  group, 
Winnebago,  Mandan,  Hidatsa 
group,  Biloxi  group  and  Eastern 
group.  Of  these  the  Dakota-As- 
siniboine was  by  far  the  largest. 

It  is  now  generally  believed 
that  all  tribes  of  the  Siouan  stock 
were  formerly  agriculturists  re- 
siding in  permanent  villages,  and 
that,  after  the  introduction  of 
horses,  they  gradually  became 
roving  Indians.  While  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  various  Siouan 
tribes  sprang  from  one  parent 
stock,  they  were  so  differentiated 
at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of 
America  that  the  term  Siouan  ex- 
presses linguistic  relations  rather 
than  ethnological  attributes.  See 
Sioux;  AssiNiBOiNES ;  Man- 
dan  ;  Omaha  ;  Osages  ;  Winne- 
bago. Consult  J.  Mooney,  The 
Siouan  Tribes  of  the  East. 

Sioux,  sob,  or  Dakotas,  the 
principal  tribe  of  the  Siouan  (q. 
V.)  stock  of  American  Indians 
now  settled  mostly  in  North  and 
South  Dakota  and  Nebraska. 
Formerly  they  occupied  that  part 
of  the  prairie  area  included  in 
the  States  of  North  and  South 
Dakota,  southern  Minnesota, 
southern  Nebraska,  and  west- 
ern Montana,  and  parts  of  Mani- 
toba and  Saskatchewan.  They 
lived  in  tents  covered  with  buf- 
falo skins,  and  made  their  cloth- 
ing of  skins,  and  their  utensils  of 
bone,  horn,  and  stone.  As  a  rule, 
they  made  no  attempts  at  agri- 
cvxlture,  and  for  food  depended 
upon  the  buffalo  and  other  rumi- 
nants, supplemented  in  season  by 
a  few  vegetables. 

The  personal  decorations  of  the 
men  were  elaborate,  much  use  be- 
ing made  of  feathers  and  plumes, 
but  all  such  forms  of  decoration 
seem  to  have  originated  as  badges 
of  rank  or  symbols  of  deeds  in 
war.  Picture  writing  was  prac- 
ticed. The  sun  dance  (q.  v.)  was 
observed  until  suppressed  by  the 
U.  S.  Government.  Each  group, 
or  band,  indulged  in  certain  cere- 
monies and  rites  peculiar  to  it- 
self. 

In  the  War  of  1812  the  Sioux 
sided  with  the  British.  By  the 
treaty  of  July,  1815,  peace  be- 
tween the  Sioux  and  the  United 
States  was  established  and  by 
that  of  August,  1825,  boundary 
lines  were  defined.  Forced  by  the 
Chippeways  south  and  west,  the 
Sioux  made  their  first  cession  of 
lands  to  the  U.  S.  Government  in 
1830.  in  1837  ceded  all  their  lands 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in 
1849-51  those  in  Minnesota.  For 


all  these  lands  annuities  were 
promised,  which  were,  however, 
allowed  to  fall  into  arrears  ;  and 
meanwhile  the  Indians  were  de- 
moralized by  the  introduction  of 
whiskey.  In  1862  a  number  of 
famishing  men  broke  into  a  gov- 
ernment warehouse,  and  thus  be- 
gan a  desperate  war  which  deso- 
lated thousands  of  square  miles 
of  territory,  cost  a  thousand 
whites  their  lives  and  the  Govern- 
ment $40,000,000,  and  ended  in 
the  execution  of  the  leaders. 

After  some  years  of  further 
mismanagement  the  Santee  Sioux 
were  placed  on  a  small  reserva- 
tion near  Yankton,  where  they 
have  developed  into  industrious 
and  peaceful  farmers,  and  are 
permitted  to  hold  their  lands  in 
severalty.  Meanwhile,  the  hos- 
tile Sioux  had  retired  to  the 
northern  parts  of  Dakota,  where, 
under  Sitting  Bull  (q.  v.),  they 
gathered  the  young  braves  who 
were  exasperated  by  the  Govern- 
ment's failure  to  send  supplies  to 
the  several  agencies.  The  war 
which  began  and  ended  in  1876  is 
chiefly  memorable  for  the  disas- 
ter in  which  General  Custer 
(q.  V.)  perished.  It  was  ended 
in  a  few  months,  and  Sitting  Bull 
took  refuge  in  Canada,  but  in 
1880  was  induced  by  the  Domin- 
ion officials,  on  a  promise  of  par- 
don, to  surrender.  The  Brule 
Sioux  and  the  Ogallalla  Sioux 
were  afterward  settled  on  the 
Rosebud  and  Pinewood  agencies 
in  South  Dakota. 

In  1890  there  was  a  general 
rising  of  the  Indians  in  the 
Northwest,  under  a  'Messiah' ; 
and  on  Dec.  15  Sitting  Bull  was 
slain — whether  killed  in  fight  or 
slaughtered  was  questioned.  The 
insurrection  was  finally  subdued 
by  General  Miles  early  in  1891 
and  since  that  time  there  have 
been  no  further  hostilities.  The 
Sioux  number  about  35,412. 

Sioux  City,  city,  Iowa,  coun- 
ty seat  of  Woodbury  county,  on 
the  Missouri  River,  at  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Big  Sioux,  and  on 
the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and 
Quincy,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
and  St.  Paul,  the  Illinois  Central, 
the  Chicago  and  Northwestern, 
the  Great  Northern,  and  the  Chi- 
cago, St.  Paul,  Minneapolis,  and 
Omaha  Railroads ;  89  miles 
northwest  of  Omaha. 

The  city  has  an  extensive  park 
system,  including  Grand  View 
Park,  West  Side  Park,  River- 
side Park  and  several  public 
playgrounds.  Stone  Park  (set 
outside  of  the  city  limits) ,  a  mag- 
nificent wooded  tract  of  800 
acres,  has  been  transferred  to 
State  control  and  made  an  Iowa 
State  Park.  Two  miles  south  of 
the  city  is  Floyd  Monument, 
erected  to  the  memory  of  Ser- 
geant Floyd  of  the  Lewis  and 
Clark  expedition,  and  adjoining 


Riverside  Park  are  the  Interstate 
Fair  grounds. 

The  principal  public  buildings 
are  the  County  Court  House, 
Federal  Building,  City  Hall,  Post 
Office,  Public  Library,  and  Audi- 
torium. Educational  institutions 
include  Morningside  College 
(q.  v.),  Trinity  College  (Roman 
Catholic),  Briar  Cliff  College 
(girls.  Catholic),  Midwest  Busi- 
ness College  and  the  National 
Business  Training  School.  There 
are  28  public  graded  schools,  2 
high  schools,  4  junior  high 
schools  and  several  parochial 
schools.  Hospitals  are  the  Meth- 
odist, St.  Joseph's,  St.  Vincent's, 
the  Lutheran,  Hillside  Sanata- 
rium,  and  Samaritan.  There  are 
68  churches,  including  a  Roman 
Catholic  Cathedral  and  numer- 
ous charitable  institutions. 

Sioux  City  is  an  important 
manufacturing  and  commercial 
city,  with  a  large  jobbing  busi- 
ness, livestock  and  meat  packing 
concerns,  grain  and  dairy  prod- 
ucts. It  has  large  railroad  shops, 
flour  mills, '  foundries  and  ma- 
chine shops,  planing  mills,  and 
manufactures  of  harness  and 
saddlery,  brick  and  tile,  candy, 
butter,  and  stock  foods. 

Sioux  City  was  settled  in  1849, 
and  became  a  trading  and  mili- 
tary post.  The  city  was  laid  out 
in  1854,  and  incorporated  three 
years  later.  The  commission 
form  of  government  was  adopted 
in  1910.  Pop.  (1920)  71,227; 
(1930)  79,183. 

Sioux  Falls,  city,  South  Da- 
kota, county  seat  of  Minnehaha 
county,  on  the  Big  Sioux  River, 
and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and 
St.  Paul,  the  Chicago,  Rock  Is- 
land, and  Pacific,  the  Great 
Northern,  the  Illinois  Central, 
and  the  (Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Min- 
neapolis, and  Omaha  Railroads  ; 
240  miles  southwest  of  St.  Paul, 
Minn.  Public  buildings  of  note 
are  the  Federal  Building,  Ad- 
ministration Building,  Sioux 
Falls  College  (Baptist),  All 
Saints  School,  Augustana  Col- 
lege, Columbus  College  (R.  C), 
children's  home.  State  school  for 
deaf  mutes,  and  State  peniten- 
tiary. The  city's  manufactures, 
supplied  with  water  power  from 
Big  Sioux  Falls,  produce  ma- 
chinery, flour,  brooms,  boilers, 
agricultural  implements,  cream- 
ery supplies,  and  sheet  iron  prod- 
ucts. Permanent  settlement  of 
Sioux  Falls  dates  from  1867. 
The  village  was  incorporated  in 
1877  and  in  1883  chartered  as  a 
city.  Pop.  (1920)  25,202; 
(1930)  33,362.  Sioux  Falls 
township  had  a  pop.  of  692. 

Sioux  Quartzite,  a  pre-Cam- 
brian  quartzite  of  considerable 
extent  in  adjacent  parts  of  Iowa, 
Minnesota,  and  South  Dakota. 
The  rock  is  perfectly  indurated, 
and  therefore  extremely  hard  and 


Sfphnos 


KR 


235 


Slrhlnd 


durable.  It  varies  in  color  from 
light  pink  to  a  very  deep  red  and 
takes  a  beautiful  polish.  It  is 
used  to  a  limited  extent  for  build- 
ing purposes,  but  the  difficulty  of 
working  the  stone  makes  it  un- 
usually expensive. 

Sipbnos,  island,  Greece,  one 
of  the  Cyclades,  in  the  Aegean 
Sea,  lies  n.e.  of  Melos.  Area,  29 
sq.  m.  Pop.  4,000.  It  was  colon- 
ized at  an  early  date  by  lonians 
from  Athens,  and  its  people  at- 
tained much  wealth  from  its  gold 
and  silver  mines.  They  fought  for 
the  Greeks  at  Salamis  (480  B.C.), 
and  subsequently  were  included 
in  the  Athenian  confederacy.  In 
ancient  days,  as  now,  the  island 
was  noted  for  its  pottery. 

Siphon,  a  bent  tube  with  one 
limb  longer  than  the  other,  by 
means  of  which  a  liquid  can  be 
drawn  off  to  a  lower  level  over 
the  side  of  a  vessel  or  other  point 
higher  than  the  upper  surface  of 
the  liquid.  When  the  tube  is 
filled  with  liquid,  the  atmos- 
pheric pressure  on  the  surface 
tends  to  force  the  liquid  up  the 
tube  to  an  extent  that  is  more  or 
less  opposed  by  the  downward 
pressure  of  the  column  of  liquid 
up  to  the  bend.  In  the  other 
limb  the  atmospheric  pressure  is 


Siphon. 

also  opposed  by  the  pressure  of 
the  column  of  liquid;  but  if  this 
is  longer  than  the  column  on  the 
other  side,  there  will  be  a  cor- 
responding unbalanced  down- 
ward pressure,  and  the  water  will 
flow  in  that  direction,  unless  the 
height  of  the  upper  level  to  the 
bend  is  such  that  the  pressure  of 
the  column  of  liquid  is  greater 
than  the  atmospheric  pressure 
can  support,  when  a  vacuum 
forms  at  the  bend  instead.  In 
order  to  start  syphons  conve- 
niently, they  are  sometimes  made 
with  an  additional  tube  joined 
near  the  end  of  the  lower  limb,  so 
that  by  temporarily  crossing  the 
lower  end  of  the  syphon  the 
liquid  can  be  sucked  over  with- 
out the  risk  of  getting  it  into  the 
mouth. 

Siphonophora.    See  Hvdro- 

ZOA. 

Siphon  Recorder.  See  Re- 
corder, Siphon. 


SIpontum,  ancient  Italian 
city,  on  the  Adriatic  coast,  s.  of 
the  promontory  of  Garganus.  It 
was  taken  by  Alexander,  king  of 
Epirus,  about  330  B.C.,  and  in 
194  .it  became  a  Roman  colony. 
In  the  middle  ages  malaria 
caused  it  to  decay,  and  in  1250 
Manfred,  king  of  Naples,  re- 
moved its  inhabitants  to  Man- 
fredonia,  a  mile  farther  north. 
The  ancient  cathedral  of  Sta. 
Maria  still  marks  the  site. 

Sippara.  See  Sepharvaim 
and  Babylonia. 

Sipunculus,  a  genus  of 
Gephyrea,  of  which  a  common 
species  is  5.  nudus,  found  in  the 
North  Sea,  Atlantic,  and  Medi- 
terranean. It  reaches  a  length 
of  from  six  to  eight  inches  and 
is  found  in  sand. 

Siquijor,  pueblo,  Philip- 
pines, Negros  Oriental  province, 
35  m.  s.w.  of  Tagbilaran,  on  an 
island  of  the  same  name.  Pop. 
15.237.  The  island  produces  a 
fine  quality  of  tobacco,  hemp, 
cacao,  rice,  maize.  Area,  126  sq. 
m.    Pop.  57,000. 

Sir,  a  complimentary  form  of 
address,  used  in  society  among 
equals,  and  by  inferiors  toward 
superiors.  It  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  senior,  through  the  suc- 
cessive French  forms  seigneur, 
sieur,  sire.  In  England  it  is  ap- 
plied to  baronets  and  knights  and 
formerly  to  members  of  the 
clergy. 

Sirach.   See  Ecclesiasticus. 

Sirajganj,  town,  Pabna  dis- 
trict, Bengal,  on  the  Brahma- 
putra, 70  m.  N.w.  of  Dacca;  has 
jute  trade.    Pop.  32.000. 

Siraj-ud-Dauia,  or  Surajah 
DovvLAH.  a  nawab  of  Bengal,  put 
to  death  (1757)  by  the  British  for 
having  caused  the  tragedy  of  the 
Black  Hole  of  Calcutta  (1756). 
He  was  defeated  by  Clive  at 
Plassey  (1757). 

Sirdar,  a  word  meaning  'head 
man,'  or  'chief.'  It  is  in  use 
among  most  Mohammedan  na- 
tions in  the  sense  of  a  commander 
in  chief.  It  was  the  title  given  to 
the  British  commander  of  the 
Egyptian  forces. 

Sir-daria.   See  Syr  Daria. 

Sir  Donald,  peak  of  the  Sel- 
kirk Mts.,  in  British  Columbia, 
Canada.  Alt.  10.640  ft.  At  its 
base  is  situated  the  station  of 
'Glacier'  on  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railroad.  Its  form  is  a  steep  py- 
ramid.  See  Glacier. 

Siren,  a  peculiar  form  of 
whistle,  the  sounds  from  which 
are  produced  by  the  passage  of 
air  or  steam  through  two  disks 
pierced  with  holes,  one  disk 
fixed,  the  other  revolving  freely 
parallel  with  it.  Sirens  of  various 
types  have  been  invented  by 
Seebeck,  Cagniard  de  la  Tour, 
Dove,  and  Helmholtz.  See  Fog 
Signals. 

Siren,  a  genus  of  tailed  am- 


phibians, including  only  one  spe- 
cies, the  mud-eel  {S.  lacerlina)  of 
the  southeastern  parts  of  the 
United  States.  It  reaches  a 
length  of  about  two  and  a  half 
feet,  and  is  found  in  ditches  and 


Siren. 


ponds,  where  it  burrows  in  the 
mud.  The  tail  is  large  and 
fringed,  the  hind  limbs  entirely 
absent,  while  the  weak  fore  limbs 
have  only  four  fingers.  Like 
Proteus  and  the  axolotl.  Siren 
retains  the  external  gills  through- 
out life.  It  has  three  pairs  of 
these  organs. 

Sirenia,  or  Sea-cows,  a  small 
order  of  marine  mammals  which 
includes  only  the  dugong,  the 
manatee,  and  the  recently  exter- 
minated Rhytina.  The  sea-cows 
resemble  the  Cetacea  in  the 
absence  of  hind  limbs  and  the 
conversion  of  the  fore  limbs  into 
flippers;  but  they  are  vegetable 
feeders,  and  are  found  in  rela- 
tively shallow  water.    The  bones 


Sirenia. 


are  very  massive;  the  head  is  not 
disproportionately  large;  the 
mammae  are  thoracic  in  position; 
there  are  traces  of  nails  on  the 
digits;  the  cheek  teeth  when 
present  are  adapted  for  crushing. 
Possibly  the  Sirenia  have  been 
derived  from  a  primitive  ungu- 
late stock,  though  there  is  no 
clear  evidence  of  this. 

Sirens,  in  ancient  Greek 
mythology,  were  fabulous  beings 
of  the  female  sex,  who  by  their 
songs  lured  to  destruction  any 
who  heard  them.  They  were  one 
of  the  dangers  encountered  by 
Odysseus;  but  being  forewarned 
by  Circe,  he  closed  the  ears  of  his 
sailors  with  wax,  and  had  himself 
bound  to  the  mast,  before  passing 
their  coasts.  The  Argonauts  also 
passed  them,  but  Orpheus  over- 
came the  power  of  their  song  with 
his  own.  After  that  they  were 
changed  into  rocks. 

Sirhind,  India,  district  in  the 
N.E.  of  the  Punjab,  between  the 
Sutlej  and  the  Jumna;  is  irri- 
gated by  a  canal  system  which 
consists  of  538  m.  of  main  canal 
and  4,639  m.  of  distributaries. 


Sirlus 


KR 


236 


SIsmondl 


Slrlus  (a  Canis  Majoris),  a  its  disturbed  proper  motion  by 

lustrous  white  star  of — 1,6  photo-  Bessel  in  1834,  was  verified  by 

metric  magnitude,  showing  a  first  Alvan  G.  Clark  in  1862.  The 

type  spectrum.  It  was  venerated  companion  is  a  tenth-magnitude 


perature  making  the  air  ex- 
tremely sultry  and  oppressive. 

Sirsa,  city,  India,  Punjab, 
123  miles  s.w.  of  Ambala.  The 


Mount  Sir  Donald,  in  the  Selkirks,  British  Columbia,  Canada. 
(On  the  line  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway.) 


by  the  ancient  Egyptians  as  the 
star  of  Isis;  it  marked  by  its  ris- 
ing the  advent  of  the  Nile  flood. 
To  the  Greeks  and  Romans  the 
star's  reappearance  was  of  bale- 


>  ^  If 

/  /  \ 

^  /  \ 
f  /  \ 

uetoctMM     1         /  I 

»  / 

A 

/  \ 

1              dr  ^ 

^  ^.1 

unit 

VLti  ilfr  ^ 

Sirius. 


ful  import  from  its  association 
with  the  torrid  heats  of  late  sum- 
mer. The  binary  character  of 
Sirius,  predicted  on  the  ground  of 


star,  and  while  possessing  half 
the  attractive  power  of  its  prim- 
ary, gives  only  z\loo  of  its  light. 
Their  period  of  revolution  is 
fifty-one  years. 

Sirmium,  under  the  ancient 
Roman  empire,  an  important 
town  in  s.e.  of  Lower  Pannonia, 
on  the  Savsu  R.,  though  the  ex- 
act size  is  not  known.  In  the 
Dacian  wars  it  was  used  as  a  mili- 
tary arsenal;  it  became  the  chief 
city  in  Pannonia,  and  (6th  cen- 
tury A.D.)  was  captured  by  the 
Avars. 

Sirocco,  or  Scirocco,  the  hot, 
moist  southerly  wind  experienced 
on  the  African  coast  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  and  blowing  over 
Malta,  Sicily,  and  Italy,  some- 
times extending  as  far  as  the 
Black  Sea.  The  temperature  ac- 
companying it  is  very  great,  a 
reading  of  110°  F.  having  been 
recorded  in  Sicily.  In  S.  Italy 
and  Greece  it  is  parching  hot  and 
dry;  but  farther  north  it  becomes 
moist  and  cloudy,  its  high  tem- 


ruins  of  old  Sirsa  lie  to  the  s.w. 
of  the  modern  city,  founded  in 
1837.  It  exports  grain.  Pop. 
19.000. 

Siskin,  or  Goldfinch  {Car- 
duelis  spinus),  a  small  finch, 
which  is  distributed  over  Europe 
and  parts  of  Asia,  and  breeds  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Great 
Britain  and  in  Ireland.  The 
male  is  prettily  colored  black  and 
yellow,  has  a  sweet  song,  and  in 
habits  resembles  the  goldfinch. 
Siskins  are  often  kept  in  confine- 
ment. The  American  siskin 
(Spinus  tristis)  is  the  goldfinch, 
the  English  term  siskin  not  being 
used  here  except  with  reference 
to  a  northern  relative,  the  pine- 
siskin,  occasionally  visiting  the 
northern  states  in  midwinter. 

Sismondi,  Jean  Charles 
Leonard  de  (1773-1842), 
French  historian,  born  at  Gen- 
eva, who,  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  Revolution,  removed  to  a 
farm  near  Lucca  in  Italy.  There 
he  wrote  Tableau  de  VagricuUure 


Sisterhoods 


KR 


237 


Sisyphus 


toscane  (1801),  followed  two 
years  later  by  Traite  de  la  ri- 
chesse  commerciale.  In  1803  he 
formed  the  acquaintance  of 
Madame  de  Stael.  In  1807  ap- 
peared the  first  two  volumes  of 
his  History  of  the  Italian  Repub- 
lics, which  won  an  immediate 
success,  and  were  followed  by  14 
other  vols.  (1807-18;  Eng.  trans- 
1832).  He  also  undertook  a  co- 
lossal History  of  France,  which, 
though  29  vols,  were  published, 
was  still  unfinished  at  the  time 
of  his  death.  A  man  of  enormous 
industry,  he  wrote  and  compiled 
many  minor  works — e.g.  Nou- 
veaux  Principes  d'Economie  Poli- 
tique (1819),  Histoire  de  la  Re- 
naissance de  la  Liberie  en  Italie 
(1832),  Histoire  de  la  Chute  de 
r Empire  Romain  (1835).  See  his 
Journals  and  Correspondence, 
edited  by  Mongolfier  and  Tail- 
landier  (1863);  Sainte-Beauve's 
Nouveaux  Lundis,  vol.  vi. 

Sisterhoods,  a  term  generally 
used  to  denote  those  who  live  in 
community  but  are  not  clois- 
tered. The  first  society  of  the 
kind,  the  Filles  de  la  Charite,  was 
founded  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
in  1633-34.  They  were  formally 
sanctioned  by  the  pope  in  1655. 
Their  office  was  to  seek  and  tend 
the  sick  and  poor  in  the  great 
cities.  In  1840  the  Abbe  le  Pail- 
leur  founded  the  society  of  the 
Petites  Soeurs  des  Pauvres  at 
Servan  in  Brittany.  -  Marie 
Jamet,  a  poor  needle-woman,  was 
the  real  originator  of  this  scheme. 
About  the  same  time  (1840)  the 
Abbe  Miller  founded  the  Soeurs 
de  Bons  Secours,  an  order  of 
nursing  sisters,  which  seems  to  do 
much  the  same  work  as  a  similar 
order  of  the  same  name  founded 
in  1825.  A  sisterhood  was  or- 
ganized by  Cardinal  Lavigerie  in 
1868  for  work  in  Africa.  During 
the  latter  half  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury a  vast  number  of  sisterhoods 
were  founded  in  the  various  dio- 
ceses of  France,  chiefly  for  the 
purpose  of  teaching,  and  when  in 
1905  the  law  was  passed  sup- 
pressing instruction  by  religious 
communities,  it  affected  more 
than  110  different  congregations 
of  women.  The  Irish  Sisters 
of  Charity  were  founded  at  Dub- 
lin (1815)  by  Mary  Aikenhead, 
They  number  about  500.  The 
Irish  Sisters  of  Mercy,  founded  in 
1831  by  Catharine  M'Auley, 
have  about  500  houses.  In  the 
Dominion  of  Canada  there  are 
32  Catholic  sisterhoods  engaged 
in  teaching  and  in  various  works 
of  charity.  The  total  number  of 
professed  sisters  is  about  8,300. 
The  rapid  growth  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  the  United  States  dur- 
ing the  nineteenth  century  was 
accompanied  by  a  remarkable 
multiplication  of  sisterhoods, 
whose  activities  extend  to  every 
branch  of  charitable  endeavor, 


and  in  particular  to  the  instruc- 
tion of  children  in  the  paro- 
chial schools.  The  principal  Eu- 
ropean congregations  of  women, 
such  as  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Benedict,  of  St.  Dominic,  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  etc.,  have  flour- 
ishing branches  in  this  country, 
while  many  other  sisterhoods 
have  been  founded  here  in  the 
various  dioceses.  The  American 
branch  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
was  established  in  1850  by 
Mother  Elizabeth  Seton,  a  con- 
vert to  the  Catholic  faith.  This 
sisterhood  numbers  500  institu- 
tions of  various  kinds,  viz.  aca- 
demies, parochial  and  industrial 
schools,  hospitals,  orphanages, 
asylums,  etc, 

Angelican  Sisterhoods.  —  The 
earliest  religious  communities  for 
women  in  England  were  found- 
ed by  members  of  royal  fami- 
lies. One  of  the  most  famous  was 
the  foundation  at  Whitby  (658 
A.D.)  ruled  over  by  the  Abbess 
Hilda,  grandniece  of  King  Ed- 
win. During  the  middle  ages 
numerous  orders  flourished,  but 
their  estates  were  all  seized  in 
the  general  dissolution  of  monas- 
teries. Nicholas  Ferrar  and  the 
nuns  of  Little  Gidding  attempted 
to  revive  the  religious  life  in  the 
17th  century,  but  their  house  was 
sacked  by  the  Puritan  army. 
Since  the  beginning  of  the  Oxford 
Movement  in  1833,  many  sister- 
hoods have  been  founded,  and 
now  there  are  about  28  different 
orders  under  vows. 

In  the  American  branch  of  thp 
Anglican  communion,  or  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  church,  the  term 
sisterhood  is  used  in  a  twofold 
sense:  it  is  applied  first  to  women 
living  in  community  under  the 
three  perpetual  vows  of  poverty, 
chastity,  and  obedience,  and 
bound  to  the  observance  of  a  reg- 
ular rule  of  life  and  the  daily 
recitation  of  the  breviary  offices; 
secondly,  it  comprises  in  a 
broader  sense  a  great  variety  of 
organizations  for  charitable 
work,  the  members  of  which  are 
either  bound  by  no  vows  or  by 
vows  of  a  temporary  character. 
The  following  list  includes  the 
sisterhoods  of  the  first  group: 

1.  The  Community  of  Saint 
Mary  (founded  1865).  Mother 
House,  St.  Mary's  Convent, 
Peekskill,  N.  Y.  Institutions: 
St.  Mary's  School,  N.  Y.;  St. 
Gabriel's  School,  Peekskill,  N.- 
Y.;  Kemper  Hall,  Kenosha,  Wis.; 
St.  Mary's  School,  Memphis, 
Tenn.;  St.  Katharine's  Hall, 
Davenport,  la.;  St.  Mary's  Hos- 
pital, N.  Y.;  Trinity  Mission, 
N.  Y.;  The  House  of  Mercy, 
N.  Y,;  St.  Mary's  Home  for  Chil- 
dren, Chicago;  The  Church 
Home,  Memphis.  Tenn.;  St. 
Mary's-on-the-Mountain,  Sewa- 
nee,  Tenn. 


2.  The  Sisterhood  of  the  Holy 
Nativity  (founded  1882).  Con- 
vent of  the  Holy  Nativity,  Fond 
du  Lac,  Wis. 

3.  The  Sisterhood  of  St.  Mar- 
garet (founded  at  East  Grinstead, 
Eng.,  in  1855,  by  Rev.  J.  M. 
Neale;  established  in  Boston,  in 
1873).  Mother  House,  17  Louis- 
burg  Square,  Boston.  Institu- 
tions: Children's  Hospital,  Bos- 
ton; St.  Barnabas  Hospital,  New- 
ark; St.  Katharine's  Home,  Jer- 
sey City;  St.  Michael's  Home, 
West  Philadelphia;  Home  for  In- 
curables, Montreal, 

4.  The  Sisterhood  of  St.  John 
Baptist  (founded  at  Clewer, 
Eng.,  in  1851;  established  in 
America  in  1881).  Mother 
House,  233  E.  17th  Street,  N.  Y. 
Institutions:  St.  John  Baptist 
School,  231  E.  17th  Street;  St. 
Helen's  Hall,  Portland,  Oregon; 
St.  Andrew's  Convalescent 
Home,  213  E.  17th  Street;  St. 
Michael's  Home  (reformatory), 
South  Amboy,  N.  J. 

5.  The  All  Saints'  Sisters  of 
the  Poor  (founded  in  London  in 
1851;  established  in  America  in 
1890).  Mother  Hou~e,  801  N. 
Eutaw  St.,  Baltimore,  Md.  In- 
stitutions: All  Saints'  Home  for 
Children,  Baltimore;  St.  Mary's 
Home  for  Little  Colored  Boys, 
Philadelphia;  A  Boarding  School 
for  Young  Ladies,  Germantown, 
Pa. 

6.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Mary  and 
All  Saints.  A  sisterhood  of  col- 
ored women  working  under  the 
All  Saints'  sisters  among  their 
own  people. 

The  sisterhoods  of  the  second 
group  comprise  several  orders  of 
deaconesses  and  a  great  many 
small  communities  for  diocesan 
or  parochial  work.  (For  lists, 
see  the  Living  Church  Annual.) 

Sisters  ville,  city,  West  Vir- 
ginia, Tyler  co.,  49  m.  s.s.w  of 
Wheeling,  on  the  Ohio  R.  and  on 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  R,  R.  It 
manufactures  oil-well  supplies, 
barrels,  leather,  window  glass, 
flour,  beer  and  ale,  cigar  boxes, 
woolen  goods,  machinery,  etc.  It 
is  situated  in  a  great  oil  region, 
and  oil  and  gas  are  the  chief  in- 
dustries. They  are  being  re- 
placed by  chemical  derivative 
plants.  Sistersville  was  estab- 
lished in  1815  and  incorporated 
in  1839.     Pop.  (1940)  2,702. 

Sistlne  Chapel.  See  Rome. 

Sistova  (Bulg.  Svishlov),  town, 
Bulgaria,  capital  of  co.  of  same 
name,  on  the  Danube,  40  m. 
N.N.w.  of  Tirnova,  is  one  of  the 
emporia  of  the  Bulgarian  grain 
trade.    Pop.  12,112. 

Sisyphus,  in  ancient  Greek 
legend,  the  son  of  Aeolus;  other 
accounts  make  him  the  father  of 
Odysseus  and  of  Sinon.  Ephyra, 
afterwards  Corinth,  was  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  him.  As 
its  king  he  fostered  commerce. 


Sitka 


KR 


238 


Skagerrak 


but  was  of  ill-repute  for  his  greed 
and  treachery.  It  is  on  account 
of  his  punishment  in  the  lower 
world  that  his  name  has  become 
famous.  His  task  was  to  roll 
a  huge  stone  to  the  top  of  a 
hill;  but  the  stone,  as  soon  as  it 
neared  the  top,  always  escaped 
from  his  hands  and  rolled  down 
to  the  bottom  again. 

Sitka,  town,  Alaska,  98  m. 
s.s.w.  of  Juneau,  on  the  w.  coast  of 
Baranov  I.,  and  on  Sitka  Sound, 
an  arm  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It 
is  connected  by  steamer  with 
Seattle.  Mining,  lumbering,  sal- 
mon fishing,  and  the  curing  and 
canning  of  salmon  are  the  leading 
industries.  It  has  an  industrial 
training  school  for  natives  (Pres- 
byterian), and,  in  connection 
with  the  latter,  the  Sheldon  Jack- 
son Museum,  and  several  public 
schools.  Among  the  buildings 
and  institutions  are  the  Church 
of  St.  Peter's  by  the  Sea,  built  in 
1899,  the  Greek  Church  (1816). 
Russian  Greek  Orthodox  Church, 
mission  hospital,  U.  S.  magnetic 
observatory,  U.  S.  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey  station  and 
Mount  Edgecombe  School  and 
Hospital.  The  Indian  totem 
poles  and  Indian  River  Park  are 
interesting  features  of  the  place. 
The  Japan  current,  which  flows 
to  these  shores,  strongly  influ- 
ences the  climate  of  the  city, 
which  is  mild  for  the  latitude 
(57°  3'  N.).  The  scenery  of  the 
region,  including  Sitka  Sound 
and  several  snow-capped  moun- 
tains, is  of  picturesque  beauty. 
In  1799  a  trading  station  of  the 
Russian-American  Company,  the 
place  was  permanently  settled  by 
the  Russians  in  1804  and  called 
New  Archangel.  The  Russian 
territorial  government  estab- 
lished headquarters  here.  The 
transfer  of  Alaska  from  Russia  to 
the  United  States  took  place  in 
1867,  at  Sitka,  which  was  made 
the  capital  of  the  territory.  In 
1906  the  capital  was  changed  to 
Juneau.     Pop.  (1940)  1,945. 

Sitting  Bull,  (c.  1830-1890), 
famous  Sioux  leader,  born  on 
Grand  River  (now  in  S.  D.)  of  low 
caste  parentage  in  the  Hunkpapa 
tribe  of  the  Sioux.  He  shared 
his  tribe's  hostility  toward  white 
domination  and  actively  resisted 
encroachment  on  the  Indians' 
hunting  grounds.  He  rose  to 
leadership  because  of  his  ability 
as  a  medicine-man  although  he 
had  no  rank  as  a  warrior.  While 
the  defeat  of  Custer  on  the  Little 
Big  Horn  River,  Montana,  June 
25,  1876,  is  popularly  accredited 
to  Sitting  Bull,  his  actual  part  in 
the  battle  was  that  of  a  non-com- 
batant. A  few  months  after  the 
battle,  a  great  many  of  the  hos- 
tiles  fled  to  Canada  where  Sitting 
Bull  and  his  immediate  followers 
remained  until  July  1881,  Upon 
the  return  of  Sitting  Bull  to  the 


U.  S.  he  was  confined  with  140 
others  at  Ft.  Randall,  Dakota 
Territory,  in  a  prison  camp  until 
May  1883.  He  was  then  allowed 
to  return  to  Grand  River.  His 
remaining  years  were  divided  be- 
tween reservation  life  and  circus 
engagements.  In  1890  he  took 
up  the  Messiah  cult.  On  Dec. 
15,  1890  he  was  killed  by  Indian 
police  at  his  Grand  River  home 
while  resisting  arrest  ordered  by 
the  military  authorities.  He  is 
buried  at  Ft.  Yates,  N.  D. 

Siva  ('Blessed  One'),  also 
called  Mahadeva  ('Great  God'), 
is  the  third  person  of  the  Trimur- 
ti,  or  trinity  of  Hinduism,  and  is 
commonly  known  as  the  des- 
troyer of  life.  But  his  function  as 
destroyer  is  only  in  order  that  re- 
production may  take  place.  On 
this  account  his  symbol  is  the 
linga,  phallus,  or  yoni,  under 
which  symbols  he  is  everywhere 
worshipped.  With  this  cult  is 
frequently  connected  a  series  of 
degrading  rites.  A  third  aspect 
of  Siva  is  his  asceticism,  in  which 
he  is  stern  and  uncompromising 
and  is  then  the  favorite  deity  of 
Hindu  ascetics.  In  still  another 
phase,  he  appears  as  a  reveller 
and  the  patron  of  the  carousal 
and  the  dance. 

Sivaji  (1627-80),  founder  of 
the  Maratha  or  Mahratta  empire 
in  India.  He  early  became  con- 
vinced that  his  mission  was  to 
emancipate  his  countrymen  from 
Mogul  tyranny.  Brahmas  pro- 
claimed Sivaji  an  incarnation 
of  the  deity,  and  the  Marathas 
flocked  to  his  standard.  Estab- 
lishing himself  at  Raighad,  be- 
tween Bombay  and  Poona,  he 
carried  his  conquests  as  far  as 
Surat  in  the  north,  and  to  the 
eastern  confines  of  the  Deccan. 
An  act  of  treachery  brought  him 
into  the  power  of  the  emperor 
Aurungzebe;  but  escaping  from 
Delhi,  he  rallied  his  followers, 
and  so  successful  were  his  efforts 
that  a  British  ambassador  was 
deputed  to  'assist'  his  coronation 
in  1674. 

Sivas  (anc.  Sebasteia) ,  Asiatic 
Turkey,  capital  of  vilayet  of 
same  name,  170  m.  s.w.  of  Trebi- 
zond,  has  manufactures  of  coarse 
woolen  goods.  It  was  the  birth- 
place of  Mekhitar,  founder  of  the 
Armenian  monastery  at  Venice. 
There  was  an  Armenian  massacre 
in  1895.  Pop.  (1945)  45,419. 
The  vilayet  covers  an  area  of 
32,300  sq.  m.  Wheat  and  barley 
are  grown  on  the  plateau,  and 
vines  in  the  lower  districts.  Sil- 
ver, lead,  copper,  iron,  coal,  and 
salt  are  abundant.  The  seaport 
is  Samsun.    Pop.  (1945)  494,373. 

Sivori,  Ernesto  Camillo 
(1815-94),  Italian  violin  virtuoso, 
the  only  well-known  pupil  of 
Paganini,  was  born  at  Genoa. 
He  was  a  brilliant  executant,  and 
famous  in  nearly  every  part  of 


Europe,  and  in  North  and  South 
America,  which  he  visited  in 
1846. 

Siwah  (anc.  Ammomium),  oa- 
sis, Egypt,  280  m.  w.s.vv.  of 
Alexandria;  is  well  watered,  and 
yieMs  dates  and  olives.  Rock 
salt  is  also  worked.  It  contains 
remains  of  the  Temple  of  Am- 
mon  and  the  Fountain  of  the 
Sun. 

Siwalik  Hills,  range  in  Dehra 
Dun  district.  United  Provinces, 
and  in  Punjab,  India;  stretches 
for  200  m.  parallel  with  the  Hima- 
layas, from  Hardwar  on  the 
Ganges  N.w.  to  the  Beas.  The 
hills  are  covered  with  forests, 
and  abound  in  wild  animals, 
many  of  which  appear  in  fossil 
remains.   Alt.  3,500  it. 

Six  Nations.   See  Iroquois. 

Sixtus  IV,  Francesco  della 
RovERE  (1414-84),  succeeded 
Paul  II  on  the  papal  throne  in 
1471.  He  was  born  at  Albissola, 
near  Savona,  and  was  constantly 
involved  in  political  intrigue. 
He  encouraged  the  conspiracy  of 
the  Pazzi  against  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
king  of  Naples  threatened  Flor- 
ence, but  was  compelled  by  the 
defection  of  his  ally  to  make 
terms.  The  Florentines  and 
Neapolitans  later  combined 
against  the  pope,  who  had  gained 
the  cooperation  of  Venice.  The 
emperor  then  intervened,  and 
Sixtus  excommunicated  the  Ven- 
etians. 

Sixtus  V,  Felice  Peretti 
(1521-90),  was  born  at  Grottam- 
mare,  near  Montalto  (Ancona 
prov.),  and  was  elected  pope  in 
1585.  He  exterminated  the  ban- 
ditti who  swarmed  about  Rome. 
The  name  of  'Papa  Sisto'  for 
swift  and  summary  punishment 
is  proverbial  in  Rome  to  the 
present  day.  He  abolished  the 
profane  sanctuaries  known  as 
quarteiri,  or  franchises,  and 
made  the  papal  power  locally 
respected.  He  it  was  who  gave 
his  benediction  to  the  Spanish 
Armada.  He  built  the  Vatican 
Library. 

S.  J.,  Society  of  Jesus. 

Sjaelland,  or  Zealand,  the 
largest  of  the  Danish  islands; 
area,  2,709  sq.  m.,  but  with  its 
dependent  islands  2,901  sq.  m. 
The  Isse  and  Roeskidel  fjords, 
penetrating  deeply  on  the  N. 
divide  it  into  three  peninsulas. 
Sjaelland  is,  on  the  whole,  a  low- 
lying,  undulating,  very  fertile 
province,  whose  splendid  beech 
woods  are  the  remains  of  former 
vast  forests.    Pop.  1,204,000. 

Skagerrak,  arm  of  the  North 
Sea,  from  70  to  90  m.  broad, 
and  extending  for  about  150 
m.  N.E.  between  Jutland  and 
s.  of  Norway.  It  communicates 
with  the  Baltic  by  means  of  the 
Kattegat.  Violent  northwesterly 
storms  are  frequent. 


Skagway 


KR 


239 


Skating 


Skagway,  town,  and  sub-port 
of  entry,  s.  district  of  Alaska,  178 
m.  N.  of  Sitka,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Skagway  R.,  and  at  the  head 
of  the  Lynn  Canal.  It  is  the  s. 
terminus  of  the  White  Pass  and 
Yukon  R.  R.,  and  is  on  the  routes 
of  the  Canadian  Pacific,  the 
Alaska,  and  the  Pacific  Coast 
S.  S.  companies.  Bric-a-brac  is 
manufactured  by  Indians  in 
factories  owned  by  white  men 
and  Japanese,  and  there  are 
bottling  works,  a  lumber  mill, 
and  breweries.  The  town  is  the 
gateway  to  the  Yukon,  and  is  of 
importance  as  the  center  for  the 
distribution  of  supplies  for  that 
region,  where  gold,  silver,  and 
copper  mining  are  carried  on.  The 
surrounding  district  produces 
celery,  cabbage,  root  crops,  and 
berries.  Skagway  has  a  public 
library,  three  hospitals,  Army 
post,  and  Government  building. 
The  gorges  of  the  Skagway  and 
Dyea  rivers,  Dewey  and  Henry 
Falls,  and  the  Davidson  and 
Dyea  glaciers  are  some  of  the 


the  bards  of  the  Celtic  tribes. 
Few  complete  Skaldic  poems  are 
extant,  but  fragments  are  found 
in  the  Younger  Edda  and  the 
Sagas.  See  Iceland. — Language 
and  Literature. 

Skaneateles,  or  Skeneateles, 
village.  New  York,  Onondaga 
CO.,  7  m.  E.  by  N.  of  Auburn,  at  n. 
end  of  Skaneateles  L.,  and  on  the 
Skaneateles  R.  R.  It  is  mainly  a 
residential  place  and  summer 
resort.  Canoes  and  boats  are 
manufactured.  Pop.  (1930) 
1,882:  (1940)  1,949. 

Skargard  (Nor.  Skjaergaard), 
islands  stretching  along  the  coast 
of  Sweden  and  Norway. 

Skat,  a  card  game  for  three 
players,  invented  in  Altenburg, 
Thuringia,  in  1817.  It  is  im- 
mensely popular  throughout  Ger- 
many. The  pack,  like  that  of  pi- 
quet, consists  of  thirty-two  (spec- 
ifically German)  cards.  The 
suits  rank  in  order  according  to 
color,  and  the  individual  cards 
have  certain  numerical  values. 
The  number  of  points  required 


notched.  There  are  a  large  num- 
ber of  species,  widely  distributed 
over  temperate   seas,  especially 


Common  Skate. 

in  the  north,  and  grouped  by 
fishermen  into  two  sets — the 
long-snouted  forms,  which  are 
called  skates,  and  the  short- 
snouted  forms,  which  are  called 
rays.  The  commonest  and 
smallest  skate  of  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  United  States  is  the 
spring  tobacco-box — {R.  erina- 
cea),  but  the  smooth  'barndoor' 
{R.  loevis),  which  may  be  four 


Fancy  Skating  Figures. 

1.  Outside  edge  forward.    2.  Inside  edge  forward.     .3.  Outside  edpre  backward,    i.  '  Figure  three,'  turning.    5.  •  The  sernentinfi  » 

6.  ' Figure  eight.'  7.  '  Pigs' ears.'  8. 'The  loop.' 


scenic  features  in  the  vicinity. 
The  place  was  settled  in  1897 
and  a  charter  granted  in  1900. 
Pop.  1,000. 

Skalds,  the  ancient  Scandi- 
navian poets,  who  sang  or  recited 
verses  of  their  own  composition 
in  praise  of  the  deeds  of  living  or 
dead  heroes.  They  were  similar 
to  the  troubadours  of  S.  France, 
the  minnesinger  of  Germany,  and 


for  a  single  win  is  sixty-one;  for 
a  double  win,  eighty-nine;  and 
for  a  quadruple  win,  the  full  num- 
ber of  a  hundred  and  twenty. 

Skate,  a  common  name  for 
several  species  of  the  genus  Raia 
(ray).  The  members  of  this 
genus  are  characterized  by  the 
two  dorsal  fins  on  the  tails  and 
the  absence  of  a  tail  spine,  and 
by  the  pelvic  fins  being  deeply 


feet  in  length.  The  great  Pacific 
coast  skate  {R.  binoculata)  is 
sometimes  six  feet  long.  (See 
Ray.)  Several  species  inhabit  the 
European  coasts.  All  are  edible, 
the  part  which  is  especially  eaten 
being  the  base  of  the  great  pec- 
toral fins;  but  all  rank  among  the 
coarser  kinds  of  fish. 

Skating.  The  use  of  skates  in 
one  form  or  another  has  been 


Skating 


KR 


240 


Skeleton 


popular  for  nearly  1,000  years. 
They  originated  in  Continental 
Europe  and  were  later  introduced 
into  England;  Norsemen,  Swedes 
and  Dutchmen  being  pioneers  in 
the  art  of  self-propulsion  over 
the  ice  on  improvised  runners. 
The  earliest  known  mention  of 


skating  is  in  the  Icelandic  litera- 
ture of  10.56-1133.  An  English 
writer  of  the  12th  century,  Fitz- 
stephen,  states  that  the  art  was 
introduced  into  England  from 
the  Low  Countries.  The  style  of 
skate  used  then  was  the  brisket 
bone  of  an  ox,  which  was  fastened 
to  the  sole  of  the  foot  and  around 
the  ankles.  The  skater,  armed 
with  an  iron-shod  stick,  pushed 
himself  forward  by  striking  it 


against  the  ice,  getting  up  very 
high  speed  by  this  means.  The 
wooden  skate,  shod  with  steel  or 
iron,  made  its  appearance  in  the 
14th  century,  while  iron  blades 
were  used  about  two  centuries 
later.  The  first  races  were  held 
in  Holland,  but  they  were  crude 


affairs,  and  the  first  race  of  which 
there  is  an  authentic  record  was 
in  England,  in  1823,  at  five  miles. 
Races  were  not  common  for  the 
next  fifty  years,  but  after  that 
they  became  more  frequent,  and 
in  1880  the  British  National 
Skating  Association  was  formed. 
The  first  American  skater  of 
prominence  was  Charles  June  of 
Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  who  came  to 
the  front  late  in  the  thirties. 


Then  came  Tim  Donoghue,  G. 
D.  Phillips,  S.  J.  Montgomery, 
F.  W.  Craft,  Joseph  Donoghue, 
J.  S.  Johnson  and  others.  Joseph 
Donoghue  held  the  world's  cham- 
pionship until  1893,  when  he  lost 
it  to  J.  S.  Johnson  of  Minnesota, 
who  in  turn  lost  it  to  John  M. 
Nilsson  of  the  same  place.  The 
latter  was  not  only  the  fastest 
speed  skater  but  was  unequaled 
as  a  trick  skater.  The  crack  ama- 
teur skater  was  Morris  Wood. 
The  modern  speed  skate  body  is 
of  tubular  steel  with  A  inch  tool- 
steel  hardened  blade  from  14  to 
16  inches  in  length.  For  figure 
skating  the  blade  is  considerably 
shorter.  Leading  books  are 
Fifiure  Skating  (1889),  by  T.  M. 
Witham;  Art  of  Skating  (1880), 
by  G.  Anderson;  Combined  Fig- 
ure Skating  (1892),  by  S.  F. 
Williams;  Handbook  of  Fen- 
Skating  (1882),  by  N.  and  G.  A. 
Goodman;  Skating  (Badminton 
Library,  1894),  by  J.  M.  Heath- 
cote  and  Tebbutt;  Figure  and 
Fancy  Skating  (1895),  by  G.  A. 
Meagher;  G.  Wood's  Figure 
Skating  (1906);  and  Figure  and 
Speed  Skating,  Spalding's  Athle- 
tic Library. 

Skeat,  Walter  William 
(183.5-1912),  English  philologist 
born  at  London,  and  elected  pro- 
fessor of  Anglo-Saxon  at  Cam- 
bridge (1878).  He  was  a  volumi- 
nous author,  his  works  including 
Chaucer  (new  ed.  1904);  Piers 
Plowman{1886)  \  Barbour's  Bruce 
(1870);  Havelok  the  Dane  (1868); 
William  of  Palerne  (1867),  and 
others  for  the  Early  English  Text 
Society;  and  The  Kings  Quhair 
(1884)  for  the  Scottish  Text 
Society.  His  great  work,  how- 
ever, is  his  Etymological  English 
Dictionary  (1882;  new  ed.  1901), 
one  of  the  most  accurate  as  well 
as  popular  works  of  its  kind.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
English  Dialect  Society,  for 
which  he  has  edited  many  works. 

Skeleton,  a  general  name  for 
the  hard  parts  of  animals,  includ- 
ing both  the  external  hard  parts, 
the  exoskeleton,  and  the  internal, 
which  form  the  true  or  endo- 
skeleton.  Among  invertebrates 
the  hard  parts  usually  take  the 
form  of  an  exoskeleton.  In  the 
cuttle-fish  among  mollusca  there 
is,  however,  an  interesting  form 
of  endoskeleton — namely,  a  car- 
tilage surrounding  the  chief 
nerve-centers,  which  is  the  ana- 
logue, but  not  the  homologue,  of 
the  vertebrate  skull.  In  the  ver- 
tebrates the  parts  of  the  skeleton 
are  homologous  throughout. 
Only  among  them  does  true  bone 
occur,  and  it  is  confined  to  the 
more  specialized  types.  In  its 
simplest  form  the  skeleton  is 
represented  merely  by  a  dorsal 
supporting  rod,  the  notochord, 
which  lies  beneath  the  spinal 
cord.    This  simple  condition  is 


The  Skeleton. 

1.  Head  of  cuttle-flsh:  be,  brain  cavity.  2.  Section  of  AmpMoxus:  fr,  fin  ray;  ct,  con- 
nective tissue  ;  nc,  notocnord  ;  snc,  supraneural  crest.  3.  Side  view  of  same :  fs,  fln 
•upports ;  nc,  notochord ;  ot,  oral  tentacles.   4.  Dermal  denticles  of  Centropnorus. 

6.  Membranous  cartilage  skull  of  Cyclostoma.    6.  Skull  of  Salamandra  maculosa. 

7.  Greek  toi-toise.  8.  Corvua  corone.  9.  Deei.  10.  Baboon.  11.  Man  :  6c,  brain  cavity. 
18-16.  Development  of  notochord  :  msl,  mesoblastic  skeletogenous  layer ;  pdc,  paired 
dorsal  cartilage  ;  pvc,  paired  ventral  cartilage;  ns,  neural  spine  ;  na.  neural  arch;  tp, 
transverse  process ;  ap,  articular  process;  c,  centrum.  17.  Human  skeleton. 


Skeleton 


KR 


241 


Ski 


seen  in  Amphioxus,  where,  apart 
from  the  notochord,  the  skeleton 
is  only  represented  by  the  sup- 
porting bars  of  the  pharynx  and 
connective  tissue  supports  in  the 
unpaired  fin,  and  in  the  fringe  of 
the  mouth.  In  the  cyclostomes 
there  is  a  slight  increase  in  com- 
plication, for  there  is  a  trough  of 
cartilage,  which  forms  a  simple 
skull,  and  there  are  rudiments  of 
cartilaginous  arches  which  pro- 
ject upwards  from  the  sides  of 
the  notochordal  sheath,  as  well 
as  supports  for  the  gill-pockets. 
Above  cyclostomes  a  consider- 
able number  of  complications  ap- 
pear, which  may  be  summarized 
as  follows:  The  notochord  to  an 
increasing  degree  becomes  re- 
placed by  the  segmented  verte- 
bral column,  until  in  the  higher 
vertebrates  it  ceases  to  be  any- 
thing but  a  purely  embryonic 
structure.  In  connection  with  the 
vertebrae,  ribs  develop,  and  a 
ventral  sternum  appears.  At  the 
same  time  hoops  of  cartilage  ap- 
pear in  the  throat  region,  which 
in  fishes  support  functional  gills 
posteriorly  and  form  the  jaws 
anteriorly.  Above  these  fishes, 
gill  arches  tend  to  disappear,  ex- 
cept for  those  which  are  metam- 
orphosed into  parts  of  the  skull. 
Another  complication  is  the  de- 
velopment of  the  skull.  This  is 
at  first  a  mere  open  trough  or  car- 
tilage, to  which  the  capsules  of 
nose  and  ear  become  attached; 
but  to  this  primitive  brain-box 
the  anterior  gill  arches  become 
united,  and  a  further  complica- 
tion is  the  development  of  what 
are  known  as  membrane  bones, 
which  are  plastered  on  the  out- 
side of  the  skull.  The  origin  of 
these  is  interesting.  Though  Am- 
phioxus and  cyclostomes  have 
no  exoskeleton,  the»-e  is  much 
evidence  that  primitive  verte- 
brates possessed  an  exoskeleton 
of  bony  plates,  of  which  rem- 
nants persist  in  many  classes. 
Thus  elasmobranch  fish  have 
placoid  scales  or  dermal  denticles 
which  consist  of  teeth  placed 
upon  a  bony  base.  Many  ex- 
tinct fish,  also,  were  invested 
with  a  complete  armor  of  bone. 
This  armor  tended  gradually  to 
disappear  as  specialization  con- 
tinued, but  some  of  the  bony 
plates  sank  inward,  and  were 
added  to  the  skull  as  investing 
membrane  bones.  At  the  same 
time,  in  the  higher  vertebrates 
true  bone  developed  in  the  carti- 
laginous brain-case,  forming 
what  is  known  as  cartilage 
bone. 

Cyclostomes  have  no  paired 
fins,  but  above  them  all  verte- 
brates have  typically  two  pairs 
of  limbs,  each  pair  being  attached 
to  the  body  by  a  girdle,  the  two 
girdles  being  known  respectively 
as  the  pectoral  and  pelvic  girdles. 
Above  fishes  the  structure  alike 


of  girdles  and  of  limbs  is  in  all 
essentials  the  same  in  all  classes. 
The  pectoral  girdle  consists  of  the 
dorsal  scapula;  the  ventral  cora- 
coid,  which  is  a  mere  rudiment  in 
the  vast  majority  of  mammals; 
and  a  clavicle  or  collar-bone, 
which  in  mammals  is  not  infre- 
quently absent.  In  the  pelvic 
girdle  the  corresponding  bones 
are  the  ilium,  ischium,  and  pubis. 
The  fore  limb  consists,  in  order, 
of  humerus,  radius,  and  ulna, 
numerous  wrist  or  carpal  bones, 
metacarpal  or  palm  bones,  and 
digits  of  several  phalanges.  The 
structure  of  the  hind  limb  is 
similar,  the  bones  being  femur, 
tibia,  and  fibula,  ankle-bones  or 
tarsals,  metatarsals,  and  digits  of 
several  phalanges.  See  Wieders- 
heim's  Comparative  Anatomy  of 
Vertebrates  (Eng.  trans.  1897). 

Skelton,  John  (1460-1529), 
English  poet  and  satirist,  born  in 
Norfolk.  He  was  appointed  tutor 
to  Prince  Henry,  afterwards 
Henry  viii.  Having  entered  the 
church,  he  became  rector  of  Diss 
in  Norfolk,  but  was  suspended 
for  immorality.  He  then  took 
to  literature,  more  particularly 
to  satire,  written  in  short  ani- 
mated meters  abounding  in 
homely  terms  easily  understood 
by  the  common  people.  The 
great  target  of  his  invective  was 
Wolsey,  whose  greed  and  rapa- 
city, whose  tyrannical  rule  and 
subserviency  to  the  king,  were  all 
recounted  in  Why  come  ye  not  to 
Courte,  and  Colyn  Cloute.  His 
Phyllyp  Sparrow,  a  girl's  lament 
over  her  dead  bird,  is,  however, 
instinct  with  tender  pathos  and 
poetical  beauty.  His  Tunnyng  of 
Elynour  Rummyng  is  a  satirical 
picture  of  low  life  in  London, 
while  his  Bowge  of  Courte  and 
Garlande  of  Law  ell  are  examples 
of  the  'allegorical'  and  'aureate' 
poetry  so  popular  at  that  time. 
He  was  also  a  prolific  writer  of 
interludes,  but  only  one  of  these, 
Magnyfycence,  has  survived. 
Skelton  found  refuge  from  Wol- 
sey in  the  sanctuary  at  Westmin- 
ster until  the  cardinal's  death. 
His  collected  works  appeared  in 
1568,  and  a  new  edition  by  Dyce 
in  1843;  a  selection,  Poetical 
Works,  ed.  Williams  (1903). 

Skelton,  Sir  John  (1831-97), 
Scottish  essayist  and  historical 
writer,  who  wrote  under  the 
name  of  Shirley,  was  born  in 
Edinburgh.  He  contributed  to 
Eraser's  Magazine  and  Black- 
wood's Magazine;  was  secretary 
to  the  Scottish  Board  of  Super- 
vision (1868-92),  and  chairman 
(1892-4),  and  vice-president  of 
the  Scottish  Local  Government 
Board  (1894-7).  His  works  in- 
clude Nugce  Criticce  (1862), 
The  Great  Lord  Bolingbroke 
(1868),  Mailland  of  Lethinglon 
(1887-8),  The  Royal  House  of 
Stuart  (1890),  Mary  Stuart  (1893), 


The  Essays  of  Shirley  (1895),  and 
Charles  I  (1898). 

Skene,  Alexander  Johnston 
Chalmers  (1837-1900),  Ameri- 
can physician,  born  in  Fyvie, 
Scotland.  He  graduated  at  the 
Long  Island  Medical  College, 
N.  Y.  in  1863  and  during  the 
Civil  War  he  served  as  acting- 
assistant-surgeon  at  Decamp's 
hospital,  David's  Island,  and  at 
Port  Royal,  Charleston,  S.  C. 
After  the  war  he  became  adjunct 
professor  of  gynaecology  in  the 
Long  Island  Medical  College, 
and  was  staff  surgeon  in  the  New 
York  state  national  guard.  He 
specialized  in  the  treatment  of 
the  diseases  of  women,  and  was 
consulting  physician  in  obstetrics 
and  gynaecology  to  several  New 
York  hospitals.  He  was  author 
of  Diseases  of  the  Bladder  and 
Urethra  in  Women  (1878),  Trea- 
tise on  the  Diseases  of  Women 
(1888),  Education  and  Culture  as 
Correlated  to  the  Health  and  Dis- 
eases of  Women  (1888),  Text-book 
on  the  Diseases  of  Women  (1888), 
and  Medical  Gynaecology  (1895). 

Skene,  William  Forbes 
(1809-92),  Scottish  historian  and. 
Celtic  scholar,  born  at  Inverie, 
Knoydart,  Inverness-shire;  be- 
came a  writer  to  the  signet  (1832) 
and  practised  law  for  forty  years. 
He  published  The  Highlanders  of 
Scotland  (1837),  The  Four  An- 
cient Books  of  Wales  (1868),  and 
edited  for  the  Scottish  Historian 
Series  Fordun  and  Adamnan. 
His  Celtic  Scotland,  published  in 
3  vols.  (1876-80),  established  his 
reputation.  He  became  historio- 
grapher royal  for  Scotland  in 
1881,  and  in  1887  published, 
through  the  New  Spalding  So- 
ciety, Memorials  of  the  Family  of 
Skene. 

Skerryvore,  rock  with  light- 
house, 12  m.  s.w.  of  island  of 
Three,  Inner  Hebrides,  Scotland, 
at  end  of  dangerous  reef  stretch- 
ing 8  m.  W.S.W.,  in  the  fairway 
of  vessels  making  for  the  Clyde 
and  the  Mersey.  The  lighthouse, 
erected  by  Alan  Stevenson  (1838- 
44),  cost  $423,647. 

Skewback,  the  inclined  stone 
on  which  the  arch  rests  or  from 
which  it  springs.  The  direction 
of  the  thrust  of  the  arch  passes 
through  it. 

Ski,  the  Norwegian  snowshoe, 
is  from  8  ft.  to  12  ft.  in  length 
and  from  4  in.  to  6  in.  wide.  It 
is  rectangular  at  the  heel  and 
turned  up  at  the  toe.  At  the 
center  where  it  is  an  inch  thick, 
and  from  which  it  gradually 
tapers  to  each  end,  it  is  secured 
to  the  foot  by  straps.  Some- 
times it  is  shod  with  iron.  Great 
speed  is  obtained  in  descending 
hills,  a  mile  being  run  in  a  minute 
and  a  half;  the  runner  guides 
and  supports  himself  with  a 
staff  or  steering-pole.  Ski-run- 
ning   provides    the    chief  na- 


Sklddaw 


KR 


242 


Skin 


tional  sport  of  Norway.  Com- 
petitions are  held  for  speed, 
style,  and  jumping,  and  the  best 
ski-runner  is  selected  from  each 
village  to  go  up  to  the  annual 
gathering  on  the  first  Sunday  in 
February,  at  HolmenkoUen,  a 
steep  hill  three  miles  from  Oslo. 
The  world  record  leap  recorded 


is  350.96  ft.  established  by 
Joseph  Bradl  of  Austria  in  1938. 
The  sport  is  also  practiced  in 
Switzerland,  the  season  being  in 
March  and  April. 

Skiddaw,  mountain  (3,054 
ft.),  Cumberland,  England,  6  m. 
N.  of  Keswick.  On  the  s.  is  Low 
Man  (2,837  ft.). 

Skien,  town,  Norway,  co.  of 
Bratsberg,  on  riv.  Skien,  43  m. 
s.w.  of  Drammen;  has  timber 
and  paper  factories,  and  is  the 
birthplace  of  Ibsen.  In  1886  it 
was  almost  totally  destroyed  by 
fire.    Pop.  (1946)  14,744. 

Skimmer,  or  Scissor-bill 
(Rhynchops),  a  genus  of  marine 
birds,  allied  to  the  terns,  but  re- 


Skimmer,  or  Scissor-bill. 


markable  for  the  shape  of  the 
bill,  which  is  elongated,  com- 
pressed, and  has  the  lower  jaw 
considerably    longer    than  the 


upper.  The  flight  is  peculiar,  the 
birds  seeming  to  skim  the  water, 
with  the  elongated  lower  jaw 
beneath  its  surface.  There  are 
three  species,  inhabiting  respec- 
tively America,  India,  and  the 
vicinity  of  the  Red  Sea,  ours  be- 
ing the  black  skimmer  (R.  nigra). 
Skin.   The  skin  or  integument 


of  the  human  body  consists  of 
two  portions,  the  superficial  epi- 
dermis and  the  derma  or  corium 
or  true  skin.  The  epidermis  is 
bloodless,  and  consists  of  many 
layers  of  stratified  epithelial  cells 
united  by  a  cement  substance. 
The  corium,  or  true  skin,  is  sup- 
plied with  blood-vessels,  and  over 
its  whole  surface  are  papillae, 
some  of  which  cover  capillary 
loops,  while  others  contain  tac- 
tile corpuscles.  Almost  the  whole 
of  the  skin,  except  that  on  the 
palms,  soles  of  the  feet,  and  eye- 
lids, is  covered  with  hairs,  the 
erection  of  which  produces  the 
condition  known  as  'goose  flesh.' 
Of  the  glands  of  the  skin  there 
are  two  varieties — (1)  the  sebace- 
ous, and  (2)  the  sudoriparous  or 
sweat  glands.  The  sebaceous 
glands  secrete  a  sebaceous  or 
fatty  substance,  which  helps  to 
keep  the  skin  smooth  and  soft. 
The  sweat  glands  are  organs  of 
excretion. 

The  functions  of  the  skin  are 
manifold.  It  is  a  protective 
covering,  and  the  subcutaneous 
fat  forms  a  soft  elastic  pad  which 
protects  delicate  parts  from  ex- 
ternal pressure.  The  epidermis, 
corium,  and  fat  prevent  undue 
radiation  from  the  body.  The 
epidermis  exercises  elastic  pres- 


sure on  the  cutaneous  capillaries, 
and  prevents  excessive  diffusion 
of  fluid  from  the  vessels.  The 
skin  has  respiratory  functions. 
The  sweat  glands  excrete  water 
and  certain  waste  products,  and 
to  some  extent  supplement  the 
kidney  excretion,  while  they  exer- 
cise a  great  influence  in  the  regu- 
lation of  the  body  temperature. 
The  skin  is  also  in  some  senses 
an  organ  for  the  sensation  of 
touch,  for  that  of  pain,  and  for 
that  of  heat  and  cold.  Certain 
drugs  are  absorbed,  though 
slowly,  by  the  unbroken  skin. 
Dry  skin  is  a  bad  conductor  of 
electricity,  but  when  soaked  with 
salt  water  the  epidermis  offers 
much  less  resistance  to  the  pass- 
age of  an  electric  current.  The 
diseases  of  the  skin  are  described 
under  Eczema,  Favus,  Lupus, 
Rashes. 

Skin-grafting  is  the  trans- 
plantation of  skin,  either  from 
one  part  of  the  body  to  another 
or  from  one  body  to  another. 
Sometimes  the  skin  of  the  lower 
animals  is  used.  The  main  point 
in  such  operations  is  the  careful 
cleansing  with  soap  and  water 
and  weak  antiseptic  fluids  both 
of  the  skin  which  is  to  be  re- 
moved and  of  the  site  for  which 
it  is  intended.  Any  healing  sur- 
face may  be  treated  by  skin- 
grafting,  but  the  operation  is 
most  commonly  used  for  the  ul- 
cers following  burns  and  scalds. 


Section  of  Skin. 

1,  Horny  layer  ;  2,  rete  Malpiphii ;  3,  co- 
rium ;  4,  blood-vessels;  5,  fat  cells;  6,  hair; 
7,  root  of  hair  in  follicle  ;  8,  miiRcular 
fibres  ;  9,  sebaceous  glands  ;  10,  sudoripa- 
rous gland. 

Sometimes  the  whole  thickness  of 
skin  is  transplanted,  and  some- 
times only  the  epithelial  layer. 
After  the  operation  the  grafted 
surface  and  that  from  which  the 
skin  has  been  removed  must  be 
dressed  antiseptically  and  en- 
couraged by  rest  and  protection 
to  heal  like  other  wounded  sur- 
faces. 


Ski:  a  Norwegian  jumping  in  Correct  Style,  Engadine  Ski  Races,  1906. 
(Photo  by  Ballance.) 


Sklnk 


KR 


243 


Skoptsy 


Skink  (Scincus),  a  genus  of 
lizards,  characterized  by  the 
short  Hmbs.  which  each  bear  five 
toes  serrated  at  their  edges,  and 
by  the  rather  short  and  conical 
tail.  Skinks  can  burrow  with 
great  rapidity,  and  are  distri- 
buted throughout  N.  Africa,  Ara- 
bia, Persia,  and  Sindh  (India). 
The  -  most  familiar  form  is  S. 
officinalis  of  the  Sahara  and 
Egypt,  which  sometimes  reaches 
eight  inches  in  length,  and  is  a 
true  desert  form,  harmonizing  in 
color  with  the  sands  of  its  natural 
habitat.  When  dried  and  pow- 
dered it  was  formerly  used  for 
medicinal  purposes,  as  it  still  is 
by  the  Arabs. 

Skinner,  Cornelia  Otis 
(1901-  ),  actress,  monologist, 
and  author,  daughter  of  Otis 
Skinner  (q.  v.),  was  born  in  Chi- 
cago and  was  educated  at  Bryn 
Mawr  and  at  the  Sorbonne, 
Paris.  In  1928  she  married 
Alden  S.  Blodget.  She  appeared 
in  many  plays  and  starred  in 
Candida,  Theatre,  The  Searching 
Wind,  and  Lady  Windermere's 
Fan.  She  was  the  author  of  sev- 
eral books,  and  monologue 
sketches  in  which  she  appeared, 
including  'Henry  VIII's  Wives' 
and  'The  Empress  Eugenie.'  Her 
best  known  books  are  Our  Hearts 
Were  Young  and  Gay  (with  Em- 
ily Kimbrough)  published  in 
1942  and  Family  Circle  published 
in  1948. 

Skinner,  John  (1721-1807), 
Scottish  divine  and  song-writer, 
was  born  at  Birse  in  Aberdeen- 
shire. In  1742  he  was  ordained 
Episcopal  minister  at  Longside  in 
Aberdeenshire.  Though  not  an 
active  sympathizer,  he  suffered 
for  Jacobitism.  He  published 
several  theological  works  (col- 
lected by  his  son  and  republished 
1809),  of  which  The  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Scotland  (1788)  was 
the  chief.  His  fame  rests  on  his 
songs,  which  won  the  enthusias- 
tic praise  of  Burns,  as  well  as  in- 
stant popularity.  Of  these  Tul- 
lochgorum.  The  Ewie  wt  the 
Crookit  Horn,  and  John  o' Baden- 
yon  are  the  most  famous.  His 
songs  and  other  poems  were  also 
issued  in  1809  by  his  son,  and  in 
1859  were  reissued  with  a  memoir 
by  H.  G.  Reid. 

Skinner,  Otis  (1858-1942), 
American  actor,  born  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.  His  professional 
career  began  in  1877  at  the  Phila- 
delphia Museum.  Afterwards  he 
played  in  New  York  in  a  Kiralfy 
spectacle,  but  in  1880  he  was  en- 
gaged by  Booth  and  for  the  next 
ten  years  was  associated  with  the 
best  companies  in  the  country. 
For  three  years  (1892-95)  he  was 
leading  man  with  Mme.  Mod- 
jeska.  Thereafter  he  acted  as  a 
star  in  romantic  plays.  He  was 
an  actor  of  ambition,  picturesque 
force,  and  excellent  taste. 


Sklpton,  town,  England,  W. 
Riding,  Yorkshire,  near  the  Aire, 
and  on  Leeds  and  Liverpool 
canal,  18  m.  n.w.  of  Bradford. 
The  11th-century  church,  en- 
larged 15th  century  and  restored 
1655,  contains  the  Clifford  tomb, 
with  brasses  (1570).  The  castle 
dates  chiefly  from  the  14th  cen- 
tury (eastern  part,  16th  century). 
'Fair  Rosamond'  is  believed  to 
have  been  born  here.  The  town 
has  spinning  and  sewing-cotton 
factories.    Pop.  12,434. 

Skirret  (Stum  sisarum),  an 
Asiatic  plant  long  cultivated  in 
Europe.  Its  value  consists  in 
its  dahlia-like  bundle  of  fleshy 
roots.  These  are  grayish  in 
color,  and  sweet-flavored  when 
properly  cooked.  Skirret  is  easily 
cultivated  from  seed  or  root 
divisions.  The  seeds  are  sown 
either  in  spring  or  in  autumn,  the 
seedlings  being  planted  out  in 
good,  rich,  deeply-dug  soil.  The 
root  divisions  are  planted  in 
April.  The  crop  may  be  dug  as 
required  through  the  autumn 
and  winter,  for  the  plant  is  quite 
hardy.  To  cook  the  roots,  they 
should  be  washed,  scraped, 
placed  in  boiling  salted  water, 
and  boiled  for  about  two  hours 
till  tender. 

Skittagetan,  a  group  of  peo- 
ple on  Queen  Charlotte  Island 
off  the  coast  of  British  Colum- 
bia. They  sometimes  pass 
under  the  name  of  Haida.  Their 
culture  is  in  most  respects  similar 
to  that  of  the  tribes  on  the  adja- 
cent coast.    See  Tlingit. 

Skittles.  This  game,  called  in 
olden  times  'kails'  in  England 
and  'kyles'  in  Scotland,  is  played 
in  a  specially  prepared  place 
called  a  skittle  alley.  It  was 
played  in  England  in  the  14th 
century,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
come  thither  from  Germany.  At 
one  end  of  the  alley  is  a  wooden 
frame  or  platform,  on  which  are 
set  up  nine  cigar-shaped  wooden 
pins  about  a  foot  high  and  from 
7  lbs.  to  9  lbs.  in  weight.  At  the 
other  end  of  the  alley,  21  ft. 
away  from  the  nearest  pin, 
stands  the  player  with  a  flattish 
circular  wooden  ball,  which  he 
throws  at  the  pins.  The  pins  are 
set  up  in  the  form  of  a  square, 
with  one  angle  towards  the 
player,  and  the  object  of  the 
player  is  to  knock  the  pins  down 
or  'floor'  them  in  as  few  throws 
as  possible.  The  balls  weigh 
from  10  lbs.  to  14  lbs.  It  is 
necessary  to  have  two  players  or 
two  sides.  Accomplished  play- 
ers can  often  knock  down  all  nine 
pins  at  one  throw,  called  a 
'floorer,'  which  counts  three  in 
scoring.  If  the  pins  are  knocked 
down  in  two  throws,  two  are 
scored;  if  in  three,  one  is  scored; 
and  if  after  three  throws  any  are 
still  standing,  nothing  is  scored. 
Another  system  of  scoring  is  by 


chalks,  one  being  chalked  to  the 
best  of  two  players  each  turn. 
Another  game  is  to  play  for  31 
exact.  Each  pin  knocked  down 
counts  one,  and  the  player  who 
reaches  that  score  with  the  fewest 
throws  is  the  winner.  If  the  final 
throw  in  this  game  added  to  a 
score  should  carry  it  beyond  31, 
that  throw  does  not  count,  and 
the  player  must  go  again,  the 
lost  throws  being  reckoned 
against  him.  A  game  called  'four 
corners,'  with  four  very  large 
pins,  one  at  each  corner  of  the 
square,  is  also  played.  In  Dutch 
skittles  the  ball  is  bowled  instead 
of  being  thrown,  and  grooves  are 
cut  for  it  to  run  in.  The  ball  has 
a  slight  bias,  and  the  center  pin, 
which  sometimes  has  to  be 
knocked  down  before  the  knock- 
ing down  of  any  other  pin  scores, 
is  usually  taller  than  the  others. 
Enfield  skittles  is  a  parlor  game 
played  with  balls  of  ivory  or  box- 
wood driven  by  a  billiard  cue. 
The  nine  pins  may  be  set  on  a 
dining-room  table,  and  the 
ground  hedged  in  by  a  frame  to 
prevent  the  balls  from  falling  off. 
See  Cassell's  Book  of  Sports  and 
Pastimes  (1892)  and  Rothe's  Das 
Kegelspiel  (1879). 

Skobeleff,  Michael  Dmitrie- 
vitch  (1841-82),  Russian  soldier, 
bom  near  Moscow;  was  sent  into 
Turkestan  (1868),  and  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  expedi- 
tions to  Khiva  and  Khokand, 
and  in  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of 
1877-8.  Having  cut  Osman  Pa- 
sha's communications  at  Plevna, 
he  occupied  that  position  after 
Osman  Pasha's  sortie.  In  1880 
he  captured  Geok-Tepe  in  Trans- 
caspia,  and  in  1881  he  was  gov- 
ernor of  Minsk.  He  was  a  prom- 
inent Panslavist.  He  died  in  a 
hotel  at  Moscow  under  mysteri- 
ous circumstances.  See  Madame 
de  Novikoff's  Skobeleff  and  the 
Slavonic  Cause  (1883). 

Skopin,  town,  central  Russia, 
Ryazan  government,  53  m.  s.  of 
Ryazan  city.  It  is  an  episcopal 
see,  and  has  a  cathedral,  town 
library  and  several  schools.  Tan- 
neries, potteries,  oil  works,  manu- 
factories of  Russia  leather,  soap, 
candles,  wax,  and  starch,  flour 
mills,  foundries  of  bell-metal, 
iron,  and  tallow  indicate  the 
industries.    Pop.  14.737. 

Skoplje,  or  Uskub.,  town, 
Yugoslavia,  province,  Kossovo, 
on  the  Vardar,  has  a  fortress,  is 
the  see  of  a  Greek  archbishop  and 
of  a  Bulgarian  bishop,  and  manu- 
factures leather.  Uskiib  was  the 
residence  of  the  Servian  kings 
after  1279.    Pop.  68,334. 

Skoptsy,  a  religious  sect  origi- 
nated in  the  18th  century  in 
government  Orel,  Russia,  and 
now  found  also  in  central  and  S. 
Russia  and  in  Finland.  Many 
have  emigrated  to  Rumania. 
Their  founder  gave  himself  out 


Skowhegan 


KR 


244 


Skull 


for  a  Son  of  God  and  is  honored 
as  such  by  the  sect.  He  was 
tjanished  to  Siberia,  later  re- 
turned to  Russia,  and  died  in 
1832  at  an  advanced  age.  Severe 
measures  have  not  been  sufificient 
to  suppress  the  sect.  They  prac- 
tice bodily  mutilations.  See 
Gehren,  Sekten  der  russischen 
Kirche  (1898);  Grass,  Heilige 
Schrift  der  Shapcen  (1904);  Wal- 
lace, Russia  (1905). 


also  raises  general  farm  produce. 
It  is  the  home  of  the  Skowhegan 
State  Fair,  the  oldest  fair  in 
North  America,  having  operated 
without  a  break  since  1812.  The 
town  has  a  public  library  and 
Bloomfield  Academy.  The  first 
settlement  was  made  here  in  1775 
Formerly  part  of  Canaan,  and  in- 
corporated as  a  town  in  1823, 
under  the  name  of  Milbum, 
Skowhegan,  in  1836,  received  the 


and  placed  either  in  a  separate 
family  or  a  subfamily.  Skuas  are 
powerful,  predaceous  birds, which 
do  not  hesitate  to  attack  man  if 


The  Human  Skull. 
A.  Skull  at  birth,  side  view  ;  b,  seen  from  above,  c.  Adult  skull,  side  view  ;  d,  front 
view  ;  E,  seen  from  below  ;  f,  seen  from  above.  1,  2.  Anterior  and  posterior  fontanelles ; 
8,  frontal  bone  ;  4,  parietal  ■  6,  occipital;  6,  sphenoid, great  wing  ;  7,  temporal ;  8,  mas- 
toid ;  9,  zygmoid;  10,  malar;  11,  superior  maxillary;  12,  nasal  bones  ;  13,  orbit;  U,  la- 
chrymal bone  ;  16,  palatine  surface  of  maxillary  bone  ;  18,  palatine  bone  ;  17,  occipital 
condyles ;  18,  anterior  nares ;  19,  posterior  nares ;  20,  foramen  magnum  ;  21,  mastoid 
process  ;  22,  auditory  meatus ;  23,  styloid  process  ;  24,  pterygoid  plate  of  sphenoid  bone  ; 
25,  glenoid  fossa. 


Skowhegan,  town,  Maine, 
CO.  seat  Somerset  co.,  40  m.  N.  by 
E.  of  Augusta,  on  the  Kennebec 
R.,  and  on  the  Maine  Central 
R.  R.  The  river  supplies  excellent 
power  to  its  manufactories, which 
produce  shoes,  yarns,  bowling 
pins,  skis,  wooden  ware,  textiles, 
worsted  and  woolen  goods,  pulp 
and  i)aper,  lumber,  flour,  etc. 
The  surrounding  district  is  en- 
gaged principally  in  dairying,  but 


name  it  now  bears.  In  1861, 
Bloomfield  was  annexed.  Pop. 
(1940)  7,159. 

Skrzynski,  Count  Alex- 
ander (1882-1931),  Polish  states- 
man. He  was  prime  minister 
(1925-1926)  and  helped  organize 
the  League  of  Nations  and  the 
Locarno  Pact  (1925). 

Skua,  a  marine  bird  closely 
related  to  the  gulls,  but  differing 
from  them  in  minor  characters. 


Great  Skua. 


molested  in  the  breeding  season; 
hence  the  name  'jaegers'  given 
them  by  the  Germans.  They  feed 
on  fish,  small  birds,  eggs,  the  flesh 
of  whales,  carrion,  and  even  on 
small  mammals,  such  as  the 
lemming.  Fish  they  rarely  catch 
for  themselves,  but  obtain  by 
robbing  smaller  marine  birds, 
such  as  some  of  the  gulls  and  the 
terns.  The  eggs,  usually  two  in 
number,  are  laid  in  a  mere  de- 
pression of  the  herbage.  The 
cry  is  a  curious  'mew.'  The 
great  skua  (Megalestris  catar- 
rhactes),  a  large  and  handsome 
bird,  measuring  twenty-one 
inches  in  length,  breeds  in  the 
Shetland  Is.  and  about  New- 
foundland. It  is  brown,  with  a 
white  wing-patch,  and  is  a  north- 
em  form.  To  the  same  genus  be- 
long three  southern  forms,  of 
which  one,  M.  antarctica,  with 
its  variety  M'Cormick's  skua, 
which  may  be  a  distinct  species, 
is  characteristic  of  the  Antarctic 
region.  All  the  other  skuas  are 
northern  forms. 

Skull,  an  expansion  of  the 
vertebral  column  at  its  upper  or 
anterior  extremity.  The  human 
skull  is  sometimes  described  as 
formed  by  four  vertebrae.  Its 
bones  develop  from  the  meso- 
blastic  layer  (see  Embryology), 
and  unite  in  several  cases  by 
sutures,  the  ledges  being  irregu- 
lar or  toothed.  Two  spots  in  the 
vault  of  the  skull  are  uncovered 
by  bone  at  birth.  These  are 
called  the  anterior  and  posterior 
fontanelles,  or  little  fountains, 
since  there  the  pulsations  of  the 
blood  may  be  felt  or  even  seen. 
The  anterior  is  the  larger,  and  is 
not  covered  by  bone  for  the  first 
year  or  two  years.  The  posterior 
becomes  ossified  in  a  few  months 
after  birth.  In  addition,  the 
sutures  are  open  at  birth,  and  re- 
main open  for  a  varying  number 
of  years.  The  cranium,  formed 
by  the  upper  and  back  part  of 
the  skull,  contains  the  brain, 
which  is  connected  with  the 
spinal  cord  through  an  opening  in 
the  base  of  the  occipital  bone.  The 


Skunk 


245 


Sladen 


bones  of  the  skull — eight  in  num- 
ber— are  pierced  in  various 
places  for  the  issue  of  cranial 
nerves,  starting  from  the  brain, 
and  for  the  passage  of  blood- 
vessels. . 

The  skull  may  vary  greatly  m 
size,  within  certain  limits,  with- 
out any  apparent  effect  upon  the 
brain  contained;  but  the  hydro- 
cephalic skull,  containing  often 
extraordinary  quantities  of  fluid, 
and  the  microcephalic  skull, 
very  small,  particularly  above 
the  level  of  the  eyes,  are  patho- 
logical examples  of  exaggeration 
in  different  directions.  The 
form  of  the  skull  also  varies, 
some  skulls  being  of  a  general 
oval  shape,  others  practically 
round.  This  variation  has  found 
an  important  application  in  an- 
thropology (q.  v.). 

Certain  diseases — e.g.  rickets, 
syphilis,  and  acromegaly — alter 
the  shape  and  size  of  the  skull. 
It  is  also  liable  to  the  inflamma- 
tory diseases  incurred  by  bone 
generally. 

Skunk  {Mephitis),  a  genus 
of  American  carnivores,  with  a 
most  fetid  secretion  which  the 
members  discharge  when  at- 
tacked or  irritated.  The  com- 
mon skunk  of  North  and  Central 
America  is  M.  mephitica,  an 
animal  about  the  size  of  a  cat, 
black,  vividly  marked  by  broad 
white  stripes  along  each  side  of 
the  back.  The  coat  consists  of 
long,  fine  hair,  especially  well 
developed  on  the  elongated  and 
bushy  tail  and  furnishing  a 
valuable  fur,  sometimes  known 
as  'Alaska  sable.'  Skunks  are 
partially  plantigrade,  and  have 


Skunk 


small  heads,  with  short,  rounded 
ears.  In  structure  they  resemble 
the  other  members  of  the  weasel 
family,  to  which  they  belong. 
The  food  is  varied,  consisting  of 
insects,  mice,  salamanders,  frogs, 
and  eggs,  skunks  being  frequent 
marauders  in  poultry  yards. 
The  characteristic  secretion  is 
contained  in  two  glands  near  the 
tail,  and  is  ejected  with  so  much 
force  that  it  is  said  to  carry  up 
to  sixteen  feet.  It  is  not  only 
highly  offensive,  but  also  very 
irritating,  especially  to  the  eyes. 

Several  smaller  species  of 
skunk  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Southwestern  United  States  in 
which  the  stripes  are  broken  into 
a  handsome  pattern  of  spots. 
The  White-backed  Skunk  {Cone- 
palus  mapurito),  of  Mexico  and 
southward,  differs  from  the 
other  forms  in  several  respects, 


and  is  referred  to  a  separate 
genus.  The  Hydrophobia  Skunk 
belongs  to  the  genus  Spilogala, 
and  is  found  chiefly  throughout 
the  Southwestern  United  States, 
though  its  range  extends  much 
farther  northward  along  the 
Pacific.  This  species  is  the  only 
member  of  the  skunk  family 
that  climbs  trees.  Consult  Stone 
and  Cram's  American  Animals. 

Skunk  Cabbage  (Symplocarpus 
foetidus),  a  perennial  herb  of  the 
family  Araceae,  common  in 
swamps  and  wet  meadows 
throughout  the  Eastern  U.  S. 
and  Canada,  and  found  also  in 
Northeastern  Asia  and  Japan. 
It  has  a  thick,  fleshy,  hood-like 
spathe,  3  to  6  inches  high, 
purplish  brown  to  greenish  yel- 
low in  color,  appearing  very 
early  in  the  spring,  enclosing  an 
oval  or  globular  spadix  covered 
with  apetalous  flowers.  Later  a 
cluster  of  large  bright  green 
leaves  appears.  The  plant  has  a 
disagreeable  odor,  from  which 
it  derives  its  name. 

Skutari.    See  Scutari. 

Skvira,  skve'ra,  town,  Ukraine, 
60  miles  southwest  of  Kiev.  It 
manufactures  Astrakhan  caps 
and  pottery.  Pop.  18,000,  mainly 
Jews. 

Sky.  See  Atmosphere;  Cloud; 
Dust;  Meteorology. 

Skye,  largest  island  of  the 
Inner  Hebrides,  Inverness-shire, 
Scotland,  extends  48K  miles 
northwest  from  the  Sound  of 
Sleat  to  Little  Minch,  which 
separates  it  from  the  Outer 
Hebrides.  It  has  bold,  deeply 
indented  coasts,  while  the  interior 
consists  chiefly  of  inhospitable 
moor  and  rugged  mountain — 
e.g.  CooHn  Hills  (3,234  ft.).  Be- 
tween the  Coolins  and  Loch 
Scavaig  lies  the  oppressively 
dark  Loch  Coruisk  (see  Scott's 
Lord  of  the  Isles) ;  and  to  the 
north  the  picturesque  Glen 
Sligachan.  The  total  area  of  the 
island  is  535  square  miles. 
Fishing  and  sheep-farming  are 
the  chief  occupations.  Portree 
is  the  capital,  and  is  a  fishing 
centre.  Pop.  13,500.  Consult 
Macculloch's  Misty  Isle  of  Skye. 

Skye  Terrier,  a  well  known 
breed  of  dog  which  came  orig- 
inally from  the  Isle  of  Skye  in 
Scotland.  Its  length  from  point 
of  nose  to  tip  of  extended  tail 
should  equal  from  three  to  three 
and  a  half  times  its  height. 
Although  almost  smothered  in 
hair,  sometimes  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  to  obscure  its  vision,  it 
is  full  of  life,  and  ready  for 
sport  of  any  sort.  Two  varieties 
are  shown  in  the  ring,  the  prick- 
eared  and  the  drop-eared,  and 
the  following  are  the  points: 
Head  long,  with  powerful  jaws 
and  incisive  teeth,  closing  level; 
skull  wide  at  front  of  brow,  nar- 
rowing between  the  ears,  and 
tapering  toward  the  muzzle;  eyes 


hazel,  medium  size,  close  set; 
muzzle  always  black;  ears,  when 
prick,  not  large,  erect  and  slant- 
ing towards  each  other  or, 
when  drop,  larger,  hanging 
straight,  lying  flat  and  close  at 
front;  body  pre-eminently  long 
and  low;  legs  short,  straight,  and 
muscular;  coat  hard,  straight, 
and  flat,  with  average  length  of 


Skye  Terrier 


five  and  a  half  inches;  tail  grace- 
fully feathered;  color  dark,  light 
blue,  gray,  fawn  with  black 
points. 

Skylark.    See  Lark. 

Skyros.    See  Scyros. 

Slade,  Felix  (1790-1868), 
English  art  collector,  was  born 
in  London,  and  devoted  his 
wealth  to  the  acquisition  of 
books  and  engravings,  and  in 
making  a  collection  of  glass, 
which  on  his  death,  together 
with  his  engravings  and  his 
pottery,  he  bequeathed  to  the 
British  Museum.  He  also  left 
money  for  the  endowment  of 
(Slade)  professorships  of  fine  art 
in  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and 
in  University  College,  London, 

Slade,  Henry  {c.  1825-1905), 
American  spiritualistic  medium 
(?),  was  born  at  Johnson's  Creek, 
Hartford,  Niagara  county,  N.  Y., 
of  which  his  parents  were  among 
the  first  settlers.  He  left  home 
when  about  twenty-one  years 
old,  and  during  the  period  of  the 
American  spiritualistic  excite- 
ment in  the  '50s  and  '60s  at- 
tracted great  attention  by  his 
'slate- writing,'  purporting  to  de- 
liver messages  from  the  other 
world.  Henry  Ward  Beecher  at- 
tended his  exhibitions  in  New 
York  City,  and  admitted  himself 
baffled  by  the  mystery.  Slade 
visited  London  in  1876,  and  gave 
'sittings'  to  many  leading  people, 
among  them  scientists  who  were 
unable  to  explain  what  they  saw 
in  his  presence.  In  the  same 
year  Prof.  E.  Ray  Lankester 
and  Dr.  Donkin  visited  him  and 
exposed  his  trickery,  and  he  was 
sentenced  to  three  months'  im- 
prisonment. The  sentence  was 
quashed  through  a  technicality 
the  following  year,  and  Slade 
fled  the  country. 

Sla'den,  Douglas  ('Brooke 
Wheelton')  (1856-  ), 
English  author  and  critic,  was 
born  in  London.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford  and  was  for  a 
time  professor  of  history  in  the 
University  of  Sydney,  New  South 
Wales.   His  numerous  works  in- 


Vol,  XL— Oct.  '25 


Slag 


246 


Slang 


elude  Australian  Lyrics  (1882); 
A  Summer  Christmas  (1884); 
In  Cornwall  and  Across  the  Sea 
(1885);  The  Spanish  Armada 
(1888) ;  The  Japs  at  Home  (1892) ; 
A  Japanese  Marriage  (1895);  In 
Sicily  (1901);  Queer  Things  about 
Japan  (1903-05);  Sicily,  the  New 
Winter  Resort  (1904);  A  Sicilian 
Marriage  (1905);  Carthage  and 
Tunis  (1905);  Egypt  and  the 
English  (1908);  Queer  Things 
about  Egypt  (1910);  The  Curse  of 
the  Nile  (1913);  Twenty  Years  of 
My  Life  (1915);  His  German 
Wife  (1915);  From  Boundary 
Rider  to  Prime  Minister  (1916); 
The  Shadow  of  a  Great  Light 
(1917);  Black  Water  (1924).  He 
was  editor  of  Who's  Who,  1897-9, 
and  of  The  Green  Book,  1910-11. 

Slag,  the  mixture  of  silicates 
produced  in  many  metallurgical 
operations.  In  making  pig  iron 
in  a  blast-furnace,  from  which  the 
greatest  quantity  is  obtained,  it 
consists  chiefly  of  lime,  magnesia, 
alumina,  and  silica,  and  varies  in 
character  from  a  rough  kind  of 
semi-transparent  glass,  which  re- 
mains unchanged  by  atmospheric 
influences,  to  an  opaque  grayish 
stone,  which  rapidly  falls  to 
pieces  when  the  excess  of  lime 
present  becomes  'slaked'  by  the 
action  of  the  moisture  of  the  air. 
A  slag  composed  chiefly  of  silica 
and  iron  oxide  is  called  a  'scoria' 
or  'cinder.'  Blast-furnace  slag  is 
almost  valueless.  The  vitreous 
Icinds  are  used  as  road-metal  and 
as  railway  ballast,  and,  when 
cast  into  blocks,  for  paving  and 
building  purposes;  a  little  is  con- 
verted, by  blowing  steam  through 
it  when  molten,  into  a  fibrous 
material  known  as  slag  wool, 
which  is  used  as  a  non-conducting 
covering  for  steam-pipes  and 
boilers  (see  Mineral  Wool). 
Slags  containing  a  large  propor- 
tion of  lime  are  utilized  to  some 
extent  to  make  cement,  the  slag 
being  granulated  and  ground 
with  additional  lime.  The  slag 
obtained  in  the  basic  process  of 
steel-making  is  of  considerable 
value  as  a  fertilizer;  besides  lime, 
it  contains  about  12  per  cent,  of 
phosphoric  acid.  It  requires  to 
be  very  finely  ground  for  use. 

Slaked  Lime.    See  Lime. 

Slander,  defamation  by  spoken 
words,  or  by  intelligible  signs,  as 
the  sign  language  employed  by 
deaf  and  dumb  persons.  To  be 
actionable,  its  effect  must  be  to 
impair  the  reputation  of  a  per- 
son for  honesty  or  virtue,  or  in- 
jure him  in  his  position,  business, 
or  occupation,  or  to  bring  upon 
him  public  contempt,  ridicule, 
or  hatred,  or  cause  him  to  be 
shunned  or  avoided.  By  the 
common  law,  in  order  to  recover, 
the  plaintiff  must  show  special 
damage,  except  in  case  of  certain 
particularly  scurrilous  imputa- 
tions, as  accusations  of  offences 
involving   moral   turpitude,  or 


unchastity  in  a  female.  The 
latter  cases  are  actionable  with- 
out proof  of  special  damage.  The 
requirement  that  special  damage 
must  generally  be  shown  is  the 
chief  distinction  between  slander 
and  hbel  (q.  v.).  The  general 
rules  of  the  law  of  libel  govern  in 
actions  for  slander  in  so  far  as 
they  are  applicable  to  spoken 
words.  The  defamatory  words 
must  be  published,  that  is,  made 
public.  A  person  in  a  public  or 
quasi-public  position  is  subject 
to  'fair  comment,'  and  this  in- 
volves questions  of  both  law  and 
fact.  Truth  is  a  justification  for 
alleged  slanderous  statements. 
See  Defamation;  Libel.  Con- 
sult Newell's  The  Law  of  Libel 
and  Slander. 

Slander  of  Title,  false  and 
malicious  statements  tending  to 
discredit  or  cast  suspicion  upon 
the  title  of  another  to  real  or 
personal  property,  or  to  dis- 
parage its  quality.  To  be  action- 
able, such  statements  must  cause 
'special'  or  actual  damage.  The 
plaintiff  must  show  that  he  had 
a  complete  or  qualified  title,  or 
at  least  a  greater  interest  in  the 
property  than  the  defendant  had; 
that  the  statements  were  made 
with  malice,  or  without  heed  to 
the  reasonable  consequences: 
and  that  he  suffered  special 
damage  as  a  result  thereof.  For 
example,  if  B  has  contracted  to 
purchase  goods  from  A,  and  C 
falsely  and  maliciously  states  to 
B  that  the  goods  are  worthless, 
and  B  breaks  his  contract  by 
refusing  to  take  the  goods  be- 
cause he  believes  C,  A  may  sue 
C  for  slander  of  title.  A  mere 
statement  of  honest  opinion,  as 
that  a  picture  is  worthless  from 
an  artistic  standpoint,  will  not 
constitute  slander  of  title. 

Slang  (Fr.  argot;  Ger.  Sauner- 
sprache.  Jargon),  a  name  applied 
to  a  certain  part  of  the  current 
vocabulary  which  may  be  said  to 
consist  of  such  colloquial  words 
and  phrases  as  are  felt  to  be  out 
of  the  common  run,  exaggerated, 
highly  metaphorical,  or  outre, 
without  being  at  the  same  time 
the  creation  of  the  person  who 
uses  them.  Slang  shades  off  into 
ordinary  colloquial  speech,  and 
is  constantly  supplying  the  or- 
dinary spoken  language  with  new 
words  and  phrases.  Expressions 
stigmatized  at  first  as  pure  slang 
are  often  in  the  end  accepted  as 
legitimate,  as  the  words  'gloam- 
ing,' 'pony,'  'banter,'  'cab,'  and 
the  term  'slang'  itself.  What  is 
slang  in  one  district  or  among 
one  set  of  people  may  not  be  so 
elsewhere,  but,  in  fact,  an  ordi- 
nary part  of  everyday  speech. 

The  distinction  of  certain 
words  and  phrases  as  slang  im- 
plies the  conception  of  a  standard 
language  or  a  normal  form  of 
speech,  popularly  regarded  as 
correct.  Yet  slang  is  not  simply 


a  departure  from  what  is  stand- 
ard or  normal.  In  the  first  place, 
it  differs  from  dialect,  with  which 
it  is  sometimes  confused.  Dialect 
is  the  peculiar  speech  of  a  special 
district  or  locality,  and  may  have 
a  slang  of  its  own.  Nor  is  slang 
the  same  as  vulgar  speech.  A 
vulgarism  may  be  defined  as  a 
colloquialism  which  is  rejected  as 
undignified  by  speakers  of  a  cer- 
tain grade  in  the  social  scale. 
Slang  consists  of  those  words  and 
phrases  which  stand  out  promi- 
nently even  in  colloquial  speech 
by  virtue  of  the  characteristics 
above  defined.  But  just  as  there 
are  many  grades  of  colloquial 
English,  so  there  are  many 
grades  of  slang.  What  is  current 
in  one  class  may  be  absolutely 
unknown  or  condemned  in  an- 
other. Each  of  the  different 
professions  and  occupations  has 
its  special  slang:  there  is  the 
slang  of  commerce,  of  the  army, 
of  the  college  and  school,  of  the 
stock-exchange,  and  even  of  art. 

Slang  is  essentially  vivid  and 
striking;  it  comes  quickly  into 
general  use;  but  for  the  same 
reason  it  is  quickly  overworked, 
grows  stale,  and  is  then  as 
quickly  dropped.  Hence,  while 
slang  has,  indeed,  contributed 
to  the  common  fund  of  speech  in 
every  language,  its  importance 
in  this  respect  may  easily  be 
overrated,  since  for  every  slang 
word  or  phrase  which  is  adopted, 
thousands  are  rejected.  The 
vogue  of  any  particular  expres- 
sion of  this  sort  is  apt  to  be 
very  brief;  and  the  constant  use 
of  slang  tends  not  only  to  vulgar- 
ize, but  to  limit,  one's  command 
of  language. 

Very  often  slang  adapts  tech- 
nical language  to  general  use.  Its 
expressions  may  be  perfectly 
natural  and  legitimate  as  origin- 
ally employed.  They  become 
slang  when  they  are  used  meta- 
phorically. They  commend  them- 
selves to  outsiders  by  their  vigor 
and  simplicity  and  somewhat 
bizarre  character.  Well-known 
examples  of  this  class  are  'pan- 
out,'  from  the  language  of  gold- 
digging;  'four-flusher,'  from  the 
poker-player;  'cinch';  to  'spot' 
{i.e.  detect);  a  'deal';  a  'walk- 
over'; 'in  the  swim';  'up  the 
flume.'  The  more  unexpected  or 
picturesque  the  application,  the 
more  terse  and  emphatic  the 
word,  the  better  fitted  it  is  to 
become  slang.  Hence  such  ex- 
pressions as  to  'cut'  a  person,  a 
'fast'  life,  bad  'form,'  a  'wall- 
flower,' a  'bird,'  a  'jim-dandy,'  a 
'peach,'  'frozen  face,'  to  'dish'  a 
person,  'fly  the  coop,'  'glad  rags,' 
to  'nail'  for  to  catch,  'mazuma' 
for  money,  and  words  like  'gas' 
and  'green'  and  'spicy,'  all  be- 
come slang  in  much  the  same 
way.  'Watered'  stock  and  a 
'corner'  in  wheat  are  of  more  lim- 
ited use.  To  'bring  off'  an  event 


Vol.  XI.— Oct.  '25 


Slang 


KSF 


247 


Slater  Fund 


to  'make  a  pile,'  to  'take  a  back 
seat,'  to  'beat  the  band,'  to  'be  the 
whole  shooting-match,'  and  'to 
talk  shop,'  are  examples  of  phrases 
whose  metaphorical  origin  is  clear. 
Another  class,  not  very  numerous, 
consists  of  coined  words  and 
phrases.  Some  are  descriptive 
compounds  like  'sky- pilot'  for 
clergyman,  and  'pot-boiler,'  which 
at  the  same  time  signifies  and  stig- 
matizes certain  works  of  art  and 
literature.  Other  words  seeni  to 
be  of  purely  arbitrary  formation, 
like  'absquatulate,'  'razzle-daz- 
zle,' etc.  Phrases  are  formed  on 
the  analogy  of  slang  expressions 
already  in  use  (hence  'in  the  know' 
compared  with  'in  the  swim');  and 
contractions  originate  new  words, 
especially  perhaps  in  older  slang 
(hence  'pmz'  and  'bus,'  and 
'mob').  Nicknames  like  'Peeler' 
from  the  name  of  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
may  be  included  in  this  class;  and 
also  words  now  generally  accepted, 
like  'boycott'  from  Captain  Boy- 
cott, and  'hooligan'  from  a  Lon- 
don thief  of  that  name.  Thieves* 
slang  or  'cant'  is  hardly  slang  in 
the  proper  sense;  nor  is  the  so- 
called  'back-slang,'  of  which 
there  are  several  varietiies  such  as 
'yennep'  for  penny,  and  'anmer' 
for  man. 

The  contribution  made  by 
foreign  languages  to  the  slang  of 
any  country,  though  it  is  not  to 
be  disregarded,  does  not  form  a 
large  proportion  of  the  whole. 
Thus  'boss'  is  from  the  Dutch 
(baas),  'tiffin'  is  Anglo-Indian, 
'dago'  is  Spanish  (Diego),  and 
'spiel'  and  bum'  are  German. 
The  Celtic  languages  and  the  im- 
ported foreign  languages,  such 
as  Romany  or  Gypsy  and  Yid- 
dish, have  made  contributions 
especially  to  the  older  slang  vo- 
cabulary. For  example,  'sheeny  * 
is  said  to  be  Yiddish,  and 
'twig'  to  be  of  Celtic  origin. 
But  most  of  the  Romany  words 
which  are  given  in  the  slang  dic- 
tionaries are  now  either  part  of 
the  standard  language,  or  have 
become  obsolete,  or  may  simply 
be  classed  as  vulgar.  'Cove,' 
'jockey,'  'mug'  (face),  'pal,' 
'moke,'  and  to  'tool'  (horses 
along)  may  be  given  as  specimens. 
Even  old  EngHsh  contributes  a 
few  resuscitated  words,  such  as  to 
'be  nuts  on'  and  to  'lark,'  and 
'larky.' 

After  eliminating  the  preceding 
classes  of  slang  words,  there  re- 
main a  very  large  number  whose 
origin  is  uncertain  or  unknown. 
Monosyllabic  and  dissyllabic 
words  are  in  a  great  majority. 
The  origin  of  words  like  'dinky,* 
'brick,'  'scads,*  'batty '  (un- 
sound or  shaky),  'fly'  (cunning), 
'fishy,'  to  'dope,'  to  'swipe,' 
'bazoo,*  and  a  scratch  team,  is 
more  or  less  obscure  or  conjec- 
tural. 

Tt  is  noteworthy   that  much 


slang  is  euphemistic;  it  delights 
in  the  invention  of  synonyms  for 
particular  words,  and  devises 
substitutes  for  others  which  peo- 

f)le  for  a  variety  of  reasons  dis- 
ike  or  hesitate  to  use.  The  gal- 
lows had  a  great  variety  of  names 
in  the  old  thieves'  slang,  as 
'hempen-widow;'  the  act  of 
dying  is  expressed  by  many 
slang  words,  as  'squeak,*  'slip 
his  wind;'  and,  similarly,  drink- 
ing and  drink  and  the  various 
stages  of  intoxication,  as  'booze,' 
'slewed,'  'dippy,'  'shot,'  etc. 
To  be  feeble-minded  or  silly  or 
eccentric  is  expressed  by  phrases 
such  as  'to  have  a  screw  loose,' 
*a  slate  off,'  'bats  in  his  belfry,' 
*to  be  cracked,'  or  'dotty,'  or 
'touched,'  or  'off  his  base';  to 
be  in  difficulties  is  expressed  by 
'to  be  in  a  hole,'  'in  a  box,'  'on 
his  beam  ends,'  or  'in  the  soup'; 
to  outwit  or  practise  an  impo- 
sition on  a  person,  by  such  equiv- 
alents as  'do,'  'give  him  a  song 
and  dance,'  'pull  his  leg,'  'take 
in,'  'josh.*  It  is  remarkable 
how  many  slang  expressions,  of 
various  degrees  of  humor,  signify 
head,  especially  in  lower-class 
slang  ('nut,'  'think-box,'  'brain- 
pan,' 'upper  story').  Monev  has 
many  equivalents  in  all  classes 
of  society  ('dough,'  'the  stuff,' 
'tin,'  'shekels,'  rhino'),  and  so 
has  the  'swell,'  'dude,'  'giddy- 
boy,*  'sport,'  or  'masher'  (com- 
pare also  the  older  designations, 
'beau,'  'blade,'  'blood,'  'buck,' 
'exquisite,'  'gallant,'  'spark'). 
The  vocabulary  of  praise  and 
blame  is  largely  augmented  by 
the  use  of  slang  equivalents. 
'Ripping,'  'swagger,*  'stunning,' 
'the  cheese,'  'rot,'  and  'poppy- 
cock,' are  but  a  few  of  many 
well-known  examples.  A  pe- 
culiarly English  contribution  to 
the  vocabulary  of  praise  is  made 
hy  what  may  be  called  mini- 
mizing expressions,  like  'not  half 
bad'  and  'a  very  decent  fellow,' 
representing  the  rhetorical  figure 
called  meiosis. 

The  more  highly  cultivated  the 
language,  the  more  prolific  is  it 
in  slang.  Greek  and  Latin  had 
each  its  argot,  specimens  of 
which  may  be  found  in  the  plays 
of  Aristophanes  (Greek)  and  in 
Latin  in  the  comedies  of  Plautus, 
the  Satires  of  Horace,  Persius, 
and  Juvenal,  and  especially  in  the 
curious  fragment  by  Petronius 
known  as  the  Satiricon.  Of 
modern  languages,  French,  Ger- 
man, and  English  (including 
American  argot)  afford  the  most 
numerous  and  interesting  ex- 
amples. 

See  the  Dictionary  of  Slang 
and  Cant,  by  Barrere  and  Leland 
(2  vols.  1897)-  Slang  and  its 
Analogues,  by  Farmer  and  Hen- 
ley (7  vols.  1890-1904);  Argot 
and  Slang  (French),  by  Albert 
Barrere   (revised  ed.  1889);  De 


Lande,  Glossaire  Erotique  (Brus- 
sels, 1861)  ;  Farrar,  Chapters  on 
Language,  (1865)  ;  Brander  Mat- 
thews, Parts  of  Speech,  pp.  187- 
213  (1901)  ;  Maitland,  American 
Slang  Dictionary  (1901);  C. 
Stoffel's  Studies  in  English 
(1894)  ;  Storm's  Englische  Philo- 
logie  (2d  ed.  1892-96)  ;  and,  for 
special  classes  of  American 
slang,  the  bulletins  issued  by  the 
American  Dialect  Society.  More 
recent  publications  are  R.  H. 
Thornton,  American  Glossary 
(1912);  C.  H.  Darling,  The 
Jargon  Book  (1919);  G.  M. 
Tucker,  American  English 
(1921)  ;  F.  N.  Scott,  List  of 
American  Slang  (in  Tract  No. 
24  of  the  Society  for  Pure  Eng- 
lish, Oxford,  1926). 

Slater,  John  Fox  (1815-84), 
American  manufacturer  and  ben- 
efactor, nephew  of  Samuel  Sla- 
ter, was  born  at  Slatersville,  R. 
I.,  and  received  an  academic  edu- 
cation. His  father,  John  Slater, 
brother  of  Samuel,  had  bought 
a  woollen  mill  at  Hopeville, 
Conn.,  and  John  Fox  was  placed 
in  charge  of  this,  and  afterward 
of  the  Slater  cotton  mill  at 
Jewett  City,  three  miles  away. 
His  brother  William  came  into 
the  business,  and  after  1842  John 
Fox  resided  at  Norwich,  Conn., 
becoming  sole  owner  of  the  mill 
property  in  1872.  He  was  a 
founder  of  the  Norwich  Free 
Academy,  gave  liberally  to  other 
local  institutions,  and  in  1882 
placed  $1,000,000  in  the  hands  of 
trustees  (the  Slater  Fund),  the 
interest  to  be  used  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  freedmen  in  the 
South.  For  this  he  received  the 
thanks  of  Congress.  Among  the 
chief  beneficiaries  of  the  Fund 
are  Tuskegee  and  Hampton  In- 
stitutes. See  the  Memorial 
(Norwich,  1885). 

Slater,  Samuel  (1768-1835), 
American  manufacturer,  was 
born  in  England,  and  emigrated 
to  the  U.  S.  in  1789,  after  hear- 
ing of  the  act  of  Congress  of  that 
year  for  the  encouragement  of 
manufactures.  Through  the  en- 
couragement of  Moses  Brown  of 
R.  I.,  he  went  to  Pawtucket  early 
in  1790  and  there  constructed 
from  memory  the  first  Arkwright 
cotton-spinning  machinery  erect- 
ed in  America.  In  1806  he  sent 
for  his  brother  John,  and  they 
established  the  mills  at  the  pres- 
ent town  of  Slatersville,  R.  I.  ; 
and  the  next  few  years  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  was  widely  ex- 
tended, with  the  Slater  system 
taken  as  a  model.  See  White's 
Memoir  (1836). 

Slater  Fund.  See  Slater, 
John  F. 


Slates 


KSF 


248     Slavery  and  Slave  Trade 


Slates  are  a  microgranular 
crystalline  stone  derived  from 
argillaceous  sediments  by  region- 
al metamorphism,  and  are  charac- 
terized by  a  perfect  cleavage 
quite  independent  of  original 
bedding,  which  has  been  induced 
by  pressure  within  the  earth. 
In  a  prehistoric  geologic  period 
it  was  clay.  Under  tremen- 
dous heat  and  pressure  due  to 
convulsions  in  the  crust  of 
the  earth  the  original  clay  was 
compressed  into  layers,  forming 
as  now  extracted,  thousands 
of  years  later,  a  remarkable 
rock  with  a  natural  cleavage  or 
fissility. 

The  essential  mineral  constitu- 
ents of  slate  are  white  mica 
(chiefly  sericite)  and  quartz. 
Secondary  prominent  constitu- 
ents are  black  mica  (biotite), 
chlorite  and  andalusite,  barite, 
rutile,  pyrite,  graphite,  feldspar, 
zircon,  tourmaline  and  carbona- 
ceous matter.  Slate-mining  is 
practically  confined  in  the  United 
States  to  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  country.  Slate  is  classified 
as  roofing  stock  and  mill  stock  ; 
the  latter  is  divided  into  'clear' 
stock,  free  from  all  ribbons  or 
veins,  and  'ribbon'  stock,  which 
comprises  about  80  per  cent  of 
the  total  output  of  structural 
slate. 

The  dense,  compact  structure 
of  natural  slate  makes  it  one  of 
the  least  absorptive  of  all  natu- 
ral stones,  the  absorption  of 
water  being  only  174  one-thou- 
sandths of  one  per  cent.  The 
specific  gravity  of  slates  from 
the  Pennsylvania  region  is  2,813, 
and  the  approximate  weight  is 
about  180  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 
Compressive  strength  is  about 
10,250  pounds  per  square  inch 
for  clear  slate  and  16,375  pounds 
f  or_  ribbon  slate.  Because  of  its 
resistance  to  sudden  shocks, 
blows  and  impacts,  it  is  used  in 
thin  layers  for  roofing,  and  in 
slabs  for  such  purposes  as  black- 
boards and  electric  panel  boards. 
Slabs  five  or  six  feet  long  can  be 
readily ^  split  into  H"  thickness 
and  finished  on  machines  without 
danger  of  damage,  while  roofing 
slate  is  split  by  chisels  into  thin 
slabs  and  then  cut  to  the  required 
sizes,  generally  from  six  by 
twelve  to  twelve  by  twenty-four 
inches. 

Channelling  machines  cut  ver- 
tical grooves  in  solid  beds  of 
slate  in  open  quarries,  to  a  depth 
of  6-8  feet  and  about  6-10  feet 
apart.  Wedges  then  split  it  into 
slabs  6  or  more  inches  in  thick- 
ness, and  these  are  then  sent  to 
a  mill  or  roofing  'shanty'  as  may 
be  determined.  Slabs  carried  to 
the  mill,  some  weighing  as  much 
as  four  tons,  are  sawed  into 
pieces  of  adaptable  size  by  slow 
turning  steel  or  cliamond  edged 
saws.  These  pieces  are  then 
split  into  desired  thicknesses  and 


surfaced  as  required  for  ultimate 
use. 

Pennsylvania  is  the  principal 
slate-producing  State,  where  the 
product  is  generally  blue-gray  or 
nearly  black  ;  Vermont  produces 
a  green  and  a  purple  slate,  while 
New  York  furnishes  the  only 
supply  of  a  natural  red  color. 
Quarries  are  found  also  in  Can- 
ada, and  in  Europe  in  Great 
Britain,  France,  Portugal,  Ger- 
many, Belgium  and  Austria. 

Consult  Tests  of  Physical  and 
Electrical  Properties  of  Slate 
(Lehigh  University,  1921);  The 
Slates  of  Wales  (National  Mu- 
seum of  Wales,  1927)  ;  Struc- 
tural Slate:  Uses  and  Standard- 
ised Types  (Structural  Service 
Bureau,  1927)  ;  and  Slate  in  the 
United  States  (Bulletin  No.  586, 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey). 

Slatin  Pasha,  Sir  Rudolf 
Karl  (1857-1932),  Egyptian 
officer,  born  in  Vienna  ;  went  to 
the  Sudan  (1878),  and  was  ap- 
pointed by  Cieneral  Gordon  gov- 
ernor of  Darfur.  After  fighting 
twenty-seven  battles,  he  had  to 
surrender  to  the  Mahdi  (1884), 
and  was  placed  in  chains  in 
Khartum.  In  1895  he  succeeded 
in  escaping.  He  then  became 
one  of  the  chief  officers  in  the 
Egyptian  Intelligence  Depart- 
ment, and  took  part  in  the  cam- 
paign ending  with  Omdurman. 
In  1900  he  was  appointed  in- 
spector-general of  the  Sudan. 
He  has  written  Fire  and  Sword 
in  the  Sudan  (1896). 

Slaughter  House  Cases.  The 
name  applied  to  a  group  of  cases 
of  far-reaching  importance  de- 
cided by  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  at  the  December  term  of 
1872.  The  state  of  Louisiana  in 
1869  had  given  to  a  corporation, 
for  sanitary  reasons,  the  exclu- 
sive right  to  maintain  stockyards, 
slaughter  houses,  etc.,  in  the  city 
of  New  Orleans,  for  a  term  of 
twenty-five  years.  Though  any 
one  was  allowed  to  kill  at  these 
establishments  upon  payment  of 
fees,  suits  were  brought  upon  the 
ground  that  privileges  guaranteed 
by  the  Fourteenth  Amendment 
were  infringed.  By  a  majority 
of  five  to  four  the  Supreme 
Court  decided  that  such  an  act 
was  within  the  proper  exercise 
of  the  police  power  of  the  state, 
and  that  the  Federal  government 
could  not  interfere.  It  declared 
that  'there  is  a  citizenship  of 
the  United  States  and  a  citizen- 
ship of  a  state  which  are  dis- 
tinct,' and,  further,  that  'there  is 
a  difference  between  the  privi- 
leges and  immunities  belonging 
to  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
as  such,  and  those  belonging  to  a 
citizen  of  the  state  as  such,  and 
that  the  latter  must  rest  for  their 
security  and  protection  where 
they  have  heretofore  rested.' 
This  decision  and  its  implications 


indicated  a  reaction  against  the 
doctrine  of  the  supreme  power 
of  the  Federal  government.  It 
is  in  Wallace's  Reports,  v.  16. 
See  Burgess,  Political  Science 
and  Constitutional  Law  (1890). 

Slaughtering:  and  Slaugh- 
ter House.  See  Abattoir; 
Packing  Industry  ;  Meat. 

Slave  Coast,  part  of  coast  of 
Upper  Guinea,  W.  Africa,  from 
the  Volta  to  the  Benin,  now  in- 
cluded in  the  spheres  of  influ- 
ence of  France  and  Great  Brit- 
ain. See  ToGOLAND ;  Dahomey  ; 
Lagos. 

Slavery  and  Slave  Trade. 

The  desire  to   obtain  freedom 
from  drudgery  by  the  possession 
of  and  absolute  control  over  one 
or  more  of  one's  fellow  beings 
appears  to  be  inherent  in  the  na- 
ture of  men ;  and  even  certain 
species  of  ants  are  accustomed 
to  capture  other  species,  and  to 
force  them  to  labor  for  their 
captors,    and  to   provide  them 
with  food.    Among  savages  and 
the  inferior   types  of  civilized 
men  this  tendency  usually  mani- 
fests itself  in  the  habit  of  as- 
signing all  disagreeable  work  to 
women,  the  man  only  following 
those  pursuits  which  please  him. 
Where  polygamy  is  practised,  it 
frequently  happens  that  the  lord 
and  master  increases  the  number 
of  his  wives  more  for  the  sake  of 
using  them  as  slaves  than  from 
any  motive  approaching  affection. 
Bt;t  organized  slavery  generally 
consists   in   the  subjugation  of 
one  race  by  another,  the  subject 
people  being  condemned  to  a  life 
of  enforced  labor  for  the  benefit 
of  their  lords.    It  is  contended, 
indeed,  by  J.  S.  Stuart-Glennie 
that  the  main  determining  condi- 
tion generally  of  the  origins  of 
civilization  has  been  a  conflict 
between  higher  and  lower  races, 
resulting  in  the  former  reducing 
the  latter  to  a  state  of  vassalage. 
It  is   obvious  that  the  leisure 
essential  to  the  advancement  of 
thought,  the  practice  of  the  arts 
and  sciences,  and  the  creation  of 
a  refined  society,  cannot  exist  in 
a  community  whose  members  are 
all   engaged   in  a  struggle  for 
the  common  necessaries  of  life. 
Anyway,  slavery  was  a  recog- 
nized feature  of  the  early  civi- 
lizations.   The  ancient  literature 
of  the  Chaldaeans  shows  a  due 
regulation  of  all  matters  relating 
to  slaves,  one  remarkable  circum- 
stance being  that  female  slaves 
were  absolutely  at  the  disposal 
of  their  master  as  concubines, 
and  that  they  even  resented  as 
a  slight  the  omission  on  his  part 
to  exercise  his  legal  right  in  this 
matter.    Not  improbably  the  jus 
primcc    noctis,    which    was  so 
widely     prevalent     in  feudal 
Europe,  is   derived   from  such 
source  as   this.     During  some 


Slavery  and  Slave  Trade 

period  in  Babylonia  many  of  the 
slaves  were  Jews,  and  the  Jews 
were  also  in  bondage  to  the 
Egyptians.  Nevertheless,  the 
Jews  were  slaveholders  in  their 
turn.  For  the  crime  of  selling  a 
free  man  as  a  slave,  the  punish- 
ment was  death.  But  fathers  were 
allowed  to  sell  their  own  daugh- 
ters into  an  actual  state  of  bond- 
age; and  the  creditors  of  an  in- 
solvent debtor  were  entitled  to 
sell  him,  his  wife,  and  his  chil- 
dren as  slaves.  A  man  reduced 
to  poverty  could  even  sell  him- 
self. All  these  instances  relate 
to  people  of  Hebrew  race,  and 
not  to  foreigners.  Frequently 
the  bondage  was  limited  in  time 
and  character;  but  sometimes  it 
became  lifelong  {e.g.  Exod.  21 :  6), 
and  the  bondman  for  life  was 
marked  by  a  hole  bored  in  his  ear. 

In  India  the  Chandala  tribes, 
assumed  to  be  conquered  aborig- 
ines, were  enslaved  by  the  Hindu 
invaders.  Of  these  serfs  the 
Hindu  law  recognized  fifteen  dif- 
ferent classes.  Early  Japanese 
history  also  reveals  a  system  of 
slavery,  although,  as  among  the 
Jews,  intermarriage  between  bond 
and  free  seems  to  have  been  not 
uncommon.  These  slaves  appear 
to  have  been  often  low  -  caste 
Japanese  ;  but  there  is  mention 
also  of  captives  taken  in  war 
(Koreans,  Malays,  and  others) 
who  were  held  as  bondsmen. 

Among  the  Greeks  slaves  were 
often  prisoners  of  war,  as  well  as 
natives  of  the  soil.  Their  condi- 
tion was  announced  to  all  men  in 
letters  tattooed  upon  their  fore- 
heads in  blue  or  red.  The  helots 
of  Sparta  are  beHeved  to  have 
been  the  dregs  of  the  aboriginal 
race,  conquered  by  the  Dorians. 
The  household  of  a  Roman  patri- 
cian included  his  slaves  as  well 
as  his  own  family,  and  over  all 
these  he  exercised  despotic  power. 
The  Greek  and  Roman  galleys 
were  rowed  by  slaves,  and  indeed 
galley-slaves  were  employed  long 
after  the  decay  of  the  Roman 
empire.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Celts  enslaved  their  Saxon  cap- 
tives, and  the  Saxons  retaliated  by 
enslaving  Celts.  Those  serfs  of 
early  Britain  were  obliged  to  wear 
a  metal  collar,  the  ends  soldered 
together,  inscribed  with  their 
own  and  their  master's  names,  a 
usage  which  continued  in  Scot- 
land down  to  the  dawn  of  the 
18th  century  in  connection  with 
those  condemned  by  the  state  to 
be  *  perpetual  servants '  of  their 
masters.  The  state  of  serfdom 
persisted  in  all  the  countries  of 
Europe  until  quite  recent  times. 
(See  Serf.)  The  '  salters  and  col- 
liers '  in  Scotland  continued  to  be 
so  treated  until  emancipated  by 
an  act  of  Parliament  of  1775,  the 
terms  of  which  proved  so  inade- 
quate that  a  supplernentary  act 
was  found  necessary  in  1799. 


250 

*  Indented  servants  *  were  pur- 
chased by  Virginian  planters 
during  the  18th  century  alike 
from  kidnappers  and  from  gov- 
ernment, the  term  of  inden- 
ture varying  from  five  to  seven 
years.  The  atrocious  system  of 
kidnapping  British  children  for 
deportation  to  the  N.  American 
colonies  as  slaves  was  carried  on 
in  Aberdeenshire  as  recently  as 
1744.  But  the  great  development 
of  the  African  slave  trade  in  the 
18th  century  was  itself  sufficient 
to  put  an  end  to  the  traffic  in 
white  slaves.  Negro  slavery  is 
of  very  ancient  date  in  the  Old 
World,  and  it  spread  into  the 
newer  lands  discovered  and  colo- 
nized by  European  nations  in  the 
15th  century  and  afterwards.  But 
it  reached  its  height  in  the  18th 
century.  Prior  to  1792  the  East 
India  Company  used  to  put  to 
death  any  slave,  male  or  female, 
in  the  island  ot  St.  Helena,  who 
struck  a  white  person  with  a 
weapon,  unless  that  white  person 
had  been  the  associate  of  slaves. 
For  an  ordinary  attempt  to  strike 
a  white  person  without  a  weapon, 
a  male  slave  suffered  castration, 
and  a  female  had  both  ears  cut 
off,  was  branded  in  the  forehead 
and  both  cheeks,  and  was  '  se- 
verely whipped.'  Runaways  were 
branded  in  the  forehead  with  the 
letter  R.  In  Jamaica  slaves  were 
branded  on  the  shoulder  with 
their  owners'  initials  with  a  brand 
dipped  in  burning  spirits. 

African  slavery  was  introduced 
into  the  English  colonies  in 
America  in  1619,  when  a  cargo 
of  slaves  was  landed  in  Virginia 
by  a  Dutch  slave-ship.  For  some 
years  the  institution  spread 
slowly;  later,  with  the  great  de- 
velopment in  tobacco  culture,  im- 
portation became  more  rapid,  and 
by  1740  about_  140,000_  negro 
slaves  had  been  imported  into  the 
colonies.  Experiments  with  In- 
dian slaves  were  also  tried  in 
several  of  the  colonies,  but  these 
proved  unsatisfactory,  increasing 
greatly  the  danger  of  Indian  mas- 
sacres. In  the  Southf^rn  colonies 
many  of  the  Indians  taken  in  war 
were  carried  to  the  West  Indies, 
where  they  were  exchanged  for 
negroes. 

_  At  first  negro  slaves  were  as- 
similated by  custom  and  law  to 
the  status  of  indentured  servants, 
the  slave,  however,  being  bound 
for  life.  Before  the  end  of  the 
17th  century  the  status  of  slaves, 
as  it  existed  in  later  American 
history,  had  been  established  by 
law.  The  property  rights  of  the 
master  to  his  slave,  and  to  the 
issue  of  female  slaves,  were  prac- 
tically absolute.  In  the  latter  half 
of  the  18th  century  the  number 
of  slaves  had  in  some  of  the  colo- 
nies become  so  great  as  to  ex- 
cite apprehensions  of  slave  in- 
surrection, and   several  of  the 


Slavery  and  Slave  Trade 

colonial  legislatures  endeavored 
by  duties  and  prohibitions  to  re- 
strict further  importation.  Such 
restrictive  laws  were  in  some 
cases  disallowed  by  the  British 
government  as  prejudicial  to  the 
interests  of  British  merchants 
engaged  in  the  slave-trade,  and 
to  those  of  the  new  planters  in 
the  colonies  who  would  have 
been  forced  to  buy  slaves  at  mo- 
nopoly prices  from  the  old  plant- 
ers had  they  not  been  enabled  to 
import  them  from  Africa.  At 
the  time  of  the  Revolution  a 
strong  sentiment  against  slavery 
existed  in  both  North  and  South, 
owing  partly  to  the  enthusiasm 
for  liberty  created  by  the  war, 
and  partly  to  the  fact  that  dec- 
ades of  over-production  of  to- 
bacco, the  staple  crop  in  the 
South,  had  greatly  impaired  the 
profitableness  of  the  institution. 
Virginia  in  1778  prohibited  fur- 
ther importation  of  slaves,  and  by 
1790  most  of  the  other  states  had 
done  likewise.  Slavery  was  abol- 
ished in  1780  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  by  1804  in  every  other 
Northern  state.  In  the  meantime 
the  inventions  of  machinery  in 
the  cotton  industry  in  England 
(1775-85)  and  the  invention  of 
the  cotton-gin  in  America  (1793) 
opened  up  a  new  field  for  the 
profitable  use  of  slave  labor. 
Cotton  -  growing  extended  with 
remarkable  rapidity,  and  slaves 
rose  in  price  from  an  aver- 
age of  $300  in  1792  to  $450  in 
1800.  South  Carolina,  which  in 
1787  had  prohibited  the  impor- 
tation of  slaves,  reopened  her 
ports  to  the  slave  trade  in  1803. 
In  1807  Congress  enacted  a  law 
prohibiting  further  importations 
of  slaves  into  the  United  States. 
The  law  was  not  enforced  with 
any  degree  of  severity,  and  the 
smuggling  of  slaves  continued, 
sometimes  on  an  extensive  scale, 
down  to  the  Civil  War.  The  il- 
licit importations,  together  with 
the  natural  increase  of  the  slave 
population,  swelled  the  number 
of  slaves  to  nearly  four  million 
before  the  abolition  of  the  insti- 
tution. 

In  a  number  of  the  states  laws 
were  enacted  penalizing  certain 
forms  of  cruelty  to  slaves;  but 
these  were  rarely  enforceable, 
owing  to  the  principle,  univer- 
sally held  in  the  slave  states,  that 
the  testimony  of  a  slave  could  not 
be  employed  as  evidence.  Local 
custom  was  practically  the  only 
force  rnitigating  the  rigors  of  the 
institution.  Among  the  better 
classes  of  slaveholders  there  was 
a  dispositon  to  avoid  the  separa- 
tion of  slave  families,  and  to 
grant  certain  other  limited  rights 
to  the  slaves. 

Economic  and  Political  Ef- 
fects OF  Slavery  in  America. 
— Slave  labor  proved  efficient 
only  in  the  cultivation  of  crops 


glaTery  and  Slave  Tradi^ 


251 


Slavery  and  Slave  Trade 


affording  opportunity  for  the 
working  of  men  in  gangs  under 
trained  overseers.  In  the  greater 
part  of  the  South  cotton  and  to- 
bacco were  the  only  crops  of  this 
nature;  in  hmited  districts  rice 
and  sugar  were  profitably  grown 
by  slave  labor.  Cotton  and  tobacco 
quickly  exhausted  the  fertility  of 
the  soil;  hence  it  was  necessary 
for  the  planter  to  take  up  large 
tracts  of  land  in  order  to  have 
new  fields  when  the  old  ones  were 
worn  out.  A  consequence  of  this 
was  the  constant  demand  for  new 
slave  territory — a  demand  which 
brought  on  the  Mexican  War,  as 
well  as  frequent  schemes  for  the 
annexation  of  Cuba.  Large  plan- 
tations were  the  most  profitable; 
hence  a  tendency  during  the  ex- 
istence of  slavery  for  the  concen- 
tration of  slaves  and  landed 
v/ealth  in  fewer  and  fewer  hands. 
Slave  labor  could  not  be  profit- 
ably employed  in  manufacture, 
and  the  general  contempt  in 
which  manual  labor  was  held, 
grov.'ing  out  of  the  existence  of 
slavery,  prevented  the  native 
white  non-slaveholding  popula- 
tion from  seeking  employment  in 
factories;  moreover,  immigrants 
from  Europe,  who  were  rapidly 
building  up  manufactures  in  the 
North,  avoided  the  slave  states. 
Hence  the  whole  region  became 
dependent  upon  the  North  and 
Europe  for  manufactured  goods; 
and  this  dependence  upon  im- 
ported manufactures  early  in  the 
century  committed  the  South  ab- 
solutely to  free  trade.  Even  the 
crdmary  mercantile  business  of 
the  South  was  largely  in  the 
hands  of  Northerners  and  Eng- 
lishmen, owing  to  the  absorption 
of  Southern  capital  by  invest- 
ments in  land  and  slaves. 

The  necessity  of  protecting 
slavery  against  interference  by 
the  Federal  Government  forced 
Southern  statesmen  to  adopt  the 
extreme  states'  rights  view  of 
the  relations  of  the  Federal  and 
state  governments.  As,  with  in- 
crease in  population  and  wealth, 
the  North  was  steadily  gaining  in 
political  power,  which  would 
eventually  endanger  the  local  in- 
stitutions of  the  South,  Southern 
politicians  gave  adherence  to  the 
view  that  any  state  might  secede 
from  the  Union  at  will.  In 
order  to  extend  the  slave  power 
into  the  new  territories,  South- 
erners held  that  the  territories 
were  the  common  property  of  the 
states,  not  of  the  Federal  govern- 
ment; hence  the  latter  had  no 
right  to  prohibit  slavery  in  the 
territories,  since  the  institution 
was  recognized  in  some  of  the 
states.  Thus  the  general  effect 
of  slavery  was  to  create  in  the 
South  an  economic  and  political 
oligarchy,  completely  united  in 
adherence  to  territorial  expan- 
sion, free  trade,  and  states'  rights. 


Abolition  of  Slavery. — As 
early  as  1760  the  Quakers  in 
Pennsylvania  made  the  holding  of 
slaves,  and  trade  in  slaves,  sub- 
jects for  church  discipline.  In 
1774  an  _  abolition  society  was 
formed  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
within  a  few  years  similar  so- 
cieties were  in  existence  in  New 
York,  Rhode  Island,  Maryland, 
Connecticut,  Virginia,  and  New 
Jersey.  These  societies  looked 
toward  the  gradual  emancipation 
of  the  slaves,  with  compensation, 
where  necessary,  to  the  masters; 
and  their  activities  aroused  no 
antagonism  even  among  the  slave- 
holders. A  popular  plan  of  the 
early  abolitionists  was  the  coloni- 
zation _  of  freedmen  in  Africa, 
since  it  was  not  believed  that 
white  and  black  could  well  live 
side  by  side  in  freedom.  A  so- 
ciety having  colonization  for  its 
object  was  founded  in  New  Jersey 
in  1816;  later  in  the  same  year 
a  National  Colonization  Society 
was  formed.  In  1821  a  colony  of 
liberated  slaves  was  started  at 
Cape  Mesurado,  Africa.  This 
grew  in  numbers,  and  in  1847 
declared  itself  an  independent 
republic  under  the  name  of  Li- 
beria. The  plans  of  colonization 
societies,  however,  proved  futile, 
so  far  as  reducing  the  number  of 
slaves  was  concerned.  Moreover, 
the  constant  rise  in  the  value  of 
slaves  made  the  burden  of  com- 
pensating the  masters  a  serious 
one.  About  1830  the  abolition 
movement  changed  its  character. 
Under  the  leadership  of  such  men 
as  Lundy,  Garrison,  Weld,  May, 
and  Phillips,  an  agitation  was  car- 
ried on  for  the  immediate  eman- 
cipation of  all  slaves  in  America. 
This  movement  soon  aroused  the 
hostility  of  the  South,  and  of 
certain  classes  in  the  North;  and 
frequent  riots,  with  many  cases 
of  violence  against  the  abolition- 
ists, marked  tiie  progress  of  the 
agitation.  Statutes  were  passed 
in  some  of  the  Southern  states 
penalizing  the  conducting  of  abo- 
litionist meetings  and  the  circu- 
lation of  abolitionist  literature; 
Southern  postmasters,  with  the 
consent  of  the  Federal  post  offxe 
department,  refused  to  distribute 
such  literature  through  the  mails. 
Sporadic  negro  uprisings,  sup- 
posed to  be  fomented  by  the  abo- 
litionists, intensified  the  hostility 
of  slaveholders  against  the  agi- 
tators. 

In  1840  the  abolitionists 
formed  the  Liberty  party,  and 
placed  James  G.  Birney  in  nomi- 
nation for  the  Presidency.  The 
vote  was  insignificant;  but  four 
years  later,  with  the  same  candi- 
date, the  party  drew  enough 
votes  away  from  Henry  Clay  to 
give  the  election  to  Polk,  whose 
policy  of  expansion  apparently 
greatly   strengthened   the  slave 


power.  In  the  remaining  years 
up  t9  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  the 
abolitionists  were  mainly  occu- 
pied in  assisting  fugitives  slaves 
to  escape  to  Canada.  In  politics 
they  acted  with  the  Free  Soil, 
later  with  the  Republican  party. 
The  latter  party,  while  opposing 
extension  of  slavery,  did  not  at 
first  contemplate  abolition  of 
slavery  within  any  brief  period. 
Abraham  Lincoln,  even  after  the 
outbreak  of  the  war,  favored  the 
plan  of  gradual  emancipation, 
extending  through  half  a  century, 
with  compensation  to  loyal  slave- 
holders. In  1862,  however, 
slavery  was  prohibited  by  Con- 
gress in  the  territories;  in  the 
same  year  it  was  abolished  for 
the  District  _  of  Columbia,  com- 
pensation being  given  the  slave- 
holder. The  Emancipation  Pro- 
clamation of  January  1,  1863, 
declared  all  slaves  in  the  seceding 
states  free;  it  did  not  affect  slav- 
ery in  the  loyal  states.  West 
Virginia  had  already  incorpo- 
rated in  its  constitution  provisions 
leading  to  gradual  emancipation; 
in  1863  Misouri,  and  in  1864 
Maryland,^  made  provisions  for 
emancipation.  Slavery  continued 
a  legal  institution  in  Delaware 
and  Kentucky  until  1865,  when 
it  was  abolished  throughout  the 
United  States  by  the  Thirteenth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution. 

Following  Lord  Mansfield's  de- 
cision in  the  negro  Somerset  case 
(1772),  that  slavery  could  not  ex- 
ist in  England,  a  movement  was 
started  by  Thomas  Clarkson  about 
1782  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave 
trade.  Of  those  associated  with 
him,  the  chief  was  William  Wil- 
berforce.  In  1792  a  motion  was 
passed  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
Pitt  consenting,  for  the  gradual 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade.  In 
1805  an  order  in  council  forbade 
the  trade  with  new  colonies,  and 
in  1807  this  was  extended  to  al! 
British  possessions  by  the  Gen- 
eral Abolition  Bill.  Various  ef- 
forts were  then  made  to  put  down 
slavery  in  the  colonies;  but  these 
were  unsuccessful  until  the  pass- 
ing of  the  Emancipation  Act  of 
1833,  which  put  an  end  to  slav- 
ery by  gradual  steps,  and  which 
arranged  for  the  payment  of 
£20,000,000  to  slaveholders. 
Slavery  was  abolished  by  France 
in  1848,  by  the  Netherlands  in 
1863,  and  by  Brazil  in  1888. 
Russian  serfdom,  formally  organ- 
ized in  the  16th  century,  was 
abolished  by  Alexander  ii.  in 
1861.  From  the  beginning  of 
the  16th  century  the  Algerine 
corsairs  were  the  scourge  of  Eu- 
ropean waters,  and  thousands  of 
white  captives  were  annually 
borne  to  Barbary,  there  to  lan- 
guish for  years  in  slavery.  It 
was  not  until  1812  that  the  naval 
powers  of  Europe  and  the  United 
States  succeeded  in  putting  an 


Slavery  and  Slave  Trade  KSF 


252 


Sleep 


end  to  their  raids.  The  Arabs 
have  always  proved  themselves 
inveterate  slaveholders,  and  their 
African  slave  trade  was  only  sup- 
pressed towards  the  close  of  the 
19th  century  by  means  of  British 
victories  in  Egypt  and  the  Sudan, 
and  by  the  vigilance  of  British 
cruisers. 

Although  the  trade  in  slaves 
was  suppressed  throughout  Af- 
rica with  the  exception  of  Liberia 
and  Abyssinia,  the  custom  of 
slave  ownership  took  longer  to 
eradicate.  In  the  British  West 
African  colonies  of  the  Gold 
Coast  and  Nigeria  permissive 
emancipation  (with  the  consent 
of  both  slave  and  master),  as 
contrasted  with  compulsory  meas- 
ures, gradually  secured  freedom 
for  all  slaves,  but  in  the  Sierra 
Leone  colony  similar  steps  were 
not  introduced  until  Jan.  1,  1928, 
when,  also,  it  was  provided  that 
all  children  born  of  slaves  after 
that  date  were  free  from  birth. 

An  international  Convention  to 
sweep  away  the  entire  institution 
of  slavery  was  concluded  in  1919 
at  St.  Germain's,  and  this  was 
followed  in  1926  by  a  second 
Convention  to  which  all  member 
States  of  the  League  of  Nations 
were  signatories.  The  League's 
Slavery  Committee  reported  that 
considerable  numbers  of  slaves 
were  being  exported  from  Abys- 
sinia to  Arabia,  and  admission  of 
that  kingdom  to  League  member- 
ship in  1923  was  conditioned 
upon  efforts  to  stamp  out  the  ne- 
farious trade.  In  1932  it  was 
reported  that  the  Slavery  Depart- 
ment set  up  by  the  Abyssinian 
ruler  had  failed  in  accomplish- 
ment of  its  objects,  and  the  con- 
tinuance of  slavery  in  that 
country  was  a  justification  put 
forward  by  Italy  three  years  later 
for  her  encroachments. 

In  Liberia,  similarly,  slave 
conditions  persisted.  A  League 
of  Nations  Commission  reported 
in  1931  that  slavery  within  the 
meaning  of  the  1926  Convention 
was  widespread  ;  that  forced  la- 
bor was  wastefully  recruited, 
frequently  by  systematic  intimi- 
dation on  the  part  of  officials  of 
the  government  and  the  Frontier 
Force ;  and  that  laborers  were 
shipped  under  conditions  of  crim- 
inal compulsion  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable from  slave-raiding 
for  constant  service  in  Spanish 
Fernando  Po  and  the  French 
Gabun.  The  long-awaited  era  of 
total  abolition  of  slavery  through- 
out the  world  had  not  yet  arrived. 

Consult  H.  Wilson,  History  of 
the  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave 
Power  in  America  0872-77); 
Spear,  The  American  Slave 
Trade  (1900)  ;  W.  H.  Smith,  A 
Political  History  of  Slavery 
(1903)  ;  Hume,  The  Abolition- 
ists (1905);  Washington,  Up 
from  Slavery  (1913);  Phillips, 


American  Negro  Slavery  (1918)  ; 
Lauber,  Indian  Slavery  in  Colo- 
nial Times  (1918);  F.  D.  Lu- 
gard,  The  Dual  Mandate  in  Trop- 
ical Africa  (1922);  N.  W. 
Eppes,  The  Negro  of  the  Old 
South  (1925)  ;  Phillips,  Life  and 
Labor  in  the  Old  South  (1929). 

Slavonia.  See  Croatia- 
Slavonia. 

Slavs,  one  of  the  chief  divi- 
sions of  the  Aryan  race  of  man- 
kind. They  have  been  divided 
into  two  leading  families,  the 
eastern  and  the  western.  The 
eastern  family  again  may  be 
subdivided  into — (1.)  Russians. 
These  include — (a)  Great  Rus- 
sians, numbering  about  forty-two 
millions ;  they  stretch  as  far 
north  as  to  Vologda  and  Novgo- 
rod, south  to  Kiev,  and  east  to 
Penza;  (&)  Little  or  Malo  Rus- 
sians, amounting  to  nearly  seven- 
teen millions  ;  they  are  found  in 
the  southern  republics  of  Russia, 
and  include  the  Ruthenians  or 
Red  Russians  in  Galicia,  and  the 
Boiki  and  Guzules  in  Bukovina  ; 
and  (c)  White  Russians,  who 
amount  to  about  four  millions  in 
the  western  districts  of  Russia. 
(2.)  The  Bulgarians,  the  ma- 
jority of  whom  inhabit  the  King- 
dom ;  they  amount  to  more  than 
five  millions.  (3.)  The  Serbo- 
Croats,  among  whom  are  includ- 
ed the  Serbs,  together  with  the 
Montenegrins,  part  of  the  popu- 
lation of  S.  Hungary,  and  a  few 
in  Russia.  They  amount  to 
nearly  ten  millions.  (4.)  The 
Slovenes,  in  Carinthia,  Carniola, 
and  part  of  Styria,  amounting  to 
more  than  one  million. 

The  western  family  includes — 
(1.)  Poles,  amounting  to  nearly 
twelve  millions,  and  the  Kashubes 
or  Kassubes,  who  are  found  near 
Danzig,  and  number  less  than 
200,000.  (2.)  Czechs  (Bohe- 
mians) and  Moravians,  amount- 
ing to  nearly  five  millions  ;  and  to 
them  may  be  added  the  Slovaks 
of  Czechoslovakia,  numbering 
some  two  millions.  (3.)  Lusa- 
tian  Wends  or  Sorbs,  divided 
into  Upper  and  Lower,  the  for- 
mer (96,000)  in  Saxony,  the 
latter  (40,000)  in  Prvtssia. 

When  the  Slavs  first  appear  in 
history  we  find  them  in  parts  of 
Europe  where  at  the  present  time 
almost  all  traces  of  them  have 
disappeared.  The  most  generally 
accepted  theory  is  that  the  orig- 
inal home  of  the  Slavs  was  in 
Volhynia  and  White  Russia. 

The  Slavonic  languages  fall 
naturally  into  an  eastern  and 
western  group,  distinguished  from 
each  other  by  marked  characteris- 
tics. The  oldest  form  of  Slavprfic 
known  is  the  so-called  Church 
or  Palseoslavonic,  into  which  the 
Bible  or  portions  of  it  were  trans- 
lated by  Cyril  and  Methodius, 
the  apostles  of  the  Slavs,  in  the 
9th  century.     Various  opinions 


have  been  held  as  to  the  char- 
acteristics and  original  home  of 
this  language.  Some  scholars 
{e.g.  Schleicher,  Safarik,  J. 
Schmidt,  and  Leskien)  consider 
it  to  be  old  Bulgarian,  whereas 
Miklosich,  Kopitar,  and  Jagic 
have  held  it  to  be  old  Slovenian. 
The  older  forms  of  all  the  lan- 
guages show  a  greater  resem- 
blance to  one  another.  The  two 
alphabets  employed  are  the  Glag- 
olitic  and  Cyrillic.  As  to  the 
relative  antiquity  of  these  most 
scholars  are  now  agreed  in  as- 
signing the  priority  to  Glagolitic. 
We  find  Glagolitic  underlying 
Cyrillic  palimpsests,  but  never 
the  reverse.  The  two  alphabets 
are  certainly  connected  :  the  let- 
ters are  almost  entirely  in  the 
same  order,  and  there  is  the  same 
deficiency  in  expressing  the 
praeiotized  vowels.  Both  are  de- 
rived from  the  Greek,  the  Cyril- 
lic from  the  uncial  and  the  Glago- 
litic probably  from  the  cursive 
form  of  writing.  The  Glagolitic 
was  not  entirely  confined  to  sa- 
cred subjects :  thus  in  it  was 
written  the  Statute  of  Vinodoal, 
so  called  from  a  district  in  Dal- 
matia,  one  of  the  most  interesting 
monuments  of  early  Slavonic 
law.  In  some  mss.  we  find  Cyril- 
lic and  Glagolitic  together,  as  in 
the  Psalter  of  Bologna  (12th 
centviry).  For  modern  Slav  lan- 
guages and  literatures,  see  Rus- 
sia, Serbia,  and  so  forth. 

Sledge.    See  Sleigh. 

Sleep,  a  natural  condition  of 
insensibility,  more  or  less  com- 
plete, recurring  normally  (for  the 
adult)  with  each  night,  and  last- 
ing for  from  six  to  eight  or  nine 
hours.  The  infant  may  sleep 
twenty  hours  out  of  each  twenty- 
four  ;  the  growing  child  may  take 
twelve  hours  at  a  stretch.  After 
middle  age  sleep  tends  to  become 
lighter — i.e.  more  easily  broken, 
and  of  shorter  duration.  The 
cavise  of  sleep  is  undetermined, 
but  is  supposed  to  depend  upon 
the  production  of  sedative  agents 
during  our  waking  activities, 
which  ultimately  clog  the  higher 
functions  of  the  brain.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  the  brain  is  compara- 
tively bloodless  during  normal 
healthy  sleep.  Sleep  of  a  sort 
may,  however,  occur  with  a  con- 
siderably congested  brain,  as  un- 
der the  effects  of  alcohol.  The 
necessary  amount  of  sleep  varies 
greatly  with  the  individual,  and 
also  with  the  occupation  of  the 
waking  hours.  Manual  occupa- 
tion out  of  doors  is  among  the 
surest  inducers  of  sleep ;  but 
over-fatigue,  whether  bodily  or 
mental,  may  produce  insomnia, 
or,  in  a  lesser  degree,  broken 
sleep  or  frequent  dreams.  Ex- 
periment is  said  to  show  that  the 
healthy  individual  sleeps  deeply 
for  the  first  two  hours  or  so ; 
then  the  sleep  becomes  lighter  for 


Sleeping  Sickness 


KSF 


253 


Slidell 


a  while,  and  then  heavier  again. 
The  ideal  sleep  is  dreamless  ;  but 
there  is  good  reason  to  believe 
that  absolutely  dreamless  sleep  is 
comparatively  rare,  dreams  tend- 
ing to  be  forgotten  if  followed  by 
deep  sleep,  and  the  vividly  re- 
membered dreams  being  those 
which  occur  just  before  waking. 

Sleep  is  a  physiological  neces- 
sity, and  the  average  individual 
suffers  considerably  after  forty- 
eight  hours  of  absolute  sleepless- 
ness. A  legal  punishment  among 
the  Chinese  is  death  by  depriva- 
tion of  sleep,  and  is  reported  to 
come  in  a  few  days.  In  natural 
deep  sleep  all  the  higher  brain- 
centres  are  more  or  less  out  of 
action,  together  with  the  senses 
of  sight,  touch,  taste,  smell  and 
hearing,  though  in  varying  de- 
grees. The  vital  functions  are 
lowered ;  respiration  and  the 
heart's  action  are  slower.  More 
oxygen  is  inspired,  less  carbon 
dioxide  is  expired.  It  is  sug- 
gested that  in  this  way  those 
products  of  activity  which  have 
produced  sleep  become  oxygen- 
ated, and  waking  is  the  result. 
Sleep  becomes  exaggerated  in 
many  idiots,  and  in  many  'hys- 
terical' cases,  when  it  may  be- 
come trance,  lasting  for  days  or 
weeks ;  and  it  is  the  prominent 
characteristic  in  sleeping  sick- 
ness. Sleeplessness,  besides 
being  caused  by  cerebral  stimu- 
lants, such  as  tea,  coffee,  and  co- 
coa, accompanies  rise  of  tempera- 
ture, frequently  precedes  delirium 
tremens,  may  be  caused  by  small 
doses  of  opium,  and  occurs  in 
the  opium-eater  or  the  morphino- 
maniac  when  the  usual  dose  is 
denied.  Many  drugs  will  pro- 
duce sleep,  but  they  must  be 
used  with  great  caution.  Gen- 
eral aids  to  sleep  are  a  well-ven- 
tilated, quiet,  darkened  room, 
and  a  fairly  hard  bed.  See  In- 
somnia. 

Sleeping  Sickness,  a  name 
applied  to  two  distinct  patho- 
logical conditions :  the  first  an 
African  disease  known  also  as 
Negro  Lethargy  ;  the  second 
a  recently  discovered  condition — 
Encephalitis  Lethargica  or 
Epidemic  Encephalitis. 

Negro  Lethargy  is  due  to  a 
protozoan  blood  parasite,  Try- 
panosoma gamhiense,  and  seems 
to  have  been  confined  originally 
to  certain  circumscribed  dis- 
tricts of  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
but  is  now  found  in  parts  of 
Uganda,  Tanganyika  Territory, 
and  elsewhere.  Two  types  are 
known,  transmitted  by  two 
varieties  of  the  tsetse  fly  (q.  v.)  : 
an  epidemic  form  transmitted 
by  Glossina  palpalis,  and  a 
highly  fatal,  non-epidemic  form 
carried  by  Glossina  morsitans. 
It  seems  specifically  a  cerebral 
disorder,  there  being  little  sign  of 
organic  mischief  elsewhere,  ex- 


cept such  as  follows  secondarily 
from  the  nervous  disorganiza- 
tion. The  invalid  sleeps  more 
and  more,  until  he  sinks  into  a 
stupor,  from  which  he  cannot  be 
roused,  and  at  last  dies  of  exhaus- 
tion, the  only  obvious  physical 
signs  being  those  of  malnutri- 
tion. The  disease  is  practically 
confined  to  Negroes,  but  cases 
occur  in  Europeans.  Atoxyl,  a 
derivative  of  arsenic,  is  the  only 
drug  as  yet  found  to  be  of  any 
value  in  treatment,  and  even  this 
is  vmsatisfactory.  Prophylactic 
measures  include  the  establish- 
ment of  segregation  camps,  and 
destruction  of  the  breeding 
places  of  the  tsetse  fly,  particu- 
larly along  the  shores  of  lakes 
and  streams.  Consult  Manson's 
Tropical  Diseases  (1914)  ;  and 
Report  of  League  of  Nations 
International  Commission  on 
Human  Trypanosomiasis. 

Encephalitis  Lethargica  is  a 
disease  of  the  central  nervous 
system  reported  first  in  1917 
from  Vienna  and  in  1918  from 
France  and  England,  after  which 
it  became  prevalent  elsewhere  in 
Europe^  and  America.  The  con- 
dition is  obviously  an  infective 
one,  but  the  causative  agent  is 
unknown.  As  a  rule,  though 
not  invariably,  the  symptoms 
develop  gradually,  beginning 
with  abnormal  drowsiness,  with 
a  tendency  to  fall  asleep  when 
reading  or  working ;  diplopia ; 
defective  vision  consequent  upon 
paresis  of  accommodation ;  a 
feeling  of  light-headedness  ;  some 
loss  of  emotional  control ;  pro- 
nounced constipation  ;  difficulty 
in  passing  urine,  and  occasion- 
ally severe  peripheral  pains 
simulating  a  localized  neuritis. 
A  rise  in  temperature,  usually 
accompanied  by  headache,  an 
increase  in  the  state  of  apathy, 
and  perhaps  vomiting,  mark  the 
true  onset  of  the  illness.  In  a 
typical  case  the  patient  may  lie 
on  his  back  motionless  for  hours 
at  a  time,  the  eyes  half  closed, 
the  face  flushed,  and  sometimes 
covered  with  beads  of  perspira- 
tion. Variations  in  the  lethar- 
gic state,  from  a  slight  degree  of 
somnolence  to  actual  coma  in 
severe  cases,  may  be  observed 
from  time  to  time.  Meningitic, 
apoplectiform,  and  neuralgic 
types  have  been  observed  but  are 
of  less  frequent  occurrence  than 
the  somnolent  type. 

The  mortality  varies,  as  does 
also  the  duration  of  the  illness. 
In  47  cases  observed  by  Bram- 
well  (of  England),  7  terminated 
fatally.  ^  In  25  cases  the  dura- 
tion varied  from  6  to  49  days. 
No  therapeutic  means  have 
proved  undoubtedly  beneficial. 
Consult  Viggo  Christiansen, 
Encephalitis  Epidemica,  in  Nel- 
son's Loose-Leaf  Living  Medi- 
cine, Vol.  VI  (1934). 


Sleeplessness.  See  Insom^ 
nia. 

Sleep-walking.  See  Som- 
nambulism. 

Sleepy  Hollow,  a  small  pic- 
turesque valley  near  Tarrytown, 
N.  Y.,  the  scene  of  'The  Legend 
of  Sleepy  Hollow'  in  Washington 
Irving's  Sketch  Book.  See 
Tarrytown. 

Sleeve  Dog.    See  Spaniels. 

Sleidanus,  Johannes  (1506- 
56),  German  historian,  whose 
real  name  was  Philippson,  was 
born  at  Schleiden.  He  is  chiefly 
known  by  his  De  Statu  Religionis 
ct  Reipublicce,  Carolo  Quinto 
CcEsare  Commentarii  (1555),  and 
Dc  Quatiior  Summis  Imperiis 
(1559).  He  also  epitomized  and 
translated  into  Latin  the  his- 
tories of  Froissart  and  Philippe 
de  Comines.  Consult  Life  by 
Baumgarten. 

Sleigh,  or  Sledge,  a  convey- 
ance without  wheels,  chiefly  used 
for  travelling  on  snow  and  ice. 
Some  move  on  runners ;  but 
many,  such  as  the  sharp-beaked, 
boat-shaped  sledge  of  the  Lap- 
lander (drawn  by  reindeer)  and 
the  majority  of  those  used  in 
Russia,  glide  along  on  iron  or 
strong  wood-protected  bottoms. 
In  Arctic  regions  dogs  are  gen- 
erally used  as  draught  animals. 
See  also  Motor  Sleighs. 

Sleswick.    See  Schleswig. 

Slick,  Sam.  See  Halibur- 
ton,  Thomas  C. 

Slickensides,  the  wall-faces 
of  veins  and  fault-fissures  in 
rocks  which  have  been  smoothed 
by  mutual  attrition  and  marked 
with  fine  striations.  The  appear- 
ance is  due  to  slow  movement  of 
the  sides  of  the  fissures  on  each 
other,  and  bears  some  resem- 
blance to  glacial  striation,  except 
that  the  markings  are  vertical,  or 
nearly  so,  and  are  found  under- 
ground. 

Slidell,  John  (1793-1871), 
American  politician,  was  born  in 
New  York  City.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Columbia  College  in 
1810,  studied  law,  settled  in  New 
Orleans  in  1819,  became  U.  S. 
district  attorney  in  1829,  and 
was  elected  to  the  Twenty-eighth 
Congress  (1843-5)  as  a  States' 
rights  Democrat.  In  1845  he 
was  appointed  minister  to  Mex- 
ico, but  that  State,  because  of 
the  annexation  of  Texas,  refused 
to  receive  him.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  in 
1853,  but  resigned  on  February 
4,  1861,  after  the  withdrawal 
of  Louisiana  from  the  Union. 
Later  in  the  same  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed Confederate  commission- 
er to  France,  ran  the  blockade  to 
Havana,  and  from  thence  sailed 
with  James  M.  Mason  for  Europe 
on  the  English  mail  steamer 
Trent.  On  the  open  sea  the 
vessel  was  stopped  by  the  U.  S. 
vessel  San  Jacinto,  and  he  was 


Slide  Rule 


KSF 


254 


Slocum 


taken  prisoner,  carried  to  Boston 
and  imprisoned  in  Fort  Warren. 
Representations,  however,  were 
immediately  made  by  Great 
Britain  to  our  government  with 
the  result  that  he  was  released. 
Slidell  reached  Paris  in  February, 
1862,  but  beyond  securing  some 
money  and  buying  a  small  iron- 
clad, the  Stonczvall,  which  did  not 
reach  American  waters  until  the 
war  was  over,  he  did  not  succeed 
in  accomplishing  much  of  impor- 
tance. The  remainder  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  England. 

Slide  Rule  is  a  rule  having 
two  or  more  linear  graduations, 
some  of  which  are  on  a  sliding 
piece,  so  that  some  function  of  a 
number  on  one  piece  is  formed 
opposite  to  it  on  the  other. 
Such  scales  are  much  used  by 
draughtsmen  to  assist  in  rapid 
calculation.  The  first  modern 
calculating  rule  was  produced 
(1620)  by  Gunter,  a  London  pro- 
fessor, while  the  cursor  or  run- 
ner is  the  invention  of  Mann- 
heim of  the  Paris  Polytechnique 
(1851).  Modern  small  slide 
rules  are  about  10  inches  long, 
and  consist  of  two  pairs  of 
scales,  with  a  cursor  and  hair- 
line for  accurate  reading.  The 
top  and  bottom  scales  give  for 
any  position  of  the  hair-line  the 
corresponding  numbers  and  their 
squares,  or  conversely  numbers 
and  their  square  roots.  The 
moving  portion  of  the  rule  is 
called  the  slide,  and  on  the  back 
of  it  there  are  three  distinct 
scales,  giving  sines,  tangents,  and 
logarithms.  The  results  can  be 
read  to  three  significant  figures. 

Slide  Valve.  See  Steam- 
Engine. 

Sligo,  maritime  county,  prov- 
ince of  Connaught,  Ireland; 
area  707  square  miles.  The  sur- 
face rises  gradually  from  the 
coast  line,  which  is  broken  by 
Sligo  and  Killala  Bays,  to  the 
Benbulben  range  (2,072  feet) 
and  the  Slieve  Gamph.  Iron, 
copper,  lead,  and  barytes  occur  ; 
woollen,  linen,  and  leather  are 
manufactured ;  and  there  is 
fishing  on  the  coast.  The  chief 
occupation,  however,  is  agricul- 
ture. Pop.  (1911)  78,850; 
(1926)  71,393. 

Sligo,  seaport  and  county 
town  of  county  Sligo,  Ireland,  is 
situated  on  Sligo  Bay  ;  34  miles 
southwest  of  Enniskillen.  It 
was  the  scene  of  St.  Patrick's 
first  missionary  efforts,  and  has 
traces  of  an  old  castle  and  fort, 
and  ruins  of  a  thirteenth-cen- 
tury Dominican  abbey.  There  is 
also  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral. 
The  town  has  woollen  and  corn 
mills  and  exports  live  stock, 
grain,  butter,  and  pork.  Pop. 
(1926)  11,439. 

Slip,  the  loss  of  efficiency 
(measured  as  a  percentage) 
caused  by  a  driving  belt  slipping 


on  the  pulleys,  or  from  a  pro- 
peller slipping  through  the  water. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  a 
water-space  between  two  piers, 
as  a  ferry-slip. 

Sloane,  Sir  Hans  (1660- 
1753),  Irish  physician  and  natu- 
ralist, was  born  in  county  Down. 
He  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1685,  and  in  1687 
went  to  Jamaica  as  physician  to 
the  governor,  and  there  made  a 
large  collection  of  plants,  of 
which  he  published  a  catalogue 
in  1696.  Meantime  he  had 
settled  in  London  to  practise  his 
profession.  In  1707  he  pub- 
lished the  first  volume  of  A 
Voyage  to  the  Islands  of  Ma- 
deira .  .  .  and  Jamaica,  with 
the  Natural  History  of  the  Last. 
He  became  president  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1727,  and  was 
court  physician  to  Queen  Anne 
and  the  first  two  Georges.  He 
bequeathed  his  collections  to  the 
nation,^  and  with  them  and  the 
Cottonian  collection  the  British 
Museum  was  founded  in  1754. 
He  was  one  of  the  promoters  of 
the  colony  of  Georgia  in  1732. 

Sloane,  Thomas  O'Conor 
(1851—  ),  American  scien- 
tist, was  born  in  New  York.  He 
was  graduated  from  St.  Francis 
Xavier  College  (1869)  and  from 
the  Columbia  School  of  Mines 
(1872),  and  was  professor  of 
natural  sciences  in  Seton  Hall 
College,  South  Orange,  N.  J. 
(1888-9).  He  invented  a  re- 
cording photometer  and  other 
scientific  instruments.  He  trans- 
lated Algave  and  Bouard's  Elec- 
tric Light  (1884),  and  published, 
among  other  works.  Home  Ex- 
periments in  Science  (1888), 
Arithmetic  of  Electricity  (1891), 
Standard  Electrical  Dictionary 
(1892),  Liquid  Air  and  the 
Liquefaction  of  Gases  (1899), 
and  The  Electrician's  Handy 
Book  (1905)  ;  Elementary  Elec- 
trical Calculations  (1909)  ;  Mo- 
tion Picture  Projection  (1921)  ; 
and  Rapid  Arithmetic  (1922). 

Sloane,  William  Milligan 
(1850-1928),  American  educator 
and  author,  born  in  Richmond, 
Ohio.  He  was  graduated  from 
Columbia  University  (1868), 
was  an  instructor  at  the  Newell 
school  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  (1868- 
72),  and  was  secretary  to  George 
Bancroft,  the  historian,  at  Berlin 
(1873-5).  He  continued  his  his- 
torical studies  in  Germany, 
under  Mommsen  and  Droysen, 
and  received  the  degree  of  ph.d. 
from  Leipzig  in  1876.  From 
1883  to  1896  he  was  professor  of 
history  at  Princeton,  and  in  1896 
he  accepted  the  same  chair  at 
Columbia.  He  was  editor  of  the 
Princeton  Reviczv  from  1886  to 
1889.  His  published  works  in- 
clude Life  and  Work  of  James 
Rcnwick  Sloane,  his  father 
(1888);  The  French  War  and 


the  Revolution  (1896)  ;  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte:  a  History  (4 
vols.,  1895-7)  ;  Life  of  James 
McCosh  (1896);  The  French 
Revolution  and  Religious  Re- 
form (1900);  The  Balkans,  a 
Laboratory  of  History  (1914; 
new  ed.  1920)  ;  Party  Govern- 
ment in  the  United  States  of 
America  (1914)  ;  Powers  and 
Aims  of  Western  Democracy 
(1921).  He  was  once  president 
of  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Letters. 

Sloat,  John  Drake  (1780- 
1867),  American  naval  officer, 
was  born  in  New  York  City. 
During  1800-01  he  was  a  mid- 
shipman in  the  navy;  re-entered 
the  service  in  1812  and  partici- 
pated in  the  capture  of  the  frig- 
ate Macedonian  by  the  United 
States.  During  1823-5  he  saw 
active  service  once  more  against 
the  West  Indian  pirates.  He 
commanded  the  Pacific  squadron 
in  1844-6,  and,  at  time  of  the 
outbreak  of  the  Mexican  War, 
believing  that  the  English  had 
designs  on  California,  he  occu- 
pied Monterey  and  San  Francis- 
co. While  the  war  was  in  prog- 
ress he  was  relieved  by  Commo- 
dore Stockton. 

Slobodskoi,  town,  Viatka  dis- 
trict of  Russia,  21  miles  north- 
east of  Viatka.  Tanning  and 
leather-dressing  and  manufac- 
ture of  fur  garments,  matches, 
soap,  and  a  bell-metal  foundry 
are  the  chief  industries.  Pop. 
10,900. 

Slocum,  Henry  Warner 
(1827-94),  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Delphi,  Onondaga 
county,  N.  Y.  He  was  graduated 
from  West  Point  in  1852.  He 
became  colonel  of  the  27th  New 
York  volunteers  in  May,  1861  ; 
was  severely  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  was  pro- 
moted brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers in  August.  He  fought 
in  the  Peninsula  campaign  under 
McClellan  ;  was  promoted  major- 
general  of  volunteers  in  July, 
1862 ;  fought  at  Manassas, 
South  Mountain,  Antietam,  and 
Chancellorsville,  and  command- 
ed the  right  wing  at  Gettys- 
burg. He  was  then  transferred 
to  the  West ;  participated  in 
the  operations  against  Atlanta  as 
commander  of  the  20th  Army 
Corps ;  and  commanded  the 
Army  of  the  Cumberland  in 
'the  march  to  the  sea'  and  in  the 
campaign  through  the  Carolinas. 
Resigning  from  the  army  in 
September,  1865,  he  was  in  the 
same  year  Democratic  candidate 
for  secretary  of  state  of  New 
York,  but  was  defeated.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1868, 
1870,  and  1884,  and  in  1876  was 
chosen  president  of  the  Brooklyn 
board  of  city  works. 

Slocum,  Joshua  (1844; 
deceased),  sailor,  born  in  Wilmot 


Slocum  Disaster 


255 


Slovaks 


township,  Nova  Scotia.  He  be- 
came a  sailor  in  boyhood,  and 
commanded  trading  vessels  ply- 
ing to  various  parts  of  the  world. 
When  the  Brazilian  navy  re- 
belled against  the  republic  he 
was  put  in  command  of  the 
Destroyer,  which  he  navigated  to 
Brazilian  waters,  though  he  did 
not  engage  in  any  actual  fighting. 
In  1892  he  built  at  Fairhaven, 
Mass.,  a  sloop  of  nine  tons  called 
the  Spray,  and  in  her  made  a 
voyage  alone  around  the  world. 
He  contributed  to  periodicals  and 
published:  The  Voyage  of  the 
'  Liberdade'  from  Brazil  to  New 
York  (1891);  Sailing  Alone 
around  the  World  (1900);  The 
Voyage  of  the  Destroyer  (1894). 

Slo'cum  Disaster.  On  June 
15,  1904,  the  large  steamboat 
General  Slocum  left  her  pier  in 
the  East  River,  New  York  City, 
having  on  board  about  1,800 
persons,  chiefly  members  of  St. 
Mark's  Lutheran  Church  of  that 
city,  bound  for  a  day's  outing. 
When  the  vessel  had  gone  about 
three  miles  up  the  river  a  fire 
was  discovered  on  the  lower 
deck.  A  panic  at  once  ensued, 
and  as  the  fire  spread  with  great 
rapidity,  many  hundreds  leaped 
into  the  water  and  were  drowned. 
The  vessel  was  finally  grounded 
near  North  Brother  Island. 
According  to  the  U.  S.  Steam- 
boat Inspection  Service,  938 
persons  perished;  the  New  York 
police  authorities  estimated  the 
number  at  1,031.  In  the  investi- 
gation that  followed  it  was  shown 
that  the  official  inspection  of  the 
boat  had  been  merely  casual; 
that  the  life-preservers  were 
nearly  worthless,  and  that  there 
had  been  little  or  no  attempt 
to  train  the  officers  or  crew 
for  emergencies.  The  captain, 
William  H.  Van  Schaick,  was 
tried  for  criminal  negligence  in 
1906,  and  was  found  guilty  and 
sentenced  to  ten  years'  imprison- 
ment, but  the  attempt  to  fasten 
legal  responsibility  upon  the 
officials  of  the  concern  which 
operated  the  steamboat  failed. 

Sloe.   See  Blackthorn. 

Slonim,  slo'nyem,  town,  Po- 
land, in  the  government  of  Grod- 
no, 75  miles  southeast  of  the  city 
of  Grodno.  It  has  distilleries, 
tanneries,  potteries,  brick  fields, 
and  factories  for  woolen  and  linen 
cloth.    Pop.  16,000. 

Sloop,  a  small  fore-and-aft- 
rigged  vessel  with  one  mast  and 
fixed  bowsprit.  Before  the  ad- 
vent of  steam  a  sloop  of  war 
was  a  vessel  of  ship-rig  smaller 
than  a  frigate,  and  carrying  guns 
on  the  upper  deck  only.  See 
Sails  and  Rigging. 

Slos'son,  Edwin  Emery 
(186.5-1929),  American  author 
and  editor,  was  born  in  Albany, 
Kan.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Kansas  and  ob- 
tained his  Ph.  D.  at  the  University 
of  Chicago  in  1902.    From  1891 


to  1903  he  was  professor  of  chem- 
istry in  the  University  of  Wyom- 
ing and  chemist  of  the  Wyoming 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
and  from  1903  to  1920  was  liter- 
ary editor  of  The  Independ- 
ent. He  was  an  associate  of  the 
Columbia  School  of  Journalism, 
1912-20,  and  was  subsequently 
director  of  Science  Service.  His 
publications  include  Great  Ameri- 
can Universities  (1910);  Major 
Prophets  of  Today  (1914);  Six 
Major  Prophets  (1916);  Creative 
Chemistry  (1919);  Easy  Lessons 
in  Education  (1921);  Plots  and 
Personalities  (1922);  Chats  on 
Science  (1923). 


Sloop 


Sloth,  sloth,  a  South  Ameri- 
can edentate  of  the  family  Brady- 
podidae.  It  is  a  purely  arboreal 
animal,  varying  in  size  from  that 
of  a  small  bear  to  that  of  a  cat, 
and  its  structure  indicates  that 
it  is  the  specialized  relict  of  a 
primitive  group.  The  fore  limbs 
are  greatly  elongated  (a  common 
characteristic  of  arboreal  ani- 
mals), and  terminate  in  hook- 
like digits,  never  more  than  three 
in  number,  by  means  of  which 
the  creature  clings  to  the 
branches.  The  hind  limbs  termi- 
nate in  similar  hooks.  The  tail 
is  rudimentary,  the  head  short 
and  rounded,  the  ears  very  small, 
and  the  hair  long  and  coarse. 
In  the  natural  habitat  the  hair 
has  a  greenish  color,  due  to  a 
covering  of  algae.  Examination 
of  sub-fossil  sloths  shows  that 
this  is  a  relatively  recent  adapta- 
tion, believed  to  be  protective. 
The  teeth  have  the  same  general 
characters  as  in  other  edentates. 
The  stomach  is  complex,  in  keep- 
ing with  the  diet  of  vegetable 
matter.  There  are  only  two 
teats,  and  but  one  young  is  pro- 
duced at  a  birth. 

Two  genera  are  known,  both 
confined  to  the  forest  region  of 
Central  and  South  America.  In 


the  genus  Bradypus  there  are 
three  toes  on  both  fore  and  hind 
feet.  The  species  are  not  well 
defined;  but  the  type  form  is  B. 
tridactylus,  remarkable  in  having 
nine  in  place  of  the  ordinary 
seven  cervical  vertebrae.  The 
two-toed  sloths  (Cholaepus)  have 
two  toes  on  the  fore  foot  and 
three  on  the  hind.  In  one 
species  at  least  (C.  hoffmanni) 
there  are  only  six  cervical  verte- 
brae. See  illustration  on  page 
256.  Consult  IngersoH's  Life  of 
Mamals. 

Sloth  Bear  (Melursus  ur- 
sinus),  a  carnivore  peculiar  to 
India,  which  differs  both  in  struc- 
ture and  habits  from  the  typical 
bears,  and  is  in  consequence 
placed  in  a  separate  genus.  The 
incisor  teeth  are  reduced  in 
number,  and  the  cheek  teeth  are 
small  and  weak,  but  the  claws 
are  well  developed  and  powerful. 
The  snout  is  elongated  and 
mobile,  while  the  palate  is  deeply 
arched.  The  animal  lives  upon 
ants,  beetles  and  their  larvae, 
termites,  and  similar  forms;  it 
only  rarely  eats  fish,  but  is 
exceedingly  fond  of  fruit  and 
honey.  Both  size  and  bulk  are 
notably  less  than  in  the  brown 
bear,  the  body-length  being 
usually  from  43^  to  53/2  feet. 
The  fur  is  long  and  coarse,  and  is 
black,  save  for  a  white  horseshoe 
on  the  chest.  The  tip  of  the 
long  muzzle  is  gray.  Though 
generally  inoffensive  and  easily 
tamed,  this  bear  has  been  known 
to  attack  man,  its  strong  claws 
inflicting  terrible  wounds. 

Slough,  sluf,  dead  soft  tissue, 
such  as  results  from  gangrene 
and  low-grade  inflammations. 
Sloughing  may  take  place  from 
the  living  tissues  as  a  whole,  or 
the  dead  tissue  may  come  away 
in  shreds. 

Slough,  slou,  market  town, 
England,  in  Buckinghamshire,  2 
miles  northeast  of  Windsor.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  Leopold  Insti- 
tute, in  memory  of  the  Duke  of 
Albany,  and  the  British  Orphan 
Asylum.  Sir  William  Herschel 
did  much  of  his  astronomical 
work  in  Slough,  and  it  was  here 
that  he  discovered  the  planet 
Uranus.  During  the  First  World 
War  a  huge  depot  for  govern- 
ment motor  cars  and  lorries  was 
erected  here.  Stoke  Poges  and 
the  Burnham  Beeches  are  in  the 
vicinity.    Pop.  33,530. 

Slovaks,  slo-vaks',  a  people 
belonging  to  the  western  branch 
of  the  Slav  family,  occupying 
principally  parts  of  the  former 
Austro-Hungarian  Empire  which 
were  included  in  the  republic 
of  Czechoslovakia  (Moravia  and 
northwestern  Hungary).  They 
are  essentially  an  agricultural 
people,  slow  in  mind,  peaceful 
in  character,  and  fond  of  music. 
Nearly  95  per  cent  of  them  are 
Roman  Catholics.  Their  lan- 
guage was  a  dialectal  form  of 


Slovenes 


KR 


256 


Small  Holdings  Act 


Czech,  and  Czech  was  employed 
in  all  their  writings  till  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  when 
the  Slovak  dialect  supplanted  it. 
They  number  over  three  million. 
There  are  about  331,000  Slovaks 
in  the  United   States,  engaged 


and  it  was  subsequently  estab- 
lished in  Sweden  and  in  Den- 
mark, through  the  efforts  of  Dr. 
Salomon  and  Dr.  Nieffert.  In 
1872  a  sloyd  school  for  boys 
and  young  men  was  founded  in 
Niiiis.     Three  Ncars  later  a  scini- 


From  the  American  Mwseum  of  Natural  History 

Two-toed  Sloth  of  Costa  Rica 


chiefly  in  mines  and  steel  mills. 
See  Czechoslovakia. 

Slovenes,  slo-venz',  a  South 
Slavic  people,  chiefly  inhabiting 
Styria,  Carinthia,  Carniola,  and 
portions  of  Istria.  They  are  a 
placid,  peaceful  race,  numbering 
some  1,144,298,  of  whom  85  per 
cent  are  Roman  Catholics.  Slo- 
vene is  a  language  closely  akin 
to  Serbo-Croatian.  There  are 
about  100,000  Slovenes  in  the 
United  States,  chiefly  unskilled 
laborers.  See  Jugoslavs;  Serb- 
Croat-Slovene  State. 

Sloyd,  sloid  (Swed.  Slojd),  a 
system  of  manual  training  which 
originated  in  Finland  and  Swed- 
en. It  is  now  an  integral  ele- 
ment of  the  curriculum  in  all 
Swedish  schools,  and  has  also 
been  introduced  into  other  coun- 
tries. It  includes  instruction  in 
carpentry,  iron-work,  stonework, 
and  the  like.  Otto  Cygnaeus, 
the  organizer  of  the  Finland 
public  school  system,  was  the 
first  to  secure  for  it  a  prominent 
place  in  a  school  curriculum, 


nary  for  the  training  of  teachers 
was  added.  See  Manual 
Training. 

Slug,  in  popular  language  any 
air-breathing  (pulmonate)  gas- 
tropod in  which  the  shell  is  rudi- 
mentary or  absent.  As,  how- 
ever, the  shell  has  been  lost 
independently  in  various  fami- 
lies of  pulmonates,  the  term  has 
no  well-defined  zoological  sig- 
nificance.    Slugs  belong  chiefly 


Common  Black  Slug  (Arion 
empiricorum) . 

to  the  families  Limacidae  and 
Arionidae.  Typical  forms  are 
elongated,  contractile,  and  point- 
ed posteriorly.    Most  of  them 


are  vegetarian,  but  some  are 
carnivorous  at  times.  They  live 
in  damp  places,  and  hide  under 
decaying  vegetation  during  the 
hot  sunshine.  Hundreds  of  eggs 
are  laid  in  the  course  of  a  sum- 
mer. The  European  slugs,  of 
which  L.  maximus,  the  Great 
Gray  Slug,  is  typical,  are  often 
destructive  to  gardens,  but  none 
of  the  American  species  is  large 
or  harmful. 

The  shelled  slugs  (Testacellidae) 
constitute  a  family,  some  mem- 
bers of  which  are  snail-like  in 
appearance,  while  others,  includ- 
ing the  type  genus,  have  only  a 
very  small  shell  placed  at  the 
extremity  of  the  elongated  body, 
near  which  is  the  breathing  pore. 
The  species  of  Testacella  are 
carnivorous,  feeding  upon  earth- 
worms. They  occur,  somewhat 
infrequently  in  Great  Britain. 
See  Gasteropoda;  Snail. 

Sluis,  slois,  village,  Nether- 
lands, 14  miles  northeast  of 
Bruges,  Belgium.  Near  here, 
on  June  24,  1340,  an  English 
fleet,  under  the  command  of 
Edward  iii,  crushingly  defeated 
a  French  fleet.  In  1492  an 
English  squadron,  under  Sir 
Edward  Poynings,  cooperated 
with  the  elector  of  Saxony  in  re- 
ducing Sluis.    Pop.  3,000. 

Slutsk,  sldbtsk,  town,  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Minsk, 
62  miles  south  of  the  city  of 
Minsk.  The  chief  industries  are 
tanning,  brickmaking,  and  the 
manufacture  of  pottery  and 
tobacco.    Pop.  14,000. 

Smack,  a  fishing  vessel,  either 
under  sail  or  steam,  having  a 
well  amidships  in  which  the  fish 
are  kept  alive. 

Smaland,  smol'an,  division  of 
Sweden,  comprising  the  counties 
of  Kalmar  (minus  Oland),  Kron- 
oberg,  and  Jonkoping. 

Small  Arms,  a  general  name 
for  portable  firearms.  See  Fire- 
arms; Rifle;  Revolver. 

Smalley,  smol'i,  George 
Washburn  (1833-1916),  Ameri- 
can journalist,  was  born  in 
Franklin,  Mass.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Yale  in  1853,  studied 
law,  and  practised  (1856-61)  in 
Boston.  In  1861  he  became  war 
correspondent  for  the  New  York 
Tribune,  and  afterwards  went  to 
Europe  to  report  upon  the 
Austro-Prussian  War  of  1866. 
Having  settled  in  London,  he 
represented  the  Tribune  there 
until  1895,  when  he  returned  to 
the  United  States  as  correspond- 
ent of  the  London  Times.  His 
publications  include  London 
Letters  (1890),  Studies  of  Men 
(1895),  and  Anglo-American 
Memories  (1911,  1912). 

Small  Holdings  Act.  In 
Great  Britain,  under  an  act  of 
1892,  a  county  council  may,  if 
there  is  a  demand  for  small  agri- 
cultural holdings,  and  if  it  thinks 
it  will  not  lose  money  on  the 
transaction,  acquire  or  lease  land. 


Smallpox 


KR 


257 


Smeaton 


and  adapt  it  for  small  holdings 
exceeding  one  acre,  but  not  ex- 
ceeding fifty  acres,  and  either  let 
it,  where  the  holding  does  not  ex- 
ceed fifteen  acres,  or  in  any  case 
sell  it,  receiving  one-fifth  of  the 
purchase  money  on  completion, 
and  the  balance  by  half-yearly 
instalments  within  fifty  years. 

Smallpox,  or  Variola,  a 
highly  infectious  and  contagious 
eruptive  fever,  said  to  have  been 
the  cause  during  the  18th  century 
of  one-tenth  of  the  total  mortal- 
ity. The  name  smallpox  was 
used  to  distinguish  it  from  the  so- 
called  'great  pox'  of  epidemic 
syphilis,  prevalent  in  that  period. 
Smallpox  is  believed  to  be  caused 
by  a  filtrable  virus.  It  is  now  a 
comparatively  rare  and  mild  dis- 
order in  civilized  countries, 
thanks  to  Jenner's  discovery  of 
the  protective  power  of  vaccina- 
tion. The  vaccination  for  small- 
pox was  introduced  to  America  in 
1799  by  Benjamin  Waterhouse. 
Thomas  Jefferson  was  largely  re- 
sponsible for  its  more  widespread 
application.  Isolation  of  the 
sufferers  and  ordinary  attempts 
at  disinfection  do  not  prevent 
spread  of  the  disease.  Smallpox 
hospitals,  should  have  uninhabi- 
ted ground  for  a  radius  of  at 
least  four  hundred  yards  about 
them.  Occasional  cases  have 
cropped  up  in  soldiers  returning 
from  wars  in  foreign  countries, 
and  in  tradespeople  returning 
from  abroad,  but  the  prompt  in- 
stitution of  mass  vaccination 
wherever  the  disease  has  appear- 
ed has  prevented  epidemics. 
The  largest  number  of  cases  are 
reported  from  states  in  which 
vaccination  is  still  not  compul- 
sory. Public  health  authorities 
and  teachers  should  warn  the 
people  of  the  dangers  of  such 
neglect.  Incubation  period  is 
twenty-four  hours  to  twelve 
days.  An  attack  is  ushered  in  by 
chills,  rise  of  temperature,  head- 
aches, vomiting,  and  violent 
pains  in  the  loins.  Three  days 
later  an  eruption  develops,  and 
the  temperature  falls,  but  rises 
again  about  the  eighth  day  after 
the  onset.  The  eruption  first 
appears  as  pimples  at  the  mar- 
gins of  the  hair.  Then  on  the 
hands,  back,  and  legs  and  a  little 
later  spreads  all  over  the  body. 
The  pimples  turn  to  vesicles 
full  of  lymph.  About  the  eighth 
day  these  become  pustular,  and 
the  temperature  rises  again. 
About  eleven  days  after  the  on- 
set crusts  begin  to  form  and  the 
temperature  falls  again.  Con- 
valescence is  then  usually  unin- 
terrupted. In  uncomplicated 
cases,  convalescence  may  take 
from  3  to  21  days.  The  sufferer 
is  a  danger  to  others  from  the 
time  of  the  onset  until  all  crosts 
and  scales  have  fallen  from  the 
body.  Attendants  may  carry 
the  infection  to  others  without 
themselves  being  ill. 


Various  forms  of  small  pox  are 
described.  The  discrete  type  is 
mild  and  occurs  in  adults  who 
become  infected  after  vaccina- 
tion in  infancy  only.  In  confluent 
smallpox  the  vesicles  run  to- 
gether, and  nearly,  half  the  cases 
are  fatal.  Such  cases  are  prac- 
tically unknown  among  the  vac- 
cinated. In  the  haemorrhagic  or 
'black'  form  all  symptoms  are  ex- 
aggerated, and  death  is  prac- 
tically certain,  and  generally 
rapid.  Small  hemorrhages  occur 
into  each  vesicle.  These  cases 
are  unknown  among  the  vaccin- 
ated. Possible  complications  and 
nearly  sequel  of  smallpox  are 
bronchitis,  pneumonia,  laryn- 
gitis, inflammatory  conditions 
of  the  middle  ear,  and  of  the  eye, 
at  times  ending  in  loss  of  sight. 
Other  residual  conditions  include 
myocarditis,  nephritis,  necrosis 
of  the  sort  palate,  erysipelas, 
celUitis,  and  osteomyelitis.  Diag- 
nosis is  based  on  the  appearance 
of  the  characteristic  vesicles. 
Chickenpox  has  a  much  shorter 
period  of  incubation,  and  the 
lesions  become  pustular  within 
24  hours,  as  compared  with  the 

4  to  8  days  required  for  this  de- 
velopment in  smallpox. 

Vaccination  in  infancy  in- 
sisted upon  by  law  in  most  civil- 
ized countries  renders  the  child 
immune  for  many  years,  and 
tends  to  modify  any  attack  in 
adult  life.  Revaccination  at 
about  the  age  of  fifteen  should  be 
practiced,  and  about  once  in  3  to 

5  years  thereafter,  or  whenever 
an  epidemic  appears.  Vaccina- 
tion within  three  days  after  in- 
fection may  favorably  modify 
the  course  of  the  disease,  and  in 
many  cases  will  greatly  lessen 
the  danger  modifying  all  symp- 
toms. 

In  treatment,  immediate  isola- 
tion is  the  first  step,  with  all 
possible  precautions  concerning 
the  disinfection  of  excreta, 
clothes,  and  attendants.  Any 
sign  of  eye-trouble  must  be  at 
once  met  by  guarding  the  eyes 
from  light,  and  by  the  frequent 
use  of  mild  antiseptic  lotions — 
e.g.  boracic  lotion.  Oily  oint- 
ments during  and  after  pustula- 
tion  aid  removal  of  the  crusts 
and  lessen  irritation.  Many 
methods  are  advocated  for  the 
prevention  of  disfigurement  by 
pitting;  but  if  the  pustules  are 
deep  they  will  leave  scars  in  spite 
of  all  care.  Hospitalization  is 
recommended  whenever  possible. 
Some  persons  are  apparently  per- 
fectly immune,  being  neither 
capable  of  vaccination  nor  sus- 
ceptible to  infection.  Although 
it  can  be  truly  stated  that  this 
dread  disease  is  now  on  the  wane, 
neglect  of  vaccination  and  re- 
vaccination  might  very  shortly 
lead  to  a  growing  non-immune 
population  with  disastrous  re- 
sults. Cases  of  exaggerated  re- 
action to  vaccination,  which  may 


be  severe  or  even  fatal,  are  ex- 
tremely rare.    See  Vaccination. 

Smallwood,  William  (1732- 
92),  American  soldier,  bom  in 
Kent  CO.,  Md.  He  commanded 
the  Maryland  troops  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Long  Island  in  1776;  was 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  White 
Plains;  was  promoted  brigadier 
general  in  October,  1776;  and 
fought  at  Ft.  Washington,  Ger- 
man town,  Camden,  and  else- 
where. In  1780  he  was  commis- 
sioned major  general,  but  de- 
clined to  serve  under  Baron 
Steuben,  and  threatened  to  with- 
draw from  the  army,  but  ulti- 
mately remained  in  it  until  the 
close  of  the  war.  In  1785  he  was 
elected  governor  '  of  Maryland 
and  also  a  member  of  the  Con- 
gress of  the  Confederation. 

Smalt,  a  silicate  of  potassium 
and  cobalt,  obtained  by  melting 
the  crude  cobalt  oxide,  which  is 
got  by  roasting  cobalt  ore,  with 
potassium  carbonate  and  quartz. 
The  product  is  poured  into  water 
and  then  finely  ground.  It  forms 
a  permanent  blue  pigment,  which 
is  used  for  glass-staining,  china- 
painting,  and  as  an  oil  and  water 
color;  but  it  has  been  largely 
superseded  by  artificial  ultra- 
marine. 

Smart,  Christopher  (1722- 
71),  English  poet,  bom  at  Ship- 
boume,  Kent,  became  fellow  of 
Pembroke  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1745.  When  debt  and  dis- 
sipation drove  him  from  Cam- 
bridge, he  went  to  London  and 
worked  as  a  bookseller's  hack. 
About  1756  he  went  mad,  and 
was  confined  till  1759  in  an  asy- 
lum. During  this  time  he  is 
said  to  have  scratched  with  a 
key  a  part  of  his  now  famous 
Song  to  David  (1763)  on  the  wain- 
scot of  his  room,  he  being  denied 
the  use  of  pen,  ink,  and  paper. 
His  last  days  were  spent  in  the 
King's  Bench  prison,  where  he 
was  relieved  from  the  extremity 
of  want  through  the  kindness  of 
Dr.  Burney.  Other  poems  are 
the  Hop-Garden;  the  HilUad 
(1753),  an  attack  on  Hill  the 
botanist;  Fables  {17 &2>);  a  prose 
translation  of  Horace  (1756); 
Odes  and  Ballads:  and  much 
Latin  verse.  The  best  biography 
is  in  Anderson's  British  Poets. 
See  also  Browning's  Parleyings 
with  Certain  People  (1887). 

Smart  weed,  a  name  some- 
times given  to  Polygonum  Hydro, 
piper,  the  common  waterpepper- 
It  bears  slender,  loose,  drooping 
spikes  of  greenish  flowers.  The 
fresh  juice  is  acrid,  and  possesses 
a  characteristic  flavor. 

Smeaton,  John  (1724-92), 
English  civil  engineer,  was  bom 
near  Leeds.  Starting  as  a  maker 
of  philosophical  instruments,  he 
gradually  turned  his  attention  to 
engineering,  and  became  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1753. 
After  1755  he  designed  the  third 
Eddystone  lighthouse  entirely  of 


Smectymnuus 


KR 


258 


Smillie 


stone,  dovetailing  the  stones  in 
their  various  courses.  This  Ught- 
house  stood  until  1877  when  it 
was  taken  down  because  the  reef 
on  which  it  was  built  had  become 
undermined.  After  that  Smeaton 
built  several  bridges  in  Scotland, 
and  strengthened  the  foundation 
buttresses  of  the  North  Bridge, 
Edinburgh  (1769).  He  was  also 
the  surveyor  and  engineer  of  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  begun 
in  1768,  but  not  completed  till 
1790.  See  Smiles'  Lives  of  the 
Engineers  (ed.  1874). 

S  mec  ty  m  nuu  s,  the  initials  of 
certain  Nonconformist  writers 
who  published  (1641)  a  reply  to 
Bishop  Hall's  Humble  Remon- 
strance to  the  High  Court  of  Par- 
liament (1641),  written  in  defence 
of  Episcopacy  and  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer.  Their  names 
were  Stephen  Marshall,  Edmund 
Calamy,  Thomas  Young,  Mat- 
thew Newcomen,  William  Spurs- 
tow.  Milton  supported  the  Smec- 
tymnuan  divines  with  three  pam- 
phlets. 

Smederevo.  See  Semenexria. 

S medley,  Francis  Edward 
(1818-64),  English  novelist 
(known  as  Frank  Smedley),  was 
bom  at  Great  Marlow,  and  was  a 
cripple.  In  1850  he  published 
Frank  Fairlegh,  a  series  of 
sketches  contributed  (1846-8)  to 
Sharpe's  London  Magazine.  An- 
other edition  was  published  in 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  also 
in  1850.  This  novel,  which  ranks 
with  Tom  Brown's  School  Days, 
was  an  instant  success.  He  also 
wrote  Lewis  Arundel  (1852), 
Harry  Coverdale' s  Courtship 
(1855)  which  were  illustrated  by 
Cruikshank  and  Phiz,  and 
Mirth  and  Metre  (with  Edmund 
Yates)  (1855). 

Smedley,  William  Thomas 
(1858-1920),  American  painter 
and  illustrator,  bom  in  Chester 
CO.,  Pa.,  and  a  student  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Academy,  and  of 
J.  P.  Laurens  in  Paris.  He  set- 
tled in  New  York  city  in  1880 
and  devoted  himself  to  illustra- 
tions, of  which  he  made  a  large 
number  for  Harper  s  and  other 
magazines.  In  1882  he  accom- 
panied the  Marquis  of  Lome  in  a 
trip  through  Canada,  making 
the  sketches  for  the  volume  Pic- 
turesque Canada.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  National  Aca- 
demy of  Design  in  1905.  He  re- 
ceived the  Evans  Prize  at  the 
American  Water  Color  Society  in 
1890.  In  later  years,  in  addition 
to  effective  illustrations  of  every- 
day life  for  books  and  magazines, 
he  painted  a  number  of  portraits, 
among  them  that  of  a  man  in  the 
N.  Y.  National  Academy  exhi- 
bition of  190.3,  and  that  of  Ruth 
at  the  exhibition  of  1906. 

Smee  Cell.  See  Cells,  Vol- 
taic, 

Smellle,  William  (1740-95), 
Scottish  printer,  antiquary,  and 


naturalist,  was  born  in  Edin- 
burgh, and  became  an  enthus- 
iastic botanist.  Meantime  he 
continued  his  business  as  a 
printer,  and  wrote  a  goodly  part 
of  the  first  edition  of  the  Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica,  which  he 
printed.  See  Kerr's  Memoirs  of 
the  Life  of  Smellie  (1811). 

Smelling  Salts,  a  prepara- 
tion of  ammonium  carbonate  to- 
gether with  some  pleasant  per- 
fume, used  as  a  restorative  and 
stimulant  in  faintness,  and  for 
relief  in  cases  of  nasal  catarrh. 

Smelt  (Osmerus),  a  genus  of 
fish  belonging  to  the  salmon 
family,  characterized  by  the  elon- 
gated body,  the  wide  mouth- 
cleft,  the  moderate-sized  scales, 
and  the  well-developed  teeth, 
some  of  which  are  tusklike.  The 
common  European  smelt  (O. 
eperlanus),  the  sparling  or  spir- 
ling  of  Scotland,  spawns  in  brack- 
ish water,  and  is  found  in  the 
mouths  of  rivers  in  N.  Europe. 
The  eastern  American  smelt  (O. 
merdax)  is  almost  the  same.  It 
does  not  exceed  twelve  inches  in 
length,  and  is  light  olive-green 
on  the  back,  and  silvery  at  the 
sides  and  below,  with  a  specially 
silvery  band  running  along  each 
side.  Another  species  of  the 
same  genus  is  found  in  Califor- 
nia, and  a  fourth  in  Japan;  and 
everywhere  they  are  delicate  and 
important  additions  to  the  local 
supply  of  sea-food,  and  are  taken 
in  vast  numbers. 

Smelting  and  Chemical 
Furnaces,  Electric.  See  Elec- 
trometallurgy. 

Smerdis,  a  son  of  Cyrus  the 
Great,  who  was  put  to  death 
about  525  B.C.  by  his  brother 
Cambyses,  But  he  was  person- 
ated by  Gaumata,  a  Mede,  who, 
after  Cambyses'  death,  secured 
the  throne,  Darius,  the  son  of 
Hystaspes,  formed  a  conspiracy 
against  him,  killed  him  (521  B,c.) 
and  seized  the  throne. 

Smerwick,  peninsula  and 
bay,  Ireland,  west  Co,  Kerry, 
5J^  m,  N,w,  of  Dingle;  was  in 
1579  the  scene  of  the  slaughter 
of  six  hundred  invading  Italian 
and  Spanish  soldiers  by  Lord- 
Deputy  Grey  and  Walter  Ra- 
leigh. 

Smetana,  Friedrich  (1824- 
84),  Bohemian  pianist  and  com- 
power,  born  at  Leitomischl.  He 
studied  under  Liszt;  was  a  bril- 
liant pianist;  held  appointments 
as  conductor — e.g.  at  Gothen- 
burg (1856-61) — and  as  director 
of  the  National  Theatre  at 
Prague  (1866-74);  founded  a 
school  of  music  in  Prague,  and 
was  the  teacher  of  Dvorak,  His 
compositions  are  distinctively 
Bohemian  in  character. 

Smew,  Smee,  or  Nun  (Mer- 
gus  albellus),  a  duck  belonging  to 
the  same  genus  as  the  merganser, 
and  an  occasional  visitor  to  the 
British    area.     The    drake  in 


nuptial  plumage  is  a  beautiful 
bird,  having  a  white  head  marked 
with  greenish  blue,  while  the 
neck  and  under  surface  are  white, 
and  the  back  is  marked  with 
black,  brown,  gray,  and  white. 
The  bird  is  only  about  seventeen 
inches  long, 

S  michow,  town,  Czechoslova- 
kia, a  suburb  of  Prague,  Pop. 
56,000. 

Smilacina,  a  genus  of  hardy 
herbaceous  plants,  belonging  to 
the  order  Liliacae,  bearing  ra- 
cemes or  panicles  of  mostly  small 
flowers.  They  are  easily  grown 
in  ordinary  garden  soil.  5.  stel- 
lata,  the  star-flowered  lily  of  the 
valley,  and  5,  racemosa,  the  false 
Solomon's  seal,  are  most  worth 
cultivating. 

Smilax,  a  genus  of  shrubbery 
plants  belonging  to  the  order 
Liliaceae,  They  bear  umbels  of 
small,  dioecious  flowers,  and  the 
roots  of  several  species  consti- 
tute sarsaparilla,  5,  herbacea  is 
the  carrion-flower,  an  unarmed 
climber,  with  tassels  of  evil- 
smelling  flowers.  Other  species 
viciously  armed  with  prickles 
are  the  various  green-briers  or 
catbriers  (S.  rotundifolia)  {S. 
glauca). 

Smiles,  Samuel  (1812-1904), 
Scottish  biographer,  was  born  at 
Haddington,  In  1838  he  became 
editor  of  the  Leeds  Times.  Ap- 
pointed in  1845  secretary  of  the 
Leeds  and  Thirsk  Ry.,  and 
changing  in  1854  to  the  same 
post  on  the  South-Eastern  Ry., 
he  retired  in  1866.  Smiles  is  the 
biographer  and  historian  of  self- 
made  men  and  noble  industry. 
His  books  include  George  Stephen- 
son (1857);  Lives  of  the  Engineers 

(1862)  ;     Industrial  Biography 

(1863)  ;  Boulton  and  Watt  (1865); 
Thomas  Edwards,  Scottish  Nat- 
uralist (1876);  Robert  Dick,  Ge- 
ologist and  Botanist  (1878);  Men 
of  Invention  and  Industry  (1884); 
and  Jasmyn,  Barber,  Poet,  and 
Philanthropist  (1891).  He  edited 
the  Autobiography  of  James  Na- 
smyth  (1883).  His  Self-Help 
(1860)  had  an  extraordinary  suc- 
cess, and  was  followed  in  1871  by 
Character,  Duty,  Thrift,  and  Con- 
duct. A  History  of  Ireland  (1844), 
The  Huguenots  in  England  and 
Ireland  (1869),  and  The  Hugue- 
nots in  France  after  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  (1874)  are  his  main  his- 
torical works.  See  Autobio- 
graphy, edited  by  Thomas  Mac- 
kay  (1905), 

Smillie,  George  Henry 
(1840-1921),  American  painter, 
born  in  New  York  city,  and  a 
pupil  of  his  father,  the  engraver, 
and  of  James  Hart,  After  some 
European  study  he  settled  in 
New  York  in  1862,  and  was 
elected  to  the  National  Academy 
of  Design  in  1882,  and  later  to 
the  Water  Color  Society.  At 
St.  Louis  in  1904  he  was  awarded  a 
bronze  medal.  Among  his  works  in 


Smillie 


KFP 


259 


Smith 


public  museums  are  The  Merri- 
mac  River  (Boston  Art  Club), 
Light  and  Shadow  Along  Shore 
(Union  League  Club,  Philadel- 
phia), and  Autumn  on  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Coast  and  Long  Is- 
land Farm  Scene  (Corcoran  Art 
Gallery).  His  September  on  the 
New  England  Coast  gained  a 
prize  at  the  exhibit  of  the  Amer- 
ican Art  Association  in  1885. 
His  other  pictures  include  Boats 
of  Venice  (1902);  Gloucester 
Harbor  (1903)  ;  Grey  Day 
(1904) ;  Vineyard  Sound  (1905) ; 
At  Narragansett  (1906). 

Smillie,  James  David  (1833- 
1909),  American  engraver,  etch- 
er, and  landscape  painter,  broth- 
er of  George  Henry  Smillie 
(q.  v.),  was  born  in  New  York 
City,  studied  with  his  father  at 
the  National  Academy  of  Design 
and  later  in  Germany,  and  did 
his  first  work  in  banknote  en- 
graving. In  1876  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy. He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  American  Water  Color 
Society  (1866)  and  of  the  New 
York  Etching  Club  (1878),  and 
was  an  'original  fellow'  of  the 
Painter-Etcher  Society  of  Lon- 
don. He  organized  and  taught 
the  department  of  freehand  etch- 
ing in  the  National  Academy  of 
Design,  and  made  reproductive 
etchings  of  paintings  by  Wins- 
low  Homer,  Alma-Tadema,  and 
others,  as  well  as  a  number  of 
portraits.  Many  of  his  paintings 
are  spirited  portrayals  of  far 
western  scenes. 

Smirke,  Sir  Robert  (1781- 
1867),  English  architect,  was 
born  in  London.  His  best  known 
buildings  are  the  Post  Office, 
London,  and  the  British  Muse- 
um (1847).  He  also  designed  the 
Covent  Garden  Theatre,  London 
and  Union  Club. 

Smirke,  Sydney  (1798- 
1877),  English  architect,  was 
born  in  London.  He  collaborated 
with  his  brother.  Sir  Robert 
(q.  V.)  ;  completed  the  Temple 
Church  restoration  and  the  Brit- 
ish Museum  ;  restored  the  Savoy 
Chapel ;  remodeled  the  Carlton 
Club,  and  rebuilt  the  Inner  Tem- 
ple Hall.  His  latest  work  was  the 
Royal  Academy  buildings,  Bur- 
lington House. 

Smith,  the  most  general  sur- 
name in  the  world,  being  com- 
mon not  only  in  its  English 
form,  but  under  the  designations 
which  correspond  to  it  in  various 
languages.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that,  like  most  other 
names,  it  originated  from  the 
trade  of  the  bearer.  The  name  is 
still  further  defined  by  such 
qualifying  terms  as  Whitsmith 
(=  white  smith),  Brownsmith, 
Arrowsmith,  Nasmyth  (=  nail 
smith). 

Smith.  Adam  (1723-90), 
Scottish  political  economist,  was 


born  in  Kirkcaldy,  was  educated 
at  Glasgow  University  and  at 
Oxford,  and  in  1748  joined  the 
literary  circle  in  Edinburgh, 
where  he  delivered  a  course  of 
lectures  on  literature  and  criti- 
cism. He  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  logic  in  (jlasgow  Univer- 
sity in  1751  and  the  next  year 
was  transferred  to  the  chair  of 
moral  philosophy.  In  1759  he 
published  his  Theory  of  the 
Moral  Sentiments,  in  which  he 
takes  sympathy  as  the  root  idea 
in  morals — a  doctrine  for  which 
modern  sociologists — e.g.,  Gid- 
dings — claim  an  importance  al- 
most equal  to  that  of  his  eco- 
nomic researches.  He  became 
tutor  to  the  young  Duke  of  Buc- 


Adam  Smith 


cleuch,  in  1763,  resigned  his 
chair  in  Glasgow,  and  returned 
to  Kirkcaldy,  where  in  1776  he 
published  his  famous  Inquiry 
into  the  Nature  and  Causes  of 
the  Wealth  of  Nations.  The  book 
won  immediate  recognition  and 
Adam  Smith  was  unhesitatingly 
hailed  as  a  master.  During  the 
war  with  the  American  colonies, 
Lord  North  seems  to  have  been 
influenced  by  this  work  in  im- 
posing new  taxes;  and  in  1783 
Smith  was  consulted  by  the  Sec- 
retary to  the  Board  of  Trade  in 
regard  to  the  regulation  of  trade 
with  the  United  States.  The  in- 
fluence of  his  theories  is  further 
manifested  in  the  reform  of  the 
British  commercial  system  by 
the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws  and 
the  Navigation  Laws. 

Smith,  Alexander  (1865- 
1922),  American  chemist  and 
educator,  was  born  in  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland.  He  was  educat- 
ed at  the  Universities  of  Edin- 
burgh and  Munich  ;  was  assist- 
ant in  chemistry  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh  (1889-90); 
professor  of  chemistry  and  min- 
eralogy at  Wabash  College 
(1890-4)  ;  assistant  and  associ- 


ate professor  of  chemistry 
(1894-1903);  professor  and  di- 
rector (1903-11),  and  dean  of 
the  Junior  Colleges  (1900-11), 
Chicago  University  ;  and  profes- 
sor of  chemistry  in  Columbia 
University  (1911-21).  He  pub- 
lished Laboratory  Outline  of 
General  Chemistry  (1899)  ; 
General  Inorganic  Chemistry 
(1906)  ;  General  Chemistry  for 
Colleges  (1908)  ;  Textbook  of 
Elementary  Chemistry  (1914)  ; 
Intermediate  Chemistry  (1919). 

Smith,  Alfred  Emanuel 
(1873-1944),  American  public 
official,  was  born  in  New  York 
City,  and  was  educated  in  the 
parochial  schools  there.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  New  York  As- 
sembly (1903-15),  of  which  he 
was  speaker  in  1913,  sheriff  of 
New  York  County  (1915-17), 
and  president  of  the  Board  of 
Aldermen  of  New  York  City 
(1917-19).  He  was  elected  gov- 
ernor of  New  York  in  1918,  was 
defeated  for  the  same  office  in 
1920,  but  was  re-elected  in  1922, 
1924,  and  1926.  He  was  an  un- 
successful candidate  for  the 
Democratic  Presidential  nomi- 
nation in  1924,  but  in  1928  he 
was  the  Democratic  nominee  for 
President  of  the  United  States. 
He  received  87  out  of  531  elec- 
toral votes.  Thereafter  he  re- 
tired from  public  life,  devoting 
his  time  to  business  in  New 
York  and  taking  an  active  inter- 
est in  the  civic  affairs  of  his  na- 
tive city  as  well  as  of  the  state 
and  nation.  As  a  statesman  and 
as  a  man  of  deep  religious  and 
charitable  convictions,  he  en- 
joyed the  highest  esteem  of  the 
whole  country. 

Smith,  Andrew  -Heermance 
(1837-1910),  American  physi- 
cian, was  born  in  Charlton,  N.  Y. 
He  was  graduated  from  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, New  York  (1858),  prac- 
ticed medicine  in  New  York 
(1859-61),  and  in  1861  joined 
the  Forty-third  New  York  vol- 
unteers as  assistant  surgeon.  In 
1862  he  was  surgeon  to  the 
Ninety-fourth  New  York  volun- 
teers, in  1862—8  assistant  sur- 
geon in  the  United  States  Army, 
and  in  1867  was  brevetted  ma- 
jor. In  the  following  year  he  re- 
sumed his  medical  practice  in 
New  York,  and  became  promi- 
nent in  hospital  work  and  teach- 
ing. He  was  called  in  consulta- 
tion at  the  time  of  Garfield's  as- 
sassination. He  was  vice-presi- 
dent and  professor  at  the  New 
York  Post  Graduate  Medical 
School. 

Smith,  Andrew  Jackson 
(1815-97),  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Berks  County,  Pa. 
He  was  graduated  from  West 
Point  in  1838,  and  served  in  the 
West  and  in  the  Mexican  War. 
He  was  given  command  of  the 


Smith 


KFP 


260 


Smith 


Second  California  Cavalry  in 
1861  ;  became  a  brigadier  gen- 
eral of  volunteers  in  1862,  and 
major  general  of  volunteers  in 
1864.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  campaigns  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley ;  commanded  a  di- 
vision of  the  Thirteenth  Corps 
in  the  Vicksburg  campaign  ;  was 
ordered  with  three  divisions  of 
the  Sixteenth  Corps  to  Banks' 
army  in  Louisiana  in  the  spring 
of  1864,  and  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  disastrous  Red  River 
expedition.  In  the  battle  of 
Nashville  (December  1864),  he 
commanded  the  Sixteenth  Corps, 
on  Thomas'  right,  and  for  his 
services  received  the  brevet  of 
major  general  in  the  regular 
army.  In  1866  he  was  appointed 
colonel  of  the  Seventh  Cavalry 
in  the  regular  service.  He  re- 
signed from  the  army  in  1869. 

Smith,  Benjamin  Bosworth 
(1794-1884),  American  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  bishop,  was  born 
in  Bristol,  R.  I.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Brown  University  in 
1816;  ordained  priest  in  1818; 
and  was  in  charge  of  churches 
in  Massachusetts,  Virginia,  and 
Vermont  until  1828,  after  which 
for  two  years  he  presided  over 
Grace  Church  mission  in  Phila- 
delphia. In  1830  he  became  rec- 
tor of  Christ  Church  at  Lexing- 
ton, Ky.,  and  in  1832  was  conse- 
crated first  bishop  of  Kentucky. 
From  1868  he  was  presiding 
bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church. 

Smith,  Benjamin  Eli  (1857- 
1913),  American  lexicographer 
and  editor,  was  born  in  Beirut, 
Syria,  the  son  of  Eli  Smith 
(q.  v.),  and  was  graduated  from 
Amherst  (1877).  From  1883  he 
was  managing  editor  and  from 
1894  editor  of  The  Century  Dic- 
tionary. He  was  also  editor  of 
The  Century  Cyclopaedia  of 
Names  (1894),  The  Century  At- 
las (1897),  and  The  Century 
Dictionary  Supplement  (1909)  ; 
translated  Schwegler's  History 
of  Philosophy  (1879)  and  Cic- 
ero's De  Amicitia  (1897)  ;  and 
edited  selections  from  Marcus 
Aurelius  (1899),  Epictetus 
(1900),  and  Pascal  (1902). 

Smith,  Charles  Alphonso 
(1864-1924),  American  educa- 
tor, was  born  in  Greensboro, 
N.  C.  He  was  graduated  from 
Davidson  College,  North  Caro- 
lina (1884),  and  from  Johns 
Hopkins  University  (ph.d., 
1893),  and  was  thereafter  pro- 
fessor of  English  language  and 
literature  at  Louisiana  State 
University  (1893-1902);  pro- 
fessor of  English  language 
(1902-07),  head  of  the  English 
department  (1907-09),  and  dean 
of  the  graduate  department 
(1903-09)  of  the  University  of 
North  Carolina ;  Edgar  Allan 
Poe  professor  of  English  at  the 


University  of  Virginia  (1909- 
17).  From  1917  until  his  death 
he  was  head  of  the  English  de- 
partment at  the  U.  S.  Naval 
Academy.  He  was  Roosevelt 
professor  of  American  history 
and  institutions  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Berlin  in  1910-11.  His 
published  works  include  Repeti- 
tion and  Parallelism  in  English 
Verse  (1894)  ;  Old  English 
Grammar  (1896)  ;  Elementary 
English  Grammar  (1903)  ;  Stud- 
ies in  English  Syntax  (1906)  ; 
The  American  Short  Story 
(1912)  ;  Keynote  Studies  in 
Keynote  Books  of  the  Bible 
(1919)  ;  Essays  on  Current 
Themes  (1923). 

Smith,  Charles  Emory 
(1842-1908),  American  journal- 
ist and  U.  S.  Postmaster  Gen- 
eral, was  born  in  Mansfield, 
Conn.  He  was  graduated  from 
Union  College  in  1861,  and  was 
active  during  the  Civil  War  in 
organizing  a  volunteer  regiment. 
He  was  editor  of  the  Albany  Ex- 
press (1865-70),  of  the  Albany 
Journal  (1870-80),  and  of  the 
Philadelphia  Press  (1880-1908); 
was  president  of  the  Republican 
State  Convention  (1879),  min- 
ister to  Russia  (1890-92),  and 
Postmaster  General  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  (1898-1902). 

Smith,  Charles  Ferguson 
(1807-62),  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia.  He 
was  graduated  from  the  U.  S. 
Military  Academy  in  1825  ; 
served  under  Generals  Taylor 
and  Scott  in  the  Mexican  War, 
and  received  the  brevets  of  ma- 
jor, lieutenant  colonel,  and  colo- 
nel for  gallant  and  meritorious 
service.  He  was  commissioned 
lieutenant  colonel  in  1855  ;  was 
appointed  brigadier  general  of 
volunteers  in  August  1861  ; 
commanded  the  district  of  West- 
ern Kentucky ;  served  under 
Grant  in  the  operations  against 
Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  and 
led  the  decisive  assault  at  the 
latter  place.  In  March  1862,  he 
received  an  accidental  injury, 
which  resulted  in  his  death. 

Smith,  Charles  Forster 
(1852-1927),  American  philolo- 
gist and  educator,  was  born  in 
Abbeville  county,  S.  C,  was 
graduated  from  Wofford  Col- 
lege, S.  C,  in  1872,  and  studied 
at  Harvard,  Berlin,  and  Leipzig 
(PH.D.,  1881).  He  taught  at  Wof- 
ford College  and  at  Williams, 
was  professor  of  Greek  at  Van- 
derbilt  Universitly  from  1883  to 
1894,  and  professor  of  Greek 
and  classical  philology  at  the 
University  of  Wisconsin  from 
1894  to  1917,  when  he  retired 
as  professor  emeritus.  In  1903 
he  was  president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Philological  Association.  He 
wrote  Reminiscences  and 
Sketches  (1909);  Charles  Ken- 
dall   Adams,    a    Life  Sketch 


(1924)  ;  edited  Thucydides  vii 
(1886),  III  (1894),  and  vi 
(1913)  ;  Xenophon's  Anabasis 
(1905),  and  Herodotus  vii 
(1907);  and  translated  Hertz- 
berg's  Geschichte  Griechenlands 
(1900),  and  Thucydides  (1919- 
23). 

Smith,  Charles  Sprague 
(1853-1910),  American  educa- 
tor, was  born  in  Andover,  Mass. 
He  was  graduated  from  Am- 
herst (1875),  studied  abroad  for 
five  years,  and  in  1880  was  ap- 
pointed instructor  in  Italian  and 
Spanish  at  Columbia  University, 
where  he  became  professor  of 
German  in  the  same  year.  Two 
years  later  he  was  transferred 
to  the  chair  of  modern  languages 
and  literatures,  and  in  1890  to 
that  of  Romance  languages  and 
literatures,  from  which  he  re- 
signed in  1891.  In  1895  he  or- 
ganized, in  New  York  City,  the 
Society  of  Comparative  Litera- 
ture, of  which  he  became  presi- 
dent, and  in  1897  the  People's 
Institute,  of  which  he  was  man- 
aging director.  He  published 
Barbizon  Days  (1902)  ;  Work- 
ing with  the  People  (1904)  ; 
Poems^  (1908). 

Smith,  Charles  William 
(1840-1914),  American  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  bishop,  was  born 
in  Fayette  county.  Pa.  He  was 
ordained  in  1859,  and  was  for 
twenty  years  pastor  of  various 
churches  in  and  near  Pittsburgh. 
From  1884  to  1908  he  was  edi- 
tor of  the  Pittsburgh  Christian 
Advocate,  and  in  1908  was  made 
a  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Centennial  Conference  at 
Baltimore  (1884),  the  Ecumeni- 
cal Conferences  at  Washington 
(1891)  and  London  (1901)  ; 
vice-chairman  of  a  commission 
to  revise  the  constitution  of  the 
Church  (1896-1900);  chairman 
of  a  commission  to  revise  the 
judicial  procedure  of  the  Church 
(1908-12). 

Smith,  Clement  Lawrence 
(1844-1909),  American  educa- 
tor, was  born  in  Upper  Darby, 
Pa.  He  was  graduated  from 
Haver  ford  College  (1860),  and 
from  Harvard  (1863),  and  was 
assistant  professor  of  classics 
and  mathematics  at  Haverford 
(1863—5),  and  professor  of 
Greek  and  German  at  Swarth- 
more  College  (1869-70).  In  1870 
he  became  tutor  in  Latin  at  Har- 
vard, where  he  was  subsequently 
assistant  professor  (1873-83), 
and  professor  (1883-1904),  dean 
of  the  college  (1882-91),  and  of 
the  faculty  of  arts  and  science  of 
the  university  (1898-1902).  In 
1897-8  he  was  director  of  the 
American  School  of  Classical 
Studies  at  Rome,  and  in  1898-9 
was  president  o^  the  American 
Philological  Association. 

Smith,  David  Eugene  (1860- 


Smith 


KFP 


261 


Smith 


1944),  American  mathematician, 
was  born  in  Cortland,  N.  Y.  He 
was  graduated  from  Syracuse 
University  in  1881  and  was 
admitted  to  the  New  York  bar 
in  1883.  In  1884-91  he  was 
teacher  of  mathematics  in  the 
state  normal  school  in  Cortland ; 
in  1891-8,  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  state  normal  col- 
lege at  Ypsilanti,  Mich. ;  and  in 
1898-1901  principal  of  the  nor- 
mal school,  Brockport,  N.  Y.  In 
1901  he  became  professor  of 
mathematics  in  Teachers  Col- 
lege, New  York.  His  publica- 
tions include :  History  of  Mod- 
ern Mathematics  (1896)  ;  Teach- 
ing of  Elementary  Mathematics 
(1900)  ;     Primary  Arithmetic 

(1904)  ;    Advanced  Arithmetic 

(1905)  ;  Rara  Arithmetica 
(1909). 

Smith,  Edgar  Fahs  (1856- 
1928),  American  chemist,  born 
in  York,  Pa.  He  graduated  from 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1874,  and  studied  chemistry 
for  several  years  in  Europe.  On 
his  return  to  America  he  filled 
chairs  in  various  western  col- 
leges, eventually  becoming  direc- 
tor of  the  John  Harrison  labora- 
tory in  the  chemical  department 
of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  carried  out  a  large 
number  of  important  experi- 
ments, and  became  an  authority 
on  electrolytic  methods  of  assay- 
ing metals  and  inorganic  sub- 
stances. His  publications  in- 
clude :  Chemistry  of  the  Carbon 
Compounds  (2  vols.,  1900)  and, 
with  H.  F.  Keller,  Experiments 
Arranged  for  Students  in  Gen- 
eral Chemistry  (1900). 

Smith,  Edmund  Kirby 
(1824-93),  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  St.  Augustine,  Fla. 
He  graduated  from  West  Point 
in  1845  ;  was  twice  brevetted  for 
gallantry  during  the  Mexican 
War;  and  in  1861,  having 
reached  the  rank  of  major  of 
cavalry,  resigned  to  enter  the 
Confederate  service.  He  was 
made  brigadier  general,  and  at 
Bull  Run  commanded  the  brigade 
of  Johnson's  army  which  was 
first  to  arrive  on  the  field  to  the 
relief  of  the  Confederates.  He 
became  major  general  in  the  fall 
of  1861,  and  in  1862  commanded 
in  east  Tennessee.  In  August 
of  that  year  he  invaded  Ken- 
tucky, in  concert  with  Bragg ; 
defeated  a  small  Federal  force  at 
Richmond,  and  captured  Lexing- 
ton. Forced  to  retreat,  he  joined 
forces  wtih  Bragg  at  Harrods- 
burg,  and  both  commanders  re- 
tired into  east  Tennessee.  Smith 
was  appointed  lieutenant  general 
in  October,  1862;  in  1863-65  he 
commanded  the  Trans-Missis- 
sippi Department,  reaching  the 
rank  of  general  in  1864.  He  de- 
feated Banks's  expedition  up  the 
Red  River  in  April  of  that  year, 


winning,  with  Dick  Taylor,  the 
victory  of  Sabine  Cross  Roads. 
On  May  26,  1865,  he  surren- 
dered the  last  Confederate  army 
to  General  Canby.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Telegraph  Company  in  1866- 
68 ;  chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Nashville  in  1870-75  ;  profes- 
sor of  mathematics  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  South  in  1875-93. 

Smith,  Eli  (1801-57),  Amer- 
ican missionary  and  traveler, 
born  in  Northford,  Conn.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  College  in 
1821,  and  the  Andover  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  in  1826.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  sent  to  Malta 
by  the  American  Board  to  su- 
perintend a  missionary  printing 
plant.  He  spent  some  time  at 
Beirut,  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
Arabic,  and  in  1829,  with  Dr. 
Rufus  Anderson,  traveled 
through  Greece.  In  1830-31,  in 
company  with  Dr.  H.  G.  O. 
Dwight,  he  made  an  extensive 
tour  through  Armenia,  Georgia, 
and  Persia.  As  a  result  of  this 
journey,  the  American  Board  es- 
tablished the  important  Armeni- 
an and  Nestorian  missions.  He 
accompanied  Dr.  Edward  Robin- 
son in  his  geographical  expedi- 
tions in  Palestine  in  1838,  and 
again  in  1852,  and  contributed  to 
the  volumes  which  resulted  from 
these  journeys.  Under  his  super- 
vision there  was  cast,  at  Leipzig, 
a  new  and  improved  font  of  Ara- 
bic type.  From  1847  to  his  death 
he  was  engaged  on  a  translation 
of  the  Bible  into  Arabic.  This 
was  completed  by  Dr.  C.  V.  Van 
Dyke.  He  wrote :  Missionary 
Researches  in  Armenia  (with 
Dr.  Dwight,  1832)  ;  Sermons 
and  Addresses  (1834). 

Smith,  Elizabeth  Oakes 
(Prince)  (1806-93),  American 
author,  was  born  in  Cumberland, 
Me.  She  was  early  married  to 
Seba  Smith  (q.  v.),  whom  she 
assisted  in  editorial  work.  Her 
first  metrical  compositions  were 
published  anonymously,  but  in 
1839  she  began  to  write  over  her 
own  name.  Removing  with  her 
husband  to  New  York  City  in 
1842,  she  added  lecturing  to  au- 
thorship, and  was  an  early  advo- 
cate of  women's  suffrage,  pub- 
lishing in  this  connection  Wom- 
an and  Her  Needs  (1851).  Some 
of  her  volumes  are :  Riches 
Without  Wings  (1838);  Sinless 
Child,  and  Other  Poems  (1843); 
Jacob  Leisler  (1853)  ;  Bald 
Eagle  (1867). 

Smith,  Ellison  Du  Rant 
ri866-1944),^  American  mer- 
chant and  legislator,  was  born  in 
Lynchburg,  S.  C.  He  graduated 
from  Wofford  College,  Spartan- 
burg, S.  C.  (1889),  and  received 
the  degree  of  a.m.  from  Vander- 
bilt  University  in  the  following 
year.  He  became  a  merchant 
and  planter,  and  in  1896  entered 


public  life  as  member  of  the 
South  Carolina  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. After  the  expiration 
of  his  term  (1900)  he  was  active 
in  the  movement  that  resulted  in 
the  formation  of  the  Farmers' 
Protective  Association,  and  was 
the  general  organizer  of  the 
Southern  Cotton  Association 
(1905-8).  In  1909  he  was  elect- 
ed U.  S.  Senator  from  South 
Carolina,  and  was  re-elected  four 
times  successively. 

Smith,  Erminie  Adelle 
(1836-86),  American  ethnologist, 
born  in  Marcellus,  _  N.  Y.  _  She 
graduated  as  a  mining  engineer 
in  the  School  of  Mines,  Freiberg, 
Saxony.  She  founded  and  acted 
as  president  of  the  Aesthetic  So- 
ciety, Jersey  City,  and  was  an 
active  public  lecturer  on  scien- 
tific subjects.  In  1878  she  under- 
took some  ethnological  studies 
for  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
She  visited  the  Tuscarora  Indi- 
ans in  Canada,  and  obtained  and 
classified  15,000  words  of  the 
Iroquois  dialects.  She  was  au- 
thor of  an  Iroquois-English  dic- 
tionary and  a  volume  of  essays 
and  poems. 

Smith,  Francis  Hopkinson 
(1838-1915),  American  engi- 
neer, artist,  and  author,  was  born 
in  Baltimore.  As  a  contractor  he 
built  works  for  the  U.  S.  Gov- 
ernment, including  the  sea  wall 
around  Governor's  Island,  N. 
Y. ;  another  at  Tompkinsville, 
Staten  Island;  the  Race  Rock 
Lighthouse  off  New  London, 
Conn.,  and  the  foundation  for 
the  Bartholdi  Statue  in  New 
York  Harbor.  He  also  became 
noted  for  the  delicacy  and  spirit 
of  his  water-color  sketches, 
which  include  ^  views  in  this 
country,  and  in  Holland  and 
Venice,  and  for  his  lectures  on 
art.  He  began  to  write  sketches 
of  travel  for  the  magazines  in 
1880,  and  since  that  time  pro- 
duced many  books  marked  by 
force  and  humor.  Among  his 
works  are :  Old  Lines  in  New 
Black  and  White  (1885);  A 
White  Umbrella  in  Mexico 
(1889)  ;  Colonel  Carter  of  Car- 
ter sville  (1891)  ;  A  Day  at  La- 
guerre's  (1892)  ;  American  Il- 
lustrators (1892)  ;  Tom  Grogan 

(1896)  ;     Venice     of  To-day 

(1897)  ;  Caleb  West  (1898); 
Fortunes  of  Oliver  Horn 
(1902);  Under  Dog  (1903); 
The  Veiled  Lady  (1907)  ;  Peter 

(1908)  ;    Forty    Minutes  Late 

(1909)  . 

Smith,  George  (1840-76), 
English  Assyriologist,  was  born 
in  Chelsea,  London.  In  1867  he 
entered  the  service  of  the  British 
Museum.  In  1870  he  published 
Annals  of  Assur-banipal ;  in 
1872,  Chaldean  Account  of  the 
Deluge.  In  1873  he  Jed  the  Daily 
Telegraph  expedition  for  re- 
search at  Nineveh,  which  was  so 


Smith 


KFP 


262 


Smith 


fruitful  that  he  went  again  for 
the  Museum  authorities.  In 
1875  he  published  Assyrian  Dis- 
coveries, and  in  1876,  Chaldean 
Account  of  Genesis.  He  went 
again  to  the  East,  and  died  at 
Aleppo. 

Smithy  Very  Rev.  Sir 
George  Adam  (1856-1942), 
British  Orientalist,  was  born  in 
Calcutta,  India.  He  was  educat- 
ed at  Edinburgh  and  the  Univer- 
sities of  Tubingen  and  Leipzig. 
He  held  the  charge  of  Queen's 
Cross  Free  Church,  Aberdeen, 
from  1882  until  elected  (1892) 
to  the  chair  of  Hebrew  and  Old 
Testament  literature  in  the  Free 
Church  College,  Glasgow.  In 
1909  he  became  principal  and 
vice-chancellor  of  Aberdeen  Uni- 
versity. He  was  the  Percy  Turn- 
bull  lecturer  on  Hebrew  poetry 
at  Johns  Hopkins  University 
(1896)  ;  Lyman  Beecher  lectur- 
er on  Modern  Criticism  and 
Preaching  of  the  Old  Testament 
(published  1901),  at  Yale  Uni- 
versity (1899)  ;  Jowett  lecturer 
in  London  (1900)  ;  Schweick 
lecturer  at  the  British  Academy 
(1910).  He  revisited  the  United 
States  in  1903  and  1909.  and  lec- 
tured at  Union  Theological  Sem- 
inary and  elsewhere.  He  was 
moderator  of  the  General  As- 
sembly of  the  United  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  in  1916-17, 
Baird  lecturer  at  Glasgow  in 
1922,  and  became  chaplain  to  the 
King  in  Scotland  in  1933.  His 
books  .  include  :  Book  of  Isaiah 
(1888-90)  ;  Preaching  of  the 
Old  Testament  to  the  Age 
(1893)  ;  Historical  Geography 
of  the  Holy  Land  (1894,  many 
editions)  ;  Life  of  Henry  Driim- 
mond  (1898)  ;  Forgiveness  of 
Sins,  and  other  Sermons  (1904) ; 
Jerusalem  (1908)  ;  The  Early 
Poetry  of  Israel  (1912)  ;  Jere- 
miah (1923,  rev.  ed.  1929)  ;  The 
Kirk  in  Scotland  (with  John 
Buchan,  1930). 

Smith,  George  Otis  (1871- 
1944),  American  geologist,  was 
born  in  Hodgdon,  Me.  He  was 
graduated  from  Colby  College, 
received  the  degree  of  ph.D. 
from  Johns  Hopkins  in  1896, 
and  meanwhile  was  engaged  in 
geological  work  in  several  states. 
He  was  assistant  geologist  and 
geologist  in  the  U.  S.  Geologi- 
cal Survey,  1896-1907.  He  was 
director  of  the  Survey,  1907-30, 
except  for  1922-23,  when  he  was 
a  mernber  of  the  U.  S.  ^  Coal 
Commission.  He  was  chairman 
of  the  Federal  Power  Commis- 
sion, 1930-33. 

Smith,  Gerrit  (1797-1874), 
American  abolitionist  and  phi- 
lanthropist, was  born  in  Utica, 
N.  Y.,  the  son  of  Peter  Smith, 
partner  of  John  Jacob  Astor  in 
the  fur  trade.  Gerrit  graduated 
from  Hamilton  College  in  1818, 
and  made  his  residence  in  Peter- 


toro,  N.  Y.  The  father  had  been 
an  owner  of  slaves,  but  the  son 
early  became  interested  in  the 
emancipation  movement.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
American  Colonization  Society, 
and  was  mobbed  for  his  views 
in  Syracuse  in  1831.  He  organ- 
ized the  Liberty  Party  at  Ar- 
cade, N.  Y.,  in  1840,  and  was  its 
candidate  for  the  Presidency  in 
1848  and  1852.  In  1853  he  was 
an  independent  U.  S.  Congress- 
man, and  during  his  term  mani- 
fested his  friendship  for  the 
slaves  at  every  opportunity.  He 
abandoned  the  Colonization  So- 
ciety, and  associated  himself 
with  the  Anti-Slavery  Society, 
becoming  an  open  advocate  of 
abolition.  He  was  accused  of 
active  participation  in  the  John 
Brown  raid,  at  Harper's  Ferry ; 
but  his  only  connection  was  to 
supply  money  to  Brown,  as  he 
had  done  previously  to  him  and 
to  others  in  the  Kansas  Free-Soil 
campaign.  Gerrit  Smith's  bene- 
factions were  continuous  through 
life ;  one  estimate  places  them  at 
$8,000,000.  He  gave  plots  of 
land,  averaging  fifty  acres  each, 
to  more  than  three  thousand  per- 
sons, white  and  black,  during  a 
series  of  years.  An  earnest  sup- 
porter of  the  government  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War,  he  counselled 
moderation  at  its  close,  and  with 
Horace  Greeley  signed  the  bail 
bond  of  Jefferson  Davis.  Origi- 
nally a  Presbyterian,  Smith  be- 
came an  independent  in  reli- 
gion;  and  in  1847  he  formed  a 
society  at  Peterboro,  for  which 
he  built  a  chapel,  where  he  fre- 
quently preached  to  the  congre- 
gation. His  publications,  besides 
pamphlets,  include  Speeches  in 
Congress  (1855);  Religion  of 
Reason  (1864)  ;  Nature  the 
Base  of  a  Free  Theology  (1867). 
See  O.  B.  Frothingham,  Gerrit 
Smith. 

Smith,  Gerrit  (1859-1912), 
American  composer  and  organ- 
ist, grand-nephew  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  born  in  Hagerstown, 
Md.  He  was  organist  at  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  Buffalo;  St. 
Peter's  Church,  Albany ;  and, 
after  1885,  Old  South  Church, 
New  York.  He  was  professor  of 
music  at  Union  Theological 
Seminary  and  professor  of  mu- 
sical theory  at  the  Master 
School,  Brooklyn.  He  was  the 
founder,  and  for  six  years  presi- 
dent, of  the  Manuscript  Society 
of  Composers  ;  was  president  of 
the  New  York  State  Music 
Teachers'  Association  ;  and  hon- 
orary president  of  the  American 
Guild  of  Organists.  Besides 
songs,  anthems,  and  piano  pieces 
he  composed  King  David,  a  can- 
tata, and  Thistledown,  a  song 
cycle. 

Smith,  GoLDWiN  (1823- 
1910),   British  publicist,  histo- 


rian, and  man  of  letters,  was 
born  in  Reading,  England.  He 
was  graduated  from  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford  (1845)  ;  was 
afterward  a  fellow  at  University 
College,  London,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  (1847).  He  contrib- 
uted largely  to  the  newspapers, 
and,  with  Lord  Morley  and 
others,  helped  to  launch  the  Sat- 
urday Review.  He  became  asso- 
ciated with  the  leading  public 
men  of  England,  and  was  one 
of  the  most  pronounced  of  the 
philosophical  Liberals  of  the 
time,  and  an  active  champion  of 
the  cause  of  the  North  during 
the  American  Civil  War.  He 
was  Regius  professor  of  history 
at  Oxford  (1858-66).  He  came 
to  America,  lectured  on  English 
history  at  Cornell  University 
(1868-71),  and  in  1871  settled 
in  Toronto,  Canada.  He  wrote 
for  the  English  and  American,  as 
well  as  the  Canadian  press,  and 
started  The  Canadian  Monthly, 
The  Week,  The  Nation,  The 
Bystander,  and  The  Weekly  Sun. 
His  warfare  against  machine 
politics,  his  advocacy  of  the 
union  of  Canada  and  the  United 
States,  and  his  opposition  to 
Irish  Home  Rule  made  him  un- 
popular among  politicians  and 
others,  but  his  sincerity  gained 
universal  respect.  He  rightly 
judged  himself  to  be  pre-emi- 
nently a  journalist;  it  has  been 
said  that  even  his  histories  have 
the  vividness  and  actuality  of 
contemporary  record.  He  pub- 
lished Rational  Religion  (1861)  ; 
Empire  (1863)  ;  Three  E1^glish 
Statesmen  (1867);  Political 
Destiny  of  Canada  (1879)  ;  Wil- 
liam Cowper  (1880)  ;  Jane  Aus- 
ten (1890)  ;  United  States  {l%9 A) ; 
United  Kingdom  (1899)  ;  Com- 
monwealth or  Empire  (1902)  ; 
Irish  History  and  the  Irish 
Question  (1905)  ;  Labor  and 
Capital  (1907).  Consult  his 
Reminiscences  (edited  by  A. 
Haultain,  1910). 

Smith,  Green  Clay  (1832- 
95),  American  soldier,  was  born 
In  Richmond,  Ky.  He  served  as 
a  lieutenant  in  the  Mexican 
War ;  graduated  from  Transyl- 
vania University  in  1849,  and 
the  Lexington  Law  School  in 
1852 ;  and  was  elected  to  the 
legislature  in  1860.  When  the 
Civil  War  began  he  adhered  to 
the  Union,  and  was  commis- 
sioned colonel  of  the  Fourth 
Kentucky  Cavalry;  in  1863  he 
attained  the  rank  of  major  gen- 
eral. He_  was  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1863-66,  and  gover- 
nor of  Montana  in  1866-69.  In 
the  latter  year  he  became  a  Bap- 
tist minister.  He  was  the  Pro- 
hibition candidate  for  President 
in  1876. 

Smith,  GusTAvus  Woodson 
(1822-96),  American  Confeder- 
ate soldier,  -vyg.?  born  in  George- 


Smith 


KFP 


263 


Smith 


town,  Ky.  He  graduated  from 
the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  in 
1842,  and  joined  the  army  in 
Mexico  in  1846.  He  com- 
manded a  company  of  engineers, 
and  participated  in  the  siege  of 
Vera  Cruz  and  the  battles  of 
Cerro  Gordo,  Contreras,  Chur- 
ubusco,  and  Chapultepec  ;  brevet- 
ted  first  lieutenant  for  gallantry 
at  Cerro  Gordo.  In  1849  he  was 
assistant  professor  of  engineer- 
ing at  West  Point.  In  1861  he 
joined  the  Confederate  Army, 
and  was  commissioned  major 
general.  After  the  departure  of 
Beauregard  for  the  West  he  was 
for  a  time  second  in  command 
of  the  Army  of  Northern  Vir- 
ginia, taking  entire  command 
upon  the  wounding  of  Gen. 
Joseph  E.  Johnston  at  Seven 
Pines,  until  relieved  next  day  by 
the  assignment  of  Gen.  R.  E. 
Lee.  He  acted  as  secretary  of 
war  of  the  Confederate  states 
from^  Nov.  17  to  Nov.  21,  1862, 
and  in  1864  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  Georgia  state  troops 
and  served  with  distinction. 

Smith,  Harry  Bache  (1860- 
1936),  comic  opera  librettist, 
was  one  of  the  most  prolific  of 
song  writers,  collaborating  with 
such  composers  as  Victor  Her- 
bert, DeKoven,  Sousa,  Lehar, 
Irving  Berlin,  Jerome  Kern,  etc. 
His  first  success  was  The  Be- 
gum, written  with  Reginald  De- 
Koven with  whom  he  also  wrote 
Don  Quixote  (1888)  and  Robin 
Hood  (1890),  the  latter  a  popu- 
lar favorite  for  twenty  years. 
With  Victor  Herbert  he  wrote 
The  Wizard  of  the  Nile,  The 
Fortune  Teller,  The  Serenade, 
and  The  Idol's  Eye.  In  1914, 
with  Irving  Berlin,  he  wrote 
Watch  Your  Step  and  Stop! 
Look  !  Listen !  Among  many  oth- 
er works  were  The  Little  Cor- 
poral, Fencing  Master,  Foxy 
Quiller,  Little  Miss  Fix-It,  and 
The  Belle  of  Mayfair.  He  was 
an  enthusiastic  collector  of  books 
and  autographs,  and  wrote  sev- 
eral books  on  literary  subjects. 

Smith,  Henry  Hollings- 
woRTH  (1815-90),  American 
surgeon,  born  in  Philadelphia. 
He  graduated  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  in  1839,  be- 
gan to  practice  medicine  in 
Philadelphia,  and  in  1849  was 
appointed  surgeon  to  St.  Joseph's 
and  Blockley  hospitals.  In  1854- 
71  he  was  professor  of  surgery 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia. At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War  he  organized  the  army  hos- 
pital department  and  was  ap- 
pointed surgeon  general  of 
Pennsylvania.  He  was  author  of 
Minor  Surgery  (1846)  ;  System 
of  Operative  Surgery  (2  vols. 
1852)  ;  and  Practice  of  Surgery 
(2  vols.  1857-63). 

Smith,  Henry  Preserved 
(1847-1927),  American  clergy- 


man, was  born  in  Troy.  N.  Y. 
He  was  graduated  from  Amherst 
in  1869,  from  Lane  Theological 
Seminary  in  1872,  and  con- 
tinued his  studies  at  German 
universities.  He  was  professor 
of  Hebrew  and  Old  Testament 
exegesis  at  Lane  Theological 
Seminary,  1877-93.  As  the  re- 
sult of  his  paper  on  'Biblical 
Scholarship  and  Inspiration'  the 
Presbytery  of  Cincinnati  found 
him  guilty  of  heresy  and  sus- 
pended him  from  the  ministry  in 
1892.  Appeals  to  the  Synod  of 
Ohio  and  the  General  Assembly 
of  1894  were  rejected,  and  Prof. 
Smith,  refusing  to  renounce  his 
views,  entered  the  Congregation- 
al ministry  and  accepted  a  pro- 
fessorship at  Andover  Theologi- 
cal   Seminary.    From    1898  to 

1906  he  was  a  professor  and  as- 
sociate pastor  at  Amherst^  from 

1907  to  1913  professor  at  Mead- 
ville  (Pa.)  Theological  School, 
and  from  1913  to  1925  professor 
and  chief  librarian  at  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  there- 
after being  professor  emeritus. 
His  publications  include  his  de- 
fense, Inspiration  and  Inerrancy 
(1893);  The  Bible  and  Islam 
(1897)  ;  A  Commentary  on  the 
Books  of  Samuel  (1899)  ;  Old 
Testament  History  (1903);  The 
Religion  of  Israel  (1914);  Es- 
says in  Biblical  Interpretation 
(1921). 

Smith,  HERBEkT  Knox 
(1869-1931),  American  public 
official,  was  born  in  Chester, 
Mass.,  and  g:raduated  from  Yale 
University  in  1891  and  Yale 
Law  School  in  1895.  He  prac- 
ticed law  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  in 
1895-1903  and  after  1912.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Connecti- 
cut legislature,  1903-05  ;  deputy 
commissioner  of  corporations,  in 
the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Commerce 
and  Labor,  1905-07  ;  and  com- 
missioner of  corporations,  1907- 
12.  In  1912  he  was  the  Progres- 
sive candidate  for  governor  of 
Connecticut.  He  served  as  a  ma- 
jor in  the  quartermaster  corps 
of  the  U.  S.  Army,  1918-19. 

Smith,  Hoke  _  (1855-1931), 
American  politician,  born  in 
Newton,  N.  C.  He  removed  to 
Georgia  at  the  age  of  17,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  and  during 
1887-96  was  proprietor  of  the 
Atlanta  lournal.  In  1893  he 
was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
interior  by  Pres.  Cleveland,  but 
resigned  Aug.  22,  1896,  to  sup- 
port Bryan  for  the  Presidency. 
He  was  elected  governor  of 
Georgia  for  1907-09  and  1911- 
13  but  resigned  to  serve  as  U.  S. 
Senator  1911-15  (an  unexpired 
term)  and  was  re-elected,  1915- 
21. 

Smith,  Horatio,  known  as 
Horace  (1779-1849),  English 
novelist  and  parodist.  He  came 
suddenly  into  fame  as  one  of  the 


authors  of  the  Rejected  Ad- 
dresses (1812),  a  series  of  paro- 
dies of  the  poets  of  the  day.  In 
this  he  was  associated  with  his 
brother  James,  who  contributed 
the  best  of  the  parodies.  Horace 
Smith  turned  out  several  histori- 
cal novels  in  the  style  of  .Scott, 
of  which  the  best  was  Bramble- 
tye  House,  or  Cavaliers  and 
Roundheads  (1825).  See  Epes 
Sargent's  Memoir,  prefixed  to 
Rejected  Addresses  (1871). 

Smith,  Jacob  Hurd  (1840- 
1918),  American  soldier,  born  at 
Jackson  Iron  Furnace,  O.  He 
served  in  the  Civil  War,  and  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  with 
Spain  had  reached  the  rank  of 
major  in  the  regular  army.  He 
became  colonel  in  1899  and 
brigadier  general  of  volunteers 
in  1900  and  in  the  regular 
army  in  1901.  He  was  retired 
from  active  service  July  16, 
1902,  with  a  reprimand  from  the 
President  because  of  unneces- 
sarily harsh  orders  given  to  his 
subordinates  while  commanding 
in  Samar,  Philippine  Islands. 

Smith,  James  {c.  1715- 
1806),  American  politician  and 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, born  in  Ireland.  In 
early  youth  he  was  taken  to 
Pennsylvania.  He  studied  law, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Revolution 
was  practicing  his  profession  at 
York,  Pa.  He  was  prominent  in 
the  Revolutionary  movement  in 
Pennsylvania  and  was  a  member 
of  the  Continental  Congress  in 
1775-78.  He  also  served  in  the 
state  constitutional  convention  in 
1776,  and  jn  1780  was  a  member 
of  the  legislature. 

Smith,  James  (1737-1812), 
American  pioneer,  born  in 
Franklin  county.  Pa.  During 
1755-59  he  was  a  captive  among 
the  Indians  ;  served  in  Boquet's 
expedition  of  1764  as  a  lieuten- 
ant; and  in  1766-67  went  on  an 
exploring  expedition  into  Ken- 
tucky. He  served  in  Lord  Dun- 
more's  war  against  the  Indians  ; 
was  a  member  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania assembly  in  1776-77; 
fought  for  a  time  against  the 
British ;  was  appointed  colonel 
and  assigned  to  duty  on  the  west- 
ern frontier;  and  in  1788  settled 
in  Bourbon  county,  Ky.  He 
published  several  works,  among 
which  are  An  Account  of  the 
Remarkable  Occurrences  in  the 
Life  and  Travels  of  Col.  James 
Smith  (1799)  and  A  Treatise  on 
the  Mode  and  Meaner  of  Indian 
War  (1811). 

Smith,  James  (1775-1839), 
English  poet  and  parodist,  elder 
brother  of  Horace  Smith,  was 
born  in  London,  and  succeeded 
his  father  as  solicitor  to  the 
Board  of  Ordnance  in  1812.  In 
the  same  year  he  collaborated 
with  his  brother  in  the  produc- 


Smith 


KFP 


264 


Smith 


tion  of  the  Rejected  Addresses. 
Among  other  works,  he  produced 
the  text  for  Charles  Matthews' 
comic  entertainment,  The  Trip 
to  America  (1822). 

Smith,  James  Francis 
(1859-1928),  American  soldier 
and  administrator,  born  in  San 
Francisco,  Calif.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1881,  and  in 
1898  went  to  the  Philippine  Is- 
lands as  colonel  of  the  1st  Cali- 
fornia volunteers.  He  saw  much 
active  service  with  his  regiment 
in  the  campaign  against  Manila 
and  in  the  subsequent  war  with 
the  Filipinos,  becoming  a  briga- 
dier general  of  volunteers,  April 
29,  1899.  He  was  associate  jus- 
tice of  the  Supreme  Court  in  the 
Philippines  in  1901—3,  a  member 
of  the  Philippine  Commission 
and  secretary  of  public  instruc- 
tion in  1901-06,  and  governor- 
general  of  the  islands  1906-09, 
succeeding  Gov.  Ide.  In  1910 
he  was  appointed  associate  judge 
of  the  U.  S.  Court  of  Customs 
Appeals. 

Smith,  Jeremiah,  Jr.  (1870- 
1935),  American  financier,  was 
born  in  Dover,  N.  H.  His 
grandfather  was  a  Revolution- 
ary soldier  and  governor  of  New 
Hampshire,  his  father  a  state 
supreme  court  justice.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  in  1892 
and  Harvard  Law  School  in 
1895  and  practiced  law  in  Bos- 
ton most  of  his  life.  During  the 
First  World  War  he  served  as 
a  captain  in  the  quartermaster 
corps  of  the  A.  E.  F.  He  acted 
as  adviser  in  the  organization  of 
the  Chinese  financial  consortium 
and  in  the  debt  settlement  with 
Mexico.  His  expertness  in  fiscal 
affairs  was  proved  when  in  1924 
he  was  appointed  commissioner 
to  Hungary  for  the  League  of 
Nations,  and  in  two  years  had 
put  that  country's  finances  in 
order.  Subsequently  he  served 
as  an  advisory  member  of  the 
League's  financial  commission 
and  also  aided  in  drafting  the 
Young  Plan. 

Smith,  John  (1580-1631), 
English  explorer  and  colonial 
administrator,  born  in  Willough- 
by,  Lincolnshire.  While  still  a 
youth  he  went  to  the  Continent 
in  the  train  of  a  nobleman's  sons, 
and  became  a  soldier  of  fortune. 
After  _  serving  with  the  Hugue- 
nots in  France,  he  drifted  to 
eastern  Europe,  and  served 
against  the  Turks.  In  his  ac- 
count of  his  own  life  he  has  de- 
tailed many  occurrences  of  this 
period,  among  them  his  killing 
of  three  Turks  successively  in 
single  combat  before  Regal  In 
Transylvania,  and  his  escape 
from  Turkish  captivity  after 
killing  the  man  to  whom  he  had 
been  sold  as  a  slave.  Returning 
to  England,  he  sailed,  Dec.  20, 
J 606,  with  the  first  expedition 


sent  out  by  the  London  Com- 
pany to  colonize  Virginia.  On 
the  voyage  Smith  quarreled 
with  Wingfield,  who  charged  him 
with  mutiny,  and  he  was  put  in 
irons  until  their  arrival  in  Vir- 
ginia, when  it  was  found  that  by 
the  sealed  instructions  to  be 
opened  on  their  arrival  Smith 
was  designated  as  one  of  the 
council,  and  he  was  released.  In 
the  autumn  of  1607  Smith  was 
given  charge  of  the  supplies  of 
the  little  colony,  and  showed 
great  ability  in  getting  corn  from 
the  Indians.  In  December,  how- 
ever, while  exploring  the  Chick- 
ahominy,  he  was  captured  by 
Powhatan,  and  according  to  his 
story  was  saved  from  death  by 
the  intercession  of  that  chief's 
daughter,  Pocahontas.  Upon  his 
return  to  Jamestown  he  was  ar- 
rested by  his  enemies  in  the 
council,  charged  with  responsi- 
bility for  the  death  of  two  men 
killed  at  the  time  of  his  capture, 
sentenced  to  death,  and  only 
saved  by  the  arrival  of  Newport 
with  the  'First  Supply'  for  the 
colony,  and  by  his  interposition 
in  Smith's  behalf.  Smith  was  re- 
stored to  his  seat  in  the  council, 
spent  the  summer  of  1608  in  ex- 
ploring the  shores  of  Chesapeake 
Bay  and  its  tributary  rivers,  and 
Sept.  10th  was  elected  president 
of  the  council. 

During  the  winter  of  1608-09 
the  colony,  almost  perished  for 
want  of  food,  being  reduced  in 
number  from  120  to  60,  and 
most  of  Smith's  energy  was  de- 
voted to  securing  corn  from  the 
Indians.  In  fact,  his  courage  and 
ability  to  get  what  he  wanted  of 
the  Indians  probably  saved  the 
colony  from  destruction.  At  the 
expiration  of  his  year  in  office  he 
sailed  for  England,  having  been 
badly  injured  in  an  explosion. 
He  explored  the  coast  of  New 
England  in  1614  in  the  interest 
of  private  adventurers,  made  a 
good  map  of  the  country,  and 
gave  it  its  name.  The  following 
year  he  entered  into  the  employ 
of  the  Plymouth  Company  with 
the  title  of  'Admiral  of  New 
England,'  but  an  attempted  voy- 
age of  settlement  was  foiled  by 
his  capture  by  the  French.  He 
never  revisited  America,  but  de- 
voted himself  to  recording  his 
experiences.  He  published  A 
True  Relation  (1608)  which  was 
the  first  published  account  of  the 
Virginia  colony  ;  A  Map^  of  Vir- 
ginia (1612)  ;  A  Description  of 
New  England  (1616)  ;  New 
England  Trails  (1620);  The 
General  History  of  Virginia, 
New  England,  and  the  Summer 
Isles  (1622)  ;  An  Accidence  for 
Young  Seamen  (1626)  ;  The 
True  Travels  (1630);  and  Ad- 
vertisements for  the  Inexperi- 
enced Planters  of  New  England 
(1631).  The  historical  value  of 


his  writings  has  been  the  subject 
of  much  controversy,  and  many 
consider  them  to  be  largely  ro- 
mance, while  the  more  generally 
accepted  view  is  that  they  are 
vainglorious,  but  not  essentially 
inaccurate  accounts  of  what  he 
saw  and  did.  The  famous  story 
of  his  rescue  by  Pocahontas, 
which  has  been  widely  disbe- 
lieved, is  so  in  accordance  with 
Indian  character  that  it  might 
be  true,  if  it  is  not.  His  Works 
have  been  edited  by  Edward  Ar- 
ber  (1884  ;  1895).  Consult  E.  K. 
Chatterton,  Captain  John  Smith 
(1927);  J.  G.  Fletcher,  John 
Smith — also  Pocahontas  (1929). 

Smith,  John  (1618-52), 
English  philosopher,  was  born  at 
Achurch  in  Northamptonshire. 
He  is  chiefly  known  as  one  of 
the  Cambridge  Platonists.  His 
Select  Discourses  was  published 
in  1660. 

Smith,  Joseph.  See  Mor- 
mons. 

Smith,  Joseph,  III  (1832- 
1914),  leader  of  the  Reorganized 
Latter  Day  Saints,  son  of  Jo- 
seph Smith,  II,  was  born  at  Kirt- 
land,  O.  After  the  church  found- 
ed by  his  father  became  disor- 
ganized in  1844,  the  Reorgan- 
ized Church  was  formed  among 
members  who  refused  to  recog- 
nize the  authority  of  Brigham 
Young.  In  1860  he  accepted  the 
presidency  of  the  Reorganiza- 
tion which  opposes  polygamy 
and  other  alleged  innovations. 
He  was  editor  of  The  Saints 
Herald  from  1866  to  1914.  He 
died  at  Independence,  Missouri. 

Smith,  Melancthon  (1810- 
93),  American  naval  officer,  born 
in  New  York  City.  He  entered 
the  Navy  as  a  midshipman  in 
1829,  and  in  1 86 1-62_  command- 
ed the  Massachusetts  in  the  Gulf 
Squadron.  In  the  passage  of 
Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip, 
April  24,  1862,  he  commanded 
the  Mississippi^  and  after  pass- 
ing the  forts,  compelled  the  Con- 
federate ram,  Manassas,  to  run 
ashore.  In  the  passage  of  Port 
Hudson,  March  14,  1863,  his 
ship  ran  aground,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  set  her  on  fire  and 
abandon  her.  He  commanded  the 
Monongahela  in  the  battle  of 
Mobile  Bay,  and  the  Wabash  in 
the  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher.  He 
became  rear  admiral  in  1870,  re- 
tiring in  1871. 

Smith,  (Edmund)  Munroe 
(1854-1926),  American  jurist, 
born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  He 
graduated  from  Columbia  Uni- 
versity in  1877,  studied  law  in 
the  Universities  of  Berlin,  Leip- 
zig, and  Gottingen  in  1877- 
80.  In  1881  he  was  appoint- 
ed adjunct  professor  of  law 
in  Columbia,  and  in  1890 
he  became  professor  of  Roman 
law  and  jurisprudence  in  that 
institution.   He  assisted  in  es- 


Smith 


KFN 


265 


Smith 


tablishing  the  Political  Science 
Quarterly  in  1886,  and  was 
managing  editor  of  that  maga- 
zine in  1886-93.  He  was  author 
of  Bismarck  and  German  Unity 
(1898)  and  Selections  from  Cic- 
ero (1899). 

Smith,  Richard  Somers 
(1813-77).  American  soldier, 
born  in  Philadelphia.  He  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1834,  and 
resigned  his  commission  in  the 
army  two  years  later  to  take  up 
engineering  work.  He  re-entered 
the  army  in  1840  and  for  fifteen 
years  was  instructor  and  profes- 
sor at  West  Point.  He  again  re- 
signed in  1855  to  become  profes- 
sor of  mathematics  at  the  Brook- 
lyn Polytechnic  Institute.  In 
1861  he  again  entered  the  army, 
served  in  the  Peninsula  and  An- 
tietam  campaigns,  and  command- 
ed a  brigade  at  Chancellorsville, 
resigning  from  the  army  soon 
after  the  battle.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  Girard  College  in  1863- 
68,  professor  of  engineering  at 
Pennsylvania  State  College  at 
Gettysburg  in  1868-70,  and  pro- 
fessor of  drawing  at  Annapolis 
in  1870-77. 

Smith,  Richmond  Mayo, 
See  Mayo-Smith. 

Smith,  Robert  (1689-1768), 
English  mathematician,  was  born 
near  Gainsborough  ;  became  Plu- 
mian  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Cambridge  in  1716,  and  master 
of  Trinity  College  in  1742.  By 
his  will  be  founded  the  Smith 
prizes,  competed  for  by  Cam- 
bridge wranglers.  He  pub- 
lished A  Compleat  System  of 
Opticks  (1738)  and  Harmonics 
(1749). 

Smith,  Robert  (1757-1842), 
American  statesman,  who  served 
as  Secretary  of  the  Navy  (1802- 
5)  and  Attorney  General  (1805- 
9)  under  President  Jefferson 
and  as  Secretary  of  State  (1809- 
11)  under  President  Madison. 
His  official  career  on  the  national 
stage  was  stormy,  and  it  was 
Secretary  Smith  who  broke  off 
relations  with  the  British  minis- 
ter at  Washington  in  1811.  He 
had  many  political  enemies,  and 
he  came  into  bitter  conflict  with 
Albert  Gallatin,  Madison's  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury.  As  re- 
sult of  the  latter  feud  he  re- 
signed from  the  State  portfolio 
in  1811.  Thereafter  he  held  sev- 
eral positions  in  Maryland.  He 
was  the  last  survivor  of  the 
electoral  college  of  1789  which 
elected  Washington  as  first  Pres- 
ident. Consult  S.  F.  Bemis  (ed), 
The  American  Secretaries  of 
State  and  Their  Diplomacy 
(1927). 

Smith,  Robert  Payne.  See 
Payne-Smith. 

Smith,  Robertson.  See 
Smith,  William  Robertson. 

Smith,  Samuel  (1752-1839), 
American  soldier,  born  in  Lan- 


caster, Pa.  He  traveled  in  Eu- 
rope, became  a  captain  in  a 
Maryland  regiment  and  fought  in 
the  battles  of  Long  Island  and 
Harlem  ;  was  wounded  at  White 
Plains;  and  in  1777  attained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  He 
participated  in  the  battle  of  the 
Brandywine,  and  from  Septem- 
ber to  November  gallantly  de- 
fended Fort  Mifflin  and  was  dan- 
gerously wounded.  During  1790- 
92  he  was  a  member  of  the  Mary- 
land legislature  ;  commanded  the 
Maryland  militia  in  the  army 
sent  to  suppress  the  Whisky  Re- 
bellion (q.  V.)  ;  during  1793- 
1803  and  1815-22  was  a  member 
of  the  Federal  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, and  during  1803-15 
and  1822-33  of  the  Federal  Sen- 
ate. He  assisted  in  the  defense 
of  Baltimore  against  the  British 
in  1814.  During  1835-38  he 
was  mayor  of  Baltimore. 

Smith,  Samuel  Francis 
(1808-95),  American  clergyman, 
was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  College 
(1829)  and  at  Andover  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  (1832),  in  the  lat- 
ter year  writing  his  national 
hymn,  'My  Country,  'tis  of  Thee,' 
for  a  meeting  on  July  4,  at  the 
Park  Street  Church,  Boston.  He 
was  ordained  to  the  Baptist  min- 
istry in  1834,  and  was  pastor  at 
Waterville,  Me.,  from  1834  to 
1842,  at  the  same  time  acting  as 
professor  of  modern  languages 
at  Waterville  College  (now  Colby 
University).  From  1842  to  1854 
he  was  pastor  at  Newton,  Mass. 
He  edited  the  Christmas  Review 
during  1842-48,  and  the  publi- 
cations of  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Union  from  1854  to  1869.  He 
wrote  over  one  hundred  hymns, 
including,  'The  Morning  Light 
is  Breaking'  and  other  popular 
church  pieces.  These  were  col- 
lected in  Poems  of  Home  and 
Country — Sacred  and  Miscellane- 
ous Verse  (1895).  His  prose 
writings  include  Missionary 
Sketches  (1879)  and  Rambles  in 
Mission  Fields  (1884). 

Smith,  Samuel  Stanhope 
(1750-1819),  American  clergy- 
man and  educator,  was  born  at 
Pequea,  Pa.,  and  graduated 
(1769)  at  Princeton.  He  was  a 
tutor  there  during  1770-3,  and 
was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian 
ministry  in  1774.  After  brief 
missionary  service  in  Va.  he  was 
first  president  of  Hampden  Sid- 
ney College  from  1775  to  1779, 
then  taking  the  professorship  of 
moral  philosophy  at  Princeton,  to 
which  were  added  that  of  theol- 
ogy in  1783  and  the  vice-presi- 
dency in  1786.  From  1795  to 
1812  he  was  president  of  Prince- 
ton (then  the  College  of  New 
Jersey).  He  published  among 
other  works :  Lectures  on  the 
Evidences  of  Religion  (1809) 
and  Lectures  on  Moral  and  Po- 


litical Philosophy  (1812).  See 
Menvoir  in  Sermons  (1821). 

Smith,  Seba  (1792-1868), 
American  journalist  and  humor- 
ist, was  born  at  Buckfield,  Me., 
and  graduated  (1818)  at  Bow- 
doin.  Entering  newspaper  life 
he  edited  in  succession  at  Port- 
land, Me.,  the  Eastern  Argus, 
the  Family  Recorder,  and  the 
Daily  Courier,  in  part  of  which 
work  he  was  assisted  by  his  wife, 
Elizabeth  Oakes  (Prince)  Smith 
(q.  v.).  To  the  Courier  he  con- 
tributed the  amusing  political 
letters,  in  Yankee  dialect,  which 
purported  to  describe  the  life  and 
associations  of  one  Major  Jack 
Downing  of  Downingville,  and 
particularly  his  friendship-  with 
President  Andrew  Jackson.  They 
were  collected  as  The  Life  and 
Writings  of  Major  Jack  Down- 
ing (1833).  Mr.  Smith  wrote 
other  similar  papers  during 
President  Polk's  administration, 
and  subsequently  published  all 
his  writings  of  this  character  as 
My  Thirty  Years  out  of  the  Sen- 
ate (1859),  the  title  being  a 
travesty  on  that  of  Sen.  Benton's 
well-known  work.  He  met  with 
financial  reverses  in  1839,  and 
he  removed  to  New  York  city  in 
1842,  where  he  was  profitably 
engaged  in  journalism  for  many 
years.  He  published  Pozvhatan, 
a  metrical  romance  (1841),  New 
Elements  of  Geometry  (1850), 
and  Way  Dozvn  East;  or,  Por- 
traitures of  Yankee  Life  (1855). 

Smith,  Sir  Sidney.  See 
Smith,  Sir  William  Sidney. 

Smith,  Sophia  (1796-1870), 
American  philanthropist,  born  at 
Hatfield,  Mass.  The  greater 
part  of  her  life  was  spent  in  re- 
tirement in  her  native  town.  In 
1861,  at  the  death  of  her  brother 
Austin,  she  came  into  possession 
of  a  large  estate  left  by  her  fa- 
ther, Oliver  Smith.  She  gave 
generously  to  the  Andover  The- 
ological Seminary  and  other  in- 
stitutions, but  her  chief  efforts 
were  devoted  to  the  founding  of 
Smith  College  at  Northampton, 
Mass.  In  her  own  words  its 
object  was  to  furnish  women 
'means  and  facilities  for  educa- 
tion equal  to  those  which  are  of- 
fered in  our  colleges  for  young 
men.'  This  was  the  first  insti- 
tution for  the  collegiate  educa- 
tion of  women  founded  in  Mass. 
At  her  death  she  left  for  its 
foundation  nearly  $400,000.  She 
endowed  also  a  preparatory 
school  for  the  college  at  North- 
ampton. 

Smith,  Sydney  (1771-1845), 
English  author  and  wit,  born  at 
Woodford,  Essex.  In  1794  he 
was  ordained  to  the  curacy  of 
Netherhaven,  Salisbury  Plain, 
and  in  1797  went  to  Edinburgh 
as  a  private  tutor.  There  he 
found  entrance  to  literary  so- 
ciety, and  was  soon  noted  for  his 


Smith 


KFN 


266 


Smith 


conversation  and  preaching.  His 
first  publication  was  Six  Ser- 
mons preached  at  Charlotte 
Chapel,  Edinburgh  (1800).  In 
1802  he  founded,  with  Jeffrey 
and  Brougham,  the  Edinburgh 
Review.  Jeffrey  termed  Smith 
the  'original  projector'  (Cock- 
burn's  Life  of  Jeffrey,  i.  125). 
In  1803  he  removed  to  London. 
His  Whig  politics  gave  him  the 
entree  to  Holland  House,  and  his 
wit,  his  sermons,  his  lectures  on 
moral  philosophy  at  the  Royal 
Institution  (1804-6),  and  his 
Letters  on  the  Catholics  by  Peter 
Plymlcy  (1807-8)  won  him  wider 
reputation.  In  1806  he  was  given 
the  rectory  of  Foston-le-Clay  in 
Yorkshire,  but  he  did  not  reside 
there  till  1809;  and  in  1825  he 
obtained  in  addition  the  living  of 
Londesborough.  In  1827  he  was 
made  a  canon  of  Bristol  cathe- 
dral, and  in  1829  exchanged  the 
living  of  Foston  for  that  of 
Combe-Florey,  near  Taunton.  In 
1831  he  became  a  canon  of  St. 
Paul's.  He  fought  determinedly 
for  Catholic  emancipation  ;  he  at- 
tacked the  Ecclesiastical  Com- 
mission in  his  Letters  to  Arch- 
deacon Singleton  (1837)  ;  and  his 
last  work  was  A  Fragnicnt  on  the 
Irish  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
He  also  wrote  Letters  on  Amer- 
ican Debts  (1843).  Unlike  Jef- 
frey, he  had  little  ability  in  liter- 
ary criticism  ;  but  he  is  generally 
admitted  to  have  been  the  most 
brilliant  of  the  early  contribu- 
tors to  the  Edinburgh  Review. 
His  Works  were  published  in 
1839.  See  Memoir  and  Letters, 
by  Lady  Holland  and  Mrs.  Aus- 
tin (1855)  ;  J.  Reid's  Life  and 
Times  of  Sydney  Smith  (1884)  ; 
A.  Birrell's  Sydney  Smith,  in 
English  Men  of  Letters  Series ; 
Wit  and  Wisdom  of  S.  Srnith, 
with  memoir,  by  Duyckinck 
(1856)  ;  Selections,  in  Elia  Se- 
ries (1897)  ;  and  Jerrold's  edi- 
tion of  Bon  Mots  of  Smith  and 
Sheridan  (1893). 

Smith,  Walter  Chalmers 
(1824-1908),  Scottish  poet  and 
preacher,  born  at  Aberdeen  ;  was 
minister  successively  of  a  Pres- 
byterian church  in  London,  of  the 
Free  Church  at  Orwell  (Kinross- 
shire),  of  the  Tron  Church,  Glas- 
gow, and  of  the  High  Church, 
Edinburgh.  He  was  an  able  and 
eloquent  preacher,  and  was  chosen 
moderator  of  the  Free  Church  in 
the  jubilee  year  (1893).  His 
works  include  Bishop's  Walk 
(1861),  Olrig  Grange  (1872), 
Borland  Hall  (1875),  Hilda 
(1878),  Raban  (1881),  Kildro- 
stan  (1884),  North-Country 
Folk  (1887),  A  Heretic  (1890), 
and  Thoughts  and  Fancies  for 
Sunday  Evenings  (1887).  His 
Collected  Works  appeared  in 
1903. 

Smith,  Wayland.  See  Way- 
land. 


Smith,  William  (1769-1839), 
English  geologist  and  engineer, 
was  born  at  Churchill  in  Ox- 
fordshire, and  was  practically 
self-educated.  In  1793  he  sur- 
veyed a  canal  through  the  Somer- 
set coal  fields,  and  from  that 
time  till  about  1820  was  kept 
busy  with  drainage  and  irrigation 
works.  In  geology  his  theory  of 
the  stratification  of  rocks  consti- 
tutes his  title  to  fame.  He  ruined 
himself  by  producing  a  strati- 
graphical  map  of  England.  See 
Memoirs,  by  J.  Phillips  (1844). 

Smith,  Sir  William  (1813- 
93),  English  lexicographer,  was 
born  at  Enfield.  He  edited  Greek 
and  Roman  Antiquities  (1842), 
Greek  and  Roman  Biography 
(1849),  Geography  (1857),  and 
wrote  The  Student's  Greece 
(1854).  Thc_  Bible  Dictionary 
(1860—5)  attained  a  high  stand- 
ard of  scholarship,  and  he  was 
associated  with  Cheetham  in  the 
Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiqui- 
ties (1875-80)  and  with  Dr. 
Wace  in  the  Dictionary  of  Chris- 
tian Biography  (1877-87).  From 
1867  he  edited  the  Quarterly  Re- 
view. 

Smith,  William  Farrar 
(1824-1903),  American  soldier, 
born  at  St.  Albans,  Vt.  He  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1845,  and 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
had  reached  the  rank  of  captain. 
He  was  appointed  colonel  of  the 
Third  Vermont  volunteers,  July 
16,  1861  ;  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers,  Aug.  13,  1861,  and 
major-general  of  volunteers,  July 
4,  1862.  Subsequently  he  con- 
manded  a  division  of  the  6th 
Corps  in  the  Peninsula  and 
Maryland  campaigns  in  1862,  and 
commanded  the  corps  at  Freder- 
icksburg. In  the  summer  of  1863 
he  assisted  in  the  defense  of 
Pennsylvania  against  Lee's  inva- 
sion, and  from  Oct.  10  to  Nov.  1, 
1863,  was  chief  engineer  of  the 
Army  of  the  Cumberland,  and 
suggested  and  carried  out  the  op- 
erations by  which  the  army  in 
Chattanooga  was  supplied  with 
provisions  and  evacuation  pre- 
vented. In  1864-65  he  com- 
manded the  18th  Corps,  Army  of 
the  James,  taking  part  in  the  op- 
erations around  Richmond,  the 
assault  at  Cold  Harbor,  and  the 
siege  of  Petersburg.  He  re- 
signed from  the  army  in  1867, 
and  was  one  of  the  police  com- 
missioners of  New  York  City 
in  1875-81  and  president  of  the 
board  in  1877-81. 

Smith,  William  Henry 
(1825-91),  English  politician, 
was  born  in  London,  and  became 
partner  in  his  father's  business 
of  news-agency  in  1846.  It  was 
he  who  developed  the  railway 
bookstall  system,  and  to  that  he 
added  a  circulating  library.  In 
1868  he  defeated  John  Stuart 
Mill   for   Westminster,   and  in 


1877  was  appointed  by  Disraeli 
to  the  Admiralty.  He  was  Sec- 
retary for  War  under  Lord  Salis- 
bury in  1886,  and  succeeded  Lord 
Randolph  Churchill  as  leader  of 
the  House  of  Commons.  See 
Life  and  Times  of  the  Rt.  Hon 
W.  H.  Smith  (1893)  and  Life  of 
Lord  Randolph  Churchill  (1906). 

Smith,  William  Henry 
(1833-96),  American  journalist 
and  publicist,  born  in  Columbia 
CO.,  N.  Y.  When  he  was  but  two 
years  of  age  his  parents  removed 
with  him  to  Ohio,  where  he  re- 
ceived a  common  school  and 
academic  education.  While  act- 
ing as  tutor  he  wrote  a  series  of 
articles  attacking  the  Know- 
Nothing  Party.  These  attracted 
attention,  and  as  a  result  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  Type  of  the 
Tim'cs  of  Cincinnati,  in  1855. 
He  subsequently  became  an  edi- 
torial writer  on  the  Cincinnati 
Commercial  and  the  Cincinnati 
Gazette.  In  1864  he  was  elected 
Secretary  of  State,  and  was  re- 
elected in  1866.  In  1867  he 
retired  from  public  life,  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Cin- 
cinnati Chronicle,  and  its  editor 
until  ill-health  compelled  him  to 
retire.  In  1870  he  became  agent 
in  Chicago  for  the  Western  Asso- 
ciated Press.  He  was  appointed 
Collector  of  the  Port  of  Chicago 
in  1877.  At  the  expiration  of  his 
term  he  resumed  charge  of  the 
Western  Associated  Press,  and 
effected  its  consolidation  with  the 
Eastern  Associated  Press  in  1882, 
becoming  general  manager  of  the 
new  organization.  He  held  this 
position  until  1893.  He  published 
The  St.  Clair  Papers  (2  vols. 
1887),  which  contain  many  docu- 
ments on  the  early  history  of  the 
Northwest,  and  at  the  time  of  his 
death  he  was  engaged  upon  A 
Political  History  of  Slavery, 
which  was  published  posthu- 
mously in  1903. 

Smith,  William  Robertson 
(1846-94),  Scottish  theologian 
and  Orientalist,  was  born  at 
Keig,  Aberdeenshire,  and  acted 
as  assistant  in  natural  philosophy 
to  Professor  Tait  at  Edinburgh 
University.  Having  made  him- 
self master  of  the  current  Ger- 
man theology,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  the  Old  Testament 
in  the  Free  Church  College  at 
Aberdeen  (1870),  and  he  at  once 
became  known  as  the  interpreter 
of  modern  Biblical  criticism.  In 
1870  he  also  began  to  contribute 
Biblical  articles  to  the  9th  edi- 
tion of  the  Encyclopccdia  Britan- 
nica.  Some  of  these  were  made 
the  basis  of  charges  against  him 
in  the  church  courts,  and  al- 
though he  defended  himself  with 
great  skill,  he  was  removed  from 
his  chair  in  1881.  He  then  be- 
came joint  editor  of  the  Encyclo- 
pccdia, and  in  1883  was  appointed 
professor   of   Arabic   at  Cam- 


Smith 


KFN 


267 


Smithson 


bridge.  He  published  Old  Testa- 
ment   in    the    Jewish  Church 

(1881)  ,  The  Prophets  of  Israel 

(1882)  ,  Kinship  and  Marriage  in 
Early  Arabia  (1885),  Religion  of 
the  Semites  (1889),  and  a  very 
large  number  of  articles  in  the 
Encyclopadia  Britannica.  See 
Life  by  J.  Sutherland  Black  in 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog. 

Smith,  Sir  William  Sidney 
(1764-1840),  British  admiral, 
was  born  in  Westminster.  He 
was  a  midshipman  at  Rodney's 
relief  of  Gilbraltar  and  victory 
ofif  St.  Vincent  in  1780;  was 
present  at  Graves'  action  in  1781, 
and  at  the  battle  of  the  Saintes  in 
1782.  During  the  war  of  the 
French  Revolution  he  was  with 
Hood  at  Toulon,  and  on  the  evac- 
uation of  that  town  he  was  en- 
trusted with  the  duty  of  burning 
the  French  fleet,  destroying  ten 
ships  of  the  line.  In  1796,  while 
endeavoring  to  cut  out  a  French 
ship  off  Havre,  he  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  was  kept  for  two 
years  in  the  Temple  at  Paris. 
Having  effected  his  escape,  he 
won  great  fame  by  his  defense 
of  St.  Jean  d'Acre  against  Bona- 
parte in  1799, 

Smith,  William  Sogy  (1830- 
1916),  American  soldier  and  en- 
gineer, was  born  in  Tarlton,  O. 
He  was  graduated  from  West 
Point  in  1853,  but  resigned  from 
the  army  in  1854  to  become  a 
civil  engineer.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  entered  the 
army  as  lieutenant  colonel  of 
volunteers,  and  later  became 
colonel,  then  brigadier  general, 
of  U.  S.  volunteers.  In  1863  he 
was  made  chief  of  the  cavalry  de- 
partment of  Tennessee.  After 
the  war  he  carried  through  much 
difficult  work  as  engineer  and 
contractor  for  the  government 
and  for  railroad  companies.  He 
built  the  first  all-steel  railroad 
bridge  in  the  world  (Glasgow, 
Mo.)  by  pneumatic  process,  and 
aided  in  the  development  of  plans 
for  high  steel  buildings.  He  in- 
vented the  first  pneumatic  cais- 
son, as  well  as  a  new  method  of 
fireproof  building. 

Smith  College,  one  of  the 
leading  institutions  for  the  high- 
er education  of  women  in  the 
United  States,  located  in  North- 
ampton, Mass.  Miss  Sophia 
Smith,  of  Hatfield,  Mass., 
founded  the  college,  leaving  a 
bequest  of  $393,106  for  the  pur- 
pose. It  was  incorporated  and 
chartered  in  1871,  opened  in  1875 
with  fourteen  students,  and  it 
granted  the  first  degrees  in  1879. 
It  has  assets  of  nearly  $16,500,- 
000,  a  study  body  of  2,000,  and 
over  18,000  alumnae. 

The  degrees  of  a.b.,  a.m., 
ED.M.,  and  PH.D.  are  conferred, 
and  a  diploma  is  awarded  to 
graduate  students  who  complete 
a  course  in  the  training  of  teach- 


ers of  physical  education.  A 
modified  elective  system  is  in 
force.  The  normal  secondary 
school  program  for  admission 
consists  of  sixteen  units.  Enter- 
ing students  are  required  to  take 
the  Scholastic  Aptitude  Test  and 
three  sections  of  the  Achievement 
Test  given  by  the  College  En- 
trance Examination  Board.  They 
must  submit  reports  showing  the 
courses  taken  and  the  grades  ob- 
tained, with  credentials  from  the 
school  as  to  character  and  fitness 
for  college  work.  A  number  of 
scholarships  are  offered,  some 
covering  full  tuition,  and  fellow- 
ships are  awarded  for  advanced 
study. 

In  addition  to  the  administra- 
tion building,  nine  buildings  con- 
taining lecture  rooms,  class- 
rooms, and  laboratories,  and  35 
dormitories,  there  are  John  M. 
Greene  Hall  seating  nearly 
2,300;  the  Library  with  306,- 
151  books  and  pamphlets;  Sage 
Hall  with  an  auditorium  and 
large  music  library ;  botanic 
gardens  and  nine  greenhouses ; 
Elizabeth  Mason  Infirmary ; 
Alumnae  House ;  Students' 
Building  in  which  there  is  a 
small  theatre ;  and  two  gymna- 
siums, one  with  a  75-foot  pool. 
The  Allen  and  the  New  Ath- 
letic fields  cover  over  thirty 
acres,  and  with  a  boathouse, 
crew  house,  and  field  house  add 
considerably  to  the  facilities  for 
outdoor  physical  activities. 

The  college  is  nonsectarian 
and  draws  its  students  from 
practically  every  state,  from  for- 
eign countries,  from  various 
races.  Though  a  college  for 
women,  about  forty  per  cent  of 
the  faculty  of  professorial  rank 
are  men,  and  men  are  accepted 
as  graduate  students,  but  are  not 
granted  a  degree.  Among  the 
distinctive  features  are  the  Smith 
College  School  for  Social  Work  ; 
the  Smith  College  Day  School 
and  the  Elisabeth  Morrow  Mor- 
gan Nursery  School,  conducted 
by  the  Department  of  Education 
and  Child  Study ;  the  Depart- 
ment of  Art  with  the  Smith  Col- 
lege Museum  of  Art  (the  Tryon 
and  the  Hillyer  Galleries)  and 
the  Department  of  Music,  housed 
in  a  well-equipped  building,  af- 
fording work  in  technical  art  and 
practical  music,  in  addition  to 
training  in  the  theory  and  his- 
tory of  these  arts  ;  the  William 
Allan  Neilson  Chair  of  Research, 
occupied  annually  by  a  scholar  or 
scholars  chiefly  concerned  with 
the  carrying  on  of  research  in 
any  of  the  fields  represented  by 
the  curriculum.  To  compensate 
somewhat  for  the  Junior  Year 
Aboard,  suspended  by  the  war, 
three  houses  have  been  set  aside 
for  students  interested  in  French, 
Spanish,  and  German  where  the 
languages  are  spoken  and  the  at- 


mosphere of  each  house  repre- 
sents as  far  as  possible  that  of 
the  country  represented. 

The  college  cooperates  in  the 
support  of  the  American  Schools 
of  Classical  Studies  in  Athens 
and  Rome,  and  contributes  an- 
nually toward  the  maintenance  of 
the  American  School  of  Oriental 
Research  in  Jerusalem. 

Smith-Dorrien,  Sir  Horace 
LocKWOOD  (1858-1930),  British 
army  officer,  was  educated  at 
Harrow.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1876,  served  in  the  Zulu  War 
(1879),  and  the  Egyptian  War 
(1882),  and  took  part  in  the  Nile 
Expedition  with  the  Egyptian 
Army  (1884),  and  in  the  Soudan 
Campaign  (1885).  He  was  in 
India  from  1893  to  1898,  was  re- 
called to  Egypt,  and  accompanied 
the  Nile  Expedition  of  1898.  He 
served  in  South  Africa  in  the 
Boer  War,  during  which  he  was 
promoted  to  major  general  and 
placed  in  command  of  a  division. 
He  was  again  in  India  from  1901 
to  1907,  when  he  was  made 
lieutenant  general  (1906),  was 
commander-in-chief  at  Aldershot 
from  1907  to  1912,  became  a 
general  in  1912,  and  held  the 
Southern  command  from  1912  to 
1914. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  First 
World  War  (see  Europe,  Great 
War  of)  Smith-Dorrien  was  in 
command  of  the  Second  Army  of 
the  British  Expeditionary  Force 
(1914-15),  and  it  was  by  his  wise 
generalship  that  the  greater  part 
of  the  British  forces  was  saved  in 
the  retreat  from  Mons.  In  1915 
he  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  in  British  East  Africa,  but 
resigned  shortly  after  on  account 
of  ill  health.  He  was  knighted  in 
1904,  was  created  g.c.b.  in  1913 
and  G.c.M.G.  in  1915.  He  wrote 
Memories  of  Forty-eight  Years' 
Service  (1925). 

Smithfield,  a  district  north 
of  St.  Paul's,  London,  England. 
From  the  twelfth  century  it  was 
a  famous  cattle  market  and  the 
scene  of  fairs,  tournaments,  exe- 
cutions, and  burnings  of  heretics. 
Wat  Tyler  (q.  v.)  was  put  to 
death  there  in  1381.  It  is  now 
the  Central  Meat  Market  of  Lon- 
don. 

Smith's  Falls,  town,  Canada, 
in  Lanark  county,  Ontario,  on 
the  Rideau  River,  the  Rideau 
Canal,  and  the  Canadian  Pacific 
and  Canadian  Northern  rail- 
roads ;  45  miles  south  of  Ottawa. 
It  has  manufactures  of  farm 
implements,  malleable  castings, 
sashes  and  doors,  baking  powder, 
cattle  markers,  and  poultry  sup- 
plies. There  are  mica  mines  near 
by.  The  Rideau  Lakes,  near 
Smith's  Falls,  are  popular  as  a 
summer  resort.  Pop.  (1941) 
7,088. 

Smith'son,  James  (1765- 
1829),    English    scientist  and 


Smithsonian  Institution  KFN 


268        Smithsonian  Institution 


founder  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, was  born  in  France. 
He  was  the  natural  son  of  Hugh 
Smithson  (afterward  Percy),  who 
became  the  first  Duke  of  North- 
umberland of  the  third  creation. 
He  was  taken  from  France  when 
a  young  boy,  was  naturalized  as  a 
British  subject,  and  entered  Pem- 
broke College,  Oxford,  where  he 
specialized  in  chemistry  and 
mineralogy,  receiving  the  de- 
gree of  M.A.  in  1786.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  was  admitted  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  of 
which  he  was  afterward  vice- 
president.  He  resided  for  many 
years  of  his  life  in  Continental 
.cities,  and  gained  special  repute 
as  an  analytical  chemist.  He 
died  in  Genoa,  Italy,  and  was 
buried  on  the  heights  of  San 
Benigno. 

Smithson's  wealth  is  thought 
to  have  come  largely  from  his 
half-brother.  Col.  H.  L.  Dickin- 
son. He  bequeathed  his  proper- 
ty to  his  nephew,  Henry  James 
Hungerford,  and  in  default  of 
direct  heirs  of  the  latter,  to  the 
United  States,  to  found  an  in- 
stitution at  Washington.  (See 
Smithsonian  Institution). 
His  mineralogical  specimens, 
numbering  more  than  10,000, 
and  his  manuscripts  were  placed 
in  the  building  in  Washington, 
but  were  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1865.  At  the  suggestion  of  Dr. 
Alexander  Graham  Bell,  the 
body  of  James  Smithson  was 
brought  from  the  cemetery  near 
Genoa  to  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, where  it  was  received  on 
Jan.  25,  1904,  and  on  Mar.  6, 
1905,  it  was  sealed  in  the  origi- 
nal tomb.  Consult  Biographi- 
cal Sketch  of  James  Smithson 
(Publication  2276,  Smithsonian 
Institution,  1914). 

Smithso'nian  Institution, 
The,  a  learned  institution  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  established  in 
1846  under  the  terms  of  the  will 
of  James  Smithson  (q.  v.),  who 
bequeathed  his  fortune  'to  the 
United  States  of  America,  to 
found  at  Washington,  under  the 
name  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, an  establishment  for  the 
increase  and  diffusion  of  knowl- 
edge among  men.'  This  bequest, 
amounting  to  $508,318.46,  was 
formally  accepted  by  Congress, 
and  the  Institution  established  by 
an  act  approved  Aug.  10,  1846. 

The  original  bequest  of  the 
founder  has  been  increased  from 
time  to  time  by  other  gifts  and 
legacies,  of  which  the  most 
notable  was  a  gift  of  $250,000 
from  Thomas  G.  Hodgkins  in 
1891.  On  July  1,  1943,  the  per- 
manent fund  was  $2,642,923  of 
which  $1,000,000  was  deposited 
in  the  Treasury  of  the  United 
States,  bearing  interest  at  six  per 
cent,  under  special  Congressional 
provisions.     The   income  from 


the  permanent  fund,  supple- 
mented by  private  contribu- 
tions, amounts  to  about  $245,000 
annually.  The  Institution  has  its 
home  in  a  building  of  Seneca 
brownstone  in  the  Norman  style 
of  architecture,  erected  on  the 
Mall  in  1847-55. 

The  statutory  members  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  are  the 
President  of  the  United  States, 
the  Vice  President,  the  Chief 
Justice,  and  the  heads  of  the 
Executive  Departments.  The 
governing  body  is  a  Board  of 
Regents  composed  of  the  Vice 
President  of  the  United  States, 
the  Chief  Justice,  three  members 
of  the  Senate,  three  of  the  House 
of  Representatives,  and  six 
citizens  selected  by  Congress, 
two  of  whom  must  be  resident  in 
the  District  of  Columbia.  The 
Board  elects  one  of  its  members 
Chancellor  who  acts  as  its  pre- 
siding officer.  The  executive 
officer  is  the  Secretary  who  is 
also  elected  by  the  Regents. 
There  have  been  five  Secretaries  : 
Joseph  Henry,  1846-1878,  Spen- 
cer F.  Baird,  1878-1887,  Samuel 
P.  Langley,  1887-1906,  Charles 
D.  Walcott,  1907-1927,  and 
Charles  G.  Abbot,  1928-1944; 
and  Alexander  Wetmore,  acting 
secretary  (1944). 

The  objects  of  the  Institution, 
as  defined  in  the  original  plan  of 
the  first  Secretary,  are  :  first,  to 
increase  knowledge  by  original 
investigation,  and,  second,  to 
diffuse  knowledge,  not  only  in 
the  United  States,  but  through- 
out the  world,  especially  by  its 
publications  and  by  promoting 
an  interchange  of  scientific 
thought  among  all  nations. 

Its  publications  constitute  the 
principal  medium  for  carrying 
out  one  of  the  fundamental  func- 
tions of  the  Institution,  'the  dif- 
fusion of  knowledge.'  The  In- 
stitution proper  issues  four  se- 
ries :  Smithsonian  Contributions 
to  Knowledge,  containing  in 
quarto  form  the  results  of  stud- 
ies constituting  important  con- 
tributions to  knowledge ;  Smith- 
sonian Miscellaneous  Collec- 
tions;  Smithsonian  Special  Pub- 
lications, including  the  annual 
Smithsonian  exploration  pam- 
phlet ;  and  the  Annual  Report  of 
the  Institution.  If  to  these  series 
be  added  the  publications  issued 
under  its  direction  by  the  Na- 
tional Museum,  the  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology,  and  the 
Astrophysical  Observatory,  the 
scientific  literature  produced  by 
the  Institution  up  to  1943 
amounted  to  nearly  850  volumes. 
The  Miscellaneous  Collections 
and  Museum  Proceedings  vol- 
umes are  made  up  of  numerous 
separate  papers,  so  that  the  total 
number  of  scientific  publications 
issued  to  date  exceeds  7,700. 

The  works  issued  at  the  ex- 


pense of  the  Institution  proper 
are  distributed  to  about  1,100 
of  the  principal  libraries  of  the 
world.  The  Annual  Reports,  the 
general  appendix  of  which  is 
made  up  of  selected  papers,  re- 
viewing in  nontechnical  language 
progress  in  scientific  work  in  all 
its  branches,  are  public  docu- 
ments, and  are  more  widely  dis- 
tributed than  the  other  series, 
being  printed  in  editions  of 
10,000  copies. 

The  L;brary  of  the  Institution 
is  devoted  to  the  collection  of 
periodicals  and  publications  of  a 
scientific  nature  as  well  as  to  the 
publications  of  the  scientific  in- 
stitutions and  learned  societies 
of  the  world.  An  accumulation 
of  over  900,000  volumes  has 
thus  been  acquired,  the  main 
part  of  which  forms  the  Smiith- 
sonian  Deposit  of  the  Library  of 
Congress  (q.  v.).  Smaller  librar- 
ies are  maintained  at  the  various 
branches  of  the  Institution,  and 
35  sectional  libraries  of  technical 
works  in  all  branches  of  science 
are  maintained  for  the  use  of  the 
scientific  staff. 

The  achievements  of  the  In- 
stitution in  the  advancement  of 
science  are  notable,  and  it  is  the 
parent  of  many  of  the  scientific 
bureaus  of  the  government,  no- 
tably the  Weather  Bureau,  Bu- 
reau of  Fisheries,  and  National 
Advisory  Committee  for  Aero- 
nautics, besides  the  six  govern- 
ment bureaus  now  under  its 
direction.  In  addition  to  the 
researches  carried  on  under  its 
own  roof,  scientific  investigators 
in  the  United  States,  as  well  as 
those  abroad,  have  been  aided. 
Books,  apparatus,  and  laboratory 
accommodations  have  been  sup- 
plied to  thousands,  and  a  num- 
ber of  money  grants  have  been 
made.  Personal  encouragement 
and  advice  have  been  given,  and 
thousands  of  letters  are  written 
each  year  in  response  to  inquiries 
for  scientific  information. 

During  the  Second  World  War 
the  Institution  served  as  an  im- 
portant source  of  technical  infor- 
mation to  the  Army  and  Navy. 
In  the  first  two  years  of  the  war 
more  than  2,000  requests  for  such 
information  were  recorded.  The 
scientific  staff,  laboratories,  and 
other  facilities  of  the  Institution 
were  largely  devoted  to  war  re- 
searches assigned  by  the  Army 
and  Navy. 

A  prominent  field  of  activity 
is  the  scientific  exploration  of 
regions  imperfectly  known,  not 
only  in  North  America,  but 
throughout  the  world.  Besides 
the  expeditions  fitted  out  under 
the  Institution's  immediate  di- 
rection, others  organized  by  pri- 
vate enterprise,  or  under  govern- 
mental auspices,  have  been  aided 
by  counsel  and  instruction, 
Among  the  1,500  or  more  expe^ 


Smithsonian  Institution  KFN 


269 


Smock 


ditions  under  Smithsonian  aus- 
pices may  be  mentioned  the 
Smithsonian  African  expedition, 
under  the  direction  of  Theodore 
Roosevelt  (q.  v.)  which  obtained 
exceptionally  valuable  collections 
of  the  larger  African  mammals 
now  exhibited  in  the  National 
Museum,  a  biological  and  geo- 
logical survey  of  the  Panama 
Canal  Zone,  and  the  Smithso- 
nian-Chrysler expedition  to  East 
Africa  to  obtain  living  wild  ani- 
mals for  the  National  Zoological 
Park.  .      .  J 

Two  medals  are  maintained 
bv  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
The  Hodgkins  Gold  Medal, 
founded  in  1895,  is  awarded  for 
exceptional  contributions  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  nature  _  and 
properties  of  atmospheric  air,  or 
for  original  and  practical  appli- 
cation of  existing  knowledge  of 
the  air  to  the  welfare  of  man- 
kind. It  was  first  bestowed  in 
1899  on  Prof.  James  Dewar,  and 
again  in  1902  on  Prof.  J.  J. 
Thomson.  The  Langley  Gold 
Medal  was  established  m  1908  m 
memory  of  Secretary  Langley 
and  his  contributions  to  the 
science  of  aeronautics,  'to  be 
awarded  for  specially  meritori- 
ous investigations  in  connection 
with  the  science  of  aerodromics 
and  its  application  to  aviation.' 
It  was  awarded  in  1909  to  Wil- 
bur and  Orville  Wright,  in  1913 
to  Glenn  H.  Curtiss  and  M.  Gus- 
tave  Eiffel,  and  in  1927  to  Colo- 
nel Charles  A.  Lindbergh,  in 
1929  to  Charles  Matthews  (post- 
humously) and  Admiral  Richard 
Evelyn  Byrd,  and  in  1935  to  Dr. 
Joseph  S.  Ames. 

From  the  early  activities  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  a 
number  of  dependencies  or 
branches  have  grown  up,  which 
with  the  exception  of  the  Freer 
Gallery  of  Art,  are  supported  by 
appropriations  from  Congress, 
but  are  administered  by  the  In- 
stitution.   These  are  as  follows  : 

The  International  Exchange 
Service,  begun  in  1850,  which 
has  for  its  object  the  free  inter- 
change of  scientific  and  govern- 
mental publications  with  other 
countries.  Exchange  agencies 
throughout  the  world  cooperate 
in  the  enterprise. 

The  U,  S.  National  Mu- 
seum, which  is  the  legal  deposi- 
tory of  objects  of  art,  of  histori- 
cal interest,  and  of  foreign  and 
curious  research,  and  all  objects 
of  natural  history,  plants,  and 
geological  and  mineralogical 
specimens  belonging  to  the  Unit- 
ed States.  These  collections,  now 
numbering  well  over  17,000,000 
specimens,  are  preserved  in  the 
Smithsonian  building  and  the 
adjacent  buildings  of  the  Na- 
tional Museum,  where  they  form 
the  basis  of  important  researches 
by  the  Museum  staff  and  outside 


investigators.  The  buildings  of 
the  Museum  are  the  Arts  and 
Industries  Building,  erected  in 
1881,  the  Natural  History  Build- 
ing, completed  in  1911,  and  the 
Aircraft  Building,  a  temporary 
structure  used  to  display  the 
unrivalled  collection  of  historic 
airplanes.  The  Museum  pub- 
lishes Annual  Reports,  Bulletins, 
and  Proceedings,  and  a  series  of 
Contributions  from  the  U.  S. 
National  Herbarium. 

The  National  Collection  of 
Fine  Arts  (formerly  National 
Gallery  of  Art)  was  provided  for 
in  1846  by  the  act  establishing 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  but 
this  phase  of  the  Institution's  ac- 
tivities lay  dormant  for  various 
reasons  until  1905,  when  a  valu- 
able collection  bequeathed  by 
Harriet  Lane  Johnston  in  1903 
was  received.  In  1907,  Wil- 
liam T.  Evans,  of  New  Jersey, 
presented  to  the  National  Collec- 
tion about  50  selected  paintings, 
later  increased  to  114,  repre- 
senting 80  American  artists,  and 
other  important  collections  have 
since  been  added,  including  the 
Ralph  Cross  Johnson  collection 
of  Old  Masters.  The  Collection 
is  temporarily  housed  in  the  Nat- 
ural History  Building  of  the  Na- 
tional Museum,  but  has  since 
1920  been  administered  as  an  in- 
dependent unit  under  the  Smith- 
sonian. 

The  Freer  Gallery  of  Art, 

opened  in  1923,  was  the  result  of 
a  gift  in  1906  of  Charles  L. 
Freer  of  Detroit,  who  bequeathed 
to  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
his  unrivalled  collection  of  Amer- 
ican and  Oriental  art,  now  num- 
bering over  9,000  objects,  and  in 
addition  the  means  of  erecting  a 
suitable  building  for  their  recep- 
tion. 

The  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology  is  an  outgrowth  of 
researches  beginning  early  in  the 
history  of  the  Institution,  which 
has  from  the  outset  devoted 
much  attention  to  the  native 
American  tribes.  The  Bureau 
has  done  much  in  the  exploration 
and  preservation  of  American 
antiquities,  especially  the  pre- 
historic ruins  in  the  Southwest, 
and  has  published  a  large  series 
of  Annual  Reports  and  Bulletins 
on  the  history,  habits,  customs, 
and  languages  of  American  In- 
dians. The  Bureau  began  its 
formal  existence  in  1879,  under 
the  directorship  of  Major  John 
W.  Powell. 

The  National  Zoological 
Park  was  established  in  1890 
'for  the  advancement  of  science 
and  the  instruction  and  recrea- 
tion of  the  people,'  and  for  the 
preservation  of  such  American 
animals  as  are  in  danger  of  ex- 
tinction. It  occupies  167  acres 
two  miles  north  of  the  center  of 
the  city  of  Washington.    Its  col- 


lection of  animals  in  1943  num- 
bered 2,435  individuals,  repre- 
senting 684  different  species. 

The  Astrophysical  Observ- 
atory was  established  in  1890  and 
has  carried  on  various  investi- 
gations in  astrophysics,  especially 
with  regard  to  the  invisible  por- 
tions of  the  solar  spectrum  and 
to  solar  radiation.  Its  researches 
are  carried  on  at  an  observatory 
in  Washington,  and  at  observing 
stations  on  Table  Mountain, 
California,  Mount  Montezuma, 
Chile,  and  Burro  Mountain,  near 
Tyrone,  New  Mexico.  It  has 
published  six  volumes  of  Annals. 
The  most  important  result  of  its 
work  on  solar  radiation  has  been 
to  show  that  the  sun's  heat 
varies  and  that  these  variations 
can  be  accurately  measured. 
There  is  indication  of  periodicity 
in  the  variation,  and  recent  in- 
tensive studies  of  the  relation  be- 
tween solar  variation  and  weath- 
er give  much  promise  of  the  pos- 
sibility of  long-range  weather 
forecasting.  The  Division  of 
Radiation  and  Organisms  was 
set  up  in  1929  to  study  the  rela- 
tion between  radiation  and  plant 
growth. 

The  National  Gallery  of 
Art,  opened  in  1941,  is  the  re- 
sult of  Andrew  W.  Mellon's  gift 
to  the  Gallery  of  his  unexcelled 
art  collection  and  a  $15,000,000- 
buildjng  to  house  it.  The  Gal- 
lery is  a  bureau  of  the  Smithso- 
nian Institution  but  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  separate  board  of  trus- 
tees. 

Smithsonite.  See  Cala- 
mine. 

Smith  Sound,  a  body  of  wa- 
ter between  western  Greenland 
and  Ellesmere  Land.  It  has 
Baffin's  Bay  on  the  south,  and 
opens  on  the  north  into  Kane 
Basin.  It  was  discovered  by 
Baffin  jn  1616. 

Smithville,  town,  Texas,  in 
Bastrop  county,  on  the  Colorado 
River,  on  the  Missouri,  Kansas 
and  Texas  Railroad ;  38  miles 
s.E.  of  Austin.  It  has  railroad 
shops,  cotton  gin,  and  ice  fac- 
tory. Sports  Ships  Lake  and 
Lake  Park  are  nearby  features 
of  interest.  Pop.  (1930)  3,296; 
(1940)  3,100. 

Smock,  the  Anglo-Saxon 
word  for  a  woman's  undermost 
garment.  It  was  generally  made 
of  the  finest  linen  and  towards 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century 
it  became  the  fashion  to  orna- 
ment the  garment  with  elaborate 
embroidery  and  fine  lace.  Later 
on,  the  word  was  applied  to  a 
coarse  linen  garment  worn  as  a 
sort  of  overall  by  the  European 
peasants,  particularly  in  Eng- 
land. In  modern  times  the  word 
smock  is  used  for  a  gaily  colored 
garment  of  cotton  or  linen  worn 
by  women  as  a  protection  for 
their  frocks. 


Smoke 


KFN 


270 


Smoot 


Smoke,  the  visible — whence 
either  solid  or  liquid — product  of 
combustion  that  is  carried  away 
by  the  current  of  gases  and 
heated  air  formed  in  the  process. 
In  the  case  of  coal  it  consists 
chiefly  of  fine  carbon  or  complex 
hydrocarbon  particles.  The  more 
bituminous  the  coal,  the  greater 
the  volume  of  smoke  that  may  be 
emitted ;  anthracite,  coke,  and 
charcoal  burn  practically  without 
smoke.  Even  with  bituminous 
coal,  the  emission  of  smoke  can 
be  largely  prevented  by  the  use 
of  properly  designed  furnaces, 
in  which  the  coal  and  air  are 
brought  together  in  suitable  and 
well  regulated  proportions — pref- 
erably by  mechanical  means. 
Overworking,  bad  stoking,  and 
excess  or  deficit  of  air  are  the 
main  causes  of  the  production  of 
smoke.  See  Furnaces  ;  Smoke 
Prevention. 

Smokeless  Powders.  See 
GuNCOTTON ;  Gunpowder;  Ex- 
plosives. 

Smoke  Prevention,  a  plan  to 
do  away  with  the  dirt  caused  by 
dense  black  smoke  whose  emis- 
sion from  chimneys,  and  in  some 
instances  from  locomotive  and 
steamboat  stacks,  is  a  nuisance 
punishable  by  fine  in  some 
American  and  foreign  munici- 
palities. The  avoidance  of  the 
nuisance  in  plants  already  estab- 
lished is  best  attained  by  means 
of  proper  combustion  of  the  fuel, 
which  is  effected  (1)  by  rightly 
designed  furnaces  of  ample  fire- 
grate surface,  and  (2)  by  proper 
charging  and  stoking. 

In  England  legislation  against 
the  smoke  nuisance  as  caused  by 
locomotives  dates  back  to  1845, 
while  general  legislation  against 
smoke  nuisance  from_  fireplaces 
and  manufactories  is  in  effect  in 
England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland. 

In  the  United  States,  smoke 
prevention  rests  chiefly  with  the 
several  cities,  after  direct  or  in- 
direct legislative  authority  has 
been  given  by  the  states  in  which 
they  are  located.  New  York 
City  proceeds  against  smoke 
nuisances  through  its  local  health 
authorities,  while  Cleveland,  O., 
and  some  other  cities  act  through 
separate  departments.  Since 
1908  no  coal-burning  locomotive 
has  been  permitted  on  Manhat- 
tan Island.  Electricity  has  been 
substituted  for  steam  power  on 
the  elevated  lines,  and  on  all  rail- 
roads entering  the  city  within 
a  zone  of  a  number  of  miles  be- 
yond the  city  limits.  Steam 
turbine  power  plants,  now  estab- 
lished in  several  of  the  large 
cities,  use  the  cheapest  grades  of 
coal,  but  operate  without  smoke 
because  of  their  scientifically 
constructed  furnaces  and  skilled 
workmen.  Recent  experiments 
conducted  by  the  government 
through  the  Geological  Survey- 


show  a  similar  high  utility  in 
gas  engines.  Consult  Popple- 
well,  Prevention  of  Smoke; 
Booth,  Smoke  Prevention  and 
Fuel  Economy. 

Smoky  Mountains,  or  Great 
Smoky  Mountains,  a  part  of 
the  Appalachians  (q.  v.),  found 
in  Tennessee. 

Smolensk,  smol-yensk',  prov- 
ince, Russian  S.F.S.R.,  bounded 
by  Kalinin  on  the  north ;  area, 
28,000  square  miles.  Lying 
southwest  of  the  Valdai  plateau, 
Smolensk  has  a  fairly  elevated 
and  sometimes  hilly  surface, 
though  it  has  also  vast  unbroken 
plains.  It  is  divided  between  the 
Volga,  Dnieper,  and  western 
Dvina  basins ;  the  chief  water- 
shed lies  in  the  northeast,  where 
the  land  is  highest  (over  900 
feet).  Lakes  are  numerous;  ex- 
tensive marshy  tracts  exist  in  the 
northwest.  Deposits  of  coal, 
limonite  (very  rich  in  iron),  and 
iron  constitute  the  chief  mineral 
wealth  and  forests  cover  a  large 
part  of  the  surface.  Agriculture 
is  the  main  occupation,  the  chief 
crops  are  flax,  oats,  rye  and  po- 
tatoes. The  preparation  of  tar 
and  pitch,  saw  milling,  flour 
milling  and  leather  works  are  the 
chief  industries.  Pop.  (1926) 
2,258,064. 

Smolensk,  town,  Central 
Russia,  capital  of  Smolensk  prov- 
ince, 227  miles  s.w.  of  Moscow. 
It  is  an  important  railway  junc- 
tion. The  modern  town  lies  on 
both  sides  of  the  Dnieper,  but  the 
ancient  city,  with  walls  built  by 
Boris  Godunov  (1596-1602),  is 
on  the  left  bank.  Smolensk  has 
a  cathedral,  built  (1676-1772)  on 
the  site  of  a  far  older  church 
(c.  1100-1)  ;  ancient  churches  of 
SS.  Peter  and  Paul  (1146),  St. 
John  Baptist  (1160-81),  St. 
Michael  (1180);  and  a  citadel 
built  by  Sigismund  iii  of  Poland 
in  1611.  Tanneries,  brick  fields, 
oil  works,  breweries,  distilleries, 
flour  mills,  potteries,  limekilns, 
and  manufactures  of  soap,  tallow, 
linen,  and  leather  are  the  chief 
industries.  Smolensk  existed  be- 
fore the  Rurik  immigration  of 
862,  and  was  the  capital  of  the 
Krivichi.  It  was  an  appanage  of 
the  Kiev  grand  princes  from  882 
to  1054  ;  it  was  acquired  by  Rus- 
sia in  1686.  It  was  the  scene  of 
some  of  the  fiercest  fighting  in 
the  Napoleonic  invasion  of  1812. 
In  the  Second  World  War,  when 
Hitler  invaded  Russia  in  1941, 
Smolensk  fell  to  the  Germans 
and  was  Hitler's  headquarters 
for  some  time.  The  Russians  re- 
captured the  town  Sept.  25,  1943. 
Pop.  (1939)  156,677. 

Smol'lett,  Tobias  George 
(1721-71),  Scottish  novelist,  was 
born  in  Dalquhurn,  near  Dum- 
barton. He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow  and  was 
afterwards     apprenticed    to  a 


doctor.  In  1739  he  went  to 
London — a  journey  described  in 
his  Roderick  Random,  and  being 
unsuccessful  in  literary  work  he 
accepted  the  post  of  surgeon's 
mate  in  the  navy,  and  took  part 
in  the  Carthagena  expedition 
(1740-1).  Quitting  the  service, 
Smollett  set  up  as  a  surgeon  in 
London,  but  was  forced  to  live 
chiefly  by  his  pen.  In  1746  he 
published  Advice,  followed  by 
Reproof  (1747),  two  satirical 
poems.  But  Roderick  Random 
(1748)  proved  an  instant  success. 
Its  realistic  and  convincing  pic- 
tures of  the  Navy  aroused  an 
indignation  to  which  Byng  had 
to  be  sacrificed,  and  ultimately 
led  to  a  drastic  reform  in  the  sea 
service.  Smollett's  next  novel 
of  adventure,  Peregrine  Pickle 
(1751),  incorporating  some  Pa- 
risian experiences,  was  even 
more  eagerly  received  by  the  gen- 
eral public  than  had  been  its 
predecessor.  A  final  attempt  to 
establish  himself  as  physician  in 
Bath  (1750-1)  having  failed,  he 
settled  in  Chelsea,  and  published 
(1753)  Ferdinand,  Count  Fath- 
om, the  career  of  a  thorough- 
paced villain,  and  translated  Don 
Quixote  (1755).  In  1756  he  be- 
came editor  of  The  Critical  Re- 
view and  the  same  year  com- 
menced a  History  of  England 
(1757-65).  Then  followed  The 
Reprisal  (1757),  a  comedy; 
Voyages  (1756)  ;  Universal  His- 
tory (1759-66)  ;  a  translation  of 
Voltaire  (1761);  and  State  of 
the  Nations  (1764).  He  edited 
the  British  Magazine  (1760-7) 
and  The  Briton  (1762-3)  but  in 
1759  a  libel  on  Admiral  Knowles 
cost  him  three  months'  imprison- 
ment. A  journey  in  search  of 
health  furnished  materials  for 
Travels  through  France  and  Italy 
( 1 766) .  In  the  Adventures  of  an 
Atom  (1769),  Smollett  belabors 
everything  in  England.  His  in- 
nate generosity  and  kindliness 
of  heart,  hidden  under  a  can- 
tankerous exterior,  were  worthily 
vindicated  in  Humphrey  Clinker 
(1771). 

Smolt.    See  Salmon. 

Smoot,  Reed  (1862-1941), 
American  legislator,  was  born  in 
Salt  Lake  City.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Deseret  University  and 
at  Brigham  Young  University, 
and  became  extensively  inter- 
ested in  banking  and  manufac- 
turing, and  a  leading  member  of 
the  Mormon  Church,  of  which 
he  became  an  apostle  in  1900. 
He  was  elected  U.  S.  Senator  for 
five  terms  (1903-33).  Although 
not  himself  a  polygamist,  a  de- 
termined effort  was  made  to  va- 
cate his  seat  in  the  Senate  in 
1906,  on  the  ground  that  the 
church  of  which  he  is  a  high  of- 
ficer countenances  polygamy,  and 
that  as  a  member  of  its  hier- 
archy he  had  taken  an  oath  which 


Smugg^ling 


KFN 


271 


Smyrna 


implied  disloyalty  to  the  United 
States.  The  Committee  on  Privi- 
leges and  Elections  ruled  against 
him,  but  the  Senate,  by  vote,  de- 
cided that  he  was  entitled  to  his 
seat.  He  served  on  many  impor- 
tant committees,  was  Chairman 
of  the  Senate  Committee  on  Fi- 
nance, ranking  member  on  the 
Appropriations  Committee,  rank- 
ing member  on  the  Public  Lands 
Committee,  Chairman  of  the 
Public  Buildings  Commission, 
and  a  regent  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution. 

Smuggling,  a  violation  of  the 
revenue  laws  with  reference  to 
customs  duties  upon  imports 
and  exports.  The  officers  of  the 
customs,  and  inspectors  on  reve- 
nue-cutters and  elsewhere,  are 
empowered  to  stop  any  vessel 
within  four  leagues  of  the  coast 
of  the  United  States,  board  and 
search  her  and  all  persons  aboard 
for  goods  carried  or  concealed  in 
violation  of  the  customs  laws. 
Vehicles  and  other  modes  of 
conveyance  on  land  may  be 
stopped  and  searched  for  contra- 
band goods.  Persons  coming  into 
the  United  States  are  required  to 
make  oath  as  to  articles  brought 
with  them,  subject  to  duty.  The 
penalty  for  concealing  dutiable 
articles  in  the  baggage  or  about 
the  person,  and  failing  to  declare 
them,  is  forfeiture  of  the  articles, 
and  a  penalty  of  treble  their 
value.  Persons  convicted  of 
knowingly  defrauding  the  Gov- 
ernment in  the  matter  of  cus- 
toms duties  are  subject  to  a 
fine  not  exceeding  $5,000,  or  im- 
prisonment for  a  term  not  exceed- 
ing two  years,  or  both,  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  court.  Provision  is 
made  for  the  appraisement  and 
sale  of  forfeited  goods,  and  a  dis- 
tribution of  the  proceeds,  a  por- 
tion being  retained  by  the  gov- 
ernment, and  the  balance  divided 
between  the  informer,  the  col- 
lector, naval  officer,  officer  mak- 
ing the  seizure  and  surveyor 
according  to  circumstances.  If 
the  owner  of  goods  declared  for- 
feited can  establish  his  innocence 
of  intent  to  defraud  the  customs, 
remission  of  forfeiture  may  be 
granted  upon  payment  of  the 
proper  duties.  See  Customs 
Duties. 

Smut,  one  of  the  many  popu- 
lar names  for  certain  diseases 
of  the  cereal  grasses  caused  by 
fungi  belonging  to  the  family 
Ustilagineae.  The  mycelium  ram- 
ifies in  the  leaves  and  stems  or 
the  reproductive  organs  and  fruit 
of  the  higher  plants,  and  is  there 
transformed  into  a  brown  or 
black  mass  of  spores,  which  con- 
vey the  idea  of  burning  or  its  re- 
sults. The  spores  fall  and  ger- 
minate in  the  damp,  manured 
soil,  on  which  they  live  as  sapro- 
phytes. When  the  food  supply  is 
exhausted   mycelial   hyphae  are 


sent  out,  which  penetrate  the 
seedlings,  and  living  there  para- 
sitically,  travel  upwards  with  the 
growth  of  the  higher  plant,  and 
complete  the  life-cycle  by  the 
development  of  smut  or  brand- 
spores.  The  loose  smut  of  oats 
is  caused  by  Ustilago  avence,  and 
that  of  wheat  by  U-.  tritici ;  the 
latter  differs  from  bunt  or  the 
stinking  smut  of  wheat  (Tillctia 
caries)  in  not  being  fetid.  U. 
maydis  attacks  Indian  corn. 
Spring-sown  corn  is  always  more 
liable  to  attacks  of  smut  than 
that  sown  in  the  autumn. 
Other  species  attack  grasses, 
reeds,  and  sedges,  scabious  goat's 
beard,  and  bladder  campion.  For 
the  control  of  smut  in  barley, 
oats,  and  wheat  soaking  the  seed 
in  formalin  solution  is  efficacious, 
but  for  corn  smut  the  only  rem- 
edy is  to  destroy  the  affected 
plants  before  the  spores  mature. 
Consult  Massee,  Text-book  of 
Plant  Diseases ;  Swingle,  Grain 
Smuts ;  U.  S.  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture, Farmers'  Bulletin  75. 

Smuts,  Jan  Christiaan 
(1870-  ),  South  African  sol- 
dier and  statesman,  was  born  in 
Cape  Colony.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge  University,  was 
called  to  the  bar  and  began  the 
practice  of  law  in  Cape  Town, 
1895.^  In  1898  he  was  appointed 
State's  Attorney  to  the  Trans- 
vaal, served  with  distinction  in 
the  Boer  War  (1899-1902),  and 
after  peace  was  declared  aided  in 
the  work  of  reconstruction.  He 
was  colonial  secretary  imder 
Botha,  labored  for  the  union  of 
the  South  African  colonies  and 
as  minister  of  finance  and  de- 
fence after  the  Union  of  South 
Africa  was  consummated,  played 
an  important  part  in  preventing  a 
general  labor  strike  in  Johannes- 
burg (1914). 

During  the  First  World  War 
he  was  in  command  of  military 
operations  against  German  East 
Africa;  represented  South  Africa 
at  the  Imperial  War  conference 
in  London  (1917),  accepted  a  seat 
in  the  War  Cabinet  and  super- 
vised London's  air  defenses.  He 
represented  South  Africa  at  the 
Peace  Conference,  and  he  is  the 
author  of  The  League  of  Na- 
tions:  A  Practical  Suggestion, 
which  met  the  approval  of  Presi- 
dent Wilson  and  Premier  Lloyd- 
George  and  in  substance  became 
the  Covenant  of  the  League. 

In  1919-24  he  was  Prime  Min- 
ister of  the  Union  of  South  Af- 
rica and  Minister  for  Native  Af- 
fairs, and  in  1933-39  was  Min- 
ister of  Justice.  In  the  latter 
year  he  again  became  Prime  Min- 
ister and  also  Minister  of  Ex- 
ternal Affairs  and  Defense.  He 
was  in  command  of  the  Union 
Defense  Forces  in  the  Second 
World  War  and  was  made  a 
Field  Marshal  in  1941.  Marshal 


Smuts  wrote  :  Holism  and  Evo- 
lution (1926)  ;  Africa  and  Some 
World  Problems  (1930)  ;  and 
Plans  for  a  Better  World 
(speeches)  (1942). 
_  Smyrna  (Turk.  Izmir),  chief 
city  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  west 
coast,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Smyrna;  200  miles  s.w.  of  Istan- 
bul (Constantinople).  It  is  the 
seat  of  archbishops  of  the  Greek 
Orthodox,  Roman  Catholic,  and 
Armenian  churches.  The  Euro- 
pean quarter,  stretching  along  the 
shore  of  the  gulf,  is  clean  and 
attractive.  The  native  city 
stretches  up  the  slopes  of  Mount 
Pagus,  crowned  by  the  ruins  of  a 
Greek  citadel.  The  city  is  of 
considerable  archseological  inter- 
est and  there  are  several  schools 
maintained  by  different  nations. 
Its  principal  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  carpets,  other 
branches  being  connected  with 
machine  shops,  iron  foundries, 
silks,  cotton  and  woolens,  and 
pottery.  Smyrna  is  the  princi- 
pal seaport  of  Asia  Minor.  The 
exports  consist  chiefly  of  carpets, 
figs,  tobacco,  valonia,  raisins,  and 
silk. 

Smyrna  was  founded,  probably 
about  1000  B.C.,  by  Achaean  or 
^olian  colonists  from  Greece, 
though  it  subsequently  became 
Ionian.  Early  in  the  7th  century 
B.C.  it  resisted  the  Lydian  king 
Gyges  ;  but  in  627  B.C.  his  grand- 
son Alyattes  took  the  city,  and 
destroyed  it  utterly.  At  last  it 
was  restored  by  Antigonus,  and 
completed  by  Lysimachus,  early 
in  the  3d  century  B.C.,  when  it 
became  one  of  the  finest  cities 
in  Asia  Minor.  From  the  Ro- 
mans it  received  privileges  be- 
cause of  its  fidelity  in  their  wars 
with  Mithridates.  In  178  and 
180  A.D.  it  suffered  greatly  from 
earthquakes.  A  Christian  church 
was  established  there  at  an  early 
date.  In  1084  Smyrna  was  cap- 
tured by  a  Turkish  chief,  but 
was  recovered  by  the  emperor 
Alexis  Comnenus.  Afterwards  it 
suffered  greatly  from  a  siege  by 
Tamerlane  (1402),  and  in  1424 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks. 

It  was  bombarded  by  the  Al- 
lies in  the  First  World  War  and 
in  1920  was  occupied  by  the 
Greeks  vmder  the  terms  of  the 
Treaty  of  Sevres.  But  Turkish 
troops  under  Mustapha  Kemal 
soon  engaged  in  hostilities  and  at 
length  the  Kemalists  drove  back 
the  Greek  army  and  the  Turks 
entered  Smyrna,  which  under  the 
Treaty  of  Lausanne  (1923)  re- 
verted to  Turkey.  Pop.  (1940) 
184,652. 

Smyrna,  town,  Delaware,  in 
Kent  county,  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad;  11  miles  north- 
west of  Dover.  The  town  has  an 
opera  house  and  a  fine  school 
building.  It  has  manufactures  of 
phosphates,  overalls,  farming  im- 


Smyth 


KFN 


272 


Snake  Bite 


plements,  hosiery,  shirts,  and 
electric  and  ice  milk  coolers. 
The  surrounding  country  raises 
large  quantities  of  tomatoes, 
peaches  and  grain,  which  are 
shipped  to  northern  markets. 
Pop.  (1930)  1,958;  (1940)  1,870. 

Smyth,  Charles  Piazzi 
(1819-1900),  English  astrono- 
mer, was  born  in  Naples,  Italy. 
He  became  assistant  at  the  Roy- 
al Observatory,  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  in  1835,  and  in  1845-88 
was  astromoner-royal  for  Scot- 
land. He  went  to  Sweden  to 
observe  the  total  solar  eclipse  of 
July  28,  1851,  and  experimented 
upon  telescopic  vision  from  the 


Providence,  R.  I.  From  1870  to 
1875  he  filled  a  pastorate  at  Ban- 
gor, Me.,  and  from  1876  to  1882 
at  Quincy,  III.,  in  the  latter  year 
becoming  pastor  of  the  First  Con- 
gregational Church  in  New  Ha- 
ven, Conn.  Among  his  pub- 
lished works  are  The  Orthodox 
Theology  of  To-day  (1881)  ;  The 
Reality  of  Faith  (1884)  ;  Chris- 
tian Facts  and  Forces  (1887); 
Personal  Creeds;  Christian  Eth- 
ics (1893)  ;  The  Place  of  Death 
in  Evolution  (1897)  ;  Through 
Science  to  Faith  (1902);  Con- 
structive Natural  Theology 
(1913), 

Snail,  a  term  of  popular,  not 


body,  and  having  in  it  at  the 
right  side  the  breathing  pore. 
The  mouth  is  anterior,  and  at  the 
right  side  of  the  head  the  genital 
opening  is  visible.  It  is  some- 
times possible  to  distinguish  the 
brown  jaw  against  which  the 
radula  or  tooth-ribbon,  with  its 
innumerable  teeth,  works.  Be- 
neath the  shell  is  the  mantle 
which  makes  and  lines  it,  and 
roofs  in  the  spacious  pulmonary 
chamber.  Snails  are  eaten  com- 
monly in  Europe,  a  single  spe- 
cies, H.  pomatia,  being  the  kind 
preferred  ;  and  in  former  times 
various  medicines  were  made 
from  their  crushed  bodies.  Con- 


Paul's  Photos,  Chicago 

MOSQUES  AND  MINARETS  RISE  ABOVE  THE  ROOFTOPS  OF  SMYRNA 


peak  of  Tenerifife  in  1856.  In  his 
spectroscopic  investigations  he 
emphasized  the  significance  of 
the  rain-band,  introduced  the 
use  of  'endon'  tubes,  and  con- 
structed a  map  of  the  solar 
spectrum.  He  published  Three 
Cities  in  Russia  (1862)  and  Our 
Inheritance  in  the  Great  Pyramid 
(1864). 

Smyth,  Samuel  Phillips 
Newman  (1843-1925),  Ameri- 
can theologian,  was  born  in 
Brunswick,  Me.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  Bowdoin  College  in 
1863,  and  was  an  assistant  teach- 
er at  the  Naval  Academy  at  New- 
port. In  1864-5  he  served  as 
lieutenant  in  the  Sixteenth  Maine 
Infantry.  He  was  graduated 
from  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary in  1867,  and  until  1870  was 
pastor  of  a  mission  chapel  in 


zoological,  significance,  applied 
to  any  pulmonate  gasteropod  in 
which  there  is  a  well-developed, 
spirally-coiled  shell  capable  of 
lodging  the  whole  body.  The 
typical  snails  belong  to  the  genus 
Helix,  which  includes  thousands 
of  species  scattered  over  all  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  world. 
Snails  are  characterized  as  fol- 
lows :  The  head,  furnished  with 
two  pairs  of  tentacles,  of  which 
the  larger  and  posterior  carry 
simple  eyes  at  their  tip ;  the 
elongated  foot,  which  tapers 
behind,  and  contains  a  mucotis 
gland,  which  secretes  the  trail  of 
slime  that  the  snail  leaves  behind 
it ;  the  shell,  which  covers  the  or- 
gans of  the  body,  contained  in 
the  visceral  hump  ;  the  collar,  or 
thickened  margin  of  the  mantle, 
seen  where  the  shell  joins  the 


suit  Binney,  Terrestrial  Mollusks 
of  the  United  States,  published 
by  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

Snake-Bird.  See  Darters 
and  Wryneck. 

Snake  Bite.  The  results  of  a 
venomous  snake  bite  are  local 
and  general.  Pain  and  swelling 
are  followed  by  local  paralysis, 
and  by  infiltration  of  the  sur- 
rounding parts.  The  general 
symptoms  are  shock,  depres- 
sion, faintness,  hurried  respira- 
tion, exhaustion,  lethargy,  in- 
coordination, paralysis,  uncon- 
sciousness, convulsions  or  coma, 
and  death.  Snake  poison 
paralyzes  the  nerve  centers  and 
sometimes  the  peripheral  nerves, 
and  causes  profound  alterations 
in  the  blood,  which  in  man  usu- 
ally remains  permanently  fluid 
after  death  from  snake  bite.  The 


Snake  River 


KFP 


273 


Snakes 


poison  is  also  septic,  and  when 
death  does  not  follow,  slough- 
ing and  haemorrhage  occur.  In- 
jected into  a  large  blood-vessel, 
snake  virus  causes  almost  imme- 
diate death,  possibly  by  direct 
action  on  the  heart,  which  stops 
in  systolic  spasm.  Attempts 
should  be  made  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  the  virus  from  the  bite. 
This  may  be  done  by  a  tight  liga- 
ture between  the  wound  and  the 
heart.  The  part  may  also  be 
sucked,  though  this  procedure  is 
not  altogether  free  from  danger 
to  the  operator.  Artificial  suc- 
tion with  a  breast  pump  may  be 
applied  after  incision  of  the 
wound. 

For  bites  of  the  more  deadly 
snakes  'there  is  only  one  fairly 
reliable  treatment,  that  by  serum 
therapeutics — the  injection  of 
considerable  quantities  of  serum 
of  animals  which  have  been  par- 
tially immunized  by  repeated 
doses  of  snake- venom'  (Dr.  Mar- 
tin). A  horse,  into  the  veins  of 
which  a  non-fatal  dose  of  snake 
poison  has  been  injected,  is  proof 
against  the  ordinary  minimum 
lethal  dose  of  snake  poison  ;  and 
if  gradually  increasing  doses  of 
the  poison  be  administered,  the 
serum  becomes  so  highly  antago- 
nistic to  the  virus  that  snake 
poison  sufficient  to  kill  fifty  non- 
immunized  horses  may  be  in- 
jected without  fatal  result.  Fur- 
ther, the  blood  serum  of  the  pro- 
tected horse  is  itself  protective. 
Unfortunately  one  serum  does 
not  confer  immunity  against  all 
varieties  of  snakes,  the  prepara- 
tion is  necessarily  expensive,  and 
the  duration  of  its  potency  is  un- 
certain. 

The  Antivenin  Institute  of 
America  supplies  three  sorts  of 
antiserum  for  snake  bites.  The 
antivenin  is  injected  every  hour 
or  every  two  hours  until  symp- 
toms subside.  The  serum  is  usu- 
ally administered  by  intramus- 
cular injection.  If  the  patient 
is  seen  late,  intravenous  or  in- 
traperitoneal administration  may 
be  required.  The  ordinary 
treatment  for  shock  is  given  and 
cardiac  tonics  to  stimulate  the 
heart.  It  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  patient  under  observation 
and  treatment  is  continued  as 
long  as  swelling  or  paralysis 
persists.  Children  require  2  or 
3  times  the  adult  dose.  They 
must  be  warned  against  over  ex- 
ertion and  over  heating. 

Snake  (or  Lewis)  River, 
the  longest  branch  of  the  Colum- 
bia R.,  rises  in  Shoshone  Lake  in 
the  Yellowstone  National  Park, 
flows  s.  through  Jackson's  Lake, 
then,  turning  w.,  cuts  a  deep 
canon  through  the  Teton  range 
in  its  escape  to  the  Snake  R. 
plains.  It  flows  over  these  plains 
in  southern  Idaho,  then  curves 
N.  along  the  w.  boundary  of  the 


state.  In  the  Snake  R.  plains  its 
descent  is  extremely  rapid,  and 
is  interrupted  by  the  American, 
Salmon,  and  Shoshone  falls.  It 
joins  the  Columbia  R.  in  south- 
ern Washington,  after  a  course 
of  939  m.  It  is  navigable  to  the 
Grande  Ronde  R.,  170  m.  above 
its  mouth. 

Snake-charming.  This  has 
been  practiced  from  remote  an- 
tiquity, and  is  still  frequent  in 
India,  where  the  cobra  is  the 
snake  usually  made  use  of.  The 
'dance'  of  the  cobra,  usually  to 
the  accompaniment  of  a  pipe,  is 
the  natural  swaying  movement 
of  the  animal  as  it  prepares  to 
strike.  The  cobra  of  the  Indian 
conjurer  usually  has  its  fangs 
drawn.  In  dealing  with  an  un- 
tamed cobra  prior  to  the  extrac- 
tion of  the  fangs,  the  charmers 
appear  to  depend  upon  their  dex- 
terity in  avoiding  the  stroke,  and 
on  their  knowledge  of  the  ani- 
mal's probable  movements. 

Snake  Root,  the  name  of  a 
number  of  plants  reputed  to  pos- 
sess healing  virtues  in  cases  of 
snake  bite:  Aristolochia  serpen- 
taria,  Asarum  canadcnse ,  Psora- 
lea  pedunculata,  Eupatorium  sp., 
Nabalus  sp.,  Lacinania,  sp.,  Sa- 
nicula  sp.  and  Polygala  senega. 

Snakes,  or  Ophidia,  a  high- 
ly specialized  order  of  reptiles 
whose  members  are  most  nearly 
related  to  lizards.  From  lizards 
the  most  notable  point  of  distinc- 
tion is  that  the  two  halves  of  the 
lower  jaw  are  connected  merely 
by  an  elastic  band,  so  that  the 
mouth  parts  have  great  mobility. 
An  apparent  distinction  from 
lizards  lies  in  the  elongated  body, 
which  has  no  external  trace  of 
limbs  ;  but  some  lizards,  such  as 
the  blind-worm,  have  bodies 
which  are  quite  snakelike.  It  is 
true  that  internally  the  blind- 
worm  differs  from  a  snake  in 
retaining  the  limb  girdles,  but  in 
the  more  primitive  snakes  traces 
of  these  may  remain.  Snakes 
are  typically  carnivorous,  and 
many  of  thern  are  furnished  with 
powerful  poison  fangs.  These 
are  modified  teeth,  associated 
with  a  modified  salivary  gland. 
In  non-poisonous  snakes  the  teeth 
are  numerous,  small,  and  sharp. 
In  the  Colubridae  Opisthoglypha 
{e.g.  Dipsas,  the  tree-snakes) 
one  or  more  of  the  posterior 
maxillary  teeth  are  somewhat 
enlarged,  and  have  in  front  a 
groove  or  furrow,  connected 
with  the  duct  of  the  poison 
gland.  The  fact  that  these  fangs 
are  placed  far  back  and  are  rela- 
tively small  makes  these  snakes 
practically  harmless  to  man,  al- 
though they  can  benumb  small 
animals.  In  the  Colubridae  Pro- 
teroglypha,  to  which  the  deadly 
cobra  belongs,  the  poison  fangs 
are  two  in  number,  are  of  large 
size,  and  are  placed  on  the  front 


of  the  maxillae,  their  anterior 
position  making  them  much  more 
effective  weapons.  Finally,  in 
the  Viperidae,  each  maxilla  is 
greatly  shortened,  is  capable  of 
being  erected,  and  bears  a  very 
large  fang,  which  is  not  grooved 
but  perforated,  bearing  a  canal 
down  which  the  duct  of  the 
poison-gland  passes.  In  this 
case,  when  the  mouth  is  opened 
to  strike,  the  fang  is  automati- 
cally erected,  and  its  canal  en- 
sures the  introduction  of  the  poi- 
son into  the  deepest  part  of  the 
wound.  The  tongue  is  bifid,  can 
be  rapidly  protruded  and  re- 
tracted, and  functions  as  an  efii- 
cient  sense  organ.  Upon  it  and 
the  well-developed  nostrils  the 
snakes  largely  depend,  for  nei- 
ther sight  nor  hearing  is  very 
acute.  There  are  no  eyelids,  the 
eyes  being  covered  over  by  a 
transparent  convex  scale.  The 
whole  skin  is  covered  with  scales, 
which  are  folds  of  the  epidermis, 
continuous  with  one  another. 
In  consequence,  when  the  snake 
casts  its  coat — which  occurs  sev- 
eral times  in  the  year — it  casts 
it  in  one  piece,  this  being  a  com- 
plete replica  of  the  snake.  The 
vertebrae  are  very  numerous ; 
with  the  exception  of  the  most 
anterior  (atlas),  all  bear  ribs, 
which  are  very  freely  movable 
and  are  the  snake's  main  organs 
of  locomotion.  Snakes  are  ca- 
pable of  moving  with  great 
swiftness.  As  regards  the  in- 
ternal organs,  the  most  interest- 
ing point  is  the  reduction  of  the 
left  lung,  for  which  the  narrow- 
ness of  the  body  leaves  apparent- 
ly no  room.  In  both  sexes  scent 
glands  are  present,  whose  secre- 
tion in  some  instances  is  very 
strong  and  disagreeable.  Most 
snakes  lay  eggs,  but  some  bring 
forth  living  young.  Snakes  are 
most  abundant  in  warm  coun- 
tries. Few  fossil  forms  are 
known ;  it  seems  probable  that 
snakes  are  a  relatively  recent  de- 
rivative of  some  Lacertilian 
stock. 

The  classification  of  snakes  is 
difficult.  Gadow,  following  Bou- 
lenger,  recognizes  nine  families, 
but  many  of  these  are  very  small 
and  only  of  zoological  impor- 
tance. The  most  important  are 
the  Boidae  or  Pythonidae,  in- 
cluding the  boas  and  pythons ; 
the  Colubridae,  including  the 
Coronellidae,  and  comprising 
about  nine-tenths  of  the  living 
species ;  and  the  Viperidae,  in- 
cluding the  vipers  and  rattle- 
snakes. Owing  to  its  large  size, 
it  is  necessary  to  subdivide  the 
Colubridae  into  three  series — 
(1)  the  Aglypha,  in  which  there 
are  no  poison  fangs,  and  the 
snakes  are  therefore  harmless — 
here  are  included  the  well-known 
blacksnakes,  garter-snakes,  wa- 
ter-snakes,    raiJk-snakes,  and 


Snakes 


KFP 


274 


Snellius 


many    others    commonly    seen ; 

(2)  Opisthoglypha,  in  which 
some  of  the  posterior  maxillary 
teeth  are  grooved  (see  below); 

(3)  Proteroglypha,  in  which  the 
anterior  maxillary  teeth  are 
grooved  (see  below).     Of  the 


suit  also  Ditmars,  Snakes  of  the 
World  (1938). 

Snapper,  a  familiar  name  ap- 
plied to  several  common  fishes, 
especially  the  large,  handsome 
sparoid  sea-fishes  of  the  genus 
Lutjanus,  common  on  the  South 


Life  Magazine  Photo 


OBTAINING  RATTLESNAKE  VENOM  FOR  USE  IN  THE 
PREPARATION  OF  ANTI-VENOM 


above,  the  Boidae  are  non-poi- 
sonous, the  Colubridae  include 
both  venomous  and  non-veno- 
mous forms,  and  the  Viperidae 
are  markedly  venomous.  Gadow 
.states  that  there  is  no  easily 
ascertained  external  character 
which  can  be  invariably  relied 
upon  to  distinguish  p<jisonous 
from  non-poisonous  snakes. 

Among  the  leading  works  on 
American  snakes  are  Holbrook, 
North  American  Herpetology 
(1842)  •  Cope,  Crocodilians,  Liz- 
ards, and  Snakes  (1900)  ;  and 
Ditmars,  Field  Book  of  North 
Amf,nm^  Snakes  (]939).  Con- 


Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States  and  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  The  ruddy  red  snapper 
(L.  Black fordi)  is  one  of  the 
favorite  fishes  in  the  coast  mar- 
kets. Several  other  species  are 
also  eaten  ;  and  Oriental  species 
of  the  same  family  are  impor- 
tant food  fishes  in  the  Malayan 
region. 

Snapping:  Turtle.     One  of 

the  large,  ferocious  fresh-water 
turtles  of  the  American  genus 
Chelydra,  especially  C.  serpen- 
tina, which  takes  its  name  from 
the  snapping  of  its  jaws  when  it 
bites.    It  inhabits  stagnant  wa- 


ters in  all  parts  of  the  eastern 
United  States  and  in  the  south- 
ern Mississippi  region  becomes 
very  large,  reaching  a  weight 
frequently  of  25  pounds.  These 
large  specimens  are  often  called 
'alligator  turtles.'  Its  shell- 
plates  are  thickened  in  a  roughly 
pyramidal  form,  and  its  neck  is 
long  and  snaky.  It  feeds  largely 
upon  fish.  This  turtle  is  often 
caught  on  baited  hooks,  and  when 
kept  and  fattened  becomes  edible 
and  well  liked  by  some. 

Sneek,  tn.,  Netherlands,  prov. 
Friesland,  14  m.  by  rail  s.  by  w. 
of  Leeuwarden.    Pop.  14,854. 

Sneezewort,  (Achillea  ptar- 
mica).    See  Achillea. 

Sneezing",  a  sudden  and  vio- 
lent expiratory  blast  through  the 
nose  after  a  simple  or  repeated 
spasmodic  inspiration,  during 
which  the  glottis  remains  open. 
The  act  removes  mucus  and  irri- 
tating foreign  bodies.  Sneezing 
is  usually  reflex,  and  is  caused  by 
stimulation  of  the  sensory  nerves 
of  the  nose  or  occasionally  of  the 
eye,  since  a  bright  light  some- 
times induces  a  sneeze.  Habitu- 
al use  of  sternutatories,  such  as 
snuff,  dulls  the  sensory  nerves 
to  ordinary  stimuli.  The  nasal 
nerves  always  show  great  intol- 
erance of  the  pollens  which  pro- 
duce hay  asthma,  and  uncontrol- 
lable sneezing  may  continue  day 
after  day  during  the  pollen  pe- 
riod of  successive  years.  At- 
tacks of  excessive  sneezing  may 
be  associated  with  w^hooping- 
cough,  with  hysteria,  with  asth- 
ma, and  with  gout.  Local  ap- 
plications of  vaporized  creosote, 
carbolic  acid,  menthol,  or  thy- 
mol to  the  nasal  mucous  mem- 
brane are  often  beneficial,  while 
in  the  more  distressing  cases  co- 
caine and  morphine  may  be  nec- 
essary. 

Snell,  Hannah  (1723-92), 
British  'female  soldier,'  was 
born  at  Worcester.  Having 
been  ill-treated  and  abandoned 
by  her  husband,  she  adopted 
male  dress  and  in  1745  enlisted 
as  a  soldier  in  a  regiment  of 
foot.  She  soon  deserted,  how- 
ever, and  shipped  on  board  the 
sloop  Szvallozv.  She  took  part 
in  the  siege  of  Pondicherry  and 
was  wounded.  Later  she  served 
before  the  mast  on  the  Tartar 
and  Eltham.  She  was  paid  off 
in  1750  and  resumed  feminine 
garb,  returning  to  London  where 
she  died  insane  many  years  later 
in  Bethlehem  Hospital.  Her  ad- 
ventures were  told  in  The  Fe- 
male Soldier,  or  the  Surprising 
Adventures  of  Hannah  Snell. 

Snellius,  or  Snell,  Wille- 
BROD  (1591-1626).  Dutch  mathe- 
matician, was  born  at  Leyden, 
where  he  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  mathematical  chair  in  1613. 
He  is  known  for  his  discovery  of 
the  true  law  of  the  refraction  of 


Snow 


KSH 


277 


Snow-shoes 


coloration  being  due  to  minute 
organisms  known  as  Protococcus 
nivalis.  A  yellowish  deposit  has 
also  been  precipitated  from  snow, 
which  examination  has  shown  to 
be  the  pollen  of  pine  trees. 

Over  two-thirds  of  the  land 
surface  of  the  earth  snow  never 
falls  ;  the  lowest  latitude  at  which 
it  has  been  seen  to  fall  at  the  level 
of  the  sea  is  23°,  at  Canton, 
China.  In  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere snow  has  been  known  to 
fall  in  Sydney,  Australia,  in  lat. 
34°.  In'  the  United  States  the 
average  annual  fall  of  snow  is  as 
much  as  8  ft.  in  Maine  and  7  ft. 
in  New  York,  but  on  the  Sierra 
Nevada  the  snowfall  in  a  year 
ranges  from  10  to  30  ft.  The 
heaviest  fall  of  snow  recorded  was 
that  of  Feb.  19-24,  1717,  when  a 
depth  of  5  to  6  ft.  remained  over 
New  England.  The  snow-line, 
or  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow, 
is  determined  by  a  temperature 
which  in  the  warmest  portion  of 
the  year  is  at  32°,  or  only  above 
this  value  for  a  short  period. 
Within  the  tropics,  near  the 
equator,  the  snow-line  is  at  a 
height  of  about  18,000  ft.  above 
sea-level.  On  the  north  side  of 
the  Himalayas  it  is  19,500  ft.  In 
the  Caucasus,  as  well  as  in  the 
Rocky  Mts.,  the  height  of  the 
snow-line  is  close  on  11,000  ft., 
descending  in  the  Alps  to  from 
7,500  to  9,000  ft.  In  Iceland, 
just  on  the  Arctic  circle,  it  is 
about  3,000  ft.,  while  in  Sval- 
bard  (lat.  78°)  it  practically  cor- 
responds with  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Sleet  consists  of  small  pel- 
lets of  frozen  rain,  or  of  a  mix- 
ture of  snow  and  rain.  Snow  a 
few  feet  deep  that  lies  for  a  few 
days  becomes  granular,  and  is 
known  as  the  neve.  With  still 
greater  accumulation  it  packs 
down  into  solid  ice.  Such  ice 
may  gather  in  such  amount  as  to 
cause  flow,  especially  on  moun- 
tain slopes,  and  then  forms  a 
glacier.  Ice  of  this  origin  also 
covers  great  continental  areas,  as 
in  Greenland,  and  in  some  previ- 
ous ages  has  been  very  much 
more  extensive. 

Snow,  Lorenzo  (1814-1901), 
Mormon  elder,  born  at  Mantua, 
Portage  co.,  O.  He  attended 
Oberlin  College  for  a  time,  and 
was  converted  to  Mormonism  at 
Kirtland,  O.  He  became  a  mis- 
sionary, and  in  1840  made  a  visit 
to  England,  and  returned  in  1843 
bringing  to  Nauvoo,  111.,  two 
hundred  and  fifty  converts.  Aft- 
er the  expulsion  of  the  Mormons 
from  Illinois  he  accompanied  his 
people  to  Utah  ;  was  a  member 
of  the  territorial  legislature  from 
1852  to  1882,  and  was  much  of 
this  time  president  of  the  council. 
In  1855  he  founded  Brigham 
City,  and  organized  there  a  sys- 
tem of  cooperation  and  common 
ownersiiip  of  various  lines  of  in- 


dustry. In  1849  he  went  to  Italy, 
where  he  remained  three  years 
and  translated  the  Book  of  Mor- 
mon into  Italian.  In  1864  he 
made  a  missionary  tour  to  Italy, 
and  in  1872  another  to  Europe 
and  Palestine.  In  1888  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  general 
board  of  education  of  the  Church. 
In  1849  he  was  ordained  one  of 
the  twelve  apostles;  in  1889  be- 
came president  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical quorum,  and  in  1893  was 
chosen  president  of  the  famous 
Salt  Lake  Temple.  In  1886  he 
was  arrested  for  violating  the 
Edmunds  Act  against  polygamy, 
and  was  convicted  on  three  in- 
dictments, but  after  an  imprison- 
ment of  about  a  year  was  re- 
leased on  a  technicality.  Among 
his  publications  are  The  Only 
Way  to  Be  Saved  (1851,  many 
subsequent  editions)  ;  The  Voice 
of  Joseph  (1852),  and  The  Pales- 
tine Tourists  (1875). 

Snowball  Tree.  A  bush 
{Viburnum  Opulus)  which  has 
maple-like  foliage  and  cymes  of 
white  flowers,  the  outer  flowerets 
being  neutral  and  greatly  en- 
larged. In  cultivated  varieties, 
nearly  all  the  flowerets  have  been 
rendered  sterile  and  enlarged,  so 
that  the  mass  resembles  a  ball 
of  bloom,  or  a  miniatvire  hydran- 
gea. The  bright  red  fruits  are 
very  acid,  and  the  shrub  is  also 
known  as  'cranberry  tree.' 

Snowberry,  the  popular  name 
of  the  North  American  shrub, 
Symphoricarpus  racemosus.  It 
bears  in  late  summer  loose  inter- 
rupted spikes  of  rose-colored 
flowers,  followed  by  large  white 
berries,  which  remain  on  the 
plant  many  months. 

Snow-bird,  or  Junco,  a  finch 
{J unco  hiemalis),  very  common 
and  conspicuous  in  winter 
throughout  the  Northern  United 
States,  but  retiring  into  Canada, 
as  a  rule,  to  breed.  Its  head, 
breast,  and  upper  parts  are  slate- 
gray,  and  its  under  parts  white. 
It  goes  about  in  small  lively 
flocks,  and  is  justly  a  general 
favorite.  Several  closely  related 
species  are  known  in  the  West 
and  Northwest. 

Snow-bunting  {Plectro- 
phaens  nivalis),  one  of  the  cir- 
cumpolar  buntings,  which  breeds 
on  the  Arctic  shores,  and  comes 
to  the  northern  borders  of  the 
United  States  as  a  winter  visitor. 
In  summer  the  male  is  black  and 
white,  in  autumn  the  upper  parts 
are  tinged  with  chestnut.  The 
bird  is  esteemed  for  the  table. 

Snowdon,  highest  mt.  (3,570 
ft.),  Wales,  10  m.  s.e.  of  Car- 
narvon ;  consists  of  five  distinct 
peaks  (Y-Wyddfa)  separated  by 
picturesque  glens  and  passes 
(Llanberis,  Aberglaslyn) .  The 
summit  is  reached  by  a  rack  and 
pinion  railway  from  Llanberis. 
To  the  N.E.  lie  the  peaks  of  Car- 


nedd  Dafydd  (3,430  ft.)  and 
Carnedd  Llewelyn  (3,842  ft.). 
The  slate  quarries  of  Dinorwic, 
near  Llanberis,  detract  from  the 
beauty  of  the  scenery.  The  chief 
tourist  centers  are  Llanberis  on 
the  N.,  Beddgelert  on  the  s., 
Capel  (Turig  and  Pen-y-Gwryd  in 
the  E. 


Snow-hunting. 


Snowdrop,  a  genus  of  bulb- 
ous plants,  well  known  in  grassy 
lawns  or  orchards,  or  grown  un- 
disturbed in  shrubbery  borders. 
The  common  snowdrop  (Galan- 
thus  nivalis),  both  the  single  and 
the  double  varities,  is,  on  the 
whole,  the  most  important  and 
most  valuable  ;  but  in  light,  warm 
soil  the  handsome  G.  Ehvesi 
should  be  grown,  and  in  any  soil 
the  broad-leaved  G.  latifolins, 
and  a  fragrant  hybrid  derived 
from  it,  G.  Alleni,  with  large 
flowers  and  leaves  almost  like 
those  of  the  tulip. 

Snow-plough,  a  machine  for 
clearing  snow  from  roads  and 
railway  tracks.  Formerly  it  was 
constructed  on  the  wedge  prin- 
ciple, like  an  ordinary  plough ; 
but  now  a  rotary  steam  shovel 
has  been  generally  adopted.  In 
this  the  snow  is  sliced  ofif  by 
knife  blades  and  fed  into  a  re- 
volving wheel,  and  through  cen- 
trifugal force  is  thrown  aside. 

Snow-shed,  a  construction 
placed  over  certain  parts  of  rail- 
road tracks,  especially  in  the 
mountainous  districts,  such  as  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping  the  line  free 
from  snow,  and  to  carry  snow- 
slides  clear  over  the  track. 


Snow-shoe. 


Snow-shoes,  a  kind  of  shoe  in 
vogue  in  northern  latitudes  which 
enables  the  wearer  to  pass  rap- 
idly over  the  surface  of  the  snow 
without  sinking  therein.  The 
American  snow-shoe  is  broad  and 
flat,  and  from  3  to  4  ft.  long. 
The  Norwegian  snow-shoe,  or 
ski,  is  about  8  ft.  long  and  4  in. 
wide.  (See  Ski.)  The  Eskimo 
uses  a  snow-shoe  that  resembles 


Snuff 


KSH 


278 


Soap 


a  parallelogram  or  a  miniature 
sleigh  ;  it  is  used  for  traversing 
broken  or  melting  ice. 

Snuff.    See  Tobacco. 

Snyders,  Franz  (1579- 
1657),  Flemish  painter,  born  at 
Antwerp,  was  a  pupil  of  Van 
Breughel.  He  began  as  a  painter 
of  still  life — larders,  kitchens, 
with  game,  fruit,  etc. — and  exe- 
cuted many  of  these  details  in 
Rubens's  interiors.  He  was  also 
employed  by  Jordaens.  His  fame 
rests  chiefly  upon  his  works  de- 
picting animals  in  action,  of 
which  several  Boar  Hunts  and  a 
Stag  Hunt  are  well  known.  An 
example  of  his  art  in  animal 
painting  is  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum,  New  York  city. 

Soane,  Sir  John  (1753- 
1837),  English  architect,  was 
born  at  Whitchurch,  near  Read- 
ing. In  1777  he  went  to  Italy, 
where  he  spent  three  years  study- 
ing the  remains  of  antiquity,  and 
on  his  return  to  England  was  en- 
gaged in  erecting  country  houses, 
but  in  1788  he  was  appointed 
architect  to  the  Bank  of  England, 
which  building,  now  remodeled, 
remains  the  best  instance  of  his 
work.  In  1833  he  presented  to 
the  nation  the  collection  and  the 
house  in  which  they  were  dis- 
played, now  known  as  Soane's 
Museum.  He  was  knighted  in 
1831. 

Soap,  Savon,  Scifc,  in  the 
common  acceptance  of  the  term 
includes  the  soda  and  potash  salts 
of  various  fatty  acids,  notably 
stearic  C17H35C00H,  palmitic 
C15H31C00H,  oleic  C17H33C00H, 
and  lauric  ChHsmCooH,  all  of 
which  are  partly  soluble  in  water. 
The  common  oils  and  fats  are 
the  glycerides  of  these  acids,  and 
may  be  of  animal  or  plant  origin  ; 
they  are  technically  known  as 
stearine,  palmitine,  oleine,  lau- 
rine,  etc.,  and  in  the  form  of 
tallow  and  grease,  whale  oil, 
cocoanut,  palm  kernel,  peanvit 
and  cottonseed  oils,  constitute  the 
soapmakers'  stock.  Animal  fats 
are  'tried  out' — in  other  words, 
the  fatty  tissue  is  hashed  and 
heated  with  water  or  steam  and 
allowed  to  settle,  withdrawing 
the  clear  fat  in  a  molten  condi- 
tion. Coloring  matter  may  be 
discharged  with  fuller's  earth  or 
other  clarifying  material.  Veg- 
etable oils  are  mainly  obtained 
from  cotton  and  other  seeds 
which  are  ground  and  pressed. 
Hard  soaps  are  made  exclusively 
with  soda  and  constitute  all  va- 
rieties used  for  household  pur- 
poses— laundry,  toilet  and  bath, 
and  kitchen  use.  The  following 
kinds  are  well  known  :  rosin  or 
laundry  soap,  perfumed  and  sili- 
cated  soaps,  pumice  soaps,  wash- 
ing powders,  granules  and  flakes. 

The  ancient  Gauls  made  a  soap 
from  tallow  and  wood  ashes.  A 
soap  factory  of  some  1 700  years 


ago  was  discovered  in  the  exca- 
vations of  Pompeii.  But  soap 
was  not  introduced  into  England 
until  the  14th  or  15th  century 
and  it  was  even  then  a  luxury  to 
be  enjoyed  only  by  the  rich. 
During  the  early  history  of 
America,  soap  was  usually  made 
at  home  by  boiling  fat  with  wood 
ashes  or  some  other  base.  The 
finished  product  generally  had 
about  the  same  consistency  of 
cold  cream. 

A  chemist  explains  soap-mak- 
ing as  a  simple  chemical  reaction 
carried  out  on  a  huge  scale.  The 
reagents  are  fats  and  oils  and 
soda.  The  chemical  change  that 
takes  place  when  these  materials 
are  boiled  together  is  called  sa- 
ponification, during  which  the 
fats  and  oils  combine  with  the 
soda,  resulting  in  the  formation 
of  glycerine  and  soap,  the  soda 
forces  glycerine  out  of  the  oil 
and,  by  taking  its  place,  forms 
soap. 

The  required  amount  of  melted 
tallow,  grease,  and  oil  is  run  into 
large  circular  iron  tanks,  some 
holding  as  many  as  ten  railroad 
tank  cars  of  oil,  which  are  heated 
near  the  bottom  by  two  steam 
coils.  A  draw-off  cock  is  fitted 
in  the  dished  bottom  of  the  ket- 
tle ;  about  half  way  vtp  the  side 
is  placed  a  swing  pipe  for  skim- 
ming. Soda  lye  of  20°  Be 
(Baume)  is  now  added  and  the 
heat  supplied  by  both  coils.  The 
first  effect  is  one  of  emulsifica- 
tion,  followed  gradually  by  sa- 
ponification ;  from  time  to  time 
more  lye  is  added  as  needed  ;  as 
the  saponification  proceeds  the 
open  coil  is  closed.  When  the 
mass  will  run  from  the  blade  of 
the  stirring  wooden  paddle  of  the 
soap-maker  in  clear  transparent 
strings,  the  operation  is  complete. 

Then  several  tons  of  salt  for 
graining  are  added  to  the  big  ket- 
tles. The  soap-  separates  on  top 
of  a  watery  solution  of  glycerine, 
unused  soda  and  impurities. 
When  the  separation  is  complete, 
the  watery  solution  is  pumped 
away.  Glycerine,  an  important 
by-product,  is  recovered  here. 
The  thick  soap  in  the  kettle  is 
washed  with  water  to  free  it 
from  the  last  traces  of  nigre. 
Chemical  analysis  must  show 
neither  excess  soda  nor  oil  before 
the  semi-liquid  soap  goes  to  mix- 
ers with  revolving  blades  which 
mix  and  smooth  it  thoroughly. 

From  these,  the  soap  passes 
over  rolls  to  chill  it  into  thin 
flakes.  These  wet  flakes  are 
dried  on  a  screen  by  heated  air 
currents,  broken  up,  mixed  with 
perfume  and  passed  through  a 
series  of  soap  mills,  consisting  of 
an  inclined  set  of  granite  rollers, 
which  rub  the  particles  of  soap 
between  them  until  a  thin  plastic 
ribbon  is  formed.  It  is  from  this 
rolling  or  milling  process  most 


toilet  soaps  get  their  names  of 
'milled  soaps.'  The  milling  is 
repeated  several  times  ;  then  the 
well-worked  soap  is  forced 
through  a  rounded  die  from 
which  it  emerges  as  a  smooth, 
compact  shiny  cylinder.  Cut  in- 
to short  lengths,  carried  along  a 
continuous  belt  to  be  molded  and 
stamped,  toilet  soap  is  ready  for 
the  packing  boxes. 

Flaked  soap  is  handled  just  as 
milled  toilet  soap  through  the 
kettles  and  crutchers  or  mixers. 
Instead  of  going  from  these  to 
iron  frames,  as  framed  soaps,  the 
semi-liquid  soap  is  run  into  a 
trough.  A  huge,  chilled  roll  dips 
into  this  trough  and  picks  up  a 
thin  film  of  semi-liquid  soap. 
Before  a  complete  revolution,  the 
soap  has  become  chilled  and 
hardened  and  a  long  knife,  in 
close  contact  with  the  roll, 
scrapes  it  into  thin  ribbons, 
which  fall  on  a  wire  screen  and 
are  carried  through  a  drying 
chamber.  Compressed  air  sweeps 
the  flakes  into  pipes  which  carry 
them   to    the   packaging  room. 

Granulated  soaps,  a  newer  de- 
velopment, leave  the  mixers  to 
be  pumped  to  the  top  of  three- 
story  towers,  there  sprayed 
through  nozzles,  meeting  cur- 
rents of  hot  dry  air  which  ex- 
pand and  bake  the  spray  of  liquid 
soap  into  granular  form  before 
it  reaches  the  base  of  the  tower 
where  compressed  air  carries  the 
granules  to  the  packing  depart- 
ment. 

Pumice  and  other  cold  process 
soaps  start  their  manufacture  in 
the  mixer  instead  of  the  soap  ket- 
tle. Cocoanut  oil,  soda  solution 
and  pumice  are  mixed  to  a 
srnooth,  uniform  emulsion  and 
this  drawn  off  to  an  empty  frame. 
After  several  days'  stand  in  the 
frame,  the  metal  sides  are 
stripped  off,  the  soap  is  slabbed, 
cut,  dried,  stamped,  and  packed. 
Many  cheaper  grades  of  toilet 
soaps  are  made  by  this  same  cold 
process. 

Floating  soap  is  made  by  stir- 
ring air  into  the  mass  in  the 
mixer  or  crutcher  after  it  comes 
in  semi-liquid  form  from  the  ket- 
tles. 

Soap-making  Terms, — Fil- 
ler :  this  is  any  inert  material 
added  to  a  soap  which  does  not 
increase  its  cleansing  or  deter- 
gent value.  Neutral  Soap :  a 
soap  is  neutral  when  it  contains 
no  free  (uncombined),  alkali  or 
fatty  acids,  that  is,  when  just 
enough  base  has  been  used  to 
saponify  the  fat  completely. 
Builder:  a  builder  is  any  mate- 
rial added  to  give  it  increased 
cleansing  value.  Bases:  (some- 
times called  alkalis)  used  in 
soap-making  includes  soda  and 
potash.  Detergent :  the  word 
means  'a  substance  which 
cleanses.'    When  one  soap  is  said 


Soap 


KSH 


279 


Socialism 


to  have  higher  detergent  value 
than  another,  it  will  do  more 
cleansing  per  ounce  than  the 
other.  Soap  Pmvdcr  is  made  by 
combining  the  hot  liquid  soap 
with  sodium  carbonate,  common- 
ly known  as  soda  ash,  in  a 
crutcher  or  mixer.  This  mixture 
is  then  blgwn  with  steam  at  high 
pressure  through  special  nozzles 
into  tall,  drying  towers.  A  pow- 
der in  the  form  of  granules  is 
produced. 

Soapless  Detergents  (Hym- 
olal  Salt  Types). — Soap  in  its 
2,000  years  of  history  has  been 
improved  in  many  ways,  but  one 
of  its  most  serious  short-comings 
is  caused  by  calcium  and  mag- 
nesium present  in  practically  all 
natural  hard  water,  which  use  up 
half  of  the  soaps  to  soften  the 
water.  Sulfonated  oils,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  good  sudsing  and 
wetting  agents  in  acid  solution 
and  are  not  affected  by  hard 
water. 

A  number  of  sulfated  alcohol 
products  are  available,  mostly  in 
the  form  of  the  sodium  salts. 
The  alcohol  is  made  by  hydro- 
genating  either  cocoanut  or  palm 
kernel  oils  which  are  then  frac- 
tionally distilled.  In  physical 
characteristics,  sodium  salts  are 
similar  to  soap.  Solubility  in 
water  is  more  affected  by  tem- 
perature than  in  the  case  of  soap 
but  sodium  salts  are  still  suffi- 
ciently soluble  to  suds  well  in  ice 
water.  This  showing  is  due  in 
part  to  a  high  rate  of  solution 
and  in  part  to  the  smaller  amount 
required.  These  salts  perform 
as  well  in  sea  water  as  in  ordi- 
nary tap  water. 

Since  the  calcium  and  mag- 
nesium salts  are  good  sudsents 
and  good  detergents,  the  amount 
of  sodium  lauryl  sulfate  re(|uired 
for  washing  is  practically  inde- 
pendent of  the  hardness  of  the 
water,  while  the  amount  of  soap 
required  to  do  the  same  work  in- 
creases rapidly  with  the  hard- 
ness. Other  types  of  new  de- 
tergents are  called  the  Igepon 
Types. 

Bibliography. — L.  L.  Lam- 
born,  Modern  Soaps,  Caudles  aud 
Glycerin  (1906);  G.  H.  Hurst, 
Soaps:  A  Practical  Manual  on 
the  Manufacture  of  Domestic, 
Toilet  and  Other  Soaps  (1922, 
3rd  ed.)  ;  E.  T.  Webb,  Soap  and 
Glycerine  Manufacture  (1927); 
I.  V.  S.  Stani.slaus  and  P.  B. 
Meerbott,  American  Soap  Mak- 
er's Guide  (1928);  G.  Martin, 
Modern  Soap  and  Detergent  In- 
dustry (1932.  2nd  ed.)  ;  A.  Watt, 
The  Art  of  Soap-Making  (1934, 
5th  ed.)  ;  W.  H.  Simmons,  Soap : 
Its  Composition,  Manufacture 
and  Properties  (1936,  4th  ed.)  ; 
E.  G.  Thomssen  and  C.  R.  Kemp, 
Modern  Soap  Making  (1937). 

A.  H.  Perrin, 
The  Procter  &  Gamble  Company. 


Soap  Bark,  the  inner  bark  of 
Qnillaja  saponaria,  a  tree  com- 
mon in  Chile.  The  bark  is  pow- 
dered, and  when  mixed  with 
water  forms  a  soapy  lather. 

Soap  Berry,  the  tropical  tree 
Sapiudus  utilis,  and  other  species 
of  the  genus.  The  aril  surround- 
ing the  seeds  is  rich  in  saponin 
(q.  v.),  and  its  extract  is  used 
instead  of  soap,  especially  for 
cleaning  delicate  fabrics  of  silk 
and  linen. 

Soap  Bubbles  owe  their  ex- 
istence to  the  surface  tension  of 
a  film  of  soap  solution  acting 
against  the  pressure  of  the  air 
that  is  forced  into  it.  They  are 
best  blown  with  a  glass  pipe  from 
a  solution  prepared  by  dissolving 
one  part  of  fresh  sodium  oleate 
in  forty  parts  of  cold  distilled 
water,  and  adding  ten  parts  of 
glycerin.  The  clear  portion  is 
then  siphoned  off,  a  drop  or  so  of 
ammonia  added,  and  the  liquid 
kept  in  a  stoppered  bottle  in  the 
dark.  Good  white  soap  serves 
nearly  as  well  as  sodium  oleate. 
The  pressure  inside  a  bubble  va- 
ries inversely  as  the  radius. of 
curvature.  The  colors  of  soap 
bubbles  are  due  to  the  interfer- 
ence of  the  light-waves  reflected 
from  the  two  surfaces  ;  the 
blackish  appearance  seen  just  be- 
fore bursting  indicates  the  thin- 
nest film. 

Soap  Sculpture.  Those  who 
feel  an  artistic  urge  to  fashion 
things  with  their  own  hands  may 
easily  gratify  that  impulse  by 
adopting  the  'democratic  art'  of 
Soap  Sculpture.  All  the  tools 
needed  are  a  pen  or  paring  knife 
with  a  thin-pointed,  medium- 
sized  blade,  and  one  or  two  or- 
ange sticks,  such  as  are  used  for 
care  of  finger  nails.  The  'plastic 
granite'  most  suitable  are  stand- 
ard-sized cakes  of  white  soap  like 
Ivory.  An  expert  in  the  craft, 
Ernest  B.  Haswell,  declared  that 
one  'can  find  out  more  about 
sculpture  by  carving  a  cake  or 
two  of  -soap  than  by  reading  a 
book  of  rules.' 

Thousands  of  school  children 
and  adult  'shut-ins'  have  found 
fascination  and  interest  in  Soap 
Sculpture.  A  National  Soap 
Sculpture  Committee  sponsors  an 
annual  exhibition  of  works. 
Among  the  judges  and  sponsors 
are  many  prominent  American 
and  foreign  sculptors,  artists  and 
art  gallery  directors. 

Consult  Lester  Gaba,  On  Soap 
Sculpture:  Its  History,  Tech- 
nique and  Style  (1935). 

Soapstone,  Potstone,  or 
Steatite,  a  soft  rock  of  some- 
what greasy  feel,  a  compact  form 
of  talc.  The  ease  with  which  it 
may  be  sawn  or  otherwise  fash- 
ioned, with  its  high  resistance  to 
disintegration  by  fire  or  chemi- 
cals, makes  it  of  economic  value. 
Prehistoric  peoples  made  use  of 


soapstone  for  many  purposes 
where  civilization  has  furnished 
more  convenient  substitutes.  It 
is  now  used  for  laundry  fittings, 
stove  lining,  etc.,  and  in  ground 
form  in  axle  grease  and  toilet 
powder.    See  Talc. 

Soap  Tree.   See  Soap  Berry. 

Soapwort,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  the  hardy  herbaceous 
plant  Saponaria  officinalis,  on 
account  of  the  property  which  its 
leaves  possess  of  forming  a 
lather.    See  Saponaria. 

Sobat  River,  in  Egypt,  the 
largest  tributary  of  the  White 
Nile,  entering  it  near  Taufikia, 
about  550  miles  above  Khartum. 
It  is  navigable  for  steamers  to 
Nasser,  180  miles  from  its  junc- 
tion with  the  White  Nile.  A 
short  distance  above  Nasser  the 
Sobat  receives  the  river  Pibor 
from  the  south.  The  water  of 
the  Sobat  has  a  whitish  hue,  and 
its  large  volume  in  time  of  flood 
has  given  the  name  to  the  White 
Nile.    See  Nile. 

Sobieski.  See  John  hi  (of 
Poland). 

Sobieski- Stuarts.  See  Al- 
bany. 

Socage.  Tenure  in  free  soc- 
age is  tenure  by  a  certain  and 
determinate  service — e.g.,  by  the 
paying  of  certain  rent  to  the  lord, 
or  ploughing  the  lord's  land  on 
a  certain  number  of  days.  It  is 
distinguished  from  other  feudal 
tenures  in  that  it  is  not  military. 
Burgage  was  a  form  of  socage  in 
towns.  In  mo<:lern  times  the  pay- 
ment of  rent  in  respect  of  socage 
lands  has  become  obsolete, ^  and 
free  socage  practically  corre- 
sponds to  freehold  tenure. 

Soccer.    See  Football. 

Social  Brethren  Church,  a 
body  the  membership  of  which 
is  in  Arkansas,  Missouri,  and 
Illinois.  It  was  organized  in 
1867  by  a  number  of  churches 
originally  either  of  Methodist  or 
of  Baptist  affiliation.  Their  dis- 
cipline affirms  belief  in  the  or- 
thodox doctrines  of  evangelical 
Christianity.  Baptism  is  by 
aspersion,  effusion,  or  immersion. 
The  polity  and  congregational 
practice  combine  the  forms  of 
Congregationalism  and  Method- 
ism. 

Socialism.  In  its  broadest 
and  most  inclusive  sense  social- 
ism is  the  movement  and  the  doc- 
trine concerned  with  the  con- 
scious control  of  all  economic 
forces  and  political  institutions 
directly  in  the  interest  of  all  the 
people.  This  implies  the  end  of 
the  predatory  society — which  in 
one  form  or  another  is  as  old  as 
human  organization — and  the 
abolition  of  classes  based  on  eco- 
nomic status.  It  implies  that  the 
workers  with  hand  and  brain  will 
collectively  and  cooperatively  be- 
come the  owners  of  the  great 
natural  resources  and  the  princi- 


Socialism 


KSH 


280 


Socialism 


pal  means  of  production  and  dis- 
tribution. Production  will  be  for 
use,  not  profit. 

The  word  socialism  in  its  pres- 
ent sense  is  comparatively  new, 
dating  back  only  to  about  1830. 
The  ethical  aspirations  of  social- 
ism are  very  old.  Dr.  Harry  W. 
Laidler  in  his  excellent  History 
of  Socialist  Thought  properly 
begins  with  a  short  chapter  on 
the  social  prophets  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Such  famovis  phi- 
losophers as  Plato  in  his  Repub- 
lic, Sir  Thomas  More  in  his 
Utopia,  and  Francis  Bacon  in  his 
New  Atlantis,  gave  pictures  of 
what  they  felt  would  be  ideal 
societies  ruled  by  justice.  More's 
book  gave  a  general  name  to  a 
whole  school  of  socialist  thinking 
and  writing.  Some  expressions 
of  what  is  called  Utopian  Social- 
ism— especially  in  America  Ed- 
ward Bellamy's  Looking  Back- 
ward— have  had  a  marked  effect 
on  men's  political  thinking  and 
action. 

Even  more  common  than  im- 
aginative Utopias  have  been  ac- 
tual experiments  by  voluntary 
groups,  usually  under  some  re- 
ligious inspiration,  in  a  commu- 
nal way  of  life.  It  is  important 
to  observe,  however,  that  modern 
socialism  and  communism  are 
concerned  not  with  voluntary 
groups  which  try  to  draw  out  of 
the  general  social  and  economic 
order,  but  with  the  change  of  the 
whole  social  and  economic  order. 

Communism  is  an  older  word 
than  socialism.  Marx  and  En- 
gels,  fathers  of  modern  so-called 
scientific  socialism,  at  first  used 
the  word  commvmism  to  distin- 
guish themselves  and  their  doc- 
trine from  the  Utopian  socialists. 
Hence  we  speak  of  the  Com- 
munist, not  the  Socialist,  Mani- 
festo of  1848  as  the  document 
which  began  the  modern  socialist 
movement.  Down  to  the  end  of 
the  World  War  socialism  and 
communism  were  words  used 
more  or  less  interchangeably  with 
socialism  in  the  more  general 
use.  Today  the  communists, 
who,  under  the  leadership  of 
Lenin,  broke  from  the  socialists 
in  their  concept  of  the  road  to 
power,  say  that  communism  is 
the  final  stage  in  the  socialist  so- 
ciety. Socialism  is  achieved,  un- 
der their  definition,  when  there  is 
no  longer  a  capitalist  social  order 
or  a  special  owning  class  and 
when  the  mass  of  workers  are 
rewarded  according  to  their 
deeds.  Some  day  it  will  be  pos- 
sible, they  say,  to  apply  the  great 
theory  'from  every  man  accord- 
ing to  his  ability,  to  every  man 
according  to  his  need.'  And  that 
is  communism.  This  distinction 
between  the  meaning  of  socialism 
and  communism  is  not  accepted 
by  socialists.  The  difference  to- 
day between  socialism  and  com- 


munism concerns  organizational 
loyalties  and  the  tactics  which  the 
respective  parties  use. 

Socialism  in  its  modern  sense 
required  the  appearance  of  the 
factory  system  which  in  its  great 
development  depended  upon  the 
application  of  power  to  modern 
machinery.  The  great  appeal  of 
socialism  even  before  Marx  was 
to  the  growing  mass  of  wage 
workers,  men  divorced  from  the 
land  and  to  an  increasing  extent 
from  the  ownership  of  their 
tools. 

The  French  Revolution  was 
essentially  a  bourgeois  revolu- 
tion against  a  dying  feudalism, 
but  it  commanded  the  support  of 
city  proletarians  and  one  of  its 
leaders,  Gracchus  Babeuf,  con- 
sciously took  a  proletarian  role. 

The  significant  pioneers  of  so- 
cialism began  to  appear  at  the 
close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars. 
Among  them  were  Robert  Owen, 
the  successful  self-made,  high- 
minded  textile  manufacturer  of 
England,  and  Saint-Simon  and 
Fourier  in  France.  These  men 
and  their  systems  came  to  be  re- 
garded by  the  later  socialist 
movements  as  Utopian.  Proud- 
hon,  by  his  frontal  attack  on 
private  property — property,  he 
asserted,  was  robbery — and  by 
his  insistence  on  an  absolute 
equality,  put  himself  in  a  more 
militant  class,  but  his  bitter  con- 
demnation of  the  state's  authority 
made  him  more  truly  a  forerun- 
ner of  modern  anarchy  than  of 
socialism.  A  non-Marxist  so- 
cialist of  importance  was  Blan- 
qui,  who  during  the  Second  Em- 
pire in  France  sometimes  worked 
with  and  sometimes  against  the 
Marxists.  His  emphasis  was  on 
secret  societies  and  the  seizure 
of  political  power  through  a  rev- 
olutionary vipheaval.  His  teach- 
ings and  his  followers  played  an 
important  part  in  the  French 
Commune. 

Nevertheless  the  founders  of 
modern  socialism  were  none  of 
these  men.  They  were  Karl 
Marx  and  his  friend  and  collab- 
orator, Friedrich  Engels,  and  the 
Communist  Manifesto  of  1848, 
of  which  they  were  the  principal 
authors,  was  the  basic  document 
of  the  new  movement.  This  is 
true  despite  the  fact  that  mod- 
ern socialism  has  always  included 
important  non-Marxist  elements. 
The  British  Labor  Party  today 
is  in  the  main  non-Marxist. 
Nevertheless,  and  despite  the 
important  doctrinal  differences 
among  Marxists,  it  was  Marxian 
socialism  which  had  given  pur- 
pose and  direction  to  the  move- 
ment. 

After  the  advent  of  Marxism, 
socialism  was  no  longer  a  mere 
revolt  against  exploitation,  an 
ethical  aspiration,  or  an  exercise 
in    wishful    thinking   about  an 


ideal  society.  It  was  the  next 
stage  in  human  development,  the 
logical  answer  to  the  breakdown 
of  capitalism  through  its  own  in- 
ternal contradictions.  It  was  a 
society,  however,  to  be  achieved 
through  the  efforts  of  the  work- 
ers who  in  Marxism  were  given 
a  consciousness  of  their  own  dig- 
nity and  historical  destiny. 

The  literature  of  Marxism  is 
enormous  and  cannot  be  exam- 
ined in  this  brief  article.  Marx's 
own  busy  and  active  life  lasted 
until  1883.  His  close  collabora- 
tor Friedrich  Engels  lived  until 
1895.  Not  only  did  he  help 
Marx  while  both  lived  but  he 
was  responsible  for  bringing  out 
the  second  and  third  volumes  of 
Marx's  monumental  work  Das 
Kapital  after  Marx's  death  and 
he  wrote  himself  with  authority. 

This  immense  body  of  litera- 
ture in  its  reaction  against  Uto- 
pianism  nowhere  described  in  de- 
tail the  socialist  society  or  gave 
specific  directions  for  its  attain- 
ment. The  whole  world  was 
shaken  by  the  doctrine  of  the 
dictatorship  of  the  proletariat 
which  Lenin  developed.  It  was 
based  on  a  single  sentence  in 
Marx's  criticism  of  the  Gotha 
program.  Lenin's  theory  that 
with  the  downfall  of  capitalism 
and  the  establishment  of  the  dic- 
tatorship of  the  proletariat  the 
state  would  'wither  away' — a 
theory  far  from  being  fulfilled 
in  the  history  of  Russia — was 
derived  from  an  almost  equally 
short  paragraph  in  Engels'  trea- 
tise against  Diihring.  Marx 
gave  the  workers  certain  guiding 
principles  but  he  never  plotted 
for  them  in  detail  the  road  to 
power,  which  accounts  in  part 
for  the  vehement  disputes  con- 
cerning it  which  have  divided  so- 
cialists, all  of  whom  have  pro- 
claimed that  they  were  the  true 
interpreters  of  Marx's  doctrines. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  ex- 
amine the  Marxist  doctrines  of 
the  class  struggle,  value  and  sur- 
plus value,  and  dialectical  ma- 
terialism, often  referred  to  as  the 
economic  interpretation  of  his- 
tory. In  sum  they  tended  to 
teach  the  workers  that  they 
should  seek  a  world-wide  solidar- 
ity— to  which  national  lines  are 
more  qr  less  irrelevant — in  their 
struggle  against  an  owning  class 
which  by  the  very  nature  of  the 
capitalist  system  exploits  their 
labor  and  takes  as  a  reward  of 
ownership  a  toll  out  of  the  wealth 
which  only  labor  of  hand  and 
brain  created.  Since  'In  every 
historical  epoch  the  prevailing 
mode  of  production  and  ex- 
change, and  the  social  organiza- 
tion necessarily  following  from 
it,  form  the  basis  upon  which  is 
built  up  and  from  which  alone 
can  be  explained,  the  political 
and  intellectual  history  of  that 


Socialism 


KSH 


281 


Socialism 


epoch.'  it  follows  that  the  main 
business  of  the  workers  is  to 
change  the  economic  system 
which  creates  the  class  struggle 
and  use  for  their  emancipation 
from  poverty  and  exploitation 
the  machinery  which  science 
gives  them  for  the  production  of 
plenty. 

To  these  general  conclusions 
thus  broadly  expressed  almost  all 
socialists  would  tend  to  agree. 
In  practice  the  British  Labor 
Party  and  the  German  Social- 
Democrats  before  they  were 
wiped  out  by  Hitler  had  very 
similar  programs  and  attitudes. 
Yet  the  British  Labor  Party  was 
in  the  main  non-Marxist  in  ori- 
gin and  indifferent  to  Marxian 
teachings,  while  the  German  So- 
cial-Democrats professed  to  be 
the  most  orthodox  of  Marxists. 
Perhaps  the  reason  for  the  agree- 
ment was  to  be  found  in  the  dif- 
ficulties of  applying  socialism, 
Marxist  or  non-Marxist,  in  a 
world  where,  for  example,  na- 
tionalism is  so  strong. 

During  the  years  between  1848 
and  the  beginning  of  the  World 
War  the  socialist  movement  made 
very  great  progress,  often  against 
bitter  persecution.  No  country 
was  entirely  without  socialists 
and  their  parties  were  aggressive 
and  challenging  factors  in  the 
life  of  all  the  European  nations. 
On  the  Continent  most  of  the 
trade  unions  were  under  socialist 
influence  and  consciously  social- 
ist in  outlook.  So,  too,  were 
many  of  the  strong  consumers' 
cooperative  societies. 

In  Great  Britain,  socialism  was 
of  slower  growth ;  the  trade 
unions  had  grown  up  without  it, 
and  had  not  been  deeply  affected 
by  Marxism.  Nevertheless  the 
w'ork  of  Marxist  groups,  of  the 
intellectuals  of  the  Fabian  So- 
ciety, and  the  experience  of  the 
unions  themselves,  led  by  1906 
to  the  formation  of  the  British 
Labor  Party,  now  one  .of  the 
strongest  parties  in  the  Labor 
and  Socialist  International. 

The  Socialist  Party  and  social- 
ism were  of  slower  growth  in  the 
United  States  of  America.  This 
country,  by  reason  of  its  geo- 
graphical position  and  history, 
has  been  a  kind  of  middle  class 
paradise.  Its  presidential  and 
federal  form  of  government  made 
the  formation  of  a.  new  party 
more  difficult  than  in  parliamen- 
tary countries.  Nevertheless, 
prior  to  the  World  War  the  So- 
cialist Party  in  America,  organ- 
ized at  the  turn  of  the  century, 
was  making  steady  headway  and 
regularly  increasing  its  presiden- 
tial vote  under  the  leadership  of 
Eugene  V.  Debs. 

In  all  these  countries  in  vary- 
ing degree  the  direct  and  indirect 
strength  of  the  socialist  move- 
ment was  a  factor,  usually  the 


principal  factor,  in  obtaining  so- 
cial legislation  in  respect  to 
working  conditions,  hours,  mini- 
mum wages  and  social  security. 
The  working  class,  however,  was 
not  wholly  united  under  socialist 
banners.  The  first  International, 
organized  in  1863,  as  the  Inter- 
national Working  Men's  Asso- 
ciation, was  a  forum  in  which  the 
socialists  under  the  intellectual 
leadership  of  Karl  Marx  strug- 
gled against  the  Anarchists  under 
the  leadership  of  Bakunin.  The 
latter  opposed  not  only  the  capi- 
talist system  but  the  State,  and 
unlike  the  sooialists  did  not  be- 
lieve in  seeking  to  influence  the 
capitalist  State  through  the  use 
of  the  ballot  or  to  capture  the 
power  of  the  State  in  order  to 
change  the  system.  The  State 
must  be  decisively  rejected.  At 
a  still  later  period  the  chief  rival 
to  socialism  among  the  workers 
on  the  Continent  of  Europe  was 
syndicalism  or  anarchal-syndical- 
ism. 

In  general,  syndicalists  ex- 
pected the  workmen's  own  unions 
to  take  over  the  functions  of  the 
State..  They  placed  great  store 
by  the  general  strike  as  an  in- 
strument of  the  class  struggle. 
Syndicalism  never  gained  much 
strength  in  Germany,  classic  land 
of  social  democracy,  but  it  was 
strong  in  France,  Italy,  and  es- 
pecially in  Spain.  The  I.  W.  W., 
which  had  an  influence  in  the 
United  States  out  of  proportion 
to  its  numbers,  was  a  kind  of  na- 
tive American  syndicalism. 

The  socialists,  themselves,  be- 
fore the  war  did  not  form  a 
closely-knit,  disciplined  interna- 
tional force  with  a  common  pro- 
gram— as  contrasted  with  com- 
mon principles.  The  First  In- 
ternational was  virtually  killed 
by  the  Franco-Prussian  war.  In 
1872  its  convention  at  the  Hague 
voted  to  remove  its  headquarters 
to  New  York,  where  it  soon  dis- 
appeared from  sight.  The  Sec- 
ond International  (The  Labor 
and  Socialist  International)  did 
not  arise  until  1889,  after  Marx's 
death.  It  has  survived  the 
World  War  and  the  Communist 
^plit  and  is  today  the  group  with 
which  the  overwhelming  major- 
ity of  socialists  as  distinguished 
from  Communists  are  affiliated. 
It  has  never  been  very  much 
more  than  a  socialist  debating  so- 
ciety, a  forum  conducted  by  the 
representatives  of  the  Socialist 
parties  which  adopted  resolutions 
on  many  subjects  without  bind- 
ing force- upon  the  constituent 
parties.  Neither  the  Second  In- 
ternational nor  the  strong  social- 
ist or  labor  parties  in  Germany, 
France,  Great  Britain,  and  the 
smaller  European  countries  acted 
promptly  and  courageously,  as 
once  socialists  had  hoped  they 
might,  to  block  the  World  War. 


Events  moved  too  fast ;  militar- 
ism was  too  strong ;  there  was 
too  little  knowledge  among  the 
masses  of  the  actual  facts.  Each 
nation  believed  that  it  was  fight- 
ing for  defense.  The  one  so- 
cialist leader  who  might  possibly 
have  taken  some  commanding 
leadership  in  a  general  strike 
against  mobilization  or  other 
means  of  blocking  war,  Jean 
Jaures  of  France,  was  assassi- 
nated. The  socialists  marched  to 
war  and  the  majority  of  the  so- 
cialist parties  in  every  belliger- 
ent country,  except  later  in  the 
United  States,  supported  the 
war.  To  some  extent  these  par- 
ties did  stand  for  a  negotiated 
and  reasonable  peace  and  they 
did  try  toward  the  end  of  the 
war  to  bring  about  an  interna- 
tional conference  of  the  workers 
at  Stockholm. 

Meanwhile,  however,  a  minor- 
ity group  of  socialists  stood  out 
steadfastly  against  the  war. 
Lenin,  leader  of  the  Bolshevik 
faction  of  the  Socialist  Party  in 
Russia,  was  especially  outspoken 
in  his  opposition  to  capitalist  war. 
He  had  long  been  a  critic  of  the 
parliamentary  socialism  of  the 
various  nations.  In  November 
1917,  in  the  second  Russian  rev- 
olution, his  party  by  coup  d'etat 
established  the  Soviet  govern- 
ment in  Russia.  It  was  a  party 
pledged  to  world  revolution  and 
as  soon  as  Lenin  had  consolidated 
his  own  power  against  counter- 
revolution and  Allied  interven- 
tion, and  the  Armistice  had 
brought  comparative  peace  to 
Europe,  he  lost  no  time  in  or- 
ganizing the  Third  or  Communist 
International  which,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  Second  Inter- 
national, is  a  highly  disciplined 
organization  with  power  over  its 
constituent  parties  lodged  be- 
tween conventions  in  the  hands 
of  the  Comintern  or  Executive 
Committee  in  Moscow. 

The  history  of  socialism  since 
the  World  War,  which  to  social- 
istis  and  millions  of  sympathetic 
workers  was  proof  of  the  fail- 
ure of  the  capitalist-nationalist 
system,  has  been  a  history  of 
high  hopes  and  considerable 
achievements  marred  by  tragic 
frustration  and  by  the  complete 
defeat  of  true  socialism  in  Ger- 
many, once  the  land  of  its  great- 
est strength.  Twenty  years  after 
the  Armistice,  the  aggressive,  at 
least  temporarily,  seems  to  have 
passed  to  Fascism,  and  the  im- 
mediate and  primary  concern  of 
most  Socialist  parties  is  defense 
against  Fascism  through  the  de- 
vice of  Popular  Fronts  and  in 
Europe — but  not  in  America — a 
persistent  hope  against  the  whole 
historic  record  that  somehow  or 
other  the  League  of  Nations 
could  be  used  to  save  democracy 
and  peace  in  Europe  rather  than 


Socialism 


KSH 


282 


Social  Settlements 


as  a  means  of  protecting  a  status 
quo  which  divides  both  men  and 
nations  into  the  Houses  of  Have 
and  Have  Not. 

For  this  history  many  things 
are  responsible  in  the  nature  of 
the  peace  following  the  World 
War,  the  strength  of  nationalism, 
the  power  of  peasant  and  other 
middle  class  opposition  to  social- 
ism, and  the  resistance  of  capital- 
ism which  was  not  completely 
smashed  by  war  or  economic  de- 
pression. The  sharp  struggles 
between  socialist  and  communist 
parties  also  played  their  part. 
Until  well  after  Hitler  had  come 
to  power  the  Communists  were 
still  calling  the  German  Social- 
Democrats  social-fascists. 
Nevertheless  in  1935  and  '36 
the  Communist  Party  the  world 
over  made  a  sharp  turn  toward 
the  right.  It  eagerly  sought,  at 
least  for  the  purpose  of  immedi- 
ate action,  a  united  front  with 
socialist  parties  and  went  beyond 
that  to  a  popular  front  embrac- 
ing left-wing  bourgeois  parties 
opposed  to  Fascism.  This  popu- 
lar front  has  been  tried  out,  not- 
ably in  France  and  Spain,  with 
the  participation  of  the  strong 
socialist  parties.  By  the  begin- 
ning of  1938  there  was,  however, 
in  socialist  ranks  a  growing  op- 
position to  the  swing  to  the  right 
which  has  been  involved  in  popu- 
lar front  programs. 

In  Great  Britain  the  Labor 
Party  is  His  Majesty's  Opposi- 
tion. It  has  twice  held  office  as 
a  minority  party  with  no  out- 
standing record  of  socialist 
achievement.  The  socialists  by 
the  end  of  1937  formed  the  larg- 
est single  parties  in  Belgium, 
France,  Czecho-Slovakia,  Fin- 
land and  the  Scandinavian  coun- 
tries. Denmark,  Sweden  and 
Norway  have  predominantly  so- 
cialist cabinets  under  socialist 
prime  ministers.  They  have 
made  an  admirable  record  in  re- 
spect to  social  security,  workers' 
rights,  housing,  and  the  substitu- 
tion to  a  considerable  extent  of 
socially  owned  or  controlled  en- 
terprise for  private  monopoly. 
They  have  not  established  social- 
ism. The  strong  and  popular  la- 
bor government  of  New  Zealand 
regards  itself  as  socialist. 

In  the  United  States  the  So- 
cialist Party,  weakened  by  the 
war  and  by  the  Communist  split, 
in  1936  suffered  from  the  popu- 
lar drawing  power  of  Roosevelt's 
New  Deal  program  which  to 
some  extent  appropriated  the  im- 
mediate although  not  the  essen- 
tial demands  of  socialism.  In 
1936  a  number  of  right-wing  so- 
cialists formed  the  Social-Demo- 
cratic Federation,  most  of  whose 
members  supported  Roosevelt  in 
the  campaign  of  that  year.  The 
Socialist  Party  of  America  is 
committed  to  the  preservation  of 


its  own  identity  for  all  political 
purposes  except  electoral  cam- 
paigns in  which  it  has  announced 
its  intention,  in  accordance  with 
socialist  theory  and  tradition,  to 
act  with  bona  fide  labor  parties 
in  the  various  States  and  ulti- 
mately, it  hopes,  in  a  national 
labor  or  farmer-labor  party. 

While  it  is  true  that  within 
the  socialist  ranks  throughout  the 
world  there  are  important  differ- 
ences as  to  tactics,  all  socialists 
are  united  in  opposition  to  capi- 
talism, the  theory  of  absolute  na- 
tionalism, and  the  totalitarian 
State  under  the  dictatorship  of 
one  party.  All  of  them  believe 
that  it  is  the  function  of  the 
working  class  to  emancipate  it- 
self and  thus  to  save  society. 
These  are  distinguishing  marks 
of  socialist  parties  as  opposed  to 
progressive  or  reform  parties  and 
to  the  Communist  Party.  The 
Socialist  parties  today  generally 
take  the  position  that  religion  is 
a  matter  for  the  private  con- 
science and  that  freedom  of  con- 
science should  be  protected  as 
part  of  a  general  defense  of  civil 
liberty  for  which  socialism  has 
stood. 

The  literature  of  socialism  in 
books  and  its  own  periodicals  is 
enormous.  Socialists  regard  all 
the  writings  of  Marx  and  Engels 
as  important.  Karl  Kautsky,  be- 
fore the  World  War,  chief  the- 
oretician for  the  Marxists  against 
Eduard  Bernstein's  'revision- 
ism' after  the  war  became  per- 
haps the  chief  theoretical  expo- 
nent of  right  wing  socialism 
against  Lenin  and  the  Commu- 
nists. The  Fabians  expounded 
their  position,  usually  in  relation 
to  specific  problems,  in  Fabian 
Tracts  appearing  over  many 
years.  G.  B.  Shaw's  Intelligent 
Women's  Guide  to  Socialism  and 
Capitalism  (1928)  is  a  brilliant 
statement  of  non-Marxian  so- 
cialism. H.  W.  Laidler's  A  His- 
tory of  Socialist  Thought  is  in- 
valuable for  contents  and  bibliog- 
raphies. Consult  K.  Marx  and 
F.  Engels,  The  Communist 
Manifesto  (1909);  F.  Hender- 
son, The  Case  of  Socialism 
(1934)  ;  H.  J.  Laski,  The  State 
in  Theory  and  Practice  (1935)  ; 
N.  Thomas,  Socialism  on  the  De- 
fensive (1938). 

Norman  Thomas. 

Socialist  Parties.  See  So- 
cialism. 

Social  Science.  See  Soci- 
ology. 

Social   Settlements. — The 

social  settlement  is  primarily  a 
method  of  work  involving  study 
of  a  neighborhood  to  discover  its 
needs,  followed  by  cooperation 
with  all  the  positive  forces  of  the 
community  to  meet  those  needs. 

Background. — In  1883  Sam- 
uel A.  Barnett,  later  Canon  of 
Westminster,  then  vicar  of  St. 


Jude's,  East  London,  appealed  to 
the  young  men  of  Oxford  to  pre- 
pare themselves  for  public  serv- 
ice by  living  for  a  season  among 
working  people  so  that  they 
might  know  their  problems  from 
first  hand  observation.  The  pio- 
neer settlement,  Toynbee  Hall, 
was  opened  on  Christmas  Eve, 
1884.  A  year  and  a  half  later, 
Stanton  Coit,  assistant  to  Felix 
Adler  at  the  Society  for  Ethical 
Culture,  took  up  residence  in 
Delancey  Street,  New  York,  gath- 
ered a  group  of  young  men  about 
him  and  developed  Neighborhood 
Guild,  later  called  University 
Settlement,  the  first  settlement 
in  the  United  States.  College 
Settlement,  New  York,  and  Hull 
House,  Chicago,  opened  their 
doors  in  October,  1889.  The 
founders  of  these  houses  had 
come  under  the  influence  of  Mr. 
Barnett,  whose  insight  and  crea- 
tive energy  inspired  men  and 
women  of  many  different  races 
and  nationalities  to  establish  set- 
tlements in  their  own  lands.  By 
1900  settlements  were  estab- 
lished in  many  of  the  larger  cities 
and  their  number  increased  rap- 
idly in  the  following  two  decades. 

Leadership, — The  personali- 
ties of  the  founders  of  the  first 
settlements  added  much  to  the 
prestige  of  the  movement  and 
their  interests  gave  direction  to 
the  activities  of  the  various 
houses.  Considering  the  size  of 
the  movement,  the  settlement  pio- 
neers made  an  amazing  contribu- 
tion to  social  thought  in  their 
generation.  For  a  third  of  a 
century,  Jane  Addams  was  the 
leading  citizen  of  Chicago,  one 
of  the  great  figures  of  the  world. 
The  extent  of  her  influence  on 
her  generation  can  hardly  be 
measured.  .Graham  Taylor  in- 
terpreted to  the  Protestant  Evan- 
gelical Churches  and  to  the  peo- 
ple of  Chicago  the  significance 
of  what  he  observed  and  experi- 
enced by  living  in  a  hard-driven 
tenement  community. 

Mary  McDowell,  aptly  called 
the  'Angel  of  the  Stockyards,' 
helped  call  attention  to  and  miti- 
gate the  hardships  of  that  un- 
speakable area.  In  Boston,  Rob- 
ert A.  Woods,  the  philosopher  of 
the  settlement  movement,  dem- 
onstrated in  action  and  logic  the 
secular  and  civic  importance  of 
the  local  community  in  the  life 
of  the  individual,  the  city,  the 
State  and  the  nation.  In  New 
York  James  B.  Reynolds  and 
Charles  B.  Stover  of  University 
Settlement  were  signally  success- 
ful in  bringing  about  improve- 
ments in  the  work  of  the  city 
government  and  its  departments. 

Lillian  D.  Wald  of  Henry 
Street  Settlement  laid  the  ground 
for  the  city's  nursing  services. 
John  L.  Elliott  of  Hudson  Guild, 
successor  to  Dr.  Adler  in  the  So- 


TEMPORARY  PAGES  FOR  NELSON'S  L.  L.  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Insert  in  Volume  XI,  following  page  282. 


Social  Security 

The  economic  depression 
which  followed  the  stock  market 
crash  of  1929  focused  attention 
on  two  giant  specters  confront- 
ing the  average  man  :  vmemploy- 
ment  and  a  dependent  old  age. 
The  numbers  of  those  out  of 
work  had  reached  unprecedented 
totals.  It  was  feared,  moreover, 
that  unemployment  would  con- 
tinue as  a  permanent  problem  in 
American  life,  in  view  -  of  the 
technological  advances  which 
served  both  to  displace  workers 
and  to  shorten  the  working  life 
of  the  individual.  On  the  other 
hand,  scientific  advances  in  the 
field  of  medicine  and  in  the  im- 
provement of  living  conditions 
were  adding  to  the  individual 
span  of  life.  Thus  in  1930  the 
number  of  persons  past  the  age 
of  65  was  54  out  of  every  1,000, 
but  by.  1940  it  has  been  esti- 
mated that  the  number  will  be 
63  :  by  1960,  93  ;  and  by  1970, 
101.  The_  popular  demand  that 
some  provision  be  made  for  the 
country's  aged  found  expression, 
notably,  in  the  widespread  sup- 
port given  the  Townsend  plan, 
a  pension  scheme  denounced  as 
unsound  by  economists,  and  un- 
welcome in  Congress. 

On  August  14,  1935,  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt  signed  the  Social 
Security  Act.  This  momentous 
measure  provided  some  means  of 
protection  against  the  hazards  of 
unemployment  and  old  age,  and 
furnished  other  aid  for  the  needy 
and  dependent.  Both  houses  of 
Congress  had  passed  the  act  by 
overwhelming  maj9rities.  Ear- 
lier, the  subject  had  been  studied 
for  half  a  year  by  a  Committee 
on  Economic  Security,  appointed 
by  the  President  and  aided  by 
experts  and  advisory  groups. 

In  his  messages  of  June  8, 
1934,  and  January  4,  1935,  Pres- 
ident Roosevelt  outlined  the  en- 
tire program.  Security  for  the 
individual  and  the  family,  he 
said,  was  concerned  with  three 
factors  :  decent  homes  to  live  in, 
development  of  the  country's  nat- 
ural resources  to  afford  the  full- 
est opportunity  to  engage  in  pro- 
ductive work,  and  safeguards 
against  the  major  misfortunes  of 
life  such  as  'cannot  be  wholly 
eliminated  in  this  man-made 
world  of  ours.'  It  is  with  the 
third  of  these  that  the  Social  Se- 
curity Act  is  concerned.  The 
safeguards  for  which  it  provides 
are  made  possible  by  co-opera- 
tion between  the  Federal  and 
State  Governments  in  such  man- 
ner that  national  unity  of  pro- 
gram and  purpose  is  preserved 


without  sacrifice  of  full  attention 
to  the  local  economic  and  social 
problems  within  each  State. 

Administration  of  major  pro- 
visions of  the  act  is  vested  in  the 
Social  Security  Board,  consist- 
ing of  three  members,  not  more 
than  two  of  whom  may  be  mem- 
bers of  the  same  political  party. 
Members  appointed  to  the  board 
must  be  confirmed  by  the  Senate, 
and  appointments  of  the  board 
are  subject  to  civil-service  law. 

Objectives  of  the  act  fall  un- 
der three  main  categories,  sum- 
marized below :  unemployment 
compensation,  old-age  assistance 
and  benefits,  and  aid  to  needy 
and  dependent  persons. 

U nemployment  Compensa- 
tion,— The  Social  Security  Act 
does  not  establish  any  tmemploy- 
ment  compensation  systems.  The 
States  are  invited  to  enact  laws 
for  the  compensation  of  their  un- 
employed, but  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment does  not  require  or  seek 
to  force  them  to  enact  laws  of 
any  particular  type.  Though 
their  freedom  to  pass  laws  best 
suited  to  their  local  .  conditions 
and  problems  is  thus  protected, 
the  State  laws  must  be  approved 
by  the  Social  Security  Board  be- 
fore the  States  can  receive  the 
federal  benefits. 

Provisions  of  the  act  relating 
to  unemployment  compensation 
call  for  a  tax  on  pay  rolls — 1  per 
cent  with  respect  to  employment 
during  1936,  2  per  cent  with  re- 
spect to  employment  during  1937, 
and  3  per  cent  for  subsequent 
years — of  all  employers  of  eight 
or  more  persons  for  twenty  weeks 
or  more.  Excepted  from  this  tax 
are  agricultural  labor,  domestic 
service  in  a  private  home,  certain 
maritime  employment,  service  in 
the-  employ  of  the  United  States 
Government  or  State  govern- 
ments, or  their  instrumentalities 
or  political  subdivisions  ;  service 
performed  for  certain  very  close 
relatives,  and  for  religious,  char- 
itable, scientific,  literary,  and  ed- 
ucational institutions  of  a  non- 
profit nature.  Revenue  from  the 
tax  will  be  available  for  the  gen- 
eral purposes  of  the  Federal 
Government. 

However,  each  employer  may 
credit  against  this  Federal  tax, 
up  to  90  per  cent  thereof,  his 
contributions  to  a  State  unem- 
ployment compensation  fund  es- 
tablished in  accordance  with  a 
State  law  duly  approved  by  the 
SSB.  This  means  that  a  State 
which  has  passed  an  unemploy- 
ment compensation  law  is  enabled 
to  withdraw  nine-tenths  of  the 


pay-roll  tax  for  its  own  unem- 
ployed, by  collecting  it  as  con- 
tributions under  its  own  law.  in- 
stead of  letting  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment collect  it  as  a  tax.  The 
administration  of  the  State  law, 
moreover,  if  efficient,  will  not 
cost  the  State  anything,  for  this 
expense  will  be  borne  by  the 
Federal  Government.  Obvious- 
ly too  a  State  which  promptly 
passes  its  own  compensation  law 
will  not  be  at  any  competitive 
disadvantage  with  States  which 
have  not  yet  done  so,  for  the  pay 
rolls  of  employers  in  those  States 
will  be  subject  to  the  full  Fed- 
eral tax. 

In  most  States  having  unem- 
ployment compensation  laws,  pro- 
vision has  been  made  for  benefit 
payments  to  begin  in  1938,  in  the 
remaining  States, by  1939.  These* 
benefits  usually  run  from  a  mini- 
mum of  $5  a  week  to  a  general 
maximum  of  $15  a  week,  over  a 
period  of  from  twelve  to  sixteen 
weeks  a  year.  A  jobless  worker 
will  first  present  himself  for  re- 
employment, then,  if  no  position 
is  available,  will  be  eligible  for 
benefits.  . 

Old-Age  Assistance, — The 
Social  Security  Act  provides  two 
systems  for  aiding  the  aged.  One 
is  designed  to  help  the  States  to 
furnish  immediate  assistance  on 
a  basis  of  need  ;  the  other  to  pro- 
vide annuities  in  the  future  to 
persons  past  the  age  of  65,  based 
on  their  wage  experience.  The 
two  plans  are  complementary,  as 
follows  :  A  State  may  submit  to 
the  Social  Security  Board  for 
approval  its  plan  for  old-age  as- 
sistance, and  when  it  has  been 
approved  the  State  receives  from 
the  Federal  Government  an 
amount  equal  to  one-half  the  sum 
expended  by  the  State  for  old- 
age  assistance  with  respect  to  in- 
dividuals of  65  years  or  older 
who  are  not  inmates  of  public 
institutions.  In  other  words,  for 
each  dollar  the  State  spends  for 
old-age  assistance  the  Federal 
Government  contributes  another 
dollar,  but  it  does  not  contribute 
more  than  $15  per  month  for 
any  individual.  Furthermore, 
the  Federal  Government  also 
pays  for  administrative  expenses 
an  amount  equal  to  5  per  cent  of 
the  sum  granted  to  the  State. 

Under  the  other,  annuity,  plan, 
regular  benefits  are  paid  to  quali- 
fied individuals  as  a  matter  of 
right  out  of  an  'old-age  reserve 
account'  set  up  in  the  Federal 
Treasury.  To  be  qualified  an  in- 
dividual must  be  at  least  65  vears 
of  age,  have  received  total  wages 


Social  Security  KSH  2 


with  respect  to  employment  after 
December  31,  1936,  and  before 
attaining  the  age  of  65,  of  not 
less  than  $2,000,  and  must  have 
been  employed  for  at  least  one 
day  in  each  of  five  different  cal- 
endar years  after  December  31, 
1936,  before  reaching  the  age  of 
65  years. 

Certain  wages  are  not  included 
in  the  designated  'wages'  on 
which  benefits  are  based.  These 
excepted  wages  include  wages 
received  for  agricultural  labor  ; 
from  self-employment ;  for  do- 
mestic service  in  a  private  home  ; 
casual  labor  ;  service  on  a  vessel 
documented  under  the  laws  of 
the  United  States  or  any  foreign 
country  ;  service  for  Federal  or 
State  Governments  or  their  po- 
litical subdivisions  or  instrumen- 
talities ;  service  in  the  employ  of 
a  carrier  as  defined  in  the  Rail- 
road Retirement  Act  of  1935  ; 
and  service  for  non-profit  reli- 
gious, literary,  scientific,  chari- 
table, educational,  and  hvTmane 
organizations.  Also  not  counted 
as  such  'wages'  is  that  part  of  an 
individual's  remuneration  in  ex- 
cess of  $3,000  per  year  from 
each  employer. 

The  monthly  retirement  bene- 
fits for  those  eligible  will  begin 
in  1942  and  will  be  paid  to  them 
as  long  as  they  live.  The  bene- 
fits will  range  from  a  minimum 
of  $10  per  month  to  a  maximum 
of  $85  per  month.  They  are 
based  on  total  wages  received 
after  December  31,  1936,  and 
before  the  worker  becomes  65 
years  of  age,  in  covered  employ- 
ments (not  counting  wages  in 
excess  of  $3,000  annually  from 
a  single  employer),  at  the  fol- 
lowing rates  :  on  the  first  $3,000 
of  total  wages,  one-half  per  cent 
will  be  paid  as  the  monthly  rate 
of  benefit ;  on  the  next  $42,000, 
one-twelfth  per  cent ;  and  on  that 
part  of  total  wages  over  $45,000, 
one-twenty-fourth  per  cent. 

Lump-sum  payments  will  be 
made  to  individuals  who  reach 
the  age  of  65  but  do  not  qual- 
ify for  monthly  benefits.  The 
amount  paid  them  will  equal  3  ^ 
per  cent  of  their  total  wages  as 
defined  in  the  act.  The  estate 
of  an  individual  who  dies  after 
reaching  the  age  of  65  is  entitled 
to  3  ^  per  cent  of  the  total  wages 
paid  to  him  with  respect  to  em- 
ployment (as  defined  in  the  act) 
subsequent  to  December  31, 
1936,  less  the  amount  of  old-age 
benefits  actually  paid  to  him  dur- 
ing his  life.  Death  payments  of 
3  IS/2  per  cent  of  total  wages  (as 
defined)  are  made  not  only  to  the 
estates  of  qualified  individuals 
but  also  to  the  estates  of  those 
who  have  earned  some  money  in 
the  included  employments,  with- 
out having  worked  long  enough 
or  earned  enough  to  become 
'qualified.'     A   person  qualified 


to  receive  benefits  who  continues 
to  work  after  reaching  the  age 
of  65  sacrifices  the  benefits  only 
dviring  the  months  in  which  he 
is  employed.  In  order  that  old- 
age  benefits  can  be  paid  by  the 
United  States  Treasury,  the  So- 
cial Security  Board  has  iDeen  giv- 
en the  responsibility  of  deter- 
mining the  total  wages  of  those 
individuals  entitled  to  receive 
benefits.  Application  forms,  ac- 
cordingly, have  been  distributed 
through  the  post  office  depart- 
ment so  that  the  board  may  set 
up  individual,  numbered  ac- 
counts. 

For  the  purpose  of  raising 
money  to  pay  the  old-age  benefits 
the  Social  Security  Act  imposes 
two  taxes,  one  on  employers,  the 
other  on  employees.  The  former 
is  applicable  to  all  employers, 
regardless  of  the  number  of  their 
employees,  with  the  exception  of 
governmental  units  and  instru- 
mentalities, railroads,  and  non- 
profit religious,  literary,  scien- 
tific, charitable,  educational,  and 
humane  organizations,  and  with 
the  further  exception  of  certain 
types  of  employment,  including 
agricultural  labor,  casual  labor, 
domestic  service  in  a  private 
home,  and  employment  as  an  of- 
ficer or  member  of  the  crew  of 
a  vessel.  The  tax  is  to  be  based 
on  the  employer's  total  pay  roll, 
including  executive  salaries  and 
remuneration  paid  in  any  me- 
dium in  addition  to  cash.  Cer- 
tain deductions,  however,  are  au- 
thorized, notably  wages  paid  to 
persons  65  years  of  age  or  older, 
and  that  part  of  remuneration  in 
excess  of  $3,000  per  year  paid 
to  any  individual. 

The  initial  rate  of  the  tax, 
covering  employment  during  the 
years  1937,  1938,  and  1939,  is 
fixed  at  1  per  cent.  The  rate  is 
increased  by  one-half  of  1  per 
cent  with  respect  to  employment 
during  each  subsequent  three- 
year  period,  until  a  maximum 
rate  of  3  per  cent  is  reached,  ap- 
plicable to  employment  after  De- 
cember 31,  1948. 

The  tax  on  employees  is  iden- 
tical in  amount  and  application 
with  the  excise  tax  on  employers. 
The  tax  on  employees,  moreover, 
is  to  be  deducted  by  the  employ- 
ers from  wages  when  paid,  and 
to  be  turned  over  to  the  Treas- 
ury under  regulations  of  the  bu- 
reau of  internal  revenue. 

Public  Assistance, — The  Se- 
curity Act  also  provides  for  Fed- 
eral grants-in-aid  to  the  States, 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  State 
revenues  are  insufficient  to  as- 
sure the  protection  of  the  aged, 
the  blind,  and  dependent  chil- 
dren. Under  the  head  of  Secur- 
ity for  Children  the  act  provides 
for  grants  to  States  ( 1 )  to  assist 
in  meeting  the  costs  of  aid  to 
dependent     children  (mothers' 


aid)  ;  (2)  to  help  States  meet  the 
costs  of  maternal  and  child- 
health  services,  especially  in 
rural  areas  ;  (3)  to  help  meet  the 
costs  of  medical  care  and  other 
services  for  crippled  children ; 
and  (4)  to  assist  in  meeting  the 
expenses  for  the  protection  and 
care  of  homeless,  dependent,  and 
neglected  children,  and  children 
in  danger  of  becoming  delin- 
quent, primarily  in  rural  areas. 

Appropriations  were  also 
made  to  help  the  States  furnish 
financial  assistance  to  needy 
blind  persons.  The  Federal 
Government  contributes  one-half 
the  amount  expended  with  re- 
spect to  each  blind  person,  not  an 
inmate  of  a  public  institution,  by 
a  State  that  has  a  plan  which  has 
been  approved  by  the  SSB,  but 
Federal  aid  is  limited  to  $15  per 
month  plus  5  per  cent  to  the 
State  for  administrative  pur- 
poses. With  regard  to  public- 
health  services,  grants  were  pro- 
vided for  extending  State  health 
services  and  for  the  prevention 
of  sickness.  Likewise  grants-in- 
aid  to  the  States  were  provided  to 
strengthen  the  vocational  reha- 
bilitation program. 

Two  Years*  Progress, — 
Within  two  years  after  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Social  Security  Act 
substantial  progress  had  been 
made  towards  putting  its  provi- 
sions into  effect.  Every  State  of 
the  Union,  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, Alaska,  and  Hawaii,  had 
passed  an  unemployment  com- 
pensation law  which  received  the 
approval  of  the  SSB.  About 
21,000,000  workers  were  en- 
gaged in  occupations  covered  by 
these  laws.  By  September  30, 
1937,  moreover,  about  34,000,- 
000  social  security  account  num- 
bers had  been  assigned  to  appli- 
cants for  participation  in  the 
Federal  old-age  benefits  program. 
The  SSB  had  approved  50  plans 
for  old-age  assistance,  37  plans 
for  aid  to  the  blind,  and  39  for 
aid  to  dependent  children.  Dur- 
ing October,  almost  2,000,000 
persons  were  receiving  cash  pay- 
ments under  these  plans,  out  of 
Federal,  State  and  local  funds — 
about  1,469,700  needy  old  peo- 
ple. 39,000  needy  blind,  and  487,- 
500  dependent  children.  To 
critics  of  the  Security  Act  who 
asked  for  greater  coverage — to 
include,  notably,  domestic  and 
agricultural  workers — the  SSB 
pointed  out  the  huge  administra- 
tive difficulties  involved.  It  was 
hoped,  nevertheless,  that  these 
could  eventually  be  surmounted. 

In  a  series  of  decisions  in  May, 
1937,  the  Supreme  Court  upheld 
the  Social  Security  Act.  The 
unemployment  provision  was  val- 
idated by  a  5-4  vote,  old-age 
benefits  by  a  7-2  decision,  and 
supporting  State  laws  were  ap- 
proved by  a  5-4  vote. 


Social  Settlements  KSH 


283 


Social  Settlements 


ciety  for  Ethical  Culture,  car- 
ried on  for  four  decades  what 
amounts  to  a  people's  university 
in  methods  of  democratic  action. 
Mary  K.  Simkhovitch  stimulated 
local  organization  and  social  and 
civic  institutions  with  the  result 
that  the  area  in  which  she  worked 
is  one  of  the  most  nearly  ade- 
quately served  in  the  city.  Elea- 
nor McMain  of  Kingsley  House, 
New  Orleans,  and  Frances  In- 
gram in  Louisville,  Kentucky, 
profoundly  influenced  the  course 
of  social  work  in  their  respective 
cities  and  States.  Today  there 
is  a  vigorous  group  of  younger 
leaders  taking  active  part  in  lo- 
cal and  national  enterprises  and 
movements. 

Method. — Settlement  work- 
ers are  opportunists  in  their  at- 
tack on  the  local  problems.  Kin- 
dergartens, playgrounds,  provi- 
sion for  health  services,  sanita- 
tion, garbage  collection  and  a 
wide  gamut  of  services  engaged 
their  attention.  The  fact  that 
the  outstanding  settlement  work- 
ers have  had  long  tenure  of  of- 
fice has  given  them  the  opportu- 
nity to  know  their  neighbors  in 
all  sorts  of  circumstances,  in  ad- 
versity and  prosperity.  Its  pro- 
gram is  not  static  but  evolution- 
ary, changing  to  meet  the  new 
situations  and  conditions  as  de- 
veloped. Members  of  the  resi- 
dent group,  the  stafif,  the  board 
of  directors,  form  many  varying 
relationships,  both  formal  and 
informal,  with  the  neighborhood. 
Home  visiting  and  neighborhood 
studies,  as  w^ell  as  the  requests  of 
the  neighbors,  have  been  the  ba- 
sis for  work  to  be  undertaken. 
Cooperation  with  the  neighbors, 
organized  or  unorganized,  has 
brought  about  local  improve- 
ments. 

The  settlement  was  much  in- 
fluenced by  the  early  parish  and 
mission  work  of  the  churches, 
and  these  in  turn  have  taken 
much  from thesettlements.  Many 
of  the  leaders  in  the  movement 
were  trained  for  the  ministry. 
Their  experience  in  neighbor- 
hoods divided  into  competing 
faiths  and  sects  convinced  them 
that  the  settlement,  in  order  not 
to  be  a  further  divisive  element, 
must  be  wholly  secular  and  a 
comfortable  common  meeting 
ground  for  representatives  of  all 
races,  creeds,  social  and  political 
groups.  The  typical  settlement 
is  a  secular  center  devoted  to  the 
civic,  social,  educational  and  cul- 
tural needs  and  interests  of  the 
neighborhood,  relying  on  the  lo- 
cal churches  to  meet  the  religious 
needs  of  the  people.  In  every 
way  possible,  it  seeks  to  strength- 
en the  popular  front.  The  pio- 
neer settlements  made  common 
cause  with  the  trade  unions  in 
their  efforts  to  organize  and  to 
secure   laws   safeguarding  life, 


health  and  better  wages.  They 
carried  on  investigations  into 
conditions  of  work  in  homes  and 
factories  and  hours  and  rates  of 
pay.  The  Child  Labor  Move- 
ment and  the  Women's  Trade 
Union  League  were  incubated  in 
settlements. 

Activities. — The  one  activity 
which  has  become  common  to  all 
settlements  consists  in  promot- 
ing association  between  individ- 
uals and  groups  as  a  means  of 
increasing  the  ability  of  work- 
ing people  to  participate  in  pub- 
lic action.  The  club,  a  free  form 
of  association  for  social  purpos- 
es, is  a  peculiarly  flexible  in- 
strument to  hold  the  like-minded. 
It  provides  an  avenue  for  the 
introduction  of  new  ideas,  experi- 
ences and  responsibilities  which 
are  consistent  with  the  age  and 
experience  of  the  group.  The  in- 
stinct for  young  people  to  form 
cliques  and  gangs  is  turned  to 
positive  values.  Age  and  inter- 
est groupings  are  found  more  ef- 
fective in  the  earlier  years  and 
there  is  a  wide  variety  of  experi- 
mentation in  program  and  meth- 
od carried  on  in  settlements. 

Union  Settlement,  New  York, 
bases  its  work  for  children  un- 
der 13  on  the  project  method, 
organizing  both  boys  and  girls 
in  age  groups  and  giving  each 
group  a  chance  to  participate  in 
many  different  activities  directed 
to  a  central  theme.  Bronx  House, 
New  York,  plans  a  five-day  pro- 
gram for  each  child  to  give  a 
well-rounded  experience  based 
on  a  variety  of  interests.  In  the 
older  groups  the  club  formation 
is  generally  followed.  A  council 
composed  of  delegates  from  each 
club  has  responsibility  for  defi- 
nite activities  in  the  house  and 
in  many  cases  makes  general 
rules  for  conduct  and  assumes 
certain  financial  responsibilities. 
Lenox  Hill  Neighborhood  Asso- 
ciation has  a  general  membership 
plan  for  all  the  participants  in 
house  activities  by  which  the 
membership  is_  the  responsible 
group  for  decisions  as  to  the  use 
of  rooms,  activities  to  be  carried 
on  and  their  conduct,  and  also 
raises  a  substantial  amount  to- 
ward the  general  budget.  In 
Chicago,  the  Eli  Bates  House 
has  organized  the  parents  to  help 
in  planning  and  carrying  on  the 
work  for  children. 

Women's  clubs  have  been  one 
of  the  main  interests  of  all  set- 
tlements. Programs  vary  from 
the  purely  social  to  well-devel- 
oped courses  in  home  making,  par- 
ent education,  the  simple  ameni- 
ties of  social  life,  and  prepara- 
tion for  civic  action.  Many 
houses  have  experimented  in  adult 
education  through  forums  and 
discussion  groups,  using  methods 
devised  to  suit  the  interests  of 
the  particular  groups  involved. 


The  'free  floor'  of  Chicago  Com- 
mons has  had  a  notable  experi- 
ence in  presenting  all  points  of 
view  on  controversial  issues. 
The  teaching  of  English  to  new- 
ly arrived  immigrants  was  one 
of  the  earliest  activities  of  the 
settlement,  and  has  now  been 
largely  turned  over  to  the  pub- 
lic schools.  At  the  present  time, 
teachers  are  provided  by  public 
agencies  for  the  classes  still  held 
in  settlements  which  furnish  a 
comfortable  atmosphere,  small 
classes  and  some  social  life  for 
the  older  immigrant  who  has  not 
yet  learned  to  speak,  read  or 
write  English.  Such  classes  are 
avenues  for  teaching  simple  eco- 
nomics and  lead  to  citizenship, 
which  has  become  more  impor- 
tant due  to  changes  in  public 
welfare  policies  and  the  social 
security  program. 

Art  and  music,  drama  and  the 
dance,  athletic  and  sociability 
make  up  an  important  share  of 
the  settlement  program  because 
these  services  are  nowhere  ade- 
quately provided  for  in  city  com- 
munities. A  high  standard  of 
work  has  been  maintained  in  each 
of  these  several  departments  of 
culture.  Certain  houses  have 
established  highly  specialized  cul- 
tural institutions,  such  as  music 
and  art  schools,  little  theatres 
and  schools  of  dance  which  are 
outstanding  educational  institu- 
tions for  working  class  people 
with  a  national  and  international 
standing.  In  excellence  of  teach- 
ing, range  of  opportunity  offered 
and  results  obtained,  they  rank 
with  the  country's  major  institu- 
tions. For  that  very  large  pro- 
portion of  children  and  young 
people  without  any  very  definite 
interests  and  abilities,  which  is 
one  of  the  major  social  problems 
of  all  great  cities,  a  range  of  so- 
cial and  recreational  opportuni- 
ties are  provided. 

Many  settlements  have  a  de- 
partment of  family  service  which 
is  prepared  to  answer  questions 
aijd  to  make  connections  with 
agencies  where  aid  or  relief  or 
specialized  services  may  be  ob- 
tained. Material  relief  is  kept  to 
the  minimum,  but  the  settlement 
must  be  ready  to  meet  a  wide 
variety  of  situations  which  arise 
in  any  given  community.  The 
requests  which  come  to  the  set- 
tlement often  give  the  clue  to 
gaps  in  the  city's  services,  such 
as  the  general  relief  program, 
which  can  be  brovight  to  the  at- 
tention of  those  responsible  for 
the  program  on  the  basis  of  the 
evidence  secured. 

Settlements  were  among  the 
first  to  bring  city  children  into 
contact  with  the  pleasures  of  the 
country,  not  primarily  as  a  health 
measure,  but  for  the  joy  of  the 
experience  itself.  An  increasing 
number  of  settlements  own  or 


Social  Settlements 


283  A 


Social  Work 


operate  large  country  properties 
and  others  take  advantage  of 
State  and  national  parks  which 
offer  camping  facilities.  Play 
schools,  supervised  vacation  play- 
grounds, day  camps  and  excur- 
sions are  provided  for  children 
who  cannot  leave  the  city.  Set- 
tlements have  consistently  urged 
for  more  than  half  a  century  that 
such  a  program  under  competent 
leadership  be  provided  under 
municipal  auspices.  The  various 
'center'  movements  have  taken 
up  aspects  of  the  settlement's 
program  but  have  lacked  its  con- 
tinuity of  effort. 

Institutional  Advances. — 
Among  recent  notable  institu- 
tional buildings  secured  by  set- 
tlements are  Kingsley  House, 
New  Orleans,  whose  plant  cov- 
ers a  whole  city  block ;  Green- 
wich House,  Christodora  House, 
Lenox  Hill  Neighborhood  Asso- 
ciation in  New  York ;  Irene 
Kaufmann  Settlement  in  Pitts- 
burgh ;  Tau  Beta  Community 
House,  Hamtramck,  Michigan. 
During  the  depression  houses 
have  suffered  through  curtail- 
ment of  income  from  invested 
funds  and  from  gifts,  though 
many  of  them  were  aided  by  re- 
lief labor  to  repair  and  renovate 
buildings  and  equipment. 

Settlement  Associations, — 
The  need  for  exchange  of  ex- 
perience as  well  as  for  concerted 
action  very  early  brought  about 
the  formation  of  federations. 
The  Chicago  Association  of  Set- 
tlements, organized  in  1894,  was 
city-wide.  The  United  Neigh- 
borhood Houses  of  New  York 
(1900)  has  taken  a  leading  part 
in  housing  legislation  and  in  all 
lines  of  civic  endeavor  for  a  bet- 
ter and  more  serviceable  city. 
Similar  associations  in  Boston, 
Cleveland,  Philadelphia,  Colum- 
bus, Detroit,  Minneapolis  and  St. 
Pavil,  and  Washington,  D.  C,  are 
associated  with  the  National 
Federation  of  Settlements,  which 
was  founded  in  1911. 

The  first  attempt  to  bring  to- 
gether representatives  of  settle- 
ments from  all  over  the  world 
was  made  in  1922  at  Toynbee 
Hall,  London.  Subsequent  in- 
ternational conferences  have  been 
held  by  the  International  Asso- 
ciation of  Settlements  which 
serves  as  a  link  between  national 
federations. 

Studies  and  Legislation, — 
Individual  settlement  workers  as 
well  as  the  federations  have 
joined  with  other  agencies  in  ef- 
forts for  minimum  wage  legisla- 
tion, old-age  pensions,  limitation 
of  hours  of  employment,  abolish- 
ment of  child  labor  and  for  use 
of  government  subsidies  for  low 
rental  housing.  In  1928  the  Na- 
tional Federation  of  Settlements 
organized  a  Committee  on  Un- 
employment to  bring  together  the 


increasing  evidence  of  mass  un- 
employment. From  this  evidence 
two  books  were  published  :  Some 
Folk  Won't  Work  and  Case 
Studies  of  Unemployment.  In 
1930  the  testimony  from  these 
studies  was  used  in  legislative 
hearings  on  the  Wagner  bills  to 
provide  public  works,  precise  in- 
formation on  unemployment  and 
establishment  of  an  Employment 
Service. 

Recent  Trends, — The  plight 
of  their  neighbors  under  the  de- 
pression led  the  settlements  to 
help  the  unemployed  put  their 
needs  before  the  public  and  to 
organize  to  secure  more  adequate 
relief  measures  and  administra- 
tion. Previous  experience  in 
adult  education  and  the  need  for 
workers  to  understand  their  own 
situation  led  the  settlements  to 
further  workers'  education 
classes  in  cooperation  with  the 
Federal  program.  Another  in- 
terest which  has  been  stimulated 
by  government  interest  has  been 
the  development  of  credit  unions. 
Elizabeth  Peabody  House  and 
North  Bennet  Street  Industrial 
School  in  Boston  have  had  suc- 
cessful credit  unions  in  opera- 
tion for  sixteen  years. 

Substantial  contributions  have 
been  made  to  settlement  pro- 
grams notably  under  the  Federal 
Art,  Music  and  Recreation  Proj- 
ects. The  relief  organization 
supplied  personnel,  often  highly 
competent,  though  varying  great- 
ly in  ability.  The  fact  that  im- 
migration has  stopped  to  a  large 
extent  has  greatly  influenced  the 
work  of  the  settlements.  The 
population  does  not  change  so 
frequently,  and  the  older  young 
people  and  adults  are  taking  a 
much  more  active  part  than  in 
the  days  when  settlements  dealt 
largely  with  a  non-English  speak- 
ing group. 

Consult  Jane  Addams,  Tzvcnty 
Years  at  Hull- Ho  use  (1910); 
idem,  The  Second  Tzventy  Years 
at  Hull-House  (1930);  Lillian 
D.  Wald,  House  on  Henry  Street 
(1915)  ;  idem,  Windows  on 
Henry  Street  (1934)  ;  Janet  D. 
Sclienck,  Music,  Youth  and  Op- 
portunity :  A  Survey  of  Settle- 
ment and  Community  Music 
Schools  (1926);  H.  E.  Wilson, 
M  ary     McDowell,  Neighbor 

(1928)  ;  Esther  Barrows,  Neigh- 
bors All :  A  Settlement  Notebook 

(1929)  ;  Eleanor  H.  Woods, 
Robert  A.  Woods:  Champion  of 
Democracy  (1929);  G.  Taylor, 
Pioneering  oti  Social  Frontiers 

(1930)  j  A.  J.  Kennedy  and 
Kathryn  Farra,  Social  Settle- 
ments in  New  York  City  (1935)  ; 
J.  M.  Kingman  and  E.  Sidman, 
editors,  A  Manual  of  Settlement 
Boys'  Work  (1935);  Mary 
Simkhovitch,  The  Settlement 
Primer :  A  Handbook  for  Neigh- 
borhood Workers  (1936)  ;  Gay- 


nell  Hawkins,  Educational  Ex- 
periments in  Social  Settlements 
(1937). 

LiLLiE  M.  Peck, 

Secretary,  National  Federation 
of  Settlements,  Inc. 

Social  War  (90-88  b.c), 
known  also  as  the  Marsian  War, 
a  conflict  between  Rome  and  her 
Italian  allies,  principally  those  of 
the  Sabellian  race,  instituted  as 
a  revolt  following  the  murder  of 
M.  Livius  Drusus,  who  had  long 
endeavored  to  obtain  citizenship 
for  the  Italians.  The  rebels 
founded  a  new  State,  known  as 
Italia,  selected  as  its  capital  Cor- 
finium,  which  they  renamed  Ital- 
ica,  and  adopted  as  their  aim  the 
conquest  of  all  Italy.  In  the 
desperate  fighting  which  ensued 
the  Italians  were  so  successful 
that,  toward  the  end  of  the  first 
year,  the  consul  Lucius  Julius 
Caesar  offered  citizenship  to  all 
those  who  had  remained  faithful 
to  Rome  or  who  would  return  to 
her  allegiance.  These  conces- 
sions so  weakened  the  revolt  that 
in  88  B.C.  the  Romans  were  easily 
victorious.  As  a  result  of  the 
struggle,  the  Italians  gained  the 
coveted  right  of  citizenship  and 
a  measure  of  self-government  for 
their  towns. 

Social  Work,  a  general  term 
covering  a  wide  range  of  activi- 
ties designed  to  meet  and  solve, 
so  far  as  may  be,  the  problems 
of  poverty,  disease,  crime,  and 
other  abnormal  social  conditions. 
It  includes  the  care  of  criminals, 
dependent  children,  the  physi- 
cally and  mentally  defective,  and 
the  aged  poor,  as  well  as  efforts 
directed  toward  the  improvement 
of  social  conditions  with  a  view 
to  the  prevention  of  crime,  pov- 
erty, and  disease.  As  generally 
accepted,  it  does  not  include  the 
activities  of  the  church  (with  the 
exception  of  the  institutional 
church),  the  various  governmen- 
tal undertakings  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  individual,  or  the 
work  of  such  associations  as 
trade  unions,  professional  or 
business  organizations,  mutual 
benefit  associations  and  other 
organizations  of  a  co-operative 
character. 

Social  work,  in  its  elements  at 
least,  is  as  old  as  society  itself. 
Its  recognition  as  a  definite  pro- 
fession belongs  to  the  twentieth 
century.  As  carried  on  in  Amer- 
ica, it  may  be  classified,  accord- 
ing to  the  methods  employed,  as 
(1)  case  work,  that  is,  assistance 
rendered  immediately  to  the  in- 
dividual or  family,  as  by  child 
placing  agencies,  probation  offi- 
cers, and  social  service  depart- 
ments of  hospitals  ;  (2)  institu- 
tional organization  and  admin- 
istration, including  homes  for 
dependent  children,  almshouses, 
hospitals,  penal  institutions  and 
reformatories;    (3)  educational 


Societies 


KSH 


283  B 


Society  Islands 


work,  such  as  that  carried  on  by 
social  settlements  and  similar  or- 
ganizations ;  and  (4)  the  organ- 
ization of  community  resources. 

Consult  M.  F.  Byington,  IVhat 
Social  Workers  Should  Know 
about  Their  Ozvn  Community 
(1924);  A.  S.  Cheney,  Nature 
and    Scope    of    Social  Work 

(1926)  ;  W.  J.  Norton,  Coopera- 
tive Movement  in  Social  Work 

(1927)  ;  M.  J.  Karpf,  Scientific 
Bases  of  Social  Work  (1931); 
R.  Niebuhr,  Contribution  of  Re- 
ligion to  Social  Work  (1932); 
and  P.  Klein  and  R.  Voris,  SoMe 
Basic  Statistics  in  Social  Work 
(1933). 

Societies,  associations  of  in- 
dividuals formed  for  some  par- 
ticular object,  with  the  idea  that 
united  action  for  a  common  end 
is  more  effective  than  such  action 
undertaken  individually.  Group 
organization  dates  from  very 
early  times.  The  cults  of  prim- 
itive peoples,  secret  and  religious 
in  character,  may  be  said  to  mark 
the  beginning  of  societies,  and 
the  idea  therein  contained  was 
further  developed  through  the 
centuries  until,  with  the  spread 
of  Christianity,  associations  or 
societies  fulfilled  a  multitude  of 
purposes.  Typical  are  the  Hos- 
pitallers (q.  v.),  originated  in 
Palestine  in  the  eleventh  century 
for  the  purpose  of  succoring 
Christian  pilgrims  visiting  the 
Holy  Sepulchre ;  the  Fratres 
Pontifices  or  Bridge-Building 
Brotherhoods,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  construct  and  care  for  bridges 
and  ferries  that  travelers  might 
not  be  forced  to  pay  exorbitant 
tolls;  the  Templars  (q.  v.),  a 
military  order  established  in  1119 
to  defend  pilgrims  against  Sara- 
cen attacks  on  their  way  to  the 
holy  places ;  and  the  Jesuits 
(q.  v.),  founded  by  Ignatius 
Loyola  in  1534  to  maintain  and 
spread  the  Catholic  faith. 

Secret  societies  with  purely 
political  aims  are  of  a  later  date ; 
these  include  such  organizations 
as  the  Cordelier  Club  and  the 
Jacobins  (()q.  v.)  of  the  period  of 
the  French  Revolution,  and  other 
organizations  that  have  played 
important  roles  in  history. 

Scientific  and  learned  societies 
originated  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, the  Royal  Society  of  Great 
Britain,  founded  in  1660  and 
granted  a  royal  charter  in  1662, 
being  the  forerunner  of  a  vast 
number  of  organizations  that 
have  made  most  important  con- 
tributions to  science,  art,  and 
literature. 

In  the  United  States,  almost 
from  the  beginning  men  and 
women  have  appreciated  the  val- 
ue of  combination  in  order  to 
achieve  results,  and  organizations 
have  flourished  and  multiplied  to 
include  such  varied  groups  as 
scientific,     historical,  patriotic. 


fraternal,  religious,  and  labor  so- 
cieties. 

The  first  general  scientific  so- 
ciety organized  in  the  United 
States  was  the  American  Philo- 
sophical Society  which,  through 
the  efforts  of  Benjamin  Franklin, 
was  founded  in  Philadelphia  in 
1743.  The  American  Academy 
of  Arts  and  Sciences  was  or- 
ganized in  Boston  in  1780,  and 
since  that  time  numerous  organi- 
zations of  scientists  have  been 
formed,  botanists,  chemists,  ge- 
ologists, mathematicians,  phys- 
icists and  similar  groups  having 
th_eir  own  societies  ;  while  organi- 
zations of  civil,  electrical,  me- 
chanical, chemical  and  mining 
engineers  represent  the  applied 
sciences. 

Of  historical  societies,  the 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society 
founded  in  1791,  and  the  New 
York  Historical  Society,  organ- 
ized in  1804,  are  the  oldest.  Pa- 
triotic societies,  which  really  con- 
stitute a  type  of  historical  organ- 
ization, are  associated  with  prac- 
tically every  period  of  American 
history,  their  object  being  the 
celebration  of  anniversaries  of 
important  events  and  the  foster- 
ing of  fraternal  feeling  among 
the  survivors  of  wars  and  their 
descendants.  The  oldest  of  such 
organizations  is  the  Society  of 
the  Cincinnati  (q.  v.).  The 
Greenwich  Village  Historical  So- 
ciety of  New  York  City,  founded 
in  1922  by  Catherine  Parker 
Clivette,  promotes  Americanism 
by  commemorating  historic 
Americans  and  events.  One  of 
recent  origin  is  the  American 
Legion^  the  national  organization 
of  veterans  of  the  World  War. 

The  introduction  of  the  Ma- 
sonic Order  in  Pennsylvania  as 
early  as  1730  marks  the  begin- 
ning of  fraternal  organization  in 
the  United  States.  In  1735  there 
were  lodges  in  about  six  leading 
cities  of  America.  College  Fra- 
ternities, or  Greek  Letter  Soci- 
eties, begin  with  the  founding,  on 
Dec.  5,  1776,  at  the  College  o'f 
William  and  Mary,  in  Virginia, 
of  Phi  Beta  Kappa,  a  secret  so- 
ciety, whose  general  purpose  was 
social  enjoyment  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  literature.  Such  organ- 
izations have  spread  until  they 
form  an  important  part  of  Amer- 
ican college  life. 

Early  among  religious  organi- 
zations in  the  United  States  was 
the  Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation (q.  v.),  introduced  first 
in  Boston  on  Dec.  29,  1851. 
From  this  point  the  movement 
spread  to  other  cities.  The 
Young  Women's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation (q.  V.)  began  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  1866.  On  similar  reli- 
gious lines  were  organized  the 
Young  Men's  and  Young  Wo- 
men's Hebrew  Associations. 

Labor  organizations  originated 


in  the  form  of  trade  unions,  one 
of  the  earliest  of  which  was  the 
Typographical  Society,  formed 
in  New  York  City  in  1793,  for 
the  consideration  of  trade  condi- 
tions and  wage  scales.  The  idea 
came  to  be  national  in  scope,  and 
a  beginning  toward  such  compre- 
hensive trade  organizations  as 
exist  to-day  was  made  by  the 
foundation,  in  1852,  of  the  Na- 
tional Typographical  Union.  In 
opposition  to  the  principle  of 
trade  exclusiveness,  advocated  by 
the  various  trade  unions,  the 
Knights  of  Labor  (q.  v.)  was 
founded  in  1869,  admitting  to 
membership  employers,  women, 
and  unskilled  laborers. 

A  detailed  treatment  of  the 
field  covered  by  the  various 
groups  of  societies  mentioned  and 
of  that  of  each  society  involved 
in  these  groups  is  impossible  in 
this  article.  The  reader  is  re- 
ferred, therefore,  to  the  articles 
dealing  with  groups  of  societies 
and  with  certain  of  the  outstand- 
ing individual  organizations  as 
well. 

Societies  for  Ethical  Cul- 
ture. The  first  of  these  societies 
was  organized  in  New  York  City 
in  1876  by  Dr.  Felix  Adler  and 
his  associates,  for  the  purpose  of 
elevating  the  doctrine  and  prac- 
tice of  ethics  to  a  position  of  su- 
premacy in  men's  conduct  of  life 
and  to  free  the  moral  law  from 
d&pendence  on  religious  or  theo- 
logical beliefs.  The  New  York 
society  has  been  followed  by  the 
organization  of  societies  in 
American  and  foreign  cities. 
The  American  societies  are  con- 
cerned chiefly  with  social  relief, 
education,  and  moral  enlighten- 
ment. The  New  York  society 
maintains  a  large  educational  in- 
stitution, the  Ethical  Culture 
School,  and  vocational  groups  of 
businessmen,  lawyers,  physi- 
cians, etc.,  to  study  the  applica- 
tion of  ethical  principles  to  their 
profession. 

Society  Islands,  a  small  ar- 
chipelago in  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
belonging  to  France.  It  lies  be- 
tween 16°  and  18°  s.  lat.  and  148° 
and  155°  w.  long.,  about  2,000 
miles  northeast  of  New  Zealand. 
The  archipelago  consists  of  two 
groups  of  islands,  the  Windward 
and  Leeward,  the  most  important 
islands  being  Tahiti,  the  largest 
of  the  archipelago,  Eimeo  or 
Moorea,  Raiatia,  and  Tahaa. 
The  entire  area  is  about  650 
square  miles.  The  islands  are 
composed  of  volcanic  rock,  are 
mountainous  and  well-wooded, 
and  are  generally  encircled  by 
coral  reefs  ;  along  the  shores  are 
low-lying  belts  of  fertile  soil. 
The  climate  is  hot  and  moist  but 
not  unhealthy.  Coconuts,  or- 
anges, vanilla,  fruits,  cotton,  and 
sugar  are  raised.  Papeete,  on 
the  island  of  Tahiti,  is  the  capita] 


Socinus 


KSH 


284 


Sociology 


and  chief  port.  The  population, 
a  handsome,  sturdy  race  of  Poly- 
nesian stock,  numbers  about  19,- 
000.  The  group  was  discovered 
by  the  Spanish  navigator  De 
Quiras  about  1606,  but  the  first 
accurate  description  of  the  is- 
lands was  made  by  Cook,  who 
visited  them  in  1769  and  1777 
and  named  them  in  honor  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London. 
France  formed  a  protectorate 
over  the  eastern  group  in  1842, 
extended  in  1888  to  the  entire 
archipelago.  In  1903  the  colony 
was  united  with  others  as  the 
French  Establishments  in  Oce- 
ania.   See  EiMEO;  Tahiti. 

Soci'nus,  the  Latinized  name 
of  two  Italian  Protestants  of  the 
16th  century,  the  founders  of  So- 
cianism  and  the  forerunners  of 
Unitarianism  (q.  v.).  The  elder, 
L^Lius  or  Lelio  Sozzini 
(1525—62),  was  born  in  Siena, 
Tuscany.  He  studied  law  but 
soon  abandoned  it  for  the  study 
of  the  Scriptures,  and  is  said  to 
have  joined  a  secret  society  in 
Vicenza  for  the  free  discussion 
of  theological  questions.  About 
1544  he  left  Italy  and  went  to 
Zurich,  Switzerland,  where  he 
made  his  home.  Laelius  never 
openly  denied  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity.  On  his  death  he  be- 
queathed his  manuscripts  De 
Sacramcntis,  De  Resnrrectione 
Corpornm,  and  others  to  his 
nephew  Faustus. 

Faustus  or  Fausto  Sozzini 
(1539-1604),  nephew  of  Laelius, 
was  also  born  in  Siena.  In  1562 
he  went  to  Zurich  where  he  be- 
came absorbed  in  the  study  of  his 
uncle's  literary  fragments,  and 
twelve  years  later  he  went  to 
Basle,  there  originating  two  of 
his  most  important  works,  De 
Jesu  Christo  servatore  and  De 
statu  primi  hommis  ante  lapsum. 
He  went  to  Transylvania  in  1578 
and  later  to  Poland,  where  anti- 
trinitarianism  was  flourishing, 
and  where  he  acquired  great  in- 
fluence. He  suffered  opposition 
from  both  Roman  Catholics  and 
Protestants  and  was  several  times 
brutally  treated  by  soldiers  and 
students,  nearly  losing  his  life  in 
a  riot  at  Cracow  (1598).^  His 
last  six  years  were  spent  in  re- 
tirement. 

The  Socinian  doctrine  is  set 
forth  in  the  Rakovian  Catechism 
(Rakow,  1605).  It  resembles 
both  Arianism  and  Unitarianism, 
differing  from  the  former  (as 
also  from  Trinitarianism)  in  its 
denial  of  the  pre-existence  of 
Christ,  and  from  the  latter  in  at- 
tributing to  Christ  a  unique  di- 
vine endowment  (e.g.,  miracu- 
lous birth,  authoritative  revela- 
tion of  God,  the  position  of  heav- 
enly intercessor  and  final  judge). 
It  admits,  however,  of  no  plural- 
ity of  persons  in  the  Deity,  no 
original  sin,  no  particular  pre- 


destination, no  substitutionary 
atonement — in  fact,  nothing  but 
what  is  rationally  justifiable, 
though  Scripture  is  its  professed 
basis.  Consult  Illgen's  Vita 
Lain  Socini ;  Wallace's  Life  of 
Fatistns  Socinus;  Fock's  Der 
Socinianismus ;  Allen's  History 
of  the  Unitarians. 

Sociology.  Origins, — While 
the  problems  with  which  sociol- 
ogy concerns  itself  have  been  dis- 
cussed by  philosophers  since  the 
days  of  Oriental  antiquity,  soci- 
ology first  definitely  appeared, 
properly  christened  as  a  specific 
department  of  social  science, 
about  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

Many  factors  contributed  to 
its  origins,  among  them  the  grow- 
ing interest  in  man  and  society 
and  an  increasing  knowledge  of 
the  nature  of  man  and  his  en- 
vironment. Probably  the  most 
important  influence  creating  so- 
ciology was,  however,  that  gen- 
eral groping  for  social  better- 
ment which  was  produced  by  the 
misery  that  came  in  the  wake  of 
the  industrial  revolution  and  the 
factory  system. 

In  the  writings  of  certain  early 
sociologists,  this  impulse  to  so- 
cial betterment  emerged  in  con- 
crete Utopian  plans  for  a  more 
happy  and  perfect  system  of  so- 
cial and  industrial  relations. 
With  certain  other  writers,  like 
Henri  de  Saint-Simon  and  Au- 
guste  Comte,  it  made  its  influence 
felt  by  suggesting  that  there 
should  be  a  science  of  social 
progress.  Such  writers  proposed 
sociology,  thus  conceived,  as  a 
substitute  for  the  well-meant  but 
often  naive  contemporary  pro- 
grams for  social  improvement. 

On  the  other  hand,  such  soci- 
ologists as  Herbert  Spencer, 
Ludwig  Gumplowicz  and  Wil- 
liam Graham  Sumner  were  chief- 
ly interested  in  developing  the 
science  of  sociology  to  furnish 
irrefutable  proof  of  man's  in- 
ability to  improve  his  social  sur- 
roundings through  any  conscious 
effort  at  an  artificial  redirection 
of  the  trend  of  social  evolution. 
It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that 
with  both  the  enemies  and  friends 
of  social  reform  it  was  this  inter- 
est in  social  reconstruction  which 
gave  rise  to  the  science  of  soci- 
ology. 

First  Period  of  Sociology. 

— The  first  half-century  or  more 
of  sociology  was  devoted  chiefly 
to  bring  about  a  transition  from 
social  philosophy  to  social  sci- 
ence. During  most  of  this  period 
writers  approached  the  subject  of 
social  origins  and  social  proc- 
esses primarily  from  the  stand- 
point of  dogmatic  a  priori  as- 
sumptions, sweeping  generaliza- 
tions and  heroic  efforts  at  sys- 
tematization  and  at  a  synthesis 
of  sociological  information. 


Various  schools  of  thought 
sprang  up  with  diametrically  op- 
posite theories  and  interpreta- 
tions. Paralleling  battles  over 
definitions  and  methods  was  a 
comparable  conflict  among  soci- 
ologists as  to  the  basic  factor  in 
the  social  process  and  the  key  to 
the  development  of  a  comprehen- 
sive system  of  sociology. 

The  debates  thus  generated 
gave  rise  to  a  large  amount  of 
acrimony  and  personal  recrimi- 
nation, but  they  stimulated  each 
writer  to  the  most  effective  de- 
fense of  his  particular  thesis, 
with  the  resulting  enrichment  of 
our  knowledge  of  the  nature  and 
potency  of  these  important  social 
processes. 

The  discriminating  sociologist 
of  the  present  day  takes  little 
stock  in  the  all-sufficiency  of  any 
one  of  these  unilateral  views  of 
society,  but  they  all  helped  to 
create  that  body  of  subject-mat- 
ter out  of  which  a  reliable  syn- 
thesis can  now  be  constructed. 
The  growing  recognition  of  the 
inadequacy  of  single-track  inter- 
pretations of  the  social  process 
has  likewise  produced  that  salu- 
tary and  desirable  tolerance 
among  sociologists  which  was 
so  notably  lacking  a  generation 
ago. 

_  Auguste  Comte's  system  was 
given  over  chiefly  to  a  compre- 
hensive philosophy  of  history  and 
an  elaborate  plan  for  the  future 
reorganization  of  society  along 
what  he  believed  to  be  scientific 
principles.  Herbert  Spencer  at- 
tempted to  interpret  the  origins 
and  organization  of  society  in 
terms  of  his  particular  formulae 
of  cosmic  evolution,  incidentally 
giving  some  attention  to  the  an- 
alogy between  the  organism  and 
society  and  demonstrating  to  his 
own  satisfaction  the  futility  of 
social  uplift.  Lester  F.  Ward, 
taking  his  departure  from  Comte, 
exploited  the  terminology  of  nat- 
ural science,  particularly  that  of 
botany,  to  prove  the  original  su- 
premacy of  the  female  sex  and 
to  demonstrate  the  possibility  of 
planned  social  reform,  guided  by 
an  ever-improving  body  of  so- 
ciological knowledge. 

Franklin  H.  Giddings,  more 
eclectic  and  less  dogmatic  than 
the  earlier  writers,  exploited  and 
synthesized  the  majority  of  so- 
ciological writings  of  his  day  in 
what  was  the  most  impressive 
and  comprehensive  system  of  so- 
ciology formulated  prior  to  the 
opening  of  the  present  century. 
Ratzenhofer  and  Small  con- 
structed a  system  of  sociology 
about  a  classification  of  those 
vital  human  interests  which  give 
rise  alike  to  individual  activity 
and  the  struggles  of  human 
groups.  L.  T.  Hobhouse  sal- 
vaged from  the  wreckage  of  the 
organic  analogy  the  basic  fact  of 


Sociologry 


KSH 


285 


Sociology 


the  desirability  of  a  harmonious 
coordination  of  social  groups  and 
classes,  and  argued  for  a  grow- 
ing control  over  the  processes  of 
social  evolution  by  human  knowl- 
edge. A  similar  point  of  view 
was  elaborated  by  Ludwig  Stein 
in  Germany. 

One  of  the  latest  efforts  at  a 
system  of  sociology,  that  by 
Franz  Oppenheimer,  is  devoted 
to  a  history  of  human  society  and 
an  analysis  of  the  economic  ele- 
ments in  the  conflict  of  social 
classes.  The  most  elaborate  re- 
cent system  of  sociology  is  that 
of  Leopold  von  Weise.  He  re- 
gards sociology  as  a  study  of  the 
social  process,  conceived  of 
mainly  as  'inter-human'  relation- 
ships and  behavior. 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  energy  or 
mentality  of  any  individual  is 
adequate  to  a  thorough  mastery 
of  the  vast  range  of  facts  essen- 
tial to  sociological  synthesis. 
Yet  these  early  systems  were  in 
no  sense  a  total  loss.  They  called 
attention  to  the  character  of  so- 
ciological material  and  vindicated 
for  all  time  the  importance  of  the 
sociological  type  of  analysis. 
They  also  provided  the  point  of 
departure  for  subsequent  dis- 
cussion and  criticism. 

Contemporary  Sociology, 
— In  the  place  of  ambitious  ef- 
forts to  produce  an  all-embracing 
synthesis  of  sociology  in  the 
form  of  dogmatic  systems,  the 
dominant  trend  in  sociological 
science  since  about  the  opening 
of  the  century  has  been  toward 
the  splitting  up  of  sociologi- 
cal endeavor  among  various 
groups  of  scientific  men  inter- 
ested in  one  or  another  phase 
of  the  social  process.  Some  have 
given  their  attention  to  a  con- 
sideration of  the  problems  of  so- 
ciological methodology.  Others 
have  become  interested  in  the  re- 
lation between  the  physical  en- 
vironment and  social  processes. 
Another  group  has  devoted  itself 
to  a  consideration  of  the  bearing 
of  the  facts  of  modern  biology 
and  genetics  upon  the  origins,  or- 
ganization and  future  of  human 
society.  A  large  number  of  writ- 
ers have  surveyed  and  analyzed 
the  wide  range  of  psychological 
factors  affecting  the  groupings 
and  activities  of  men. 

Other  scholars  have  applied 
their  efforts  to  the  reconstruction 
of  the  course  of  cultural  and  so- 
cial evolution.  They  have  traced 
out  the  various  stages  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  present-day 
forms  of  social  organization  and 
cultural  expression.  They  have 
tried  to  indicate,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  various  factors  which 
brought  about  the  transition  from 
the  cave-dweller  to  the  modern 
urban  tenant,  with  all  the  social 
and  cultural  implications  in- 
volved in  this  transformation. 


The  progress  of  scientific 
method  and  specialization  in  the 
field  of  sociology  can  be  well  il- 
lustrated by  the  advances  within 
each  of  the  divers  fields  of  ap- 
proach to  sociological  analysis. 
It  has  become  necessary  for  the 
anthropogeographer  or  the  social 
biologist  to  specialize  upon  a  cer- 
tain restricted  range  of  problems 
and  interests  within  his  particu- 
lar field.  The  first  generation  of 
students  was  absorbed  chiefly 
with  problems  of  definition,  clas- 
sification and  the  demarcation  of 
the  province  of  sociology.  This 
sort  of  work  has  been  almost  en- 
tirely abandoned.  We  find  those 
interested  in  methodology  con- 
cerned with  such  problems  as  the 
application  of  statistical  measure- 
ment to  social  processes,  and  an- 
alysis of  the  methods  and  limita- 
tions of  the  cultural  approach  to 
social  origins  and  social  organi- 
zation. 

The  generalized  study  of  meth- 
odology has  been  supplanted  by 
an  examination  of  the  utility  and 
limitations  of  particular  meth- 
odologies. There  is  a  general 
agreement  that  sociology  can  be- 
come a  true  science  of  society 
only  in  the  degree  to  which  it  is 
able  to  appropriate  and  apply 
those  methods  of  measurement 
and  analysis  which  constitute  the 
indispensable  instruments  of  sci- 
ence in  general. 

Human  Geography  „ — In 
studying  the  influences  of  geo- 
graphical environment  upon  hu- 
man society  we  find  a  correspond- 
ing progress  away  from  sweeping 
generalizations.  There  is  a 
growing  trend  towards  concrete 
study  of  the  influence  of  particu- 
lar geographical  factors  upon 
specific  groups  of  men  dwelling 
in  well-defined  geographical  re- 
gions. With  the  progress  of 
knowledge  in  this  field,  it  became 
more  and  more  difficult  for  a 
single  student  to  master  all  the 
facts  involved.  Hence  we  dis- 
cover a  growing  tendency  to- 
wards the  specialization  of  writ- 
ers upon  some  single  type  of 
geographic  factor,  such  as  cli- 
mate, topography,  routes  of 
travel,  waterways  and  routes  of 
water  commvmication,  meteoro- 
logical factors,  and  alteration  of 
geographic  influences  by  the 
progress  of  material  culture. 

But  this  is  not  all.  Following 
the  suggestions  of  the  great 
French  geographer,  Paul  Vidal 
de  la  Blache,  and  his  disciples  in 
other  countries,  the  most  ad- 
vanced school  of  anthropogeog- 
raphers  have  come  to  doubt  the 
feasibility  of  even  a  generalized 
study  of  any  one  of  these  special 
geographical  influences.  They 
contend  that  anthropogeography 
can  become  truly  scientific  only 
by  concentrating  upon  the  effect 
of    specific    geographic  factors 


upon  a  community  of  men  in- 
habiting some  very  definite  geo- 
graphic region.  In  other  words, 
regional  physical  geography  has 
made  a  necessity  of  regional  an- 
thropogeography. The  contem- 
porary scientific  anthropogeog- 
rapher no  longer  proceeds  from 
the  naive  assumption  of  geo- 
graphical determinism,  but 
adopts  the  cultural  point  of  view 
of  the  modern  critical  anthropol- 
ogist and  cultural  historian. 
When  one  compares  such  a  sum- 
mary of  the  contemporary  point 
of  view  as  Lucien  Febvre's  Geo- 
graphical Introduction  to  History 
with  one  of  the  best  syntheses  of 
the  older  generalizing  anthropo- 
geography, he  realizes  the  extent 
of  the  progress  made  in  this  field 
in  the  last  generation. 

The  first  generation  of  bio- 
logical sociologists  concerned 
themselves  primarily  with  an 
elaboration  of  such  hypothetical 
analogies  as  the  theory  of  the  so- 
cial organism  and  the  doctrine  of 
Social  Darwinism.  There  was 
little  effort  to  study  in  a  scien- 
tific fashion  well-founded  biolog- 
ical processes  and  to  discover 
through  detailed  observation 
their  bearing  upon  the  problems 
of  human  society.  Such  inter- 
ests and  activities  as  character- 
ized biological  sociologists  at  the 
turn  of  the  century  have  now  be- 
come anachronisms  in  the  field. 
We  have  the  demographers,  who 
are  interested  in  gathering  and 
classifying  the  facts  descriptive 
of  the  social  population,  thvis  col- 
lecting the  raw  materials  for 
theoretical  students  of  the  prob- 
lem. Along  with  these  we  have 
the  students  of  the  theory  of 
population.  They  take  their  cue 
from  Malthus  and  are  known  in 
general  as  Neo-Malthusians, 
though  most  of  them  favor  birth 
control,  which  Malthus  refused 
to  sanction. 

These  writers  are  concerned 
with  the  quantitative  aspect  of 
population,  namely,  ( 1 )  the  rela- 
tion between  the  increase  of  pop- 
ulation and  the  means  of  subsis- 
tence, and  (2)  the  bearing  of 
this  situation  upon  the  prosper- 
ity and  progress  of  human  so- 
ciety. They  are,  in  general,  sym- 
pathetic with  the  birth  control 
movement  as  led  by  Margaret 
Sanger  and  others.  They  hold 
that  the  avenue  to  social  well- 
being  is  to  be  found  through  some 
practicable  method  of  maintain- 
ing the  population  at  the  level 
which  will  insure  a  relatively 
high  standard  of  living. 

Another  group  of  writers  con- 
centrate upon  the  qualitative  as- 
pects of  the  population  ;  are  con- 
cerned with  the  biological  evolu- 
tion of  man,  with  whether  civili- 
zation has  had  a  disastrous  ef- 
fect upon  the  biological  tiuality 
of  the  human  race,  and  with  the 


Sociology 


KSH 


286 


Sociology 


whole  issue  of  eugenics,  involv- 
ing the  problem  of  the  possibility 
of  the  artificial  improvement  of 
the  human  stock.  The  geneti- 
cists have  elucidated  the  laws  of 
heredity,  aided  eugenic  theory, 
and  disposed  effectively  of  the 
theory  of  the  inheritability  of 
acquired  characters. 

There  should  also  be  noted  the 
physical  anthropologists  and  the 
scientific  students  of  race  and  ra- 
cial characteristics.  Such  stu- 
dents devote  themselves  to  the 
physical  criteria  of  race  and  ac- 
cumulation of  exact  facts  with 
respect  to  the  physical  traits  of 
the  major  races  of  mankind.  In 
carrying  their  researches  beyond 
physical  investigations  to  an 
analysis  of  the  mental  traits  of 
the  various  races,  they  link  hands 
with  the  differential  psycholo- 
gists. The  work  of  the  physical 
anthropologists,  admirably  repre- 
sented by  men  like  Sir  Arthur  B. 
Keith,  Rudolph  Martin,  Ales 
Hrdlicka  and  E.  A.  Hooton,  to- 
gether with  that  of  the  differen- 
tial psychologists  and  the  cul- 
tural historians,  offers  the  best 
possible  antidote  to  the  vagaries 
of  the  old  Aryan  rnyth.  Various 
scientific  students  of  the  biologi- 
cal foundations  of  society  are  at 
last  making  available  the  rele- 
vant facts  and  processes  of  bi- 
ology, so  that  they  may  be  appro- 
priated in  an  intelligent  fashion 
by  the  alert  legislator  and  dis- 
criminating social  worker. 

Psychological  sociology  had  its 
origins  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
19th  century  with  writers  who 
dealt  in  a  broad  and  sweeping 
manner  with  such  complex  and 
general  psychological  factors  as 
custom,  imitation,  fashion,  im- 
pression, emulation,  sympathy, 
etc.  At  that  time  there  was  lit- 
tle reliable  technical  psychology 
to  be  learned,  and  these  writers 
possessed  only  a  slight  familiar- 
ity with  even  such  psychology  as 
existed.  While  some  progress 
took  place  in  the  interval  be- 
tween 1890  and  1910,  the  first 
treatise  on  psychological  sociol- 
ogy which  demonstrated  the  au- 
thor's familiarity  with  the  facts 
of  scientific  psychology  was  C.  A. 
Ellwood's  Sociology  in  its  Psy- 
chological Aspects  (1912).  Pro- 
fessor William  McDougall's  So- 
cial Psychology  in  1908  provoked 
a  vast  amount  of  controversy 
and  resulted  in  a  general  clari- 
fication of  this  problem,  the  best 
synthesis  in  the  field  being  Pro- 
fessor L.  L.  Bernard's  mono- 
graph on  Instinct.  The  behavior- 
istic  impulse,  emanating  from 
J.  B.  Watson  and  Max  Myer, 
has  been  exploited  for  social  psy- 
chology by  Floyd  Allport,  W.  H. 
Burnham  and  a  number  of  others 
who  are  interested  in  the  impor- 
tant social  applications  of  the 
theory  of  the  conditioned-reflex. 


The  social  significance  and  ap- 
plications of  Freudianism  have 
been  examined  and  exploited  in 
a  discriminating  fashion.  An 
extremely  promising  effort  has 
been  made  to  work  out  the  all- 
important  synthesis  of  behavior- 
ism and  Freudianism  by  various 
authors.  The  psychology  of  the 
crowd  is  at  last  beginning  to  be 
studied  in  a  scientific  fashion. 
The  significance  of  habit  pat- 
terns for  psychological  sociology 
has  been  indicated  in  detail  by 
Ellwood,  John  Dewey  and  R.  H. 
Gault.  Wilhelni  Wundt,  G.  S. 
Hall,  Lucien  Levy-Bruhl,  Paul 
Radin,  Alexander  Goldenweiser, 
James  Harvey  Robinson,  Harry 
Elmer  Barnes,  and  others  have 
devoted  themselves  to  a  study  of 
the  psychological  history  of  the 
race,  clarifying  the  similarities 
and  contrasts  between  the  think- 
ing of  primitive  and  modern 
man. 

The  provision  of  scientific  and 
practicable  methods  of  mental 
testing  has  made  possible  the  de- 
velopment of  differential  psy- 
chology, an  instrument  of  the 
greatest  significance  for  the  fur- 
ther analysis  of  the  problems  of 
eugenics,  mental  hygiene,  crim- 
inology, immigration  and  democ- 
racy. Finally,  the  desirability 
of  abandoning  psychological  de- 
terminism and  accepting  the  no- 
tion of  cultural  conditioning  has 
been  recognized  by  nearly  every 
group  now  interested  in  psycho- 
logical sociology.  The  net  result 
has  been  to  put  at  our  disposal  a 
vast  body  of  relevant  psychologi- 
cal information  of  the  great- 
est practical  significance  for 
human  betterment  and  a  more 
adequate  conception  of  social 
processes. 

In  the  stvidy  of  the  history  of 
human  society  there  has  been  no- 
table progress  away  from  the  a 
priori  philosophy  of  history  char- 
acteristic of  the  early  stages  of 
historical  sociology.  Building 
upon  the  laws  of  cultural  devel- 
opment and  the  facts  concerning 
social  and  cultural  evolution 
gathered  by  historians,  the  stu- 
dents of  social  and  cultural  his- 
tory were  able  to  work  out  an 
impressive  survey  of  the  history 
of  human  culture  from  the  Stone 
Age  to  the  New  Deal.  We  es- 
cape both  the  inaccuracies  of  the 
old  philosophy  of  history  and  the 
irrelevancies  of  the  episodical 
and  anecdotal  historians.  In  this 
field,  as  in  others,  specialization 
has  been  necessary,  since  no  sin- 
gle student  could  personally  mas- 
ter the  technical  equipment  or 
the  facts  involved  in  a  survey 
of  the  totality  of  human  cultural 
development.  The  results  of 
progress  in  this  field  are  evident 
in  the  synthesis  by  Harry  Elmer 
Barnes  in  his  History  of  West- 
ern Civilization  and  his  Intel- 


lectual and  Cultural  History  of 
the  Western  World. 

The  study  of  the  facts  and 
problems  of  social  organization 
has  attracted  a  varied  group  of 
authorities.  The  forms  of  social 
organization  have  been  discussed 
in  great  theoretical  detail  by 
Georg  Simmel,  whose  conclu- 
sions have  been  made  intelligi- 
ble, as  well  as  accessible,  to  Eng- 
lish readers  by  his  disciple.  Dr. 
N.  J.  Spykman.  The  biological 
and  economic  basis  of  society 
have  been  critically  investigated  ; 
the  political  foundations  of  social 
organization  have  received  espe- 
cial attention  from  numerous  au- 
thorities. 

The  most  significant  fact  about 
all  these  specialized  forms  of 
analysis  of  social  organization  is 
that  the  old  obsession  with  defini- 
tion and  classification  has  been 
superseded  by  interest  in  the  vi- 
tal and  dynamic  processes  in- 
volved in  the  origins  of  social 
groups  and  their  mutual  conflicts 
and  adjustments.  Much  of  the 
credit  for  this  wholesome  change 
is  due  to  the  work  of  Ratzen- 
hofer  and  Albion  W.  Small. 

The  reaction  of  these  various 
phases  of  progress  in  scientific 
sociology  upon  social  work  and 
reform  has  forwarded  the  reali- 
zation of  the  ambitions  of  the 
founders  of  sociology  to  create 
a  scientific  guide  for  the  better- 
ment of  mankind.  On  the  whole, 
social  work  has  abandoned  the 
ideal  of  amelioration  and  has 
adopted  the  slogan  of  prevention, 
the  achievement  of  which  must 
be  based  on  a  mastery  of  the  sci- 
entific facts  of  sociology. 

Sociology,  properly  under- 
stood, does  not  discourage  social 
'uplift.'  Indeed,  it  would  seem 
that  the  chief  vindication  of  so- 
ciology is  to  be  found  in  its  po- 
tential service  to  the  cause  of 
increasing  the  happiness  of  hu- 
manity. What  sociology  does 
insist  is  that  uplift  shall  cease  to 
be  governed  by  theological  and 
sentimental  motives  and  shall 
found  its  objectives  and  meth- 
ods upon  the  indisputable  facts 
brought  out  by  sociology  in  the 
20th  century. 

Influence  on  Social  Sci- 
ences.— We  should  at  least  make 
passing  mention  of  the  influence 
of  sociology  upon  the  other  so- 
cial sciences.  Its  effect  upon  the 
study  of  history  has  been  chiefly 
to  emphasize  the  fact  that  man 
does  not  function  as  an  individ- 
ual but  as  a  member  of  a  group  ; 
to  aid  the  progressive  historian 
in  his  analysis  of  the  various 
forms  of  institutional  life  in 
which  man  participates ;  and  to 
clarify  the  conception  of  civili- 
zation as  a  genetic  and  dynamic 
process.  Sociology  has  been  par- 
ticularly useful  in  promoting  a 
broad  and  synthetic  view  of  the 


Sociology 


KSH 


287 


Socrates 


processes  of  historical  causation. 

Sociology  has  been  able  to  of- 
fer a  number  of  helpful  sugges- 
tions to  open-minded  economists 
— for  example :  emphasis  upon 
the  group  basis  of  custom  and 
fashion  which  determine  to  so 
large  a  degree  the  nature  of 
economic  demand ;  an  indica- 
tion of  the  interrelation  of  the 
economic  with  the  other  factors 
in  the  social  process  ;  and  a  clari- 
fication of  the  nature  of  the  so- 
cial institutions  which  condition 
the  operation  of  the  economic 
factors  in  society. 

On  no  other  special  social  sci- 
ence has  the  influence  of  sociol- 
ogy been  more  significant  than 
upon  political  science.  Sociol- 
ogy has  furnished  indispensable 
information  as  to  the  nature  and 
foundations  of  political  control 
and  has  cleared  up  many  obscure 
problems  related  to  the  origins 
of  the  State.  It  has  also  given 
a  real  rationale  to  politics  by  in- 
dicating the  social  progress  which 
goes  on  within  the  State  and  by 
making  it  clear  that  the  real 
function  of  the  State  is  to  act  as 
an  umpire  of  this  social  process. 
Its  influence  upon  jurisprudence 
is  comparable  to  that  upon  the 
science  of  government ;  it  has 
emphasized  the  social  origins  and 
function  of  law,  indicated  the 
fundamental  social  basis  of  all 
valid  legal  principles,  and  has 
emphasized  the  function  of  pro- 
gressive jurisprudence  in  the 
way  of  social  engineering  and 
the  guidance  of  social  change. 

The  sociological  influence  up- 
on ethics  has  been  revolutionary 
in  theory,  however  little  it  may 
have  affected  conduct  in  prac- 
tice. It  has  made  clear  the  group 
basis  of  all  ethical  guides  and 
criteria,  however  self-assured  a 
social  group  may  be  with  respect 
to  the  allegation  of  the  divinely- 
revealed  nature  of  its  ethical 
concepts  and  practices.  It  has 
also  emphasized  the  necessity  of 
adopting  a  secular  basis  for  the 
judgment  of  human  conduct,  in- 
sisting that  the  object  of  ethics 
should  be  to  produce  an  ever 
greater  number  of  happy  and  ef- 
ficient human  beings  here  upon 
the  earth,  and  not  to  save  a  vast 
throng  of  souls  eagerly  quitting 
their  earthly  misery. 

The  relationships  between  so- 
ciology and  esthetics  have  not 
been  adequately  cultivated  thus 
far,  but  the  group  foundation  of 
esthetic  judgments  is  readily  ap- 
parent, and  enough  has  already 
been  done  to  indicate  the  real 
importance  of  art  as  a  form  of 
social  expression  and  a  mode  of 
social  control.  With  the  gradual 
secularization  of  human  inter- 
ests we  may  predict  that  esthet- 
ics will  ultimately  come  to  oc- 
cupy the  position  held  by  theol- 
ogy in  the  interest  and  affections 


of  the  early  sociologists. 

The  most  important  general 
function  which  sociology  has 
with  all  the  social  sciences  is 
constantly  to  emphasize  the  unity 
of  the  social  process  and  to  pro- 
mote a  synthetic  point  of  view  on 
the  part  of  all  types  of  social 
scientists.  This  guards  against 
the  narrowness  and  superficiality 
which  invariably  accompany  a 
partial  view  of  the  processes  and 
institutions  of  society. 

Obstacles  to  Sociology* — In 
spite  of  the  remarkable  strides 
which  sociology  has  made  in  the 
quantity  of  subject-matter  and 
the  increased  exactness  of  its 
methods,  it  has  made  relatively 
slow  progress  in  achieving  aca- 
demic recognition,  in  receiving 
adequate  consideration  from  leg- 
islators and  public  officials,  and 
in  securing  the  good-will  and 
confidence  of  the  general  reading 
public. 

There  are  a  number  of  causes 
of  this  situation.  The  first  has 
resulted  from  the  confusion  of 
sociology  with  socialism  because 
of  the  similarity  in  the  pronun- 
ciation of  the  two  words.  This 
may  seem  preposterous,  but  the 
writer  believes  it  to  have  been 
more  important  than  any  other 
influence  in  prejudicing  the  aver- 
age timid,  conservative  citizen 
against  sociology. 

Another  recent  form  of  oppo- 
sition to  sociology  arises  from 
progressives  who  fear  the  alleged 
pernicious  influence  of  founda- 
tions and  endowments.  Much 
current  sociological  research  is 
subsidized  by  the  great  founda- 
tions which  have  been  endowed 
by  wealthy  men  and  women  in- 
terested in  preserving  the  exist- 
ing social,  economic  and  politi- 
cal order.  To  the  opposition  of 
the  older  social  sciences  must 
also  be  added  the  even  more  vig- 
orous antipathy  of  the  depart- 
ments of  mathematics,  science, 
literature  and  other  ^en  older 
and  more  respectable  depart- 
ments and  vested  curricular  in- 
terests. ' 

No  doubt  the  place  that  sociol- 
ogy will  occupy  in  the  future  of 
human  thought  and  action  will 
depend  upon  a  multitude  of  fac- 
tors, some  connected  with  sociol- 
ogy itself  and  others  with  general 
trends  in  the  public  mind. 

Before  sociology  can  command 
the  unqualified  respect  and  sup- 
port of  intelligent  and  thought- 
ful persons  it  must  divest  itself 
of  sentimental  adherence  to  in- 
discriminate efforts  at  uplift ;  it 
must  reject  whole-heartedly  the 
impurity-complex  which  it  has 
inherited  from  its  puritanical 
and  ministerial  ancestry  ;  and  it 
must  reduce  the  paralyzing  in- 
fluence of  discipleship  and  dog- 
matism to  which  all  the  social 
sciences  are  in  differing  degrees 


susceptible.  The  degree  to  which 
it  will  influence  social  thought 
and  action  will  also  depend  upon 
how  far  society  surrenders  its 
contemporary  submission  to  rhet- 
oric, convention,  tradition  and 
propaganda,  and  demands  com- 
petent technical  and  scientific 
guidance. 

Consult  L.  M.  Bristol,  Social 
Adaptation  (1915);  J.  P.  Lich- 
tenberger,  The  Development  of 
Social  Theory  (1923);  E.  S. 
Bogardus,  A  History  of  Social 
Thought  (1928)  ;  P.  A.  Sorokin, 
Contemporary  Sociological  The- 
ories (1928);  T.  Abel,  System- 
atic Sociology  in  Germany 
(1929)  ;  F.  M.  House,  The  Range 
of  Social  Theory  (1929)  ;  G.  A. 
Lungberg,  et  al.,  Trends  in  Amer- 
ican Sociology  (1929)  ;  L.  L. 
Bernard,  Ed.,  Fields  and  Meth- 
ods of  Sociology  (1934)  ;  F.  M. 
House,  The  Development  of  So- 
ciology (1936)  ;  H.  E.  Barnes 
and  H.  Beck,  Social  Thought 
from  Lore  to  Science  (2  Vols., 
1937),  and  Contemporary  Social 
Theory. 

Harry  Elmer  Barnes,  Ph.D., 
Lecturer  on  Sociology. 

Socotra  (anc.  Dioscorides) , 
isl.  in  Indian  Ocean,  150  m.  n.e. 
of  Cape.  Guardafui  and  forming 
a  dependency  of  Aden.  Dates 
and  gums  are  produced,  butter 
and  incense  are  exported.  Most 
of  the  trade  is  carried  on  with 
Muscat.  It  has  been  a  British 
possession  since  1886.  The  chief 
town  is  Tamarida,  on  n.  coast. 
Area,  1,400  sq.m.    Pop.  12,000. 

Socrates  (469-399  b.c),  the 
greatest  of  the  Greek  philoso- 
phers, was  born  at  Athens.  He 
served  in  several  campaigns  in 
the  Athenian  army,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  unusual 
fortitude.  When  his  turn  came 
to  hold  political  office,  he  showed 
no  less  resolution  in  withstanding 
popular  clamor  against  certain 
generals  who  were  thought  to  have 
failed  in  their  duty,  and  during 
the  regime  of  the  'Thirty  Tyrants' 
he  risked  his  life  by  refusing  to 
obey  an  order  of  theirs  of  which 
he  disapproved.  But  he  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  problems  of 
life  and  conduct.  Deeply  con- 
scious as  he  was  of  the  need  and 
the  lack  of  clear  insight  into 
principles  in  matters  of  conduct, 
he  set  himself  in  his  intercourse 
with  his  fellow-citizens  to  dis- 
cover to  them,  by  a  method  of 
cross-examination,  the  limitations 
of  their  ethical  knowledge.  He 
would  begin  by  a  profession  of 
his  own  ignorance  (the  Socratic 
'irony'),  and  lead  on  some  un- 
wary victim  to  attempt  his  en- 
lightenment about  such  appar- 
ently familiar  and  obvious  mat- 
ters as  justice,  piety,  and  the 
like.  As  the  conversation  pro- 
ceeded, the  searching  questions 
of   Socrates  gradually  revealed 


Socrates 


KSH 


288 


Sodium 


more  and  more  clearly  the  utter 
inability  of  the  examinee  to  give 
any  coherent  account  of  the 
moral  notions  he  professed  to 
know  all  about.  Now,  for  those 
who  were  able  to  appreciate  the 
positive  aim  that  underlay  the 
apparently  destructive  criticism 
of  Socrates,  such  inquiry  was 
stimulating  in  the  highest  de- 
gree, and  it  had  this  effect  upon 
his  disciples.  But  staid  citizens, 
who  had  no  intellectual  cravings, 
strongly  resented  a  method  which 
entrapped  them  into  a  situation 
much  more  entertaining  to  the 
bystanders  than  flattering  to 
their  sense  of  their  own  impor- 
tance. Young  men,  on  the  other 
hand,  who  had  cleverness,  with- 
out the  more  solid  qualities  of 
mind  and  character,  were  apt  to 
be  more  dazzled  by  the  destruc- 
tive criticism  than  awakened  to 
its  positive  significance.  Hence 
we  can  partly  understand  how  it 
was  that,  after  many  years  of 
such  activity,  Socrates  came  to  be 
looked  upon  by  a  large  section 
of  the  Athenians  as  a  disinte- 
grating force  in  the  public  life 
of  the  city.  Eventually  he  was 
formally  accused  of  impiety  and 
religious  innovation,  and  of  cor- 
rupting the  youth  of  the  city. 
What  purports  to  be  his  defence 
is  given  in  Plato's  Apology;  but 
he  was  condemned  to  death. 
The  sentence  was  carried  out  by 
his  drinking  hemlock.  In  per- 
sonal appearance  Socrates  was 
notoriously  ugly,  and_  in  the 
Platonic  dialogues  he  is  repre- 
sented as  making  jesting  refer- 
ences to  his  snub  nose  and  pro- 
truding eyes.  For  the  outward 
incidents  of  life  he  cared  little. 
In  his  inward  life  he  had  at  crit- 
ical junctures  a  consciousness  of 
divine  guidance  or  inspiration, 
which  has  been  somewhat  of  a 
puzzle  to  modern  psychological 
criticism.  The  name  of  his  wife, 
Xantippe,  is  proverbial  for  al- 
leged shrewishness. 

To  his  contemporaries  who 
condemned  him  to  death,  Socra- 
tes probably  appeared  only  to 
be  a  sophist  of  a  dangerous  type. 
His  disciples  saw  then,  as  we  see 
now,  that  he  was  marked  out  from 
that  class  of  popular  teachers  by 
his  total  freedorn  from  self-seek- 
ing, and  by  his  intellectual  thor- 
oughness. The  peculiarity  of  his 
philosophical  method  lay,  accord- 
ing to  Aristotle,  in  his  inductive 
procedure,  and  in  his  search  for 
general  definitions — e.g.  of  the 
virtues.  But  far  more  important 
than  his  method  was  the  con- 
viction in  which  it  was  rooted — 
that  good  and  evil  in  action  were 
the  outcome  of  adequacy  and  in- 
adequacy of  knowledge.  His 
famous  doctrines,  that  '  virtue  is 
knowledge,'  and  that  *  no  man 
willingly  chooses  what  is  evil,' 
are  apt  to  seem  strangely  para- 


doxical to  us.  But  this  is  due  not 
so  much  to  our  truer  views  of 
morality  as  to  our  more  super- 
ficial views  of  what  constitutes 
real  knowledge. 

It  was  this  conviction  of  the 
paramount  importance  of  real 
knowledge  for  good  practice  that 
inspired  Socrates's  untiring  search 
for  moral  truth.  And  it  was  just 
because  his  standard  of  real 
knowledge  was  so  exacting  that 
he  seemed  to  his  fellow-citizens 
to  be  the  critic  and  enemy  of  es- 
tablished institutions,  when  he 
was  really  trying  to  ascertain  the 
durable  basis  on  which  they 
rested.  Moreover,  his  insistence 
on  the  supremacy  of  knowledge 
was  certainly  opposed  in  politics 
to  the  democratic  notion  of  the 
equal  fitness  of  all  citizens  for 
public  authority  and  rule.  For 
instance,  it  naturally  enough 
seemed  to  Socrates  the  height  of 
absurdity  to  appoint  men  by  lot, 
as  was  the  practice  at  Athens,  to 
offices  which  demanded  the  rarest 
qualifications.  Such  opinions, 
however,  did  not  commend  him 
to  the  democracy,  and  poHtical 
dislike  probably  had  a  good  deal 
to  do  with  his  condemnation. 

It  was  left  for  his  disciples  to 
attempt  to  fill  out  the  ideal  of 
ethical  knowlcd-e  which  Socrates 
conceived.  But  a  type  appar- 
ently alien  to  the  whole  spirit 
of  his  work  was  exhibited  by  the 
Cyrenaic  schooL  founded  by  his 
pupil  Aristippus  of  Cyrene,  which 
identified  the  Socratic  good  with 
pleasure.  And  yet  Socrates  had 
been  wont  to  maintain  that  the 
good  life  must  needs  be  the  happy 
life,  and  the  Cyrenaics  only 
turned  this  maxim  the  other  way 
round.  Another  pupil,  Antis- 
thenes,  the  founder  of  the  cynic 
school,  went  to  ^  the  other  ex- 
treme, and  did  his  best  to  empty 
the  Socratic  knowledge  of  all 
content  whatever.  The  true 
disciple  of  Socrates  is,  however, 
Plato.  But  Plato  was,  of  course, 
more  than  Socratic;  for  he  went 
far  beyond  the  range  of  his  mas- 
ter's thought,  and  passed  from 
the  simpte  ethical  inquiries  of 
Socrates  into  the  profoundest 
problems  of  metaphysical  specu- 
lation. 

Socrates  was  not  a  writer,  and 
what  we  know  of  his  teaching  is 
derived  from  the  representations 
of  his  pupils,  Xenophon  (in  his 
Memorabilia)  and  Plato  (in  his 
Dialogues,  in  the  majority  of 
which  Socrates  is  the  chief  inter- 
locutor). The  relation  of  these 
two  divergent  representations  to 
their  original  has  been  a  prob- 
lem for  historical  criticism.  See 
T.  Gomperz,  Greek  Thinkers; 
W.  Durant,  Story  of  Philosophy  ; 
J.  T.  Forbes,  Socrates. 

Socrates  (c.  400),  church  his- 
torian, was  born  at  Constanti- 
nople.   He  was  the  author  of  a 


history  of  the  church  from  306 
to  439  A.D.,  mainly  an  uncritical 
rechauffe  of  other  writers.  Edi- 
tions by  Hussey  (1853);  Bright, 
with  introduction  (1878);  trans, 
in  Bohn's  Eccl.  Library  (1851); 
also  in  Schaff's  Nicene  and  Post- 
Nicene  Fathers  (1891). 

Soda,  strictly  speaking,  is  the 
base  corresponding  to  the  metal 
sodium,  but  used  without  prefix 
it  generally  impUes  anhydrous 
sodium  carbonate,  Na2C03.  This 
salt,  known  also  as  'scdaash.'is 
obtained  by  evaporating  the  solu- 
tion and  igniting  the  residue. 
Washing  soda,  soda  crystals,  or 
sal-soda,  is  the  decahydrated  car- 
bonate, Na2CO3l0H2O,  obtained 
by  allowing  a  hot  solution  of 
sodium  carbonate  to  cool  in  wate^ 
Baking  soda  is  the  bicarbonate, 
NaHC032H20;  and  caustic  soda 
is  the  hydroxide,  NaOH,  obtained 
by  boiling  the  carbonate  solution 
with  slaked  lime,  filtering  off  the 
precipitated  calcium  carbonate, 
and  evapo'-ating  the  remaining 
solution.  See  Sodium  and  Alkali. 

Soda  Water.  See  Aerated 
Waters. 

Sodalite  is  one  of  the  rock- 
forming  feldspathoids — a  soda 
aluminum  silicate  with  some 
chlorine.  It  is  an  isometric  min- 
eral, colorless  or  bluish,  and  oc- 
curs as  an  essential  constituent 
in  certain  trachytes  and  syenites. 
It  is  closely  related  to  Haiiynite, 
Noselite,  and  Lozurite,  which 
form  together  the  Sodalite  group. 

Soderhamn,  town,  Gefleborg 
CO.,  Sweden,  44  m.  n.  of  Gefle ; 
has  iron  foundry  and  machinery 
factory,  and  exports  timber  and 
iron.  The  harbor,  Stugsund,  is 
2  m.  to  the  s.e.  Pop.  (1936) 
11,258. 

Sodium,  Na,  22.997,  an  ele- 
ment of  the  alkali  metal  family 
which,  though  never  occurring 
free  in  nature,  is  widely  distrib- 
uted in  combination,  chiefly^  as 
common  salt  or  sodium  chloride, 
NaCl.  Common  salt  is  collected 
from  sea-water.  In  some  cases 
portions  of  the  sea  are  cut  off 
and  the  water  evaporated,  leav- 
ing deposits  of  rock  salt.  Im- 
portant deposits  of  this  kind  are 
found  in  England,  in  Bohemia, 
Stassfurth  in  Prussia,  and  other 
places.  Less  important  sources 
of  sodium  are  the  sodium  nitrate 
deposits  of  S.  America,  of  trona 
or  sodium  carbonate  in  Egypt,  and 
sodium  borate  in  Cahfornia.  The 
element  also  occurs  in  many 
minerals,  all  animals,  and  to  a 
less  extent  in  plants.  Sodium 
was  formerly  prepared  by  heating 
sodium  carbonate  and  carbon  to 
whiteness,  the  metal  distilling 
off;  but  owing  to  the  high  tem- 
perature required  the  process  was 
very  troublesome.  It  was  super- 
seded by  Castner's  method  of 
heating  sodium  hydroxide  with  an 


Sodium 


289 


intimate  mixture  of  finely  divid- 
ed iron  and  carbon;  and  later  by 
the  Castner  electrolytic  process, 
which  in  a  measure  is  a  revival  of 
the  original  process  by  which 
BsLvy  isolated  the  element.  In 
the  "Castner  electrolyac  process, 
the  sodium  hydroxide  is  elec- 
trolyzed,  2NaOH=2Na  +  02+H2, 
an  open  iron  cylinder  is  made  the 
anooe  of  the  dynamo  supplying 
the  current,  and  surrounds  the 
cathode,  which  consists  of  an  iron 
rod,  both  being  immersed  cen- 
trally in  molten  sodium  hydrox- 
ide. The  sodium  set  free  is  col- 
lected in  a  cap  over  the  cathode, 
in  which  it  is  protected  from 
oxidation  by  the  hydrogen  sirnul- 
taneously  evolved.  Sodium  is  a 
silver  -  white,  very  soft  metal, 
which  is  Ughter  than  water  (sp. 
gr.  0.98);  it  melts  at  97°  c.  and 
boils  at  742°  c,  forming  a  blue- 
violet  gas.  It  is  at  once  tarnished 
by  moist  air,  and  must  be  kept  in 
air-tight  tins  or,  if  in  small  quan- 
tities, under  petroleum.  Heated 
in  air  it  burns  with  a  dull 
glow,  forming  mainly  the  perox- 
ide; when  put  upon  water,  it  runs 
about  as  a  silvery  globule,  rapidly 
displacing  hydrogen  and  forming 
sodium  hydroxide,  2Na-|-2H20  = 
2NaOH  +  H2.  The  hydrogen  does 
not  catch  fire  unless  the  water  is 
warm  or  the  sodium  kept  still  on 
a  Kmited  quantity,  when  it  burns 
with  the  characteristic  yellow 
flame,  marked  by  a  double  yellow 
Une  in  the  spectrum,  by  which 
p.U  sodium  compounds  can  be  rec- 
ognized. Sodium,  formerly  much 
used  as  a  reducing  agent  to  pre- 
pare metals  like  aluminium  and 
magnesium,  is  still  used  in  the 
reduction  of  organic  compounds. 
It  is  also  used  in  the  preparation 
of  sodium  peroxide  and  cyanide, 
in  gold  extraction  to  keep  the  sur- 
face of  the  mercury  used  for  amal- 
gamation clean  and  active,  and  in 
the  preparation  of  certain  coal-tar 
products. 

Of  the  artificially  prepared 
compounds  of  sodium  the  car- 
bonate Na2C03  is  by  far  the 
most  important,  and  its  manu- 
facture is  one  of  the  leading 
British  industries.  The  'alkali 
industry,'  of  which  the  main  busi- 
ness is  the  preparation  of  this 
substance,  was  first  started  about 
the  year  182.5  by  James  Muspratt, 
who  adopted  a  process  invented 
by  Leblanc,  and  known  both  as 
the  'Leblanc  process'  and  the 
'black-ash  process.'  For  illus- 
trations of  apparatus  used  in  this 
and  in  other  processes,  see  under 
Alkali. 

In  all  the  processes  of  prepara- 
tion the  starting-point  is  invari- 
ably common  salt,  which  in  this 
case  is  mixed  with  sufficient  sul- 
phuric acid  to  convert  it  into 
sodium  sulphate.  The  reaction 
is  carried  out  by  heating  the 
aiixture     in     reverberatory  or 


*roaster'  furnaces,  and  takes  place 
in  two  stages — sodium  bisulpnate, 
NaHS04,  oeing  primarily  formed, 
NaCl  +  H2S04  =  NaHS04  +  HCl, 
and  then  at  a  higher  temperature 
converted  by  the  rest  of  the  salt 
into  the  normal  sulphate,  NaHS04 
+  NaCl  =  Na2S04  +  HCl,  called 
'salt  cake.'  Originally  the  hydro- 
gen chloride  was  allowed  to  escape, 
and  became  a  very  serious  nui- 
sance, but  the  gas  is  now  collected 
by  passing  it  up  tall  'scrubbers' 
or  towers  filled  with  coke  or 
brushwood,  down  which  a  spray 
of  water  trickles  and  dissolves  the 
gas,  forming  hydrochloric  acid  of 
considerable  value.  In  the  next 
stage  of  the  process  the  sodium 
sulphate  or  'salt  cake'  is  strongly 
heated  with  small  coal  and  lime- 
stone in  a  reverberatory  furnace, 
in  which,  as  a  rule,  the  cylindrical 
hearth  is  made  to  revolve  axially, 
and  thus  exposes  the  mixture 
thoroughly  to  the  flames.  A 
number  of  reactions  take  place, 
the  chief  of  which  may  be  roughly 
summarized  as  occurring  in  two 
stages — viz.  a  reduction  of  the 
sodium  sulphate  by  the  carbon  of 
the  coal,  Na2S04  -f  4C  =  Na2S  + 
4CO,  followed  by  the  interaction 
of  the  sodium  sulphide  formed 
with  the  limestone,  yielding  sodium 
carbonate,  Na2S  +  CaC03=  CaS 
+  Na2C03.  The  product,  or 
'black  ash,'  is  then  lixiviated  with 
water  to  extract  the  sodium  car- 
bonate, leaving  behind  the  cal- 
cium sulphide,  together  with  in- 
soluble impurities,  as  'alkali 
waste.'  The  solution  of  sodium 
carbonate,  containing  a  consid- 
erable proportion  of  caustic  soda, 
produced  by  the  action  of  quick- 
lime formed  in  the  furnace,  is 
boiled  down  by  the  waste  heat 
of  the  furnace.  The  crystals  of 
Na2C03H20  that  separate  are 
heated  in  a  kiln  to  convert  them 
into  anhydrous  'soda  ash,'  or 
Na2C03;  and  the  'red  liquors' 
remaining  are  either  worked  up 
for  caustic  soda  or  carbonated  by 
furnace  gases. 

The  Leblanc  process  has  been 
largely  superseded  by  the  Solvay 
or  'ammonia-soda'  process.  In 
the  Solvay  process  water  is  first 
saturated  with  common  salt  and 
then  with  ammonia;  the  resulting 
ammoniacal  brine  is  filtered, 
cooled,  and  pumped  into  tall  iron 
cylinders,  divided  into  a  number 
of  compartments  by  perforated 
horizontal  shelves.  Up  this  tower 
a  stream  of  carbon  dioxide  is 
forced,  bubbling  through  the 
liquid  in  numerous  streams 
through  the  holes  in  the  shelves, 
with  the  result  that  it  is  absorbed, 
and  sodium  hydrogen  carbonate 
formed,  NaCl  -f  NHs  -f  H2O  + 
CO2  =  NaHC03  +  NH4CI.  The 
sodium  hydrogen  carbonate  .sepa- 
rates in  fine  crystals,  so  that,  when 
the  resulting  sludge  is  drawn  off 
through  filters,  the  crystals  are 


retained  and  the  solution  of  am- 
monium chloride  passes  on.  The 
crystals  are  dried  and  heated,  by 
which  they  are  converted  into 
sodium  carbonate,  2NaHC03  = 
Na2C03  +  H2O  -f  CO2.  The  am- 
monium  chloride  is  heated  with 
lime,  re-forming  ammonia  to  be 
used  again,  2NH4Ci  =  CaO  = 
CaCl2  -f  2NH3  +  H2O;  while  the 
carbon  dioxide  from  the  lime  kilns 
provides  the  necessary  carbon  di- 
oxide for  the  main  reaction  of  the 
process.  The  principal  defect  of 
the  method  is  the  waste  of  the 
chlorine  of  the  salt,  which  be- 
comes locked  up  in  the  almost 
useless  calcium  chloride. 

The  ammonia-soda  process  may 
in  its  turn  be  superseded  by  more 
direct  electrolytic  methods,  in 
which  salt,  either  in  solution  or 
fused,  is  decomposed  by  an  electric 
current,  2NaCl=  2Na -f- CI2,  and 
the  resulting  sodium  converted, 
usually  simultaneously,  into  caus- 
tic soda  by  water,  2Na  -1-  2H2O  = 
2NaOH  -(-  H2,  or  into  sodium  car- 
bonate by  water  and  carbon  di- 
oxide, 2Na  -f  H2O  -f  CO2  =  Nas 
CO3  -f-  H2.  Of  the  electrolytic  pro- 
cesses  there  are  two  main  types— 
(1)  Castner- Kellner,  Rhodin,  and 
Hargreaves-Bird,  in  which  a  solu' 
tion  of  salt  is  electrolyzed  in  a  cell 
divided  by  a  porous  diaphragm 
to  separate  the  products  formed 
(in  this  class  also  is  the  Aussig 
*  Beir  process  in  which  the  separa- 
tion  of  the  products  is  accom-* 
plished  by  gravity  instead  of  a 
diaphragm);  and  (2)  those  in 
which  the  sodium  set  free  is  col- 
lected in  a  metallic  solvent,  such 
as  mercury  for  a  solution  of  salt, 
or  molten  lead  (Acker  process)  if 
fused  salt  is  employed,  this  being 
subsequently  removed  as  caustic 
soda  by  the  action  of  steam.  The  « 
advantage  of  these  processes  is 
that  valuable  chlorine  gas  is  ob- 
tained simultaneously. 

Sodium  carbonate,  when  an- 
hydrous, is  a  white  opaque  solid, 
soluble  in  water,  forming  an  alka- 
line solution,  which  when  boiled 
down  deposits  a  salt  of  the  for- 
mula Na2C03H20.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  hot  saturated 
solution  is  allowed  to  cool,  'soda 
crystals,'  or  washing  soda,  Na2 
CO3IOH2O,  separates  in  large 
translucent  monoclinic  prisms. 
When  acted  on  by  carbon  dioxide 
the  acid  salt,  sodium  bicarbonate, 
NaHCOs,  is  obtained;  this  is 
similar  to  the  carbonate,  into 
which  it  is  readily  converted 
again  on  heating.  Sodium  car- 
bonate is  employed  in  the  scour, 
ing  of  textiles,  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  soap  and  glass,  and  ir 
general  in  most  cases  where  a 
soluble  alkali  is  required.  Sodium 
bicarbonate  is  used  in  medicine 
as  an  antacid,  and,  on  account  of 
the  large  amount  of  carbon  di- 
oxide that  is  readily  set  free  from 
it  by  acids  or  by  heating,  it  is  an 
Vol.  XL— 32-M. 


Sodium 


290 


Soils 


important  component  of  Seidlitz 
powders  and  other  effervescing 
mixtures,  and  of  baking  powder. 

Sodium  hydroxide,  or  caustic 
soda,  NaOH,  is  also  largely  pre- 
pared by  boiling  sodium  carbon- 
ate solution  with  milk  of  lime, 
Na2C03  +  Ca(OH)2  =  CaC03+ 
2NaOH.  When  the  reaction  is 
complete,  the  insoluble  calcium 
carbonate  is  allowed  to  settle, 
and  the  clear  solution  is  boiled 
down  until  it  solidifies  on  cooling, 
when  it  is  cast  in  sticks  or  drums. 
The  product  obtained  is  a  white 
solid,  that  fuses  below  a  red  heat, 
and  readily  dissolves  in  water, 
with  considerable  evolution  of 
heat,  to  a  syrupy  liquid  with  in- 
tensely alkaline  and  caustic  prop- 
erties. It  is  chiefly  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  soap,  for  scour- 
ing, and  as  a  caustic  alkali. 

Sodium  peroxide,  Na202,  is  pre- 
pared by  heating  the  metal  in  air 
in  aluminium  vessels.  It  is  a 
yellow  powder  that  acts  as  a  pow- 
erful oxidizing  agent;  and  as  it  is 
decomposed  by  water  and  acids, 
with  the  formation  of  hydro- 
gen peroxide,  Na202  +  2HC1  = 
2NaCl  +  2H2O2,  it  is  largely  em- 
ployed for  bleaching  purposes. 

Sodium  chloride,  or  common 
salt,  NaCl,  is  the  principal  nat- 
ural compound  of  sodium,  and 
the  source  of  sodium,  chlorine, 
and  their  derivatives.    See  Salt. 

Sodium  nitrate,  or  Chile  salt- 
petre, NaNOa,  occurs  in  large 
quantities  as  'caliche'  in  certain 
rainless  districts  in  S.  America, 
and  is  purified  by  crystallization. 
It  forms  rhombohedral  crystals 
closely  approximating  to  cubes, 
»  is  very  soluble  in  water,  and  is 
largely  employed  as  a  fertilizer, 
and  for  the  preparation  of  nitric 
acid  and  sodium  nitrite. 

Sodium  sulphate  is  prepared 
by  the  Leblanc  process,  and  is  a 
crystalline  solid  that  separates 
from  solution,  combined  with 
ten  molecules  of  water,  as  Glau- 
ber's salt,  Na2SO4l0H2O.  It 
efiioresces  in  air,  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass,  and  as  an 
adulterant  of  washing  soda.  In 
medicine  it  acts  as  a  valuable 
purgative,  being  very  useful  in 
the  treatment  of  constipation  and 
gout. 

Sodium  sulphite,  Na2S037H20, 
is  obtained  by  the  action  of  sul- 
phur dioxide  on  sodium  carbon- 
ate, and  forms  large  crystals  that 
effloresce,  owing  to  the  formation 
of  sodium  sulphate  by  oxidation. 
It  is  largely  used  as  a  preserva- 
tive for  photographic  developers. 

Sodium  thiosulphate,  or  hypo- 
sulphite ('hypo'),  Na2S2035H20, 
is  another  sodium  compound 
largely  used  in  photography  and 
in  leaching  some  varieties  of  silver 
ore.  It  is  prepared  by  heating 
sulphur  with  sodium  sulphite 
solution,  and  crystallizes  in 
monoclinic  crystals  that  are  very 
soluble  in  water,  in  which  they 
dissolve  with  considerable  reduc- 


tion of  temperature.  It  is  em- 
ployed in  photography  for  'fixing' 
— i.e.  for  removing  the  silver 
halides  unacted  on  that  are  left 
in  the  plate,  film,  or  paper  after 
the  image  is  sufficiently  devel- 
oped. This  action  depends  on 
the  formation  of  a  soluble  double 
thiosulphate  with  the  silver — • 
e.g.  Na2S203  +  AgCl  =  NaAgS203 
+  NaCl.  In  treating  silver  ores, 
the  silver  compound  is  converted 
into  a  soluble  thiosulphate  of  sil- 
ver and  sodium,  which  is  re- 
moved by  washing  with  water, 
the  silver  being  ultimately  pre- 
cipitated and  refined.  Sodium 
thiosulphate  is  also  used  as  an 
'antichlor'  to  remove  chlorine 
that  may  have  been  left  after 
bleaching  fabrics  such  as  paper 
by  its  aid.  For  other  compounds 
of  sodium,  see  Borax  and  Sol- 
uble Glass,  and  the  acids  of 
which  they  are  salts;  see  also 
under  Alkali. 

Sodium  Cliloride.  See  Salt, 
Common. 

Sodom.  See  Apple  OF  Sodom. 

Sodoma,  II  (1477-1549),  the 
cognomen  of  Gianantonio  Bazzi. 
In  1497  he  went  to  Milan,  and 
became  a  follower  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci;  four  years  later  he  settled 
in  Siena.  His  finest  early  works 
are  the  twenty-six  frescoes  of  the 
life  of  St.  Benedict  at  Monte  Oli- 
veto.  In  1507  he  painted  a  ceil- 
ing in  the  Vatican.  The  Madonna 
and  Saints,  in  the  National  Gal- 
lery, painted  about  this  time, 
shows  Leonardesque  influence. 
Siena  possesses  his  masterpieces, 
the  frescoes  in  the  Chapel  of  St. 
Catherine  in  San  Domenico 
(1526).  A  poetical  painter,  he  at 
times  rivals  Leonardo  in  the 
grace  of  his  women.  Vasari  gives 
an  exaggerated  account  of  his 
profligate  life,  and  undervalues 
his  art.  See  Life,  by  Jansen 
(1870)  and  Cust  (1906). 

Sodom  and  Gomorrali,  two 
of  the  'cities  of  the  plain'  de- 
stroyed by  fire  from  heaven  for 
their  immorality  (Gen.  19:  24); 
located  by  some  authorities  to 
the  north  of  the  Dead  Sea  and 
by  others  to  the  south.  There  is 
no  Biblical  support  for  the  idea 
that  the  cities  stood  upon  the  site 
now  occupied  by  the  lake  and  are 
submerged  in  its  waters. 

Sodor  and  Man.    See  Man. 

Soederblom,  Nathan  (1866- 
1931),  Swedish  ecclesiastic,  arch- 
bishop of  Upsala.  From  1894  to 
1901  he  was  rector  of  the  Swedish 
Church  in  Paris.  He  held  the 
chair  of  Comparative  Theology 
at  the  University  of  Leipzig, 
1912-14,  and  for  some  years  was 
professor  of  Relative  History  at 
the  University  of  Upsala,  of 
which  he  was  also  prochancellor. 
An  outstanding  pillar  of  the 
Lutheran  Church,  he  wrote 
numerous  works,  was  a  master  of 
ten  languages,  and  was  awarded 
the  Nobel  Peace  Prize  in  1930  for 
his  untiring  efforts  to  unify  the 


churches  in  the  struggle  for  uni- 
versal peace.  He  was  an  author- 
ity on  Asiatic  religions  and  made 
translations  from  Indian,  Persian 
and  Chinese. 

Soest,  tn.,  Prussia,  prov.  West- 
phalia, 28  m.  by  rail.  E.  of  Dort- 
mund; manufactures  machinery, 
hats,  cigars,  and  beer.  In  the 
middle  ages  it  was  one  of  the 
members  of  the  Hanseatic 
League.  Sir  Peter  Lely,  the 
painter,  was  born  here  in  1618. 
Pop.  (1925)  21,038. 

Sofala,  a  former  native  state  on 
s.E.  coast  of  Africa,  from  mouth 
of  Zambezi  to  Delagoa  Bay;  now 
part  of  Portuguese  E.  Africa. 
The  seaport,  Sofala,  has  been 
superseded  by  Beira. 

Soffit,  or  Intrados,  the  under 
surface  of  an  arch  ring  or  similar 
structure.   See  Arch. 

Sofia  (Bulg.  Sredets),  city,  cap. 
of  Bulgaria,  in  a  fine  plain  at  n. 
foot  of  Rhodope  Mts.  It  has 
been  largely  rebuilt  within  recent 
years,  the  streets  converging 
upon  the  palace.  Exports  hides, 
maize,  linen,  cloth,  and  silk.  It 
is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  Orthodox 
metropolitan  and  of  a  university, 
and  has  hot  mineral  springs.  Its 
ancient  name  was  Serdica.  There, 
in  343  A.D.,  a  famous  church 
council  was  held ;  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks  in  1382.  Pop. 
(1926),  213,002. 

Soft  Grass,  a  genus  (Holcus) 
of  hardy  grasses,  with  loose  pani- 
cles of  two-flowered  spikelets. 

Sogdiana,  anciently  a  region 
of  Central  Asia,  bounded  by  the 
Oxus  on  the  s.  and  the  Jaxartes 
(Syr  Daria)  on  the  n.;  west- 
wards it  extended  nearly  to  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  eastwards  to 
the  land  of  the  Sacae  and  Seres. 
It  comprised  the  kingdom  of  Bo- 
khara, and  was  conquered  by 
Alexander  in  330  B.C.  It  is  now 
a  Soviet  Republic. 

Sogne  Fjord,  an  indentation 
on  w.  coast  of  Norway,  136  m. 
long,  terminating  in  the  Lyster 
Fjord,  2}4  to  4:}4  m.  broad,  and 
over  4,000  ft.  deep,  everywhere 
surrounded  by  steep  rocky  walls. 
It  has  numerous  winding 
branches — Aurland  Fjord,  and 
Naro  Fjord  to  the  south,  and 
Sogndal  Fjord  and  Fjarland  Fiord 
to  the  north,  the  latter  penetrat- 
ing to  the  glaciers  of  Jostedals- 
bra.  It  is  a  favorite  region  for 
tourists. 

Sofaiar  (anc.  Mazun),  seapt., 
Oman,  S.E.  Arabia,  on  Gulf  of 
Oman,  120  m.  w.n.w.  of  Muscat. 

Soignies,  tn.,  Hainault  prov., 
Belgium,  22  m.  by  rail  s.w.  of 
Brussels;  has  an  old  abbey  church 
and  flax-spinning  and  bleaching. 
Pop.  (1925)  10,676. 

Soils  are  the  loose  materials 
resulting  from  the  decay  (physi- 
cal and  chemical  decomposition) 
of  rocks,  into  which  the  roots  of 
plants  penetrate  and  from  which 
they  derive  the  supplies  both  of 
moisture  and  plant-food  needed 


Vol.  XL— 32-M. 


Soils 

for  their  growth.   As  a  rule,  soils 

contain  also  the  remnants  from 

the  decay  of  vegetable  and  animal 
matter  grown  in  and  upon  them, 
called  vegetable  mould  or  humus. 
All  good  agricultural  soils  should 
contain  from  one-half  to  three  or 
more  per  cent,  of  humus.  The 
rest  consists  of  sand  and  powdery 
matter  of  various  degrees  of  fine- 
ness, together  with  a  certain 
amount  of  clay,  varying  from  one 
to  as  much  as  fifty  per  cent,  of  the 
whole.  According  to  the  propor- 
tions of  these  ingredients,  soils  are 
classified  by  farmers  as  light  or 
heavy;  referring  not  to  the  actual 


291 

greatly  hastens  and  facilitates  the 
chemical  effects. 

P  hys  tea  I  Disintegration.  — 
Changes  of  temperature  alone 
produce  striking  results  upon 
rocks  consisting  of  several  min- 
erals, as  they  mostly  are.  Heat 
expands,  cold  contracts,  these 
minerals  differently  and  in  differ- 
ent directions.  Thus  minute 
crevices  are  formed,  which  are 
gradually  widened  by  wetting  and 
freezing,  as  well  as  by  the  falling- 
in  of  dust;  so  that  finally  the 
surface  layer  crumbles  off,  leaving 
the  same  process  to  be  repeated 
indefinitely.   On  level  plateaus  or 


SoUs 

usualljr  show  shades  of  gradual 
transition.  Colluvial  or  hillside 
upland  soils  usually  contain  both 
angular  and  partly  rounded  frag- 
ments of  the  several  kinds  of 
rocks  occurring  on  the  hillsides. 
Alluvial  soils,  whose  materials  are 
usually  derived  from  extensive 
drainage  areas  with  many  kinds  of 
rocks,  contain  mostly  or  altogether 
rock  fragments  rounded  by  rclling 
and  mutual  grinding  and.  polish- 
ing while  being  carried;  that  is, 
cobble,  shingle  or  pebbles,  gravel, 
and  sand.  During  their  progress 
down-stream  these  also  scour  and 
abrade  the  bed  and  banks  of  the 


Nard  Fjord,  a  Branch  of  Sogne  Fjord,  at  Gudvangen. 

(Photo  by  Fradelle  &  Young.) 


weights  of  the  soils,  but  to  the 
facility  in  working  them.  Broadly 
speaking,  light  soils  are  those 
containing  much  sand,  or  humus, 
or  both;  while  heavy  soils  are 
those  containing  much  clay. 
Intermediate  between  sandy  and 
clayey  soils  are  mixtures  of  the 
two  called  loams,  which  are  gener- 
ally preferred  for  culture  purposes. 

The  decay  or  'weathering'  of 
rocks  by  which  soils  are  formed  is 
brought  about  by  two  kinds  of 
agencies,  physical  (or  mechanical) 
and  chemical.  The  former  are 
usually  first  in  order  of  time,  and 
bring  about  the  more  or  less  fine 
pulverization  of  rocks;  which  then 


gently  sloping  lands  the  debris 
may  remain  where  formed,  and 
so  produce  'soils  in  place'  or 
sedentary  soils.  On  more  sloping 
surfaces  rains  and  gravity  will 
move  them  down  the  slopes, 
forming  hillside  uplands  or  col- 
luvial lands;  and  finally  they  may 
be  washed  into  the  streams,  to  be 
deposited  in  the  valleys  and  form 
alluvial  soils.  The  latter  are  gen- 
erally the  most  productive,  as  they 
consist  of  the  finest  particles 
formed  in  weathering. 

Sedentary  soils  contain  only 
angular  fragments  of  the  original 
underlying  rock  from  which  they 
were  formed,  and  into  which  they 


streams,  thus  adding  still  farther 
to  the  load  of  sediment  carried  and 
finally  deposited.  The  latter  is 
thus  naturally  of  quite  a  general- 
ized composition.    (See  Fig.  3.) 

Glacier  A  ction. — While  the  flow- 
ing water  of  hillside  rills  and 
streams  is  at  present  most  active 
in  pulverizing  rocks,  in  the  past 
flowing  ice  has  produced  pro- 
digious effects  by  its  grinding 
power  when  charged  with  rocks, 
as  it  always  is  where  glaciers 
descend  from  high  mountains. 
Glaciers  have  been  much  more 
extended  in  former  times  than 
now,  and  wherever  a  stream 
originates  in  a  glacier  we  find  it 


Soils 

carrying  a  large  amount  of  very 
fine  sediment,  which  when  depos- 
ited becomes  a  soil  very  rapidly. 
Such  glacial  soils  constitute  some 
of  the  most  fertile  lands  known, 
such  as  are  found  in  the  north 
central  United  States,  in  southern 
Sweden,    and    elsewhere  where 


292 

chiefly  on  black  rocks  (which  con- 
tain low  oxides  of  iron),  and  by 
oxidation  produces  'red'  soils. 
The  increase  of  bulk  caused  by 
this  oxidation  also  serves  to  dis- 
rupt rocks  mechanicallv.  Finally, 
•water  dissolves  all  rocks  more  or 
less. 


Soils 

their  action  the  nitrogen  of  the 
vegetable  matter  is  concentrated 
in  the  humus,  to  be  afterwards 
prepared  for  the  use  of  plants  by 
still  other  bacteria,  forming  am- 
monia and  nitric  acid,  which  are 
directly  absorbed  by  plants  to 
produce  the  flesh-forming  ('ulbu- 
minoid')  part  of  their  substance. 
Only  a  few  plants— those  of  the 
legume  relationship  —  can  do 
Without  the  nitrogen  derived  from 
the  soil-humus.  Humus  is  also 
powerfully  absorbent  of  moisture; 
It  helps  to  loosen  the  soil  and  to 
maintain  the  soil-crumbs  formed 
in  tillage.  It  is  thus  a  highly 
important  soil  ingredient. 

Soil  and  Subsoil. — Humus  is  the 
distinguishing  constituent  of  the 
'surface  soil,'  especially  in  the 
humid  regions  of  abundant  rain- 
fall, where  the  'subsoil'  usually 
contains  only  a  trace  of  humus 
below  six  to  nine  inches.  In  the 
same  regions,  the  subsoil  is 
always  more  clayey  than  the  sur- 
face soil,  thus  resisting  the  pene- 
tration of  roots,  and  of  water  and 
air.  Hence  such  subsoils  are 
'raw'  and  ill  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  vegetation;  if  brought 
to  the  surface  they  spoil  the  seed- 
bed for  several  years.  In  the  arid 
or  regions  of  deficient  rainfall,  on 
the  contrary,  the  difference  be- 
tween soil  and  subsoil  is  largely 
obliterated,  because  much  less 
clay  and  humus  are  formed  there; 
and  the  soils  are  mostly  powdery 
or  sandy,  allowing  of  the  pene- 
tration of  water,  air,  and  roots  to 
great  depths.  Humus  there  is 
mainly  formed  from  the  decay  of 
roots,  and  with  these  may  reach  to 
depths  of  twelve  and  more  feet. 
Hence  there  is  usually  in  the  arid 
regions  no  restriction  upon  the 
depth  to  which  lands  may  be 
ploughed,  or  levelled  for  irrigation. 

Sour  Humus. — Where  there  is 
an  excess  of  water  in  the  soil,  as  in 
swamps  and  marshes,  a  brown, 
sour  humus  is  formed,  which  is  ill 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  useful 
crops  until  the  prolonged  action  of 
air,  and  the  use  of  lime  or  marl, 
have  corrected  the  acidity.  Soils 
poor  in  lime  also  become  acid  by 
long  cultivation.  The  'sour' 
grasses  and  herbage  grown  on 
sour  soils  are  of  inferior  value  as 
forage. 

Soil  Bacteria. — Countless  num- 
bers of  bacteria  of  many  kinds  are 
continually  active  in  soils,  and  are 
highly  essential  to  successful 
farming.  The  beneficial  effects  of 
stable  manure  are  quite  as  largely 
due  to  the  bacteria  and  bacterial 
food  it  brings  into  the  land  as  to 
the  plant-food  it  supplies  in  addi- 
tion to  the  humus  formed  in  its 
decay.  The  most  useful  bacteria 
are  those  which  require  abundant 
access  of  air  for  their  growth;  and 
tillage  is  beneficial  for  this  reason 
as  well  as  for  many  others. 

Among   the    most  important 


Fig.  1. — The  Zermatt  Glacier. 
(From  Hilgard's  Soils.) 


'glacial  drift'  forms  the  founda- 
tion of  the  lands. 

Winds. — Finally,  winds  contrib- 
ute to  soil  formation,  not  only  by 
transporting  the  weathered  por- 
tions of  rocks,  but  also  by  acting 
like  the  'sand-blasts'  used  to 
engrave  glass;  cutting  away  the 
softer  portions  of  rock  beds,  as 
well  as  the  windward  sides  of 
pebbles.  Rock  pillars  shaped  by 
winds  are  often  seen  in  the  Western 
United  States,  and  much  of  the 
soils  of  the  Great  Plains  is  of 
wind-drift  or  '  aeolian'  origin. 

Chemical  Agencies  of  Soil- 
formation.  —  Rock  -  surfaces  and 
rock-powders  are  also  acted  upon 
chemically  by  the  atmosphere, 
notably  by  the  carbonic  acid, 
oxygen  and  water  present.  Car- 
bonic acid  forms  carbonates  from 
the  rock  silicates  and  partly  sets 
silica  free,  partly  leaves  it  to  form 
clay  with  alumina  and  water 
present.  In  rainy  cUmates  the 
water  -  soluble  carbonates  and 
other  salts  of  potash,  soda,  lime 
and  magnesia  are  mostly  leached 
out,  passing  into  the  drainage  and 
finally  into  the  sea.  Iii  arid  cH- 
mates  (those  having  no  summer 
rains)  these  compounds  remain 
partially  or  wholly  in  the  land, 
forming  soils  rich  in  plant  food, 
especially  lime  and  potash,  but 
sometimes  marred  by  an  excess  of 
soluble  salts  ('alkali'). 

The  oxygen  of  the  air  acts 


When  plants  grow  on  the  soils 
their  roots  secrete  carbonic  acid, 
vhich  acts  strongly  on  the  soil 
minerals;  the  decay  of  vegetation 
also  contributes  carbonic  acid,  as 
well  as  other  acids  resulting  from 
the  formation  of  humus.  Thus  the 
chemical  processes  of  weathering 
continue,  with  increased  intensity, 
within  the  soil  itself;  producing 
the  results  known  to  attend  the 
practice  of  'fallowing.' 


Fig.  2. — A  crumb  of  soil  (magni- 
fied). The  white  spaces  represent 
air. 

(From  Hilgard's  Soils.) 

Formation  of  Humus. — The 
formation  of  humus  is  now  known 
to  be  effected  chiefly  by  the 
agency  of  fungous  growths,  espe- 
cially moulds  and  bacteria.  Under 


Soils 


293 


Soili 


soil-bacteria  are  those  which  suc- 
cessively transform  the  nitrogen 
of  humus  into  ammonia,  nitrous, 
and  nitric  acids,  which  can  be 
utilized  by  plants;  and  those 
which  cause  the  formation  of 
excrescences  on  the  roots  of 
legumes  (clovers,  peas,  beans,  etc.), 
enabling  these  plants  to  utilize  the 
nitrogen  of  the  air,  and  thus  also 


time  and  labor  bestowed  upon 
the  process  of  separation.  Or, 
after  kneading  or  boiling  the  soil, 
we  can  pass  through  the  turbid 
mixture  upward  currents  of  wa- 
ter of  graded  velocities,  carrying 
off  the  several  grain-sizes  suc- 
cessively, and  then  drying  and 
weighing  each.  Such  a  phys- 
ical  analysis,'    usually  showmg 

UPLAND 
Plateau 

I  g;-'«l     Sedeniartf  .Sc'il 

tR&J'rl I-! ■  -  ir It'. -I  r)  r' r ' r ' t^^^vX, 


of  the  microscope.  Chemical 
analysis  may  thus  often  be  ren- 
dered unnecessary. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Soils. 
— The  importance  of  the  chemi- 
cal composition  of  soils  rests  upon 
the  fact  that  plants  must  be  able 
to  derive  their  mineral  or  ash- 
ingredients  from  the  soil,  and 
that  if  these  are  either  absent, 


LOWLAND 

Alluvial 


J^^^S-C-S^v^/c^^t^^H^fL-^  Alluvial  1 

^^):^<'^'^^y'yU^'^}^  ^     »ood  Plain,     „    ^  yd. 

Fig.  3. — Diagram  showing  the  genetic  relations  of  the  different  soil  classes. 

(From  Hilgard's  Soils.) 


to  enrich  the  soil  itself  by  the 
decay  of  their  roots.  Their 
activity  is  greatest  in  soils  rich  in 
lime,  on  which  legumes  are 
naturally  found  most  commonly. 

Moulds  and  other  fungous 
growths  also  help  in  the  decay  of 
vegetable  matter,  and  aid  in  sup- 
plying its  nitrogen  to  higher 
plants,  by  'symbiosis'  with  their 
roots. 

Physical  Composition  of  Soils. 
— Since  the  ready  penetration  of 
roots,  water,  and  air  into  the  soil 
are  high  essentials  of  thrifty 
plant-growth,  and  such  penetra- 
tion depends  mainly  upon  the 
sizes  of  the  grains  composing 
the  soils,  it  is  very  desirable  to 
ascertain  at  least  approximately 
the  composition  of  soils  in  these 
respects.  This  can  be  done  in 
various  ways. 


the  amounts  of  each  of  six  to 
twelve  grain-sizes,  and  of  clay, 
gives  a  very  definite  idea  of  the 
tilling  qualities  of  the  soil. 

But  for  practical  purposes  a 
sufficiently  close  estimate  can 
usually  be  obtained  by  observing, 
first,  the  ease  with  which  the  dry 
soil-lumps  can  be  crushed  be- 
tween the  fingers,  and  the  effects 
of  water  upon  such  lumps.  If 
the  water  is  taken  up  rapidly 
and  causes  the  lump  to  crumble, 
the  soil  will  be  easy  to  till;  while 
if  the  water  wets  the  lumps  slowly 
and  does  not  cause  them  to 
crumble,  the  land  is  heavy  and 
refractory  in  cultivation.  The 
wetted  soil  may  then  be  kneaded 
on  the  palm  of  the  hand,  when 
the  degree  of  'stickiness'  ac- 
quired will  indicate  how  it  will 
act  when  ploughed  wet,  or  under 


or  present  only  in  minute  amounts 
or  in  unavailable  form,  normal 
plant-growth  is  impossible.  Ex- 
perience has  long  ago  proved 
that  the  ash-ingredients,  as  well 
as  nitrogen,  require  replacement 
in  'the  soil  after  cropping  has 
continued  for  some  time.  Such 
replacement  constitutes  manuring. 

^Rich'  and  ''Poor'  Soils.  — - 
It  is  obvious  that  soils  naturally 
rich  in  plant-food  require  this 
replacement  to  a  less  extent  and 
only  after  a  longer  time  than 
'poor'  soils,  for  which  we  are 
in  the  habit  of  paying  only  a 
small  price.  But  while  it  is  true 
that  soils  having  high  percentages 
of  the  four  chief  substances  to 
be  considered — potash,  lime,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  nitrogen — are 
invariably  highly  productive,  pro- 
vided physical  conditions  are  not 


Fig.  4. — Land  before  and  after  ploughing. 
(From  Hilgard's  Soils.) 


Physical  Analysis. — Sieves  of 
various  mesh-sizes  may  be  used 
to  separate  the  several  grades  of 
gravel,  sand,  and  silt  (fine  pow- 
dery material)  from  one  another 
for  examination  and  for  determi- 
nation of  their  proportions.  The 
finest  of  all,  clay,  can  be  sepa- 
rated only  by  means  of  water. 
The  soil  after  wetting  and  knead- 
ing is  stirred  up  in  water,  when 
the  sands  and  silts  will  settle 
down  more  or  less  rapidly,  ac- 
cording to  their  sizes;  while  the 
true  clay  will  remain  suspended 
for  a  long  time.  We  can  thus 
gain  an  estimate  of  the  physical 
constitution  of  any  soil,  more  or 
less  accurate  according  to  the 


the  treading  of  cattle.  While 
kneading,  the  kind  and  amount 
of  sand  in  the  soil  can  also  be 
observed   and  considered. 

An  examination  of  the  sand 
grains  with  a  magnifying  lens 
will  show  what  kinds  of  minerals 
have  chiefly  contributed  to  the 
soil,  and  what  is  likely  to  be  its 
character,  and  its  deficiencies  in 
the  matter  of  mineral  plant-food 
ingredients.  This  of  course  re- 
quires some  knowledge  of  min- 
eralogy and  rock  composition. 
In  general,  the  minerals  present 
in  large  grains  are  also  those 
from  which  the  soil  has  mainly 
been  formed,  and  can  also  be 
found  in  the  fine  dust  by  means 


adverse,  it  is  not  true  that  those 
with  low  percentages  of  the  same 
are  necessarily  poor  producers. 
Soils  of  great  depth  and  ready 
penetrabilitv  may  be  highly  pro- 
ductive with  only  relatively  small 
amounts  of  the  plant-food  in- 
gredients, if  these  are  rightly  pro- 
portioned and  in  sufficiently 
available  form.  Roots  can  adapt 
themselves  to  the  utilization  of  a 
wider  range  of  relatively  poor 
material,  just  as  a  grazing  animal 
can  thrive  on  a  large  area  of 
comparatively  thin  pasture.  The 
results  of  a  chemical  soil  analysis 
cannot,  therefore,  like  that  of  an 
ore,  be  judged  upon  the  per- 
centage basis  alone.    They  must 


Soils 


294 


Soils 


be  judged  by  an  expert  in  con- 
nection with  a  full  knowledge  of 
all  the  physical  conditions,  which 
if  unfavorable  may  render  the 
chemically  richest  soil  unprofita- 
ble in  cultivation,  but  which  if 
favorable  may  render  even  a 
(chemically)  poor  soil  highly 
profitable.  A  combination  of 
favorable  physical  and  chemical 
conditions  is  of  course  the  most 
desirable;  but  the  chemical  condi- 
tions can,  as  a  rule,  be  measurably 
controlled  by  proper  methods 
of  culture,  fertilization,  etc.,  more 
readily  than  physical  faults,  such 
as  lack  of  depth,  excessive  heavi- 
ness, improper  substrata,  etc. 

Chemical  Soil-analysis. — There 
is  not,  unfortunately,  anj  general 
agreement  among  chemists  as  to 
methods  of  soil-analysis,  notably 
as  to  the  mode  of  preparing  the 
soil-solution  to  be  analyzed.  Some 
use  weak,  some  strong,  hydro- 
chloric, nitric,  and  other  acids, 
hot  or  cold,  for  a  longer  or  shorter 
time,  and  the  results  obtained 
from  the  same  soil  differ  widely 
accordingly.  It  is  known  that 
only  a  small  proportion  of  the 
plant-food  existing  in  soils  is  in 
a  form  available  to  plants  at  any 
one  time,  but  the  efforts  to  deter- 
mine the  immediate  productive- 
ness of  soils  chemically  have  not 
been  very  successful.  It  is  other- 
wise with  the  permanent  produc- 
tive value,  which  ordinarily  deter- 
mines the  market  price  of  agricul- 
tural lands.  Some  results  of 
analyses  made  for  the  latter  pur- 
pose in  accordance  with  the 
writer's  views,  by  letting  hot 
hydrochloric  acid  act  on  the  soil 
until  the  extraction  of  plant-food 
ceases,  are  given  below. 


No.  3  is  productive  because  of 
its  great  depth  and  a  higher 
content  of  lime  and  phosphoric 
acid  than  No.  4,  which  is  very 
shallow.  In  heavy  clay  soils, 
lime  must  rise  above  .6  per  cent., 
but  in  very  sandy  soils  may  range 
as  low  as  .1  per  cent,  to  cause 
luxuriant  plant  growth,  and  to 
render  small  amounts  of  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid  adequate. 

Lime,  more  than  any  other 
ingredient  save  moisture,  controls 
the  character  of  the  native  vege- 
tation and  crop  -  adaptation  of 
lands;  and  lime-loving  vegetation 
serves  farmers  as  an  unfailing 
indication  of  fertile  soils.  Ordi- 
narily, potash  should  not  fall 
below  .4  per  cent.;  phosphoric 
acid  not  below  .1  per  cent.,  .05  per 
cent,  being  considered  the  low- 
est limit  of  adequacy.  Nitrogen 
should  not  fall  below  .1  per  cent. 
in  the  soil,  and  should  reach  4  per 
cent,  within  the  humus  itself. 
In  the  arid  regions  nitrogen  some- 
times reaches  up  to  20  per  cent, 
in  the  humus  proper,  but  the  total 
amount  of  humus  is  mostly  quite 
small,  down  even  to  .2  per  cent.; 
while  in  the  humid  regions  it 
ranges  from  2  to  5  per  cent,  in  the 
soil. 

Soils  of  arid  and  humid  regions. 
There  is  a  material  difference  in 
the  physical  and  chemical  nature 
of  tne  soils  of  the  regions  of 
abundant  and  of  deficient  rain 
fall.  In  the  former,  the  soluble 
products  of  weathering  are 
washed  into  the  country  drainage 
and  the  sea,  while  in  the  arid  soils 
these  products  remain  and  accu- 
mulate. Hence  we  find  in  the 
latter  a  comparatively  large  per- 
centage of  potash,  lime,  and  mag- 


and  are  usually  of  much  greater 
depth.  Also,  owing  to  the  slight 
formation  of  plastic  clay,  these 
soils  are  penetrated  bv  roots  to 
much  greater  depths  than  in  the 
regions  of  summer  rains;  and 
thus  the  lands  of  the  arid  region 
are,  when  watered,  on  the  average 
much  richer  and  more  durable 
than  those  of  the  states  east  of 
the  Mississippi.  Sometimes  the 
leaching  of  the  arid  soils  is  not 
sufficient  to  carry  off  the  unde- 
sirable salts  of  sodium  (sea  salts), 
and  then  we  have  the  alkali  soils, 
which  while  very  rich  in  plant- 
food,  are  often  uncultivable  until 
the  noxious  salts  are  removed; 
best  by  underdrainage. 

Sands  in  the  humid  regions  are 
almost  wholly  quartz  grains  con- 
taining no  plant-food;  while  the 
'desert  sancfs'  of  the  arid  region, 
consisting  of  a  great  variety  of 
rninerals,  become  highljr  produc- 
tive so  soon  as  they  are  irrigated, 
or  rained  upon. 

Soil  -  water.  —  Since  growing 
plants  contain  from  about  60  to 
over  90  per  cent,  of  water,  it  is 
evident  tnat  an  adequate  supply 
of  moisture  is  an  indispensable 
condition  of  normal  plant  growth. 
So  much  so  that  it  may  be  said 
that  within  the  limits  of  possible 
production,  and  other  things 
being  equal,  crops  are  directly 
proportional  to  the  amount  of 
water  supplied  during  the  grow- 
ing season;  provided  of  course 
that  the  amount  be  not  excessive. 
It  has  been  found  that  on  the 
average  between  400  and  500 
parts  of  water  are  evaporated  by 
plants  to  produce  one  part  of  dry 
vegetable  matter.  Thus  it  is 
evident  that  the  relations  of  soils 


Insoluble  matter  

Soluble  silica  

Potash  (K2O)  

Soda  (NazO)  

Lime  (CaO)  

Magnesia  (MgO)  

Br.  ox.  of  manganese  (Mn304) 

Peroxide  of  iron  (Fe203)  

Alumina  (AI2O3)  

Phosphoric  acid  (P2O5)  

Sulphuric  acid  (SO3)  

Carbonic  acid  (CO?)  

Water  and  organic  matter.  . .  . 

Total  

Humus  

"     Nitrogen,  per  cent,  in  humus. 

**  "        per  cent,  m  soil. 


No.  1                        No.  2 
Highly  productive. 

No.  3 
Good 
MisBissippi 
Shell  Hammock 
Sandy  Soil 
10  feet  deep 

No.  4 
Very  poor 
Mississippi 
Pine  Meadows 
Sandy  Soil 
1  foot  deep 

Mississippi 
Yazoo  Bottom 
Buckshot  Clay  Soil 
3  feet  deep 

California 
Colorado  Bottom 
Sandy  Soil 
12  feet  deep 

51  . 06  1  71  717 
20.70  i 
1.10 
.33 
1  .35 
1  .67 
.12 
5.82 
10.54 
.30 
.02 

1.18 
.16 
8.67 
2.97 
.03 
4.14 
8.40 
.13 
.15 
7.82 
3.34 
100.89 

96.08 

.05 
.06 
.10 
.12 
.05 
.52 
.46 
.10 

95.59 

.06 
.05 
.02 
.07 
.05 
.46 
.85 
.02 

7.37 
100.38 

3.02 
100.56 

2.28 
99.45 

Few  soils  are  as  rich  as  Nos. 
1  and  2  in  this  table;  few  are  as 
poor  and  unproductive  as  No  4; 
most  cultivated  soils  lie  in  between. 


nesia;  and  although  the  soils  are 
mostly  powdery  or  sandy,  they  are 
fully  as  rich  in  plant-food  as  are 
the  best  soils  of  the  humid  region, 


to  water  are  of  first  importance  to 
cultural  success. 

Hygroscopic  moisture. — All  soils 
absorb  from  the  atmosphere  more 


Soils 


KR 


295 


Sokoto 


or  less  of  water  vapor.  Sandy 
soils  take  up  from  moist  air  from 
13^  to  2^  per  cent,  of  moisture; 
loams  from  4  to  7  per  cent. ;  clay 
soils  from  8  to  12  per  cent.  All 
of  these  will  take  up  much  more 
moisture — up  to  20  per  cent,  and 
over — when  they  contain  much 
humus.  But  the  moisture  so 
taken  up  is  of  importance  to 
plants  only  as  it  prevents,  by  the 
cooling  effect  of  its  evaporation, 
a  too  rapid  drying-out  and  heat- 
ing of  the  soils. 

Capillary  Water. — It  is  the 
liquid  water  held  in  the  spaces 
between  the  soil  particles  that  is 
of  the  most  direct  importance  to 
growing  plants.  The  amount 
of  water  which  a  soil  can  thus 
hold,  and  the  rapidity  with  which 
it  allows  this  water  to  move,  are 
factors  of  greatest  importance. 

Each  soil  as  a  whole  may  be 
likened  to  a  wick;  the  coarser  the 
texture,  the  more  rapidly  the 
oil  or  water  rises.  As  in  a 
close-woven  wick  the  liquid  will 
rise  more  slowly,  but  consider- 
ably higher  in  the  course  of  time, 
so  close-textured  clay  soils  may 
in  time  of  stress  be  unable  to  sup- 
ply water  to  the  roots  fast  enough 
to  prevent  wilting  of  the  leaves, 
even  though  such  soils  will  hold 
in  their  pores  more  water  than 
will  sandy  soils.  The  latter,  on 
the  other  hand,  if  deep,  allow  the 
roots  to  penetrate  more  readily 
to  the  permanently  moist  sub- 
strata, or  to  the  permanent  water 
level  known  as  bottom  water. 

Tillage,  Aeration  and  Crumb 
Structure  of  Soils.  Soils  when 
kneaded  with  water,  ploughed 
wet,  or  beaten  by  rains,  assume 
a  close  ('puddled')  structure,  not 
readily  penetrable  by  water,  air, 
or  roots.  Tillage  is  designed  to 
destroy  this  close  structure,  and 
to  convert  the  soil  into  crumbs 
consisting  of  many  single  soil 
grains  loosely  held  together  by 
the  soil  moisture.  Such  land  is 
in  the  best  condition  for  plant 
growth  when  the  spaces  between 
the  crumbs  are  filled  about  half- 
and-half  with  air  and  water,  for 
roots  need  air  for  their  develop- 
ment and  functions  as  well  as 
water,  as  do  also  the  beneficial 
soil  bacteria.  To  facilitate  pene- 
tration the  soil  should  be  tilled 
deeply  before  planting  or  sowing, 
but  afterward  only  shallow  culti- 
vation should  be  given  to  avoid 
unnecessary  loss  of  water  by 
evaporation.  This  is  especially 
important  in  arid  regions,  where 
it  is  desirable  to  have  on  the 
surface  a  loose-textured  soil- 
mulch,  6  to  8  inches  deep,  which 
during  the  dry,  hot  summers 
will  not  draw  moisture  from 
below,  and  at  the  same  time 
will  prevent  excessive  heating  of 
the  deeper  soil  harboring  the 
roots. 

Tillage  is  not  needed  by  the 
native  vegetation,  because  the 


cover  of  fallen  leaves  prevents 
the  beating-down  of  the  soil  sur- 
face; nor  do  wild  plants  require 
alternation,  such  as  rotation  of 
crops  brings  about  in  farm  prac- 
tice, because  all  their  offal  is  re- 
turned to  the  land  and  no  soil  in- 
gredients are  withdrawn,  as  is 
the  case  when  crops  are  sold 
off  the  farm.  In  cultivated  fields 
the  soil  fertility  sold  in  the  prod- 
uce must  ultimately  be  replaced 
by  the  use  of  fertilizers  (q.  v.). 

Soissons,  swa-son',  (anc. 
Augusta  Suessionum),  town,  de- 
partment of  Aisne,  France,  on 
the  river  Aisne;  65  miles  by  rail 
northeast  of  Paris.  It  has  a  fine 
twelfth  century  cathedral,  and 
the  old  abbeys  of  St.  Jean  des 
Vignes  and  Notre  Dame — the 
two  latter  reduced  to  ruins  by 
German  bombardment  in  1914- 
15.  Tanning  and  iron  founding 
are  important  industries,  and 
there  is  an  extensive  trade  in 
agricultural  products.  Pop.  17,- 
012.  Soissons  was  taken  by  the 
Germans  in  1870,  and  was  the 
scene  of  important  action  in 
the  First  World  War  of  Europe 
(see  Soissons,  Battle  of). 

Soissons,  Battle  of.  At  the 
beginning  of  1915  the  French 
held  the  line  to  which  they  had 
been  forced  back  about  the  end 
of  September,  1914  (see  Aisne, 
First  Battle  of  the).  That  is 
to  say,  they  were  in  possession 
of  Soissons  and  held  the  flat 
lands  to  the  north  up  to  the  slope 
of  the  hills,  including  the  little 
hamlet  of  Cufifies  due  north  of 
Soissons,  Crouy  a  mile  to  the 
east,  and  a  line  east  by  Bucy  to 
Missy,  where  the  hills  come  close 
to  the  river.  They  had  three 
bridges  to  serve  their  front — 
the  important  bridge  at  Soissons, 
a  wooden  bridge  at  Venizel,  and 
another  at  Missy. 

On  Jan.  8  the  French  at  Sois- 
sons— they  formed  Maunoury's 
extreme  right,  and  were  no  more 
than  a  depleted  division  of  about 
12,000  men — launched  an  attack 
upon  Hill  132,  a  spur  of  plateau 
land  between  Cufifies  and  Crouy. 
In  drenching  rain  they  pushed  up 
300  feet,  carried  three  lines  of 
German  trenches  on  a  front  a 
mile  wide,  and  won  the  flat  top 
of  the  hill.  At  the  same  time, 
another  section,  moving  from 
Bucy,  carried  Hill  151,  southeast 
of  Crouy,  which  gave  them  a  sup- 
porting artillery  position.  The 
Germans  failed  to  move  them 
the  following  day,  but  two  days 
later  (Jan.  11)  a  second  counter 
attack  was  launched  in  immense 
force.  On  the  12th  the  Germans 
pressed  hard  all  along  the  front 
while  they  shelled  Soissons.  In 
the  early  evening  the  floods 
broke  down  the  bridge  at  Venizel. 
Sometime  in  the  darkness  the 
bridge  at  Missy  followed,  and  the 
French  were  left  with  no  access 
for  artillery   supplies  to  their 


center  and  right.  They  coun- 
terattacked from  Crouy  in  a 
desperate  effort  to  win  ground, 
but  were  driven  back,  and  on  the 
morning  of  the  13th  found  them- 
selves off  the  slopes  and  down 
on  the  Crouy-Missy  road. 

During  that  day  the  whole 
valley  floor  was  flooded;  the 
French  right  and  center  were 
now  in  the  river  flats,  but  the 
left  was  still  clinging  to  Hill  132 
and  the  village  of  Cufifies.  The 
position  could  not  be  maintained, 
however,  for  40,000  Germans 
were  massed  against  12,000  men, 
and  no  fresh  artillery  supplies 
could  get  across  the  river  in 
time.  Accordingly  a  general 
retreat  was  ordered.  By  the 
evening  of  Jan.  13,  Hill  132  was 
abandoned,  and  the  French  left 
was  south  of  Cufifies. 

By  the  evening  of  the  14th, 
the  whole  French  line  had  fallen 
back  across  the  river;  the  Ger- 
mans had  advanced  their  line  a 
mile  on  a  front  of  three  miles, 
and  held  the  bank  of  the  Aisne 
for  a  mile  east  of  Soissons  as 
far  as  Missy,  driving  a  broad 
and  shallow  wedge  into  the 
French  front.  The  French  had 
lost  about  half  their  strength — 
a  little  over  5,000 — and  perhaps 
a  score  of  field  guns. 

Von  Kluck  had  made  a  good 
beginning,  the  Emperor  was  with 
him,  and  on  Jan.  19  he  made  a 
great  effort  to  take  Soissons. 
Maunoury,  however,  had  no  dif- 
ficulty in  sending  reserves  to 
the  threatened  point,  and  the 
German  advance  was  checked. 

The  Battle  of  Soissons,  though 
it  was  made  much  of  in  the  Ger- 
man press,  was  of  no  lasting 
significance.  It  cost  the  French 
5,000  men  and  some  guns;  Ger- 
man losses  were  at  least  10,000, 
and  the  improvement  in  their 
position  was  slight. 

For  further  actions  in  and 
about  Soissons  see  Aisne,  Bat- 
tles of;  Marne,  Battles  of. 

Sokoto,  s6-k6'to,  formerly  a 
Fulah  empire,  now  a  province  of 
the  British  Colony  and  Protecto- 
rate of  Nigeria  in  Africa.  It  lies 
in  the  northwestern  comer  of 
Nigeria  and  has  an  area,  with 
Gando,  of  about  220,000  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  an  ele- 
vated plain,  traversed  by  a 
range  of  mountains,  and  by 
several  rivers,  some  tributaries 
of  the  Niger,  others  running 
northeast  towards  Lake  Chad. 
The  climate,  although  exceeding- 
ly hot,  is  considered  healthful. 
The  soil  is  fairly  fertile,  and  the 
chief  products  are  cotton,  sugar, 
tobacco,  sweet  potatoes,  yams, 
rice,  onions,  and  dates.  Cattle 
and  horse  l5reeding  are  carried 
on.  The  inhabitants  number, 
with  those  of  Gando,  some  15,- 
000,000.  They  are  mostly 
Hausas,  Fulahs,  and  Negroes, 
and  are  largely  Mohammedan. 


Sokotra 


KR 


296 


Soldering  and  Brazing 


Early  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  Fulahs  under  Imain 
Othman  rose  and  founded  a  great 
empire,  which  lasted  until  1886, 
when  the  Royal  Niger  company, 
by  a  treaty  with  the  Sultan  of 
Sokoto,  gained  power  over  a 
large  part  of  his  dominions.  In 
1900  the  rights  of  the  company 
were  sold  to  the  British  govern- 
ment, and  in  1903,  after  a  some- 
what feeble  rebellion,  Sokoto  was 
forced  to  submit  to  British  rule. 
Sokotra.  See  Socotra. 
Solanaceae,  sol-a-na'si-e,  a 
natural  order  of  trees,  shrubs, 
and  herbaceous  plants,  many  of 
them  natives  of  tropical  regions. 
A  number  of  poisonous  plants 
with  narcotic  properties  are 
members  of  this  order,  including 
the  deadly  nightshade,  henbane, 
bittersweet,  tobacco,  and  thorn 
apple.  Among  other  plants  in 
the  order  are  the  potato,  tomato, 
and  capsicum  (qq.v.).  Among 
the  genera  are  Nicotiana,  Pe- 
tunia, Solanum,  Hyoscyamus, 
and  Atropa. 

Solan  Goose.   See  Gannet. 
Sol'anine,  a  poisonous  alka- 
loid  derived   from  bittersweet 
(q,v.)  and  other  species  of  the 
genus  Solanum.   See  Alkaloids. 

Sola'num,  a  genus  of  shrubs, 
trees,  and  herbaceous  plants,  be- 
longing to  the  order  Solanaceae, 
distributed  all  over  the  world, 
but  particularly  abundant  in 
South  America  and  the  West 
Indies.  They  bear  flowers  usu- 
ally with  five-cleft,  wheel-shaped 
corollas,  followed  by  round  ber- 
ries. Among  the  species  are  5. 
dulcamara,  the  bittersweet  (q.v.) ; 
5.  nigrum,  the  black-berried 
nightshade  (see  Nightshade)  ; 
5.  tuberosum,  the  potato  (q.  v.); 
5.  melongena,  the  egg-plant  (q. 
v.) ;  S.  margianatum  and  5.  pyra- 
canthum,  greenhouse  species. 

Solar  Constant,  the  quantity 
of  energy  arriving  from  the  sun 
in  the  form  of  radiation,  which  is 
received  in  1  minute  by  1  square 
centimeter  of  area  perpendicular 
to  the  sun's  rays,  at  the  top  of  the 
earth's  atmosphere,  when  the 
earth  is  at  its  mean  distance  from 
the  sun.  Abbot,  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  has  made 
many  determinations  at  different 
stations  over  the  earth,  and  gives 
the  value  of  1.94  calories  min. 
sq.  cm.,  as  the  mean  of  hundreds 
of  observations.  The  solar  con- 
stant varies  during  the  year  by 
about  6  per  cent.,  because  of  the 
changing  distance  of  the  earth  to 
the  sun.  There  is  also  a  smaller 
variation  of  roughly  2  per  cent., 
due  to  sunspot  cycles. 

Solar  C ycle.  See  Cycle. 
Solar  Microscope,  an  appara- 
tus for  projecting  upon  a  screen 
by  means  of  sunlight  an  enlarged 
view  of  any  object.  It  is  essen- 
tially an  optical  lantern  taken  in 
conjunction  with  a  plane  re- 
flecting mirror  which  by  means  of 
clockwork  follows  the  sun's  ap- 


parent motion  so  as  always  to 
throw  its  rays  in  one  direction. 
By  this  instrument  the  rays  are 
thrown  horizontally  into  the 
solar  microscope,  are  concen- 
trated by  lenses  upon  the  small 
object,  and,  emerging,  are  fo- 
cussed  sharply  on  a  screen.  The 
solar  microscope  has  been  super- 
seded by  instruments  in  which 
electric  light  or  lime  light  takes 
the  place  of  that  of  the  sun.  See 
Optical  Projection. 

Solar  Myth,  or  Sun  Myth, 
a  myth  or  legend  in  which  the 
course  of  the  sun  is  treated  as  an 
allegory.  Many  scholars  use 
it  to  explain  Aryan  mythologies, 
basing  their  theories  upon  philo- 
logical deductions.  More  recent 
mythologists  reject  this  theory 
as  not  being  comprehensive 
enough  to  cover  the  mythology 
of  all  races.  Consult  Lang's 
Custom  and  Myth. 

Solar  Parallax.  See  Paral- 
lax. 

Solar  System,  the  planetary 
system  to  which  the  earth  be- 
longs. It  includes  the  sun  (the 
central  luminary  around  which 
all  the  other  members  revolve), 
9  major  planets,  satellites  re- 
volving around  the  planets, 
thousands  of  minor  planets  (as- 
teroids), over  1000  known  comets, 
millions  of  meteors,  and  the  zo- 
diacal light.  The  limits  of  the 
solar  system  are  unknown,  be- 
cause they  include  the  aphelion 
points  of  the  comets  of  greatest 
period,  and  these  periods  are 
well  over  1,000,000  years.  All 
of  the  planets  revolve  in  the 
same  direction,  i.e.,  counter 
clockwise  as  seen  from  the  north 
ecliptic  pole,  and  except  for 
Pluto,  they  revolve  in  nearly  the 
same  plane  and  have  orbits  with 
low  eccentricity.  Comets  and 
meteor  streams  commonly  have 
more  elliptical  orbits,  and  the  in- 
clination of  their  orbit  planes 
may  assume  any  angle. 


Mean 

Sidereal 

Known 

Planet 

Distance* 

Period 

Moons 

Mercury. 

35.7 

88^.0 

0 

Venus  .  .  . 

67.2 

224^.7 

0 

Earth. .  .  . 

93.0 

365d.3 

1 

Mars.  .  .  . 

141.5 

iy.88 

2 

Jupiter . . . 

483.3 

iiy.86 

11 

Saturn. . . 

886.1 

29^.46 

9 

Uranus. . . 

1783.0 

84y.oi 

5 

Neptune  . 

2793  0 

164y.79 

1 

Pluto.  .  .  . 

3666.0 

247^.70 

0 

*In  millions  of  miles 


Several  of  the  moons  have  a 
retrograde  or  clockwise  motion. 
The  planets  may  be  classified  in 
three  groups  as  to  size:  (a)  ter- 
restrial planets,  Mercury,  Venus, 
Earth,  Mars,  and  Pluto,  which 
are  relatively  small;  (b)  giant 
planets,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus, 
and  Neptune,  whose  size  is  vast 
compared  to  the  earth;  and  (c) 
minor  planets  with  diameters 
less  than  500  miles,  and  only  a 


few  miles  in  the  case  of  many 
hundreds  of  them.  Whether  the 
other  planets  besides  the  earth 
are  inhabited  is  unknown,  but 
Venus  and  Mars  have  possibili- 
ties for  life-forms.  See  Astron- 
omy; Comet;  Jupiter;  Mars; 
Mercury;  Meteorite;  Nebu- 
la; Neptune;  Planets;  Satel- 
lite; Saturn;  Sun;  Uranus; 
Venus. 

Soldering  and  Brazing.  The 

process  of  soldering  consists  of 
welding  together  pieces  of  metal 
by  means  of  another  metal  of 
lower  melting  point.  This  proc- 
ess is  of  two  types:  soft  soldering 
and  hard  soldering  or  brazing. 

Soft  Soldering. — In  the  process 
of  soft  soldering  the  solder  is 
composed  of  a  combination  of 
lead  and  tin  generally  with  a  lit- 
tle bismuth,  and  is  very  soft. 
There  are  two  classes  of  soft 
soldering,  copper-bit  work  and 
blowpipe  work.  In  the  former  a 
copper  bit  is  used  for  melting  the 
solder  and  heating  the  metals, 
while  in  the  latter  the  solder  and 
the  parts  to  be  joined  are  heated 
by  a  blowpipe  flame.  As  a  per- 
fect union  can  be  secured  only 
when  oxide  is  kept  out  of  the 
joining  it  is  necessary  to  use  a 
flux  to  prevent  oxidation  while 
the  soldering  operation  is  in 
progress.  The  fluxes  most  com- 
monly used  are  tallow  in  solder- 
ing lead,  resin  for  clean  tinplate 
and  electrical  work,  chloride  of 
zinc  on  most  metals  for  ordinary 
soft  soldering,  and  borax  for 
soldering  operations  (brazing)  at 
a  red  heat. 

Lead  and  tin  need  to  be  shaved 
or  filed  clean  before  soldering;  all 
other  metals  should  be  'tinned' 
by  spreading  a  thin  layer  of 
solder  or  of  pure  tin  upon  the 
surface.  Copper-bit  soldering  is 
done  principally  on  flat  and 
locked  seams;  on  vertical  seams; 
on  cup  joints;  and  on  overcast 
joints.  The  metals  to  be  sol- 
dered are  held  securely  so  they 
can  not  get  out  of  place,  a  proper 
flux  is  applied,  the  hot  soldering 
copper-bit  is  held  against  the 
seam,  hot  solder  is  poured  upon 
the  point  as  it  moves  from  end 
to  end  and  when  the  metal  be- 
comes hot  enough  the  solder 
sweats;  i.e.,  runs  freely  into  the 
interior  of  the  seam.  Blowpipe 
soldering  is  done  chiefly  on  small 
tubing  and  other  small  articles. 
The  solder  is  applied  by  holding 
a  thin  strip  of  it  in  the  flame  close 
to  the  joint  of  the  tubing  which 
has  been  prepared  so  as  to  make  a 
cup  joint.  The  molten  solder 
falls  into  the  cup,  the  joint  is 
heated  all  around,  causing  the 
solder  to  sweat  and  making  a 
clean  strong  joint. 

Hard  Soldering  or  Brazing  is 
mostly  in  use  for  joining  iron  and 
copper,  but  also  to  a  less  extent 
for  the  harder  kinds  of  brass,  gun- 
metal,  and  similar  alloys,  and 
produces  a  far  stronger  joint 


Soldier 


297 


Sol-fa 


than  soft  solder.  The  parts  to 
be  joined  should  be  carefully 
cleaned,  fixed  in  position,  and  a 
mixture  of  finely  ground  b9rax 
and  water  rubbed  into  the  joints. 
The  work  is  then  heated  by  a 
forge,  or,  if  small,  by  means  of 
a  gas  blowpipe,  the  heating  effect 
for  which  is  assisted  by  a  backing 
of  asbestos  or  charcoal.  Powdered 
borax  is  sprinkled  on  the  joint 
from  time  to  time.  The  solder,  or 
spelter,  is  laid  on  in  small  pieces  or 
grains,  or  is  applied  by  rubbing  the 
work  with  the  end  of  a  long  strip 
of  brazing- wire,  a  pointed  iron  rod 
being  used  to  lead  the  solder  into 
the  joints.  Hard  soldering  of  gold 
and  silver  is  like  brazing  in  that 
borax  is  used,  the  work  being 
ordinarily  supported  on  frag- 
ments of  pumice,  and  a  blowpipe 
employed  as  the  source  of  heat. 
The  following  are  representative 
hard  solders :  (1.)  Copper  30, 
silver  30,  and  zmc  20 — an  easy 
running  and  strong  solder  for 
brass,  iron,  silver,  and  gold.  (2.) 
Copper  40  and  zinc  60 — suitable 
for  iron,  copper,  and  the  harder 
kinds  of  brass.  (3.)  Copper  60  and 
zinc  40 — suitable  for  iron.  (4.) 
Fine  gold  5,  copper  2,  zinc  1^,  and 
fine  silver  1^ — suitable  for  gold 
jewelry  from  9  carats  upwards. 

Autogenous  Soldering. — Joints 
in  metal  are  often  fused  together 
without  the  intervention  of  solder, 
this  being  sometimes  done  by  a 
blowpipe,  at  other  times  by  the 
electric  arc,  by  the  heat  set  up  by 
resistance  to  the  electric  current, 
by  the  heat  of  deflagrating  mix- 
tures, and  occasionally  by  allow- 
ing a  stream  of  metal,  of  the 
same  kind  as  that  to  be  joined, 
to  flow  across  the  joint  for  a 
sufficient  time — a  mould  or  dam 
of  refractory  material  (e.g.  fire 
clay  or  moulding  loam)  being 
required  to  confine  or  direct  the 
stream  of  molten  metal  in  the 
latter  and  some  of  the  other  cases. 
See  Thermit. 

Soldier.  See  Army  ;  Recruit; 
Martial  Law. 

Soldier-beetle,  a  name  in 
England  for  the  red  species  of 
the  coleopterous  genus  Telepho- 
rus,  the  blue  species  being  'sail- 
ors.' About  twenty-two  species 
of  these  beetles  occur  in  Britain, 
and  all  are  fiercely  combative. 
The  soldier-bird  (My^omela  san- 
guinolenta),  an  Australian  honey- 
eater,  is  so  called  on  account  of 
its  bold  coloring  in  black  and  red. 

Sole  {Solea  vulgaris),  a  Euro- 
pean flounder,  the  most  esteemed 
member  of  the  family  of  flat- 
fishes, distinguished  by  the  eyes 
being  on  the  right  side,  the  mouth 
behind  the  snout,  the  narrow 
body,  and  the  dark  brown  or 
blackish  color.  It  extends  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  north 
of  Denmark  and  to  the  Moray 
Firth,  more  common  on  the  west 
and  SQUth  coasts  and  the  English 


Channel,  living  in  moderate 
depths^  under  fifty  fathoms,  and 
is  rarely  caught  on  the  American 
side  of  the  ocean.  The  sole 
spawns  from  February  to  June; 
the  eggs,  of  which  from  300,000 


Sole. 

to  a  million  are  produced^  are 
buoyant  or  pelagiac.  The  young 
soles  frequent  sandy  beaches,  and 
are  often  taken  by  the  shrimpers. 
It  lives  mostly  on  marine  worms, 
sand-stars,  brittle-stars,  and  mol- 
luscs. See  Cunningham's  Trea- 
tise on  the  Common  Sole  (1890). 

Sole  Bay,  Battle  of,  fought 
off  the  Essex  coast  of  England,  on 
May  28,  1672,  between  the  Eng- 
lish, under  James,  Duke  of  York, 
aided  by  a  French  contingent 
under  Jean  d'Estrees,  and  the 
Dutch  under  De  Ruyter.  The 
result  was  a  drawn  battle. 

Solecism  is  often  wrongly  ap- 
plied only  to  mistakes  committed 
in  writing  or  speaking  against  the 
grammatical  rules  of  a  language. 
But  the  word  also  includes  errors 
or  bltmders  in  conduct,  gaucheries 
and  the  like.  For  the  origin  of 
the  term,  see  Soli. 

Solen.    See  Razor-shell. 

Solenhofen  Stone  is  a  very 
fine  grained  and  uniform  lime- 
stonej  slightly  porous  to  water, 
and  containing  only  a  small  ad- 
mixture of  clay.  As  a  medium 
for  lithographic  printing  no 
other  natural  or  artificial  product 
can  equal  it,  and  enormous  quan- 
tities of  it  are  quarried  and  ex- 
ported from  Solenhofen  (Ba- 
varia). It  forms  a  distinct  series 
in  the  Upper  Jurassic  rocks  of 
that  region,  and  a  very  rich  suite 
of  extinct  animals  has  been  pre- 
served by  it  in  unwonted  perfec- 
tion. Among  these  are  shell-less 
cephalopods,  with  a  complete 
representation  of  the  outlines  of 
their  bodies,  crustaceans  with  all 
their  limbs,  crustacean  larvae, 
entire  skeletons  of  fishes  and  of 
pterodactyls,  and  the  only  known 
examples  of  Archaeoptery. 

Solenoid.    See  Magnetism. 

Solent,  the  western  portion  of 
the  strait  separating  the  Isle  of 
Wight  from  Hants,  England,  17 
m.  long,  maximum  breadth  5  m. 
It  is  a  favorite  yachting  stretch. 

Soleure,  or  Solothurn.  (1.) 
Swiss  canton,  305  sq.  m.  in  area, 
with  a  population  (1900)  of 
100,762,  mainly  German-speak- 
ing and  two-thirds  Roman  Cath- 
olics. It  lies  astride  the  Jura, 
and  is  of  irregular  shape,  extend- 


ing from  near  Bern  to  near  Ba- 
sel. (3.)  Town  on  the  Aar,  cap. 
of  above  canton,  one  of  the  oldest 
towns  in  Europe.  Pop.  (1900) 
10,025. 

Soley,  James  Russell  (1850), 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Boston. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1870 
and  afterward  from  the  Columbian 
University  Law  School.  He  was 
head  of  the  department  of  history 
and  law  in  the  U.  S.  Military 
Academy  during  1872-82;  inl876 
was  appointed  professor  in  the 
U.  S.  navy,  and  in  1883  began  to 
superintend  the  publication  of  the 
records  of  the  Civil  War.  In  1885 
he  became  lecturer  on  interna- 
tional law  at  the  Naval  War  Col- 
lege, and  in  1893  began  the  prac- 
tice of  law  in_  New  York  city. 
Among  his  publi cations  are :  A  mer- 
ican  Naval  History  (1885);  Euro- 
pean Neutrality  during  the  Civil 
War  (1888);  The  Boys  of  1812 
(1887);  and  Life  of  Admiral  Porter 
(1903). 

Sol-fa,  or  Tonic  Sol-fa,  a  sys- 
tem of  musical  notation.  This 


d' 

f 

t 

Hi' 

re» 

1 

se 

1 

r' 

S 

se 
S 

de' 

DOH' 

ba 
f 

ba 

TE 

le 

ra 

f 

ta 

m 

la 

LAH 

r 

se 

r 

SOH 

bah 

fe 

d 
t, 

d 

FAH 

ti 

ma 

ME 

re 

li 

se, 

li 

RAY 

Si 

se. 

de 

ba^ 

Si 

DOH 

fl 

ti 

I»ll 

ba| 

fl 

tai 

rai 

li 

sei 

ri 

ri 

Si 

di 

ba, 

fe, 

di 

fl 

t2 

mi 

1. 

The  Modulator. 
(Copyright  of  Messrs.  Curwen.) 

method  has  no  resemblance  to  the 
stgff  notation,  which  has  been  in 


Sol-fa 


298 


Solids 


universal  use  for  several  cen- 
turies, but  is  now  largely  em- 
ployed in  schools  in  teaching 
vocal  music.  It  first  claimed 
public /ittention  about  1850,  and 
owes  its  rapid  growth  in  popu- 
larity to  the  efforts  of  Rev.  John 
Curwen  (1816-80),  who  devel- 
oped the  system  from  a  method 
of  letter  notation  invented  by 
Miss  Glover  of  Norwich.  The 
system  consists  in  employing  a 
series  of  syllables  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  serve  both  as  a 
means  of  solmization  and  as 
a  method  of  notation.  In  the 
usual  practice  of  solfeggio  the 
unwritten  syllables  do,  re,  mi, 
etc.,  arc  mentally  applied  by  the 
singer  to  the  notes  on  the  stave; 
but  in  sol-fa  no  stave  is  used,  and 
the  initial  letters  of  the  syllables 
doh,  ray,  me,  fah,  soh,  lah,  te,  in 
conjunction  with  certain  signs, 
constitute  its  whole  system  of 
notation.  By  adopting  the 
principle  of  the  movable  doh, 
first  exemplified  in  the  mutations 
of  solmization,  the  series  of  sylla- 
bles is  made  to  represent  the  con- 
stituent notes  of  all  major  scales, 
as  these  differ  only  in  degree  of 
pitch,  the  succession  of  intervals 
remaining  the  same.  Thus  the 
syllables  used  have  relative,  and 
not  fixed,  degrees  of  pitch. 

In  learning  sol-fa,  the  pupil  is 
first  taught  to  sing  from  a  chart, 
termed  a  '  modulator.'  In  this 
the  syllables  are  placed  one  above 
another,  and  at  such  distances 
apart  as  to  represent  pictorially 
the  series  of  intervals  contained 
in  a  major  scale;  rows  of  sylla- 
bles on  each  side  of  the  central 
row  are  utilized  to  show  how 
modulations  are  effected,  and  by 
this  means  the  pupil  is  taught  to 
understand  the  principles  of  tonal 
and  key  relationship.  As  a  sys- 
tem of  notation,  sol-fa  is  printed 
in  horizontal  lines,  spaced  into 
bars  or  measures  as  in  the  staff 
notation.  The  time  values  of 
notes  are  indicated  by  dots  and 
dashes.  A  colon,  short  perpen- 
dicular line,  or  bar-line  separates 
the  'pulses'  or  'beats';  a  dot  is 
used  for  a  half  beat,  and  a  com- 
ma for  a  quarter  beat.  The  sign 
of  prolongation  is  a  short  hori- 
zontal line;  a  rest  is  indicated  by 
a  blank  space;  and  a  medium  ac- 
cent by  a  short  perpendicular 
line,  which  when  present  takes 
the  place  of  a  colon.  A  horizon- 
tal line  under  two  or  more  notes 
signifies  that  these  notes  are  to 
be  sung  to  one  syllable.  Chro- 
matic notes  are  indicated  by  the 
addition  of  the  letter  e  or  a — e.g. 
re  =  ray  a  semitone  higher,  ra  = 
ray  a  semitone  lower.  The  sylla- 
ble ba  is  used  for"  the  sharpened 
sixth  of  the  melodic  minor  scale. 
Notes  in  the  first  octave  above  or 
below  the  central  octave  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  addition  of  the 
figure  1  above  or  below  the  let- 


ters, thus  d^di]  the  figure  2  indi- 
cates the  second  octave,  and  so 
on.  Doh  is  always  the  tonic  in 
major  and  lah  the  tonic  in  minor 
keys.  The  name  of  the  key  is 
written  at  the  beginning  of  the 
piece,  and  if  the  music  cpntains 
modulations,  the  new  key  is  indi- 
cated at  each  change  of  key.  The 
preceding  example  shows  how 
the  signs  in  sol-fa  are  used  as 
equivalents  for  those  in  staff 
notation. 

The  principal  merits  of  the 
sol-fa  system  are  its  comparative 
ease  of  acquirement,  its  develop- 
ment of  the  sense  of  tonality,  and 
the  cheap  rate  at  which  music  in 
its  notation  may  be  produced. 
Unfortunately,  it  is  unsuitable 
for  instrumental  music  of  any 
degree  of  complexity,  as  in  its 
notation  the  rapid  reading  of  in- 
volved passages  is  alniost  impos- 
sible. The  system  is  therefore 
chiefly  valuable  as  a  simple 
method  of  teaching  sight-singing. 
In  Britain  80  per  cent,  of  the 
children  learning  music  are  taught 
to  sing  from  this  notation.  The 
London  Tonic  Sol-fa  College  (in- 
stituted 1869)  is  devoted  to  the 
training  of  teachers  and  holding 
of  examinations.  See  Curwen's 
New  Standard  Course  (1852) 
and  Teacher's  Manual  (1864); 
also  Stainer's  Tonic  Sol-fa  Prim- 
er (1877). 

Solfatara,  a  small  extinct  or 
dormant  volcano  in  the  vicinity 
of  Naples  (Phlegraean  Fields), 
which  is  said  to  have  emitted  a 
stream  of  lava  in  the  year  1198, 
but  has  since  then  been  quies- 
cent. It  has  served  as  the  type 
of  decadent  volcanic  activity, 
accompanied  by  decomposition  of 
volcanic  rocks  effected  through 
sulphurous  exhalations.  In  New 
Zealand,  Japan,  W.  Indies  (Sou- 
frieres  of  St.  Vincent,  Guade- 
loupe, and  Dominica),  and  all 
other  volcanic  regions,  similar 
changes  are  frequently  observed, 
and  there  is  much  evidence  that 
they  have  taken  place  on  a  large 
scale  in  ancient  volcanoes  also. 

Solfeggio,  a  vocal  exercise 
sung  to  the  syllables  ut  (or  do), 
re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  si,  which  are 
used  as  names  for  the  notes  com- 
prised in  a  major  scale.  The 
practice  of  this  method  is  termed 
*  sol-faing,'  and  the  exposition  of 
its  principles  '  solmization.'  The 
use  of  the  first  six  syllables  as  an 
aid  to  memorizing  the  relative 
position  of  the  constituent  notes 
of  the  scale  is  attributed  to  Guido 
d'Arezzo  (c.  990-1050),  an  Italian 
monk.  The  syllable  si  was  added 
at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, when  the  ancient  ecclesi- 
astical modes  were  superseded  by 
the  modern  forms  of  the  scale. 
See  Music. 

Solferino,  vil.,  prov.  Mantua, 
Italy,  7  m.  s.  of  Lake  Garda. 
Here  the  French  and  Sardinians, 


under  Napoleon  m.,  defeated  the 
Austrians  on  June  24,  1859.  Pop. 
(1901)  1,350. 

Soli,  an  ancient  Greek  town, 
on  coast  of  Cilicia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
was  founded  by  Argives  ana 
Rhodians.  Remote  as  it  was  from 
Greece,  the  speech  of  its  inhabi- 
tants became  so  barbarous  as  to 
be  proverbial  for  uncouthness,  as 
the  word  'solecism'  shows.  It 
was  destroyed  by  Tigranes,  king 
of  Armenia,  about  80  B.C.,  but  re- 
stored by  Pompey  the  Grea^  less 
than  twenty  years  after\/ard. 
There  are  considerable  ruins. 

Solicitor.  In  England,  by  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Judicature 
Act,  1873,  the  designation  '  Solic- 
itor of  the  Supreme  Court '  was 
given  to  all  attorneys,  solicitors, 
and  proctors.  Previously  solici- 
tor meant  a  practitioner  entitled 
to  sue  out  any  writ  or  process,  or 
commence,  carry  on,  solicit,  or 
defend  any  action  or  other  pro- 
ceeding in  the  Court  of  Chancery; 
while  in  the  common  law  courts 
the  name  was  attorney,  and  in 
the  ecclesiastical  and  admiralty 
courts  proctor.  See  Attorney; 
Legal  Education. 

Solicitor-general,  a  law  offi- 
cer of  the  crown,  first  appointed 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  iv.  His 
position  and  duties  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  attorney-general,  but 
he  is  inferior  to  him.  He  is  gen- 
erally a  mernber  of  Parliament, 
but  not  a  privy  councillor,  nor  a 
cabinet  minister.  Scotland  and 
Ireland  have  similar  officials. 

Solidago.    See  Golden  Rod. 

Solids  are  characterized  by 
possessing  a  definite  shape,  to 
which  they  return  after  being 
distorted  by  the  application  of 
external  forces,  provided  the 
stresses  applied  have  not  been 
too  great.  This  resistance  to 
change  of  form  is  recognized  in 
the  hardness  and  elasticity  of 
solids;  while  the  permanent  de- 
formation produced  by  excessive 
stresses  shows  itself  in  their  duc- 
tility, malleability,  and  brittle- 
ness.  The  elasticity  may  be  either 
of  volume  or  of  shape;  but  the  vol- 
ume compressibility  is  very  small 
and  unimportant  as  compared 
with  the  elasticity  under  tensile, 
crushing,  bending,  and  twisting 
stresses,  to  which,  in  practice, 
solids  are  subjected.  In  general, 
the  strain  produced  is  propor- 
tional to  the  stress  exerted,  until 
a  certain  point,  called  the  elastic 
limit,  is  reached;  after  that  the 
strain  increases  more  rapidly  than 
the  stress,  and  the  body  does  not 
recover  its  original  shape  when  the 
distorting  stresses  are  removed. 
Solids  differ  in  another  respect 
from  gases  and  liquids  in  that 
they  often  possess  a  definite  struc- 
ture, differing  in  properties  ac- 
cording to  the  direction  in  which 
they  are  examined.  Those  with 
the  same  properties  in  every  di- 


Solldus 


299 


Solon 


rection  are  called  isotropic  or 
amorphous,  have  an  indefinite 
melting-point,  and  probably  differ 
from  the  liquids  more  in  degree 
than  in  kind;  whereas  those  of 
which  the  properties  differ  with 
the  direction  are  crystalline  or 
aeolotropic.  These  differences  of 
property  are  evidenced  in  the 
different  shapes  of  the  various 
crystals,  and  their  conductivities 
and  effects  on  light  when  exam- 
ined in  different  directions.  See 
Crystallography;  and  for  the 
phenomena  connected  with  the 
change  from  solid  to  liquid  or 
solid  to  gas,  and  conversely,  see 
Freezing,  Sublimation,  and 
cognate  articles. 

Solidus,  a  gold  coin,  struck 
by  Constantine  in  place  of  the 
aureus,  and  known  later  as  the 
bezant.  Adopted  by  the  Franks, 
it  was  in  use  until  the  time  of 
Pepin.  The  silver  solidus,  how- 
ever, was  reckoned  equal  to  twelve 
denarii  or  silver  pennies,  thus 
equalling  the  shilling.  The  ab- 
breviation of  the  solidus  furnished 
the  British  with  the  s.  in  £  s.  d. 
(librcB,  solidi,  denarii). 

Soli  man.   See  Solyman. 

Solingen,  tn.,  Prussia,  Rhine 
Province,  on  riv.  Wupper,  13  m. 
by  rail  s.E,  of  Diisseldorf.  It  is 
the  centre  of  an  important  steel 
manufacturing  district,  turning 
out  cutlery  especially.  Pop. 
(1905)  49,000. 

Solis,  Juan  Diaz  de  {c.  1470- 
151G),  Spanish  navigator,  born  at 
Lebriia,  near  Seville^  was  asso- 
ciated, with  Pinzon  in  exploring 
the  coasts  of  Honduras  ana  Yuca- 
tan (150G),  and  two  years  later 
explored  the  South  American 
coast  from  Cape  St.  Augustine  to 
40°  s.  latitude.  He  succeeded 
Vespucci  as  chief  pilot  of  Spain 
(1512),  and  in  1515  sailed  in  search 
of  a  route  through  S.  America  to 
the  Pacific,  when  he  was  killed  by 
Indians  in  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. 

Solis  y  Ribadenoira,  Antonio 
DE  (1010-86),  Spanish  dramatist 
and  historian,  born  at  Alcala  de 
Henares.  He  began  writing  plays 
while  a  student  at  Salamanca 
{Amor  y  Ohligacion),  and  subse- 
quently followed  the  school  of 
Calderon  with  Un  Bobo  hace 
Ciento,  Rl  Dr.  Carlino,  and  La 
Gitanilla  de  Madrid,  all  of  which 
were  popular.  His  lyrics  also  are 
pure  and  pleasing;  but  he  lives 
as  the  author  of  The  History  of 
the  Conquest  of  Mexico,  a  classic, 
the  best  edition  of  which  is  that 
of  Madrid  (1083-4;  Eng.  trans. 
1724).  The  author  was  secretary 
of  the  Indies  Council. 

Solitaire  (Pezophaps  soli/aria), 
an  extinct  flightless  pigeon,  nearly 
allied  to  the  dodo,  which  lived  in 
the  island  of  Rodriguez  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  probably  till  about 
1761.  It  had  longer  legs  than  the 
dodo,  the  male  standing  about  2 
ft  9  in.  in  height.   The  males  had 


a  curious  excrescence  on  the  rudi- 
mentary wings,  said  to  have  been 
used  as  a  weapon.  See  Legaut's 
Voyages  et  Aventures  (1708), 
Strickland  and  Melville's  The 
Dodo  and  its  Kindred  (1848),  and 
Newton's  Dictionary  of  Birds 
(1896). 

Solmization.    See  Solfeggio. 

Solmona,  tn.,  prov.  Aquila 
degli  Abruzzi,  Italy,  25  m.  s.w. 
of  Chieti;  is  the  birthplace  of  the 
poet  Ovid.    Pop.  (1901)  17,988. 

Solo,  in  music,  originally  signi- 
fied an  unaccompanied  perform- 
ance by  an  individual  voice  or 
instrument.  The  term  is  now 
used  to  designate  any  prominent 
part  or  passage  of  a  solo  nature, 
whether  performed  with  or  with- 
out the  accompaniment  of  other 
voices  or  instruments. 

Solomon,  the  second  son  of 
David  and  Bathsheba,  and  the 
third  king  of  Israel  {c.  970-930 
B.C.).  He  made  an  all  iance  with 
the  king  of  Egypt  by  marriage, 
chose  wisdom  as  the  support  of 
his  throne  (1  Kings  3),  and  carried 
out  his  father's  plan  of  building 
a  temple  (5-8).  But  the  wisdom 
for  which  he  was  renowned  was 
rather  that  of  the  petty  judge  and 
the  popular  sage,  and,  be  it  added, 
the  merchant,  than  that  of  the 
statesman  or  the  warrior.  His 
foreign  policy  consisted  chiefly  of 
treaty-making  with  the  neighbor- 
ing powers,  thus  both  preserving 
peace  and  giving  scope  to  com- 
merce, and  he  became  fabulously 
wealthy;  his  military  operations 
were  mainly  defensive — the  for- 
tification of  cities  and  the  increas- 
ing of  his  army;  while  the  size  of 
his  harem,  and  the  multitude  of 
his  officials  and  retainers,  caused 
his  domestic  policy  to  degenerate 
into  the  practical  enslaving  and 
over-taxation  of  his  subjects,  and 
led  at  his  death  to  the  disruption 
of  the  kingdom.  His  renown  for 
wisdom  grew  after  his  death,  and 
Mohammedan  vies  with  Jew  in 
his  admiration  of  the  wisest  of 
kings.  For  the  Biblical  and  apoc- 
ryphal works  attributed  to  Solo- 
mon, see  articles  on  Proverbs, 
EccLESiASTES,  Canticles  (Song 
of  Solomon).  See  also  Farrar's 
Solomon  in  Men  of  the  Bible 
Series;  the  Heb.  histories  of 
Wellhausen  and  others;  Farber's 
Konig  Salomon  in  der  Tradition 
(1902);  Weil's  Biblische  Legenden 
der  Mohammedaner  (1845). 

Solomon  Islands,  volcanic  ar- 
chipelago in  Pacific,  E.  of  New 
Guinea.  They  extend  700  m.  from 
N.w.  to  S.E.,  and  include  Bougain- 
ville (140  m.  long  by  35  m.  broad), 
Buka,  Guadalcanar,  Malaita, 
Isabel,  Choiscul,  and  San  Cristo- 
bal. The  first  two  are  under  Ger- 
man (since  1886),  the  rest  under 
British  (1899),  protection.  Bou- 
gainville reaches  10,000  feet.  The 
Lslands  grow  sandalwood,  ebony, 
lignum    vitae,    cocoanuts,  sweet 


potatoes,  pine  apples,  and  bana- 
nas. The  natives  are  Papuans 
and  Polynesians.  German  islands 
— area,  4,200  sq.  m.;  pop.  45,000. 
British — area,  8,357  sq.  m.;  pop. 
150,000. 

Solomon's  Seal.  Eiliaceous 
plants  belonging  to  the  genus 
Folygonatum,  and  common  in 
shady  woods.  They  have  un- 
branched  stems,  arching  or  hori- 
zontal at  the  top,  and  bearing 
widespread  foliage  of  more  or  less 
oval  leaves.  From  the  axils  de- 
pend peduncles  bearing  one  of 
more  greenish,  bell-shaped  flow- 
ers, which  are  succeeded  by  dark- 
blue  berries,  with  a  bloom.  The 
fleshy  rootstock  is  jointed  and 
horizontal,  and  bears  the  scars  of 
each  year's  stem,  which  leaves  a 
rounded  depression,  the  'seal.' 
The  false  Solomon's  seals  are 
members  of  the  genus  Vagnera. 
Although  these  resemble  Folyg- 
onatum in  habit  and  foliage,  their 
starry  flowers  and  berries  are 
gathered  at  the  apex  of  the  stem. 
The  latter  are  red  or  green. 

Solon  (c.  638-c.  558  B.C.),  one  of 
the  greatest  statesmen  of  ancient 
Athens.  His  earliest  achievement 
was  to  arouse  his  countrymen  to 
conquer  Salamis,  which  had  been 
seized  by  the  Megarians.  Nf)t 
long  afterward  he  was  made  by 
his  countrymen  sole  archon,  and 
commissioned  (594  B.C.)  to  reform 
the  constitution;  and  this  he  did. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  6th 
century  B.C.  both  the  small  land- 
owners and  the  free  laborers  of 
Attica  were  in  great  economic 
distress.  Money  was  very  scarce, 
while  the  cost  of  living  was  in- 
creasing. The  consequence  was 
that  the  small  landowners  had  to 
mortgage  their  estates  to  wealthy 
landowners  and  capitalists;  while 
the  free  laborers  were  forced  to 
mortgage  their  persons,  and  in 
large  numbers  became  the  slaves 
of  the  capitalists.  These  were 
the  conditions  which  SoloA  had 
to  face,  and  he  met  them  by  a 
famous  enactment  called  the 
Seisachtheia,  or  'shaking  off  of 
burdens,'  which  annulled  all  ex- 
isting debts  and  mortgages  on 
both  lands  and  persons,  and  pro- 
vided that  henceforth  no  debtors 
should  be  enslaved.  Other  eco- 
nomical reforms  forbade  the  ex- 
portation of  Attic  produce  except 
olive  oil,  and  replaced  the  yEgine- 
tan  by  the  Euboic  system  of  coin- 
age, thus  bringing  Athens  into 
closer  touch  with  Chalcis,  Corinth, 
and  their  colonies. 

Solon  was  the  real  founder  of 
Athenian  democracy,  although 
the  constitution  of  the  state  as  he 
left  it  was  by  no  means  democrat- 
ic. To  the  three  existing  classes 
he  added  a  fourth,  the  laborers, 
and  gave  them  a  vote  in  the  as- 
sembly, which  made  laws,  elected 
magistrates,  and  decided  all  im- 
portant public  business;  but  the 


Solonovka 


300 


Solutions 


archonship  was  still  restricted  to 
the  first  class,  and  the  other  mag- 
istracies to  the  next  two.  The 
council  of  four  hundred,  insti- 
tuted by  him  to  prepare  business 
for  the  assembly,  was  also  only 
chosen  from  the  first  three  classes. 
But  he  established  the  popular 
jury  courts,  and  gave  every  citi- 
zen a  seat  in  them.  Thus  even  the 
poorest  Athenians  had  a  voice  in 
the  election  of  their  magistrates, 
and  also  controlled  their  conduct, 
as  they  were  liable  to  be  held  to 
account  in  these  courts  on  re- 
tiring from  office.  Another  re- 
form of  Solon's  was  the  use  of 
the  lot  in  the  election  of  magis- 
trates. This  device  was  partly 
religious,  as  it  was  held  to  leave 
the  choice  to  the  gods;  but  it  also 
served  for  the  protection  of  mi- 
norities, and  lessened  party  strife. 
For  the  archonship,  however,  ten 
candidates  were  elected  from  each 
of  the  four  tribes, and  then  the  nine 
archons  were  taken  from  among 
these  forty  by  lot.  Minor  enact- 
ments imposed  penalties  on  idle- 
ness and  extravagance,  and  gave 
liberty  for  disposing  of  property 
by  will  when  a  man  had  no  neirs 
of  his  body.  Solon  left  Athens 
immediately  after  his  archonship, 
and  travelled  for  ten  years  or 
more.  To  this  period  are  assigned 
his  conversations  with  Croesus, 
but  chronological  reasons  show 
them  to  be  historically  impossible. 
He  was  accounted  one  of  the 
Seven  Sages  of  Greece,  and  the 
wisest  of  them  all.  He  lived  long 
enough  to  see  his  constitution 
overtnrown  by  the  tyranny  of 
Pisistratus. 

See  Plutarch's  Li}e,  and  Aris- 
totle's Constitution  of  Athens 
(ed.  with  Eng.  trans,  by  Kenyon, 
1891),  and  Greenidge's  Handbook 
of  Greek  Constitutional  History 
(1890). 

Solonovka,  health  resort, 
Siberia,  Tomsk  gov.,  in  the  Ku- 
lunda£teppe,  110  m.  from  Kamen 
on  the  Ob. 

Solor  Islands.   See  Timor. 

Solovetski,  isls.  and  monastery 
in  White  Sea,  Russia,  at  entrance 
■  of  Gulf  of  Onega.  On  the  princi- 
pal island  (15  m.  by  1 1  m.)  stands  a 
famous  monastery  (founded  1429), 
with  two  IGth-century  churches,  an 
observatory,  a  biological  station, 
and  a  port  and  dockyard  (where 
even  ships  of  war  are  repaired). 
Hospitality  is  annually  shown  to 
about  9,000  pilgrims.  It  has  fre- 
quently served  as  a  place  of  exile 
for  important  prisoners  of  state 
and  disgraced  ministers. 

Solstice,  a  point  on  the  ecliptic 
midway  between  the  equinoxes, 
where  the  sun,  reversing  its  mo- 
tion in  declination,  seems  to  stand 
still.  The  summer  solstice,  passed 
June  21  or  22,  coincides  with  the 
longest  day,  the  sun  then  attain- 
ing its  maximum  distance  of  23^** 
from  the  equator;  the  winter  sol- 


stice, passed  about  December  22, 
when  the  sun  is  farthest  south, 
coincides  with  the  shortest  day. 

Solubility.    See  Solutions. 

Soluble  Glass,  or  Water 
Glass,  a  sodium  silicate  in  which 
the  sodium  is  united  with  from 
two  to  four  equivalents  of  silica. 
It  is  prepared  by  fusing  silica  in 
the  form  of  sand  or  flints  with 
sodium  carbonate,  or  with  sodium 
sulphate  and  carbon,  and  extract- 
ing the  product  with  water.  An 
alternative  method  consists  in 
heating  the  silica  in  as  soluble  a 
form  as  possible  with  a  solution 
of  caustic  soda  under  pressure. 
Soluble  glass  forms  a  syrupy  solu- 
tion that  is  decomposed  by  acids. 
If  the  acid  is  concentrated,  hy- 
drated  silica  is  set  free  in  the 
solid  form;  but  if  the  solutions 
are  dilute,  the  silicic  acid  remains 
in  solution  for  some  time,  though 
it  eventually  gelatinizes  and  be- 
comes solid.  Soluble  glass  is 
valuable  for  checking  the  decay 
of  the  stone  of  buildings  and  for 
preparing  artificial  stone.  It  is 
mixed  with  fire-clay  to  make  a 
cement  for  furnace  linings,  and 
is  also  employed  for  fireproofing 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  soap. 

Solutions  are  homogeneous 
mixtures,  of  which  the  composi- 
tion may  vary  continuously  be- 
tween limits;  and  though,  as  a 
rule,  one  of  the  components  is  a 
liquid,  this  is  not  necessarily  the 
case,  gaseous  and  some  solid  mix- 
tures coming  within  the  defini- 
tion. Solutions  may  be_  classified 
according  to  the  physical  state 
of  the  components — i.e.  whether 
they  are  gas  mixtures,  gases, 
liquids,  or  solids  dissolved  in 
liquids,  or  solids  in  solids.  On 
the  other  hand,  classification  may 
be  made  according  as  the  change 
which  occurs  when  solution  takes 
place  is  apparently  a  purely 
physical  admixture  —  e.g.  when 
naphthalene  dissolves  in  benzine 
or  sugar  in  waier;  or  if  it  is 
probably  a  chemical  change  that 
takes  place — e.g.  when  salt  or 
sulphuric  acid  is  dissolved  in 
water.  Cases  such  as  that  in 
which  copper  is  said  to  dissolve 
in  nitric  acid  are  not  correctly 
described,  because  the  copper  is 
not  dissolved  as  such,  but  is  first 
converted  into  another  substance 
—  viz.  copper  nitrate  —  previous 
to  solution.  In  the  case  of  solu- 
tions of  gases  in  gases  or  gaseous 
mixtures,  the  pressure  of  a  mix- 
ture of  gases  is,  in  accordance 
with  Dalton's  law  of  partial  pres- 
sures, equal  to  the  sum  of  the 
pressures  of  its  components  if 
they  occupied  the  whole  volume, 
each  component  behaving  to  the 
others  as  a  vacuum.  Gases  that 
do  not  react  with  liquids  dissolve 
in  accordance  with  a  law  enunci- 
ated by  Henry,  that  at  a  given 
temperature  a  liquid  dissolves 
the  same  volume  of  a  gas  at  all 


pressures,  from  which  it  follows 
that  the  weight  of  a  gas  dissolved 
by  a  liquid  increases  proport'on- 
ally  to  the  pressure  under  which 
it  IS  dissolved.  Thus,  immediately 
the  pressure  in  a  bottle  of  soda 
water  is  rclea.sed,  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  dissolved  carbon  di- 
oxide is  rejected.  The  solubility 
of  diflterent  gases  in  water  or 
other  solvents  varies  widely;  thus, 
while  at  standard  temperature 
and  pressure  100  volumes  of  water 
only  dissolve  2  volumes  of  hydro- 
gen, they  dissolve  4  volumes  of 
oxygen,  180  volumes  of  carbon 
dioxide,  and  105,000  volumes  of 
ammonia.  The  components  of 
mixed  gases  dissolve  in  accord- 
ance with  Dalton's  law  of  partial 
pressures,  but  neither  Dalton's 
law  nor  Henry's  holds  good  with 
very  high  pressures  or  very  sol- 
uble gases.  The  solubility  of  most 
liquids  and  solids  in  liquids  varies 
also,  though  in  some  cases  the 
solubility  is  infinite:  for  example, 
some  pairs  of  liquids  will  mix  in 
any  proportions.  In  those  cases 
where  the  solubility  is  limited, 
the  solution  in  which  the  limit  is 
reached  is  said  to  be  saturated, 
pairs  of  partially  miscible  liquids 
separating  into  layers  of  satu- 
rated solutions  of  each  in  the 
other.  Thus  ether  shaken  with 
water  dissolves  it  to  the  extent 
of  three  per  cent.,  ten  per  cent, 
of  ether  dissolving  in  the  water. 
The  saturation  point  of  solutions 
in  liquids  depends  on  the  temper- 
ature; the  amount  of  a  solid  dis- 
solved in  general  increases  with 
it,  though  at  very  different  rates 
with  different  substances.  Thus, 
while  100  parts  of  water  dissolve 
35.5  parts  of  common  salt  at 
0°  C,  and  39.6  parts  at  100°  C,  the 
solubility  of  saltpetre  increases 
from  13.3  to  246  over  the  same 
range.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
solubilities  diminish  or  may  even 
be  unchanged  by  temperature, 
the  solubility  increasing  with 
temperature  if  solution  takes 
place  with  absorption  of  heat, 
diminishing  if  evolution  of  heat 
occurs,  and  being  invariable  if  no 
heat  change  takes  place.  In  some 
cases,  however,  changes  in  solu- 
bility with  temperature  are  caused 
by  a  change  in  the  nature  of  the 
dissolved  substances — e.g.  in  the 
state  of  its  combination  with 
water.  In  reality  it  is  then  the 
solubility  of  different  substances 
that  is  in  question.  If  a  satu- 
rated solution  is  cooled  or  evap- 
orated, the  solid  separates  usu- 
ally in  crystals,  and  at  once  if 
some  of  the  same  crystals  are 
present  in  the  liquid;  but  in 
their  absence  the  concentration 
of  the  solution  may  increase  con- 
siderably, producing  a  super- 
saturated solution.  Such  a  solu- 
tion is,  however,  unstable,  for 
the  deposit  of  crystals  imme- 
diately follows  the  introduction 


Solutions 


KFN 


301 


Somali 


of  a  fragment  of  the  crystal- 
line solid,  however  small,  and 
equilibrium  is  restored. 

Solid  solutions  may  be  of  two 
kinds: — (1)  those  in  which  gases 
are  occluded  in  solids,  as  hydro- 
gen in  palladium  or  in  iron;  (2) 
those  in  which  solids  dissolve 
in  solids,  forming  either  amor- 
phous mixtures,  such  as  glass,  or 
mixed  crystals,  in  which  two  iso- 
morphous  components  separate 
together  to  form  a  crystal.  The 
composition  of  the  crystal  may 
v^ary — in  some  cases  from  that 
corresponding  to  one  compound 
to  that  corresponding  to  the 
other;  in  other  cases  such  ex- 
treme limits  of  composition  are 
not  possible,  the  mixed  crystals 
being  only  formed  within  a  cer- 
tain range  of  proportions,  and 
outside  of  that  range  crystal 
solutions  of  more  than  one  com- 
position are  formed,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  solutions  of  partially 
miscible  liquids. 

As  regards  the  state  of  the  dis- 
solved substance  and  the  change 
that  it  undergoes  when  solution 
occurs,  no  completely  satisfac- 
tory theory  has  yet  been  ad- 
vanced. The  theory  that  best 
agrees  with  the  facts  is  that  based 
on  the  examination  of  the  pres- 
sure that  a  dissolved  substance 
can  exert  when  in  solution.  This 
pressure,  called  the  osmotic  pres- 
sure, can  be  observed  by  separat- 
ing the  solution  from  some  of  the 

gure  solvent  by  means  of  a  mem- 
rane,  permeable  to  the  solvent, 
but  not  to  the  dissolved  substance 
or  solute.  Under  these  circum- 
stances solvent  flows  through  the 
membrane  until  a  pressure  is  set 
up,  which  in  general  in  the  case 
of  dilute  solutions  is  the  same 
as  that  which  would  be  exerted 
if  the  solute  were  distributed 
throughout  the  same  space  in  the 
state  of  gas  and  in  the  absence 
of  the  solvent.  If,  then,  osmotic 
pressure  is  written  for  gas  pres- 
sure, the  solute  was  shown  by 
Van't  Hoff  to  obey  the  same  laws 
— namely,  Boyle's,  Charles's,  and 
Avogadro's — that  it  would  were 
it  in  the  state  of  gas  and  not  as 
solution,  and  hence  it  may  be 
understood  to  be  present  in  the 
solution  in  the  same  molecules  as 
it  occurs  in  when  a  gas.  Again, 
the  vapor  pressure  and  freezing- 
point  of  solutions  can  be  shown 
to  depend  on  the  osmotic  pres- 
STlre;  and  hence  the  molecular 
weight  of  a  substance  can  be  de- 
termined from  the  measurement 
of  either  the  osmotic  pressure  or 
those  proportions  that  depend  on 
it,  sucn  as  the  elevation  of  boil- 
ing-point or  depression  of  freez- 
ing-point when  dissolved  in  any 
given  solvent,  and  conversely. 
Now,  while  the  above  facts  are 
in  general  true  of  those  solutions, 
such  as  of  naphthalene  in  ben- 
zine or  sugar  in  water,  in  which 


no  change  other  than  the  physical 
change  of  state  appears  to  take 
place,  the  same  cannot  be  said  of 
solutions  of  salt  or  hydrochloric 
acid  in  water,  or  in  general  of 
those  solutions  that  conduct  elec- 
tricity electrolytically.  In  these 
latter  cases  the  measurements  of 
osmotic  pressure  give  higher  re- 
sults than  those  that  should  be 
produced  on  the  supposition  that 
the  solute  is  present  in  the  solu- 
tion in  its  simplest  molecules.  It 
has  therefore  been  supposed  that 
dissolved  salts  become  dissociated, 
on  solution  taking  place,  into  the 
ions  that  are  separated  if  such  a 
solution  is  electrolyzed.  Thus  a 
solution  of  common  salt,  sodium 
claloride,  NaCl,  exerts  a  greater 
osmotic  pressure  than  it  should 
exert  if  it  contained  NaCl  mole- 
cules, and  is  thus  believed  to 
contain  free  Na  and  CI  ions. 
These  ions  differ  entirely  from 
the  free  elements  sodium  and 
chlorine  in  property,  and  give 
the  characteristic  features  of  the 
solution,  the  difference  being  due 
to  the  electric  charges  of  the  ions 
when  separation  on  solution  takes 
place,  the  sodium  ion  being 
charged  positively  and  the  chlo- 
rine ion  negatively.  Such  a  view, 
though  somewhat  startling  at 
first  sight,  fits  in  very  well  with 
the  facts.  Thus  the  electric  con- 
ductivity of  such  solutions  in- 
creases with  the  excess  of  the 
osmotic  pressure  over  that  corre- 
sponding to  the  unionized  mole- 
cule, and  the  quantity  of  ion  set 
free  on  electrolysis  is  dependent, 
as  shown  by  Faraday,  on  the 
amount  of  current  passing,  and 
independent  of  the  stability  of 
the  salt  electrolyzed.  Again, 
salts  formed  by  the  union  of 
different  metals  with  the  same 
acid  radical  exhibit  the  same 
properties  as  regards  the  acid 
radical  when  in  solution,  and 
similarly  with  the  same  metal 
and  different  acid  radicals;  while 
on  neutralizing  equivalent  quan- 
tities   of    different    acids,  equal 

guantities  of  heat  are  evolved, 
oth  facts  are  easily  explicable 
if  it  is  belie /ed  that  the  positive 
and  negative  ions  are  independ- 
ent, and  that  when  neutralization 
takes  place  it  is  the  union  of  hy- 
drogen and  hydroxyl  ions  to  form 
water,  the  other  ions  present  being 
unchanged.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  discrepancies  from  the 
simple  theory.  Account  must  be 
taken  of  the  role  of  the  solvent 
in  associating  itself  with  the 
solute  and  with  the  ions;  and 
the  action  of  these  on  each  other, 
which  in  actuality  must  un- 
doubtedly play  an  important  part 
in  many  if  not  all  cases  of  solu- 
tion, must  be  determined  before 
the  theory  can  be  accepted  as 
entirely  satisfactory.  See  Elec- 
trolysis, and  Ostwald,  Solu- 
tions (trans,  by  Pattison  Muir, 


1891),  and  Whetham,  Theory  of 
Solutions  (1902). 

Solvay,  village,  New  York, 
Onondaga  county,  on  the  New 
York  Central  Railroad  ;  4  miles 
from  the  center  of  Syracuse.  It 
has  soda  ash  works,  a  pottery, 
steel  works,  etc.  It  was  incor- 
porated in  1894.  Pop.  (1930) 
7,986;  (1940)  8,201. 

Solvents.    See  Solutions. 

Solway  Firth,  inlet  of  the 
Irish  Sea,  separating  Cumber- 
land, England,  from  the  shires 
of  Kirkcudbright  and  Dumfries, 
Scotland.  It  extends  n.e.  for 
36  m.  The  Derwent  and  the 
Eden  enter  from  the  English 
side;  the  Esk,  the  Annan,  the 
Nith,  the  Dee,  and  the  Urr  from 
the  Scottish  side.  The  caves  and 
fisheries  find  a  place  in  Scott's 
Redgauntlet  and  Guy  Mannering. 
The  salmon  fisheries  are  very 
valuable.  The  tides  are  of  ex- 
traordinary rapidity. 

Solyman,  or  Suleiman,  II. 
(1496-1566),  Ottoman  sultan,  sur- 
named  'the  Great'  or  'the  Mag- 
nificent,' ascended  the  throne  in 
1520.  His  reign  marks  the  high- 
est point  in  power  reacned  by  the 
Ottoman  empire.  He  conquered 
most  of  Hungary  and  all  Tran- 
sylvania, and  seven  times  invaded 
W.  Europe.  In  1523  he  captured 
the  island  of  Rhodes;  in  1526 
won  the  battle  of  Mohacs,  in 
which  Lewis,  king  of  Hungary, 
and  an  immense  number  of  Hun- 
garians perished;  and  in  1529  took 
Buda  and  attacked  Vienna.  His 
failure  to  take  that  city  marks  an 
epoch  in  European  history.  In 
1533  he  entered  upon  a  series  of 
wars  with  Persia,  which  continued 
till  1554.  In  1547,  by  an  agree- 
ment with  the  Hapsburgs,  he  was 
left  in  possession  of  the  greater 
part  of  Hungary  and  Transyl- 
vania. During  these  years  Fran- 
cis I.  of  France  found  the  Turkish 
corsairs  valuable  allies  during  his 
wars  with  Charles  v.  Of  these, 
Barbarossa  was  the  most  cele- 
brated. In  1565  Malta  was  un- 
successfully attacked  by  Soly- 
man's  forces.  In  the  following 
year  Solyman  again  invaded  Hun- 

§ary,  but  died   while  besieging 
zigeth.   See  Turkey. 
Soma,  or  Homa,  one  of  the 

Elants  said  to  provide  the  am- 
rosia  of  the  gods.  A  branch 
of  this  sacred  plant  is  introduced 
into  nearly  all  the  ancient  mys- 
teries. The  ninth  book  of  the 
Rigveda  -  Samhild  consists  of 
numerous  hymns  intended  to  be 
recited  in  honor  of  the  soma 
juice  while  in  process  of  fer- 
mentation. Variouo  plants  with 
milky  juice  are  said  to  have  been 
the  true  soma,  notably  Asclepias 
acida  and  Periploca  aphylla. 

Somali,  a  main  branch  of  the 
E.  Hamites,  whose  domain  co- 
incides with  the  Somali  penin- 
sula of  Africa.    There  are  three 


Somaliland 


KFN 


302 


Somerset 


main  divisions,  grouped  in  in- 
numerable clans  or  septs,  each 
under  its  own  chief.  The  Somali 
are  taller  (5  ft.  8  to  5  ft.  10  in. 
and  even  6  ft.)  than  the  Gallas 
and  darker  (deep  brown),  with 
smaller  and  longer  heads,  rather 
full  lips,  slightly  arched  nose, 
long,  crisp  black  hair,  slender  ex- 
tremities. But  the  type  is  modi- 
fied in  different  places,  both  by 
Arab  and  Negro  interminglings. 
All  are  Mohammedans.  In  gen- 
eral they  are  a  somewhat  wild, 
restless,  and  treacherous  people  : 
lawless  nomads  in  the  interior ; 
fishers,  traders,  and  caravan  lead- 
ers on  the  seaboard.  See  F.  L. 
James,  The  Unknown  Horn  of 
Africa  (1888);  L.  Dal  Verme, 
//  Paese  dei  Somali  (1889),  C. 
G.  Nurse,  'Through  Somaliland' 
in  Geog.  Jour.  (1891). 

Somaliland,  French,  a  col- 
ony of  France  on  the  Gulf  of 
Aden  between  Italian  East  Af- 
rica and  British  Somaliland, 
touching  the  Gulf  at  the  Straits 
of  Bab  el  Mandeb.  It  is  admin- 
istered by  a  governor  assisted  by 
an  Administrative  Council.  The 
occupation  of  the  colony  was  be- 
gun in  1884,  and  in  1888  a  port 
was  established  at  Djibouti,  the 
seat  of  government  since  1892. 
The  area  of  the  colony  is  8,492 
square  miles  and  the  native  pop- 
ulation 44,240  in  1936.  Salt  pro- 
duction is  practically  the  only  in- 
dustry and  chief  source  of  ex- 
ports, although  coffee  and  hides 
also  are  exported.  Chief  im- 
ports are  cotton  yarns  and  goods, 
cattle,  coal,  and  sugar.  There  is 
a  railway  from  Djibouti  to  Addis 
Ababa.  The  population  of  Dji- 
bouti (1939)  is  20,000  of  which 
1,700  are  European.  In  the  Sec- 
ond World  War  the  colony  joined 
the  Fighting  French. 

Somaliland,  Italian,  a  state 
or  government  of  the  territory  of 
Italian  East  Africa  as  established 
by  the  act  of  June  1,  1936,  ex- 
tending along  the  east  coast  of 
Africa  from  British  Somaliland 
to  Kenya  Colony  at  Dick's  Head. 
The  area  is  about  194,000  square 
miles  and  the  population  (1931) 
1,021,572,  all  but  1,668  being  na- 
tives. Mogadiscio  (55,000)  is 
the  capital.  Cattle  raising  and 
agriculture  are  the  principal  oc- 
cupations. Exports  include  ses- 
ame oil,  gum,  hides,  cotton  and 
cottonseed  oil,  resin,  kapok,  and 
bananas ;  imports  include  cotton 
goods,  sugar,  rice,  tea,  coffee, 
iron,  machinery,  tobacco,  wines, 
etc.  British  Imperial  troops  in- 
vaded the  region  in  the  Second 
World  War. 

Somaliland  Protectorate 
(British),  a  territory  adminis- 
tered by  the  British  War  Office 
after  it  was  recaptured  by  the 
British  from  the  Italians  in  the 
Second  World  War.  The  area 
is  about  68,000  square  miles  and 


the  population  about  345,000. 
The  region  is  Mohammedan  and 
wholly  nomadic  except  on  the 
coast  where  a  number  of  towns 
have  sprung  up  under  the  British 
occupation.  The  main  towns 
with  approximate  size  are : 
Berbera  (15,000  to  30,000); 
Hargeisa  (1,500  to  20,000)  ; 
Burao  (10,000),  and  Zeilah  (5,- 
000).  Exports  include  skins  and 
hides,  gum  and  resins,  ghee,  cat- 
tle, sheep,  and  goats  ;  imports  in- 
clude rice,  dates,  sugar  and  tex- 
tiles. Transport  is  by  camel  and 
motor  car. 

Sombrero,  a  felt  hat  with 
very  broad  brim  widely  used 
throughout  the  southwestern 
United  States  and  Spanish  Amer- 
ica. 

Somers,  Sir  George  (1554- 
1610),  English  seaman  and  ad- 
venturer, was  born  at  Lyme 
Regis,  Dorsetshire.  He  was  en- 
gaged in  buccaneering  expedi- 
tions against  the  Spaniards  ;  but 
in  1609  he  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  Virginia  Company,  and 
as  admiral  of  the  association 
sailed  for  America  with  a  fleet  of 
nine  vessels  to  convey  settlers  to 
the  colony.  But  his  fleet  was 
wrecked  in  the  Bermudas.  Aft- 
er remaining  several  months  on 
the  islands,  Somers  and  his  com- 
pany, having  built  small  vessels, 
escaped  to  Virginia  in  1610  and 
settled  at  Jamestown.  In  June  of 
that  year  he  again  sailed  for  Ber- 
muda to  procure  a  supply  of  fish 
and  hogs  for  the  Virginia  colo- 
nists, but  was  delayed  by  a  storm 
and  died  soon  after  reaching  the 
islands.  See  Smith,  History  of 
Virginia,  New  England,  and  the 
Summer  Isles;  Doyle,  The  Eng- 
lish in  America. 

Somers,  sum'erz,  John,  Lord 
(1651-1716),  English  statesman, 
was  born  at  Claines,  near 
Worcester  and  was  educated  at 
Oxford.  Called  to  the  bar  in 
1676,  he  early  became  an  author- 
ity on  civil  and  constitutional 
law,  and  in  1687  was  junior  coun- 
sel for  the  seven  bishops  who 
petitioned  James  ii  against  his 
injunction  that  the  clergy  of 
Great  Britain  read  his  Declara- 
tion of  Indulgence  (q  .  v.)  at 
divine  service.  After  the  revo- 
lution he  sat  in  Parliament  for 
Worcester,  and  was  largely  re- 
sponsible for  the  Declaration  of 
Rights.  In  1692  he  became  at- 
torney-general, and  from  1697  to 
1700  was  lord  chancellor,  but  in 
that  year  he  was  deprived  of  the 
seal  and  in  1701  impeachment 
proceedings  were  commenced 
against  him,  but  without  success. 
He  had  great  influence  with  Wil- 
liam III,  and  during  Queen 
Anne's  reign  became  virtual  head 
of  the  Whig  punta.  Consult 
Maddock,  Life  and  Writings  of 
Somers,  and  the  Somers  Papers, 
ed.  by  Sir  Walter  Scott. 


Somerset,  sum'er-set,  city, 
Kentucky,  county  seat  of  Pu- 
laski county,  on  the  Cincinnati, 
New  Orleans,  and  Texas  Pacific 
Railroad  ;  65  miles  south  of  Lex- 
ington. Extensive  railroad  re- 
pair shops  are  situated  here,  and 
lumber,  staves,  and  spokes  are 
manufactured.  The  first  settle- 
ment was  made  in  1787.  Pop. 
(1930)  5,506;  (1940)  6,154. 

Somerset,  town,  Massachu- 
setts, Bristol  county,  on  the 
Taunton  River,  about  40  miles 
south  of  Boston.  Industrial  es- 
tablishments include  shellac 
works,  ship  yards,  electric  power 
plant,  and  textile  chemical  plant. 
Pop.  (1930)  5,398;  (1940)  5,- 
873. 

Somerset,  borough,  Pennsyl- 
vania, county  seat  of  Somerset 
county,  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Railroad ;  about  60  miles 
southeast  of  Pittsburgh.  Coal  is 
mined.  Pop.  (1930)  4,395; 
(1940)  5,430. 

Somerset,  Dukes  of.  John 
Beaufort  (1403-44),  first  Duke 
of  Somerset,  was  a  grandson  of 
John  of  Gaunt  (q.  v.)  and  a  son 
of  John  Beaufort,  who  had  been 
created  earl  of  Somerset  in  1397. 
He  fought  with  Henry  v  in 
France,  and  became  duke  in 
1443.  He  was  succeeded  in 
1448  by  Edmund  Bi:aufort  (d. 
1455),  a  younger  brother,  who 
fell  in  the  battle  of  St.  Albans, 
which  also  proved  fatal  to  his 
sons  and  thus  terminated  the 
male  line. 

The  family  name  of  the  present 
bearers  of  the  title  is  Seymour,  a 
corruption  of  St.  Maur,  the  Sey- 
mours claiming  descent  from  a 
companion  of  William  the  Con- 
queror who  took  his  name  from 
St.  Maur  in  Touraine.  Sir  Ed- 
ward Seymour  (1506-52),  the 
first  of  the  line,  attended  Henry 
VIII  at  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of 
Gold  (1520),  and  became  suc- 
cessively lord  chamberlain  and 
lord  treasurer  of  England,  earl 
marshal,  and  protector  of  the 
king.  He  was  created  Duke  of 
Somerset  in  1547,  but  was  exe- 
cuted for  felony  (Jan.  22,  1552). 
His  son  Edward  (1539-1621) 
was  created  Baron  Beauchamp 
and  Earl  of  Hertford  by  Queen 
Elizabeth  in  1558  or  1559,  but 
incurred  the  royal  displeasure  by 
his  marriage  with  Lady  Cath- 
erine Gray,  great-granddaughter 
of  Henry  vii,  for  which  he  was 
imprisoned  and  fined  $75,000. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  grand- 
son William  (1588-1660),  who 
contracted  a  marriage  with  a 
cousin  of  James  i.  Lady  Arabella 
Stuart,  and  was  imprisoned.  On 
the  accession  of  Charles  ii  the 
dukedom  was  revived  in  his  per- 
son. William,  his  grandson,  suc- 
ceeded as  third  duke,  but  dying 
at  the  age  of  20,  was  succeeded 
by  his  uncle,  John,  the  fourth 


Somerset  House 


KFN 


303 


Somme 


duke.  In  1675  the  title  passed 
to  Francis  Seymour  (1658-78) 
and  in  1678  to  Charles  Sey- 
mour (1662-1748),  the  sixth 
duke,  who  was,  according  to 
Macaulay,  'a  man  in  whom  the 
pride  of  birth  and  rank  amounted 
almost  to  a  disease.'  Contem- 
porary literature  is  full  of  anec- 
dotes of  his  absurd  vanity.  His 
son  Algernon,  having  no  sur- 
viving male  issue,  was,  in  honor 
of  his  maternal  descent,  created 
(1749)  Earl  of  Northumberland, 
with  a  special  remainder  to  his 
son-in-law,  Sir  Hugh  Smithson, 
and  also  Earl  of  Egremont,  with 
special  remainders  to  his  neph- 
ews. At  his  death  the  Somerset 
title  was  claimed  by  Sir  Edward 
Seymour,  a  descendant  of  the 
first  duke  by  marriage,  and  his 
claim  was  allowed. 

Somerset  House,  a  building 
in  the  Palladian  or  Italian  style, 
erected  in  London  (1776-86),  on 
the  site  of  the  Duke  of  Somer- 
set's palace,  after  designs  by  Sir 
William  Chambers.  It  fronts  on 
both  the  Strand  and  the  Thames 
Embankment,  and  houses  a  num- 
ber of  public  offices,  including 
the  Registrar-General's  and  those 
of  Wills  and  Probate,  Inland 
Revenue,  Audit  and  Exchequer. 
The  east  wing,  built  in  1828,  ac- 
commodates King's  College. 

Somersetshire,  maritime 
county,  England,  south  of  Bris- 
tol Channel.  The  surface  is  ex- 
ceedingly diversified,  and  the 
scenery  is  in  many  parts  pictur- 
esque, with  every  variation  from 
lofty  hills  to  rich  vales  and 
marshy  levels  along  the  coast, 
banked  from  the  sea  by  an  elab- 
orate system  of  dikes.  Several 
short  ranges  traverse  the  county 
— the  Mendip,  Polden,  Black- 
down  and  Quantock.  In  the 
west,  partly  in  Devon,  is  Exmoor 
(q.  V.)  with  Dunkery  Beacon 
(1,707  feet)  ;  and  southwest  part 
of  the  old  Forest  of  Selwood. 
The  only  two  rivers  of  commer- 
cial importance  are  the  Bristol 
Avon  and  the  Parret,  the  latter 
with  a  tidal  bore. 

Agriculture,  especially  dairy 
farming,  is  the  principal  indus- 
try. Cheddar  cheese  is  a  special 
product,  and  there  are  extensive 
orchards.  Mineral  deposits  in- 
clude coal,  building  stone,  slate, 
and  fuller's  earth.  Woolen  man- 
ufactures, formerly  important, 
are  still  carried  on  to  a  limited 
extent,  and  gloves,  sailcloth, 
horsehair  fabrics,  and  bath  bricks 
are  manufactured. 

Bath  and  Wells  are  the  chief 
cities,  and  there  is  an  important 
port  in  Bridgwater  and  one  of 
the  finest  watering-places  on  the 
western  coast  in  Weston-super- 
Mare.  Area  (administrative 
county),  1,616  square  miles,  pop. 
(1931)  406,319. 

Somersworth,  sum'erz- 


wurth,  city,  New  Hampshire, 
Strafford  county,  on  the  Salmon 
Falls  River,  and  the  Boston  and 
Maine  Railroad  ;  five  miles  north 
of  Dover.  The  city  has  a  public 
library  and  theatre.  The  river 
affords  abundant  waterpower 
utilized  in  large  cotton  mills. 
There  are  also  manufactures  of 
shoes,  woolen  goods,  alpaca  yarn, 
wooden  boxes,  sashes,  and  blinds, 
and  a  bleachery.  Somersworth 
was  settled  in  1729,  incorporated 
as  a  town  in  1754,  and  chartered 
as  a  citv  in  1893.  Pop.  (1930) 
5,680;  (1940)  6,136. 

Somerville,  sum'er-vil,  city, 
Massachusetts,  Middlesex  coun- 
ty, on  the  Mystic  River,  and  on 
the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad  ; 
two  miles  from  Boston,  adjoin- 
ing Cambridge  and  Medford.  It 
is  joined  to  the  latter  city  by  the 
Wellington  and  Boston  Avenue 
Bridges  across  the  Mystic,  thus 
giving  it  connection  with  all 
northern  New  England.  It  con- 
tains many  fine  residences  and  a 
number  of  notable  institutions 
and  points  of  historic  interest. 
Part  of  the  buildings  of  Tufts 
College  (q.  v.)  are  located  here, 
and  there  are  a  fine  public  li- 
brary, with  two  branch  libraries 
and  a  reading  room,  a  state  ar- 
mory, Somerville  hospital,  a  con- 
tagious disease  hospital,  a  city 
home,  and  a  Roman  Catholic 
home  for  the  aged  poor.  Pros- 
pect Hill,  with  an  observation 
tower,  was  the  site  of  important 
works  in  the  siege  of  Boston,  and 
here  the  American  flag  was 
raised  for  the  first  time.  The 
headquarters  of  Generals  Charles 
Lee  and  Nathanael  Greene,  an 
old  powder  house,  Nathan  Tufts 
Park,  Ten  Hill  Farm,  former 
home  of  Governor  Winthrop,  and 
the  old  fort  used  in  the  siege  of 
Boston  (1776)  are  also  note- 
worthy. 

Somerville  is  of  importance  as 
a  manufacturing  center.  The 
more  important  products  are 
slaughtering  and  meat  packing, 
bread  and  other  bakery  products, 
grease  and  tallow,  confectionery 
and  ice  cream,  paper  bags,  brass, 
bronze  and  copper  products,  and 
furniture. 

Somerville  was  settled  as  part 
of  Charlestown  about  1631.  It 
was  incorporated  as  a  town  in 
1842  and  as  a  city  in  1871.  It  is 
governed  by  a  mayor,  elected 
annually,  and  a  city  council. 
Pop.  (1930)  103,908;  (1940) 
102,177. 

Somerville,  town.  New  Jer- 
sey, county  seat  of  Somerset 
county,  on  the  Raritan  River  and 
the  Central  Railroad  of  New  Jer- 
sey ;  36  miles  s.w.  of  New  York 
City.  It  is  a  residential  and  in- 
dustrial center  and  the  shipping 
point  of  an  agricultural  district. 
The  leading  manufactures  are 
planing-mill     products,  woven 


wall  coverings,  lace,  steel,  stoves, 
iron  pipe,  and  brick.  The  city 
has  a  public  library,  and  there 
are  several  academic  institutions. 
Pop.  (1930)  8,255;  (1940)  8,- 
720. 

Somerville,  Mrs.  Mary 
(1780-1872),  Scottish  writer  on 
physical  science  and  mathemat- 
ics, was  born  in  Jedburgh,  the 
daughter  of  Admiral  Sir  William 
Fairfax,  and  was  married,  in 
1812,  to  Dr.  William  Somerville 
of  the  British  Army.  She  be- 
came widely  known  in  conse- 
quence of  a  Royal  Society  paper 
in  1826  on  the  Magnetic  Proper- 
tics  of  the  Violet  Rays  of  the 
Solar  Spectrum,  and  in  1831  she 
issued,  in  Brougham's  Library 
of  Useful  Knowledge,  a  transla- 
tion of  Laplace's  Celestial  Mech- 
anism of  the  Heavens.  She  sub- 
sequently published  The  Connec- 
tion  of  the  Physical  Sciences 
(1834)  ;  Physical  Geography 
(1848)  ;  Molecular  and  Micro- 
scopic Science  (1866).  Somer- 
ville College,  Oxford,  takes  its 
name  from  her.  Consult  her 
Personal  Recollections  (1873). 

Somerville,  William  (1675- 
1742),  English  poet,  was  born  at 
Colwich,  Staffordshire.  He  wrote 
The  Two  Springs,  a  Fable 
(1725)  ;  O  c c asional  Poems 
(1727)  ;  The  Chase  (1735,  ed. 
by  Hugh  Thomson,  1896),  a  no- 
table objective  poem  and  his  out- 
standing work,  Hohbinol  or  the 
Rural  Games  (1740),  and  Field 
Sports,  a  poem  on  hawking 
(1742).  His  collected  Poetical 
Works  appeared  in  1801.  Con- 
sult Lives  by  Chalmers  and  Sand- 
ford. 

Somerville  College,  one  of 

the  four  colleges,  or  halls,  for 
women  at  Oxford  University 
(see  Oxford),  named  for  Mary 
Somerville  (q.  v.). 

Som'ma,  town,  Italy,  at  the 
foot  of  Monte  Somma,  the  north- 
ern peak  of  Mt.  Vesuvius;  10 
miles  east  of  Naples.  Pop. 
(town)  3,500;  (commune)  10,000. 

Som'ma,  town,  Italy,  in  Lom- 
bardy  near  the  eastern  bank  of 
the  Ticinus  ;  26  miles  northwest 
of  Milan.    Pop.  (commune)  5,500. 

Somme,  som,  department  of 
northern  France,  touching  the 
English  Channel  on  the  north- 
west, was  formed  from  the  old 
province  of  Picardy  (q.  v.).  The 
River  Somme  traverses  the  de- 
partment. The  surface  is  gently 
undulating,  fertile,  and  in  normal 
times  well  cultivated.  Sugar 
beets,  cereals,  flax,  hemp,  and 
potatoes  are  grown ;  cider  is 
made,  and  poultry  is  raised. 
Textile  industries  (wool,  cotton, 
linen,  hemp,  silk  spinning,  and 
the  weaving  of  mixed  stuffs, 
cloth,  velvet,  carpets)  give  the 
principal  mechanical  employ- 
ments, and  there  are  also  large 
iron  foundries,  lock,  soap,  can- 


Somme 


KFN 


303  A 


Somme,  Battles  of  the 


die,  chemical,  paper,  and  beet- 
sugar  factories,  distilleries,  and 
breweries.  Amiens  is  the  capi- 
tal. Area  2,443  square  miles ; 
pop.  (1936)  467,479.  The  de- 
partment was  the  scene  of  severe 
fighting  during  the  First  World 
War.  See  Somme,  Battles  of 
THE  ;  Amiens. 

Somme,  river,  northern 
France,  rises  in  the  department 
of  Aisne,  flows  in  a  westerly  di- 
rection through  the  department 
of  Somme,  and  after  a  course  of 
150  miles  empties  into  the  Eng- 
lish Channel  near  St.  Valery.  It 
is  navigable  for  vessels  of  300 
tons  as  far  as  Abbeville,  and  its 
upper  course  is  canalized.  Its 
most  important  tributaries  are 
the  Ancre,  Avre,  and  Selle. 

Somme,  Battles  of  the. 
First  Battle— In  July  1915,  a 
year  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
First  World  War  (see  Europe, 
Great  War  of),  the  British  had 
taken  over  a  large  part  of  the  line 
from  Arras  to  the  Somme,  their 
forces  being  disposed  as  follows  : 
Plumer's  Second  Army  before 
Ypres,  Monro's  First  Army  oppo- 
site Neuve  Chapelle,  Allenby's 
Third  Army  covering  the  former 
French  front,  and  Rawlinson's 
Fourth  Army  with  its  right  near 
the  Somme.  There  had  been  a 
number  of  conflicts  at  various 
points,  serious  mainly  because 
of  the  loss  of  life  entailed.  The 
earliest  occurred  in  the  Ypres 
sector,  south  of  Hill  60,  and 
ended  with  the  repulse  of  the 
Germans  on  March  2  (1916). 
This  marked  the  first  engage- 
ment in  which  British  infantry 
employed  helmets.  For  ten 
weeks,  Loos  was  the  scene  of 
continual  mining  and  counter- 
mining, which  cost  the  British 
alone  some  4,000  men.  Espe- 
cially severe  fighting  took  place 
around  the  Mount  near  St.  Eloi. 
This  was  captured  by  the 
Canadians  on  March  27  and 
defended  against  vigorous  coun- 
ter-attacks on  April  6—9  and 
April  19.  Among  other  local  en- 
gagements were  those  on  Vimy 
Ridge  (May  15  and  21),  at 
Wulverghem,  west  of  Messines 
(April  30),  and  at  Mont  Sorel  on 
June  2.  This  assault  threatened 
Ypres,  and  it  was  June  13  before 
the  lost  trenches  were  regained. 
Most  of  the  German  attacks  had 
been  launched  as  feelers.  The 
hour  for  the  drive  struck  when 
the  Austrians  were  checked  in  the 
Trentino  and  driven  from  Buko- 
wina. 

The  British  army  of  assault 
comprised  Rawlinson's  five  corps 
and  one  corps  of  General 
Allenby's  to  the  north  and  ex- 
tended about  20  miles  from 
south  of  Gommecourt,  down 
across  the  Ancre  Valley  to 
Fricourt,  thence  eastward  almost 
to  Maricourt.    From  there,  for 


another  8  miles  to  opposite  the 
village  of  Fay,  were  massed  the 
three  corps  of  the  French  Sixth 
Army  under  Fayolle.  Opposed 
to  the  Allies  was  the  right  wing 
of  the  German  Second  Army  un- 
der von  Below.  Thus  at  the  out- 
set the  Allies  numbered,  rougiily, 
350,000  men  as  against  less  than 
half  as  many  Germans.  During 
the  development  of  the  struggle, 
supreme  authority  was  vested  in 
the  Crown  Prince  of  Bavaria, 
leader  of  the  Sixth  Army ;  the 
old  First  Army  was  revived  and 
placed  under  Von  Below,  the  Sec- 
ond going  to  Von  Gallwitz. 

Bombardment  from  Flanders 
south  began  after  the  middle  of 
June  ;  by  June  24  it  became  in- 
tense. Next  day  airplanes  oper- 
ated in  force  and  maintained 
command  of  the  air.  On  July  1, 
1916,  the  Allied  infantry  went 
over  the  top.  In  the  north  the 
assault  was  a  tragic  failure.  At 
this  point  it  was  anticipated  by 
the  (jermans,  who  met  it  with  a 
full  concentration  of  men  and 
guns.  Their  trenches  were  de- 
stroyed but  so  were  those  of  the 
British.  The  Germans  had  taken 
refuge  in  deep  shelters,  while  the 
storming  forces  were  decimated 
in  their  assembly  trenches  and 
then  literally  mowed  down  by 
machine-guns. 

The  German  front  from 
Gommecourt  to  below  Thiepval 
was  a  trap  from  which  only  a 
few  escaped.  Divisions  of  the 
Seventh,  Eighth,  and  Tenth 
Corps,  whose  objectives  were 
Gommecourt,  Serre,  Beaumont 
Hamel,  Beaucourt,  and  Thiepval, 
were  almost  wiped  out.  The 
Eighth  Division  of  the  Third 
Corps  met  with  a  similar  fate 
before  Ovillers  and  La  Boiselle, 
but  the  Thirty-fourth  Division, 
mostly  Scottish  troops,  reached 
the  outskirts  of  Contalmaison 
and  held  on  till  relieved  on  July 
3.  Their  advance  marked  a 
turning-point  in  favor  of  the 
Allies  ;  from  there  to  the  south 
the  Anglo-French  attack  proved 
everywhere  successful.  At  Fri- 
court the  line  took  a  sudden  bend 
to  the  east.  To  the  Fifteenth 
Corps  (Horne)  was  allotted  the 
task  of  containing  this  salient  by 
advancing  from  the  left  on  Ma- 
metz  Wood  and  occupying  Ma- 
metz  to  the  right.  By  evening 
the  latter  had  fallen,  and  the 
British  were  a  mile  on  the  way 
to  the  former.  The  Thirteenth 
Corps  (Congreve,  V.  C.)  cap- 
tured Montauban  early  in  the  day. 
To  the  right  fought  the  French 
Twentieth  Corps  (Balfourier's 
'Corps  de  Fer').  This  body  met 
with  stiffs  opposition  on  the  Al- 
bert-Peronne  road,  north  of  the 
Somme,  and  before  the  villages 
of  Curlu  and  Hardecourt,  the 
outskirts  of  which,  however, 
were  in  its  hands  before  nightfall. 


South  of  the  river,  the  First 
Colonial  Corps  (Brandelat)  and 
Thirty-fifth  Corps  (Allonier) 
captured  Dompierre,  Becquin- 
court,  and  Bussu  Fay. 

More  than  half  of  the  first 
German  line  had  been  broken.  It 
now  remained  to  bring  the  Brit- 
ish center  up  to  the  right.  At 
this  juncture  the  Eighth  and 
Tenth  Corps,  to  the  north,  were 
detached  from  Rawlinson's  Army 
and  placed  under  Gough.  This 
new  unit,  the  Fifth  Army,  was 
delegated  to  operate  in  the  section 
north  of  the  Albert-Bapaume 
road.  The  attack  was  resumed 
(July  2)  on  La  Boiselle  and 
Ovillers.  The  former  was  cap- 
tured on  July  5  ;  the  latter  on 
July  16.  Fricourt  had  fallen  on 
the  second  day,  and  outposts  were 
established  in  Bernafay  Wood. 
July  2  also  marked  the  capture 
of  Curlu,  Frise,  Mereaucourt 
Wood,  and  Herbecourt  by  the 
French.  Next  day  they  seized 
the  second  German  line ;  on  July 
4  their  Foreign  Legion  was  in 
Belloy-en-Santerre,  a  point  in  the 
third,  and  the  British  were  press- 
ing toward  Bailiff  Wood  and 
Contalmaison,  carrying  Horse- 
shoe Trench,  its  main  defense 
from  the  west,  the  day  following. 

By  July  5  the  French  were  in 
Estrees  at  the  extreme  south, 
and  two  days  later  the  British 
attacked  Contalmaison  in  force. 
Bailiff  Wood  was  taken  and  the 
village  carried  by  storm  but  lost 
again.  A  hold,  however,  was 
gained  and  maintained  on  Leip- 
zig Redoubt,  south  of  Thiepval ; 
and  Contalmaison  yielded  on 
July  10  after  a  hand-to-hand 
struggle.  Mametz  Wood,  to  the 
east,  had  finally  been  penetrated. 
It  required  three  days  of  des- 
perate fighting  before  it  could 
be  cleared  (July  12).  Bernafay 
Wood,  to  the  east  of  Montauban, 
had  been  taken  on  July  5,  but 
Trones  Wood  on  the  Longueval 
road  was  difficult,  and  July  13 
found  it  untenable  for  either  side. 
The  French,  in  the  meantime, 
had  driven  the  last  Boche  from 
Hardecourt  (July  8),  had  cap- 
tured Biaches,  a  mile  from  Pe- 
ronne,  and  La  Maisonette  on 
July  9  and  at  this  point  pene- 
trated the  third  German  line. 

The  operations  now  entered 
the  second  phase.  On  July  14, 
an  attack  was  launched  all  along 
the  British  front  against  the  Ger- 
man second  line  of  defenses. 
Unprepared,  the  Germans  yielded 
at  every  point.  The  Third  Corps, 
on  the  left,  reached  the  edge  of 
Pozieres.  Both  Bazentin-le- 
Grand  and  Bazentin-le-Petit 
and  their  respective  woods  were 
captured  by  the  Fifteenth  Corps 
and  the  Thirteenth,  which  also 
cleared  Trones  Wood.  By  night- 
fall 3  miles  of  the  German 
trenches  were  in  British  hands. 


Somme,  Battles  of  the  KFN 


303  B 


Somme,  Battles  of  the 


One  division,  supported  by  cav- 
alry, pressed  as  far  north  as 
'High  Wood'  (Bois  des  Fou- 
reaux)  and  penetrated  the  third 
line,  though  forced  to  relinquish 
this  ground  the  next  day.  The 
fight  now  centered  on  Longueval 
and  Delville  Wood  to  its  north- 
east. The  South  African  Bri- 
gade cleared  most  of  the  latter 
by  noon  of  the  next  day,  and  the 
eastern  side  was  occupied  to- 
gether with  Longueval  on  July 
27.  Delville  Wood,  as  a  whole, 
was  not  cleared  until  August  25. 
No  more  violent  fighting  had 
occurred  on  the  Western  front. 
Meanwhile  Guillemont,  on  the 
right,  and  Pozieres,  on  the  left, 
became  the  next  objectives.  The 
French  and  British  made  a  con- 
certed attack  on  Guillemont  from 
the  east  and  west  (  July  19-20)  ; 
the  former  progressing,  the  latter 
meeting  with  a  check.  Pozieres 
and  its  approaches  now  became 
the  scene  of  a  four-days'  conflict 
ending  with  the  occupation  of 
the  village  (July  23-6)  in  which 
the  Anzacs  of  the  Fifth  Army 
especially  distinguished  them- 
selves. 

During  this  period  the  French 
had  enjoyed  considerable  suc- 
cess south  of  the  Somme,  having 
seized  most  of  the  German  de- 
fenses from  before  Barleux  to 
Varmandovillers  (July  20),  while 
north  of  the  river  they  had 
occupied  the  balance  of  the  sec- 
ond line  between  Monacu  Farm 
and  Hem  Wood. 

On  the  evening  of  Aug.  4  the 
British  launched  a  surprise  at- 
tack against  the  German  second 
line  just  north  of  Pozieres  and 
broke  through  on  a  front  of  al- 
most two  miles,  also  capturing 
the  Windmill.  On  Aug.  8  fur- 
ther advance  was  made  toward 
Mouquet  Farm,  northwest  of 
Pozieres,  and  the  village  of 
Guillemont.  The  French  by 
that  time  held  all  the  German 
third  line  south  of  the  Somme. 
On  Aug.  12  the  section  north  of 
the  river  was  attacked  and  vir- 
tually all  of  it  was  in  French 
hands  by  Aug.  16.  They  now 
contained  Maurepas  and  were 
looking  down  on  Clery.  The 
French  left  seized  most  of 
Maurepas  and  won  Calvary  Hill 
from  the  Prussian  Guards. 

The  next  fortnight  found  the 
British,  in  the  main,  repulsing 
counter-attacks  and  consolidat- 
ing their  gains,  though  by  Aug. 
24  they  had  advanced  to  within 
500  yards  of  Thiepval.  The 
same  day  the  French  captured 
the  balance  of  Maurepas.  Final- 
ly, on  Sept.  3  another  general  at- 
tack was  launched.  The  British 
had  broken  through  the  major 
part  of  the  second  system  of 
trenches,  but  the  Germans  had 
had  two  months  to  fortify  their 
third  line  and  prepare  a  fourth 


behind  it.  The  third  ran  along 
the  lower  side  of  the  watershed 
and  extended,  roughly,  from 
Courcelette  south  to  Martin- 
puich,  east  through  Flers  and 
Lesbceufs  and  thence  south  again 
to  Marval.  With  the  destruc- 
tion of  this  third  position  as  the 
object,  the  operations  now  en- 
tered their  third  phase.  Pref- 
aced by  two  days  of  concentrated 
artillery  fire,  on  Sept.  14  a  feint 
attack  was  launched  near  Thiep- 
val and  led  to  the  capture  of  the 
Hohenzollern  Trench  and  the 
'Wunderwerk,'  a  redoubt  which 
the  Germans  deemed  impreg- 
nable. The  morning  of  Sept.  15 
marked  the  real  and  general  as- 
sault which  was  supported  by 
tanks,  used  here  for  the  first 
time.  On  the  left  and  center, 
the  Canadians  captured  Cour- 
celette. A  Scottish  division 
cleared  the  village  of  Martin- 
puich  of  the  enemy.  High  Wood, 
long  a  thorn  in  the  advance,  was 
wholly  occupied  on  the  second 
attack  by  London  Territorials. 
The  Anzacs  captured  the  Switch 
Line  and  Flers,  while  the  section 
east  of  Delville  Wood  was  re- 
claimed and  an  advance  made  to- 
wards Lesbceufs  by  a  division  of 
the  New  Army.  On  the  extreme 
right,  however,  the  British  found 
a  stumbling-block  in  a  fortified 
point  called  the  Quadrilateral, 
which  was  not  captured  till  Sept. 
18.  This  held  up  their  advance 
on  Bouleaux  Wood,  north  of 
Combles,  and  towards  Lesbceufs 
in  that  quarter.  Seven  of  the 
tanks  broke  down  early  in  the 
struggle,  but  seventeen  of  them 
proved  of  signal  service  in  crash- 
ing through  wire,  crushing 
trenches,  and  generally  demoral- 
izing the  defense.  The  air  force, 
which  had  proved  invaluable  be- 
fore for  purposes  of  observation 
and  the  destruction  of  German 
observers,  further  cooperated  by 
direct  attacks  on  enemy  batteries 
and  by  sweeping  with  machine- 
gun  fire  the  advance  of  the  relief. 

The  French  to  the  south  had 
already  captured  Bouchavesnes 
(Sept.  13)  and  Priez  Farm 
(Sept  14).  On  Sept.  17  their 
right  wing  entirely  cleared  Ver- 
mandovillers  and  Berny,  on  the 
next  day  took  Deniecourt,  and 
now  commanded  Ablaincourt  and 
Pressoire  and  threatened  Bar- 
leux. Bad  weather  caused  a  lull 
in  the  offensive  until  Sept.  25, 
when  it  was  resumed  by  both 
Rawlinson  and  Fayolle.  Of  the 
three  British  objectives,  Morval, 
Lesbceufs  and  Guedecourt  (on 
the  road  to  Flers),  the  first  two 
were  taken.  The  French,  to  their 
east,  captured  Rancourt  and 
reached  the  edge  of  Fregicourt, 
which  they  cleared  before  morn- 
ing. This  all  but  closed  the  ring 
about  Combles,  which  fell  to  the 
combined   forces   of  the  Allies 


early  on  Sept.  26.  On  the  same 
day  at  Guedecourt  the  garrison 
of  its  main  defense,  the  famous 
Gird  Trench,  was  attacked  si- 
multaneously by  a  tank  and  an 
airplane.  This  spectacular  and 
terrifying  form  of  assault  para- 
lyzed all  resistance.  The  de- 
fenders surrendered  and  Ciuede- 
court  was  occupied. 

Meanwhile,  to  the  west,  Thiep- 
val had  been  occupied  (Sept.  26- 
7)  and  the  British  took  a  part  of 
Mouquet  Farm  and  of  Stuff  Re- 
doubt and  the  whole  of  Zollern 
Redoubt.  Nearly  10,000  prison- 
ers had  been  taken  since  Sept.  14, 
and  the  Germans  had  been  driven 
back  towards  their  fourth  line, 
but  between  their  two  defenses 
were  ridges  and  spurs  where  they 
were  to  make  a  determined  stand 
assisted  by  the  autumn  rains 
which  converted  the  Allied  rear 
into  a  quagmire.  Progress  from 
now  on  was  slow.  Destremont 
Farm,  southwest  of  Le  Sars,  was 
occupied  on  Sept.  29,  and  Eau- 
court  I'Abbaye  after  a  four  days' 
fight  (Oct  1-4),  while  on  Oct.  7 
the  French,  who  had  taken  over 
Morval,  were  well  on  the  way  to 
Sailly-Saillisel.  On  the  same 
day  Le  Sars  fell  to  the  British  to- 
gether with  some  2,000  yards  of 
trenches  between  Lesbceufs  and 
Guedecourt.  Beyond  Thiepval 
the  struggle  centered  on  the 
Schwaben  Redoubt.  Here  from 
Sept  30  to  Oct  20  the  Germans 
delivered  as  many  as  eleven 
counter-attacks,  for  not  to  dis- 
lodge the  British  meant  the  lat- 
ter's  domination  of  the  valley  of 
the  Ancre.  A  final  such  attack 
was  made  on  the  21st,  but  failed  ; 
and  a  British  assault  virtually 
ended  all  resistance.  Meanwhile, 
the  French  had  entered  the  wood 
of  St.  Pierre  Vaast,  east  of 
Combles.  Further  gains  in  this 
district  were  made  Oct.  4  and  8, 
while  on  the  10th  Micheler's 
forces  reached  the  edge  of  Ab- 
laincourt and  captured  a  part  of 
the  wood  northwest  of  Chaulnes. 
Both  French  wings  progressed  on 
Oct.  15,  the  right  taking  over  a 
mile  of  trenches  west  of  Belloy, 
Mobile  the  next  day  the  westerly 
part  of  Sailly-Saillisel  was  cap- 
tured by  the  left.  Furious  coun- 
ter-attacks failed  to  dislodge  the 
French  from  Sailly.  In  the 
north  the  British  check  was  coun- 
ter-balanced by  the  capture  of  the 
last  German  position  on  Thiep- 
val ridge  (Nov.  10).  With  this 
ended  the  third  stage  of  the  great 
battle,  a  phase  in  which  the  ele- 
ments had  cheated  the  Allies  of 
the  fruits  of  their  great  drive. 

The  fourth  and  final  stage  in- 
volved a  second  attempt  to 
break  down  German  resistance 
between  Gommecovirt  and  Thiep- 
val, the  sector  of  the  disastrous 
check  of  July  1.  The  gvms  began 
their  work  on  Nov.  11  (1916),  but 


Somme,  Battles  of  the  KFN 


303  C 


^omme,  Battles  of  the 


there  was  no  intensified  fire  to 
give  warning  of  a  general  as- 
sault by  the  Fifth  Army  which 
began  on  Nov.  13.  Serre,  the  ob- 
jective of  the  left  wing,  once 
more  proved  impregnable.  Be- 
low it,  however,  the  British 
broke  through  the  first  line  and 
gained  a  footing  on  the  ridge  ex- 
tending towards  Beaucourt,  the 
objective  of  their  center.  St. 
Pierre  Division,  a  hamlet-re- 
doubt, just  south  of  the  Ancre, 
was  taken  by  the  right  in  its  first 
rush.  There  the  British  took  the 
river  heights  opposite  Beaucourt. 
The  center  was  more  stubbornly 
opposed  but  the  Highland  Terri- 
torials, forcing  their  way  through 
the  Y  Ravine,  ended  by  captur- 
ing the  village  stronghold  of 
Beaumont  Hamel.  To  their  im- 
mediate right,  the  Naval  Divi- 
sion was  held  up  by  a  redoubt 
between  the  second  and  third 
lines.  The  situation  was  saved 
by  the  superlative  daring  of  a 
young  New  Zealander,  Colonel 
Freyberg,  V.  C,  already  cele- 
brated for  his  exploits  at  Gal- 
lipoli.  The  battalion  which  he 
led  had  so  far  distanced  those  on 
his  left  as  to  have  reached  the 
outskirts  of  Beaucourt,  itself. 
Thence  he  would  not  budge  and 
was  found  during  the  general 
advance  of  the  next  morning,  an 
assault  in  which  he  participated 
though  three  times  wounded. 
This  attack  of  Nov.  14  consoli- 
dated the  gains  of  the  previous 
day.  The  British  advance  con- 
tinued through  Nov.  18.  By  the 
end  of  that  day  they  had  cleared 
the  Beaucourt  region  and 
reached  the  edge  of  Grandcourt, 
three  miles  west  of  Le  Sars. 
More  than  7,000  prisoners  were 
captured  during  the  six  days'  op- 
erations which  brought  to  a  close 
the  Somme  Drive  of  1916. 

Second.  Battle— The  First 
Battle  of  the  Somme  was  an  An- 
glo-French offensive.  The  Sec- 
ond Battle  of  the  Somme  was 
German  in  its  inception,  its 
geographical  objectives  being  the 
capture  of  northern  France. 
Russia  had  ceased  to  exist.  Aus- 
tria, Bulgaria,  and  Turkey  were 
for  the  time  being  left  to  work 
out  their  own  salvation.  Every 
ounce  of  German  strength  was 
concentrated  behind  the  blow  lev- 
elled at  the  body  of  the  Allies. 
Its  solar  plexus  was  Amiens  ;  the 
tissue  protecting  it,  the  British 
Third  Army  under  Byng  on  the 
left  and  the  Fifth  Army  under 
Gough  on  the  right.  The  com- 
plete paralysis  of  either,  espe- 
cially the  second,  would  end  all 
chances  of  coordination,  stupefy 
resistance,  and  expose  both  flanks 
to  terrible  punishment. 

If  Amiens  was  the  solar  plex- 
us of  the  Allied  body,  its  chief 
nerve  was  the  River  Somme, 
which  reaches  back  in  a  winding 


course  to  the  east,  then  at 
Peronne  to  the  south,  and  then 
swings  in  a  half  circle  through 
Ham  up  to  St.  Quentin.  Con- 
nected with  the  Somme  are  the 
Ancre,  Tortille,  Cologne,  Omig- 
non,  Crozat  Canal,  and  the 
Avre.  A  shock  to  one  was  felt 
by  all.  By  a  slight  variation  in 
the  analogy  Arras  could  be  re- 
garded as  the  heart  of  the 
British  power  with  the  Scarpe, 
its  main  artery,  affected  by  pres- 
sure upon  the  Cojeul,  Sensee, 
and  Agache,  all  veins  of  the  great 
artery  of  the  Escaut  (Scheldt), 
which  flows  through  Cambrai 
and  is  linked  up  with  St.  Quentin 
by  the  canal  of  that  name. 

The  German  armies  that  were 
to  strike  at  Amiens  were  the  new 
Seventeenth  (von  Below),  five 
corps  extending  from  Arras  to 
Cambrai ;  the  Second  (Von  der 
Marwitz),  five  corps  extending 
from  Cambrai  to  a  little  north 
of  St.  Quentin  ;  the  new  Eight- 
eenth (von  Hutier),  four  corps 
reaching  to  the  Oise.  There 
were  some  sixty-nine  divisions 
in  all,  their  number  further  in- 
creased by  the  support  of  Von 
Boehn's  right  wing  now  resting 
on  the  Oise.  The  first  two 
groups  were  under  Rupprecht  of 
Bavaria,  the  second  two  under 
the  Crown  Prince.  Opposed  to 
them  were  two  British  armies, 
already  mentioned.  Byng's 
forces  extended  from  astride  the 
Arras-Douai  road  to  near  Gou- 
zeaucourt.  He  had  four  corps, 
the  Seventeenth  (Fergusson), 
Sixth  (Haldane),  Fourth  (Har- 
per) and  Fifth  (Fanshawe)  ;  but 
they  were  only  ten  divisions 
strong  and  defended  a  front  of 
over  22  miles.  Gough,  with  a 
front  of  over  40  miles  reaching 
down  to  the  Oise,  had  eleven 
corps  at  his  command :  the 
Seventh  (Congreve),  Nineteenth 
(Watts),  Eighteenth  (Maxse)  and 
Third  (R.  H.  Butler).  The  last 
covered  some  30,000  yards,  that 
is,  less  than  one  rifle  to  the  yard, 
on  the  theory  that  the  Oise  and 
its  marshes  guarded  the  extreme 
right  between  Moy  and  Barisis, 
south  of  the  river,  where  the 
British  were  in  contact  with  the 
French  Third  Army  under  Fay- 
olle. 

No  portion  of  the  terrain  south 
of  Arras  afforded  a  natural  bar- 
rier to  the  enemy  except  along 
the  Oise,  and  the  effectiveness  of 
the  latter  was  minimized  by  the 
dryness  of  the  season.  The 
points  vital  to  the  safety  of  the 
Fifth  Army  were  the  ridge  of 
Ronssoy,  the  wooded  hill  of 
Holnon  and  the  plateau  of 
Essigny — the  three  ganglia,  they 
might  be  termed,  of  the  nerves 
represented  by  the  Cologne,  the 
Omignon,  and  the  Crozat  Canal. 
To  counteract  the  manifest 
weakness,    numerically,    of  the 


British  front,  its  depth  had  been 
divided  into  three  zones. 

The  British  had  no  suspicion 
of  the  inadequacy  of  their  de- 
fenses. Under  the  old  tactics 
these  would  have  served  their 
purpose,  but  under  the  new, 
with  a  fog  to  cover  the  move- 
ments of  the  enemy  and  hold 
the  fumes  of  gas  with  which  the 
Allied  front  was  being  drenched, 
they  afforded  a  feeble  obstacle 
to  the  thirty-seven  divisions 
which  were  launched  in  the 
initial  attack  of  March  21,  1918. 
The  British  with  their  full  com- 
plement of  twenty-one  divisions 
were  covering  loosely  their  three 
zones.  The  enemy,  unobserved, 
was  clipping  the  wire  of  the  out- 
post line  and  actually  sneaking 
between  the  redoubts  of  the  for- 
ward zone  before  his  presence 
was  detected.  The  warning 
signals  of  the  outposts  were  hid- 
den by  the  heavy  mist. 

To  pile  sensation  on  sensation, 
the  moment  of  the  German  at- 
tack— which  extended  from  Ven- 
deuil  on  the  Oise  north  to  Croi- 
selles  on  the  Sensee — varied  all 
along  the  50-mile  front,  begin- 
ning at  some  points  at  eight  in 
the  morning,  at  others  as  late  as 
ten.  By  the  latter  hour  the 
whole  of  the  forward  zone  was 
the  scene  of  a  tremendous  but, 
for  the  British,  hopeless  struggle 
against  overwhelming  odds.  Be- 
fore eleven  the  Germans  had 
broken  through  the  forward 
zone  opposite  Le  Fere,  where  the 
extreme  right  had  fancied  itself 
protected  by  the  marshes  of 
the  Oise.  Meanwhile,  a  similar 
breach  had  been  made  in  the 
north  at  Bullecourt,  and  towards 
Lagnicourt  and  between  the 
forked  source  of  the  Agache. 
More  serious  yet  was  the  loss  of 
Ronssoy,  the  first  of  the  vital 
points  mentioned  above.  The 
British  still  held  fast  at  Epechy 
and  Le  Verguier  on  either  flank 
of  Ronssoy  and  also  at  the  Fles- 
quieres  salient,  opposite  Cam- 
brai, but  elsewhere  this  hour 
found  their  forward  zone  in  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  Ere  long 
the  latter  had  pierced  the  front 
line  of  the  battle  zone  at  Mais- 
semy  above  the  Omignon  and 
also  between  Beney  and  Essigny, 
referred  to  as  a  third  vital  point. 
During  the  afternoon  Lagni- 
court was  lost  and  also  Quessy 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  Crozat 
Canal,  while  the  pressure  in- 
creased against  the  Ronssoy 
sector.  At  this  juncture  it  be- 
came imperative  to  shorten  the 
front  of  both  British  armies. 
The  right  of  the  Third  was  with- 
drawn from  the  Flesquieres  sa- 
lient, where  the  Ninth  Scottish 
Division  (Tudor)  had  refused  to 
budge,  and  Gough's  Third  Corps 
fell  behind  the  Crozat  Canal. 
This  necessitated  the  retirement 


Somme,  Battles  of  the  KFN 


303  D 


Somme,  Battles  of  the 


of  the  Thirty-sixth  (Ulster)  Di- 
vision (Nugent)  to  the  Somme 
Canal. 

The  second  morning  of  the 
battle  found  the  fog  still  favor- 
ing the  Germans.  In  the  north 
Byng  held  his  own  throughout 
the  day  at  St.  Leger  on  the 
Sensee.  With  Gough,  on  the  oth- 
er hand,  the  tide  was  turning 
against  him  on  the  Cologne  and 
Omignon  and  the  Crozat  Canal, 
the  mainstays  of  his  defense. 
Position  after  position  had  to  be 
abandoned,  until  both  Epehy 
and  Roisel  were  being  squeezed. 
Soon  Holnon,  the  second  vital 
point,  was  lost  and  the  whole 
center  of  the  Fifth  Army  was 
forced  back  from  the  battle  zone. 
The  enemy  had  created  a  wide 
breach  south  of  the  Omignon  and 
was  breaking  through  the  third 
zone  near  Beauvois  and  Vaux. 
That  night  Gough  retired  to  the 
bridgehead  position  east  of  the 
Somme.  The  new  line  was  to 
run  from  the  Crozat  Canal 
through  Voyennes  (on  the 
Somme),  Monchy  Lagache  (on 
the  Omignon),  and  Vraignes  to 
Equancourt.  This  forced  Byng 
to  give  ground  to  that  point,  his 
front  running  from  it  through 
Henin  (on  the  Cojeul)  to  Fam- 
poux  (on  the  Scarpe). 

To  hold  the  new  line  demand- 
ed strength.  No  armies  which 
had  fought  what  amounted  to  a 
two  days'  rearguard  action  fol- 
lowed by  a  night's  forced  march 
could  be  expected  to  offer  a 
successful  resistance.  Recogniz- 
ing that  a  pitched  battle  (for  the 
fighting  was  now  in  the  open) 
would  probably  spell  disaster, 
Gough  had  the  courage  to  resist 
the  glory  of  making  a  stand  to  the 
death.  Therefore,  on  the  morn- 
ing of  March  23  the  Seventh 
Corps  (his  left)  was  ordered  to 
hold  the  Doingt-Nurlu  line,  its 
back  to  the  Torille,  while  the 
Nineteenth  Corps  fell  back  be- 
hind the  Somme.  German  at- 
tempts to  follow  were  repulsed 
with  heavy  loss,  but  farther  east 
and  southeast  the  Eighteenth 
and  Third  Corps  were  receiving 
rough  treatment  from  Von  Hu- 
tier.  Ham  fell  into  his  hands 
and  the  Somme  was  forced  at  a 
number  of  places. 

Quite  as  grave  was  the  sit- 
uation just  north  of  Peronne. 
Here  the  Seventh  Corps  had 
been  driven  back  from  Nurlu, 
leaving  the  right  wing  of  the 
Third  Army  (the  Fifth  Corps)  in 
the  air.  The  gap  caused  an  ex- 
tensive retirement  throughout 
the  region,  so  that  by  nightfall 
the  British  were  holding  weakly 
their  lines  of  March,  1917.  These 
three  days  of  the  battle  mark  its 
first  stage. 

The  second  stage,  beginning 
on  March  24,  found  the  British 
in  desperate  straits.    AH  day  the 


Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Corps 
struggled  to  keep  the  Germans 
from  crossing  the  Somme.  In 
this  they  were  more  or  less  suc- 
cessful at  St.  Christ  and  Bethen- 
court  but  from  Pargny  the  en- 
emy drove  a  wedge  as  far  as 
Morchain.  The  German  effort 
to  divide  the  Fifth  and  Third 
Army  continued.  The  Ninth  Di- 
vision of  the  former  covered 
itself  with  glory  at  Marrieres 
Wood  but  early  in  ihe  afternoon 
Combles  had  been  lost  by  the 
Third  Army.  The  Germans  were 
seizing  one  after  another  the 
dearly  won  villages  of  the  First 
Battle — Sailly-Saillisel,  Clery, 
Morval,  Lesbceufs.  Peronne, 
too,  had  fallen.  The  British  with- 
drew to  the  line  running  from 
Ervillers  south  before  Grevillers, 
Le  Sars,  Bazentin,  Longueval, 
through  Trones  Wood  to  Ham 
on  the  Somme. 

At  this  juncture  (March  25) 
Congreve's  Seventh  Corps,  oper- 
ating north  of  the  Somme,  was 
detached  from  the  Fifth  Army  to 
serve  as  Byng's  right  wing.  Its 
resistance  stiffened  but  the  Fifth 
Corps  to  its  left  showed  signs  of 
cracking  and  was  losing  contact 
with  the  Fourth  still  farther 
north.  Grevillers  was  soon  in 
the  hands  of  the  Germans,  and 
by  afternoon  the  enemy  was 
pushing  down  the  Ancre.  The 
only  course  open  was  a  still 
farther  retirement  to  a  line 
covering  Bucquoy,  Beaucourt, 
Albert,  and  Bray  on  the  Somme. 
A  gap  now  developed  between 
the  Fifth  and  Fourth  Corps  at 
Serre.  Furthermore,  the  retreat 
of  the  Third  Army  seriously 
involved  the  Fifth.  Its  Nine- 
teenth and  Eighteenth  Corps  had 
lost  their  last  foothold  on  the 
Somme  and  were  being  harried 
to  the  point  of  exhaustion.  The 
Third  Corps  was  now  being  re- 
lieved by  the  French  and,  upon 
the  fall  of  Noyon,  what  was  left 
of  this  corps  was  sent  to  re- 
inforce the  other  two  remnants 
of  the  Fifth  Army.  These,  hope- 
lessly outnumbered,  were  being 
driven  out  of  Nesle  back  on 
Chaulnes.  A  breach  made  be- 
tween the  two  corps  at  Licourt 
grew  wider  as  the  day  length- 
ened. 

On  the  following  day  the  su- 
preme command  was  made  over 
to  Marshal  Foch.  Whether  he 
could  save  the  situation  was 
doubtful.  Already  Gough  had 
been  struggling  to  assemble  a 
makeshift  force  to  defend  a  line 
covering  the  retreat  of  his  all 
but  shattered  Nineteenth  Corps. 
This  nondescript  gathering,  in 
charge  of  General  Carey,  was  at 
work  on  defenses  running  from 
Hamel  (on  the  Somme)  before 
Marcelcave  to  Mezieres.  Mean- 
while, the  demoralized  Nine- 
teenth fell  back  to  a  line  extend- 


ing from  Bray  to  Le  Quesnoy. 
This  step  involved  the  loss  of 
Chaulnes.  In  the  north  the  out- 
look for  the  Third  Army  was 
growing  brighter,  owing  largely 
to  the  indomitable  prowess  of  the 
Anzacs.  These  recovered  Colin- 
camps  in  a  fierce  struggle  in 
which  the  light  whippet  tank 
made  its  first  appearance.  In  the 
south  the  Germans  had  driven  a 
deep  wedge  at  Erches  but  the 
Thirty-sixth  (Ulster)  Division 
and  a  handful  from  the  Twen- 
tieth refused  to  budge  from 
Andechy  and  Le  Quesnoy  to  the 
left  and  right  of  it.  Von  Hutier 
was  within  5  miles  of  Montdidier, 
but  his  troops  were  almost  as 
weary  as  the  Allies.  Meanwhile, 
owing  to  a  misunderstanding,  the 
Seventh  Corps  fell  back  north  of 
the  Somme  and  by  night  its  right 
rested  at  Sailly-le-Sec.  This 
serious  blunder  uncovered  the 
flank  of  the  Nineteenth  Corps  at 
Proyart. 

The  morning  of  March  27 
found  the  Germans  flanking 
Proyart  after  forcing  the  Somme 
between  Cerisy  and  Chipilly. 
Proyart,  Morcourt  and  Framer- 
ville  were  soon  in  their  hands, 
and  the  threat  to  Amiens  was 
becoming  ominous.  South  of 
this  sector  on  the  Rosieres-Ar- 
villers  line  the  British  held  fast, 
thus  covering  Amiens  on  the 
southeast,  but  neither  they  nor 
the  French  could  save  Mont- 
didier and  Lassigny  from  cap- 
ture. North  of  the  Somme,  the 
enemy  had  penetrated  Albert. 

Then  came  the  critical  28th  of 
March,  on  which  the  Germans 
aimed  to  break  through  to 
Amiens.  South  of  Montdidier 
the  French  not  only  held  the 
invaders  but  recovered  three 
villages.  North  of  it  they  and 
their  British  units  were  forced 
back  from  the  Warvillers-Ar- 
villers  line  as  far  as  Avre  and 
the  Doms,  and  both  Demuin  and 
Moreuil  were  lost.  Just  south 
of  the  Somme  the  Germans  had 
seized  Bayonvillers  and  War- 
fusee-Abancourt  and  were  bend- 
ing in  the  Nineteenth  Corps  to 
the  Marcelcave- Vrely  line.  The 
much  battered  Nineteenth  and 
Eighteenth  were  forced  to  give 
way  and  were  practically  with- 
drawn from  this  sector,  which 
was  defended  for  the  time  being 
by  Carey's  detachment.  At  this 
juncture  Rawlinson  was  put  in 
command  of  the  new  Fourth 
Army.  On  the  same  day  von 
Below  had  launched  a  mighty  at- 
tack at  Arras  (q.  v.),  a  colossal 
failure  even  where  it  was  di- 
rected against  the  shaken  Third 
Army,  which  gave  ground  only 
south  of  Dernancourt. 

The  Germans  had  not  reached 
Amiens  and  had  lost  their  last 
chance  of  enveloping  it  from  the 
north ;  but  they  did  not  abandon 


Somme,  Battles  of  the  KFN 


304 


Somnambulism 


their  efforts  from  the  south  or 
their  pressure  against  the  center. 
The  second  stage  of  the  great 
battle  may  be  said  to  have  ended 
on  March  28,  so  that  the  struggle 
of  the  next  ten  days  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  third.  During  that 
period  the  fight  was  no  longer  a 
one-sided  affair.  German  attack 
was  met  by  Allied  counter-attack 
and  positions  exchanged  hands 
as  in  former  times  ;  but  the  trend 
of  the  battle  still  favored  the  in- 
vaders, who  captured  Mezieres 
on  the  29th  and  the  next  day 
Aubvillers,  Cantigny,  Le  Mon- 
chel,  and  Ayencourt.  On  March 
31  the  conflict  fluctuated,  and  the 
next  day  the  British  were  re- 
lieved on  this  sector  up  to 
Thennes  on  the  Luce.  A  two- 
days'  lull  was  followed  by  a 
German  drive  south  of  the 
Somme.  Fayolle  was  forced  to 
the  west  of  the  Avre,  but  the 
losses  of  Rawlinson  around 
Hangard  were  slight.  Nor  did 
the  Germans  make  any  gains 
worth  the  name  on  the  following 
two  days  which  marked  the  close 
of  their  grand  offensive  against 
Amiens  and  the  Second  Battle 
of  the  Somme.  It  was  a  great 
German  victory  and  yet  no  deci- 
sive defeat  for  the  Allies  who, 
opposed  by  a  brilliant  strategic 
plan,  new  tactics,  nature  itself, 
and  the  handicap  of  an  un-unified 
command,  nevertheless  survived 
the  ordeal  stronger  than  at  any 
period  since  the  First  Battle  of 
the  Marne. 

There  ensued  a  period  w^hich 
for  the  Somme  area  might  be 
termed  an  interlude  in  the 
Battles  of  Picardy,  for  in  many 
ways  the  Somme  is  a  misnomer 
for  the  two  campaigns  of  1918, 
which  extended  far  beyond  the 
confluents  of  that  river.  On 
April  23  there  occurred  at  Vil- 
lers-Bretonneux  a  battle  royal 
between  British  and  German 
tanks.  The  village  was  lost  to 
the  Germans,  but  regained  by  the 
Australians  the  next  day,  which 
also  marked  an  extensive  raid  on 
the  part  of  the  whippets.  From 
May  5  to  19  there  were  local  en- 
gagements in  which  the  Austral- 
ians recovered  Ville-sur-Ancre. 
On  May  28  Cantigny,  near  Mont- 
didier,  was  taken  by  Americans 
of  the  First  Division.  Then 
came  Von  Hutier's  thrust  at 
Compiegne  (June  9-15),  opera- 
tions involving  the  terrain  below 
Montdidier  and  Lassigny  and  yet 
adjuncts  of  the  Aisne  offensive, 
bearing  but  little  on  the  situa- 
tion before  Amiens.  On  July  4 
the  Australians  won  back  Hamel, 
just  south  of  the  Somme;  on  the 
12th  the  French  recovered  sev- 
eral villages  on  the  Avre. 

The  Third  Battle  of  the 
Somme,  launched  this  time  by 
the  Allies,  began  on  August  8, 
its  first  objective  the  Peronne- 


Roye  line.  The  initial  stage  of 
the  struggle  divides  itself  rough- 
ly into  three  phases,  followed  by 
a  series  of  consolidating  opera- 
tions. The  first  marks  the  Al- 
lied attack  on  a  front  of  about  25 
miles  extending  from  the  Somme 
to  the  Avre.  To  the  north  the 
British  Fourth  Army  under  Raw- 
linson captured  all  the  enemy  first 
positions  and  drove  back  von 
der  Marwitz  from  Moreuil.  The 
French  First  Army  under  De- 
beney,  to  the  south,  was  less 
successful  in  making  headway 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  forcing 
the  Avre.  The  second  phase 
(Aug.  9)  finds  the  French  strug- 
gling to  control  the  river  and  at 
the  same  time  gradually  en- 
veloping Montdidier,  while  the 
British  marked  time  waiting  for 
a  renewal  of  the  general  advance. 
This  became  possible  the  next 
day  upon  the  capture  of  Mont- 
didier. Ere  nightfall  Debeney 
was  within  3  miles  of  Roye,  while 
Rawlinson  was  approaching  it 
from  the  north.  At  the  same 
time  the  British  Third  Army  un- 
der Byng,  aided  by  the  American 
Thirty-third  Division,  captured 
the  Chipilly  ridge  and  was  push- 
ing on  towards  Bray.  The  ar- 
mies of  Prince  Rupprecht  were 
being  driven  back  without  a 
moment's  let-up ;  for  south  of 
Montdidier  the  French  Third 
Army,  now  under  Humbert,  was 
hammering  away  at  the  forces  of 
Von  Hutier  and  turning  the 
Lassigny  massif. 

So  rapid  becomes  the  advance 
from  this  point  that  it  grows  in- 
creasingly difficult  to  parallel 
the  forward  movements  of  the 
many  armies  involved  or  to 
classify  them  with  a  clarity 
possible  when  trench  warfare 
prevailed,  and  the  gain  of  a  mile 
was  effected  by  no  less  than 
weeks  of  infinite  exertion.  By 
August  12  Humbert  had  cap- 
tured the  Lassigny  massif,  De- 
beney and  Rawlinson  were  con- 
verging closely  on  Roye,  and 
Byng  was  in  the  outskirts  of 
Bray  (on  the  Somme).  Farther 
north  the  Germans  were  .  suffi- 
ciently pressed  to  begin  a  retire- 
ment from  Beaumont-Hamel  up 
to  Bucquoy  (Aug.  14).  The 
next  day  found  the  Canadians 
of  Rawlinson's  army  making 
marked  gains  between  Chaulnes 
and  Roye  with  further  successes 
by  them  and  the  French  (on  the 
right)  on  Aug.  16. 

On  Aug.  21  Humbert  captured 
Lassigny.  As  the  operations  in 
this  sector  now  diverge  to  the 
east,  they  cease  to  form  part  of 
the  Somme  conflict  save  in  their 
relation  to  the  offensive  as  a 
whole.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
same  day  finds  the  British  at- 
tacking on  a  ten-mile  front  from 
the  Ancre  up  to  Moyenneville. 
This  day  marks  distinctlly  a  new 


development  in  the  battle  and 
may  be  regarded  as  initiating  its 
second  stage.  On  Aug.  22  Byng 
enveloped  and  captured  Albert 
(on  the  Ancre).  Thiepval  ridge, 
the  scene  of  such  fierce  fighting 
in  the  autumn  of  1916,  was 
cleared  of  the  enemy  two  days 
later.  At  the  same  time  the  Brit- 
ish were  in  Bray.  Aug.  25  found 
them  advancing  astride  of  the 
Somme,  sweeping  everything 
before  them,  the  Welshmen  re- 
gaining famous  Mametz  Wood. 
Roye  finally  fell  to  Debeney  on 
Aug.  27  and  Chaulnes  the  next 
day.  The  French  pressed  on 
eight  miles  till  they  reached  the 
southern  bend  of  the  Somme. 
Byng's  persistent  infiltration  of 
the  German  positions  met  with 
unqualified  success.  By  Aug.  29 
Bapaume  was  in  his  hands  and 
Combles  the  next  day. 

All  the  villages  won  in  1916 
but  lost  in  the  present  spring 
had  already  been  recovered — by 
the  British — Pozieres,  Le  Boi- 
selle,  Orvillers,  Contalmaison, 
Longueval — and  the  grim  and 
shattered  woods  of  that  first 
terrible  campaign.  Then  on  the 
last  day  of  August  the  Austral- 
ians stormed  and  captured  Mont 
St.  Quentin,  the  key  of  Peronne, 
which  fell  on  Sept.  1.  With  the 
recovery  of  Ham  on  Sept.  6  the 
whole  territory  north,  south,  and 
west  of  the  Somme  was  cleared 
of  the  invaders.  There  remained 
only  one  more  key  to  capture. 
St.  Quentin,  which  fell  before 
Debeney  on  Oct.  2,  1918. 

Som'merfeld,  town,  Prussia, 
in  Brandenburg  ;  44  miles  south- 
east of  Frankfort.  Textiles  and 
machine-shop  goods  are  man- 
ufactured.   Pop.  11,880. 

Somnam'bulism,  an  abnor- 
mal condition  of  sleep  in  which 
the  motor  powers  may  be  active 
and  respond  to  stimuli  while  there 
is  no  voluntary  control.  Such 
a  result  is  manifested  by  sleep- 
talking (somniloquism)  or  by 
sleep-walking  (somnambulism). 
Some  persons  in  this  condition 
conduct  long  and  fairly  coherent 
conversations,  and  reply  ration- 
ally to  those  who  address  them  ; 
others  utter  mere  nonsense  both 
in  soliloquy  and  in  reply  to  ques- 
tions. A  somnambulist's  steps 
may  sometimes  be  directed  to- 
ward an  object  about  which  he 
has  been  troubled  or  anxious 
when  awake.  The  memory  of 
such  acted  dreams  varies  in 
different  individuals.  Some  have 
no  memory  of  the  sleep  walk, 
others  have  a  hazy  remembrance 
of  a  vague  journey,  but  in  few 
do  the  impressions  correspond 
with  the  things  done.  While 
some  of  the  faculties  are  in  abey- 
ance, others  are  in  a  state  of 
exaltation,  so  that  physical  and 
mental  feats  which  are  beyond 
his  waking  powers  are  sometimes 


Somnath 


KFP 


305 


Sonnet 


performed  with  ease  by  the 
sleeping  somnambulist.  Sorn- 
nambulism  occurs  chiefly  in 
those  of  neurotic  type,_  and  is 
commonly  associated  with  epi- 
lepsy and  with  hysteria.  It  must 
be  regarded  as  a  state  intermedi- 
ate between  sleeping  and  waking 
or  perhaps  as  a  disorder  of  sleep. 
The  third  stage  of  hypnotism 
may  be  described  as  an  artificial 
somnambulism.  In  the  curious 
condition  known  as  daymare,  in 
some  respects  the  opposite  to  the 
somnambulistic  and  somnilo- 
quent  states,  the  conscious  con- 
trolling faculty  appears  to  awake 
before  the  motor  faculties.  This 
may  occur  in  healthy  people,  and 
is  sometimes  manifested  in  those 
who  sleep  too  much.  After  an 
afternoon  sleep  the  patient  finds 
himself  widely  awake,  and  pain- 
fully conscious  that  he  can  not 
move  a  single  muscle  by  volun- 
tary effort.  The  condition  does 
not,  as  a  rule,  last  more  than  a 
few  seconds.  The  neurotic  tem- 
perament must  be  combated  by 
care  of  the  general  health  and  by 
avoidance  of  late  hours  and  ex- 
citing amusements.  A  quiet, 
regular  life  with  open-air  exer- 
cise is  most  efficient  in  producing 
natural,  restful  sleep. 

Somnath,  tn.,  India,  on  s. 
coast  of  Kathjawar  peninsula, 
Bombay,  40  m.  w.n.w.  of  Diu, 
contains  interesting  ruins  and 
Mohammedan  tombs  and  Hindu 
shrines.  From  one  large  Hindu 
temple,  dedicated  to  Siva,  Mah- 
mud  of  Ghazni  carried  off 
(1024)  great  wealth,  including 
(tradition  says)  the  gates  of  the 
temple.  In  1842  Lord  Ellenbor- 
ough  brought  back  from  Afghan- 
istan and  deposited  at  Delhi 
what  purported  to  be  the  same 
ancient  gates.    Pop.  6,867. 

Somnus,  in  ancient  Roman 
mythology,  the  god  of  sleep,  cor- 
responding to  the  Greek  Hyp- 
nos  ;  called  a  son  of  Night  and 
the  brother  of  Death.  In  works 
of  art  he  is  represented  as  a 
youth  sleeping,  or  holding  an  in- 
verted torch. 

Sonata,  a  species  of  instru- 
mental musical  composition  anal- 
ogous in  form  to  the  modern  or- 
chestral symphony.  It  came  into 
existence  in  the  early  part  of  the 
17th  century,  was  for  a  consid- 
erable period  written  almost  ex- 
clusively for  stringed  instru- 
ments, and  until  near  the  close 
of  the  century  its  principal  move- 
ments, like  those  of  the  suite, 
were  frequently  based  upon  old 
dance  rhythms.  Prominent 
names  associated  with  its  devel- 
opment are  those  of  Biber,  Co- 
reili,  Tartini,  Domenico  Scarlat- 
ti, J.  S.  Bach,  Haydn,  Mozart, 
Clementi,  and  Beethoven.  The 
earlier  forms  of  sonata  usually 
contained  a  principal  or  solo 
part,  the  other  parts  being  chief- 


ly in  the  nature  of  accompani- 
ments. In  the  later  forms  the 
number  of  movements  became 
restricted  to  either  three  or  four, 
and  from  about  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century  sonatas  have  been 
written  almost  invariably  either 
for  a  solo  instrument  alone,  or 
for  a  combination  of  not  more 
than  two  instruments ;  when  in 
the  latter  form — e.g.  for  violin 
and  piano — the  parts  are  so  con- 
structed that  neither  is  complete 
without  the  other.    See  Music. 

Sonderbund  War,  the  civil 
war  waged,  from  religious  mo- 
tives, in  November,  1847,  in 
Switzerland.  The  overthrow  of 
the  Liberals  in  Zurich  (1839)  in 
consequence  of  their  call  of 
Strauss  to  a  chair  of  theology  in 
the  university,  the  suppression 
by  the  victorious  Liberals  of  the 
eight  great  monasteries  in  the 
Aargau  (1841),  and  the  victory 
of  the  Clericals  in  Lucerne 
(1841)  led  to  a  'Separate 
League'  {Sonde rhund)  between 
the  seven  Roman  Catholic  can- 
tons (September,  1843).  In 
1844  the  crushing  of  the  Liber- 
als in  Valais,  and  the  resolve  of 
Lucerne  (then  the  capital  of  the 
confederation  for  two  years)  to 
call  in  the  Jesuits,  further  in- 
flamed political  and  religious 
passions,  and  in  December,  1845, 
an  'armed  Sonderbund'  was 
formed  by  the  seven  cantons 
(Uri,  Schwyz,  Unterwalden,  Lu- 
cerne, Zug,  Fribourg,  and  Va- 
lais). War  was  decided  on  by 
the  Diet  on  Nov.  4,  1847.  It 
ended  in  the  complete  defeat  of 
the  Sonderbund,  the  chief  fight 
being  at  Gislikon  (November 
23).  The  result  of  the  war  was 
the  establishment  of  a  new  fed- 
eral constitution  (Sept.  12, 
1848).  See  G.  H.  Dufour's  Der 
Sonderhiindskrieg  (1876). 

Sondershausen,  tn.,  Ger- 
many, cap.  of  the  former  princi- 
pality of  Schwarzburg-Sonders- 
hausen,  29  m.  n.n.w.  of  Erfurt. 
It  has  a  castle  and  a  conserva- 
tory of  music.    Pop.  10,677. 

Song",  a  short  metrical  poem 
suitable  for  singing.  The  union 
of  poetry  and  music  was  one  of 
the  earliest  forms  of  musical 
composition,  and  consequently 
the  national  melodies  of  all  coun- 
tries are  almost  indissolubly 
associated  with  their  songs.  In 
the  simplest  musical  setting  of  a 
song  the  same  melody  is  used  for 
each  verse,  and  may  be  sung  with 
or_  without  accompaniment ;  but 
this  form  of  composition  is  only 
satisfactory  when  the  sentiments 
are  all  similar.  Language  and 
music  are  only  perfectly  united 
when  the  music  enhances  the 
meaning  of  the  words  ;  the  rec- 
ognition of  this  principle  result- 
ed in  the  creation  of  the  modern 
art-song.  In  this  the  accompani- 
ment is  regarded  as  an  integral 


part  of  the  composition,  and 
equal  in  importance  to  the  vocal 
part.  Schubert  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  have  been  the  first 
great  exponent  of  the  art-song, 
and  among  other  eminent  com- 
posers of  this  form  were  Loewe, 
Schumann,  Mendelssohn,  Franz, 
and  Brahms. 

Song-chin,  port  on  n.e.  coast 
of  Korea,  130  m.  n.  of  Wonsan ; 
opened  to  foreign  trade  in  1899. 

Songhay,  or  Sonrhay,  Ne- 
gro people,  W.  Sudan,  Africa, 
on  both  sides  of  the  great  bend 
of  the  Niger,  below  Timbuktu. 

Song-koi,  or  Red  River, 
flowing  through  Chinese  prov. 
Yiinnan,  and  for  more  than  420 
m.  s.E.  through  Tong-king,  dis- 
charges by  several  mouths  into 
the  Gulf  of  Tong-king.  It  runs 
from  20  to  26  ft.  higher  in  Au- 
gust and  September  than  in  De- 
cember and  January.  Although 
there  are  numerous  rapids  be- 
tween Yenbai  and  Laokai,  it  is 
navigable  to  the  latter  place. 

Song  of  Solomon.  See  Can- 
ticles. 

Song-thrush,  or  Mavis  {Tur- 
dus  musicus),  the  most  admired 
of  European  thrushes.  It  is 
about  eight  inches  in  length  and 
twelve  in  wing  extent.  The  up- 
per plumage  is  yellowish  brown  ; 
the  wing  coverts  are  tipped  with 
reddish  yellow ;  the  fore  neck 
and  breast  are  yellowish,  and  are 
closely  marked  with  dark-brown 
spots ;  the  under  plumage  is 
white.    See  Thrush. 

Sonmiani,  seapt.  tn.,  Balu- 
chistan, 49  m.  N.w.  of  Karachi. 
Pop.  400. 

Sonnblick,  mt.  (11,190  ft), 
Salzburg,  Austria,  with  a  mete- 
orological observatory  (1886). 

Sonnenschein,  William 
Swan  (1855-1931),  English 
publisher,  was  born  in  London 
and  started  business  in  1878. 
As  an  author  he  is  known  by 
The  Best  Books  (1887;  5th  ed. 
1905),  and  A  Reader's  Guide  to 
Contemporary  Literature  (1895  ; 
2d  ed.  1901). 

Sonnet,  originally  a  poem 
sung  to  a  musical  accompani- 
ment ;  but  the  present  normal 
sense  is  a  poem  of  fourteen  deca- 
syllabic iambic  lines,  divided  in- 
to two  groups  of  eight  lines  (the 
octave)  and  six  lines  (the  sestet) 
respectively.  One  of  the  most 
probable  guesses  at  the  origin  of 
the  sonnet  makes  it  a  develop- 
ment of  a  single  stanza  of  a  lyric 
canzone  ;  another  regards  it  as  a 
combination  of  two  types  of  folk- 
song— the  Sicilian  ottava  and 
the  Tuscan  rispetto.  The  earli- 
est sonneteer  of  renown  was 
Guittone  d'Arezzo.  Dante,  and 
even  more  Petrarch,  raised  the 
sonnet  to  the  first  place  among 
Italian  meters.  Among  later 
Italian  sonneteers  Groto,  Marini, 
Guarini,  and  Tasso  are  the  chief. 


Sonnet 


KFP 


306 


Sontag 


From  Italy  the  sonnet  passed  to 
Provence,  where  it  has  even  been 
claimed  as  native.  At  the  Ren- 
aissance it  had  a  wide  vogue. 
In  France  it  was  practiced  by 
Ronsard,  Du  Bellay,  Jodelle, 
Desportes,  and  other  members 
of  the  Pleiade  ;  in  Spain  by  Cam- 
oens.  Germany  in  due  course 
adopted  it  as  the  Klanggedicht. 
To  England  the  sonnet  was 
brought  by  the  Earl  of  Surrey 
and  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt.  Then 
it  slumbered  until  the  Hecatom- 
pathia  (1582)  of  Thomas  Wat- 
son. It  was,  however,  the  As- 
trophel  and  Stella^  (1591)  of 
Sidney  that  made  it  an  Eliza- 
bethan fashion,  and  many  col- 
lections followed  before  the  end 
of  the  century,  of  which  the  most 
important  are  Daniel's  Delia 
(1592),  Constable's  Diana 
(1592),  Lodge's  Phillis  (1593), 
Drayton's  Idea's  Mirror  (1594), 
Spenser's  Amoretti  (1595), 
Greville's  Caclica ;  and  the  son- 
nets of  Shakespeare  doubtless 
also  belong  to  the  16th  century, 
although  belated  in  publication. 
The  earlier  part  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury produced  little  but  Donne's 
religious  sonnets  and  Drum- 
mond  of  Hawthornden's  adapta- 
tions from  the  Italian,  and  with 
the  few  sonnets  of  Milton  the 
mode  died  out  until  its  revival, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury, by  Wordsworth.  Later 
sonneteers  include  Hartley  Cole- 
ridge, Keats,  D.  G.  Rossetti, 
Christina  Rossetti,  Elizabeth 
Browning,  and  Robert  Bridges 
in  England,  and  Longfellow, 
Aldrich,  and  Gilder  in  Amer- 
ica. The  dominant  influences 
have  been  those  of  Wordsworth 
and  Rossetti.  The  sonnet  has 
always  been  looked  upon  as 
subject  to  strict  rules  of  versifi- 
cation, especially  as  regards  the 
incidence  of  rhyme.  The  earli- 
est Italian  form  has  two  alter- 
nating rhymes  for  the  octave 
and  two  for  the  sestet — thus, 
ah  ab  ab  ab  cd  cd  cd.  In  the 
fully  developed  Italian  sonnet 
the  rule  of  a  change  of  rhyme 
and  a  break  in  sense  between  oc- 
tave and  sestet  is  absolute  :  the 
octave  is  broken  into  two  quat- 
rains with  inner  and  outer 
rhymes,  abba  abba;  in  the  sestet 
a  third  rhyme  sound  is  generally 
introduced,  and  the  sounds  are 
variously  arranged,  cde  edc  and 
cde  cde  being  the  favorite  for- 
mulas, A  final  couplet,  such  as 
cd  cd  ee,  is  barred.  But  in  the 
Shakespearean  model  the  lines 
fall  into  three  quatrains  and  a 
closing  couplet,  ab  ab,  cd  cd,  ef 
^f,  Q9  ;  and  in  the  Miltonic,  while 
the  Italian  rhyme  arrangement 
is  preserved,  the  transition  of 
thought  and  rhythm  between 
octave  and  sestet  is  neglected. 
Spiritually,  the  narrow  limits  of 
the  sonnet  mark  it  out  as  essen- 


tially the  expression  of  a  single 
mood.  This  may  either  include 
a  swell  and  reflux,  like  the  Ital- 
ian sonnet,  or  may  advance  in 
the  gradual  progress  of  three 
quatrains  and  break  upon  the 
shore  in  the  final  crash  of  the 
closing  couplet,  as  in  the  Shake- 
spearean sonnet.  In  any  case, 
the  elaboration  of  the  form 
brings  it  within  the  definition  of 
elegiac  poetry,  which  is  the  ex- 
pression of  thought  colored  with 
emotion,  rather  than  that  of  lyric 
poetry,  which  is  the  expression 
of  pure  emotion.  Collections. — 
Tottel,  Miscellany  (Wyatt  and 
Surrey,  1557;  ed.  Arber,  1870)  ; 
M.  F.  Crow,  Elizabethan  Son- 
net-Cycles (1896),  Arber-Lee, 
Elizabethan  Sonnets  {English 
Garner,  1903),  A.  Dyce,  Speci- 
mens of  English  Sonnets  (1833), 
Leigh  Hunt  and  S.  Lee,  The 
Book  of  the  Sonnet  (1867),  J. 
Dennis,  English  Sonnets  (1873), 

D.  M.  Main,  A  Treasury  of  Eng- 
lish Sonnets  (1880),  S.  Wadding- 
ton,  English  Sonnets  by  Living 
Writers  (1881)  and  English  Son- 
nets by  Poets  of  the  Past  (1882), 
T.  H.  Caine,  Sonnets  of  Three 
Centuries  (1882),  W.  Sharp, 
Sonnets  of  this  Century  (1886) 
and  American  Sonnets  (1889), 
C.  H.  Crandall,  Representative 
Sonnets  by  American  Poets 
(1890),  T.  W.  Higginson  and 

E.  H.  Bigelow,  American  Son- 
nets (1890),  M.  Russell,  Sonnets 
on  the  Sonnet  (1898),  and  B. 
Nichol,  A  Little  Book  of  Eng- 
lish Sonnets  (1903).  See  C. 
Tomlinson,  The  Sonnet :  Its  Ori- 
gin, Structure,  and  Place  in 
Poetry  (1874),  K.  Lentzner, 
Ueber  das  Sonett  und  seine 
Gestaltung  in  der  Englischen 
Dichtung  bis  Milton  (1886),  J. 
C.  Rowell,  The  Sonnet  in  Amer- 
ica (1887),  J.  Schipper,  Neu- 
cnglische  Metrik  (1888),  J.  Ash- 
croft  Noble,  The  Sonnet  in  Eng- 
land, and  Other  Essays  (2d  ed. 
1896),  and  P.  E.  More,  Shel- 
burne  Essays  (2d  and  3d  ser. 
1905). 

Sonnino,  Baron  Sidney 
(1847-1922),  Italian  statesman, 
born  at  Pisa ;  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1880  ;  was  minister  of 
finance  (1893—4),  and  minister 
of  the  treasury  (1894-6).  A 
journalist  for  some  years,  he 
edited  the  Rassegna  Settimanale 
(1878-82),  and  contributed  to 
the  Nuova  Antologia.  On  the 
resignation  of  Premier  Giolitti 
and  his  cabinet  in  Dec,  1909, 
Baron  Sonnino,  leader  of  the  (Dp- 
position,  became  Italy's  Premier 
and  Minister  of  the  Interior. 

Sonora,  n.w.  state  of  Mexico, 
bounded  by  the  U.  S.  on  the  N., 
and  Gulf  of  California  on  the 
w. ;  covers  70,477  sq.  m.,  and  has 
silver  mines,  also  lead,  gold,  and 
copper.  Cereals,  tobacco,  cot- 
ton, and  sugar-cane  are  pro- 
duced.   Pop.  (1940)  362,853. 


Sons  of  Liberty.  In  Ameri- 
can history,  the  name  applied  to 
various  loose  semi-secret  organi- 
zations in  the  colonies  formed 
for  the  purpose  of  resisting  the 
Stamp  Act  (q.  v.).  It  seems  to 
have  been  used  first  by  Col.  Isaac 
Barre  of  the  opposition  in  the 
British  Parliament,  and  was 
quickly  adopted  in  America. 
Committees  of  Correspondence 
were  appointed  which  kept  the 
colonies  informed  of  the  general 
state  of  public  opinion.  After 
the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act 
inany  members  of  the  organiza- 
tions devoted  themselves  to  the 
support  of  the  non-importation 
agreements,  while  others  advo- 
cated independence  in  advance 
of  the  conservative  element  of 
the  population.  As  the  sentiment 
for  independence  grew,  secrecy 
was  discarded  and  the  name  was 
afterward  applied  to  the  younger 
and  more  active  patriots,  who 
controlled  the  Committees  of 
Safety.  The  organization  was 
of  much  value  in  the  colonies 
where  there  was  a  strong  loyal- 
ist element.  The  Sons  of  Lib- 
erty were  particularly  influential 
in  New  York.  During  the  Civil 
War  the  name  was  occasionally 
applied  to  the  Knights  of  the 
Golden  Circle  (q.  v.). 

Sons  of  the  American  Rev- 
olution. See  Revolution, 
Sons  of  American. 

Sons  of  the  Revolution. 
See  Revolution,  Sons  of. 

Sons  of  Veterans,  U.  S.  A. 
In  1928  the  name  was  changed 
to  Sons  of  Union  Veterans  of 
the  Civil  War.  A  patriotic  so. 
ciety  founded  at  Philadelphia  in 
1880  to  preserve  the  principles 
fought  for  during  the  Civil  War. 
It  has  a  membership  of  20,000, 
composed  of  male  descendants  of 
soldiers,  sailors  and  marines  who 
served  in  the  war.  It  is  organ- 
ized in  29  state  divisions  and 
about  2,000  camps.  The  society 
publishes  an  ofiicial  organ,  the 
Banner. 

Sonson,  tn.,  Colombia,  An- 
tioquia  dept.,  30  m.  s.  of  Medel- 
lin,  on  a  branch  of  the  Cauca  R. 
Clothing  and  hats  are  manufac- 
tured, and  the  district  contains 
rich  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  and 
salt.    Pop.  16,000. 

Sonsonate,  tn.,  Salvador, 
Sonsonate  dept.,  40  m.  w.  of  the 
city  of  San  Salvador.  It  has 
railroad  connection  with  Aca- 
jutla,  a  seaport,  50  m.  to  the  w. 
The  region  is  rich  in  agricul- 
tural produce.  Izalco,  a  vol- 
canic mountain,  is  in  the  near 
vicinity.  Sonsonate  was  found- 
ed by  Pedro  de  Alvarado  in  1524. 
Pop.  (1942)  17,232. 

Sontag,  Henriette,  Countess 
Rossi  (1806-54),  German  singer, 
born  at  Koblenz.  She  made  her 
debut  at^  Prague,  at  the  age  of 
fifteen,  in  Boieldieu's  Jean  de 
Paris.    She  afterwards  appeared 


Sontai 


307 


Sophocles 


with  great  success  in  Berlin ,  Paris, 
and  London.  She  married  an 
Italian  nobleman  in  1828,  and 
retired  from  the  stage  in  1830, 
but  reappeared  (1849)  at  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre,  London,  and 
in  1853  she  came  to  the  United 
States  on  a  concert  tour,  and 
achieved  a  veritable  triumph. 
The  next  year  she  went  to  Mexico 
to  sing  in  Italian  opera,  but  died 
there  of  the  cholera  on  June  17, 
1854. 

Sontai,  tn.,  cap.  of  prov.  Sontai, 
Tong-king,  French  Indo-China, 
on  r.  bk.  of  Song-koi,  and  at  head 
of  delta,  22  m.  w.N.w.  of  Hanoi. 
Its  citadel  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
Tong-king.   Pop.  10,000. 

Sonthals,  or  Santals,  form 
the  most  numerous  branch  of  the 
Kolarian  race  (see  Kolarians), 
occupying  an  extensive  territory 
in  Baghalpur,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  lower  Ganges  northwest 
of  Murshedabad.  There  are 
several  sub-groups,  such  as  the 
Marlis,  Sarans,  Murmus,  and 
Karwars,  numbering  collectively 
1,790.000  (1901  census),  and  all 
speaking  dialects  of  Santali,  vvhich 
is  the  best  known,  the  most  highly 
inflected,  and  most  important  of 
all  the  Kolarian  tongues.  It  has 
been  reduced  to  written  form  by 
the  Protestant  missionaries,  whose 
propaganda  has  been  more  suc- 
cessful amongst  the  Sonthals  than 
amongst  any  of  the  other  Indian 
aborigines.  The  type  is  somewhat 
negroid,  with  almost  round  face, 
large  mouth,  tumid  lips,  short 
nose,  rather  prominent  cheek 
bones,  very  dark  skin,  coarse 
black  hair,  robust  constitution, 
showing  a  remarkable  immunity 
from  malarial  fever.  The  gross- 
est superstitions  still  survive 
among  the  pagan  tribes. 

Soochow.    See  Su-chau. 

Sooloo.   See  SuLU. 

Soot,  the  black  carbonaceous 
solid  deposited  as  a  result  of  the 
imperfect  combustion  of  bitu- 
minous coal,  wood,  oil,  and  so 
forth.     Besides    its    chief  com- 

Eonent,  carbon,  it  contains  some 
ydrocarbons;  if  derived  from 
coal,  it  has  also  about  4  per  cent, 
of  ammonium  sulphate,  and  is 
thus  of  some  use  as  a  manure. 
The  finer  kinds  of  soot,  from  oil 
and  resin,  are  used  as  a  pigment 
under  the  name  of  lampblack. 
Sophia.  See  Sofia. 
Sophia,  Saint,  from  the  Gk. 
hdgia  sophia  ('holy  wisdom'),  a 
concrete  representation  of  the 
Logos,  an  abstraction  denoting 
the  All-Wise,  or  the  idea  of  trans- 
scendental  wisdom.  Many  Greek 
churches  are  dedicated  to  it,  the 
most  famous  being  that  at  Con- 
stantinople, built  by  Constantine 
and  rebuilt  with  great  splendor  by 
Justinian  in  532-7.  It  is  now  a 
mosque.  See  Lethaby  and  Swain- 
ton's  Church  of  Sancta  Sophia 
(1894). 


Sophists,  a  class  of  teachers  of 
rhetoric  and  the  art  of  conduct, 
who  flourished  in  Greece  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  5th  century 
B.C.  The  traditional  view  of  the 
sophists  was  that  they  were  a 
school  or  sect  of  thinkers  char- 
acterized by  intellectual  scepti- 
cism and  ethical  egoism,  and  as 
such  they  are  represented  in  the 
Platonic  dialogues.  But  it  has 
been  shown  by  Grote  that  this 
view  puts  the  sophists  and  their 
work  in  quite  a  false  light.  In 
the  first  place,  they  were  not  a 
school  or  sect,  and  had  no  recog- 


ticism  of  these  leaders  them- 
selves, of  whom  Protagoras  and 
Gorgias  are  the  best  known. 
The  distinction,  to  which  some  of 
the  sophists  gave  currency,  be- 
tween the  'natural'  and  the  'con- 
ventional' in  laws  and  conduct, 
is  quite  as  susceptible  of  a  posi- 
tive as  of  a  negative  interpreta- 
tion. It  is  true,  however,  that  the 
profession  of  the  sophist  tended 
to  deteriorate,  and  the  fact  that 
they  taught  for  pay,  and  made  a 
livelihood  by  their  teaching,  did 
not  at  any  time  commend  them 
to  Greek  feeling.     See  Grote's 


Bust  of  Sophocles.    In  the  National  Museum,  Naples. 


nized  or  common  type  of  philo- 
sophical doctrine.  They  were 
really  a  class  of  teachers  or  pop- 
ular lecturers,  who  sprang  up  m 
consequence  of  a  demand  for  a 
certain  kind  of  culture,  especially 
in  the  art  of  public  speaking.  A 
number  of  the  sophists  further 
professed  to  add  instruction  in 
the  art  of  conduct.  But  not 
merely  is  it  a  mistake  to  at- 
tribute the  sceptical  doctrines 
professed  by  a  few  leading  so- 
phists to  the  rest,  but  it  is  open 
to   question   how   far   any  real 

Philosophical  importance  is  to 
e  attached  to  the  apparent  scep- 


Hist.  of  Greece,  vol.  viii.;  and 

gapers  by  Sic  _ 
is  Philosophy  of  Kant  (1905). 


jwick,  reprinted  in 


Sophocles  (497-406  or  405  B.C.), 
Athenian  tragedian,  was  a  native 
of  Colonus,  near  Athens.  He  was 
famous  for  his  personal  beauty, 
his  amiable  character,  his  politi- 
cal qualities,  and  his  pre-eminent 
poetical  genius.  He  was  elected 
one  of  the  chief  officers  of  the 
state  in  440  B.C.;  in  436  he  was 
treasurer  of  the  fund  contributed 
by  the  allies  of  Athens.  Some 
authorities  have  held  that  he 
was  one  of  ten  commissioners 
appointed  in  the  crisis  after  the 


Sophocles 


308 


Sorbonne 


failure  of  the  Sicilian  expedition 
in  413  B.C.;  but  most  likely  the 
Sophocles  mentioned  was  a  differ- 
ent person.  There  is  a  story,  not 
likely  to  be  true,  that  in  the  last 
years  of  his  life  his  son  prosecuted 
him  on  the  ground  of  incapacity 
to  manage  his  property,  and  that 
he  defended  himself  simply  by 
reciting  in  court  a  famous  chorus 
from  his  (Edipus  Coloneus  (pro- 
duced after  his  death).  On  the 
occasion  of  his  first  appearance  as 
a  dramatist  (468  B.C.)  he  won  the 
first  prize,  defeating  even  .^schy- 
lus;  on  eighteen  other  occasions 
he  won  the  first  prize  at  the  city 
Dionysia,  besides  others  at  the 
Lenaea:  he  was  never  lower  than 
second.  But  only  seven  of  his 
plays  are  extant,  in  addition  to 
a  number  of  fragments.  He 
introduced  a  third  accor,  thus 
making  the  actors,  not  the  chorus, 
the  chief  element  in  drama;  he 
ceased  to  compose  plays  in  tril- 
ogies (three  plays  dealing  with 
one  subject);  he  probably  in- 
vented scene-painting;  and  was 
the  first  to  use  Phrygian  music. 
Though  he  did  not  act  in  his  own 
plays,  he  trained  his  actors  and 
chorus,  and  composed  his  own 
music,  as  indeed  all  Greek  dram- 
atists did.  He  differed  from 
yEschylus  in  bringing  tragedy 
down  to  a  human  level;  his  char- 
acters, though  rather  types  than 
individuals,  are  genuine  men  and 
women;  their  sufferings  result 
from  their  own  sins  and  mistakes, 
not  from  Nemesis  or  the  work- 
ings of  a  divine  curse;  his  female 
characters  are  much  more  impor- 
tant than  those  of  ^schylus.  He 
has  not  the  latter's  deep  religious 
fervor,  though  he  has  a  firm  be- 
lief in  the  accepted  religion  and 
in  the  gods;  but  he  holds  that 
their  ways  are  past  man's  under- 
standing. In  his  general  style  and 
language  he  exhibits  the  perfec- 
tion of  tragedy,  both  in  his  dia- 
logue and  in  his  lyrical  passages. 
It  has  not  the  lofty  magnifi- 
cence of  ^schylus  at  his  best, 
or  the  simplicity  and  natural- 
ness of  Euripides;  but  it  avoids 
the  bombast  of  the  former  and 
the  homeliness  of  the  latter.  It 
has,  in  fact,  the  artistic  restraint 
of  the  best  Greek  work,  and  may 
be  compared  to  the  sculpture  of 
Phidias  and  the  architecture  of 
Ictinus  and  Callicrates,  his  con- 
temporaries. His  best  pla3^s  are 
distinguished  by  the  perfection  of 
their  plots;  the  (Edipus  Tyran- 
nus,  in  particular,  is  taken  by 
Aristotle  as  a  model  of  dramatic 
construction.  His  characters  are 
delineated  with  great  skill.  In 
more  than  one  instance,  when 
dealing  with  the  same  myth  as 
iEschylus  or  Euripides,  he  intro- 
duces a  new  personage,  whose 
presence  in  the  action  aids  the 
development  of  character.  Con- 
tTJ^st  is  used  by  him  for  a  similar 


purpose:  thus  Antigone  is  op- 
posed to  her  weaker  sister  Ismene, 
and  Electra  to  Chrysothemis.  A 
device  much  used  by  him,  often 
with  a  very  impressive  effect,  is 
his  so-called  'irony,'  by  which  is 
meant  the  use  by  one  speaker  in 
a  dialogue  of  words  understood 
in  one  sense  by  his  interlocutor, 
and  in  another  by  himself  and 
the  audience,  or  by  the  audience 
alone.  The  verdict  of  his  contem- 
poraries, that  he  was  the  greatest 
of  the  three  great  tragic  poets,  has 
never  been  seriously  questioned. 
His  extant  plays  are  the  Antigone^ 
AJax,  Electra,  (Edipus  Tyr annus. 
(Edipus  Coloneus,  Philoctetes,  ana 
TrachinicB.  Editions — Text:  Din- 
dorf-Mekler  (1885);  with  Latin 
notes,  Wunder-Wecklein;  Ger- 
man notes,  Schneidewin-Nauck; 
English  notes,  Jebb  (1885-96). 
English  trans.,  verse,  Whitelaw 
(1883) and  Campbell  (1883);  prose, 
in  Tebb's  edition  and  Camp- 
bell's. 

Sophocles,  EVANGELINUS 

Apostolides  (1807-83),  American 
scholar,  was  born  at  Tsangaranda, 
near  Mt.  Pelion,  Thessaly,  Greece, 
and  was  educated  at  the  convent 
of  the  Greek  Church  on  Mt. 
Sinai.  He  came  to  the  U.  S.  in 
1829  by  arrangement  with  the 
American  Board  and  studied,  but 
did  not  remain  to  graduate,  at 
Amherst.  After  several  vears  of 
teaching  he  was  a  tutor  at  Harvard 
during  1842-5  and  1847-9,  then 
becoming  assistant  professor  of 
Greek.  In  1860  he  was  promoted 
to  the  professorship  of  ancient, 
modern,  and  Byzantine  Greek, 
which  position  he  held  until  his 
death.  He  published  Greek  Gram- 
mar (1838;  3d  ed.  1847),  Greek 
Lessons  for  Beginners  (1843),  and 
other  text-books,  and  History  of 
the  Greek  Alphabet  (1848)  and 
Cheek  Lexicon  of  the  Roman  and 
Byzantine  Periods  (1870). 

Sophonisba,  a  daughter  of  the 
Carthaginian  general  Hasdrubal, 
son  of  Gisco.  She  was  married 
to  Syphax,  prince  of  Numidia,  in 
206  B.C.  But  in  203  Syphax  was 
defeated  and  captured  by  his 
rival  Masinissa,  who  also  took 
his  capital,  Cirta,  and  with  it 
Sophonisba,  whom  he  at  once 
married.  But  Scipio,  fearing  her 
influence  over  him,  demanded  her 
surrender.  To  save  her  from  this 
Masinissa  sent  her  poison,  which 
she  drank  without  hesitation. 

Sophron,  a  writer  of  mimes, 
was  a  native  of  Syracuse  in 
Sicily,  who  flourished  about  the 
middle  of  the  5th  century  B.C. 
Mimes  were  compositions  usu- 
ally of  a  humorous  character,  in- 
tended to  be  acted,  and  connected 
in  origin  with  the  worship  and 
festivals  of  Dionysus.  The  im- 
portance of  Sophron  lies  in  the 
influence  he  had  in  the  develop- 
ment of  Attic  comedy,  and  in  his 
being  the  model,  both  of  Pla^to  in 


his  dialogues  and  of  Theocritus  in 
his  idylls.  Only  a  few  fragments 
remain. 

Soprano,  the  highest  species 
of  singing  voice.  In  the  adult  it 
is  possessed  only  by  women,  and 
its  classification  is  determined 
more  by  its  quality  than  by  its 
compass.  The  mezzo  -  soprano 
voice  has  a  lower  range  than  the 
soprano;  but  the  former  is  fre- 
quently of  extensive  compass, 
and  when  so  may  be  able  to  sing 
as  high  as,  or  even  higher  than, 
many  true  sopranos.    See  Voice. 

Sora,  tn.  and  episc.  see,  prov. 
Caserta,  Italy,  on  r.  bk.  of  Liri, 
19  m.  N.w.  of  Cassino,  surrounded 
by  ruins  of  an  ancient  fortress. 
The  principal  products  are  wine, 
paper,  and  cloth.  Pop.  (1901) 
16,022. 

Sorata.    See  Andes, 

Sorau,  tn.,  Prussia,  55  m.  by 
rail  s.E.  of  Frankfort-on-Oder. 
There  are  an  old  castle  (1207), 
used  as  a  prison,  and  a  new  castle 
(1716),  used  as  municipal  offices. 
It  manufactures  machinery,  glass, 
porcelain,  and  pottery.  Pop. 
(1900)  15,945. 

Sorbonne,  College  of  the, 
was  founded  in  1253  at  Paris  by 
Robert  de  Sorbon  (1201-74),  chap- 
lain of  Louis  IX.  (Saint  Louis). 
At  first  it  was  merely  a  home 
for  students  and  teachers,  but 
it  soon  developed  into  a  seat  of 
learning,  whose  special  work  was 
scholastic  theology;  and  so  great 
did  its  authority  grow  that  even 
the  Curia  Romana  submitted  dif- 
ficult cases  of  conscience  for  its 
decision.  The  Sorbonne  was 
powerfully  influenced  by  the  Re- 
naissance; it  gave  warm  support 
to  the  establishment  of  the  print- 
ing-press in  Paris,  and  played  an 
important  part  in  the  contro- 
versies of  the  16th  century.  The 
theological  faculty  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  held  its  sittings 
in  the  buildings  of  the  Sor- 
bonne, and  the  name  of  'the  Sor- 
bonne' is  therefore  often,  but 
erroneously,  given  to  the  faculty, 
Richelieu,  who  was  afterward 
buried  in  its  chapel,  reconstructed 
its  buildings  (1635-53),  and  after 
his  time  its  authority  seemed  to 
rival  that  of  the  University  of 
Paris.  During  the  18th  century 
the  Sorbonne  threw  its  influence 
on  the  Galilean  and  Jansenist 
side  of  the  religious  controversies, 
and  advocated  the  union  of  the 
Catholic  and  Greek  Churches.  It 
was,  however,  destroyed  during 
the  Revolution  (August,  1792),  and 
the  real  Sorbonne  has  never  been 
restored.  But  between  1816  and 
1821  the  faculties  of  theology, 
science,  and  letters  of  the  uni- 
versity were  transferred  to  the 
■buildings  of  the  Sorbonne,  and 
the  university  library  (nearly 
300,000  vols.)  was  also  estab- 
lished there.  New  buildings  were 
erected  in  1885-1900.    The  f^C- 


Sorcery 


KR 


309 


Sore  Throat 


ulty  of  theology,  was  removed  in 
1885;  but  the  Ecole  des  Chartes 
was  estabhshed  there  in  1897.  At 
the  end  of  the  19th  century  the 
Sorbonne  had  more  than  a  hun- 
dred professional  chairs  and 
more  han  ten  thousand  students. 
See  Meric's  La  Sorbonne  et  son 
Fondateur  (1888). 

Sorcery.  See  Magic,  Witch- 
craft. 

Sordello.  (c.  1200-c.  1270), 
ItaHan  troubadour,  who  wrote 
in  Provengal,  was  born  at  Goito, 
near  Mantua,  and  entered  the 
service  of  EzzeHno  iii  and  Alber- 
ico  da  Romano.  About  1229  he 
fled  to  France,  where  he  became 
a  retainer  of  Charles  of  Anjou. 


monia,  smallpox,  typhus.  They 
are  formed  from  debris  of  food 
and  epithelial  scales,  and  are  due 
to  lack  of  saliva  and  cessation 
of  the  usual  lip  movements.  The 
suflferer's  comfort  is  increased 
by  sponging  with  warm,  weak 
antiseptic  lotions. 

Sorel,  town,  Canada,  co.  seat 
of  Richelieu  co.,  44  m.  n.n.e.  of 
Montreal,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Richelieu  R.,  on  L.  St.  Peter, 
and  on  the  Quebec  Southern 
Railroad.  It  has  large  ship- 
building works,  and  manu- 
factures mill  machinery,  foundry 
products,  lumber,  leather,  tex- 
tiles, stoves,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, etc.    The  town  is  named 


sidered  include  syphilis,  tuber- 
culosis, and  cancer.  Rheumatic 
fever  is  frequently  introduced  by 
a  sore  throat.  These  facts  indi- 
cate the  necessity  for  immediate 
medical  attention  to  this  appar- 
ently innocuous  symptom. 

The  lesion  may  be  located  in 
the  larynx,  the  pharynx,  the 
uvula,  or  vocal  cords.  Some 
cases  are  owing  to  excessive  in- 
dulgence in  smoking,  or  to  con- 
tinual professional  strain  as  in 
the  case  of  singers  and  public 
speakers. 

The  classic  and  immediate 
treatment  for  a  sore  throat  has 
always  been  gargling.  This 
method  has  advocates  and  op- 


i 
r 


t  m   m   m    et  ■ 

r?*  ---I  11  m  m  m  ip 


I        1^   ifi  ft 

--JLJLIi  -'^ 


THE  SORBONNE  IN  PARIS 
University  Court. 


Some  thirty  of  Sordello's  love 
songs  are  preserved;  but  these  are 
surpassed  in  value  and  interest 
by  the  political  poems,  notably 
by  the  planch  on  the  death  of  the 
patron  of  the  troubadours,  Bla- 
catz.  Dante  assigns  to  Sordello 
an  honorable  position  in  his 
Purgatorio  (vi  et.  seq.).  All  his 
pieces  have  been  admirably 
edited,  with  Life,  in  Italian,  by 
C.  de  Lollis  (1896).  See,  too,  E. 
Benson's  Sordello  and  Cunizza 
(190.3).  Browning  has  a  poem  on 
Sordello  (1840). 

Sordes,  in  medicine,  crusts 
which  form  upon  the  lips,  tongue 
and  teeth  of  sick  persons  suffer- 
ing from  extreme  exhaustion. 
They  are  associated  particularly 
with  typhoid  fever,  and  with 
the  state  which  may  occur 
through  exhaustion,  after  other 
high  temperatures,  as  in  pneu- 


after  a  French  captain  who,  in 
1665,  erected  a  fort  at  this  place. 
Pop.  (1941)  12,203. 

Sore  Throat.  It  is  of  great- 
est importance  that  sore  throat 
be  recognized  as  constituting  a 
symptom,  and  a  possible  mani- 
festation of  a  large  number  of 
conditions  and  diseases,  ranging 
from  a  slight  cold  to  granulocytic 
angina,  or  streptococcic  infection 
and  diseases  such  as  diphtheria, 
scarlet  fever,  poliomyelitis  and 
others,  in  which  immediate 
specific  measures  may  be  re- 
quired to  prevent  serious  illness 
or  death.  One  of  the  first  con- 
ditions suggested  would  be  ton- 
sillitis, which  may  be  present  in 
infected  stumps  or  in  the  lingual 
tonsil  even  after  tonsils  are  re- 
moved. Also  sinusitis  may  cause 
inflammation  of  the  throat. 
More  serious  diseases  to  be  con- 


ponents.  Many  drugs  have  been 
recommended  for  this  purpose, 
but  the  ordinary  salt  and  water 
gargle  will  suffice  in  cases  of  sim- 
ple sore  throat.  In  the  more 
serious  types  of  streptococcic 
sore  throat,  the  sulfonamides 
and  penicillin  have  proved  effec- 
tive. In  numerous  conditions, 
including  abscesses  and  tumors, 
surgical  treatment  is  required. 
Sprays  of  menthol,  eucalyptus, 
thymol,  and  cocaine  relieve  the 
irritation;  insufflations  of  potas- 
sium chlorate  or  of  borax  and  in- 
halations of  steam  or  of  benzoin 
are  all  of  service,  but  no  one 
drug  can  be  named  as  a  specific 
for  sore  throat.  If  the  sore 
throat  is  caused  by  overindul- 
gence in  tobacco,  the  patient  is 
required  to  give  up  the  habit, 
and  in  the  cases  of  singers  and 
public  speakers  a  period  of  rest 


Sorghum 


KR 


310 


Soritog6il 


for  the  voice  is  indicated. 
Prompt  examination  of  the 
throat  may  lead  to  early  recog- 
nition of  cancer  at  a  time  when 
this  tumor  responds  to  treat- 
ment, and  may  thus  save  the 
lives  of  many  persons. 

In  epidemics  of  streptococcic 
sore  throat,  sulfonamide  has  been 
given  prophylactically,  as  like- 
wise in  the  hope  of  preventing 
recurrence  in  rheumatic  fever. 

Penicillin  has  been  recom- 
mended for  local  application  in 
the  form  of  tablets  to  be  sucked 
by  the  patient  and  also  in  the 
form  of  aerosols  for  inhalation. 
There  are  many  throat  tablets 
on  the  market,  but  it  is  wise  to 
consult  a  physician  before  using 
them.  Drugs  in  pastilles  and 
lozenges  will  not  reach  pharyn- 
geal infections  which  should 
preferably  be  treated  with  gar- 
gles, sprays,  or  internal  medica- 
tion in  non-surgical  cases.  Pen- 
icillin tablets  have  yielded  good 
results  in  such  conditions  as  fol- 
licular tonsillitis  and  Vincent's 
angina.  See  Smoker's  Sore 
Throat. 

Sorghum,  a  genus  of  grasses, 
including  an  extremely  large 
number  of  varieties.  The  culti- 
vated forms  are  generally  classi- 
fied into  the  saccharine  and  non- 
saccharine  sorghums.  The  first 
of  these  groups  is  characterized 
by  its  sweet  juice,  from  which 
syrup  or  molasses  is  made;  and 
the  second  by  a  heavier  growth 
of  stalk  and  a  sap  much  lower  in 
sugar  content  than  in  the  saccha- 
rine group.  The  principal  vari- 
eties of  saccharine  sorghum  are 
amber,  orange,  sumac  or  red  top, 
and  goose  neck;  and  of  the  non- 
saccharine  group  Kaffir  corn, 
Millo  maize,  Jerusalem  com, 
Egyptian  rice  com,  and  durra. 
The  broom  coms  (q.v.),  which 
are  also  sorghums,  produce  a  dry 
and  pithy  stalk,  but  otherwise 
have  much  in  common  with  the 
saccharine  group. 

The  sorghum  plant  produces 
its  seed  in  a  terminal  head,  or 
panicle.  It  is  a  native  of  tropical 
regions,  and  it  is  thought  to  have 
come  from  Africa,  although  it 
has  long  been  grown  in  Asia  and 
also  in  Europe  for  food  and 
forage.  Broom  corn  and  non- 
saccharine  sorghum  were  brought 
to  this  country  by  the  colonists, 
but  the  saccharine  sorghums 
were  not  introduced  until  about 
1855.  In  Europe  and  America 
sorghum  serves  as  a  food  plant 
only  so  far  as  it  produces  syrup, 
but  in  Africa,  India,  and  China 
the  seed  forms  a  staple  article  of 
food.  Both  groups,  but  espe- 
cially the  non-saccharine  sor- 
ghums, are  of  great  value  in  this 
country  for  the  production  of  for- 
age for  live-stock.  The  condi- 
tions of  growth  are  practically 
the  same  as  for  com,  and  the 


crop,  as  a  rule,  grows  very  suc- 
cessfully in  the  com  belt.  The 
non-saccharine  group,  however, 
is  quite  drought-resistant,  and 
for  this  reason  is  extensively 
grown  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of 
the  West.  The  cultural  prac- 
tices in  growing  sorghum  are  the 
same  as  in  producing  corn,  but, 
owing  to  the  slow  and  tender 
growth  of  the  young  sorghum 
plant,  a  finely  tilled  seed  bed  and 
a  perfectly  clean  soil  are  perhaps 
of  greater  importance  than  in  the 
case  of  corn.  Sorghum  is  sown 
in  drills  or  broadcasted,  and  is 
also  grown  with  other  crops, 
such  as  corn,  cowpeas,  etc.  When 
broadcasted,  from  1  to  1^  bushels 
of  seed  are  required  to  sow  an 
acre,  and  when  drilled,  from 
10  to  20  pounds  are  sufficient. 
Sorghum,  as  fodder,  has  some- 
times proved  poisonous  to  stock. 

Soria.  Province,  Spain,  is  a 
cold,  mountainous  district  be- 
tween the  valleys  of  the  Ebro 
and  the  Douro;  the  latter  river 
rises  here.  Products,  agricultural 
and  timber.  Area,  3,977  sq.  m. 
Pop.  (1946  est.)  161,847. 

Soria,  City,  capital  of  prov- 
ince above,  81  m.  w.n.w.  of 
Saragossa.  It  has  leather  and 
cloth  industries.    Pop.  10,098. 

Soro,  town,  Denmark,  island 
of  Sjaelland,  43  n.  s.w.  of  Copen- 
hagen, with  a  famous  academy. 
Pop.  3,000. 

Sorolla,  V  Bastida,  Joaquin 
(1863-1923),  Spanish  painter, 
was  bom  in  Valencia,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  San  Carlos  Academy 
there.  His  popularity  dates 
from  the  exhibition  of  his  pic- 
tures at  the  Georges-Petit  Gal- 
lery in  Paris  (1906),  and  later  at 
the  Grafton  Galleries  in  London. 
He  visited  the  U.  S.  in  1909, 
when  the  Hispanic  Society  of 
America  gave  an  exhibition  of 
over  300  of  his  pictures  at  its 
museum  in  New  York  City, 
among  them  Water  Joy,  A  Sad 
Inheritance,  Swimmers,  The  Bath, 
and  Madame  Sorolla.  The  three 
last  named  are  now  owned  by 
the  N.  Y.  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art.  He  is  a  vivid  and  realistic 
painter  of  the  sea  and  its  beaches, 
his  paintings  being  notable  for 
sunlight  effects.  .  , 

Sorosis.  A  woman's  club  or- 
ganized in  N.  Y.  city,  in  1868,  by 
Mrs.  J.  C.  Croly  (Jenny  June),  to 
promote  the  social  and  educa- 
tional interests  of  women,  and  to 
bring  together  women  interested 
in  art,  literature,  and  science. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  Wo- 
men's Clubs  of  America  now  or- 
ganized as  the  General  Federa- 
tion of  Women's  Clubs  with 
headquarters  in  Washington  and 
branches  in  all  the  large  cities, 
such  as  New  York  Sorosis,  etc. 

Sorrel,  a  name  applied  to  sev- 
eral plants.  The  common  sor- 
rel (Rumex  acetosa)  is  a  meadow 


plant,  slender  in  habit,  with  hal- 
berd-shaped, juicy,  acid-flavored 
leaves,  and  bearing  whorled 
spikes  of  greenish-red  flowers  in 


Common  Sorrel  (Rumex  acetosa). 

1,  Female  flower  spike  ;  2,  fruit  j  8,  female 
flower ;  4,  male  flower. 


summer.  Sheep's  sorrel  (R.  ace- 
tosella)  is  a  smaller  plant,  com- 
mon in  dry  places.  The  common 
wood  sorrel  (Oxalis  acelosella) 
bears  delicate  temate  leaves, 
which  fold  together  at  night,  and 
fragile  white  flowers  in  late 
spring.  Other  species  of  Oxalis, 
with  yellow  or  rose-colored 
flowers  (0.  stricta,  O.  violacea, 
etc.),  are  known  as  wood  sorrel. 
The  common  sorrel  and  certain 
other  species  are  often  grown  in 
gardens,  doing  best  in  rich,  deep, 
moist  soil.  The  leaves  are  used 
as  a  substitute  for  spinach. 

Sorrento,  town  and  summer 
resort,  province,  Naples,  Italy, 
17  m.  s.s.E.  of  Naples  across  the 
bay,  on  a  rocky  promontory.  It 
is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and 
is  the  center  of  a  wine-growing 
district.  The  poet  Tasso  was 
born  here.    Pop.  9,813. 

Sorsogdn.  Province,  Luzon, 
Philippines,  occupying  the  s.e. 
extremity  of  the  island.  Area, 
663  sq.m.;  islands  12  sq.  m.  Its 
coast  line  is  very  irregular.  The 
deep  bay  of  Sorsogon  on  the  w. 
aff^ords  a  fine  harbor.  The 
boundary  from  Albay,  on  the 
N.,  is  formed  by  a  range  of  hills. 
Another  range  forms  a  longitu- 
dinal watershed.  The  province 
contains  deposits  of  coal,  gold, 
silver,  and  iron.  The  mountains 
and  valleys  are  covered  with  for- 
ests.   The  hemp  industry  is  the 


Sorsogdn 


KR 


311 


Soul 


most  important.  Sorsogon,  the 
capital,  is  236  m.  s.e.  of  Manila. 
Pop.  178,000. 

Sorsogon,  Pueblo,  Luzon, 
Phillippines,  capital  of  Sorsogon 
province  at  head  of  bay  of  &ame 
name.    Pop.  17,000. 

Sortes  Ylrgllianae,  or  ViR- 
GiLiAN  Oracle,  a  form  of  divina- 
tion which  consisted  in  opening  a 
particular  book  at  random,  and 
regarding  as  a  prophecy  the  lines 
on  which  the  eye  first  fell  or  on 
which  the  finger  happened  to  be 
placed.  Prior  to  their  destruc- 
tion in  82  B.C.,  the  Sibylline 
books  were  so  consulted  by  the 
Romans.  Thereafter  Virgil's 
Aeneid  became  the  favorite — 
although  not  the  only — oracle  of 
this  kind;  whence  arose  the  term 
sortes  Virgilianae.  St.  Augustine 
(4th  century)  and  Gregory  of 
Tours  (6th  century)  both  ap- 
pealed to  the  Bible  in  this  way; 
while  the  career  of  St.  Anthony 
(3d  century)  was  settled  by  the 
words  that  a  deacon  chanced  to 
read  out  as  he  was  entering  the 
church.  Nevertheless  the  prac- 
tice was  prohibited  by  the  coun- 
cils of  Vannes  (461  a.d.),  of  Agde 
(506  A.D.),  and  of  Auxerre  (585 
A.D.);  and  Pope  Gregory  ii  and 
Charlemagne  both  pronounced  . 
against  it.  Yet  the  custom  has 
never  actually  died  out.  This 
use  of  the  Scriptures  is  illustrated 
in  Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden,  and 
in  Scott's  Woodstock.  Among  the 
Mohammedans  the  Koran  and 
the  poems  of  Hafiz  are  alike  re- 
garded as  sortes  sacrae. 

Soteriology,  so-te-ri-ol'o-ji, 
that  division  of  dogmatic  theol- 
ogy which  sets  forth  the  doctrine 
of  salvation  as  wrought  by  Jesus 
Christ.   See  Atonement. 

Sotheby's,  suTHV-biz,  one  of 
the  principal  book-auction  rooms 
in  Great  Britain,  founded  in  1744 
by  Samuel  Baker,  bookseller  and 
auctioneer.  It  is  located  at  34 
New  Bond  Street,  London,  and 
although  the  sale  of  books  con- 
stitutes the  principal  business, 
prints,  coins,  and  antiquities  are 
also  disposed  of. 

Sothern,  suth'ern,  Edward 
Askew  (1826-81),  English- Amer- 
ican actor,  was  born  in  Liver- 
pool. He  entered  the  stock  com- 
pany of  the  Birmingham  Theatre 
Royal,  and  went  to  the  United 
States  in  1852,  appearing  first  at 
the  Boston  National  Theatre 
under  the  stage  name  of  Douglas 
Stewart.  Two  years  later  he  be- 
came a  member  of  Wallack's 
company,  and  in  1858  created 
the  character  of  Lord  Dundreary 
in  Our  American  Cousin  at  Laura 
Keene's  theatre.  New  York. 
This  part,  in  which  he  appeared 
over  eight  hundred  times  in 
America,  was  one  of  his  most 
successful  representations.  He 
later  (1861)  introduced  the  part 
in  London,  where  he  also  made  a 


great  hit.  Sothern  was  ambi- 
tious to  play  tragedy,  but  he  was 
essentially  a  comedian.  David 
Garrick,  in  Robertson's  play, 
was  perhaps  his  best  part  after 
Lord  Dundreary. 

Sothern,  Edward  H.  (1859- 
1933),  American  actor,  son  of 
Edward  A.  Sothern,  was  born  in 
New  Orleans,  La.  He  first  ap- 
peared on  the  stage  at  Abbey's 
Park  Theatre,  with  his  father,  in 
1879.  Later  he  played  in  London 
for  2  years,  returning  in  1883  and 
going  (1884)  to  the  Lyceum 
Theatre,  where  he  played  with 
Helen  Dauvray  in  One  of  Our 
Girls,  finally  becoming  leading 
man  at  that  theatre,  where  he 
appeared  in  The  Highest  Bidder, 
Lord  Chumley,  The  Prisoner  of 
Zenda,  and  other  plays.  In  1889 
he  organized  a  company  of  his 
own,  and  played  Under  the  Red 
Robe,  Hamlet,  The  Merchant  oj 
Venice,  Twelfth  Night,  The  Tam- 
ing of  the  Shrew,  An  Enemy  to  the 
King,  and  //  /  Were  King.  In 
1900  he  produced  a  version  of 
Hauptmann's  Sunken  Bell.  In 
later  years  he  devoted  himself 
largely  to  Shakespearian  plays, 
in  which  he  had  the  cooperation 
of  his  wife,  Julia  Marlowe.  He 
held  high  rank  among  his  con- 
temporaries of  the  stage. 

Sothern,  Lvtton  Edward 
(1856-1887),  son  of  Edward  As- 
kew Sothern,  was  also  an  actor, 
and  first  appeared  (1872)  as 
Captain  Vernon  in  Our  American 
Cousin.  He  toured  in  the 
United  States  and  Australasia. 
He  played  in  Crutch  and  Tooth- 
pick at  the  Rovaltv  in  London 
(1879),  and  later  in  Bet^y  at  the 
Criterion,  and  afterward  played 
in  the  United  States  with  his  own 
company. 

Soto,  Hernando  de.  See  De 
Soto. 

Sotteville-les-Bouen,  sot- 
vel'le-rob-an',  town,  France,  in 
the  department  of  Seine- Infer 
ieure,  one  mile  south  of  Rouen,  of 
which  it  is  a  suburb.  Its  indus- 
tries include  cotton  spinning  and 
manufactures  of  calico.  Pop. 
25,000. 

Soubise,  a  celebrated  Hugue- 
not family  of  the  sixteenth- 
eighteenth  centuries.  Henri, 
Due  DE  Rohan,  and  his  brother, 
Benjamin  de  Rohan  (1583- 
1642),  seigneur  of  Soubise,  were 
both  Huguenot  leaders.  Ben- 
jamin served  under  Prince  Mau- 
rice in  the  Low  Countries,  and 
commanded  the  Huguenots  dur- 
ing the  religious  war  in  Poitou, 
Anjou,  and  Brittany  (1621-5). 
He  finally  retired  to  England, 
where  he  died. — Charles  de 
Rohan,  Prince  de  Soubise 
(171.5-87),  marshal  of  France. 
In  the  Seven  Years'  War  he  was 
in  command  on  the  lower  Rhine, 
but  at  Rossbach  he  was  routed 
by  Frederick  the  Great  (1757). 


He  was  a  favorite  of  Madame  de 
Pompadour  and  of  Madame  Du- 
barry  and  was  the  only  courtier 
who  accompanied  the  body  of 
Louis  XV  to  the  grave. 

Soudan.    See  Sudan. 

Soufrldre,  s6b-fre-ar',  volcano 
at  the  northern  end  of  the  island 
of  St.  Vincent,  West  Indies. 
Among  its  many  eruptions  the 
most  violent  were  in  1718,  1812, 
and  1902.  The  last  occurred  at 
the  time  of  the  Mont  Pelee 
tragedy.  May  7,  1902,  when  the 
'old  crater,'  4,100  feet  in  diame- 
ter, which  for  a  century  had  been 
occupied  by  a  lake,  again  broke 
out.  Two  villages  with  about 
2,000  inhabitants  were  obliter- 
ated, the  ashes  were  carried  over 
a  hundred  miles,  falling  profusely 
over  Barbados,  and  the  northern 
third  of  St.  Vincent  was  buried 
under  ashes  and  debris. 

Soul,  a  term  usually  meaning 
the  human  spirit  as  the  source  of 
intelligence  and  personality.  It 
was  not  until  the  time  of  Plato 
that  the  distinction  between  soul 
(or  mind)  and  matter,  together 
with  the  immaterial  nature  of 
the  former,  was  clearly  estab- 
lished. The  pre-Socratic  philos- 
ophers had  no  real  conception 
of  an  immaterial  principle.  Her- 
aclitus,  for  instance,  conceived 
the  soul  as  composed  of  the  ele- 
ment fire.  In  Plato's  sharply 
marked  dualism  between  the 
ideal  and  the  sensible  world  the 
soul,  as  apprehending  the  im- 
material ideas,  comes  itself  to  be 
conceived  as  immaterial;  and 
since  the  ideas  are  removed 
above  all  change  and  destruction, 
the  soul,  too,  through  its  kinship 
with  them,  comes  to  be  endowed 
with  immortality.  Whether  such 
immortality  would,  apart  from 
religious  motives,  have  amounted 
to  what  we  mean  by  the  term  is 
doubtful,  and  certainly  his  great 
disciple  Aristotle  did  not  admit 
the  conception  of  a  personal  life 
after  death.  With  Aristotle  the 
soul  is  simply  the  vital  principle, 
distinguished  in  man  by  the 
characteristic  of  rationality.  In 
Christian  theology  the  moral  per- 
sonality of  the  individual  and  its 
continuance  after  death  become 
much  more  strongly  accentuated; 
but  together  with  this  there  goes 
for  a  time  that  quasi-materialis- 
tic conception  of  the  soul  which 
it  has  always  taken  much  effort 
of  thought  to  transcend.  At  the 
outset  of  modem  philosophy  the 
distinction  between  mind  and 
matter,  the  res  cogitans  and  the 
res  extensa,  was  made  by  Des- 
cartes so  radical  and  complete 
that  the  difficulty  for  philosophy 
came  to  be  not  that  of  recogniz- 
ing the  distinction,  but  that  of 
discovering  how  two  such  dia- 
metrical opposites  could  come  to- 
gether to  constitute  a  single 
world  at  all.    And  since  Des- 


Soul 


KR 


312 


Sound 


cartes'  time  the  distinction  has 
been  an  accepted  philosophical 
truth.  Not  that  it  has  never 
been  questioned;  for  scientific 
materialism  has  flourished  both 
in  the  18th  and  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury. 

That  mind  or  soul  is  im- 
material is  beyond  question;  but 
whether  we  should  say,  like  Des- 
cartes, that  it  is  an  immaterial 
substance,  is  another  question. 
Philosophical  thought  at  the 
present  day  is  divided  between 
the  theories  of  interaction  and 
parallelism.  According  to  the 
former  theory,  soul  and  body 
mutually  affect  each  other  as 
cause  and  effect,  and  this  is,  of 
course,  the  natural  view  to  take 
of  the  obvious  facts  of  sensation 
and  movement.  But  it  is  not  a 
view  which  is  easily  adapted  to 
scientific  purposes.  The  physiol- 
ogist wants  to  represent  the  se- 
ries of  nervous  changes  from  in- 
coming stimulation  through 
brain  centers,  and  thence  to  out- 
going movement,  as  continuous. 
And,  again,  the  admission  of 
mental  causes  and  efTects  of 
physical  changes  seems  to  make 
havoc  of  the  conservation  of 
physical  energ5\  For  these  rea- 
sons the  theory  of  parallelism, 
according  to  which  mental  and 
cerebral  changes  are  strictly 
correlated,  but  without  mutual 
interference,  is  preferred  by  the 
majority  of  physiologists  and 
psychologists.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impos- 
sible, to  put  this  theory  into  any 
satisfactory  philosophical  shape. 
An  excellent  general  account 
of  the  whole  subject  is  given  in 
Stout's  Manual  of  Psychology. 
See  Psychology. 

Soul*  su-ool',  Seoul,  or 
Keijo,  capital,  Korea,  about  35 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Han 
River.  It  is  beautifully  situated 
in  a  broad  valley,  surrounded  by 
rugged  hills.  Crumbling  walls, 
from  25  to  40  feet  high,  pierced 
by  8  huge  gateways,  encircle  it, 
which,  covered  in  many  places 
with  masses  of  ivy,  form  a 
picturesque  sight.  Features  of 
interest  are  the  North  Palace; 
the  East  Palace;  Marble  Pagoda; 
the  Big  Bell,  an  immense  bronze 
bell,  said  to  have  been  cast  in 
1396  and  hung  in  1468,  whose 
metal  it  is  claimed  would  not  fuse 
until  a  living  child  had  been  cast 
within;  the  Art  Museum;  Queen's 
Tomb;  and  the  Imperial  Palace. 
Leading  industries  are  brass- 
work,  ceramics,  articles  made  of 
Korean  paper  such  as  fans  and 
dolls,  and  silk  weaving.  Pop. 
(1940)  935,464. 

Soul  was  founded  in  1392  as 
the  capital  of  Korea.  From  1910 
to  the  end  of  the  Second  World 
War  (1945)  it  was  under  the 
rule  of  Japan.   (See  Korea.) 

Soulary,  Josephine,  properly 


Joseph  Marie  (1815-91),  French 
poet,  was  born  in  Lyons.  His 
Sonnets  humoristiques  (1858), 
graceful,  elegant,  accurate  in 
style  and  form,  though  not  of 
the  first  order  of  poetry,  are  ad- 
mirable literary  miniatures. 
Other  works  include  Promenade 
autour  d'un  tiroir  (1886),  Ephe- 
meres  (1846  and  1857),  Sonnets, 
Poemes  et  Poesies  (1864),  Rimes 
ironiques  (1877). 

Soule,  Joshua  (1781-1867), 
American  Methodist  Episcopal 
bishop,  was  bom  in  Bristol,  Me. 
He  became  a  lay  preacher  at  the 
age  of  seventeen  and  in  1804  was 
made  presiding  elder  of  Maine. 
He  assisted  in  preparing  the 
constitution  adopted  by  the  dele- 
gated general  conference  of  1813, 
and  was  editor  of  the  Methodist 
Magazine  from  1816  to  1820, 
when  he  was  elected  bishop.  He 
declined  for  constitutional  rea- 
sons, but  was  re-elected  in  1824 
after  changes  in  the  constitution 
had  been  adopted. 

Soule,  Pierre  (1802-70), 
French-American  lawyer  and 
public  official,  was  bom  in  Castil- 
lon,  France.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Jesuits'  College  at  Tou- 
louse, at  Bordeaux,  and  at  Paris. 
While  at  Bordeaux  he  became 
implicated  in  an  anti-royalist 
conspiracy  and  for  some  time  was 
obliged  to  remain  in  hiding.  At 
Paris  he  became  prominent  as  an 
opponent  of  the  government 
and  was  finally  sentenced  to 
prison  and  to  pay  a  fine  of  10,000 
francs  for  a  violent  attack  on  the 
ministry  in  one  of  the  liberal 
journals.  He  escaped  from 
France,  and  eventually  settled  in 
New  Orleans,  where  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  and  soon 
acquired  a  leading  place  in  his 
profession.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  state  senate  in  1845-47, 
United  States  Senator  in  1847- 
53,  and  minister  to  Spain  in 
1853-55.  He  was  coldly  received 
in  Spain,  owing  mainly  to  the 
well-known  desire  of  the  United 
States  to  acquire  Cuba,  and  his 
violent  temper  led  him  into  duels 
with  the  Duke  of  Alva  and  the 
French  ambassador.  He  met 
Buchanan  and  Mason  at  Ostend 
in  1854,  joined  in  their  'mani- 
festo' issued  there,  and  returned 
to  the  United  States  the  follow- 
ing year. 

Soult,  Nicolas  Jean  de  Dieu 
(1769-1851),  marshal  of  France, 
was  born  in  St.  Amans-la- 
Bastide  (Tarn),  and  in  1785  en- 
listed as  a  private  soldier  in  the 
French  army.  Becoming  general 
of  brigade  in  1794,  he  distin- 
guished himself  in  Germany,  es- 
pecially at  Altenkirchen  (1796) 
and  Stockach  (1799).  Massena 
made  him  general  of  division  in 
1799,  and  he  ably  supported  that 
commander  in  Switzerland  and 
Italy.    In  1804  Napoleon  made 


him  a  marshal,  and  in  1807  hav- 
ing further  distinguished  him- 
self at  Austerlitz  and  in  Prussia 
he  was  made  Duke  of  Dal- 
matia.  In  1808  he  was  put  in 
command  in  southern  Spain, 
fought  the  battle  of  Corunna, 
overran  Portugal,  defeated  the 
Spaniards  at  Ocana  (1809),  and 
subdued  Andalusia,  but  was  de- 
feated at  Talavera  (1809)  and 
at  Albuera  (1811).  He  was  sent 
to  hold  Wellington  in  check,  but 
suffered  further  defeats  at  Sala- 
manca, Orthez,  and  Toulouse 
(1814),  nevertheless  accomplish- 
ing his  mission  in  great  part. 
After  Waterloo  he  was  banished 
from  France  (1816-19),  recalled  in 
1819  and  appointed  marshal  1820. 
He  was,  however,  minister  of  war 
(1814-15,  1830-4,  1840-4),  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs  (1839-40), 
and  president  of  the  cabinet 
(1832-34,  1839-47).  In  1847 
the  rare  dignity  of  marshal 
general  of  France  was  conferred 
on  him. 

Sound,  in  ordinary  language, 
is  what  we  recognize  by  our  sense 
of  hearing.  We  learn  by  experi- 
ence to  associate  the  production 
of  sound  with  a  definite  source, 
which  is  invariably  a  body  in  a 
state  of  more  or  less  rapid  vi- 
bration. The  investigation  and 
discussion  of  the  way  in  which 
this  vibration  is  started  and 
maintained,  and  the  way  it  is 
transferred  to  the  air  and  trans- 
mitted through  it  as  a  distur- 
bance capable  of  affecting  our 
ear,  constitute  the  branch  of 
physical  science  known  as  sound. 
From  one  point  of  view  the 
theory  of  sound  forms  a  chapter 
in  the  general  dynamic  theory  of 
elasticity,  since  its  production 
and  transmission  depend  upon 
the  elasticity  of  matter  in  all 
states.  The  elasticity  may  be  an 
essential  property  of  the  matter, 
as  in  the  case  of  a  tuning-fork,  a 
cymbal,  a  bell,  or  the  column  of 
air  in  an  organ  pipe;  or  it  may  be 
an  accidental  property  of  the 
body,  as  the  stretched  strings  of 
the  harp,  violin,  or  piano. 

The  ear  recognizes  a  great  vari- 
ety of  sounds,  and  can  generally 
associate  a  definite  kind  of  source 
with  each  sound  heard.  Not  only 
so,  but  it  can  in  many  cases  dis- 
tinguish between  the  sounds 
given  forth  by  two  different 
sources  of  the  same  kind — such, 
for  example,  as  the  sounds  of  two 
voices.  To  this  difference  in  qual- 
ity as  recognized  by  the  ear  there 
must  correspond  some  difference 
in  the  character  of  the  vibration 
as  transmitted  through  the  air.  It 
is  one  important  aim  of  physical 
science  to  investigate  this  differ- 
ence. Another  familiar  difference 
between  two  sounds  is  the  differ- 
ence in  pitch,  the  difference  be- 
tween what  is  called  a  high  musi- 
cal note  and  a  low  musical  note. 


Sound 

It  is  on  this  characteristic,  indeed, 
that  the  whole  theory^  and  prac- 
tice of  music  is  based.  A  third 
characteristic  of  sounds  is  their 
loudness  or  intensity,  which  must 
obviously  depend  upon  the  rate 
at  which  the  disturbance  is  losing 
energy  as  it  affects  the  organs  of 
hearing.  If  we  assume  that  a 
certain  definite  fraction  of  the 
whole  energy  present  is  used  up 
in  producing  tne  sensation,  then 
we  find  that  the  intensity  of  a 
sound  as  heard  by  us  is  propor- 
tional to  the  energy  of  the  vibra- 
tory motion — a  relation  probably 
fairly  well  satisfied. 

These  three  characteristics — 
intensity,  pitch,  and  quality — 
correspond  each  to  'some  definite 
physical  property  of  the  aerial 
disturbance  which  gives  rise  to 
the  sound.  The  essential  nature 
of  these  is  suggested  by  a  study 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  sound 
is  produced.  Pitch  depends  upon 
the  rate  at  which  a  series  of  simi- 
lar disturbances  occurring  at  reg- 
ular intervals  falls  upon  our  ear. 
The  ear  is  not  able  to  distinguish 
the  individual  disturbances  when 
these  come  at  a  rate  of  about  25 

Eer  second;  but  not  till  the  num- 
er  is  well  over  30  per  second 
does  the  pitch  of  the  note  become 
musicall)^  definite.  The  number 
of  vibrations  in  a  second  is  called 
the  'frequency'  of  the  note. 
Hence  the  pitch  of  a  note  is  de- 
termined by  its  frequency. 

By  whatever  kind  of  vibrating 
body  the  pulsations  are  com- 
municated to  the  air,  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  air  can  only  be  of 
one  general  type.  They  consist 
of  alternations  of  greater  and 
smaller  density,  and  constitute 
in  the  medium  waves  of  conden- 
sation and  rarefaction.  Similar 
waves  are  transmitted  through 
water  and  fluids  generally;  but 
in  solids  waves  of  distortion  also 
exist.  When  we  speak  of  sound 
travelling  through  other  media 
than  air,  we  mean  waves  of  dis- 
turbances such  that,  when  they 
pass  into  the  air,  they  possess 
frequencies  enabling  them  to  be 
heard  as  sound — i.e.  from  30  to 
about  40,000  vibrations  per  sec- 
ond. The  upper  limit  is  very 
variable  accordmg  to  the  indivici- 
ual,  some  ears  being  capable  of 
hearing  high-pitched  notes  inaud- 
ible to  other  ears.  It  is  highly 
probable  also  that  the  range  of 
audibility  differs  in  different  kinds 
of  animals. 

The  energy  of  the  original  vi- 
bratory motion  determines  the 
energy  transmitted  to  the  air,  and 
this  m  its  turn  determines  the  in- 
tensity of  sound  heard.  Thus  we 
may  say  generally  that  pitch  de- 
pends on  the  frequency,  and  in- 
tensity on  the  magnitude  of  the 
disturbance. 

Quality  then  must  depend  on 
some  other  characteristic  of  wave 


313 

motion,  and  the  remaining  char- 
acteristic is  the  form  of  the  wave. 
To  produce  a  pure  musical  note 
the  successive  disturbances  must 
all  be  of  the  same  form.  For 
example,  in  a  note  whose  fre- 
quency is.  say,  200  per  second, 
tne  perioa  of  one  disturbance  is 
the  T^nth  of  a  second.  In  this 
short  interval  the  pulse  or  dis- 
turbance goes  through  all  its 
phases.  At  any  one  point  the 
density  and  pressure  vary  in  a 
definite,  assignable  manner,  which 
may,  however,  be  different  in 
different  cases  although  the 
period  is  the  same  in  all.  It  is 
this  mode  of  variation  within  the 
period  of  the  pulse  which  deter- 
mines the  form  of  the  wave.  The 
simplest  discussion  of  the  ques- 
tion is  by  means  of  the  vibra- 
tions of  stretched  strings.  When 
a  stretched  string  is  plucked  at 
any  point  a  wave  is  started,  and 
it  travels  to  and  fro  along  it  with 
a  velocity  which  depends  upon 
the  tension  in  the  string  and  its 
weight  per  unit  length.  Now  a 
wave  passes  forward  through  the 
distance  known  as  its  wave-length 
in  an  interval  of  time  equal  to 
the  period  of  the  wave  disturb- 
ance. Hence  speed  of  propaga- 
tion is  equal  to  the  wave-length 
divided  by  the  period.    But  the 

fieriod  is  the  reciprocal  of  the 
requency,  and  thus  speed  =  wave- 
length X  frequency.  Now  the 
longest  wave  which  can  be  sent 
to  and  fro  along  a  string  with 
fixed  ends  is  one  whose  wave- 
length is  twice  the  length  of  the 
string.  This  longest  wave  will 
therefore  vibrate  with  a  fre- 
quency which  is  the  lowest  pos- 
sible for  this  particular  string  of 
given  weight  and  tension.  The 
note  corresponding  to  this  lowest 
frequency  is  called  the  funda- 


FiG.  1. 

mental  note  of  the  string.  The 
mode  of  vibration  is  indicated  in 
Fig.  1,  a.  But  the  string  may  also 
be  thrown  into  a  mode  of  vibra- 
tion like  that  indicated  in  b  (Fig. 
1).  Here  the  wave-length  of  the 
wave  passing  to  and  fro  along 
the  string  is  half  that  of  the  long- 
est possible  wave-length.  Hence 
its  frequency  will  be  double  that 
of  the  fundamental  note.  Simi- 
larly we  may  have  the  string 
vibrating  in  three,  four,  five,  or 
more  segments  (c,  d.  Fig.  1),  cor- 


Sound 

responding  to  correspondingly 
shorter  wave-lengths  and  corre- 
spondingly   greater  frequencies. 


Fig.  2. 

Thus,  from  any  one  string  under 
constant  tension  we  may  get  a 
series  of  notes  whose  frequencies 
are  as  the  natural  numbers  1,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  6,  etc.,  the  practical  limit 
being  determined  by  the  imper- 
fect flexibility  of  the  string.  But 
not  only  may  the  string  give  all 
these  notes  separately;  it  may 
also  give  them  as  a  combined 
body  of  tone  of  complex  form 
built  up  of  the  simple  compo- 
nents. _  The  modes  of  vibration 
may,  in  fact,  be  superposed  as 
indicated  in  Fig.  2  (where  a 
possible  combination  of  a,  b,  c. 
Fig.  1,  is  shown),  and  evidently 
this  compound  vibration  will  be 
transmitted  to  the  air,  producing 
a  form  of  wave  that  depends  on  the 
number  and  relative  strengths  of 
the  component  simple  vibrations. 
It  is,  in  fact,  the  presence  of  these 
overtones,  or  upper  harmonics  as 
they  are  called,  which  determines 
the  quality  of  the  tone  produced. 
In  the  case  of  vibrating  strings 
and  vibrating  columns  of  air 
(organ,  flute,  trumpet),  the  fre- 
quencies of  the  successive  over- 
tones are  as  the  series  of  natural 
numbers;  but  this  is  not  the  case 
when  the  initial  vibration  is  given 
by  a  vibrating  reed,  membrane, 
or  plate.  Overtones  exist  in 
these  cases  which  are  not  har- 
monically related  to  the  funda- 
mental note.  It  is  essential  for 
musical  purposes  that  the  anhar- 
monic  overtones  should  not  be 
very  pronounced.  They  may  be 
kept  comparatively  feeble  by 
strengthening  the  fundamental 
tone  by  means  of  resonance. 

The  principle  of  resonance  has 
been  called  the  principle  of  sym- 
pathetic vibrations,  and  may  be 
illustrated  dynamically  by  means 
of  two  pendulums  suspended  from 
the  same  framework.  When  one 
of  these  pendulums  is  set  in  oscil- 
lation, it  begins  to  influence  the 
other,  and  to  force  upon  it  its  own 
oscillation.  But  it  is  only  when 
the  natural  period  of  oscillation 
of  the  second  pendulum  is  equal 
to  that  of  the  first  that  this  in-, 
fluence  becomes  strongly  marked. 
In  exactly  the  same  way,  and  for 
exactly  the  same  reason,  one 
vibrating  body  such  as  a  tuning- 
fork  can  set  in  vibration  a  neigh- 
boring tuning-fork  or  stretched 
string  which  is  tuned  to  the  same 
note.  A  suitably  shaped  air 
cavity  placed  near  the  tuning- 
fork  will  greatly  increase  the  in- 
tensity of  the  note  heard,  the 
natural  period  of  vibration  of 
the  mass  of  air  in  the  cavity  be- 


Sound 


314 


Sound 


fng  equal  to  that  of  the  tuning- 
fork.  Reed  pipes  in  organs  are 
provided  with  pipes  of  lengths 
corresponding  to  the  pitch  of  the 
note  given  by  the  vibrating  reed. 
This  note  is  reinforced  by  the 
resonance  of  the  column  of  air  in 
the  pipe.  In  the  ordinary  organ 
pipe  the  blowing  of  the  air  past 
the  lip  sets  the  column  of  air  in 
the  pipe  into  its  natural  period 
of  vioration,  so  that  the  pitch  of 
the  note  is  entirely  determined 
by  the  size  of  the  pipe. 

In  a  violin  the  different  notes 
are  got  from  the  strings  by  'stop- 

ging'  them  to  different  lengths, 
ut  the  strings  vibrating  by 
themselves  in  air  would  not  pro- 
duce any  body  of  tone,  being  too 
thin  to  obtain  sufficient  grip  upon 
the  air.  The  hollow  body  of  the 
violin  acts  as  a  resonance  box 
to  all  the  various  notes  given  by 
the  strings. 

It  is  resonance,  again,  which  de- 
termines not  only  the  quality  of 
a  voice  but  also  the  character  of 
the  vowel  sounds  uttered.  The 
vibrations  of  the  vocal  cords  are 
of  a  complex  character,  and  by 
appropriate  form  of  the  mouth 
cavity  the  speaker  emphasizes 
certain  of  the  components.  This 
selective  reinforcement  by  means 
of  resonance  results  in  a  corre- 
sponding vowel  quality  of  tone. 
By  a  suitable  synthesis  of  simple 
tones,  given  by  a  series  of  tuning- 
forks,  Helmholtz  was  able  to 
simulate  the  vowel  sounds  of  the 
human  voice. 

Under  the  heading  Interfer- 
ence the  phenomenon  known  as 
beats  in  sound  has  been  discussed 
at  some  length.  When  two  notes 
of  nearly  the  same  pitch  are 
sounded  together,  a  rise  and  fall 
in  the  intensity  of  the  sound  is 
heard,  the  number  of  maximum 
points  in  a  second  being  equal  to 
the  difference  of  the  frequencies. 
The  ear  is  able  to  recognize  this 
beating  when  the  difference  is 
less  than  20;  but  when  the  differ- 
ence of  the  frequencies  is  greater 
than  30  a  new  phenomenon  pre- 
sents itself.  The  difference  of 
the  frequencies  becomes  evident 
to  the  ear  as  a  difference  tone, 
whose  frequency  is  this  differ- 
ence. Sound  together,  for  ex- 
ample, the  middle  c  and  G  upon 
an  organ  or  a  harmonium,  the  fre- 
quencies of  which  are  on  these 
tempered  instruments  Very  nearly 
as  2  to  3.  (In  the  true  accurately 
tuned  fifth  they  would  be  ex- 
actly as  these  numbers.)  At  once 
the  ear  will  hear  a  lower  tone 
than  either  component,  and  the 
pitch  of  this  tone  will  be  an 
octave  below  the  c,  having  a  fre- 
auency  equal  to  the  difference  of 
the  frequencies  of  the  c  and  G. 
This  phenomenon  was  early  rec- 
ognized by  organists,  and  is 
known  as  Tartini's  beat.  The 
obvious  explanation  was  that  it 


was  due  to  the  coalescence  of  the 
interference  beats  when  these 
were  too  numerous  to  be  individ- 
ually recognized  and  frequent 
enough  to  form  a  tone  of  defi- 
nite pitch.  Helmholtz  showed, 
however,  that  although  this  ex- 
planation might  apply  when  the 
individual  notes  were  powerful, 
it  did  not  contain  the  complete 
explanation.  He  found  that  the 
difference  tone  was  not  increased 
in  intensity  when  a  resonator 
tuned  to  the  same  pitch  was  ap- 
plied to  the  ear.  Thus  the  differ- 
ence tone  was  to  a  large  extent 

Eroduced  in  the  ear  itself;  and 
e  showed  that  this  could  be  ex- 
plained dynamically  as  being  due 
to  the  asymmetric  character  of 
the  vibrating  part  of  the  ear 
when  it  is  acted  upon  by  the  two 
vibrations  from  without.  This 
explanation  also  accounted  for 
the  summation  tone  heard  under 
certain  circumstances  —  a  tone 
whose  frequency  is  the  sum  of 
the  frequencies  of  the  component 
notes. 

The  transmission  of  sound 
through  the  air  depends  on  the 
elasticity  and  density  of  the  air. 
Newton  was  the  first  to  show  that 
the  speed  of  propagation  should 
be  equal  to  the  square  root  of 
the  ratio  of  the  elastic  force  to  the 
density.  Using  Boyle's  law,  he 
calculated  what  the  speed  should 
be,  and  obtained  a  value  fully 
one-tenth  less  than  the  observed 
value.  The  discrepancy  was 
cleared  up  by  Laplace.  Since 
sound  is  propagated  by  a  succes- 
sion of  condensations  and  rare- 
factions in  the  air,  and  since  a 
sudden  compression  causes  a  rise 
of  temperature  and  a  rarefaction 
a  fall  of  temperature,  it  is  obvious 
that  Boyle's  law,  which  holds  for 
constant  temperature,  does  not 
apply.  The  heating  during  com- 
pression and  the  cooling  during 
expansion  increase  the  resistance 
of  the  air  to  being  compressed 
and  rarefied,  and  consequently 
the  elastic  force  applicaole  to 
this  case  will  be  higher  in  value 
than  that  used  by  Newton.  When 
the  correct  value  is  used,  the 
calculated  value  of  the  speed  of 
sound  agrees  with  the  observed 
value — namely,  about  1,100  feet 
per  second.  So  rapidly  do  the 
alternations  of  pressure  and  den- 
sity take  place  that  there  is  no 
time  for  the  heat  developed  in 
the  condensed  part  to  diffuse  into 
the  colder  region  of  the  neighbor- 
ing rarefied  part.  The  air,  in  fact, 
beh  aves  very  rigorously  in  an 
adiabatic  manner.  (See  Thermo- 
dynamics.) Stokes  has  shown 
that  a  very  small  loss  or  gain  of 
heat  by  conduction  or  convection 
would  quickly  stifle  any  sound 
that  was  Deing  propagated  through 
the  air.  All  elastic  bodies  can 
transmit  waves  of  compression 
like  the  sound  waves  in  air,  and 


in  the  case  of  fluids  the  rate  of 
propagation  depends  on  the  same 
dynamic  constants — namely,  the 
resistance  to  compression  and  the 
density.  The  density  of  water 
is  much  greater  than  that  of  air; 
but  on  the  other  hand,  water  has 
a  very  much  greater  resistance  to 
compression.  Thus  the  velocity 
of  the  compressional  wave  in 
water  is  nearly  five  times  the 
velocity  of  sound  in  air. 

Elastic  waves  somewhat  analo- 
gous to  sound  waves  in  air  may 
also  be  transmitted  through 
solids;  and  here  again  the  speed 
depends  upon  a  certain  elastic 
constant  and  the  density.  This 
kind  of  motion  must  be  distin- 
guished from  the  body  vibrations 
by  which  sounds  are  produced  in 
such  instruments  as  drums,  tun- 
ing -  forks,  cymbals,  and  bells. 
Homogeneous  isotropic  solidi, 
have  two  kinds  of  elasticity,  and 
corresponding  to  these  are  two 
kinds  of  waves,  each  travelling 
with  its  own  velocity.  When 
these  emerge  at  the  surface  of 
the  solid,  they  may  be  continued 
through  the  air  as  audible  waves 
of  compression — that  is,  as  sound 
waves.  In  this  sense,  and  in  this 
sense  only,  can  we  speak  of  solids 
conveying  sound.  Rayleigh  has 
shown  that  solids  may  transmit 
a  third  kind  of  elastic  wave — 
namely,  a  wave  whose  disturb- 
ance penetrates  a  very  short  dis- 
tance below  the  surface.  This 
also  may  obviously  give  rise  to 
sound  waves  in  air  if  the  vertical 
motion  is  sufficiently  great  and 
sufficiently  rapid.  See  Earth- 
quakes. 

Being  wave  motion,  sound  is 
capable  of  reflection  and  refrac- 
tion at  the  boundary  of  two  media 
differing  in  density  and  elastic- 
ity. Echoes  and  the  phenomena 
of  whispering  galleries  are  fa- 
miliar illustrations  of  reflecticn. 
Sound  may  be  refracted  through 
a  lens  of  carbonic  acid  gas;  and 
under  certain  conditions  of  the 
atmosphere  sound  is  bent  up- 
ward into  the  higher  regions  of 
the  air.  This  is  due  to  change  of 
temperature.  A  change  of  den- 
sity at  constant  temperature  is 
accompanied  by  a  proportionate 
change  in  the  resistance  to  com- 
pression, so  that  the  speed  of 
sound  in  air,  being  determined 
by  the  ratio  of  these  two  quanti- 
ties, is  the  same  at  all  densities 
provided  the  temperature  is  con- 
stant. Diffraction  of  sound  may 
also  be  observed  under  suitable 
conditions,  which  have  been  lu- 
cidly described  by  Lord  Ray- 
leigh in  his  Royal  Institution 
lecture  of  1888.  (See  his  collected 
Scientific  Papers,  vol.  iii.)  The 
phenomena  cannot  well  be  shown 
with  ordinary  sound  waves,  be- 
cause of  the  length  of  the  waves 
in  comparison  with  the  apertures 
through  which  the  sound  passes 


Sound  Motion  Pictures  KFK 


or  the  objects  which  throw  the 
sound  shadows.  By  means  of 
sensitive  flames,  which  respond 
to  aerial  vibrations  of  frequen- 
cies so  great  as  to  be  inaudible, 
Lord  Rayleigh  was  able  to  dem- 
onstrate the  existence  of  diffrac- 
tion phenomena.  See  Acous- 
tics. The  most  complete  trea- 
tise on  sound  is  that  by  Rayleigh 
(1894-6).  Many  remarkable 
discoveries  are  contained  in 
Helmholtz's  Sensations  of  Tone 
(Eng.  trans.,  1885).  For  a  more 
elementary  treatment,  consult 
Thomson  and  Poynting's  Text- 
book of  Physics. 

Sound  Motion  Pictures. 
See  Moving  Pictures  :  Talking 
Moving  Pictures.  * 

Sound,  The,  strait  connect- 
ing the  Kattegat  and  the  Baltic 
between  Sweden  and  the  island 
of  Zeeland,  Denmark.  It  is  30 
miles  from  north  to  south,  and 
30  miles  across  at  its  widest 
point  but  between  Helsingborg 
and  Elsinore  is  only  3  miles  wide. 

Sounding.  See  Lead,  The; 
Navigation,  Practical. 

Sounding  Board,  properly, 
a  surface  of  resonant  material, 
usually  wood,  in  the  piano,  vio- 
lin, and  other  musical  instru- 
ments, which  transmits  the 
string  vibrations  to  the  air,  and 
thereby  intensifies  the  sound. 

The  term  is  also  popularly 
used  for  a  reflector — a  board 
placed  behind  or  above  a  speaker 
or  orchestra  to  strengthen  the 
sound  and  to  prevent  echoes. 
An  efficient  reflector  does  not  vi- 
brate, thus  differing  from  a  true 
sounding  board. 

Sourwood,  or  Sorrel  Tree, 
a  small  tree  (Oxydendrum  ar- 
bor eiim)  of  the  Southern  and 
Middle  States,  belonging  to  the 
heath  family.  It  has  oval,  sour- 
tasting  leaves  and  twigs,  and  nu- 
merous panicled  racemes  of  cy- 
lindrical white  flowers.  Its  wood 
is  fine  grained  and  hard,  but  the 
tree  is  valued  mainly  for  its 
vivid  scarlet  autumn  foliage 
which  makes  it  very  decorative. 

Sousa,  John  Philip  (1854- 
1932),  American  bandmaster 
and  composer,  was  born  in 
Washington,  D.  C.  He  began 
his  musical  education  when  very 
young  and  played  the  violin  in 
the  orchestra  of  Jacques  Offen- 
bach during  the  latter's  Ameri- 
can tour  (1876).  After  experi- 
ence in  travelling  companies,  in 
1880  he  became  leader  of  the 
U.  S.  Marine  Corps  Band  and 
made  it  one  of  the  finest  bands 
in  the  United  States.  In  1892 
he  organized  his  own  band,  with 
which  he  gained  a  world  wide 
reputation.  The  spirit  and  swing 
of  his  music,  especially  of  his 
marches,  have  made  his  compo- 
sitions— more  than  two  hundred 
in  all — popular  among  all  classes. 
Among  the  best  known  are  the 


Washington  Post,  Liberty  Bell, 
and  Stars  and  Stripes  Forever. 
He  also  composed  the  music 
of  several  successful  operettas, 
among  them  El  Capitan.  The 
Charlatan,  The  Bride  Elect,  The 
Free  Lance  and  The  American 
Maid.  His  programmes  contain, 
besides  many  American  compo- 
sitions, much  classical  and  Wag- 
nerian music,  of  which  he  had 
made  excellent  transcriptions 
for  band  use.  He  received  the 
Royal  Victorian  medal,  and  was 
made  an  officer  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1901.  Belgian, 
French  and  British  decorations 
were  conferred  on  him.  He  also 
was  the  author  of  The  Fifth 
String  ;  Pipetown  Sandy ;  Dwell- 
ers in  the  Western  World; 
Through  the  Year  with  Sousa 
and  The  Transit  of  Venus. 

South,  Sir  James  (1785- 
1867),  English  astronomer,  was 
born  near  London.  He  was 
educated  for  the  medical  pro- 
fession, but  relinquished  it  and 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  as- 
tronomy. He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Astronomical 
Society,  and  became  its  president 
in  1829. 

South,  Robert  (1634-1716), 
English  divine  and  pulpit  orator, 
was  born  in  London.  He  was  a 
fellow  student  with  John  Locke 
at  Oxford,  and  after  the  Restora- 
tion he  was  appointed  orator  for 
the  university.  By  his  oration 
at  the  installation  of  Clarendon 
as  chancellor,  in  1661,  he  secured 
that  statesman  as  his  friend  and 
patron,  and  made  his  reputation 
as  one  of  the  foremost  formal 
orators  in  English  history.  He 
was  appointed  private  chaplain 
to  Clarendon,  prebendary  of 
Westminster  (1663),  canon  of 
Christ  Church  (1670),  and  rec- 
tor of  Islip  (1678).  In  1693  he 
began  a  famous  controversy  on 
the  Trinity  with  Sherlock,  dean 
of  St.  Paul's. 

South,  University  of  the, 
an  institution  for  the  higher  ed- 
ucation of  men  at  Sewanee, 
Tenn.,  founded  in  1857  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church.  The  univer- 
sity has  a  College  of  Liberal 
Arts  and  a  School  oi.  Theology. 
The  Board  of  Trustees  also  op- 
erates a  preparatory  school 
known  as  the  Sewanee  Military 
Academy.  The  degrees  con- 
ferred by  the  university  are 
Bachelor  of  Arts,  Bachelor  of 
Science,  Bachelor  of  Divinity, 
Bachelor  of  Sacred  Theology, 
and  Master  of  Arts.  The  uni- 
versity is  a  member  of  the  South- 
ern Association  of  Colleges  and 
Secondary  Schools,  the  Ameri- 
can Association  of  Colleges,  and 
the  Tennessee  College  Associa- 
tion. 

South  Africa,  British.  The 

British    possessions    in  South 


315  South  African  Union 

Africa  comprise  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  Natal,  the  Orange  Free 
State,  the  Transvaal,  the  man- 
dated territory  Southwest  Afri- 
ca, and  the  protectorates  of 
Bechuanaland,  Basutoland,  Rho- 
desia, and  Swaziland.  See 
South  African  Union,  and  the 
articles  on  the  separate  colonies. 

South  Africa  Company. 
See  Rhodes,  C.  J. 

South  African  Republic. 
See  Transvaal. 

South  African  Union  (offi- 
cially, The  Union  of  South 
Africa)  is  the  federation  of 
four  British  colonies  in  South 
Africa,  dating  from  May  31, 
1910.  The  territory,  with  some 
native  territory,  included  for  ad- 
ministrative purposes,  is  472,550 
square  miles,  with  a  population, 
in  1939,  of  10,160,000,  of  whom 
2,116,500  were  white,  and 
8,043,500  of  other  races.  The 
executive  offices  are  at  Pretoria 
(q.  v.),  but  Parliament  sits  at 
Cape  Town  (q.  v.).  The  chief 
ports  are  Cape  Town,  Port  Eliza- 
beth, Durban  and  East  London. 

Climate, — The  climate  is  re- 
markably even,  and  has  been  de- 
scribed as  'genial,  exhilarating, 
sunny,  and  dusty,'  though  violent 
dust-storms  are  infrequent.  The 
average  annual  rainfall  which  is 
very  unequally  distributed,  is 
about  23  inches.  In  the  eastern 
part,  monsoons  (q.  v.)  are  not 
uncommon  ;  and  when  they  recur 
for  several  seasons,  they  store 
water  in  lakes  and  rivers  suffi- 
cient for  several  dry  seasons. 

Forestry* — Large  areas  of 
forest  reserves  in  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  Province  and  Natal 
are  receiving  scientific  cultiva- 
tion according  to  modern  for- 
estry methods.  In  the  Cape  for- 
ests, a  certain  area  is  left  open 
for  two  years,  and  is  then  closed 
for  about  forty  years,  another 
section  being  opened  in  its  place. 
The  total  forest  acreage  of  the 
Union  is  about  3,000,000,  chiefly 
in  the  Cape  and  Natal. 

Agriculture* — South  Africa's 
progress  until  recent  years  has 
been  largely  in  the  mining  field ; 
but  the  agricultviral  resovirces 
are  now  more  developed.  The 
chief  agricultural  products  are 
wool  and  hides,  tobacco,  grain, 
maize,  tea,  sugar,  wine,  pine- 
apples, oranges  and  other  fruits. 
The  recent  development  of  dry 
farming  is  to  be  noted.  There 
has  been  great  increase  in  the  ex- 
portation of  fruit  since  the  adap- 
tation of  cold-storage  systems. 
Cotton  raising  is  a  comparatively 
new  industry  in  which  experi- 
ments were  tried  from  Ameri- 
can seed  in  1910.  The  results 
were  sufficiently  encouraging  to 
warrant  the  development  of  the 
industry.  South  Africa  is  said 
to  be  the  finest  maize-growing 
country  in  the  world,  owing  to 


South  African  Union 


KFK 


315  A  South  African  Union 


highly  favorable  climatic  condi- 
tions— especially  abundance  of 
sunlight  and  a  long  sowing  sea- 
son. Maize  is  a  most  important 
dry-farming  crop,  since  it  will 
withstand  the  severest  drought 
if  cultivated  carefully. 

Minerals, — The  most  impor- 
tant minerals  worked  in  South 
Africa  are  gold,  diamonds,  silver, 
coal,  tin,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  and 
asbestos.  The  gold  industry  of 
the  Transvaal  is  constantly  ex- 
panding. By  1927  it  furnished 
over  one-half  of  the  world's  sup- 
ply. The  output  of  the  Wit- 
watersrand  alone  (popularly 
known  as  the  Rand)  was  about 
95  per  cent,  of  the  yield  of  the 
province. 

The  value  of  the  gold  output 
for  1938  was  $258,291,555;  of 
diamonds,  $17,481,215;  of  coal 
(chiefly  from  Natal  and  the 
Transvaal),  nearly  $24,000,000. 
The  approximate  value  of  the 
minerals  produced  up  to  and  in- 
cluding  1938,  in  thousands  of 


U.  S.  dollars. 

is  shown  below  : 

Union 

Total 

1,000 

Mineral 

dollars 

Gold   

  8,288,302 

Diamonds 

  1,638,859 

  579,103 

Copper   . . . . , 

  151,614 

Tin   

  37,691 

Commerce  and  Industry* — 

Trade  has  greatly  increased  since 
1909,  when  the  royal  assent  was 
given  to  the  Act  of  Union.  In 
1939  the  imports  amounted  to 
$456,705,540,  and  exports  were 
$170,980,050,  exclusive  of  gold 
bullion.  The  largest  single  item 
among  the  imports  was  electrical 
material  and  machinery. 

Labor  and  the  Color  Prob- 
lem,— Unskilled  labor  is  largely 
in  the  hands  of  natives.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  there  are 
about  1,000,000  adult  native 
males  in  the  Union.  Some  of 
these,  however,  work  their  own 
farms,  and  many  natives  work 
for  not  more  than  six  months  of 
the  year.  About  314,000  natives 
are  employed  in  the  mines,  but 
it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
draw  on  Portuguese  East  Africa 
for  native  labor.  Conditions  of 
living  and  employment  have  been 
greatly  improved  in  recent  years. 
It  is  hoped  that  this  improve- 
ment, with  the  additional  native 
population  made  available  by  the 
Union,  and  some  white  labor, 
will  go  far  to  supply  the  in- 
creased demand  of  the  expand- 
ing trade. 

The  color  problem  in  South 
Africa  is  of  serious  proportions. 
The  natives  have  about  four 
times  the  numerical  strength  of 
the  whites  while  the  increase  in 
the  proportion  of  white  popula- 
tion is  very  slight.  Immigra- 


tion is  assisted  chiefly  by  volun- 
tary agencies  but  is  not  consid- 
erable. Considered  apart  from 
political  agitation,  the  general 
dependence  on  native  labor  great- 
ly decreases  the  industrial  de- 
mand for  immigration.  The  na- 
tives have  almost  a  monopoly  of 
the  unskilled  labor  and  domestic 
service  of  the  country,  but  the 
pressure  of  the  'poor  white'  prob- 
lem is  causing  a  change  and  in- 
fluencing policy  in  the  direction 
of  'civilized'  labor.  A  general 
segregation  of  the  black  race,  al- 
ready partly  accomplished  in 
some  labor  communities,  is  one 
of  the  suggested  methods  of 
dealing  with  the  color  problem. 
The  problem  is  complicated  by 
the  fact  that  some  of  the  natives 
are  rising  into  the  ranks  of 
skilled  workmen,  clerks,  etc.,  and 
are  thus  entering  into  constantly 
closer  competition  with  the 
whites.  Legislation  is  proposed 
to  increase  the  areas  of  native 
land-reserves  and  thus  to  reduce 
pressure  on  the  unskilled  labor- 
market  in  the  town. 

Railroads, — The  railroads 
are  owned  by  the  State,  with 
about  13,000  miles  of  track. 
The  system  includes  the  control 
of  the  harbors  of  Cape  Town, 
Port  Elizabeth,  East  London, 
and  Durban.  In  recent  years 
great  additions  have  been  made 
to  locomotives  and  rolling  stock, 
especially  on  main  lines.  The 
Natal  line  and  some  suburban 
lines  have  been  electrified. 

The  railroads  are  adminis- 
tered by  the  Minister  of  Rail- 
ways, assisted  by  three  commis- 
sioners. Under  the  Union,  op- 
eration for  profit  has  been  aban- 
doned, and  the  gross  earnings 
are  to  be  only  so  large  as  is  nec- 
essary to  pay  expenses  and  in- 
terest on  capital.  The  aim  of 
the  administration  is  the  agri- 
cultural and  industrial  develop- 
ment of  the  inland  provinces. 
Special  low  rates  operate  for 
agricultural  produce  for  export, 
and  for  bunker-coal. 

The  gold  of  Johannesburg 
(q.  V.)  was  the  prize  for  which, 
up  to  the  time  of  the  Union,  the 
provincial  roads  were  anxiously 
competing.^  The  first  line  to 
Johannesburg  from  the  coast 
came  from  Cape  Town  (900 
miles),  and  had  a  monopoly  of 
the  trade  until  the  completion  in 
1894  of  the  Natal  line,  between 
Johannesburg  and  Durban  (485 
miles),  considerably  shortened 
the  distance.  The  Natal  line 
was  in  its  turn  largely  super- 
seded by  the  Delagoa  Bay  route, 
opened  in  1894,  which  further 
reduced  the  distance  to  396 
miles.  At  the  time  of  the  Union 
(1910),  70  per  cent,  of  the 
Transvaal  traffic  was  carried  via 
Delagoa  Bay.  Since  the  rail- 
roads were  a  large  source  of  in- 


come to  the  governments,  sev- 
eral conferences  were  held  to 
adjust  the  traffic  question,  but 
without  result.  In  consequence 
of  pressure  brought  to  bear  on 
the  National  Convention  of  1908, 
30  per  cent,  of  the  traffic  was 
guaranteed  to  Durban  and  15 
per  cent,  to  Cape  Town,  These 
arrangements  laave  since  been 
modified  by  new  agreements 
with  Portugal,  made  in  1928  and 
1936. 

Air  Mail  Routes. — Mails 
are  conveyed  in  each  direction 
over  these  air  routes  :  Johannes- 
burg to  Durban,  Johannesburg 
to  Cape  Town  via  Kimberley  and 
via  Bloemfontein,  Johannesburg 
to  Windhoek  via  Kimberley, 
Durban  to  Cape  Town  via  East 
London,  Johannesburg  to  Port 
Elizabeth  via  Bloemfontein,  Jo- 
hannesburg to  Kisumu  via 
Southern  and  Northern  Rhode- 
sia and  Tanganyika,  and  Jo- 
hannesburg to  Salisbury  via 
Bulawayo. 

Language. — English  and 
Dutch  receive  official  recogni- 
tion, and  public  instruction  is 
given  in  both  languages.  But 
English  is  the  language  of  com- 
merce and  of  general  business. 
Afrikaans,  the  South  American 
form  of  Dutch,  is  now  univer- 
sally used  for  Government  pur- 
poses, and  as  a  medium  of  in- 
struction in  many  schools,  and 
even  in  the  universities.  There 
is  also  a  translation  of  the  Bible 
in  Afrikaans. 

Education. — The  Union  De- 
partment of  Education  adminis- 
ters technical  colleges,  industrial 
schools,  trades  and  housecraft 
institutions.  Elementary  and 
agricultural  education  is  con- 
trolled by  the  Provinces.  The 
Commissioner  for  Mental  Hy- 
giene administers  the  training  of 
mentally  defective  children,  and 
there  are  special  schools  for  the 
deaf  and  blind. 

Higher  education  is  offered  by 
five  universities  :  the  University 
of  South  Africa,  with  a  constitu- 
ent college ;  universities  of 
Cape  Town,  Stellenbosch,  Wit- 
watersrand  and  Pretoria.  Col- 
leges are  Orange  Free  State, 
Bloemfontein ;  Huguenot,  Wel- 
lington ;  Rhodes,  Grahamstown  ; 
Natal,  Pietermaritzburg ;  and 
Potchefstroom. 

Government. — Executive  au- 
thority is  vested  in  a  Governor- 
General  appointed  by  the  Crown, 
assisted  by  an  Executive  Coun- 
cil of  12  ministers.  The  legis- 
lative power  rests  in  a  Parlia- 
ment consisting  of  the  King,  a 
Senate  of  40  members,  eight  of 
whom  are  nominated  by  the 
Governor-General  and  32  elect- 
ed, and  a  House  of  Assembly  of 
150  members,  elected  for  five 
years.  Since  1936  Cape  native 
voters  are  entitled  to  elect  four 


dAH  1  4  J942 


South  African  Union 


KFK 


315  B 


South  African  Union 


members  to  the  Senate  and  three 
to  the  House  of  Assembly.  The 
Union  follows  somewhat  closely 
the  Canadian  model ;  i.e.,  specif- 
ic powers  are  given  the  colonies, 
which  are  called  provinces,  but 
all  power  not  specifically  granted 
remains  in  the  general  govern- 
ment. The  control  and  adminis- 
tration of  matters  pertaining  to 
natives  and  Asiatics  are  vested 
in  the  Governor-General  in 
Council.  He  also  appoints  the 
Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
who  are  removable  only  for  mis- 
conduct or  incapacity.  From 
the  Supreme  Court  appeal  may 
be  made  only  to  the  King's 
Privy  Council.  As  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  King,  the  Gov- 
ernor-General is  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  naval  and  military 
forces.  Money,  revenue,  and 
tax  measures  originate  in  the  As- 
sembly, but  only  on  recommen- 
dation of  the  Governor-General. 
Women  over  21  may  vote. 

The  provinces  are  divided  into 
administrative  districts  under 
resident  magistrates.  Each 
province  has  a  provincial  coun- 
cil, which  deals  with  elementary 
education,  local  institutions,  ag- 
riculture, etc.,  levies  direct  taxa- 
tion, and  may  borrow  money  on 
the  provincial  credit.  Each 
province  has  an  administrator 
appointed  by  the  Governor-Gen- 
eral for  a  term  of  five  years.  He 
is  advised  by  an  executive  com- 
mittee of  four,  chosen  by  the 
provincial  council  from  its  mem- 
bership. 

Under  the  Defense  Act 
(1912),  amended  1922,  every 
citizen  is  liable  to  military  serv- 
ice between  his  seventeenth  and 
sixtieth  years.  Peace  training  is 
given  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  male 
population  between  the  ages  of 
seventeen  and  twenty-five. 

There  is  a  police  force  com- 
posed of  Europeans  and  natives, 
the  latter's  activities  being  lim- 
ited to  colored  races.  Since 
1922  the  Permanent  (military) 
Force  has  been  relieved  of  all 
police  duties  in  peace  time,  to 
which  they  were  liable  under  the 
1912  Defense  Act.  For  defense 
purposes  the  Union  is  divided 
into  six  commands,  to  each  of 
which  various  units  of  different 
arms  are  allotted,  to  which  citi- 
zens enter  for  peace  training. 
The  active  Citizen  Force  is  di- 
vided into  9  infantry  and  one 
Coast  .Artillery  brigades,  and 
contains  27  battalions  and  9  field 
artillery  batteries  (1939). 

The  Permanent  Force  in  1939 
had  287  officers  and  5,000  other 
ranks,  including  the  South  Afri- 
can Air  Force,  also  nurses.  The 
South  African  Naval  Service  has 
a  headquarters  staff  at  Simons- 
town,  where  dockyards,  mine- 
sweeping  trawlers  and  motor  tor- 
pedo boats  are  located.  Before 


the  Union  Cape  Colony  and  Na- 
tal paid  an  annual  contribution 
to  the  Royal  Navy,  and  this  ob- 
ligation was  taken  over  by  the 
Union  Government  on  its  for- 
mation. The  Union  has  charge 
of  its  local  coast  defenses. 

All  real  and  personal  property 
formerly  belonging  to  the  four 
colonies,  and  all  mineral  rights, 
were  transferred  to  the  Union 
government  on  its  formation. 
The  Union  also  assumed  the 
burden  of  the  colonial  debts.  All 
moneys  received  by  the  Union 
are  paid  into  a  Consolidated 
Revenue  Fund. 

Subsidies  are  paid  to  the  four 
provinces  from  the  Consolidated 
Fund  to  an  amount  calculated  on 
the  average  attendance  in  pro- 
vincial educational  institutions. 
The  balance  of  provincial  rev- 
enue comes  from  'assigned'  taxes 
and  from  direct  provincial  taxa- 
tion. A  general  Railway  and 
Harbor  Fund  is  managed  by  a 
commission  appointed  for  that 
purpose. 

History, — The  movement  to- 
ward the  federation  of  the  Brit- 
ish Colonies  and  the  Dutch  Re- 
publics was  begun  in  1871  on  the 
initiative  of  Lord  Carnarvon, 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colo- 
nies. It  was  discussed  in  the 
Cape  Parliament,  which  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  consider 
the  question.  In  1877,  Lord 
Carnarvon's  bill  was  passed  by 
the  British  Parliament.  The 
constitution,  modelled  largely  on 
that  of  Canada,  provided  for  a 
Governor-General,  the  represent- 
ative of  the  British  monarch,  as- 
sisted by  a  Privy  Council,  a  Leg- 
islative Council,  representing  the 
divisions  of  the  federation,  and 
a  House  of  Assembly.  Each 
province  was  to  have  a  chief  ex- 
ecutive and  a  legislature.  The 
Union  proved  ineffective  be- 
cause, imposed  from  the  outside, 
it  lacked  local  support. 

After  the  South  African  War 
(q.  v.),  however,  the  liberal 
treatment  of  the  conquered 
Dutch  states  produced  happy  re- 
sults, and  the  movement  for  a 
federation  of  the  colonies  grew 
rapidly  among  the  colonists 
themselves.  Moreover,  long- 
standing disagreements  among 
the  four  States  concerning  cus- 
toms and  railroads  seemed  most 
likely  to  be  solved  by  union.  In 
1908  the  subject  was  brought  to 
the  colonial  Parliaments.  On 
their  approval  of  the  plan,  a  Na- 
tional Convention  for  the  adop- 
tion of  a  constitution  was  assem- 
bled, meeting  in  Durban  and 
Cape  Town,  in  October  and  No- 
vember. In  February,  1909,  the 
Convention  submitted  to  the 
Parliaments  its  report  in  the 
form  of  a  draft  act  of  union.  As 
amended  by  the  Convention  at 
Bloemfontein  in  May,  in  accord- 


ance with  suggestions  from  the 
four  Houses,  the  Act  was  ac- 
cepted by  the  South  African 
Parliaments,  by  the  Parliament 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  by 
the  King  of  Great  Britain,  who 
gave  the  royal  assent  on  Sept.  20, 
1909.  The  name  of  the  Orange 
River  Colony  was  changed  to  the 
Orange  Free  State  province,  and 
provision  was  made  for  the  ad- 
mission of  contiguous  British  ter- 
ritory, including  Rhodesia  and 
the  protectorates  of  Bechuana- 
land  and  Basutoland. 

The  new  Government  was  in- 
augurated on  May  31,  1910, 
the  anniversary  of  the  Peace  of 
1902.  General  Botha's  ministry 
included  most  of  the  old  backers, 
including  General  Smuts,  as  well 
as  seasoned  statesmen  of  the 
Cape  'Afrikander  Bund'  like  J. 
X.  Merriman  and  J.  H.  Sauer. 
The  opposition,  led  with  farsee- 
ing  imagination  by  Sir  L.  S. 
Jameson  ('Dr.  Jim')  was  friendly 
and  eager  to  cooperate  in  the 
work  of  consolidating  the  Union. 
Much  was  done  in  a  few  years 
to  unify  administration  and  es- 
tablish confidence.  But  the 
Botha  policy  of  conciliation  and 
cooperation  led  the  more  con- 
servative and  recalcitrant  Dutch 
to  believe  that  he  was  handing 
control  of  the  country's  destiny 
to  English  influences  and  doing 
far  too  little  to  secure  the  future 
of  Afrikander  language  and  cul- 
ture in  the  Union.  This  feeling 
found  expression  through  Gen- 
eral Hertzog,  Minister  of  Jus- 
tice. After  certain  public  utter- 
ances that  were  in  direct  conflict 
with  Botha's  policy  he  was  re- 
moved from  the  cabinet  in  1912 
and  then  set  himself  to  organize 
the  new  Nationalist  Party.  The 
outbreak  of  the  World  War  in 
1914  and  the  decision  of  Parlia- 
ment to  cooperate  with  England 
and  to  take  possession  of  Ger- 
man South- West  Africa  accentu- 
ated this  feeling,  and  rebellion 
was  the  result  (November, 
1914).  Tw^o  of  Botha's  old 
comrades,  Delarey  and  Beyers, 
lost  their  lives,  and  a  third,  De 
Wet,  was  captured  and  impris- 
oned. War  conditions  served  to 
hold  opposition  in  check  and  to 
restrain  the  representatives  of 
Labor  —  mostly  English — from 
cooperating  with  the  National- 
ists. After  the  end  of  the  War 
and  Botha's  death  (1919),  Gen- 
eral Smuts  was  still  able  to  carry 
on,  though  with  reduced  major- 
ities. In  1924  General  Hertzog, 
with  the  help  of  Labor  secured 
a  majority  and  formed  the  'Pact' 
Government.  Labor  was  strong- 
ly hostile  to  the  Smuts  regime, 
partly  because  of  a  conviction 
that  its  tendency  was  to  ovist  the 
white  worker  from  his  privileged 
position,  and  partly  from  lasting 
memories   of    Smuts'  summary 


South  African  War  KFK 


deportation  of  Labor  leaders  in 
1913,  and  his  ruthless  suppres- 
sion of  the  rising  in  Johannes- 
burg in  March,  1922. 

Hertzog's  general  policy  of 
weakening  the  link  between  the 
Union  and  the  British  Empire 
met  increasing  opposition,  and  in 
1933  he  was  forced  to  form 
a  coalition  government  with 
Smuts.  Under  the  coalition 
cabinet  South  Africa  rapidly 
emerged  from  the  economic  de- 
pression. Increasing  interna- 
tional tension  after  1933,  and  the 
danger  of  German  and  Italian 
expansion  in  Africa  led  even 
Hertzog  to  urge  support  of 
Great  Britain  for  defense.  In 
1938  he  declared  the  South  Af- 
rican Parliament  wovild  decide 
the   Union's   war  attitude.  In 

1939,  however,  Hertzog's  pro- 
posal for  a  modified  neutrality 
was  defeated.  Smuts  succeeded 
him  as  prime  minister,  and  in 
September  the  Union  of  South 
Africa  declared  war  on  Ger- 
many. Its  participation  in  the 
war  was  limited  at  first  to  in- 
creasing home  defenses  ;  support 
of  the  Allies  in  trade,  shipping, 
and  finance  ;  and  maintenance  of 
the  Simonstown  naval  base  for 
British    warships.      In  March, 

1940,  opposition  efforts  to  limit 
South  African  participation  in 
the  war  were  defeated,  and 
Smuts'  position  was  greatly 
strengthened.  During  the  year 
there  was  a  considerable  increase 
in  recruiting,  and  military  units 
were  despatched  to  the  fighting 
front.  Hertzog  continued  to  at- 
tack British  war  policy ;  he 
urged  a  separate  peace  with  the 
Axis,  and  a  resolution  to  that 
effect  was  defeated  by  a  vote  of 
83  to  66  on  August  31,  1940._ 

Bibliography  *  —  Official 
Ycar-Book  of  the  Union  of 
South  Africa;  Mineral  Re- 
sources of  the  Union  of  South 
Africa  (official,  1936)  ;  Cam- 
bridge History,  of  the  British 
Empire  {vol.  VIII,  1936)  ;  F.  J. 
van  Biljon,  State  Interference  in 
S.  Africa  (1939)  ;  G.  C.  R.  Bos- 
man,  The  Industrialization  of 
S.  A.  (1939)  ;  Sir  G.  E.  Cory, 
The  Rise  of  S.  Africa  (5  vols. 
1930)  ;  E.  A.  Walker,  A  History 
of  South  Africa  (1935)  ;  J.  C. 
Smuts,  Africa  and  Some  World 
Problems  (1931);  R.  I.  Lovell, 
The  Struggle  for  S.  A.,  1875- 
1899  fl934)  ;  W.  M.  Macmillan, 
Africa  Emergent :  A  Survey  of 
Social,  Political  and  Economic 
Trends  in  British  Africa  (1938). 

See  Cape  Colony;  Natal; 
Orange  Free  State  ;  Trans- 
vaal. 

South    African    War,  or 

BoER  War  (1899-1902),  had  its 
origin  in  the  discontent  of  the 
Outlander  (foreign)  population 
in  the  South  African  Republic. 
These  were  mostly  British  sub- 


jects, who  complained  that  their 
share  of  political  rights  was  de- 
nied, while  they  owned  most  of 
the  property  and  had  to  bear  the 
major  part  of  the  taxation.  For 
five  years  an  agitation  had  been 
going  on  with  a  view  to  securing 
equal  rights  for  all  white  races 
in  the  Transvaal ;  but  the  Volks- 
raad,  guided  by  President  Kru- 
ger,  resisted  all  proposals  for 
reform.  Ultimately  the  British 
subjects  petitioned  the  imperial 
government  to  redress  their 
wrongs,  and  several  months  of 
tedious  negotiations  followed. 
Eventually  an  ultimatum  was 
presented  to  the  British  agent  at 
Pretoria,  insisting  that  all  the 
points  in  dispute  should  be  set- 
tled by  arbitration,  and  demand- 
ing that  all  reinforcements 
should  be  withdrawn  and  that 
British  troops  on  their  way  to 
South  Africa  should  be  recalled. 
The  Orange  Free  State,  despite 
a  guaranty  that  its  territory 
and  independence  would  be  re- 
spected in  the  event  of  war, 
cast  in  its  fortunes  with  the 
sister  republic,  and  the  British 
colonies  were  invaded  (Oct.  10, 
1899).  The  first  efforts  of 
the  Boers  were  directed  against 
the  British  garrison  in  Lady- 
smith,  Natal,  and  although  they 
were  defeated  at  Talana  Hill, 
Elandslaagte  and  Rietfontein, 
these  reverses  did  not  delay 
their  advance.  They  captured 
a  British  force  at  Nicolson's 
Nek  on  October  30,  and  three 
days  later  Ladysmith  was  in- 
vested. Meanwhile  thb  Boers 
had  been  active  on  the  western 
and  southern  borders  of  the  re- 
publics, and  had  laid  siege  to 
Kimberley  and  Mafeking.  The 
former  was  defended  by  a  garri- 
son of  about  4,000  civilians  and 
military  under  Colonel  Keke- 
wich,  and  the  latter  by  a  handful 
of  irregulars  under  Colonel 
Baden-Powell.  Both  held  out 
until  they  were  relieved — Kim- 
berley on  February  15,  1900,  and 
Mafeking  three  months  later,  on 
May  17.  The  history  of  the  war 
for  some  months  centers  in  the 
efforts  made  to  relieve  the  three 
beleagured  towns  and  to  thrust 
the  Boers  back  from  Natal  and 
Cape  Colony. 

After  the  arrival  of  British  re- 
inforcements in  November,  Gen- 
eral Buller  advanced  to  relieve 
Ladysmith,  Lord  Methuen  was 
sent  to  relieve  Kimberley,  and 
General  Gatacre  started  to  meet 
a  Boer  force  marching  south  by 
Colesberg,  Burghersdorp,  and 
Aliwal  North.  These  attempts 
met  with  disaster  and  defeat. 
Buller  attacked  the  Boers  at  Co- 
lenso  on  the  Tugela,  and  was  re- 
pulsed with  heavy  loss.  Lord 
Methuen,  although  successful  in 
actions  at  Belmont  and  Graspan, 
and  partially  so  at  Modder  Riv- 


316  South  African  War 

er,  met  with  a  severe  repulse  at 
Magersfontein  and  was  com- 
pelled to  abandon  his  attempt. 
General  Gatacre,  who  set  out  to 
surprise  a  force  of  Orange  Free 
State  burghers,  was  defeated  at 
Stormberg  in  Cape  Colony. 
These  nearly  simultaneous  fail- 
ures in  December  profoundly 
moved  British  public  opinion  and 
correspondingly  elated  the  Boers. 
Lord  Roberts  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  British 
forces,  with  Lord  Kitchener  as 
chief  of  his  staff.  A  noteworthy 
feature  of  the  situation  was  the 
offer  of  military  assistance  from 
Canada,  Australia,  and  New 
Zealand.  The  Boers  fiercely  at- 
tacked Ladysmith  on  January  6, 
1900,  but  failed.  General  Bul- 
ler's  assaults  on  the  Boer  posi- 
tions on  Spion  Kop  were  fruit- 
less. 

The  arrival  of  Lord  Roberts 
in  South  Africa  changed  the  as- 
pect of  affairs.  Up  to  this  point 
the  Boers  had  been  assailed  with 
frontal  attacks,  but  the  new  gen- 
eral outmanoeuvred  them  by  his 
swift  and  unexpected  flanking 
movements,  against  which  the 
Boers'  trenches  and  their  rifle- 
pits  were  useless.  He  and  Lord 
Kitchener  had  organized  the 
troops  with  special  reference  to 
rapid  marches.  Cavalry  and 
mounted  infantry  henceforth 
took  the  chief  place  in  the  cam- 
paign. The  transport  service 
was  made  adequate.  The  relief 
of  Kimberley  was  the  object  of 
Lord  Roberts'  first  effort,  and  it 
was  carried  out  with  admirable 
secrecy,  boldness  and  dash.  Con- 
centrating his  army  at  Ramdam, 
to  the  northeast  of  Belmont,  he 
made  a  feint  on  the  Boer  right, 
which  engaged  the  attention  of 
General  Cronje,  and  ordered  the 
brilliant  cavalry  leader,  General 
French,  with  5,000  mounted  men 
to  make  a  dash  for  Kimberley, 
which  was  entered  on  February 
15.  A  series  of  flanking  move- 
ments brought  Cronje  to  a  halt 
at  Paardeberg,  and  he  took  re- 
fuge in  the  bed  of  the  Modder 
River,  where  on  the  morning  of 
February  27,  the  anniversary  of 
the  British  defeat  on  Majuba 
Hill,  he  surrendered  with  4,000 
men.  In  the  meantime  General 
Buller  had  renewed  his  activity 
on  the  Tugela.  He  took  Colenso 
from  the  eastern  side,  turned  the 
Boer  position  on  Pieters  Hill, 
and  on  February  28  Ladysmith 
was  relieved. 

Lord  Roberts  meanwhile  set 
out  for  Bloemfontein,  which  sur- 
rendered to  him  on  March  13, 
Presidents  Kruger  and  Steyn 
making  their  escape  to  the  north, 
after  an  unavailing  appeal  to  the 
British  government  for  peace  on 
the  basis  of  a  recognition  of  the 
independence  of  the  two  repub- 
lics.    The  Boers  in  the  Coles- 


)AN  1  4  1942 

South  African  War  KFK  317  South  America 


burg  district  and  the  comman- 
does which  had  occupied  Storm- 
berg  and  Aliwal  North  retired  in 
time  to  escape  being  cut  off  by 
Lord  Roberts  in  the  rear,  and 
thus  the  railway  line  was  clear 
from  Bloemfontein  to  the  Cape. 
For  six  weeks  Lord  Roberts  re- 
mained at  the  Free  State  capital, 
making  his  lines  of  communica- 
tion secure,  and  bringing  up  by 
rail  horses,  mules,  and  stores. 
All  these  weeks  De  Wet  gave  the 
army  no  rest.  His  object  was  to 
delay  the  British  advance  on  the 
Vaai  River.  The  wily  Boer 
evaded  every  attempt  to  capture 
him.  By  an  ambush  at  Sanna's 
Post,  where  several  hundred 
British  troops  were  surrounded 
and  taken,  he  gained  possession 
of  the  Bloemfontein  water- 
works, cut  off  the  supply  and 
caused  thousands  of  deaths  from 
enteric  fever  in  the  army  around 
the  city.  On  May  3  Lord  Rob- 
erts' northern  advance  was  re- 
sumed. With  a  front  some- 
times forty  miles  in  length,  the 
British  army  set  out  upon  its 
march  of  300  miles  to  Pretoria, 
the  capital  of  the  Transvaal, 
sweeping  the  country  clear  of 
the  enemy  as  they  went,  and 
bearing  down  all  opposition  be- 
fore them.  Botha,  who  had  suc- 
ceeded to  the  post  of  Boer  com- 
mander-in-chief on  the  death  of 
Joubert  on  March  27,  had  reor- 
ganized his  army,  and  made  elab- 
orate preparations  for  resist- 
ance ;  but  time  and  time  again 
the  Boers  melted  away  from 
magnificent  positions  after  long- 
range  fighting.  From  Johannes- 
burg they  fled  precipitately  the 
moment  the  pressure  of  the  Brit- 
ish columns  made  itself  felt,  and 
on  May  30  the  town  surrendered. 
A  few  days  later,  on  June  5, 
Lord  Roberts  marched  into  Pre- 
toria, and  liberated  3,000  British 
prisoners. 

Meanwhile  General  Buller  had 
driven  the  enemy  north,  cleared 
Natal,  and  occupied  Laing's  Nek, 
and  by  means  of  the  railway 
opened  up  a  new  channel  of  sup- 
ply for  the  army  of  occupation, 
which  by  this  time  numbered 
close  upon  250,000  men.  Away 
in  the  west  the  little  garrison  at 
Mafeking  had  been  holding  out 
from  the  middle  of  October, 
their  rations  reduced  to  horse 
flesh  and  moldy  biscuits.  On 
May  12  a  supreme  effort  was 
made  by  the  besiegers  to  rush  the 
defenses  of  the  town.  But  Colo- 
nel Baden-Powell  surrounded 
and  cut  off  the  attacking  force 
when  it  got  inside  the  camp,  and 
captured  a  hundred  prisoners. 
The  relief  of  the  garrison  was 
ultimately  achieved  by  Colonel 
Mahon,  who  on  May  4  set  out 
from  Barkley  West  with  a 
mounted  column,  and  made  a 
dash  for   the   town,    which  he 


succeeded  in  relieving  on 
May  17. 

After  the  fall  of  Pretoria  the 
war  dragged  along  for  two  more 
years.  Even  while  Roberts  and 
his  army  were  in  and  around  the 
capital,  De  Wet  had  made  his 
way  back  again  into  the  Free 
State,  or  the  Orange  River  Col- 
ony, as  it  was  now  called,  and 
had  captured  500  Irish  yeomanry 
at  Lindley  and  a  militia  battal- 
ion at  Roodeval.  A  determined 
effort  to  crush  this  renewed  ac- 
tivity resulted  in  the  surrender 
of  Prinsloo,  one  of  the  Boer 
leaders,  with  4,000  men.  De 
Wet  and  Olivier  succeeded  in 
escaping,  but  the  latter  and  his 
two  sons  were  soon  afterward 
captured  at  Winberg.  De  Wet 
next  made  preparations  for  a 
dash  into  the  Transvaal,  while 
Lord  Kitchener,  taking  the  com- 
mand himself,  followed  upon  his 
heels.  But  on  Aug.  7  he  crossed 
the  Vaal  with  all  his  transport, 
and  moving  across  the  Magalies- 
berg  range  made  good  his  escape. 
In  September  he  returned  and 
attacked  Ladybrand,  but  was  re- 
pulsed. 

Quitting  Pretoria  about  the 
end  of  August,  Lord  Roberts 
made  his  final  advance,  and 
joined  hands  with  Buller  at  Bel- 
fast in  Natal.  Barberton  and 
Lydenburg  were  taken  ;  Koomati 
Poort  was  reached  without  fur- 
ther opposition  ;  and  a  remnant 
of  the  burghers  fled  across  the 
Portuguese  border  to  Delagoa 
Bay. 

In  December,  1900,  Lord  Rob- 
erts returned  to  England,  and 
the  chief  command  devolved 
upon  Lord  Kitchener.  De  Wet 
continued  as  active  as  ever.  His 
next  move  was  to  cross  the 
Orange  River  and  invade  Cape 
Colony,  but  in  this  project  he 
was  again  frustrated.  After  that 
he  projected  an  attack  upon  Cape 
Town  itself,  while  Botha  was 
to  march  upon  Durban  ;  but  this 
bold  scheme  was  likewise  de- 
feated, and  again  De  Wet  made 
his  escape  to  the  north,  leaving 
many  of  his  wagons  in  the  hands 
of  Colonel  Plumer,  who  pursued 
him  as  far  as  Fauresmith. 

The  vast  tracts  of  country 
over  which  they  manoeuvred,  and 
the  mobility  of  the  Boer  forces, 
enabled  them  to  appear  and  dis- 
appear, to  concentrate  and  dis- 
perse, with  a  suddenness  that 
was  almost  magical.  To  offset 
this.  Lord  Kitchener  established 
an  extensive  system  of  block- 
houses along  the  railway  line, 
each  one  garrisoned  and  in  com- 
munication with  its  neighbor  on 
either  side.  Armored  trains 
scouring  the  line  were  able  to 
bring  help  when  called  for.  On 
Feb.  27,  1901,  half  of  De  Wet's 
commando  was  captured,  and  as 
the  year  1901  advanced  and  the 


blockhouse  system  was  extended, 
the  Boer  forces  were  more  and 
more  confined.  In  the  Eastern 
Transvaal  there  were  several 
Boer  defeats,  and  General  Ben 
Viljoen  was  captured. 

A  sweeping  movement  was 
organized  by  Lord  Kitchener, 
which  had  for  its  object  the  final 
breaking  of  the  power  of  De 
Wet.  This  began  early  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1902,  and  so  thoroughly 
was  it  carried  out  that  the  Boer 
General  and  his  followers  were 
speedily  shut  into  the  trap,  and 
their  project  of  another  raid  into 
Cape  Colony  was  at  an  end.  The 
fortune  of  war,  however,  was 
not  all  on  the  side  of  the  Brit- 
ish even  now.  In  March  they 
lost  nearly  all  the  escort  of  a 
convoy  near  Klerksdorp,  and 
Lord  Methuen  was  wounded  and 
captured  by  the  Boers,  but 
speedily  released. 

A  peace  movement  was  origi- 
nated among  the  burghers  about 
the  end  of  March,  and  though 
the  war  still  continued  to  be  vig- 
orously prosecuted.  Lord  Kitch- 
ener granted  facilities  to  the 
various  commandoes  to  elect  and 
send  delegates  to  a  conference  at 
Vereeniging.  This  conference 
met  on  May  14,  and  accepted  the 
terms  of  surrender  submitted  to 
them  by  the  British  government. 
These  provided  that  the  Boers 
should  give  their  allegiance  to 
Great  Britain,  and  in  return 
should  be  granted  full  amnesty 
and  the  return  of  their  property. 

The  total  forces  engaged  dur- 
ing the  war  on  the  British  side 
were  nearly  450,000,  of  whom 
5,774  were  killed,  23,000  wound- 
ed, and  20,000  died  of  disease. 
The  Boers  lost  about  4,000 
killed  and  40,000  prisoners. 

Consult  L.  S.  Amery,  The 
Times  History  of  the  South 
African  War;  Cunliffe,  History 
of  the  Boer  War;  A.  C.  Doyle, 
Great  Boer  War ;  De  Wet,  Three 
Years'  War ;  J.  F.  Maurice,  His- 
tory of  the  War  in  South  Afri- 
ca; D.  Reitz,  Commando ;  a 
Boer  Journal  (1929). 

South  Amboy,  city,  Middle- 
sex county,  New  Jersey,  on  Rar- 
itan  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Raritan  River,  and  on  the  Cen- 
tral of  New  Jersey  and  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  Raritan  River  Rail- 
roads ;  26  miles  s.w.  of  New 
York  City ;  connecting  with 
Perth  Amboy  (and  metropolitan 
area)  by  New  York  and  Long 
Branch  Railroad  Bridge,  the 
Victory  Vehicular  Bridge  and 
the  Edison  Memorial  Bridge. 
The  city  is  an  important  coal- 
shipping  port.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  terra-cotta,  ci- 
gars and  uniforms.  Extensive 
beds  of  moulding  sand  and  clays 
are  fovmd  in  the  immediate  vicin- 
ity.   Pop.  (1940)  7,802. 

South  America,  the  south- 


South  America 


KFK 


318 


South  America 


ern  one  of  the  two  great  conti- 
nents of  the  Western  hemisphere, 
extends  from  about  eight  degrees 
north  of  the  equator  to  fifty-six 
degrees  south.  The  extreme 
length  is  about  4,500  miles,  and 
the  greatest  width,  3,000  miles, 
three  degrees  south  of  the  equa- 
tor. The  area  is  7,700,000 
square  miles,  of  which  the  great- 
er part  is  within  the  torrid  zone. 
Practically  all  the  continent  lies 
east  of  the  eightieth  meridian 
of  west  longitude,  which  just 
touches  the  east  coast  of  Florida. 

Topography, — South  Amer- 
ica is  essentially  an  Atlantic  and 
not  a  Pacific  continent.  Exten- 
sive highlands  exist  in  the  east, 
divided  by  the  broad  valley  of 
the  Amazon  into  the  Guiana 
highlands  in  the  north  and  the 
Brazilian  highlands  in  the  south. 
Communication  is  also  possible 
by  the  lowlands  of  the  Orinoco 
valley  in  the  north,  and  by  those 
of  the  Plate  basin  in  the  south. 
There  are  thus  three  great  gate- 
ways to  the  central  lowlands, 
which  are  completely  shut  off 
from  the  Pacific  by  the  Western 
Cordillera  area.  This  is  a  band 
of  one  or  more  young  folded 
mountain  chains,  with  plateaus 
between,  and  varies  in  width 
from  a  few  to  500  miles. 

The  Eastern  Highlands. — The 
Guiana  highlands  consist  of  Ar- 
chaean rocks,  covered  in  the 
western  or  Venezuelan  part  by 
horizontal  layers  of  sandstone, 
whose  highest  parts  are  Icutu 
(probably  11,000  feet)  and  Ro- 
raima  (8,600  feet).  In  the  east- 
ern part  the  highest  region  lies 
in  the  south,  and  descends  sharp- 
ly to  the  Amazon  basin ;  the 
longer  rivers  to  the  north  pass 
from  terrace  to  terrace  in  great 
waterfalls.  The  coast  is  flat  and 
sandy,  formed  by  ocean  currents. 

The  Brazilian  highlands  are 
very  largely  made  up  of  Meso- 
zoic  sandstone  fringed  with  Pa- 
laeozoic strata ;  and  Archaean 
masses  constitute  the  plateaus  of 
Matto  Grosso,  Goyaz,  and  that 
between  the  Sao  Francisco  valley 
and  the  sea.  The  Brazilian  pla- 
teau drains  for  the  most  part  to- 
ward the  interior  basin.  The 
highlands  are  abrupt  near  the 
coast  and  gradually  slope  to  the 
westward  and  north.  A  number 
of  mountain  ranges  occupy  this 
plateau  region  with  only  occa- 
sional elevations  of  5,000  feet. 
Itatiaya,  9,840  feet,  in  the  State 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  Itajuba, 
7,800  feet,  in  the  State  of  Sao 
Paulo,  are  among  the  highest 
peaks.  Granites,  schists,  and 
other  crystalline  rocks  prevail  as 
a  central  foundation,  and  these 
are  folded  and  cut  by  mineral 
veins  dating  back  to  Palaeozoic 
time.  The  coast  is  mainly  low, 
of  Tertiary  sediments,  and  be- 
tween the  Amazon  and  the  Para- 


hyba  it  is  bordered  by  a  sand- 
stone reef,  revealing  a  former 
extension  of  the  continent.  This 
is  followed  by  a  steep  coast  with 
numerous  inlets,  the  picturesque 
bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  being  the 
largest.  From  the  tropic  to  the 
Plate  the  coast  is  flat,  and  con- 
tains the  large  lagoons  Patos  and 
Mirim.  The  valley  line  of  the 
Sao  Francisco-Parana  divides  an 
eastern  band  from  the  rest  of  the 
highlands,  which  are  drained  to 
the  Amazon  in  the  north,  and  to 
the  Parana-Paraguay  in  the 
south,  the  Goyaz  (1,800  feet) 
and  Matto  Grosso  (1,600  feet) 
plateaus  forming  the  divide. 

The  Central  Basin  covers  two- 
thirds  of  South  America.  To 
the  south  of  the  Plate  estuary 
the  pampa  region  may  be  distin- 
guished. The  Orinoco  basin 
consists  of  a  series  of  upper 
terraces,  rocky  and  gravelly,  dry 
and  cut  up  by  the  rivers,  which 
here  flow  in  gorges,  and  the  flat 
lower  plains,  which  are  flooded 
during  the  rains,  but  are  arid 
in  the  dry  season.  The  rivers 
form  rapids  and  falls  where  they 
sink  from  one  terrace  to  an- 
other. Much  of  the  basin  is  yet 
to  be  explored  in  detail.  (See 
Orinoco.) 

The  Amazon  basin  also  con- 
sists of  a  succession  of  low  ter- 
races, with  a  fall-line  along  their 
margin.  Quaternary  deposits  lie 
on  either  side  of  the  main  river, 
fringed  by  Tertiary  rocks,  as  if 
a  great  gourd-shaped  hollow  had 
been  gradually  reclaimed  from 
the  sea.  The  upper  part  of  the 
Madeira  tributary  flows  through 
a  filled-up  lake — the  Mojos — 
whose  deposits  are  similar  to, 
and  continuous  with,  those  of 
the  Paraguay  basin.  According 
to  Colonel  Church,  the  plains  of 
the  Plate  basin  pampa  were 
comparatively  recently  the  site 
of  a  great  sea,  with  which  the 
Mojos  Lake  was  connected,  and 
from  which  it  has  been  separated 
by  the  gradual  elevation  of  the 
present  Amazon-Paraguay  di- 
vide through  the  accumulation  of 
waste  carried  down  from  the  An- 
des by  the  Rio  Grande  and  the 
Parapiti.  The  drying  up  of  this 
pampean  sea.  two-thirds  the  area 
of  the  Mediterranean,  has  affect- 
ed the  climate,  increasing  the 
aridity,  and  may  explain  the 
shrinkage  of  Lake  Titicaca. 
(See  Amazon.) 

The  Western  Cordillera  area, 
sometimes  collectively  known  as 
the  Andes,  extends  over,  one- 
sixth  of  the  earth's  circumfer- 
ence. In  the  north  it  curves  in  a 
great  arc  from  the  Caribbean 
Sea  to  Arica  (18°  s.),  and  is 
narrowest  in  the  center  opposite 
the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  but  it 
spreads  out  into  several  ranges, 
with  intermontane  plateaus  to- 
wards each  end.    At  Arica  the 


system  is  widest  (500  miles), 
and  includes  the  lofty  plateau  of 
Bolivia,  drained  to  Lakes  Titi- 
caca and  Aullagas.  These  pla- 
teaus are  of  enormous  size,  8,000 
to  11,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
with  almost  level  tracts  sepa- 
rated by  mountain  ranges  but 
not  very  extensively  cut  by 
gorges. 

The  system  narrows  to  the 
south,  and  only  one  main  range 
is  prominent  beyond  Aconcagua 
(23,080  feet),  the  highest  sum- 
mit. The  Southern  Andes  are 
heavily  glaciated,  and  alpine  gla- 
ciers exist  on  most  of  the  higher 
peaks  even  at  the  equator,  such 
as  Antisana,  19,260  feet,  and 
Cayambe,  19,534  feet,  in  Ecua- 
dor. The  snow  line  varies  from 
14,000  to  17,000  feet,  and,  as 
there  are  many  peaks  in  the  An- 
des from  20,000  to  23,000  feet  in 
elevation,  glaciers  of  this  type 
are  numerous.  Several  outliers 
rise  above  the  pampa — e.g.  sier- 
ras of  Cordoba,  Tandil,  and  Ven- 
tana — and  the  Patagonian  pla- 
teau. A  lower  coastal  chain, 
separated  by  a  longitudinal  val- 
ley from  the  main  chain,  can  be 
traced  from  Panama  to  6°  south, 
and  from  Arica  to  the  extreme 
south.    (See  Andes.) 

The  mountains  of  Northern 
Venezuela,  Trinidad,  and  prob- 
ably the  Sierra  de  Santa  Marta, 
seem  to  be  distinct  from  the 
Northern  Andes,  and  may  repre- 
sent the  end  of  the  Antillean 
chain.  Active  volcanoes  are  nu- 
merous, especially  south  of  Lake 
Titicaca  and  in  Ecuador.  Coto- 
paxi,  19,613  feet,  Tunguragua, 
16,690  feet,  and  Sangai,  17,464 
feet,  in  Ecuador  are  the  largest 
active  volcanoes  in  any  part  of 
the  world.  The  western  coast  is 
concordant,  with  few  breaks. 
The  most  important  transverse 
gulf  is  that  of  Guayaquil,  except 
south  of  42°  s.,  where  there  is  a 
well-developed  fiord  coast  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  glaciated  por- 
tions of  other  continents. 

The  only  islands  of  South 
America  of  any  importance  are 
the  small  ones  which  lie  parallel 
to  the  concordant  coasts  of  Ven- 
ezuela and  Trinidad ;  the  Falk- 
land Islands,  which  rise  above 
the  continental  platform  in  the 
extreme  south  ;  and  the  volcanic 
Galapagos  Islands  on  the  equa- 
tor, which  have  no  physical  con- 
nection with  South  America,  al- 
though usually  considered  with 
that  continent. 

Hydrography,  —  The  river 
system  of  South  America  has 
often  been  compared  with  that  of 
North  America.  The  Plata  riv- 
ers correspond  to  the  Missouri- 
Mississippi  ;  the  Amazon  to  the 
St.  Lawrence ;  the  Orinoco  to 
the  Saskatchewan-Nelson,  or, 
better,  to  the  Mackenzie ;  and 
the  Magdalena,  draining  the  Cor- 


South  America 


KFK 


319 


South  America 


dilleran  area  to  the  north,  to  the 
Yukon.  South  America  has  the 
advantage  of  being  surrounded 
by  seas  never  closed  by  ice,  so 
that  the  routes  to  the  interior 
can  be  reached  at  all  seasons. 
Several  rivers  to  the  east  of  and 
between  the  Cordillera  do  not 
reach  the  sea.  The  Bolivian  pla- 
teau is  the  most  important  of 
these  inland  drainage  areas. 
Few  and  short  are  the  rivers  to 
the  Pacific.  In  the  Patagonian 
Andes  the  west-flowing  rivers 
are  extending  their  valleys  to  the 
east,  owing  to  the  steeper  gradi- 
ents of  their  beds  and  the  great- 
er rainfall,  and  many  have  shift- 
ed their  divides  to  the  east  of 
the  main  chain.  Most  of  the 
valley  lakes,  which  are  a  well- 
marked  feature  of  the  hollow  be- 
tween the  main  range  and  the 
pre-Cordillera  to  the  east,  have 
their  outlet  to  the  Pacific.^ 

The  mighty  Amazon,  'an  in- 
land sea  rather  than  a  river,'  is 
the  largest  and  most  important 
of  South  American  streams,  and 
is  by  far  the  greatest  river  on 
the  globe.  As  it  flows  in  the 
equatorial  regions  of  almost  con- 
stant rains,  receiving  tributaries 
both  from  north  and  south,  its 
volume  is  pretty  constant,  for 
the  northern  tributaries  are  in 
flood  when  the  southern  ones  are 
low,  and  vice  versa.  It  drains 
one-third  of  the  continent.  It  is 
navigable  for  large  vessels  for 
3,000  miles,  and  after  passing 
the  first  obstructions  the  tribu- 
taries are  navigable  for  several 
hundred  miles  more.  Ocean 
steamships  go  as  far  as  Manaos, 
1,000  miles  from  the  mouth.  For 
the  most  part  the  banks  are  low, 
swampy,  and  heavily  forested. 
The  main  stream  is  extremely 
broad  and  consists  essentially  of 
many  interlacing  channels  on  a 
great  flood  plain.  Its  mouth  is 
a  great  estuary.    (See  Amazon.) 

The  Magdalena  (q.  v.),  1,000 
miles  long,  Orinoco  (q.  v.),  1,700 
miles  long  and  navigable  for 
1,000  miles,  Sao  Francisco  (q. 
v.),  the  only  large  river  wholly 
within  the  State  of  Brazil,  and 
the  Plate,  or  Rio  de  la  Plata  (q. 
v.),  2,300  miles  long  and  navi- 
gable for  1,700  miles,  are  the 
other  great  rivers.  All  are  of 
especial  importance  in  the  trans- 
portation facilities  they  afford 
for  the  interior  regions. 

The  united  basins  of  the  Colo- 
rado and  Negro  are  larger  than 
any  others,  except  those  of  the 
Amazon  and  Plate  rivers ;  but 
their  flow  is  more  irregular,  as 
they  lie  farther  south  in  regions 
of  less  regular  rainfall. 

The  Plate-Parana  is  used  by 
steamboats  for  800  miles,  the 
Uruguay  for  400  miles.  Al- 
though the  Orinoco,  the  Amazon, 
and  the  Plate-Parana  are  con- 
nected through  their  tributaries, 


this  fact  has  no  importance  at 
the  present  time  as  a  means  of 
transportation  either  of  passen- 
gers or  goods. 

There  is  a  marked  absence  of 
great  lakes.  A  few  lie  in  the  in- 
terior plateaus  of  the  Andes, 
such  as  Titicaca,  nearly  5,000 
square  miles  in  area  and  at  an 
elevation  of  12,645  feet.  In  the 
glaciated  belts  are  smaller  ones, 
and  those  of  the  river  basins  are 


subsequent  subsidence  in  late  ge- 
ologic time. 

The  rocks  of  the  eastern  high- 
lands have  weathered  into  later- 
ite.  The  lowlands  of  the  Ori- 
noco and  Amazon  are  covered 
with  alluvium,  those  south  of  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn  with  loess, 
and  the  Patagonian  plateau  with 
morainic  deposits.  The  loess 
lies  on  the  equatorial  side  of  the 
glacial  deposits,  as  in  Europe. 


CapeBartt 


0-     600  ft. 
600-  3.000  .. 
3,000-  6,000  ., 
.  ,      6.000-12.0U0  .. 

Above  12.000 


South  America — Contours. 


mostly  only  expansions  of  the 
rivers. 

Geology. — The  oldest  part  of 
the  continent  of  South  America 
are  the  eastern  highlands  of  Bra- 
zil and  Guiana.  The  pre-Cam- 
brian  and  Palaeozoic  formations 
of  those  regions  are  surrounded 
by  later  sediments.  The  Andes 
formed  at  a  much  later  time,  due 
to  folding,  faulting,  and  volcanic 
activity.  The  greatest  activity 
seems  to  have  been  in  Tertiary 
time  and  is  gradually  dying  out. 
The  great  interior  plains  regions 
consist  of  Mesozoic  and  Tertiary 
sediments.  The  whole  continent 
suffered  extensive  elevation  and 


In  the  western  valleys  of  the 
Andes  south  of  30°  s.,  where  the 
rainfall  is  over  10  inches  per  an- 
num, loam  is  the  characteristic 
soil.  Farther  north,  as  far  as 
the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  light  and 
often  moving  sands  cover  the 
land.  In  the  mountains,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  characteristic  ex- 
posed rock  and  talus  of  rock 
waste,  are  the  finer  volcanic 
soils  of  the  volcanic  regions,  and 
an  alluvial  plain  in  Bolivia  which 
represents  the  former  extent  of 
the  shrunken  Lake  Titicaca. 

Climate.  —  South  America 
has  much  the  most  equitable 
tempeneture   of   any  continent, 


South  America 


KFK 


319  A 


South  America 


for  the  greatest  difference  be- 
tween mean  monthly  tempera- 
tures is  only  about  30°  r.,  and 
is  recorded  west  of  the  lower 
Parana.  Three-quarters  of  the 
continent  lie  between  the  tropics, 
and  over  the  greater  part  of  this 
region  the  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture is  over  80°  f.,  and  the  range 
rarely  more  than  10°  f.  The 
west  coast  is  an  exception,  for, 
owing  to  cold  ocean  currents,  the 


The  former,  known  as  the  pam- 
pero, is  commonest  in  spring ; 
the  latter,  the  zonda,  in  summer. 

The  Andes  are  a  complete  cli- 
matic divide.  In  the  south  they 
prevent  storm-wind  rains  from 
reaching  the  lands  east  of  the 
mountains  except  off  the  coast. 
Farther  north  the  east  is  very 
wet,  while  the  west  coast  is  arid. 
The  Humboldt  current  off  the 
west   coast   of   Northern  Chile 


I'aul  s  Photos,  Chicago 


SKYSCRAPER  IN 
annual  isotherm  of  70°  f.  reaches 
north  to  10°  s.  In  the  extreme 
south  the  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture is  50°  F.,  with  a  very  small 
range. 

In  January  the  northeast  trade 
winds  are  drawn  across  the  equa- 
tor, and  carry  rain  to  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  Amazon  basin. 
Near  the  equator  a  double  rainy 
season  occurs ;  beyond  the  equa- 
torial zone  only  one,  and  that  in 
summer,  except  in  the  extreme 
southwest,  _  to  which  stormy 
westerly  winds  bring  rain,  espe- 
cially in  winter.  In  the  pampa, 
the  cold,  dry  southwest  wind  al- 
ternates with  oppressive  moist, 
warm    winds    from    the  north. 


SAO  PAOLO,  BRAZIL 

and  Peru  causes  precipitation  be- 
fore the  rain  clouds  reach  the 
coast.  This  causes  true  desert 
conditions  on  the  west  coast  in 
the  central  region.  The  Ata- 
cama  desert  in  Bolivia  is  espe- 
cially noteworthy.  The  climate 
on  the  mountain  plateaus  and 
summits  varies  with  the  altitude. 
Nothing  corresponding  to  win- 
ter is  experienced  at  Quito.  "  Se- 
vere cold  and  bleak  storms  are 
not  uncommon  on  the  plateaus 
of  the  Sierra  de  Merida  in  the 
north  and  on  the  Bolivian  puna. 
At  moderate  altitudes  a  most 
agreeable  and  equable  climate 
prevails  even  in  the  equatorial 
region. 


Rainfall  varies  greatly.  In 
the  Amazon  basin  the  range  is 
from  40  to  200  inches.  Eighty 
inches  falls  in  the  southern  sec- 
tions of  Chile,  while  in  a  narrow 
belt  lying  east  of  the  Andes  in 
the  south,  and  west  of  the  range 
farther  north,  there  is  less  than 
10  inches.  In  the  true  deserts 
the  character  of  erosion  indicates 
an  entire  absence  of  rain  ex- 
cept in  intervals  of  several  years. 

Flora. — Most  of  the  vegeta- 
tion of  South  America  is  tropi- 
cal in  character ;  but  a  temper- 
ate flora  is  found  in  the  southern 
parts  of  the  continent,  and  a 
high  mountain  (alpine)  one  in 
the  lofty  Andes.  South  America 
may  be  divided  into  eight  floral 
areas:  (1)  The  jungles  of  the 
inter-tropical  wet  regions,  more 
particularly  in  the  basin  of  the 
Amazon,  on  the  seaward  slopes 
of  the  Guiana  highlands,  in  the 
Northern  Andes,  and  on  the  east 
coast  as  far  south  as  30°  s,  (2) 
The  savannas  of  the  Orinoco, 
the  Brazilian  highlands,  and  the 
Plate  basin.  These  are  called 
llanos  on  the  Orinoco,  caatangas 
in  the  northern  and  campos  in 
the  southern  Brazilian  highlands. 
(3)  The  poor  steppes  of  Patago- 
nia. (4)  The  high  mountain 
floral  area  of  the  Andes.  (5) 
The  poor  steppes,  passing  into 
deserts,  of  the  puna  and  parama. 

(6)  The  desert  region  west  of 
the  Andes,  extending  to  30°  s. 

(7)  The  sub-tropical  evergreen 
forest  region  south  of  30°  s., 
passing  rapidly  into  (8),  the  de- 
ciduous temperate  forests  and 
the  coniferous  woods  of  the 
rainy  region  of  the  south. 

The  wet  jungles  of  South 
America  are  exceptionally  rich 
in  species.  The  trees  attain  an 
enormous  size,  while  lianas  and 
climbers  form  a  forest  in  them- 
selves. Epiphytes,  such  as  bro- 
melias,  cactuses,  orchids,  and 
ferns,  are  very  numerous,  and 
unbranched  perpendicular  air- 
roots  are  characteristic.  On  the 
rivers  the  great  Victoria  Regia 
lily  spreads  its  broad  leaves. 
Tree-palms  are  more  numerous 
than  in  other  tropical  forests. 
The  woods  of  the  Amazon  for- 
ests are  valuable  but  are  not  used 
commercially  as  the  cost  of 
transport  is  prohibitive. 

On  the  llanos,  in  the  rainy  sea- 
son, the  grasses  reach  a  height 
of  five  or  six  feet.  The  plain  is 
dotted  with  trees,  single  or  in 
groups,  among  which  fan-palms 
and  pillar-shaped  cactuses  are 
conspicuous.  Thicker  woods  in- 
dicate the  course  of  the  streams. 
The  caatanga  woods  of  the 
Northern  Brazilian  highlands 
are  not  very  high,  and  lose  their 
leaves  in  the  dry  winter.  On 
the  slightly  poorer  campos  of  the 
Southern  Brazilian  highlands 
palms  and  mimosa  are  common. 


South  America  KFK  319  B  South  America 


In  the  pinheiros,  farther  south, 
appear  evergreen  species,  such  as 
the  mate  and  the  ilex,  which  sup- 
ply Paraguay  tea.  The  Gran 
Chaco  is  a  great  park  land  cov- 
ered with  mimosa  scrub.  The 
characteristic  tree  is  the  wax 
palm.  The  pampa  is  a  savanna, 
wooded  only  along  the  water- 
courses. Towards  the  west  it 
passes  into  salt  steppes,  and 
towards  the  south  into  the  poor 
steppes  of  Patagonia,  the  latter 
remarkable  as  being  the  only 
ones  on  the  east  coast  of  any 
land. 

In  the  Cordilleras  in  the  north, 
where  the  rains  are  heavy,  the 
valleys  contain  wet  jungles, 
passing  at  about  5,000  feet  into 
the  ticrra  tcniplada  (temperate 
zones),  where  the  woods  are  still 
thick,  but  lose  their  tropical 
character.  Here  oaks  and  tree 
ferns  are  found,  while  cinchona 
and  gentian  flourish.  The  wax 
palm  grows  up  to  nearly  12,000 
feet.  Bamboos  make  their  ap- 
pearance, giving  place  to  grasses, 
moss,  and  lichens  in  succession. 
The  damp  eastern  slopes  farther 
south  have  very  similar  vegeta- 
tion ;  but  the  plateaus  of  Bolivia 
are  covered  with  dry  ichu  grass, 
and  with  composites  and  gen- 
tians, some  species  being  iden- 
tical with  those  found  in  Eu- 
rope. 

The  paramos  are  treeless 
steppes,  with  a  few  dwarf 
shrubs  ;  but  the  higher  and  drier 
punas  farther  south  are  poor 
steppes,  \\ith  scanty  patches  of 
ichu  grass.  The  dry  western 
slopes  of  the  Andes  of  Peru, 
from  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil  to 
Arica,  are  also  poor  steppes, 
with  here  and  there  a  tamarind 
or  mimosa  tree,  passing  in  the 
north  of  Chile  over  into  the  Ata- 
cama  Desert.  On  its  southern 
confines  the  steppe  becomes 
richer,  and  passes  into  the  ever- 
green woods  of  Central  Chile, 
shrubby  in  the  north,  but  finely 
wooded  in  the  more  rainy  south. 
Oleanders,  myrtles,  and  willows 
are  found  along  the  streams. 
South  of  40°  s.  extends  an  al- 
most impenetrable,  temperate 
forest.  In  Southern  Chile  coni- 
fers are  mixed  with  deciduous 
trees,  such  as  the  beech,  replaced 
by  peat  mosses,  with  shrubs  like 
the  cranberry,  and  species  allied 
to  the  northern  European  flora, 
at  higher  elevations  or  in  higher 
latitudes.  In  the  Chonos  archi- 
pelago and  on  the  adjacent  main- 
land potatoes  grow  wild. 

Fauna. — South  America  con- 
sists of  two  faunal  provinces : 
the  Brazilian,  comprising  the 
tropical  forests  and  savannas ; 
and  the  Chilean,  comprising  the 
mountains  and  southern  steppes. 
The  Brazilian  or  forest  region 
is  far  the  richer,  and  presents 
many  characteristic  types.  These 


include  'the  prehensile-tailed 
monkeys  and  the  marmosets,  the 
blood-sucking  bats,  the  coati- 
mondis,  the  peccaries,  the  llamas 
and  alpacas,  the  chinchillas,  the 
agoutis,  the  sloths,  the  armadil- 
los, and  the  ant-eaters.'  Bird-life 
is  richly  represented.  There  are 
'the  charming  sugar-birds,  the 
immense  and  wonderfully  varied 
group  of  tanagers,  the  exquisite 
little  manakins,  and  the  gor- 
geously-colored chatterers ;  the 


host  of  tree-creepers,  the  won- 
derful toucans,  the  puff-birds, 
jacamars,  todies,  and  motmots ; 
the  marvellous  assemblage  of 
four  hundred  distinct  kinds  of 
humming-birds,  the  gorgeous 
macaws,  the  curassows,  the 
trumpeters,  and  the  sun-bitterns. 
Here,  again,  there  is  no  other 
continent  or  region  that  can  pro- 
duce such  an  assemblage  of  re- 
markable and  perfectly  distinct 
groups  of  birds'  (Wallace's  Is- 
land Life). 

Many  of  these  forms,  notably 
the  marmosets,  monkeys,  sloths, 
tapirs,  and  peccaries,  are  absent 
in  the  Chilean  region.  Charac- 


teristic types  are  the  vicunas  of 
the  Andes,  the  guanacos  of  the 
Argentine  pampa  and  Patagonia, 
the  spectacled  bears  of  the  An- 
des, and  the  chinchillas  of  the 
same  elevated  region.  Llamas 
and  alpacas  have  been  domesti- 
cated, both  for  their  wool  and 
for  their  utility  as  pack  animals 
at  high  altitudes.  Armadillos 
are  very  numerous.  Great  vul- 
tures also  abound.  The  jaguar, 
locally  called  a  'tiger,'  and  the 


puma  ('lion')  are  the  chief  rep- 
resentatives of  the  great  cats. 

Economic  Survey,  —  The 
world  draws  upon  South  Amer- 
ica for  raw  materials — her  agri- 
cultural, pastoral,  forest,  and 
mineral  products — and  to  secure 
these  foreign  capital  has  here 
and  there  along  the  borders  of 
the  continent  built  the  necessary 
transportation  systems,  and 
brought  in  modern  machinery 
used  in  the  various  extractive  in- 
dustries. The  world  markets 
thus  opened  up  have  made  agri- 
cultural and  pastoral  industry 
profitable,  but  the  lack  of  labor 
and  capital  has  led  to  only  a 


South  America 


KFK 


319  C 


South  America 


small  production  in  proportion  to 
the  possibilities. 

Huge  estates,  often  of  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  acres,  ef- 
fectively prevent  the  settlement 
and  the  development  of  the  land 
in  a  manner  similar  to  that  which 
took  place  on  the  ever-shifting 
frontier  of  the  United  States. 
Great  cities  resting  upon  the 
wealth  produced  by  the  land 
and  through  which  the  products 
move  for  export  have  grown  up, 
and  all  the  organized  machinery 
of  commerce  and  finance  neces- 
sary for  the  production  and 
movement  of  these  articles  have 
been  developed.  Vast  fortunes 
have  been  accumulated,  and 
there  is  a  great  demand  for  the 
manufactured  products  of  the 
countries  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States. 

Intermingled  with  this  modern 
industrial  development  is  a  world 
in  which  every  stage  of  industri- 
al evolution  is  found — tribal, 
communal,  mediaeval,  home  in- 
dustry, handicraft.  Modern  com- 
mercial organization  has  done 
little  to  collect  the  products  of 
these  industries,  often  not  even 
affording  facilities  for  their 
movement  to  urban  centers.  At 
the  same  time  it  has  taken  away 
much  of  the  raw  material  which 
is  necessary  to  make  the  workers 
economically  self-sufficient,  so 
that  they,  too,  increase  the  de- 
mand for  products  of  foreign 
countries. 

Agricultural  and  Pastoral 
Industries, — The  Argentine  Re- 
public is  pre-eminently  the  agri- 
cultural State  of  South  America. 
Yet  only  about  one-fifth  of  the 
available  land  has  been  turned  to 
productive  purposes.  Droughts 
and  locusts,  the  lack  of  labor 
adequate  to  the  huge  estates,  and 
the  absence  of  capital  handicap 
production.  Wheat,  corn,  flax- 
seed, oats,  and  alfalfa  cover  four- 
fifths  of  the  total  area  cultivated. 
This  area  is  located  principally 
in  the  central  zone,  of  which 
Buenos  Aires  and  Rosario  are 
the  outlets.  There  are  vineyards 
around  Mendoza  in  the  west,  and 
sugar  is  produced  about  Tucu- 
man  in  the  north.  Other  crops, 
of  domestic  importance  only,  are 
potatoes,  beans,  rice,  and  other 
vegetables,  hemp,  jute,  rye,  cas- 
sava, and  a  variety  of  other 
plants. 

Extensive  cultivation  is  em- 
ployed, because  of  the  great 
amount  of  land  as  compared  with 
available  labor  and  machinery. 
Modern  agricultural  implements 
are  used  to  a  great  extent,  but 
primitive  methods  are  also  in 
evidence.  Wheat  threshing  be- 
gins in  December  and  is  over  by 
March  or  April,  and  by  June 
three-fourths  of  the  year's  ex- 
ports have  been  shipped. 

Second  in  importance  to  agri- 


culture in  Argentina  is  the  rais- 
ing of  live  stock,  principally  cat- 
tle and  sheep,  and  the  country  is 
justly  proud  of  the  blooded  stock 
which  has  been  developed  in  the 
past  forty  years.  Cattle  no 
longer  graze  over  unfenced  pam- 
pas, but  are  carefully  raised  on 
the  alfalfa  of  fine  estates.  Sheep 
raising  in  Patagonia  is  still  car- 
ried on  under  primitive  condi- 
tions. With  the  establishment  of 
packing  houses  the  export  of 
frozen  beef  and  mutton  has  be- 
come a  great  industry. 

Agricultural  production  in 
Paraguay  and  Bolivia  is  poten- 
tial rather  than  actual.  Para- 
guay, however,  is  of  growing 
importance  as  a  meat  producer. 
Uruguay  corresponds  in  princi- 
pal features  to  the  central  zone 
of  Argentina,  but  is  largely  de- 
voted to  cattle  and  sheep  raising. 

Brazil's  principal  crop  is  cof- 
fee, the  chief  center  of  produc- 
tion lying  in  Sao  Paulo.  This 
crop  furnishes  the  larger  part  of 
the  world's  supply,  and  is  the 
economic  foundation  of  the  cen- 
tral States  of  Brazil.  The  in- 
dustry is  highly  organized  and 
depends  for  its  labor  supply 
largely  upon  Italians.  The  plan- 
tations of  Sao  Paulo  are  on  the 
plateau,  having  an  elevation  of 
from  one  to  three  thousand  feet. 
The  harvest  begins  in  April  or 
May  and  lasts  until  August. 

The  campos  of  the  interior,  on 
the  western  slope  of  the  plateau 
of  South  Central  Brazil,  are 
adapted  for  grazing,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  southern  States  are 
becoming  important  centers  of 
meat  and  hide  production.  Rice 
is  produced  for  domestic  con- 
sumption along  the  coastal  plain 
of  central  Brazil ;  sugar,  cotton, 
and  tobacco  farther  north.  The 
Commercial  Museum  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  is  filled  with  hundreds  of 
Brazil's  wild  and  cultivated  plant 
products,  most  of  which  are  not 
produced  commercially,  though 
some  are  raised  in  quantities 
sufficient  for  home  consumption. 
Yerba  mate,  a  product  of  the 
forests  of  Parana,  finds  a  market 
not  only  in  Brazil,  but  also  in 
the  neighboring  countries. 

Rubber  is  the  second  great 
product  of  Brazil,  and  is  found 
in  the  Amazon  Valley.  There 
are  a  number  of  varieties,  but 
the  most  valuable  is  commercial- 
ly known  as  Para.  The  trees 
from  which  rubber  milk  is  ex- 
tracted grow  wild  in  the  upper 
region  of  the  Amazon.  Cotton 
growing  has  increased  Steadily 
through  the  encouragement  of 
the  government,  and  as  a  result 
spinning  and  weaving  are  im- 
portant industries. 

On  the  west  coast,  the  Central 
Valley  of  Chile  is  the  most  prom- 
ising region  for  the  production 
of  cereals  and  the  raising  of  cat- 


tle. This  valley  also  produces 
vegetables  and  fruits,  chiefly  for 
domestic  consumption.  Sheep 
are  raised  in  Tierra  del  Fuego 
and  on  the  neighboring  main- 
land. The  forests  of  South 
Central  Chile  are  important,  but 
the  meager  means  of  transporta- 
tion handicap  tlie  industry. 

Peru  exports  cotton  and 
sugar,  and  in  the  coast  valleys 
raises  rice  for  her  own  consump- 
tion, while  in  the  highlands  the 
native  Indians  cultivate  various 
crops  for  their  own  needs. 

The  distinctive  industry  of 
Ecuador  was  formerly  the  rais- 
ing of  cacao  beans,  from  which 
chocolate  is  manufactured.  At 
one  time  she  produced  one-half 
of  the  world's  supply.  Since 
1921,  however,  the  'witch  broom' 
disease  has  caused  production  to 
fall  by  two-thirds.  Colombia, 
Brazil,  and  Venezuela  also  pro- 
duce cacao.  For  home  consump- 
tion, Ecuador  grows  rice,  coffee, 
sugar,  and  tobacco.  Colombia 
raises  bananas,  coffee,  and  sugar 
and  the  land  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing many  other  articles  for 
export,  but  economic  conditions 
prevent  much  expansion.  The 
Amazon-drained  slope  of  the 
Andes  in  Peru,  Ecuador,  and 
Colombia  contains  highlands 
with  excellent  natural  conditions 
for  agriculture  and  pastoral  in- 
dustries, but  at  present  these  are 
undeveloped.  Up  the  Amazon 
and  its  tributaries  in  Venezuela 
lie  the  llanos — great  grassy 
plains  with  herds  of  cattle, 
horses,  and  mules.  In  the  north- 
ern valleys  near  the  Caribbean 
are  produced  cacao,  coffee,  sugar, 
and  many  kinds  of  fruits.  In 
the  Guianas  the  torrid  climate 
makes  labor  difficult.  Coffee, 
sea-island  cotton,  sugar,  cacao, 
and  tropical  fruits  are  the  chief 
products. 

Minerals  and  Mineral  In- 
dustries,— South  America,  fa- 
mous in  history  for  its  precious 
metals,  still  continues  to  supply 
silver  and  gold,  but  in  relatively 
less  significant  amounts  than  for- 
merly. Today  it  stands  out  pre- 
eminently as  the  source  of  sup- 
ply of  minerals  used  as  raw 
materials  in  industry.  Of  the 
non-metallic  minerals,  nitrates 
are  the  most  important.  Sodium 
nitrate,  or  Chile  saltpetre  (Na- 
NO3)  is  found  nowhere  in  the 
world  in  workable  quantities  ex- 
cept in  Chile.  It  is  the  source 
of  nitric  acid,  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  explosives,  and  also  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  fertiliz- 
ers. The  nitrate  beds  extend  for 
about  450  miles,  from  the  Cam- 
erones  River  on  the  north  to 
Caldero  in  the  south,  at  an  ele- 
vation of  4,000  to  5,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  from  14  to  20 
miles  from  the  coast.  As  the 
nitrate  is  found  in  strata  prac- 


South  America  KFK  319  D  South  America 


tically  on  the  surface,  no  elab- 
orate mining  apparatus  is  neces- 
sary. In  addition  to  sodium  ni- 
trate, the  beds  contain  common 
salt,  iodine,  potassium,  and  other 
salts.  Due  largely  to  the  pro- 
duction of  synthetic  nitrogen 
fertilizers  in  the  United  States 
and  Germany,  the  Chilean  share 
of  the  world's  nitrogen  output 
declined  after  the  World  War 
from  over  one-half  to  less  than 
one-quarter.  The  government 
reorganized  the  industry  in  1933. 

South  America  is  an  impor- 
tant source  for  other  minerals. 
Manganese,  an  essential  harden- 
er for  steel,  comes  primarily 
from  Brazil ;  monazite  sand, 
used  to  make  gas  mantles,  is 
found  on  the  Brazilian  coast ; 
the  tin  production  of  Bolivia  is 
second  only  to  that  of  the  Fed- 
erated Malay  States,  and  its 
antimony  production  is  second  to 
that  of  China.  Chile  is  the 
world's  second  largest  producer 
of  copper.  The  mineral  exports 
of  Chile,  Bolivia,  and  Peru  are 
the  foundation  of  their  national 
wealth. 

Coal  is  mined  in  Chile  at 
Coronel  and  Lota,  and  is  used 
for  bunkers.  There  are  other 
coal  supplies  located  in  South 
America  but  these  are  not  com- 
mercially profitable  under  pres- 
ent transportation  conditions. 
The  same  difficulties  prevent  the 
profitable  mining  of  the  great 
mineral  wealth  found  in  the  Cor- 
dillera, and  also  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Brazil.  High  grade  iron 
ore,  for  example,  is  present  in 
great  quantities.  Valuable  pe- 
troleum fields  have  been  devel- 
oped in  Peru,  Argentina,  Colom- 
bia, and  Venezuela.  Diamonds 
are  found  in  Brazil,  and  semi- 
precious stones  occur  in  various 
regions. 

Manufactures, — The  lack  of 
an  adequate  supply  of  coal  which 
can  be  commercially  mined,  and 
the  fact  that  labor  and  capital 
are  more  profitably  employed  in 
the  extractive  industries,  have 
proved  great  drawbacks  to  man- 
ufacturing in  South  America. 
The  industries  are  primarily 
those  of  a  home  and  shop  vari- 
ety— household  and  handicraft 
industries,  which  supply  simple 
wants  of  the  countries.  Shoe 
and  cotton  factories  of  modern 
character  and  with  modern 
equipment  have  been  established 
in  Brazil  and  Peru ;  and  shoe 
factories  in  Argentina  and  Chile 
as  well.  The  two  latter  coun- 
tries also  have  flour  mills.  Meat 
refrigerating  concerns  have  been 
established  on  a  large  scale  in 
Argentina,  Uruguay,  and  South- 
ern Brazil,  and  breweries  in 
Brazil,  Argentina,  Chile,  and 
Peru.  For  practically  all  the 
machinery  and  the  manufactured 
uroducts  of  iron  and  steel,  the 


foundations  of  a  manufacturing 
industry,  South  America  de- 
pends on  Europe  and  the  United 
States ;  as  well  as  for  most  of 
the  factory  products  used  by 
consumers. 

Railways, — The  railways  of 
the  Argentine  Republic  form  a 
network  in  the  developed  central 
zone  centering  at  Buenos  Aires 
and  Rosario.  Bahia  Blanca  is 
connected  with  this  central  sys- 
tem, and  also  has  lines  extending 
into  the  interior,  while  independ- 
ent lines  from  other  ports  pene- 
trate a  short  distance  inland. 
The  total  mileage  of  the  coun- 
try is  over  25,000.  The  trans- 
continental railway  running  west 
from  Buenos  Aires  connects  at 
the  Chilean  boundary  with  a  line 
having  connections  to  the  Pacific 
at  Valparaiso,  Chile ;  to  the 
north  there  is  connection  with 
the  Brazilian  lines  leading  to  Rio 
de  Janeiro  ;  and  to  the  northwest, 
with  only  a  short  gap,  the  Pa- 
cific may  be  reached  tlirough 
Bolivia.  The  transcontinental 
line  is  often  blocked  for  months 
by  snow  in  the  Andes,  while  the 
trip  to  Rio  by  rail  is  made  by 
travelers  very  infrequently,  as 
trains  are  few  and  slow  and  con- 
nections poor.  As  there  are  five 
different  gauges  used  in  Argen- 
tina, rolling  stock  and  equipment 
are  not  interchangeable,  and  the 
transfer  of  freight  is  necessary, 
militating  seriously  against  the 
consolidation  of  the  systems. 
The  railways  have  been  financed 
chiefly  by  British  capital.  Ma- 
terial for  railway  construction 
and  maintenance  is  free  from 
import  duties  and  an  extensive 
market  has  been  developed  for 
English  railway  materials. 

Brazil  has  a  railway  mileage 
of  more  than  20,000  and  there  is 
no  network  of  connecting  lines 
except  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Short 
lines  along  the  coast  bring  the 
products  of  the  interior  down  to 
the  ports,  and  at  several  points 
these  lines  are  connected.  The 
railways  from  Rio  penetrate  the 
mining  and  grazing  lands  of 
Matto  Grosso  and  Goyaz  to  the 
northwest;  another  system 
reaches  the  rich  agricultural  val- 
leys to  the  north,  while  lines  to 
the  southwest  connect  with  the 
coffee  lands  of  Sao  Paulo,  which 
is  connected  with  the  coast  at 
Santos  by  a  railway  far  famed 
as  an  engineering  feat  and  for 
its  scenic  beauty.  To  the  south- 
ward from  Sao  Paulo,  through 
the  agricultural  and  timber  lands 
of  Santa  Catharina  and  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul  are  the  railways 
which  connect  with  the  Uru- 
guayan system  which  leads  to 
Montevidio.  The  lines  are  gen- 
erally owned  by  Federal  or  State 
governments  and  leased  to  con- 
cessionaires. 

In  Chile  the  longitudinal  rail- 


way having  its  southern  ter- 
minus at  Puerto  Montt  passes  in 
succession  through  the  timber, 
pastoral,  and  agricultural  re- 
gions of  the  Central  Valley  to 
Santiago,  occasional  lines  con- 
necting it  with  the  coast. 
Through  Santiago  a  line  reaches 
the  coast  in  one  direction  and  the 
Argentine  boundary  in  the  other, 
and  from  Santiago  north  the  line 
penetrates  the  mineral  regions. 
From  Antofagasta  there  is  a 
railway  into  Bolivia.  The  north- 
ern terminus  of  the  longitudinal 
system  is  at  Iquiqui.  As  in  the 
south,  spurs  lead  down  to  the 
ports.  At  Arica  there  is  a  rail- 
way to  Bolivia. 

In  Peru  at  Mollendo  there  is 
also  a  line  into  Bolivia,  and  from 
Lima  into  the  mineral  regions  of 
the  high  Peruvian  plateau.  No 
other  extensive  railway  systems 
exist  in  South  America,  the  re- 
mainder consisting  only  of  short 
lines  from  the  ports  into  the  in- 
terior. 

The  river  systems  of  the  At- 
lantic side  of  the  continent  afford 
excellent  means  of  transporta- 
tion, but  on  the  western  side  the 
rivers  are  for  the  most  part 
short  and  swift.  Roads,  for  long 
maintained  in  poor  condition, 
have  been  considerably  improved 
with  the  extended  use  of  auto- 
mobiles. Transportation  by 
means  of  pack  animals  neverthe- 
le'ss  continues  to  be  the  only 
available  means  for  moving 
goods  in  many  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent. 

At  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos, 
Buenos  Aires,  and  Bahia  Blanca, 
the  larger  ocean-going  steamers 
can  lie  alongside  the  docks,  but 
at  most  of  the  other  ports  light- 
ers must  be  employed  to  unload 
cargoes.  Smaller  steamers  can 
discharge  at  various  ports  on  the 
east  coast.  On  the  west  coast 
few  ports  have  adequate  facili- 
ties, and  goods  consequently  re- 
ceive much  damage  in  handling. 
Scheduled  air  services  have 
greatly  improved  communica- 
tions. Pan-American  Airways 
links  all  important  centers  with 
the  United  States,  and  with 
lesser  regularity  contact  is  main- 
tained with  Europe  by  airplane 
and  dirigible. 

Commerce. — The  chief  arti- 
cles in  the  export  trade  of  South 
America  are  cereals  and  meats 
from  Argentina,  coffee  and  rub- 
ber from  Brazil,  nitrates  from 
Chile,  and  cocoa  from  Ecuador, 
together  with  petroleum  prod- 
ucts from  several  nations. 

Trade  with  the  United  States 
received  a  great  impetus  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  World  War,  reaching 
a  high  point  in  1920.  The  value 
of  both  imports  and  exports  then 
dropped  sharply,  but  rose  again 
up  to  the  year  1930,  when  the 
economic  depression  contributed 


South  America 


KFK 


320 


South  America 


to  another  diminution  of  trade 
with  the  United  States  which 
prevailed  during  the  ensuing  dec- 
ade. Another  factor  contribut- 
ing to  this  decline  was  a  growing 
sentiment  in  South  America  to 
make  purchases  from  those  buy- 
ing South  American  products. 
Europe  normally  furnishes  prod- 
ucts which  South  America  needs, 
and  the  United  States  cannot  ab- 
sorb all  South  America's  sur- 
pluses, being  a  producer  of 
many  of  the  same  items.  Since 
Latin  America  must  'export  or 
die,'  the  war  which  began  in  Eu- 
rope in  1939  imposed  new  strains 
on  South  American  economy. 
These  the  United  States  sought 
to  lighten  by  a  program  includ- 
ing loans  to  Latin-American 
States  and  stimulation  of  their 
trade  in  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. 

Peoples, — The  aborigines  who 
inhabited  South  America  in  1492 
were  in  different  stages  of  civili- 
zation. The  most  highly  devel- 
oped tribes  had  reached  the  up- 
per stages  of  barbarism,  while 
other  tribes  were  still  in  the 
stages  of  savagery.  In  the  high- 
est stage  were  the  Quichuas,  or 
the  so-called  Incas,  who  lived  on 
the  elevated  plateaus  south  of 
the  equator,  a  war-like  tribe 
which  had  conquered  its  neigh- 
bors, and,  at  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  conquest,  held  sway  oyer 
the  aborigines  upon  the  Pacific 
coast  of  South  America  from  the 
equator  to  the  river  Maule.  In 
their  capital  city,  Cuzco,  and 
about  Lake  Titicaca,  the  Incas 
left  many  imposing  ruins  of 
temples,  fortresses,  and  palaces. 
It  is  believed,  however,  that  they 
based  their  culture  in  large  part 
upon  an  earlier  and  possibly  more 
advanced  civilization — that  of 
the  Aymara  Indians.  Upon  the 
plateaus  near  the  Magdalena 
River  were  the  Chibcha  Indians 
(See  Chibchas),  who  had  an  in- 
fluential priestly  caste,  but  who, 
otherwise,  possessed  a  less  de- 
veloped civilization  than  the 
Incas.  South  of  the  extensive 
region  dominated  or  influenced 
by  the  Incas,  were  the  war-like, 
liberty-loving  Araucanians  (see 
Araucania).  North  of  the  Am- 
azon were  the  Araucs,  who  lived 
by  agriculture  and  fishing.  From 
the  same  region  there  had  spread 
to  the  West  Indies  the  Caribs 
(q.  v.),  a  fierce  tribe  of  cannibals 
who  were  engaged  in  fighting, 
hunting,  and  agriculture.  Near 
the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  were 
located  the  Tupi  Indians,  who 
had  apparently  migrated  from 
the  interior  of  the  continent, 
where  they  had  left  in  the  region 
later  known  as  Paraguay  a  re- 
lated  stock,   the   Guarani  (see 

GUARANI  ;  TUPI-GUARANI). 

The  above-named  tribes  are 
but  a  few  of  those  existing  or 


known  to  have  existed  in  South 
America  in  the  past.  Language 
classifications  include  the  Ara- 
wak  (of  the  Rio  Negro  and 
Orinoco  basins),  the  Ge  (on  the 
Brazilian  plateau),  the  Guay- 
kuru  (on  the  Paraguay  and  Pa- 
rana rivers),  the  Pano  (on  the 
Amazon,  Inambari  and  the  Ma- 
more  rivers),  the  Puinave  (in 
the  Inirada  basin)  and  the  Tu- 
kano  (on  the  watershed  of  the 
Amazon).  Linguistic  groups  of 
tribes  on  the  Pacific  seaboard,  in 
addition  to  the  Araucanians, 
Chibchas  and  Quichuas,  com- 
prise the  Aymara  (in  Bolivia 
and  Peru)  and  the  Choko  (in 
Ecuador).  Other  of  the  75  rec- 
ognized groups  of  languages 
have  marked  affinities  with  Sino- 
Tibetan,  Malayo-Polynesian  and 
Australasian  tongues. 

During  the  age  of  colonization 
there  came  to  South  America  the 
Spaniards  and  the  Portuguese, 
each,  in  reality,  a  mixed  'race.' 
The  Portuguese  planted  colonies 
in  the  eastern  section  of  the  con- 
tinent, which  they  called  Brazil 
after  the  dyewood  found  there ; 
while  the  Spaniards  settled  in 
other  parts  of  South  America. 
The  Spaniards  and  the  Portu- 
guese soon  began  to  intermarry 
with  the  aborigines,  while  an- 
other distinct  racial  element  was 
added  in  the  sixteenth  century 
when  Negro  slaves  were  brought 
from  Africa  to  the  Spanish  colo- 
nies in  the  West  Indies  and  to 
Brazil  to  replace  the  Indians  as 
laborers  upon  the  plantations. 
Negro  slavery  gradually  spread 
over  certain  sections  of  South 
America,  especially  in  the  east 
and  the  north.  After  the  wars 
for  independence  began,  Euro- 
peans from  other  States  thap 
Spain  emigrated  to  the  conti- 
nent, adding  still  another  ele- 
ment. 

In  parts  of  South  America — 
as  in  the  southeast — the  Euro- 
pean emigrants  and  their  de- 
scendants have  kept  relatively 
distinct  from  the  other  races,  but 
elsewhere  there  has  been  a  min- 
gling of  Indians,  whites,  and  Ne- 
groes which  has  produced  many 
varieties  of  man.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  mulattoe^, 
arising  from  the  mixture  of 
whites  and  Negroes,  the  mesti- 
zos, the  descendants  of  whites 
and  Indians,  and  the  sambos,  the 
descendants  of  Negroes  and  In- 
dians. In  some  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent the  intermixture  of  these 
varieties  has  produced  a  great 
number  of  ethnic  types.  In  gen- 
eral the  European  blood  has  been 
kept  purest  in  the  capital  cities. 

Throughout  a  large  part  of  the 
South  American  continent  the 
population  is  very  sparse.  For 
the  most  part  it  is  concentrated 
in  the  capitals  of  the  respective 
republics.    The  average  density 


is  probably  not  much  more  than 
ten  persons  per  square  mile. 
The  total  population  of  the  ten 
independent  republics  is  nearly 
91,000,000.  See  the  accompany- 
ing table. 

History  and  Government, 
— The  Spanish  government  en- 
trusted the  administration  of 
Spanish  America,  in  large  part, 
to  special  agents  of  the  monarch, 
who  were  designated  viceroys  or 
captains  general.  In  1778  there 
were  three  viceroys  in  South 
America :  one  who  resided  in 
Bogota  controlled  Northwestern 
South  America,  which  formed 
the  viceroyalty  of  New  Granada  ; 
another  in  Buenos  Aires  con- 
trolled Southeastern  South 
America,  which  was  the  vice- 
royalty  of  La  Plata ;  and  an- 
other in  Lima  controlled  a  large 
part  of  Western  South  America, 
the  viceroyalty  of  Peru.  At  this 
date  there  were  also  in  continen- 
tal South  America  two  captains 
general :  one  in  complete  control 
of  the  captaincy-general  of 
Chile,  and  the  other  in  charge  of 
the  captaincy-general  of  Vene- 
zuela. As  Portugal  was  under 
Spanish  domination  from  1580 
to  1640  the  Portuguese  system 
of  colonial  administration  be- 
came assimilated  to  that  of 
Spain.  After  1640  the  admini- 
strative divisions  of  Brazil  were 
ordinarily  governed  by  captains 
general. 

On  several  occasions  malad- 
ministration, as  well  as  economic 
and  political  conditions,  pro- 
voked dissatisfaction  with  the 
rule  of  Spain  in  America.  Yet 
it  was  not  until  Napoleon  inter- 
fered in  the  affairs  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  that  the  movements,  be- 
gan which  culminated  in  the 
establishment  of  independent 
states  in  Hispanic  America. 
Junot's  invasion  of  Portugal 
(q.  V.)  forced  the  Portuguese 
royal  family,  the  house  of  Bra- 
ganza,  in  November,  1807,  to 
sail  from  Lisbon  for  Rio  De 
Janeiro,  escorted  by  a  British 
squadron,  and  a  few  years  after 
his  arrival  the  Regent,  Prince 
John,  proclaimed  Brazil  as  a 
kingdom.  In  April,  1821,  King 
John  returned  to  Portugal,  leav- 
ing his  son  Pedro  as  regent ;  in 
September,  1822,  Pedro  pro- 
claimed Brazil's  independence  of 
Portugal,  and,  a  short  time  after- 
wards, was  crowned  emperor  of 
Brazil  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  About 
two  years  later  he  promulgated  a 
constitution  for  Brazil,  which 
declared  that  the  governmental 
power  was  vested  in  the  em- 
peror, a  legislature,  and  a  ju- 
diciary, and  with  the  aid  of  Lord 
Cochrane,  an  English  officer  who 
had  served  in  the  Chilean  war 
for  independence,  the  Portu- 
guese were  soon  driven  from  the 
coasts  of  Brazil.    The  independ- 


South  America 


KFK 


321 


South  America 


ence  of  the  Brazilian  empire  was 
acknowledged  by  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  in 
1824;  and  in  the  following  year 
England  and  Portugal  recog- 
nized that  empire.  It  was  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Pedro  i  that  a 
stream  of  German  emigration  set 
in  toward  Brazil  (1822-31). 
After  Pedro  ii  became  the  ruler, 
the  most  important  event  was  the 
abolition  of  Negro  slavery.  Dis- 
satisfaction with  that  reform, 
which  seriously  affected  large 
landed  proprietors,  was  partly 
responsible  for  the  overthrow  of 
the  imperial  government  in  1889 
by  a  bloodless  revolution.  After 
a  brief  interregnum,  a  constitu- 
ent congress  adopted  a  constitu- 
tion for  the  United  States  of 
Brazil. 

In  May,  1808,  Napoleon  in- 
duced the  ex-king,  Charles  iv 
of  Spain,  and  his  son,  Ferdinand 
VII,  to  transfer  to  him  their 
rights  to  the  Spanish  crown.  In 
June,  1808,  an  assembly  of  Span- 
ish notables — under  Napoleon's 
influence — elected  Joseph  Bona- 
parte as  king  of  Spain.  When 
these  measures  became  known, 
patriotic  Spaniards  formed  local 
juntas,  or  councils  of  govern- 
ment, that  assumed  governmen- 
tal authority  which  they  pro- 
fessed to  exercise  on  behalf  of 
Ferdinand  vii.  When  news  of 
the  startling  events  in  Spain 
reached  the  Spanish-American 
colonies,  a  tendency  to  imitate 
Spanish  example  soon  became 
manifest.  In  1810  the  Spanish 
colonial  officials  in  Caracas,  Bo- 
gota, Santiago  de  Chile,  and 
Buenos  Aires  were  deposed,  and 
their  authority  was  assumed  by 
juntas  which  professed  alle- 
giance to  Ferdinand  vii.  These 
movements  soon  developed  into 
the  wars  for  independence. 

The  first  formal  declaration  of 
independence  adopted  by  a  Span- 
ish-American nation  was  that  of 
Venezuela  on  July  5,  1811. 
After  the  patriot  soldiers  under 
Simon  de  Bolivar  (q.  v.)  had  de- 
feated the  royalists  decisively,  a 
State  known  as  Great  Colombia 
was  established  in  northern 
South  America.  At  Tucuman, 
on  July  9,  1816,  the  United  Prov- 
inces of  la  Plata — the  historical 
antecedent  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public— adopted  a  declaration  of 
independence,  and  two  years  lat- 
er (Feb.  12,  1818),  after  General 
San  Martin  had  made  a  heroic 
march  across  the  Andes  from 
Mendoza  and  had  defeated  the 
royalists  at  Chacabuco,  the  in- 
dependence of  Chile  was  pro- 
claimed. As  the  result  of  an  ex- 
pedition led  by  San  Martin 
against  Peru,  that  country  de- 
clared its  independence  at  Lima 
on  July  28.  1821,  and  a  short 
time  after  the  patriot  army  un- 
der   General    Antonio   Jose  de 


Sucre  had  defeated  the  royalists  1927  proved  generally  unaccept- 
at  the  battle  of  Avacucho,  Bo-  able  and  new  constitutions  were 
livian  independence  was  pro-  adopted  in  1930  and  1933.  Co- 
claimed.  After  the  death  of  lombia  has  managed  to  preserve 
Bolivar  in  September,  1830,  considerable  stability  under  the 
Great  Colombia  broke  into  three  constitution  of  1886,  but  with 
States,  Venezuela,  Colombia,  and  subsequent  amendments. 
Ecuador.  Guiana — as  at  present  In  Brazil  a  new  constitution, 
— was  held  by  Great  Britain,  the  strongly  nationalistic,  was  adopt- 
Netherlands  and  France.  ed  in  1934.    The  form  of  govern- 

Area 

Countries  of  South  America  sq.  m.  Population 

Argentina    1,079,965  13,130,000 

Bolivia    537,792  3,426,000 

Brazil    3,275,510  44,116,000 

Chile    286,396  5,001,000 

Colombia    448,794  8,702,000 

Ecuador    275,936  3,200,000 

Paraguay    174,854  1,000,000 

Peru    482,258  6,673,000 

Uruguay    72,153  2,093,000 

Venezuela    352,170  3,491,000 

Guiana,  British    89,480  338,000 

Surinam    54,291  173,000 

Guiana,  French    34,740  31,000 

Falkland  Islands    4,618  2,400 

In  1831  there  were  in  Sovith  ment  remained  substantially  the 

America  nine  Spanish-American  same  as  that  provided  for  by  the 

States:     Venezuela,     Colombia,  1891  constitution,  but  numerous 

Ecuador,   Peru,   Bolivia,   Chile,  provisions  were  directed  at  im- 

Paraguay,  Uruguay,  and  Argen-  provement  of  the  social  and  eco- 

tina.    The  history  of  these  inde-  nomic  conditions  of  the  masses, 

pendent   States  since   1831   has  Divorce    was    prohibited,  and 

been  marked  by  many  fluctua-  women  were  given  the  right  to 

tions  and  revolutions.     During  vote  and  to  hold  public  office, 

several  decades  some  of  them  In  1937,  however.  President  Ge- 

were  under  the  rule  of  dictators,  tulio    Vargas    openly  assumed 

as  Colonel  Manuel  de  Rosas  in  dictatorial  powers  and  promul- 

Argentina,  General  Jose  Antonio  gated  a  new  constitution  which 

Paez  in  Venezuela,  and  General  permitted  him  to  suspend  Parlia- 

Ramon  Castilla  in  Peru.  ment  and  to  govern  by  decree. 

The  constitutions  which  were  The  reorganized  government 
formed  in  South  America  during  featured  a  new  Council  of  Na- 
the  protracted  struggle  for  inde-  tional  Economy,  a  'corporative' 
pendence  from  Spain  were  often  body  modeled  along  the  lines  of 
modeled  on  the  constitution  of  the  fascist  corporations  integral 
the  United  States.  Those  consti-  to  Italy's  form  of  government, 
tutions  at  times  showed  the  influ-  The  Chilean  constitution  of 
ence  of  classical  ideals,  as  well  1833  was  abandoned  in  1925  in 
as  of  colonial  customs  and  favor  of  one  of  more  liberal  type. 
French  philosophy.  Since  1830,  Responsibility  continued  to  be 
however,  constitutional  develop-  centralized  in  the  president,  who 
ment  in  Spanish  America  has,  in  could  hold  office  for  only  one 
general,  been  away  from  the  term  of  six  years.  Separation 
North  American,  federal  ideal,  of  Church  and  State  was  also 
and  towards  the  so-called  uni-  provided  for. 
tary  system  :  namely,  a  system  in  In  Paraguay  a  constitution 
which  large  powers  are  vested  by  modeled  on  that  of  the  United 
the  constitution  in  the  national  States,  providing  for  a  republi- 
government.  France,  rather  can  form  of  government,  was 
than  the  United  States,  has  often  adopted  in  1870.  A  new  consti- 
been  the  government  model.  tution,  in  1940,  was  aimed  at  the 
Even  in  those  South  American  elimination  of  anti-social  abuses, 
nations  where  a  federal  system  Uruguay  also  adopted  a  new 
has  persisted  on  paper,  the  in-  constitution  in  1940,  providing 
evitable  tendency  has  been  to-  for  a  representative,  democratic, 
wards  centralization.  The  influ-  republican  form  of  government 
ence  of  fascism,  too,  has  been  and  embodying  considerable  ad- 
apparent,  notably  in  the  constitu-  vanced  social  legislation.  The 
tion  promulgated  in  Brazil  in  constitution  approved  in  Vene- 
1937.  zuela  in  1936  likewise  contained 

Argentina,  under  the  constitu-  notable  provisions  aimed  at  the 

tion  of  1853,  is  governed  on  a  improvement  of  the  conditions  of 

system  analogous  to  that  of  the  the  laboring  classes. 
United  States.    Peru's  constitu-         International  Relations.— 

tion  of  1860  was  replaced  by  an-  From  the  time  that  Simon  Boli- 

other  in  1920.    Amendments  in  var  convened  the  Congress  of 


South  America 


KFK 


322 


South  America 


Panama  in  1826  sporadic  efforts 
were  made  from  time  to  time  to 
ensure  a  measure  of  unity 
among  the  republics  of  South 
America.  These  attempts  bore 
but  little  fruit  for  many  years. 
Governments  frequently  were  in 
the  hands  of  despots  who  kept 
their  countries  engaged  in  ex- 
hausting wars  with  their  neigh- 
bors, and  a  chronic  state  of  an- 
archy in  the  continent  became 
proverbial. 

Frequent  controversies  have 
arisen  in  South  America,  as  in 
all  parts  of  Latin  America,  over 
the  determination  of  boundaries. 
Wars  have  resulted  in  several 
instances,  but  many  disputes 
were  settled  peaceably  with  the 
signature  of  treaties,  and  a  few 
as  the  result  of  arbitration. 
The  protracted  dispute  between 
Paraguay  and  Bolivia  (qq.  v.) 
over  the  Chaco  was  composed 
only  in  1938,  after  years  of  ne- 
gotiation and  armed  conflict.  A 
treaty  in  1929  ended  the  dispute 
between  Chile  and  Pervi  over 
Tacna-Arica.  The  controversy 
between  Peru  and  Colombia  pro- 
voked by  the  seizure  of  Leticia 
by  Peruvian  citizens  in  1932  was 
terminated  by  negotiation  in 
1934. 

During  the  World  War,  Bra- 
zil joined  the  Allies  in  declaring 
war  on  Germany,  on  Oct.  26, 
1917;  Bolivia,  Peru,  Uruguay, 
and  Ecuador  broke  off  relations 
with  Germany,  without  actually 
declaring  war  ;  while  Argentina, 
Chile,  Colombia,  Paraguay,  and 
Venezuela  remained  neutral. 
Bolivia,  Brazil,  Peru,  and  Uru- 
guay became  original  members 
of  the  League  of  Nations,  and 
shortly  afterwards  Argentina, 
Chile,  Colombia,  Paraguay,  and 
Venezuela  became  members ; 
Ecuador  joined  in  1934.  Brazil 
withdrew  from  the  League  in 
1928  because  she  was  not  given 
a  permanent  seat  on  the  League 
Council,  and  in  1937  Paraguay, 
offended  at  the  League's  action 
during  the  Chaco  war,  also  left. 
Peru  gave  the  customary  two- 
years'  notice  of  withdrawal  from 
the  League  in  1939,  and  in  1940 
both  Chile  and  Venezuela  auto- 
matically dropped  out  at  the  end 
of  similar  notice. 

The  Kellogg-Briand  Pact  was 
eventually  ratified  by  all  the 
South  American  governments, 
and  the  Argentine  Anti-War 
Pact  of  1933  marked  another 
step  in  the  same  direction. 
Meanwhile  there  were  many 
other  signs  of  a  desire  to  com- 
pose controversies  without  re- 
course to  hostilities,  and  to  in- 
crease co-operation  in  solving 
problems  confronting  all  the  re- 
publics of  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. Major  vehicles  for  con- 
sidering such  problems,  made 
more  acute  after  war  broke  out 


in  Europe  in  1939,  were  the  Pan- 
American  conferences.  (See 
Pan-America.) 

United  States  Policies, — 
As  the  strongest  and  wealthiest 
nation  in  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere, the  United  States  has 
been  a  formidable  factor  for  the 
Latin-American  nations  to  take 
into  account.  Often  the  'Colos- 
sus of  the  North'  has  pursued 
policies  which  awakened  wide- 
spread fear  and  hatred  in  the 
countries  to  her  south.  Since 
these  policies  had  effect  especial- 
ly in  respect  to  Mexico  and  the 
Central  American  republics, 
however,  the  South  American 
States  have  at  some  times  re- 
garded the  actions  involved  as 
rather  remote  from  their  own  in- 
terests, while  at  other  times  their 
publicists  have  played  them  up 
as  causes  for  alarm. 

Among  early  developments 
which  awakened  misgivings  in 
South  America  with  regard  to 
the  United  States  were  the  lat- 
ter's  annexation  of  Texas  and 
war  against  Mexico  (1846-48). 
As  a  result,  in  1847  a  congress  of 
delegates  from  five  South  Amer- 
ican countries  met  in  Peru  with 
the  aim  of  considering  confed- 
eration for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
serving territorial  integrity,  in- 
dependence, and  sovereignty,  but 
no  organization  was  achieved. 
In  1865,  in  view  of  Spain's  seiz- 
ure of  the  Chincha  Islands  and 
Napoleon  iii's  intervention  in 
Mexico,  another  congress,  with 
two  more  countries  represented, 
also  met  in  Peru.  There  were 
no  permanent  results,  however, 
either  from  this  conference  or 
from  others  held  later  in  the  cen- 
tury by  small  groups  of  Latin- 
American  States. 

In  counter-distinction  to  such 
phases  of  the  inter-Latin  Ameri- 
can movement  as  the  foregoing, 
the  Pan-American  movement  re- 
ceived effective  impetus  from  the 
United  States,  especially  in  the 
person  of  James  G.  Blaine,  who 
presided  over  the  opening  ses- 
sion of  the  first  Pan-American 
conference  in  1889  (see  Pan- 
America).  Much  of  the  good 
will  which  the  United  States  had 
won  at  this  meeting  was  lost, 
however,  as  a  result  of  the  Bal- 
timore incident,  in  1891,  involv- 
ing Chile  (q.  v.)  ;  there  was 
considerable  feeling  in  Latin 
America  that  the  United  States 
had  interfered  in  Chile's  domes- 
tic politics  and  had  exacted  an 
unjust  indemnity. 

On  the  other  hand  the  United 
States  played  a  more  welcome 
role,  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
Americas,  when,  calling  on  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  (q.  v.),  it 
forced  Great  Britain  to  back 
down  on  her  strong  stand  to- 
wards Venezuela  (q.  v.)  in  a 
boundary  dispute  in  1895. 


The  terms  of  the  peace  treaty 
ending  the  Spanish-American 
War,  nevertheless,  reawakened 
Latin-American  animosity  for 
the  United  States,  in  particular 
because  of  the  annexation  of 
Puerto  Rico  and  the  Philippines 
and  the  imposition  of  the  Piatt 
Amendment  on  Cuba.  More  se- 
riously opposed  was  the  'tak- 
ing' of  Panama  by  the  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt  administration  in 

1903  ;  and  completion  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  and  advanced 
U.  S.  military  outpost,  was 
viewed  with  some  trepidation. 

Meanwhile,  in  December, 
1901,  in  reference  to  the  contro- 
versy over  the  collection  of 
Venezuelan  debts,  Roosevelt  had 
declared  that  the  coercion  of  a 
State  was  not  contrary  to  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  if  the  'acquisi- 
tion of  territory  by  a  non-Ameri- 
can power'  were  not  involved  in 
the  punishment.  Luis  M.  Drago, 
Argentine  secretary  of  foreign 
relations,  responded  a  year  later 
with  the  Drago  Doctrine,  hold- 
ing, namely,  that  public  debts  of 
Latin-American  States  could  not 
properly  be  collected  by  force. 
Roosevelt  himself  realized  the 
unpleasant  possibilities,  so  far 
as  the  United  States  was  con- 
cerned, if  European  powers  un- 
dertook the  forcible  collection  of 
debts    in    Latin    America.  In 

1904  he  stated  that  in  order  to 
prevent  such  action  the  United 
States,  in  a  case  of  'chronic 
wrong-doing,  or  an  impotence 
which  results  in  a  general  loosen- 
ing of  the  ties  of  civilized  soci- 
ety,' might  be  forced  'to  the  exer- 
cise of  an  international  police 
power.'  On  this  view,  known  as 
the  'Roosevelt  corollary  of  the 
Monroe  Doctrine,'  were  based  a 
series  of  interventions  by  the 
United  States  which  provoked 
strong  resentment  in  Latin 
America.  These  included  inter- 
vention in  the  Dominican  Re- 
public and  assvimption  of  con- 
trol of  its  customs  houses,  in 
order  to  adjust  its  obligations 
with  foreign  creditors,  in  1904  ; 
the  occupation  of  Nicaragua  in 
1909,  of  Haiti  in  1915,  of  the 
Dominican  Republic  again  in 
1916,  and  of  Nicaragua  again  in 
1926,  little  more  than  a  year 
after  the  first  intervention  had 
ended. 

These  manifestations  of  what 
was  variously  termed  'Yankee 
imperialism,'  'Big  Stick  policy,' 
and  'Manifest  Destiny,'  were  ac- 
companied by  a  financial  and 
economic  infiltration  of  the  oc- 
cupied countries  by  United 
States  interests,  which  in  turn 
led  to  what  was  termed  'dollar 
diplomacy.'  While  the  Carib- 
bean States  were  first  affected 
by  this  form  of  economic  expan- 
sion, the  nations  of  South  Amer- 
ica began  to  feel  anxious  as  they 


JAN  1  4  1942 


South  America  KFK  323  Southampton 


observed  United  States  invest- 
ments increasing,  especially  dur- 
ing the  first  World  War,  in  oil 
properties  in  Venezuela  and  Co- 
lombia, in  Chilean  and  Peruvian 
mines,  and  in  branch  factories  in 
Argentina  and  Brazil. 

The  United  States,  not  un- 
mindful of  this  antagonism,  tried 
to  overcome  it.  Secretary  of 
State  Elihu  Root  in  1906  attend- 
ed the  Pan-American  conference 
held  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  and 
sought  to  assure  Latin  America 
that  the  United  States  had  no 
interest  in  territorial  expansion. 
Secretary  of  State  Knox  visited 
Central  America  in  1912.  Presi- 
dent Wilson  took  several  steps 
to  increase  good  will,  and  pro- 
gressive improvement  in  this  di- 
rection was  made  under  Coolidge 
and  Hoover.  The  most  notable 
advance  in  cordiality,  however, 
was  effected  by  the  'good  neigh- 
bor' policy  of  Franklin  D.  Roose- 
velt. Along  with  this,  moreover, 
were  such  moves  as  the  abroga- 
tion of  the  Piatt  Amendment  and 
the  withdrawal  of  U.  S.  marines 
from  Haiti  in  1934,  and  the  sig- 
nature of  a  treaty  in  1936  under 
which  the  United  States  re- 
nounced its  guarantee  of  the  in- 
dependence of  Panama. 

The  increased  friendliness  of 
Latin  America  towards  the 
United  States,  particularly  essen- 
tial to  hemisphere  defense  after 
the  outbreak  of  war  in  Europe 
in  1939,  was  apparent  at  tlie 
Pan-American  conferences  and 
meetings  of  foreign  ministers. 
Most  significant  was  the  conti- 
nentalization  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine,  and  provisions  for 
joint  action  in  the  event  of  ag- 
gression from  abroad.  (See 
Pan-America.)  Of  course  a 
major  share  of  responsibility  for 
continental  defense  rested  with 
the  United  States,  which,  on  the 
one  hand,  embarked  on  a  gigan- 
tic program  of  defense  prepara- 
tion and,  on  the  other  hand, 
adopted  a  program  of  economic 
aid,  through  the  Export-Import 
Bank,  to  lessen  the  strains  on 
South  American  countries  as  the 
result  of  the  disruption  of  their 
normal  trade. 

It  was  expected  that  if  Nazi 
Germany  won  its  war  in  Europe 
it  would  increase  its  efforts,  al- 
ready begun,  to  control  the  trade 
of  South  America  with  Europe, 
probably  under  a  barter  system. 
An  attempted  Nazi  economic 
hegemony  over  parts  of  South 
America,  doubtless  linked  with 
political  domination,  was  conse- 
quently feared.  There  were 
about  1,400,000  Germans  in  the 
continent,  some  900,000  of  them 
in  Brazil,  236,000  in  Argentina, 
200,000  in  Chile,  and  nearly  10,- 
000  in  LIruguay,  and  much  larg- 
er numbers  of  Italians,  who, 
nevertheless,  were  better  assimi- 


lated. A  certain  amount  of  pro- 
Axis  sympathy  was  apparent  in 
several  South  American  nations 
and,  during  the  course  of  the 
European  war,  there  were  fre- 
quent fears  and  rumors  of  im- 
pending fascist  uprisings,  abet- 
ted by  Nazi  agents  and  propa- 
ganda. In  Uruguay  the  govern- 
ment unearthed  an  alleged  Nazi 
plot  to  seize  the  country  and  con- 
vert it  into  a  German  agricul- 
tural colony.  Similarly,  in  July, 
1941,  the  Bolivian  government 
declared  that  it  had  quashed  a 
plot  to  set  up  a  Nazi  regime  in 
La  Paz,  and  ordered  the  Ger- 
man minister  to  Bolivia  to  leave 
the  country — action  which  was 
applauded  in  Washington.  In 
the  same  month  a  boundary  dis- 
pute between  Peru  and  Ecuador 
resulted  in  clashes  between  fron- 
tier forces.  U.  S.  Acting  Secre- 
tary of  State  Sumner  Welles  in- 
dicated his  belief  that  the  hostil- 
ities had  been  fomented  by  Nazi 
agents,  a  view  apparently  sub- 
stantiated by  a  secret  code  mes- 
sage which  Argentine  authorities 
were  reported  to  have  intercept- 
ed. On  July  17,  1941,  President 
Roosevelt  blacklisted  1,800  indi- 
vidvials  and  firms  in  Latin  Amer- 
ica 'deemed  to  be  acting  for  the 
benefit  of  Germany  and  Italy,' 
and  measures  were  promptly 
taken  to  bar  them  from  trade 
with  United  States  importers 
and  exporters.  It  was  apparent 
that  the  United  States  was  seek- 
ing both  to  lessen  Latin  Ameri- 
ca's dependence  on  Europe  and 
to  weaken,  by  competition  and  di- 
plomacy, Germany's  influence  on 
Latin-American  business  and 
politics. 

For  further  details  see  Pan- 
America  and  the  separate  arti- 
cles on  the  South  American 
countries. 

Bibliography. — B.  Mitre, 
The  Emancipation  of  South 
America ;  E.  G.  Bourne,  Spain 
in  America  (1904)  ;  B.  Moses, 
South  America  on  the  Eve  of 
Emancipation  (1908);  G.  E. 
Church,  Aborigines  of  South 
America  (1912)  ;  T.  A.  Joyce, 
South  American  Archccology 
(1912);  A.  Coester,_r/ie  Liter- 
ary History  of  Spanish  America 
(1916);  W.  S.  Robertson,  His- 
panic-American Relations  zvith 
the  United  States  (1923)  ;  R.  H. 
Whitbeck,  Economic  Geography 
of  South  America  (1926)  ;  C.  E. 
Akers,  History  of  South  Amer- 
ica, 1854-1930  (1930);  P.  A. 
Means,  Ancient  Civilisations  of 
the  Andes  (1931)  ;  J.  F.  Rippy, 
Latin  America  in  World  Politics 
(1931)  and  Historical  Evolution 
of  Hispanic  America  (1932)  ; 
C.  E.  Chapman,  Colonial  His- 
panic America  (1933)  ;  R.  B. 
Merriman,  Rise  of  the  Spanish 
Empire  in  the  Old  World  and  in 
the   New    (4   vols.,    1918-34)  ; 


S.  G.  Inman,  Latin  America 
(1937);  M.  W.  Williams,  The 
People  and  Politics  of  Latin 
America  (1938);  C.  Beals,  The 
Coming  Struggle  for  Latin 
America  (1938);  A.  C.  Wilgus 
and  R.  d'Ega,  Outline-History  of 
Latin  America  (1939)  ;  South 
American  Handbook  (1940)  ; 
D.  Aikman,  The  Ail-American 
Front  (1940);  H.  Herring, 
Good  Neighbors  (1941). 

Southampton,  city  and  sea- 
port, Hampshire,  England,  on  a 
peninsula  between  the  Itchen 
and  the  Test,  at  the  head  of 
Southampton  Water ;  80  miles 
southwest  of  London.  Consid- 
erable remains  exist  of  the  old 
town  walls,  erected  by  Richard 
II,  with  portions  of  towers  and 
three  gateways.  ,  One,  Bargate, 
a  massive  structure  in  two 
stages,  has  a  large  chamber  used 
as  the  Guildhall,  and  contains 
ancient  paintings  of  the  local 
legendary  hero.  Sir  Bevis  of 
Hampton,  and  of  the  giant  Ascu- 
part.  There  are  several  ancient 
domestic  buildings,  including 
King  John's  Palace  (twelfth  cen- 
tury). Public  buildings  include 
the  municipal  offices.  Custom 
House,  Post  Office.  Public  Li- 
brary, and  Art  Gallery,  Watts 
Memorial  Hall,  Hartley  Univer- 
sity College,  free  grammar 
school,  and  Ordnance  Survey  of- 
fices. St.  Mary's  (rebuilt  1884) 
represents  the  mother  church, 
but  the  oldest  existing  churches 
are  St.  Michael's  (in  part  Nor- 
man), Holy  Rood  (ancient  tower 
and  spire),  and  the  chapel  of 
God's  House  (twelfth  century), 
now  used  for  French  Protestant 
service.  The  Royal  Southamp- 
ton Yacht  Club  and  the  Royal 
Southern  Yacht  Club  have  their 
headquarters  here.  The  Royal 
Victoria  Pier  forms  a  favorite 
promenade.  In  the  center  of  the 
town  are  parks  and  recreation 
grounds. 

North  of  the  town,  and  con- 
nected with  it  by  a  magnificent 
avenue  (1  mile),  is  Southampton 
Common  (nearly  400  acres). 
The  Southampton  Docks  (prop- 
erty of  the  London  and  South- 
western Railway)  are  very  ex- 
tensive (300  acres),  including 
Outer,  Inner,  and  Empress  (18^ 
acres)  docks,  with  extensions, 
coal  barge  docks,  and  several  dry 
docks.  A  channel,  with  a  mini- 
mum depth  of  30  ft.,  connects 
with  the  sea.  Southampton  is 
the  chief  British  military  trans- 
port port,  and  the  regular  port 
of  call  for  several  important 
mail  steamship  lines.  The  King 
George  v  Graving  Dock  was  the 
largest  of  its  type  in  the  world 
when  completed  in  1933.  With 
a  length  of  1,200  ft.,  width  of 
135  ft.,  and  depth  of  59  ft., 
and  holding  260.000  tons  of 
water,  it  anticipated  the  needs  of 


Southard 


KFK 


324 


South  Berwick 


a  vessel  of  100,000  tons.  South- 
ampton has  yacht  building  and 
marine  engineering  works. 

Historical, — The  Romans  had 
a  station,  Clausentum,  on  the  site 
now  occupied  by  Bitterne,  about 
one  mile  to  the  northeast  of 
Southampton,  and  this  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Saxon  Hamtune, 
or  Suth-Hamtun.  Henry  v  em- 
barked here  on  the  French  ex- 
pedition (1415),  and  before  his 
departure  the  conspiracy  was 
discovered  for  which  the  Earl  of 
Cambridge,  Lord  Scrope,  and 
Sir  Thomas  Grey  were  executed. 
During  the  middle  ages  the  port 
had  great  trade  with  Venice  ;  its 
modern  prosperity  dates  from 
the  opening  of  the  new  docks 
(1842).  The  city  was  severely 
damaged  by  Nazi  air  bombing  in 
1940-41.  Pop.  (1937,  est.)  178,- 
700. 

Southard,  suth'erd,  Samuel 
Lewis  (1787-1842),  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  Basking 
Ridge,  N.  J.  He  was  an  associ- 
ate justice  of  the  supreme  court 
of  New  Jersey,  and  a  U.  S.  sen- 
ator from  that  State  1821-23. 
He  resigned  to  become  secretary 
of  the  navy  (1823-29),  then  was 
governor  of  New  Jersey. 

South  Australia,  one  of  the 
States  of  the  Australian  Com- 
monwealth, in  the  center  of  the 
southern  portion  of  the  conti- 
nent. The  area  of  380,000 
square  miles  all  lies  within  the 
temperate  zone.  Northern  Ter- 
ritory, formerly  a  portion  of 
South  Australia  politically,  was 
transferred  to  the  Common- 
wealth government  in  1911. 

Topography  and  Climate* 
— The  chief  features  of  South 
Australia  proper  are  the  two 
mountain  chains  which  follow 
generally  the  direction  of  the 
two  gulfs,  St.  Vincent  and  Spen- 
cer's. The  Adelaide  chain,  on 
the  east,  extends  over  350  miles 
and  reaches  a  height  of  from 
2,000  to  3,000  ft.,  the  highest 
peaks  being  Mount  Cone,  2,601 
ft.,  and  Razorback,  2,834  ft.  In 
places  there  are  evidences  of  gla- 
cial action  and  the  eastern  slopes 
of  the  range  descend  in  fertile 
plains  to  the  Murray  River. 
The  Flinders  Range,  farther 
west,  extends  from  near  St.  Vin- 
cent Gulf  to  Lake  Torrens.  The 
highest  peaks  are  Mount  Re- 
markable and  Mount  Brown 
(about  3,000  ft.).  Vast  treeless 
plains,  in  places  absolutely  bar- 
ren or  scantily  covered  with 
scrub,  stretch  north  and  west  of 
Lake  Torrens.  The  south  coast 
is  rugged  and  uneven,  indented 
by  many  bays  and  the  two  deep 
gulfs,  St.  Vincent  and  Spencer's. 
Among  these  bays  are  Encoun- 
ter, Lacepede,  Anxious,  and 
Fowler's.  There  are  stretches 
of  sand  dunes  and  low  shores, 
and  reefs  make  navigation  diffi- 


cult and  dangerous.  Inland 
there  are  chains  of  salt  lakes, 
marshes,  and  salt  swamps,  large 
caves  and  several  extensive 
lakes,  such  as  Eyre,  Torrens,  and 
Gairdner.  The  Murray,  the 
longest  river  in  Australia,  flows 
through  South  Australia  for  320 
miles  to  its  mouth,  and  is  usually 
navigable  throughout  the  year. 

The  climate,  although  occa- 
sionally trying  in  midsummer,  is 
one  of  the  most  healthful  in  the 
world.  The  coldest  months  are 
June,  July,  and  August ;  the  hot- 
test, December,  January,  and 
February.  In  summer  the  ther- 
mometer often  registers  over 
105°  in  the  shade,  but  the  nights 
are  always  cool.  The  average 
rainfall  in  the  south  is  49  inches 
and  in  the  far  north,  about  10. 

The  largest  portion  of  South 
Australia  is  covered  by  Tertiary 
and  post-Tertiary  deposits.  In 
many  parts  of  the  State  the  re- 
mains of  gigantic  marsupials, 
such  as  Diprotodon,  Macropus, 
and  Titan  have  been  found. 

Minerals. — In  1838,  the  first 
mine,  containing  silver-lead,  was 
discovered  in  Mount  Lofty 
ranges  near  Adelaide.  Copper, 
once  the  most  important  mineral 
in  the  State,  has  almost  ceased  to 
be  worked.  Iron  ore  deposits  are 
exploited  northwest  of  Spencer 
Gulf  and  near  Whyalla.  Gold, 
marble,  sandstone,  salt,  gypsum, 
slate,  radium,  diamonds,  opals, 
and  other  minerals  have  been 
discovered,  and  coal  is  extensive- 
ly worked  at  Leigh's  Creek. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading 
occupation,  the  principal  field 
crops  being  wheat,  hay,  barley, 
oats,  potatoes,  and  maize.  Dairy 
farming  and  bee  keeping  are  car- 
ried on.  The  soil  and  climate  are 
suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine,  and  the  export  trade  in 
wine  is  large.  Apples,  apricots, 
pears,  peaches,  oranges,  almonds, 
olives,  lemons,  grapes,  and  many 
other  fruits  are  raised,  as  well  as 
all  the  common  garden  vege- 
tables. Fish  occur  in  abundance 
along  the  coasts. 

Manufacturing  is  confined 
chiefly  to  local  needs.  Agricul- 
tural implements,  harness,  sad- 
dlery, boots  and  shoes,  clothing 
and  furniture  are  the  chief  arti- 
cles produced.  There  are  also 
flour  mills,  saw  mills,  printing 
establishments,  shipbuilding 
works,  copper  smelting  works, 
tanneries,  cheese  and  butter  fac- 
tories and  wine-making  estab- 
lishments. 

Cities, — Adelaide  is  the  capi- 
tal and  principal  port.  Other 
ports  include  Port  Pirie,  Walla- 
roo and  Port  Lincoln,  the  last- 
named  also  a  naval  station. 
Peterborough  and  Kadina  are 
chief  of  the  few  small  inland 
towns.  Adelaide  ranks  fourth 
among  the  ports  of  Australia  in 


tonnage  and  conducts  six  times 
the  trade  of  any  other  South 
Australian  port. 

Transportation, — All  the 

railroads  are  State-owned,  in- 
cluding the  Transcontinental 
from  Port  Augusta  to  Kalgoorlie 
in  Western  Australia.  From 
Adelaide  lines  radiate  north- 
wards and  eastwards.  Road 
motor  services  extend  to  many 
outlying  regions.  Civil  aviation 
supplements  rail  and  water  com- 
munication with  the  other  States 
of  the  Commonwealth. 

Population, — No  less  than 
323,000  of  the  State's  population 
of  597,000  live  in  the  capital. 
The  density  of  population  over 
the  whole  State  averages  only 
about  1  Vz  persons  per  square 
mile.    There  is  no  State  church. 

The  government  is  carried  on 
by  an  executive,  responsible  to  a 
Parliament,  of  two  chambers  :  a 
legislative  assembly  of  46  mem- 
bers, and  a  council  of  20  mem- 
bers, both  of  which  are  elective. 
The  premier  is  always  a  member 
of  the  assembly  ;  all  members  of 
Parliament  are  salaried  and  the 
governor  is  appointed  by  the 
British  government. 

See  Australia. 

South  Bend,  city,  Indiana, 
county  seat  of  St.  Joseph  county, 
on  the  St.  Joseph  River,  88  miles 
southeast  of  Chicago.  It  is 
served  by  the  Grand  Trunk, 
Michigan  Central,  New  Jersey, 
Indiana  &  Illinois,  New  York 
Central,  and  Pennsylvania  Rail- 
roads, and  by  an  electric  line, 
Chicago,  South  Shore  and  South 
Bend,  as  well  as  by  several  bus 
and  air  lines,  its  airport  being 
one  of  the  largest  in  the  country. 

The  city  is  an  industrial  cen- 
ter well  know  for  production  of 
automobiles,  aircraft,  _  agricul- 
tural implements,  sewing  ma- 
chines, lathes,  t03'S,  paints  and 
varnishes,  fishing  tackle  and 
bait,  home  laundry  machines, 
men's  and  women's  garments, 
and  bearings.  Educational  insti- 
tutions include  the  University  of 
Notre  Dame  and  St.  Mary's  Col- 
lege and  Academy.  Cultural  fa- 
cilities include  a  public  library 
with  four  branches,  the  North- 
ern Indiana  Historical  Society, 
a  newspaper,  and  radio  station. 

South  Bend  was  incorporated 
as  a  village  in  1835  and  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  1865.  It  was 
here  that  the  white  man  first 
stepped  on  Indiana  soil,  and  it 
was  here  that  Sieur  la  Salle 
treated  with  the  Miami  and  Pot- 
tawatomie Indians  in  1679.  In 
1820  Pierre  Navarre  established 
a  trading  post  for  dealings  with 
the  Indians,  and  three  years  later 
Alexis  Coquillard  founded  a  vil- 
lage on  the  St.  Joseph  River  at 
its  south  bend.  Pop.  (1930) 
104,193  ;  (1940)  101,268. 

South  Berwick,  tn.,  York  co., 


South  Bethlehem 


KFN 


325 


South  Carolina 


Maine,  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
Railroad ;  43  miles  southwest  of 
Portland.  Berwick  Academy  is 
situated  here.  The  town  has 
shoe  and  woolen  factories.  Pop. 
(1930)  2,650  ;  (1940)  2,546. 

South  Bethlehem,  borough, 
Pennsylvania,  Northampton  coun- 
ty, consolidated  since  1910  with 
Bethlehem  borough  and  incorpo- 
rated as  Bethlehem  City,  is  situ- 
ated at  the  fork  of  the  Lehigh 
River  and  Monocacy  Creek,  on 
the  Lehigh  Canal,  and  on  the 
Central  New  Jersey,  the  Lehigh 
Valley,  and  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  railroads ;  seven  miles 
east  of  Allentown.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Lehigh  University,  and  of  St. 
Luke's  Hospital.  The  great 
Bethlehem  steel  works  are  lo- 
cated here,  and  zinc,  iron,  and 
brass  products,  knit  goods,  silk 
and  rayon,  clay  products  and  pa- 
per boxes  are  manufactured. 

South  Beveland.   See  Beve- 

LAND. 

South  Boston,  town,  Virginia, 
Halifax  county,  on  the  Southern 
and  Norfolk  and  Western  rail- 
roads ;  63  miles  south  of  Lynch- 
burg. A  large  cotton  mill,  rayon 
mill,  ribbon  mill,  and  tobacco 
factories  are  situated  here.  Pop. 
(1930)  4,841  ;  (1940)  5,252. 

Southbridge,  town,  Massa- 
chusetts, Worcester  county,  on 
the  Quinebaug  River,  and  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven,  and 
Hartford  Railroad ;  eighteen 
miles  southwest  of  Worcester. 
It  has  an  optical  manufacturing 
plant,  shuttle  factory,  and  manu- 
factures of  cotton  and  woolen 
goods  and  cutlery.  Southbridge 
was  formerly  a  part  of  Charlton, 
known  as  'Honest  Town,'  and 
was  incorporated  in  1816.  Pop. 
(1930)  14,264;  (1940)  16,825. 

South  Brownsville,  borough, 
Pennsylvania,  Fayette  county, 
on  the  Monongahela  River,  and 
the  Monongahela  Railroad ;  50 
miles  south  of  Pittsburgh.  Pop. 
(1930)  5,314. 

South  Carolina  (popularly 
called  the  'Palmetto  State'),  one 
of  the  South  Atlantic  States  of 
the  United  States,  lies  between 
the  parallels  of  32°  2'  and  35°  17J 
N.  lat.  and  the  meridians  of  78° 
30'  and  83°  20'  w.  long.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  North 
Carolina ;  on  the  east  by  North 
Carolina  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ; 
on  the  southeast  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean ;  and  on  the  west  and 
southwest  by  Georgia.  It  is  sep- 
arated from  Georgia  by  the  Sa- 
vannah, Tugaloo,  and  Chat- 
tooga rivers.  The  total  area  is 
30,594  square  miles,  of  which 
461  are  water  surface. 

Topography, — The  state  lies 
mainly  in  the  Coastal  Plain  and 
Piedmont  Plateau  regions,  which 
are  divided  almost  equally  by  a 
line  running  from  northeast  to 
southwest  parallel  with  the  coast. 


The  Coastal  Plain  is  low  in  ele- 
vation, nowhere  exceeding  450 
feet ;  is  generally  level ;  and 
along  the  coast  has  considerable 
areas  of  swamp  land.  The  'fall 
line'  which  marks  the  beginning 
of  the  Piedmont  Plateau  is  quite 
abrupt,  giving  rise  to  a  number 
of  waterfalls.  The  Piedmont  has 
a  diversified  surface,  with  eleva- 
tions rising  gradually  from  500 
to  1,000  feet.  The  Chattooga 
and  Saluda  Mountains  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  are  in  the  northwest, 
where  the  Appalachian  Range 
extends  slightly  into  the  state. 
The  highest  point  is  Sassafras 
Mountain  (3,548  ft.)  on  the 
North  Carolina  State  line. 

The  rivers  all  flow  from  the 
northwest  to  the  ocean  on  the 
southeast.  They  furnish  con- 
siderable water  power  in  the 
Piedmont  region  and  at  the  'fall 
line.'  The  principal  ones  are  the 
Waccamaw,  Little  and  Great 
Peedee,  Black,  Santee  (formed 
by  the  union  of  the  Congaree 
and  the  Wateree),  Edisto,  Com- 
bahee,  and  Savannah. 

Climate  and  Soil. — The  cli- 
mate is  warm-temperate,  almost 
tropical  along  the  sea  coast,  be- 
coming cooler  and  less  equable 
in  the  northwest.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  is  about 
63°  F.  At  Charleston  it  is  49°  in 
January  and  82°  in  July,  with 
extremes  of  7°  and  104°.  Zero 
temperature  occasionally  occurs 
in  the  mountains.  The  mean 
annual  precipitation  is  about  49 
inches.  There  is  seldom  any 
snow  except  upon  the  mountains. 

The  soils  of  the  Coastal  Plain 
are  very  light,  consisting  of  sand 
and  clay,  and  are  generally  avail- 
able for  cultivation.  The  soil  of 
the  Piedmont  region  is  formed 
of  eroded  rock,  largely  limestone, 
and  is  very  fertile  and  suited  to 
variegated  farming. 

Geology. — The  geological  and 
topographical  features  of  the 
state  are  closely  related.  The 
Coastal  Plain  consists  of  Creta- 
ceous and  Tertiary  sands,  grav- 
els, clays,  and  marls,  underlaid 
by  older  and  harder  deposits, 
while  the  Piedmont  Plain  belongs 
to  the  Archaean  age,  and  is  char- 
acterized by  the  presence  of 
granites  and  gneisses. 

Mining, — The  mineral  re- 
sources of  South  Carolina  are 
not  extensive,  and  the  state  is 
one  of  the  least  important  in  the 
nation  with  regard  to  the  total 
value  of  its  mineral  output.  The 
chief  mineral  products  are  clay 
and  clay  products,  stone,  sand 
and  gravel,  and  barite.  The  clay 
yield  is  of  two  kinds,  that  suit- 
able for  common  brick  and  'pa- 
per' clay  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  paper.  There  are  numerous 
granite  quarries,  producing  stone 
of  excellent  quality,  most  notably 
in  Fairfield  County  near  Rion. 


In  the  output  of  kaolin  South 
Carolina  has  ranked  second  or 
third  among  the  states.  Phos- 
phate deposits  near  Charleston, 
discovered  shortly  after  the  Civil 
War,  were  worked  with  profit 
until  nearly  the  end  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  but  Florida  sub- 
sequently became  the  country's 
chief  producer.  Gold  was  mined 
in  considerable  quantity  in  ear- 
lier years,  and,  after  a  period 
during  which  production  had 
practically  ceased,  mining  was  re- 
newed in  the  1930's.  Also  found, 
though  not  commercially  impor- 
tant, are  silver,  tin,  manganese, 
limestone,  monazite,  graphite, 
fuller's  earth,  and  mineral  wa- 
ters. 

Forestry* — The  Piedmont 
Plateau  was  originally  covered 
with  forests  of  hardwoods  and 
the  Coastal  Plain  with  yellow 
pine,  except  in  the  swampy  re- 
gions, where  cypress  trees  pre- 
dominated. Much  of  the  origi- 
nal timber  remains.  Nearly  two- 
thirds  of  the  state's  forested  area 
is  in  pine,  and  the  remainder  in 
hardwoods.  Along  the  coast  are 
found  the  palmetto,  magnolia, 
and  live  oak  ;  in  the  swamps,  cy- 
press, bay,  and  gum  trees  ;  on  the 
mountains,  laurel,  white  pine,  and 
hemlock.  Other  varieties  in- 
clude oak,  beech,  birch,  ash,  ma- 
ple, black  walnut,  chestnut,  and 
sycamore.  There  are  two  nation- 
al forests  in  the  state,  the  Sum- 
ter and  the  Francis  Marion. 

Fisheries, — Through  its  board 
of  fisheries  the  state  is  endeav- 
oring to  increase  the  output  of 
the  fisheries.  Oysters  are  the 
principal  product,  and  the  state 
has  been  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant in  the  nation  in  the  packing 
and  shipping  of  oysters.  South 
Carolina  is  world-famous  for 
shrimp,  normally  shipping  its 
product  to  distant  ports.  Other 
products  are  shad,  mullet,  sea 
bass,  sturgeon,  and  clams.  There 
are  several  state  and  Federal 
hatcheries  within  the  state. 

Agriculture, — The  soil  and 
climate  of  the  state  are  suitable 
for  the  cultivation  of  all  plants 
of  the  temperate  and  subtropical 
zones,  and  more  than  half  of  the 
state's  acreage  is  in  farms.  Cot- 
ton, by  far  the  most  important 
crop,  is  raised  generally  through- 
out the  Coastal  and  Piedmont 
plains  and  on  the  islands  off  the 
coast.  South  Carolina  ranked 
second  among  the  states  in  cot- 
ton production  in  1920,  but  the 
infestation  of  the  boll  weevil  the 
following  year  resulted  in  a  sharp 
reduction  of  the  yield,  though 
subsequently  cotton  conditions 
improved.  The  disaster  of  1921, 
however,  showed  the  evils  of  the 
single-crop  system  and  gave  im- 
petus to  crop  diversification. 
The  tendency  in  recent  years  has 
been  to  increase  the  quality  of 


South  Carolina 


KFN 


326 


South  Carolina 


crops  and  the  yield  per  acre,  in- 
stead of  planting  a  larger  acre- 
age. 

The  manner  in  which  cotton  is 
raised,  under  the  system  of  ten- 
ant farming  prevalent  in  the 
South,  has  led  to  the  depletion  of 
the  soil  over  considerable  areas  ; 
and  while  commercial  fertilizer 
is  used  intensively,  it  serves 
rather  to  stimulate  yield  than  to 
conserve  the  land.  Experts  have 
pointed  out  that  permanent  im- 
provement of  the  soil  depends  on 
recognition  by  the  farmers  of  the 
state  of  the  need  for  grass,  le- 
gumes, and  livestock. 

Corn,  second  to  cotton  in  acre- 
age, is  raised  mainly  in  the  Pied- 
mont region.  Tobacco,  however, 
of  which  the  state  is  one  of  the 
leading  producers,  has  become 
the  most  important  cash  crop 
after  cotton.  The  cultivation  of 
rice  began  soon  after  the  first 
settlement  in  1670,  and  in  some 
periods,  as  late  as  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  rice  was 
the  principal  crop,  but  more  re- 
cently it  has  been  of  little  impor- 
tance. 

Large  acreages  are  planted  in 
oats,  wheat,  and  rye,  and  white 
and  sweet  potatoes  are  raised  in 
abundance.  On  the  Coastal  Plain 
truck  farming  is  considerable. 
The  state  ranks  high  in  the  out- 
put of  asparagus,  cabbages,  and 
tomatoes.  A  sizable  revenue  is 
realized  from  the  state's  peaches. 
Also  important  are  apples,  pears, 
cherries,  figs,  grapes,  plums,  per- 
simmons, watermelons,  canta- 
loupes, cucumbers,  pecans, 
peanuts,  berries,  and  sugar 
cane. 

The  state  has  three  rehabilita- 
tion projects,  conducted  by  the 
Farm  Security  Administration, 
at  Ashwood,  Allendale,  and  Or- 
angeburg, the  first  for  white 
farmers,  the  second  for  Negro, 
and  the  third  for  both.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  projects  is  'to  provide 
family-size  farms  for  deserving 
tenants  and  other  low-income  ru- 
ral families  and  give  them  an  op- 
portunity to  achieve  self-support 
and  security.' 

Stock  Raising, — In  recent 
times  many  farmers  of  the  state 
have  learned  the  value  of  crop 
diversification,  as  compared  with 
the  earlier  concentration  on  cot- 
ton and  corn.  The  raising  of 
dairy  and  beef  cattle,  according- 
ly, has  received  increased  atten- 
tion, though  there  is  room  for 
still  further  development,  and  so 
too  has  the  raising  of  hogs,  sheep, 
and  poultry. 

Manufactures,  —  Industrial- 
ization has  made  continuous  and 
rapid  progress  since  1890.  The 
value  of  manufactured  products 
increased  nearly  175  per  cent  be- 
tween 1914  and  1919,  when  the 
total  was  almost  $381,500,000. 
In  1929  the  value  of  products 


was  about  $385,900,000,  and  ten 
years  later,  $397,500,000. 

Electricity  for  power  has  been 
an  outstanding  factor  in  the 
state's  notable  industrial  devel- 
opment. It  has  been  the  deter- 
mining factor  in  the  growth  of 
many  small,  diversified  indus- 
tries. In  recent  years  the  pro- 
duction of  electric  power  has 
been  one  of  the  state's  leading 
industries,  ranking  second  to  tex- 
tile manufacturing  in  the  value 
of  product ;  and  only  a  few  other 
states  of  the  nation  rank  higher 
in  hydroelectric  production. 

The  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods,  of  which  South  Carolina 
is  one  of  the  chief  producers,  is 
by  far  the  most  important  indus- 
try. In  recent  times  many  cot- 
ton manufacturers  have  moved 
their  plants  from  New  England 
to  the  Southern  States,  including 
South  Carolina,  because  of  the 
advantages  of  cheap  labor,  abun- 
dant power,  and  proximity  to  the 
crop.  The  cotton  textiles  turned 
out  are  of  many  kinds,  including 
cloth  for  wearing  apparel,  up- 
holstery fabrics,  window-shade 
cloth,  asbestos  cloth,  tire  fabrics, 
bags,  canvas,  duck,  and  airplane 
cloth. 

A  considerable  value  is  report- 
ed annually  for  the  products  of 
the  numerous  cottonseed  oil  mills. 
The  oil  is  used  for  oleomargarine 
and  other  food  products,  the 
meal  and  hulls  for  cattle  feed, 
and  the  'linters,'  or  short  fiber 
taken  off  the  hulls,  for  mattress- 
stuffing  and  in  rayon  and  explo- 
sives. 

Lumber  and  timber  products 
constitute  one  of  the  major  in- 
dustries. There  are  numerous 
factories  making  furniture,  cof- 
fins, baskets,  tool  handles,  and 
other  woodwork,  and  in  recent 
years  the  production  of  paper 
pulp  has  greatly  increased.  A 
sizable  revenue  is  realized  from 
naval  stores. 

Highly  important  also  is  the 
manufacture  of  fertilizers.  Oth- 
er leading  industries  or  products 
are  refined  petroleum,  printing 
and  publishing,  foundry  and  ma- 
chine shop  products,  tobacco  and 
cigars,  canning  of  fruits  and 
vegetables,  beverages,  flour,  ice, 
gas,  clothing,  and  food  products. 

Transportation, — The  great- 
er portion  of  the  railroad  track- 
age is  owned  by  the  several  com- 
panies which  operate  the  impor- 
tant trunk  lines  of  the  South. 
There  are  also  many  less  impor- 
tant roads  which  serve  as  feed- 
ers to  these  main  lines.  The 
steam  railway  mileage  is  about 
3,700,  and  there  are  nearly  300 
miles  of  electric  railway.  The 
principal  roads  are  the  Seaboard 
Air  Line,  the  Southern,  and  the 
Atlantic  Coast  Line. 

The  principal  rivers  of  the 
state,  which  are  navigable  to  a 


considerable  extent,  afford  addi- 
tional means  of  transportation. 
The  Savannah  River  is  naviga- 
ble for  boats  of  150  tons  to 
Augusta;  the  Santee  is  naviga- 
ble to  the  confluence  of  the  Con- 
garee  and  the  Wateree,  which  are 
respectively  navigable  to  Colum- 
bia and  Camden ;  and  the  Edisto 
is  navigable  to  Guignard  Landing 
on  its  south  fork.  The  Intra- 
coastal  Waterway,  along  the 
coast,  is  open  to  small  craft. 

Population, — According  to 
the  Federal  Census  for  1940  the 
population  of  South  Carolina  was 
1,899,804,  an  increase  of  161,039, 
or  9.3  per  cent,  since  1930  (com- 
pared with  an  increase  of  3.3  per 
cent  during  1920-30).  The  ur- 
ban population  was  466,111,  or 
24.5  per  cent  of  the  total  (com- 
pared with  21.3  per  cent  in  1930), 
and  the  Negro  population  was 
814,164. 

Cities  of  more  than  10,000  pop- 
ulation in  1940  were:  Charles- 
ton, 71,275;  Columbia,  62,396; 
Greenville,  34,734  ;  Spartanburg, 
32,249;  Anderson,  19,424;  Flor- 
ence, 16,054;  Sumter,  15,874; 
Rock  Hill,  15,009;  Greenwood, 
13,020;  Orangeburg,  10,521. 

The  population  according  to 
previous  census  reports  for  South 
Carolina  was:  (1790)  249,073  ; 
(1810)  415,115;  (1830)  581,- 
185;  (1850)  668,507;  (1870) 
705,606;  (1890)  1,151,149; 
(1900)  1,340,316;  (1910)  1,- 
515,400;  (1920)  1,683,724; 
(1930)  1,738,765. 

Education, — South  Carolina 
has  a  state  superintendent  of 
education,  elected  for  a  term  of 
two  years,  who  is  assisted  by  a 
board  of  education,  consisting  of 
the  governor,  superintendent  of 
instruction,  and  seven  persons 
appointed  by  the  governor  for 
four  years.  There  is  in  each 
county  a  board  of  education, 
consisting  of  the  county  super- 
intendent of  education,  elected 
biennially,  and  two  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  state  board  of 
education  for  four  years.  Sep- 
arate schools  for  whites  and  Ne- 
groes must  be  maintained.  An 
equalization  law  guarantees  a 
seven  months'  school  term 
throughout  the  state,  fixes  mini- 
mum salaries  for  teachers  and 
equalizes  the  tax  burdens  and 
educational  opportunities.  At- 
tendance is  compulsory  since 
1919  and  schools  must  be  open 
at  least  four  months  annually  to 
all  persons  of  school  age.  For 
many  years  South  Carolina  had 
the  highest  illiteracy  rate  of  any 
state  in  the  nation,  but  steady 
progress  has  been  made  in  rem- 
edying the  situation.  Between 
1900  and  1930  illiteracy  was  re- 
duced from  35.9  per  cent  to  14.9 
per  cent.  The  education  and 
training  of  teachers  are  provided 
at  the  University  of  South  Caro- 


sou 


0     5  ic 


Ladson.  S.  C... 
Lake  City.  S.  C. 

l-amar,  S.  C  

l,ambert,_  S.  C. . 
I.ambs,  S.  C. . .  . 
Lancaster,  S.  C. 
Laiidrum.  S.  C. . 
Lando,  S.  C... 

Lane,  S.  C  

Laneys,  S.  C .  . 
LanfordSta.,  S.( 
Langlcy,  S.  ('. .  . 
Latimer,  S.  C. . . 

Latta,  S.  C  

Laurel.  S.  C... 
Laurens,  S.  C. .. 

Lees.  S.  C  

Leeds.  S.  C... 
Leesville,  S.  C. 

Legare,  S.  C  

Lena,  S.  C  

Lenurl,  S.  C  

Leo.  S.  ('  

Lcsslic,  S.  (  .  ... 
Level  I  a.nl.  S.I  . 
Lews   S,  (  


D  4 

E  3 
D  2 
E  3 
O  4 

D  2 
,H  1 
.C  2 

K  3 


,K  2 
E  3 
H  2 
.C  3 
.C  2 
■  C  3 
D  3 
C  4 
,E  3 
,E  3 
O  2 
r.  2 


LiiK-nlnvillc-,  S.  <;.])  3 
Lillle  Mtn..  S.C..C  2 
Little  Kiver.  S.C..F  3 
Livingston,  S.  C..C  3 
Lockhart.  S.  C...C  2 

Lodge,  S.  C  D  3 

Lofton,  S.  C  E  3 

Lonestar,  S.  C  D  3 

Longbrew,  S.  CD  4 
Longcreek,  S.  C.A  2 
Longmires  Store, 

S.  C  R  3 

Long  Ridge,  S.  CD  3 
Long  Kun,  S.  C.C  2 

Longs,  S.  C  F  3 

l.ongtown.  S.  CD  2 
Loo|,trs.  S.  C...B  2 

Loris.  S.  (•  F  2 

I.cwndeFvillc.  S.C.B  2 
Lowryv.llc,   S.   C.C  2 

Liicile.  S.  C  E  2 

Liicknow.   S.   CD  2 

LngolT,  S.  C  D  2 

Lulu.  S.  C  C  3 

Lumber.  S.  C  E  2 

Luke.  S.  C  C  2 

Luray.  .S.  C  C  4 

Lykesland.  .S.  CD  3 
Lynchburg.  S.  CD  2 


Mac,  S.  C  C  3 

Mcllee.  S.  C  D  2 

Macbeth.  S.  C.E  3 
McriellanvilleS.C.E  3 

McColl,  S.  C  E  2 

McConnellsville, 

S.  C  C  2 

McCormick,  S.  C.R  3 
Macedon,  S.  C.C  3 

McKies.  S.  C  B  3 

McLaurin,  S.  CC  3 
McNeils.  S.  C.C  4 
McPhersonville, 

S.   C  D  4 

Madden,  S.  C....B  2 
Madison,  S.  C.A  2 
Mall. TV.  S.  (■  l'".  i 


Mannv.n, 


M; 


.D 


Mercatus.   S.   CC  3 

MeriwetlK-r,    S  (  .1!  ^ 

Merritts  Hi.,  >,<  ■> 

Messers,  S.  (  .    .  .  I '  J 

Mi-viTs    Mil'.        .1  ' 

.\!ic':,.      1   i;  ; 

.Mh  '  ,,,],   s    I  ....  I-  ! 

Mi.i  ,'  .1   .  S    I          I  1  .! 


Mill(  tlvillr.  .S,  (■ 

.MixiM.  .S.  (■  

.M...l..r.  S.  (•  


M.i.K.iiia.  .s,  c. .  .1;  .? 

MnrTisvillo.  S.  (  .K  3 

Moselcy,  S.  C  .  ..1!  2 

Motbridge,  .S.  CE  3 

Moultrieville.  S.C.E  4 

Mt.Carmcl.  S.C.H  2 


.n  3       SaltersDepnt.  S  ^.F.  3 


Mt.  Will. 
M.irns.  S 


Murs  r.lnlT.  S.  C.E  2 

Mriry.  S.  (■  E  3 

Mand.   S.   (■  C  1 

Mauldin.  S  B  2 

May.  .S.  C  E  2 

Mayesville.  S.  CD  3 
Max,  S.  C...  ..E  3 
Mayucha.  S.  C.  ..A  2 
Mechanicsv'e,  S.C.D  2 
Meggett,  S.  C..D  4 


1) 


M..hsv,  S.  (■  C  3 

M.inMtvillr,        I'.i;  2 

Mmii/.i,,^,  S.  r.  .  .K  3 

M..vJ.  S.  (■  E  3 

Mull,  t    II, ill,  .S.C.D  4 

Mullms,   S.   (  .  .  .  .E  2 

Murphv.  S.  (-....B  2 

Myers."  .S.  C  E  4 

MyrtleBeach,  S.C.E  3 


Neeses,  S.  C  C  3 

Nelson.  S.  C  C  2 

Nesmith.  S.  C  E  3 

Newberry.  S.  C.C  2 

Ncwcut.'S.  C  1)  2 

Xruni.irKit.  S.  C.  1!  2 


NiiK-lv  Six.  S.  C.H  2 
Nixonvillc,  :;.  CF  3 

Norlh.  S.  C  C  3 

North  Augusta, 

S.  C..........C  3 

Norris,  S.  C  B  2 

Norton,  S.  C  F  3 

Norway,  S.  C  C  3 


Pacolet,  S.  C  C  2 

Pages  Mills,  S.  C.F 
PalmervilU-,  S.C.I- 

Palms.   S.   C  1-:  4 

Palmetto,  S.  C.  .  .E  2 
Parksville,  S.  CB  3 


!■  .  11,    :-,  1      .  .  .  .<  - 

.  .  I'  2 

1 ,)  1  .    S,    (   I  J 

S.I  11  tec,    S     (    .  . 
S.llltlli  I.,    S.    (  . 

.  .  I-;  3 

.  .  C  2 

i ',  ,  .  Ii  .  .    s.    1  J 

S.inliiua.   S.  C 

.  .  1  1  ,i 

1'.  1  L.I  111.  s.  1  . . . .  i;  -' 

Sci  'tia.    S.    (  .  . 

.  .  <  4 

I'l  hull,   S,   I  c  * 

.ScolKaiid,   S.  ( 

.  ,  1 )  2 

!'(  1  / 1  1 ,   S .   1  ■  1  '•  2 

.Si  ranlnii,   S.  ( 

.  .  \:  3 

Sidalia.    S.  C. 

I'.  l.  rslirl.l,  S.  C.  .  K  3 

Scivcrii,   S.  C. 

.  ,  C  3 

I'h.rnix,   S.   (  .  .  .  .  r.  2 

Scllc  rs,  S.  (' .  . 

.  .  ]•  2 

I'u-K.  iis,  S.   (  .  .  .  ,l|  J 

Scliif,         C.  ,  . 

.  ,  1;  3 

Seniino'le. 'S.  C' 

'.'.C  4 

I''h!!  vi11,".''s^'i'*.  :  J)  3 

Seneca,   .S.  C. 

..B  2 

l',i,,i|„,li..  S.  (  .  .  .1)  3 

Sharon.  .S.  C.  . 

...C  2 

I'laiiUrsvilk-.    .S.C.K  3 

Sheldon.  S.  C. 

.  .n  4 

Plateau.  S.  C  C  3 

Shell,   S.  C... 

.  ,F  3 

Pkasan'  Hill,  .S,C.l)  2 

Sheltnii.   S.  C. 

.   C  2 

Plum   nr..  .S.C..,11  3 

Shilnli.  S.  (  .. 

.  .  1 )  3 

I'nm.aria,  S.  C....C  2 

Shirlcv,    S.  C. 

l'iiii|uiii.   S.  C  1)  4 

S,ct;l.ii,.MlIr,  S. 

C,C  3 

I'l.lla.  -,  Kiai,  S.C.I'.  3 

.  .D  3 

rml    K'liv.al,    S.  ('.  1)  4 

Sllvt  i  sll'r,  1,  S. 

C.C  2 

I'm,  l,.irilvillr,S.C.I)  4 

I'rivalcer.   S.    C._.l)  3 

Prosperity,   .S.   C.C  2 

Providence,  S.  CD  2 


Ramsay.    S.    C  .P  3 

Ravencls.    S.    CO  4 

Ray.  S.  C  li  2 

Rnvmond,  S.  C,  .  .1)  3 

RavMu-.   Mill.S.C.n  4 

K',  ,  v.-,Mllr,    S.    CD  4 

Krhulioth,  S.  ('...H  3 


St.Charles.  S.C,.,D 

Saint  (leorgc  S  C  D 
Sl.Matlliews.'s.C.  n 


MkIi 


!c  3 


,        C.C  3 

illc,  S.C.B  2 

..  C  E  3 

.  ..  .  .  C  C  2 

:lis   Mills  S.C.E  3 

Smithville.  S.  CD  2 

Smoaks.  S.  C  D  3 

sIldfi'uK,  S.'  (* 
Socaolcc.   S.  C,  .  .E  3 
Socictv  Hill.  S,C..E  2 

Snphia,  S.  C  B  3 

South  Island.  S.C.E  3 
S.l.vnchliurK.S.C.n  2 
S|.,iilanlnirp,    S.C.C  2 

Spear,  S.  C   — 

SprinRbank,  S.C.E  3 
SprinKllcId,  S.  C.C  3 

SlalTnnl.  S.  C  C  4 

Si, I II.    S.    (•  C  3 

St.ilvrv,  S.  (■  I-  ,\ 

Starr.   S.   <■  i;  2 

Stei-.lnrili,  S,  C  .C  3 
Stev.  n-.iiii.  S.  r.  .(■  2 

Still. in,  S    (  '  1  )  3 

Stii-liiiL',   S,   f.  .  .  .  1!  2 

St, ikes,  S.  (■  1)  4 

Stone,   S.   C  I)  3 

Stonebnro,  S,  C.  .D  2 
Storevillc.  S,  C.  ,  .B  2 

Stover.  S.  C  D  2 

Slrntli.a-,    S.   C.  .  ,C  2 


c. 


.E  3 


Swit/iM-    S    C  C  2 

Switzcilaiid,  S.  C.C  4 

Sycamore.   S.   C.C  3 

Syracuse,  S.  C . .  .  E  2 


Tabernacle,  S.  C.E  2 

Taft,  S,  C  E  3 

Tnlatba.   S.   C  C  3 

Taniav-  ee.   S.   C  A  2 

T:nli..r,..   S.   C  C  4 

Taluin.   S    C  K  2 

Taxl.irs.  S.  C.  ...Tt  2 
Tax.ib  iu.  S.  CD  2 
Ten  Mile.  S,  CD  4 
Tliickety.  S.  C.C  1 
Thompson.  S.  C.E  3 

Thor,  S.  C  C  3 

Tieerville.  S.  C...B  1 
Tillman.  S.  C,  .C  4 
TimuMn^ville. S.C.E  2 
Tinilal  C  D  3 


Tradesville.  S.  CD  2 

i'ravelersKest. S.C.B  2 

Travis,  S.  C  C  3 

Trenton.  S.  C  C  3 

Trial,  S.  C  D  3 

Trio,  S.  C  E  3 

Trimgli,    S.    C  C  2 

Tr.iv.    S.    C  B  3 

Inn'ililiML;  Sh.ials, 


Vance.  S.  C  D  3 

Van  Wvck,  S.  CD  2 
Varnville,  S.  C.C  4 
Vaucluse.  S.  C . .  .  C  3 
Vaught.   S.   C,  ,..F  3 

Venters,  S.  C  E  3 

Verdery,   S.   C.B  2 

Virgo,  S.  C  E  3 

Vox,  S.  C  E  3 


Wageuer.  S.  C.C  3 
Walhalla.  S.  C.  .  .A  2 
Wallaceville,  S,  C.C  2 
Walterboro.  S.  CD  4 
Wampee,  S.  C .  .  .  F  3 
Wando,  S,   C....E  4 

Ward,  S.  C  C  3 

Ware  Shoals,  S.C.B  2 
Warrick,  S.  C.C  3 
Westville,  S.  CD  2 
Wattacoo,  S.  C.B  1 
Waterlco,  S.  C.B  2 

Watts,  S.  C  B  2 

WaverlyMills,  S.C.E  3 
Waycross,  S.  C.C  3 
Weathersbee,  S.C.C  3 
Wedgefield,  S.  CD  3 

Weeks,  S.  C  D  3 

Weimer,  S.  C....C  3 
Wellford,    S.   C.B  2 

Wells.  S.  C  D  3 

Westminster.  .S.C,.\  2 

Weston.  S.  C  D  3 

^\'est  l^nion.  S.  C.A  2 
Whetsell.  S.  C.D  3 
Whetst.ine.  S.  C.A  2 
White  Rock,  S.  C.  — 
Whiteh.all,  S.  CD  4 
Wllitniire.  S.  C.C  2 
Whitnev.  S,  C.C  2 
White  'Oak.  S,C..,.C  2 
White  Pon.l,  S.C.C  3 
White  Stone.  S.C.C  2 
Wiggins,  S.  C  .D  4 
Wil.Icat.  S.  C,  ,  .  .D  2 
Wilksburg.  S.  C.C  2 
Wilkins.  S.  C  ..D  4 
Wilkinsville.  S.C.C  2 
Williams.  S.  C.D  3 
Williamston.  S.C.B  2 
Willington.  S.  C.B  3 
Williston.  S.  C.C  3 

Wilson.   S.   C  D  3 

Winnsboro.  S.  C.C  2 
Winona.  S.  C.  .  .  .E  3 
Wisackv.  S.  C.D  2 
Wofford.   S,   C  .B  3 

Wolsie,  S.  C  E  3 

Woodford.  S.  C.C  3 
Woodlawn.  S.  C.B  3 
Woodruff.  S.  C.C  2 
Woodward.  S.  C.C  2 
Workman.  S.  C.E  3 
Wren,  S.  C  E  3 


Vanhannah.  S.  C.E  3 

Yemassee.  S.  C.D  4 

Yonges  Id..  S.C.D  4 

Yorkville,  S.  C.C  2 


Tii.l.lville.  S.  C.E  J 
Tonev  (  reek.  S.C.B  -> 
Townville,  S.  C.B  2 


INDEX  OF  SOUTH  CAROLINA 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 
Abbeville,  S.  C.B  2 

Acton,  S.  C   — 

Adams  Run.  S.C.D  4 
.Xdani.sliurg.  S.  C.C  2 


lan. 


.\ikeii.  S.  <■  

.Mill. 111.   S.  C  

.\leiilu.  S.  (   

AleNamler.  S.  C 
Allen. laic,   S.  C 

Allison,  S.  C  

Alma.  S,  C  

Almeda,  S.  C... 

Alston,  S,  C  C  2 

Alvin.  S.  C  E  3 

Anderson.  S.  C.B  2 

Andrews,  S.  C  E  3 

-Angelus.  S.   C. .  .D  2 

Annandale.  S.  C.E  3 

Antioch.  S.  C  D  2 

Antreville,  S.  C.B  2 

Appleton,  S.  C.C  3 

Arlington,  S.  C.B  2 

Arthur,  S.  C   — 

Ashton,  S.  C  D  3 

Atkins,  S.  C  D  2 

Atlanticville,   S.C.E  4 

Auburn,  S.  C  E  2 

Autun,  S.  C  B  2 

Avon,  S.  C  C  2 

Awensdaw,   S.   C.E  3 

Azmon.   S.  C  D  2 


Badham,  S.  C  D  3 

Bakersville,  S.  C.D  3 
Baldock,  S.  C...C  3 
Ballentine,  S.  C .  — 
Bamberg,  S.  C.C  3 

Bandana,  S.  C  C  1 

Rannockburn,  S.C.E  2 

Bardv.   S.   C  F  3 

Barksdale,  S.  C.B  2 

Barnes,   S.   C  F  2 

Barnwell.  S.  C.C  3 

Barr.  S.  C  C  3 

Barton.  S.  C  C  4 

Ra.'icomville.  S.C.D  2 
Rateslnirg,  S.  C.  .C  3 

Bath.  S.  C  C  3 

Batonrouge,  S.  C.C  2 

Batson.  S.  C  B  2 

Battlecreek,  S.C...\  2 
Bavboro,  S.  C.E  2 
Rcaufort.  S.  C.D  4 
Beaverdam.  S.  C.C  3 

Bellfield.  S.  C  D  2 

Rellinger,  S.  C.C  4 

Relton.  S.  C  R  2 

Rennettsville.  S.C.E  2 

Ren  son,  S,  C  E  3 

Rerlin,  S.  C  C  3 

Rethera.  S,  C  E  3 

Rethune.  S.  C  D  2 

Beulah.  S.  C....C  3 
Beverley.  S.  C.B  2 

Rigcreek,  S.  C  C  2 

Bingham,  S.  C  ..E  2 

B^rch.  S.  C  A  2 

Bir.co.  S.   C  F  2 

Ri<-.hopville.   S.   C.D  2 

Blacks.  S.  C  C  3 

niack.sburg,  S.  C.C  1 
Blackstock,  S.  C.C  2 
Rlackville,  S.  C.C  3 

Rlairs,  S.  C  C  ^ 

Blake.  S.  C  E  3 

Blanche.  S.  C  E  2 

Rlanev.  S.  C....D  2 
Rlenheim.  S.  C.E  2 

Blocker.  S.  C  D  4 

RIoomingVale. S.C.E  3 
Blossom    S.  C...E  3 

Bluffton.  S.  C  D  4 

Rlythewood.  S.  C.D  2 
Ronneau.  S.  C. .  .E  3 
Bookman,  S.  C.C  2 
Bordeaux.  S.  CB  3 

Borden,  S.  C  D  2 

Bostick.  S.  C  E  3 

BowlingGreen, S.C.C  1 
Bowman.  S.  C.D  3 

Bowyer.  S.  C  D  3 

Box,  S.  C  F  2 

Boykin,  S.  C....D  2 


Bradley,  S.  C  B  2 

Branchville.    S.C.D  3 

Jirant,   S.   C  D  4 

I'.reezew  ood,  S.  C  B  2 
Brighton.  S.  C.C  4 
linttons  Neck.S.C.K  3 
I'.ri.g.lon,  S.  C  .  .1)  3 
111  iMikgi  cen.  S.  I.  .1-;  3 
l'.r..wnlee.  S.  C  .  .  I;  2 
l-irownsville.  S. (■..!■  ' 
liroyles,    S.    t  .  .  .  .  r.  2 

I'ruce.    S.    C  F  3 

lirunson.   S.  (.'...14 

Hryson,  .S.  C'  C  2 

Buck  lleail.  S.C,..C  2 
Bucksport,  S.  C.E  3 
Bucksville,  S.  C.E  3 

Buffalo.  S.  C  C  2 

Bullock  Cr.,  S.C.C  2 

Burcol,  S.  C  F  3 

Burton,  S.  C  D  4 

Bush,  S.  C  C  3 

Byrds,  S.  C  D  4 


Cades.  S.  C  E  3 

Calhoun.  S,  C  B  2 

CalhounFalls,  S.C.B  2 
Callison,   S.   C.  .  .B  2 

Calvin,  S.  C  C  2 

Cambridge.  S.  C.C  2 
Camden,  S.  C.D  2 
Cameron,  S.  C.D  3 
Campfield.  S.  C.E  3 
Campobello,  S.  C.B  1 

Cantey,   S.   C  D  2 

Cantrell,  S.  C.  .  ..D  4 

Carlisle,  S.  C  C  2 

Carris.  S,   C  E  3 

Carroll,   S.   C  C  2 

Cartersville,  S.  C.D  2 
Cashs  Depot.  S.  C.E  2 

Cassatt,   S.   C  D  2 

Cassels,  S.  C  D  2 

Catawba,  S.  C  D  2 

Cateechee,  S.  C.B  2 
Cat  Island,  S.  C.E  3 
Catehall.  S.  C.D  2 

Cato,  S.   C  D  2 

Cave,  S.  C  B  2 

Cebu,  S.  C  E  3 

Cedar  Spring,  S.C.C  2 

Celestia,  S.  C  C  2 

Centenary.  S.  C.E  2 
Central,  S.  C...B  z 
Chandler,  S.  C.B  2 

Chapin,  S.   C  C  2 

Chapman,  S.  C.E  3 
Chappells,  S.  C.C  2 
Charleston,  S.   C.E  4 

Cheraw,  S.  C  E  2 

Cherokee.  S.  C.C  1 
CherokeeFalls. S.C.C  I 

Chester.  S.  C  C  2 

Chesterfield.  S.  C.D  2 
Chick  Sprs,.  S.C  .B  2 

Chicora,  S.  C  D  3 

Choppee,   S.   C.  .  .E  3 

Church.  S.  C  E  3 

Claremonf.  S.  C.D  3 
Clarks  Hill.  S.  C.B  3 
Claussen,  S.  C.E  2 
Clearwater.  S.  C.C  3 
Clemson  College, 

S.  C  :...B  2 

Cleora.  S.  C  B  3 

Cleveland.  S.  C.B  1 
Clifton,   S.   C  .  .C  2 

Clinton,   S.   C  C  2 

Clio,  S.  C  E  2 

Clover.  S.  C  C  1 

Cogburn,  S.  C  .C  3 
Cokesburv.  S.  C.R  2 
Coldpoint.  S.  C.R  2 
Colerain,  S.  C.  .  .C  2 
Colemans.  S.  C.C  2 
Columbia.  S.  C.C  3 
Colleton,  S.   C.D  3 

Colliers.  S.  C  R  3 

Colon.  S.  C  B  2 

Colston.  S.  C   C  3 

Congaree.  S.  C.  .  .D  3 
Conifer.  S.  C....E  3 
Connors,  S.  C  .D  3 

Converse,  S  C  2 

Conway,  S.  C  E  3 


Cooper,  S.  C  E  3 

Coosawhatchie.SCD  4 

Cope,   S.   D  3 

Copeland.  S.  C  ,  .  D  2 

Cordesville.  S,  C.K  } 


(  rer.ceiu.  S.  (,'.  .  ..I:  ' 
C  ,.ston,   S.   I  .  .  .  .  I) 
Crocketville,    S.C..C  4 

Cross,  S.  I  I )  3 

Cross. \nchor.  S.C.t'  ' 
Cross  Hill.  S.  C  .  .(  ■ 
Crosskeys,  S.  C.C  2 

Crouch.  S.  C  C  2 

Crow  Creek,  S.  CU  2 
Cummings,  S.  CD  4 


Dacusville.  S.  C.B  2 

Daisy,  S.  C  F  2 

Dale,  S.  C  D  4 

Daley,  S.  C  C  4 

Dallon,  S.  C  B  2 

Dalzell.   S.   C  D  2 

Darlington,  S.  C.E  2 
Davisbridge,  S.C.C  3 
Davis  Sta.,  S.C.D  3 
Dawkins,  S.   C  .C  2 

Delmar.  S.  C  C  2 

Delta,  S.  C  C  2 

Denhams,  S.  C.E  3 
Denmark,  S.  C.C  3 

Denny,  S.  C  C  2 

Dentsville,  S.  CD  2 

Denver,  S.  C  B  2 

Derrik,   S.   C  C  2 

Dillon,  S.  C  E  2 

Donalds,  S.  C  B  2 

Dongola.  S.  C  ..E  3 
Dorchester,  S.  C.D  3 
Douglass.  S.  C.C  2 
Dovesville,  S.  C.E  2 

Drake,  S.  C  E  2 

Dresden,  S.  C  B  2 

Due  West,  S.  C.B  2 

Dulah.  S.   C  F  3 

Dunbar.  S.  C  E  2 

Dunbarton.  S.  C.C  3 
Duncan.  .S.  C  . .  .  B  2 

Dupier,  S.  C  C  2 

Dupont,  S.  C....C  2 

Durant,  S.  C  D  3 

Dyson,   S.   C  C  2 


Eadytown,  S.  CD  3 

Earfe,  S.  C  C  3 

Easley,  S.  C  R  2 

EarlyBranch.S.  CD  4 
Eastover,  S.  C.D  3 
Ebenezer.   S.   C.  . E  2 

Eddy,  S.  C  K  3 

Edgefield.  S.  C.C  3 
Edgmoor,  S.  ('...('  2 
Edisto  Id.,  S.C,.  .!>  4 
Edmund.  S.  C  .  .  ( '  3 
Edwards,  S.  C.  .  .O  2 

Effie,  S.  C  B  3 

Effingham,  S,  C.E  2 
Ehrhardt,  S.  C  .  .C  3 
Eldorado.  S.  C.  .  .  P  3 

Elgin,  S.  C  D  2 

Elko,  S.  C  C  3 

Ellenton.  S.   C.C  3 

Elliott,    S.    C  D  2 

Elloree.  S.  C  D  3 

Elzie.  S.   C  C  2 

English,  S.  C....D  2 

Enoree.   .S.   C  C  2 

Enterprise.  S.  CD  4 

Epps,  S.  C  E  3 

Epworth,  S.  C.B  2 

Equality,  S.  C  B  2 

Estill.  S.  C  C  4 

Ethel,  S.  C  D  4 

Eulala,  S.  C  C  2 

Eulonia,  S.  C. . .  .E  3 

Eureka,  S.  C  C  3 

Eutawville,  S.  C.D  3 


Fairbanks,  S.  C 


Ft,  1- 


Fort  Mill,  S.  CD  I 

Fort  Motte,  S.  CD  3 

Ft.  Sumter.  S.  C.E  4 

Former,  S.  C  B  1 

Fountain  Inn,  S.C.B  2 

Fowler,  S.  C  E  3 

I-Vanklin,  S.  C.  .  .  R  3 

Fredonia,  S.  C.  .  , C  3 

Freeman.  S.  C  .  .  1'.  2 

Frogmore,  S.  C.I)  4 


Gadsden,  S.  C.D  3 

Gaffney,  S.  C  C  1 

GalivantsFy.,  S.C.E  2 

Gary,   S.   C  C  2 

(iarnett.   S.   C.  .  ..C  4 

Gaston.  S.  C  C  3 

Gershom,  S.  C.  .  ..F  2 
Georgetown.  S.  C.E  3 
Getsinger,  S.  C.D  4 
Gevhaus,  S.  C  ..1)4 
Gideon,  S.  C....E  3 
Gilford,   S.   C....C  4 

Gilbert,  S.  C  C  3 

Gillisonville,  S.  C.C  4 
Glendale,  S.  C.C  2 
Glenn  Sprs.,  S.C.C  2 
Godbold,   S.   C  .  .E  3 

Goethe,  S.  C  C  4 

Goldmine.  S.  CD  2 
Goldville,  S.  C  .  .C  2 
Gooduill.  S.  C.D  3 
Gordon,  S.  (  .  .  I  .  ,i 
Go.shenliill,  S.  (  .  .1 

Gough,  S.  (■  K  3 

Gourdin,   S.   C.  .  .E  3 

Govan,  S.  C  C  3 

Grahamville,  S.  C.D  4 
Gramling.  S.  C  .  .1!  1 
Grandeur,  S.  ( ' .  .  .  1'.  I 
Granitev.ll.-,  S.  (  .(  ,1 

Gray,  S.  C  (  4 

Gray  Cmrt,  S.  CI!  2 
Grays  Hill,  S.  C.D  4 
Great  Falls.  S.  CD  2 
Gr.elevville,  S.  C.E  3 
Green  '  .Sea,  S.  C...F  2 
Green  Pond.  S.C.D  4 
Greenland,  S.  C.C  3 
Greenville,  S.  CI!  2 
Greenwood,  S.  C.B  2 

Greer,  S.  C  R  2 

Grove,   S.   C  R  2 

Grover.  S.  C  D  3 

Guin.   S,   C  D  2 

Gurley,  S.  C  F  2 

Guthriesville,  S.C.C  2 


Hagood.  S.  C....D  2 

Haile.  S.  C  D  2 

Halsellville.  S.  C.C  2 

ITamer,  S.  C  E  2 

Hammond,  S.  C.F  3 
Hampton,  S.  C...C  4 

Hand,  S.  C  F  3 

Hannah,  S.  C  E  3 

Hardeeville,  S.  C.C  4 
Harleyville,  S.  C.D  3 
Harmony,  S.  C.D  2 
Harpers.  S.  C.E  3- 


IlarrisSprs.,  S.C.C  i 

llartsville,  S.  CD  2 

Haskell,  S.  C....E  3 

Ilattieville,  S.  C.C  3 

Hawthorne.    S.C...C  3 

llavville,  S.  (  .  .  .  .C  3 


-  (  .  . ,C  3 

 1)  2 

S.l  ,.D  2 
S.  C.E  3 
C...C  2 


llevxvanl.  ,  r. 
lliI.eM,,,..  S.  C 
1  111. lor.  S,  C 
li.eklins,  S.  C. 
ilickinan,  S.  C 
llickorvGrovcS 
Hilda.  S.  C.  .  . 
Hilton,  s.  c. 
Hilti.nlie.iil,  S. 
Hn.lL'.s.   S.  (■ 

llolilrll.     S.  C 


ll..iie.i  I'alli,  S.l 
lliiiu-vliill.  S.  C 
llomeuood.  S.  C. 

11. ip,   S.  C  

Hopkins.  S.  C. 
Hornshoro,  S.  C. 
Horsegall,  S.  C 
Howard,  S.  C... 
Howclton,  S.  C. 
Hudson,  S.  C., 

Huger,  S.  C  

Hunters,  S.  C, 
Hyman,  S.  C..., 


.1)  4 
.C  3 
.B  3 
.C  2 
.F  2 
.C  1 


Tndiantown,  S.C.E  3 

Inman,  S.  C  B  1 

Ionia,  S.  C  D  2 

loppa.  S.  C  E  2 

Irmo.  S.  C   — 

Irvingti.n,  S,  C  .  I)  2 

Lslandtnn.  S.  C.I)  4 

Iva,  S.  C  B  2 


Jacobs,  S.  C  D  2 

"l.aekson,  S,  C....C  3 

■|...  I.s.iiiliiir...  S.  CP  4 

|,.l,i|ia.    S.    C  C  2 

l.iiii.  s  III.,  S.  C.E  4 

"l.aiiiisi.n,    S.    C..D  3 


.1)  3 


Tordanville,  S.  C.E  3 

Tudson,  S.   C  E  2 

Justice,  S.  C  E  2 


Kalb,  S.  C  D  2 

Kathwood.  S.  C.C  3 

Keaton,  S.  C  B  2 

Kelton.  S.  C  C  2 

Kemper,  S.  C  E  2 

Kershaw.  S.  C.D  2 

Killian.  S.  C  D  2 

Kinards.  S,  C  .  .  C  2 
Kings  Creek.  S.C.C  1 
Kingstree,  S.  C  .  K  .1 
Kingville,  S.  C.D  3 
KitchingsMillsS.ee  3 
Kirksey.  S.  C.  .  .  .R  2 

Kline.  S.  C  C  3 

Kollock,  S.  C....E  2 


Labana.  S.  C  E  3 

Laco,  S.  C  B  2 


INDEX  OF  SOUTH  CAROLINA 


Ladson,  S.  C  D  Bradley,  S.  C  B  2 

Lake  City,  S.  C..E  Branchville,    S.C..D  3 

Lamar,  S.  C  D  Brant,   S.   C  D  4 

Lambert,   S.   C...E  Breczevvood,  S.  C.B  2 

Lambs,  S.  C  D  Brighton,  S.  C...C  4 

Lancaster,  S.  C..D  Bnttons  Neck,S.C.E  3 

Landrum,  S.  C...J5  Brogdon,  S.  C...D  3 

Lando,  S.  C  C  Brookgreen,  S.  C.E  3 

Lane,  S.  C  E  Brownlee,  S.  C...B  2 

Laneys,   S.   C....E  Brownsville,   S.C..E  2 

LanfordSta.,   S.C.C  Broyles,  S.  C  B  2 

Langley,  S.  C....C  Bruce,   S.   C  F  3 

Latimer,  S.  C  B  Brunson,  S.  C...C  4 

Latta,  S.  C  E  Bryson,  S.  C  C  2 

Laurel,   S.   C  E  Buck    Head,  S.C.C  2 

Laurens,  S.  C....B  Bucksport,  S.  C.E  3 

Lees,  S.  C  C  Bucksville,  S.  C.E  3 

Leeds,  S.  C  C  Buffalo,   S.  C...C  2 

Leesville,  S.  C...C  Bullock  Cr.,  S.C.C  2 

Legare,  S.  C  D  Burcol,  S.  C  F  3 

Lena,  S.  C  C  Burton,  S.  C  D  4 

Lenud,  S.  C  E  Bush,  S.   C  C  3 

Leo,  S.  C  E  Byrds,  S.   C  D  4 

Lesslie,  S.  C  D 

Level   Land,  S.C..B 

Levys,  S.  C  C  Cades,  S.  C  E  3 

Lexmgton,  S.  C.C  Calhoun,  S.  C  B  2 

Liberty,  S.  C  B  CalhounFalls,  S.C  B  2 

Liberty  Hill,  S.C. D  Callison,   S.  C..B2 

Lickville,  S.  C...B  Calvin,  S.  C  C  2 

Lincolnville,  S.  CD  Cambridge,  S.  C.C  2 

Little  Mtn.,  S.C.C  Camden,   S.   C..D  2 

Little    River,  S.C. F  Cameron,  S.  C...D  3 

Livmgston,  S.  C.C  Campfield,  S.  C.E  3 

Lockhart,  S.  C..C  Campobello,  S.  C.B  1 

Lodge,  S.  C  D  Cantey,   S.   C  D  2 

Lofton,  S.  C  E  Cantrell,  S.  C....D  4 

Lonestar,  S.  C...D  Carlisle,  S.  C  C  2 

LongbreviT,   S.    CD  Carris,   S.   C  E  3 

Longcreek,  S.  C.A  Carroll,   S.   C  C  2 

Longmires    Store,  Cartersville,   S.  CD  2 

S.  C  B  Cashs  Depot,  S.  C.E  2 

Long  Ridge,  S.  CD  Cassatt,  S.  C....D  2 

Long  Run,  S.  C.C  Cassels,   S.  C  D  2 

Longs,  S.  C  F  Catawba,  S.  C  D  2 

Longtown,  S.  CD  Cateechee,  S.  C.B  2 

Loopers.  S.  C  B  Cat  Island,  S.  C.E  3 

Loris.  S.  C  F  Catchall,   S.  C..D2 

Lownaesville,  S.CB  Cato,   S.   C  D  2 

Lowryville,   S.   CC  Cave,  S.  C  B  2 

Lucile,  S.  C.....E  Lebu,   S.   C  E3 

Lucknow    S.   CD  Cedar  Spring,  S.C.C  2 

Lugoff,  S.  C  D  Celestia,  S.  C....C  2 

Lulu,  S.  C  C  Centenary,   S.   C.E  2 

Lumber    S    C .  . . .  E  Central,  S.  C  . .  .  B  ^ 

Luke,   S.  C   C  Chandler,  S.  C.B 

Luray,  S.   C  C  Chapin,   S.   C  C  2 

Lykesland,  S.  C..D  Chapman,  S.  C.E  3 

Lynchburg,  S.  CD  Chappells,  S.  C.C  2 
Charleston,  S.   C.E  4 

TIT       c    ^  n  S^heraw,  S.  C....E  2 

Mac,  S.  C.  C  Cherokee,  S.  C.C  1 

McBee,  S.  C  ...D  CherokeeFalls,S.C.C  1 

Macbeth.  S.  C.E  Chester,  S    C       C  2 

McClellanvilleS.CE  Chesterfield,  S.'C.'d  2 

McColl,  S.  C  ....E  Chick  Sprs.,  S.CB  2 

McConnellsville,  Chicora,  S.  C  D  3 

S    C..    ...... .C  Choppee,   S.  C.E  3 

McCormick    S.  C.B  Church,  S.  C  E  3 

Macedon,  S.  C...C  Claremont.   S.   CD  3 

McKies,  S.  C....B  darks  Hill,  S.  C.B  3 

McLaunn    S.  C.C  Claussen,  S.  C.E  2 

McNeils,   S.   C.C  Clearwater,  S.  CC  3 

McPhersonville,  Clemson  College, 

S.   C  D       S    C  B  2 

Madden,  S.  C. . .  .B  Cleora,  "i.  ' t' .V,  3 

Madison,  S.  C.A  Cleveland,  S.  C.B  1 

Mallory,  S    C  ...E  Clifton,   S.  C....C2 

Manning,  S    C  ..D  Clinton,   S.   C....C  2 

Mannville   S CD  Qio,  S.  C  E  2 

Mappus,  S    C  ...E  Clover,  S.  C  C  1 

Marietta,  S.  C.B  Cogburn,  S.  C.C  3 

Marion.  S.  C.   ..E  Cokesbury,  S.  C.B  2 

Marlboro    S    C.. E  Coldpoint,  S.  C.B  2 

Marlow,   S    C.-.-E  Colerain,   S.   C.C  2 

Martins  Pt.,  S.C.D  Colemans,  S.  C  .C  2 

Mars  Bluff.  S.  C.E  Columbia,  S.  C.C  3 

JJ^'-y-        C  E  Colleton,  S.  C...D  3 

Maud    S.  C  C  Colliers.  S.  C....B  3 

Mauldin,  S  B  Colon,  S.  C  B  2 

May,  S    C.     .     .E  Colston,  S.  C  C  3 

Mayesville    S.  CD  Congaree,  S.  C.D  3 

Max,    S.    C..^...E  Conifer,  S.  C....E3 

Mayucha,  S.  C    .A  Connors,   S.  C.D  3 

Mechanicsv  e,  S.C.D  Converse,  S  C2 

Meggett,  S.  C..D  Conway,  S.  C..E  3 


Cooper,  S.  C  E  3 

Coosawhatchie,SC.D  4 

Cope,  S.  C  D  3 

Copeland,  S.  C...D  2 
Cordesvillc,  S.  C.E  3 
Cordova,  S.  C.  .  .D  3 
Cornwell,  S.  C...C  2 
Coronaca,  S.  C..B  2 
Cottageville.  S.  C.D  4 
Countsville,   S.   C.C  2 

Coward,  S.  C  E  3 

Cowdcn,  S.  C.  .  .  .  C  3 

Cowjjens,  S  C  1 

Crescent,  S.  C  B  2 

Cx.ston,  S.  C  D  3 

Crocketville,    S.C.C  4 

Cross,  S.  C  D  3 

CrossAnchor,  S.C.C  2 
Cross  Hill,  S.  C.C  2 
Crosskeys,  S.  C.C  2 

Crouch,  S.  C  C  2 

Crow  Creek,  S.  C.B  2 
Cummings,  S.  C.D  4 


Dacusville,  S.  C.B  2 

Daisy,  S.  C  F  2 

Dale,  S.  C  D  4 

Daley,  S.  C  C  4 

Dalton,  S.  C  B  2 

Dalzell,   S.   C  D  2 

Darlington,  S.  C.E  2 
Davisbridge,  S.C.C  3 
Davis  Sta.,  S.C.D  3 
Dawkins,  S.  C  .C  2 

Delmar,  S.  C  C  2 

Delta,  S.  C  C  2 

Denhams,  S.  C.E  3 
Denmark,  S.  C.C  3 

Denny,  S.  C  C  2 

Dentsville,  S.  CD  2 

Denver,  S.  C  B  2 

Derrik,   S.   C  C  2 

Dillon,  S.  C  E  2 

Donalds,  S.  C  B  2 

Dongola,  S.  C  E  3 

Dorchester,  S.  C.D  3 
Douglass,  S.  C.C  2 
Dovesville,  S.  CE  2 

Drake,  S.  C  E  2 

Dresden,  S.  C  B  2 

Due  West,  S.  C.B  2 

Dulah,  S.   C  F  3 

Dunbar,  S.  C  E  2 

Dunbarton,  S.  C.C  3 

Duncan,  S.  C  B  2 

Dupier,  S.  C  C  2 

Dupont,   S.  C  C  2 

Durant,  S.  C  D  3 

Dyson,   S.   C  C  2 


Eadytown,  S.  CD  3 

Earle,  S.  C  C  3 

Easley,  S.  C  B  2 

EarlyBranch,S.  CD  4 
Eastover,  S.  C.D  3 
Ebenezer,   S.   C.E  2 

Eddy,  S.  C  E  3 

Edgefield,  S.  C.C  3 
Edgmoor,  S.  C.C  2 
Edisto  Id.,  S.C.  .D  4 
Edmund,  S.  C.C  3 
Edwards,  S.  C.D  2 

Eff^e,  S.  C  B  3 

Effingham,  S.  C.E  2 
Ehrhardt,  S.  C.C  3 
Eldorado.  S.  C.F  3 

Elgin,  S.  C  D  2 

Elko,  S.  C  C  3 

Ellenton,  S.  C  .C  3 

Elliott,    S.    C  D  2 

Elloree,  S.  C  D  3 

Elzie,   S.   C  C  2 

English,  S.  C  D  2 

Enoree.   S.   C  C  2 

Enterprise,  S.  C.D  4 

Epps,  S.  C  E  3 

Epworth,  S.  C.B  2 

Equality,  S.  C  B  2 

Estill,  S.  C  C  4 

Ethel,  S.  C  D  4 

Eulala,  S.  C  C  2 

Eulonia,  S.  C  E  3 

Eureka,  S.  C  C  3 

Eutawville,  S.   CD  3 


Exchange,  S.  C.D  4 
Exile,  S.  C  E  2 


Fairbanks,  S.  C.  .C  2 

Fairfax,  S.  C  C  4 

Fairforest,  S.  C.B  2 
Fair  Plav,  S.CB  2 

Falfa,  S:  C  B  3 

Farmer,    S.   C  .  ..F  2 

Fechtig,  S.  C  D  4 

Ferguson,  S.  C..D  3 

Filbert,  S.  C  C  1 

Fingerville,  S.  C.B  1 
Finklea.  S.  C....F  2 
Flinthill,  S.  C.D  2 
Florence,  S.  C.E  2 

Fork,  S.  C  E  2 

Forestville,  S.  C.E  2 
Foreston,  S.  C.D  3 
Forkshoals,  S.  C.B  2 
Forney,  S.  C.  .  .  .  E  3 
Ft.  Fremont,  S.C.D  4 
Fort  Lawn,  S.  C.D  2 
Fort  Mill,  S.  CD  1 
Fort^Motte,  S.  C.D  3 
Ft.  Sumter,  S.  C.E  4 

Fortner,  S.  C  B  1 

Fountain  Inn,  S.CB  2 

Fowler,  S.  C  E  3 

Franklin,  S.  C.B  3 
Fredonia,  S.  C.C  3 
Freeman,  S.  C...B  2 
Frogmore,  S.  C.D  4 


Gadsden,  S.  C.D  3 

Gaffney,  S.  C  C  1 

GalivantsFy.,   S.CE  2 

Gary,   S.   C  C  2 

Garnett,   S.   C  C  4 

Gaston,  S.  C  C  3 

Gershom,  S.  C  F  2 

Georgetown,  S.  C.E  3 
Getsinger,  S.  C.D  4 
Gevhaus,  S.  C  .D  4 

Gideon,   S.   C  E  3 

Gifford,   S.   C..C  4 

Gilbert,  S.  C  C  3 

Gillisonville,  S.  CC  4 
Glendale,  S.  C.C  2 
Glenn  Sprs.,  S.C.C  2 
Godbold,   S.   C.E  3 

Goethe,  S.  C  C  4 

Goldmine,  S.  C.D  2 
Goldville,  S.  C.C  2 
Goodwill,  S.  C.D  3 
Gordon,  S.  C. . .  .E  3 
Goshenhill,  S.  C.C  2 

Gough,  S.  C  E  3 

Gourdin,   S.   C  .  .E  3 

Govan,  S.  C  C  3 

Grahamville,  S.  C.D  4 
Gramling,  S.  C.B  1 
Grandeur,  S.  C.  .  .B  1 
Graniteville,  S.  C.C  3 

Gray,  S.  C  C  4 

Gray  Court,  S.  C.B  2 
Grays  Hill,  S.  CD  4 
Great  Falls,  S.  CD  2 
Greeley ville,  S.  C.E  3 
Green  Sea,  S.  C...F  2 
Green  Pond,  S.C.D  4 
Greenland,  S.  C.C  3 
Greenville,  S.  C.B  2 
Greenwood,  S.  C.B  2 

Greer,  S.  C  B  2 

Grove,   S.   C  B  2 

Grover,  S.  C  D  3 

Guin,   S.  C  D  2 

Gurley,  S.  C  F  2 

Guthriesville,  S.C.C  2 


Hagood,  S.  C  D  2 

Haile,  S.  C  D  2 

Halsellville,  S.  C.C  2 

Hamer,  S.  C  E  2 

Hammond,  S.  C.F  3 
Hampton,  S.  C...C  4 

Hand,  S.  C  F  3 

Hannah,  S.  C  E  3 

Hardeeville,  S.  C.C  4 
Harleyville,  S.  C.D  3 
Harmony,  S.  C.D  2 
Harpers,   S.   C  .E  3 


HarrisSprs,,  S.C.C  1 
Hartsville,  S.  CD  2 

Haskell,  S.  C  E  3 

Ilattieville,  S.  C.C  3 
Hawthorne,    S.C.C  3 

liayville,  S.  C  C  3 

Hazel,  S.  C  B  2 

Hazelton,  S.  C.C  3 

Heath,  S.  C  D  2 

Heath  Spr.,  S.C.D  2 
lleinemaiin,  S.  C.E  3 

Helena,   S.   C  C  2 

lleudersonvilie, 

S.   C  D  4 

Heriot,  S.  C  D  2 

Hester,  S.  C  B  2 

Hey  ward,  .  C  D  4 

Hibernia,  S.  C  .C  3 

Hibler,  S.  C  B  3 

Hicklins,  S.  C  C  2 

Hickman,  S.  C.F  2 
HickoryGrove,S.C.C  1 

Hilda,  S.  C  C  3 

Hilton,  S.  C  — 

Hiltonhead,  S.  C.D  4 

Hodges,  S.  C  B  2 

Holden,  S.  C  B  2 

Holly  Hill,  S.  CD  3 
Holmesville,  S.  C.E  2 
Honea  Path,  S.CB  2 
Honeyhill,  S.  C.E  3 
Homewood,  S.  C.E  3 

Hop,  S.  C  C  2 

Hopkins,  S.  C.  .  .D  3 
Hornsboro,  S.  C.D  2 
Horsegall,  S.  C.C  4 

Howard,  S.  C  F  2 

Howelton,  S.  C.C  3 
Hudson,  S.  C..E  3 

Linger,  S.  C  E  3 

Hunters,  S.  C.B  2 
Hyman,  S.  C  E  3 


Indiantown,  S.C...E  3 

Inman,  S.  C  B  1 

Ionia,   S.  C  D  2 

loppa,  S.  C  E  2 

Irmo,  S.  C  — 

Irvington,  S.  C  .D  2 

Islandton,  S.  C.D  4 

Iva,  S.  C  B  2 


Jacobs,  S.  C  D  2 

Jackson,  S.  C...C  3 
Jacksonboro,  S.  C.D  4 

Jalapa,  S.  C  C  2 

James  Id.,  S.  C.  .E  4 
Tamison,   S.   C. .  .D  3 

ay,    S.   C  E  3 

edburg,  S.  C....D  3 
efferson,  S.  C.D  2 
enkinsville,    S.C.C  2 
Jennings,  S.  C...C  2 

Tocassee,  S.  C  B  2 

Johns  Island,  S.C.D  4 
Johnsonville,  S.CE  3 
Johnston,  S.  C...C  3 

Jones,   S.  C  B  2 

Jonesville,  S.  C.C  2 
Jordan,  S.  C  .  .  .D  3 
Tordanville,  S.  CE  3 

judson,   S.   C  E  2 

Justice,  S.  C  E  2 


Kalb,  S.  C  D  2 

Kathwood,  S.  C.C  3 

Keaton,   S.   C  B  2 

Kelton,  S.  C  C  2 

Kemper,  S.  C  E  2 

Kershaw.  S.  C...D  2 

Killian,  S.  C  D  2 

Kinards.    S.    C.C  2 

Kings  Creek,  S.C.C  1 

Kingstree,  S.  C.E  3 

Kingville,  S.  C.D  3 

KitchingsMillsS.C.C  3 

Kirksey.  S.  C  B  2 

Kline,  S.  C  C  3 

Kollock,  S.  C  E  2 


Labana,  S.  C. 
Laco,  S.  C. . . , 


.E  3 
.B  2 


South  Carolina 


KFN 


328 


South  Carolina 


lina,  Winthrop  College,  and  other 
colleges  and  universities  of  the 
state. 

Institutions  of  higher  learning 
supported  by  the  state  include 
the  University  of  South  Caro- 
lina (q.  v.),  at  Columbia;  Clem- 
son  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College,  at  Clemson ;  the  Medi- 
cal College  of  South  Carolina,  at 
Charleston  ;  the  Citadel,  the  Mil- 
itary College  of  South  Carolina, 
at  Charleston  ;  Winthrop  College 
(for  women),  at  Rock  Hill;  and 
the  State  Agricultural  and  Me- 
chanical College  for  Negroes,  at 
Orangeburg. 

Among  private  institutions  of 
higher  learning  are  Wofford  Col- 
lege (q.  v.),  at  Spartanburg; 
Furman  University  (q.  v.),  at 
Greenville ;  Erskine  College,  at 
Due  West ;  Columbia  College,  at 
Columbia ;  College  of  Charles- 
ton, at  Charleston  ;  Presbyterian 
College  of  South  Carolina,  at 
Clinton;  Lander  College  (for 
women),  at  Greenwood;  Coker 
College,  at  Hartsville ;  Newberry 
College,  at  Newberry ;  Converse 
College,  at  Spartanburg ;  Lime- 
stone College  (for  women),  at 
Gaffney ;  Claflin  University  (Ne- 
gro), at  Orangeburg;  Allen  Uni- 
versity (Negro),  at  Columbia; 
Morris  College  (Negro),  at  Sum- 
ter; and  Benedict  College  (Ne- 
gro), at  Columbia. 

Charities  and  Corrections, 
— The  state  charitable  and  penal 
institutions  include  the  Indus- 
trial School  for  Boys,  at  Flor- 
ence ;  the  Industrial  School  for 
Girls,  at  Columbia ;  the  Confed- 
erate Home  School,  at  Charles- 
ton ;  the  State  Hospital,  and  the 
Reformatory  for  Negro  Boys,  at 
Columbia ;  the  Training  School 
for  the  Feeble-minded,  at  Clin- 
ton ;  the  Fairwold  Industrial 
School  for  Negro  Girls,  near 
Columbia ;  the  South  Carolina 
Sanatorium  (white)  and  the  Pal- 
metto Sanatorium  (colored), 
both  for  tubercular  patients,  at 
State  Park ;  the  John  de  la 
Howe  School,  at  McCormick ; 
and  the  State  Penitentiary  (in- 
cluding a  women's  unit),  at  Co- 
lumbia. There  is  a  school  for 
deaf  and  blind,  at  Cedar  Springs. 
A  Veterans'  Hospital  was  erected 
near  Columbia  in  1932  and  great- 
ly enlarged  in  1937. 

Government —The  state  has 
adopted  constitutions  at  various 
times — namely,  1776,  1778, 
1790,  1865,  1868,  and  1895. 
Amendments  may  be  proposed  in 
either  house  of  the  legislature ; 
they  must  be  approved  first  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  each  house, 
then  by  a  majority  of  the  voters 
at  a  popular  election,  and  finally 
by  a  majority  of  each  house  of 
the  succeeding  legislature.  A 
constitutional  convention  may  be 
called  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of 
the  legislature,  ratified  by  a  ma- 


jority vote  of  the  people.  Citi- 
zens resident  in  the  state  two 
years,  in  the  county  one  year, 
and  in  the  precinct  four  months, 
who  have  registered,  may  vote. 
In  order  to  register,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  be  able  to  read  and  write 
English  or  to  have  paid  taxes 
payable  the  previous  year  on 
property  within  the  state  assessed 
at  $300  or  more. 

The  chief  executive  officers  are 
the  governor,  lieutenant-gover- 
nor, secretary  of  state,  treasurer, 
budget  secretary,  attorney-gen- 
eral, controller-general,  adjutant- 
general,  and  superintendent  of 
education.  The  governor  has  the 
pardoning  and  veto  power,  which 
extends  to  items  in  appropriation 
bills,  and  which  is  overcome  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses  of 
the  legislature. 

The  legislature  consists  of  a 
senate,  one-half  of  whose  mem- 
bers are  elected  biennially  (for 
four  years),  and  a  house  of  rep- 
resentatives of  124  members 
elected  biennially.  Regular  ses- 
sions convene  annually  in  Jan- 
uary. Bills  for  appropriating 
revenue  must  originate  in  the 
house  of  representatives. 

The  judicial  authority  is  vest- 
ed in  a  supreme  court,  consist- 
ing of  five  justices  elected  by 
the  legislature  for  ten  years  ;  in 
two  circuit  courts — namely,  a 
court  of  common  pleas  and  a 
court  of  general  sessions,  the 
judges  of  which  are  chosen  by 
the  legislature  for  four  years ; 
and  in  county  and  municipal 
courts. 

Under  Congressional  appor- 
tionment based  on  the  1940  cen- 
sus. South  Carolina  has  six  Rep- 
resentatives in  the  National  Con- 
gress. Columbia  is  the  state 
capital. 

History, — The  Spaniards  are 
credited  with  being  the  first  vis- 
itors to  the  region  which  com- 
prises the  present  State  of  South 
Carolina,  landing  at  what  is  now 
Port  Royal  in  1520.  On  May 
27,  1562,  a  party  of  French  Hu- 
guenots, led  by  Jean  Ribault. 
made  a  second  landing  at  Port 
Royal,  established  a  fort  and 
named  it  Arx  Carolina  (Fort 
Charles)  for  Charles  ix.  Upon 
the  burning  of  their  fort,  in  the 
following  year,  they  abandoned 
the  country  and  returned  to 
France. 

In  1629  Charles  i  of  England, 
claiming  the  land  on  the  basis  of 
the  Cabots'  explorations,  granted 
to  Sir  Robert  Heath  a  strip  of 
territory,  to  be  known  as  Caro- 
lina, lying  between  the  parallels 
of  31°  and  36°  n.  latitude,  and 
extending  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Heath  neglected  this  princely 
grant,  and  in  1663,  Charles  ii 
made  a  second  graht  of  the  same 
area  to  eight  'Lords  Proprietors.' 
Two    years    later    these  limits 


were  changed  to  the  parallels  of 
29°  and  36°  30'— the  northern 
limit  being  nearly  on  the  line  of 
the  northern  boundary  of  the 
present  State  of  North  Carolina. 

In  1670,  William  Sayle,  with 
about  200  followers,  established 
on  the  Ashley  River  the  first 
English  colony  in  what  is  now 
South  Carolina,  calling  it 
Charlestown.  Ten  years  later  the 
colony  removed  to  the  junction 
of  the  Ashley  and  Cooper  rivers, 
where  a  new  town,  called  Charles 
Town,  was  founded. 

The  government  of  Carolina 
was  vested  in  the  proprietors, 
subject  to  certain  limiting  pow- 
ers left  to  the  colonists  them- 
selves. The  northern  and  south- 
ern settlements,  Albemarle  and 
Clarendon — afterward  respec- 
tively North  and  South  Carolina 
— had  from  the  beginning  sepa- 
rate governments.  The  proprie- 
tors gave  to  the  colony  a  constitu- 
tion which  had  been  draughted 
by  John  Locke  (q.  v.)  and  known 
as  the  'Fundamental  Constitu- 
tion.' Proprietors,  however,  su- 
perseded most  of  its  provisions 
with  instructions  to  the  various 
governors,  putting  into  operation 
only  those  provisions  which  were 
practicable  in  a  new  and  sparse- 
ly settled  province. 

From  the  beginning,  the  South 
Carolina  settlements  were  pros- 
perous. Agriculture  early  be- 
came the  leading  industry,  and 
no  scarcity  of  food,  such  as 
troubled  many  of  the  other  set- 
tlenients,  was  felt  here.  The 
cultivation  of  rice  was  begun 
about  1680  and  increased  rapidly. 
In  1747  the  combined  value  of 
rice  and  indigo  exported  was 
$550,000,  and  in  1775,  $5,000,- 
000.  ^ 

This  agricultural  development 
made  slavery  profitable.  The 
first  settlers  had  brought  Negroes 
with  them  from  Barbados  and 
Bermuda,  and  in  1720  the  num- 
ber had  increased  to  12,000 — the 
whites  numbering  at  the  same 
time  only  9,000.  In  1717  an 
import  duty  of  $150  each  was 
placed  upon  slaves. 

The  year  1731  saw  the  intro- 
duction of  the  first  printing 
press,  and  in  that  year  the  first 
newspaper,  the  South  Carolina 
Weekly  Journal,  was  published. 
A  rapid  immigration  of  Swiss 
and  Scotch-Irish  occurred  after 
1730  ;  and  settlers  from  Virginia, 
Pennsylvania,  and  other  prov- 
inces to  the  north  arrived.  From 
1725  to  the  Revolution  the  in- 
crease of  population  is  estimated 
at  seven-fold. 

The  native  Indians  were  for 
the  most  part  friendly,  but  were 
from  time  to  time  antagonized 
by  the  colonists.  In  1715  the 
Yemassee  Indians  caused  trou- 
ble, and  Cherokee  uprisings  oc- 
curred in  1757,  1760,  and  1775. 


South  Carolina 


KFN 


329 


Southcott 


The  Cherokees  ceded  almost  all 
their  possessions  in  the  territory 
in  1755. 

The  oppressions  of  the  mother 
country  had  little  effect  upon  the 
agricultural  population  of  South 
Carolina,  and  for  a  long  time  it 
remained  loyal.  Once  enlisted  in 
the  cause  of  freedom,  however, 
the  province  became  an  ardent 
supporter.  In  1769  it  entered 
into  a  non-importation  agree- 
ment;  in  1774  it  sent  financial 
aid  to  Boston,  and  was  repre- 
sented at  the  Continental  Con- 
gress ;  and  it  was  the  first  of  the 
provinces  to  adopt  a  provincial 
constitution  (1776).  In  1776  the 
British  under  Sir  Henry  Clinton 
and  Sir  Peter  Parker  tried  to 
capture  Charles  Town  and  sum- 
mon the  Loyalists,  but  they  were 
repulsed  in  an  assault  on  Fort 
Moultrie  (q.  v.). 

During  the  War  of  the  Revo- 
lution, South  Carolina  contrib- 
uted more  money  than  any  other 
state,  except  Massachusetts  ;  and 
furnished  the  leaders  Marion, 
Sumter,  and  Pickens.  More 
than  one  hundred  actions  were 
fought  within  its  borders,  and 
the  state  suffered  greatly  from 
invasion.  In  1780  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  surrounded  Charles 
Town,  and  compelled  its  sur- 
render by  Gen.  Benjamin  Lin- 
coln, with  about  4,000  men. 
Other  engagements  were  fought 
at  Camden  and  King's  Mountain 
in  1780,  and  at  Hobkirk's  Hill 
(near  Camden)  and  Eutaw 
Springs  in  1781. 

In  1786  it  was  voted  to  move 
the  capital  from  Charleston  to 
Columbia  (actual  removal,  1790). 
On  May  23,  1788,  the  General 
Assembly  adopted  the  Federal 
Constitution.  In  1790  a  new 
state  constitution  was  adopted, 
which  greatly  extended  the  pow- 
ers of  the  legislature. 

After  the  formation  of  the 
Federal  Government  tariff  trou- 
bles began.  South  Carolina  re- 
garded the  ever-increasing  pro- 
tective duties  as  unjust  to  her 
agricultural  interests,  and  the  so- 
called  Nullification  (q.  v.)  move- 
ment culminated  in  a  state  con- 
vention, called  in  1832,  which 
declared  such  laws  unconstitu- 
tional. Congress  retaliated  with 
the  Force  Bill  (q.  v.)  in  1833; 
but  in  the  same  year  passed  the 
Clay  Compromise  Bill,  which 
promised  a  gradual  reduction  of 
the  tariff  until  1842. 

One  of  the  earliest  railroads 
in  the  country  was  the  Charles- 
ton and  Hamburg,  built  by  the 
state.  It  was  begun  in  1830, 
and  opened  in  1832. 

South  Carolina  took  the  lead 
in  the  Secession  (q.  v.)  move- 
ment and  the  organization  of  the 
Confederate  States — the  ordi- 
nance of  secession  being  passed 
on  Dec,  20,   1860.     The  bom- 


bardment of  Fort  Sumter  (q.  v.) 
in  Charleston  Harbor,  on  April 
12-13,  1861,  marked  the  open- 
ing of  the  Civil  War  ;  while  the 
evacuation  of  Charleston  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1865,  was  one  of  its  clos- 
ing events.  In  1865,  after  his 
famous  march  to  the  sea,  Gen. 
W.  T.  Sherman  (q.  v.)  led  his 
army  across  South  Carolina,  in- 
flicting enormous  damage  to 
property  within  the  state.  Dur- 
ing the  war  South  Carolina  con- 
tributed 62,838  effective  fighting 
men  to  the  Confederate  Army. 

At  the  close  of  the  war,  upon 
the  refusal  of  the  state  to  adopt 
the  Fourteenth  Amendment,  a 
military  government  was  main- 
tained for  twelve  years.  In  1868 
a  new  constitution  was  adopted 
providing  for  Negro  suffrage, 
and  the  state  was  readmitted  to 
the  Union  on  June  25.  South 
Carolina  was  one  of  the  worst 
sufferers  during  the  Reconstruc- 
tion period.  (See  Reconstruc- 
tion). The  gubernatorial  elec- 
tion of  1876  resulted  in  an  ex- 
tremely bitter  contest,  and  the 
establishment  of  rival  govern- 
ments. 

On  Aug.  31,  1886,  Charleston 
was  visited  by  a  destructive 
earthquake.  (See  Charleston, 
S.  C).  In  August,  1893,  a  ter- 
rible storm  inflicted  immense 
damage,  with  a  loss  of  over  a 
thousand  lives.  In  1902  the 
South  Carolina  and  West  Indian 
Exposition  was  held  in  Charleston. 

In  1920  a  state  board  of  pub- 
lic welfare  was  created,  but  it 
ceased  functioning  in  1926,  when 
its  appropriation  was  vetoed.  A 
state  board  of  fisheries  was  cre- 
ated in  1921.  A  law  establish- 
ing a  statewide  road  system  to 
be  financed  by  taxes  on  gasoline 
and  motor  cars  was  passed  in 
1924.  In  the  same  year  an 
equalization  education  law  was 
enacted,  providing  for  more  near- 
ly equal  educational  opportuni- 
ties for  rich  and  poor  districts. 
In  1929  roads  were  financed  by 
a  bond  issue  of  about  $65,000,- 
000.  In  that  year  also  a  bridge 
connecting  Charleston  and  the 
mainland  was  opened  (cost,  $6,- 
000,000).  In  1930  Saluda  Dam 
(also  known  as  Dreher  Shoals 
Dam)  near  Columbia  was  com- 
pleted, one  of  the  largest  devel- 
opments of  its  kind  in  the  United 
States.  A  state  planning  board, 
with  advisory  powers  only,  was 
created  in  1933  and  legalized  as 
part  of  the  government  in  1938. 
In  1937  a  child-labor  law  was 
passed,  prohibiting  children  un- 
der the  age  of  sixteen  from  work- 
ing in  mines,  factories,  and  tex- 
tile establishments.  Two  torna- 
does struck  Charleston  in  Sep- 
tember, 1938,  resulting  in  twen- 
ty-nine deaths  and  property  dam- 
age of  more  than  $2,000,000.  In 
August,  1940,  a  hurricane  swept 


the  coast,  hitting  hardest  Beau- 
fort, Edisto  Island,  and  Charles- 
ton ;  about  forty  persons  were 
killed  and  there  was  heavy  dam- 
age to  property  and  crops.  The 
Santee  Dam,  a  major  power 
project,  was  completed  in  1941. 

In  national  politics  South  Car- 
olina has  been  Democratic,  ex- 
cept from  1868  to  1876,  when  the 
Republican  government  was  up- 
held by  the  presence  of  United 
States  troops. 

Bibliography. — Consult  D. 
F.  Houston,  Critical  Study  of 
Nullification  in  South  Carolina 
(1896)  ;  E.  McCrady,  History  of 
South  Carolina  (4  vols.,  1897- 
1902)  ;  W.  W.  Ball,  The  State 
That  Forgot  (1932)  ;  F.  B.  Sim- 
kins  and  R.  H.  Woody,  South 
Carolina  during  Reconstruction 
(1932)  ;  D.  D.  Wallace,  History 
of  South  Carolina  (4  vols., 
1934)  ;  S.  G.  Stoney,  Plantations 
of  the  Carolina  Lozv  Country 
(1938);  J.  H.  Wolfe,  Jcfferso- 
nian  Democracy  in  South  Caro- 
lina^ (1940);  South  Carolina 
Writers'  Project,  South  Caro- 
lina: A  Guide  to  the  Palmetto 
State  (1941);  R.  G.  Rhett, 
Charleston  {\94\)  ;  C.  J.  Milling, 
Red  Carolinians  (1941). 

South  Carolina  Inter- State 
Exposition.    See  Exhibitions. 

South  Carolina,  Univer- 
sity of,  a  state  institution  for 
both  men  and  women,  at  Colum- 
bia, was  founded  in  1801,  opened 
in  1805,  closed  during  the  Civil 
War,  when  the  buildings  were 
used  as  a  hospital  for  both 
armies,  and  reopened  with 
amended  charter  in  1866.  Be- 
cause of  the  unsettled  political 
condition  of  the  state,  its  charter 
was  amended  and  the  university 
was  reorganized  in  1878,  1880, 
1887,  1890,  and  1906.  It  now 
comprises  a  Graduate  School, 
Schools  of  Arts  and  Science,  of 
Commerce,  of  Engineering,  of 
Education,  of  Pharmacy,  and  of 
Law,  and  an  Extension  Depart- 
ment. 

South'cott,  Joanna  (1750- 
1814),  English  domestic  servant 
who  became  a  religious  visionary 
and  sectary,  was  born  in  Git- 
tisham,  Devonshire.  Having 
prophesied  with  some  success, 
she  proclaimed  herself,  about 
1792,  the  'woman'  of  Rev.  xii, 
and  began  to  'seal  the  elect,'  en- 
suring their  salvation  for  a  mone- 
tary consideration.  She  went  to 
London  on  the  invitation  of 
Sharp,  the  engraver,  and  pub- 
lished The  Book  of  JVonders, 
Prophecies  and  Visions,  and 
other  works.  Her  followers 
numbered  over  100,000.  many  of 
whom  were  still  to  be  found  fifty 
years  after  her  death.  Large 
sums  of  money  were  left  by  a 
devoted  follower  for  printing 
the  Sacred  Writings  of  Joanna 
Southcott. 


South  Dakota 


KFN 


330 


South  Dakota 


South  Dakota  (popularly 
called  the  'Coyote  State'  and  the 
'Sunshine  State'),  one  of  the 
North  Central  States  of  the 
United  States,  lies  between  the 
parallels  of  42°  28'  and  45°  57' 
N.  lat.  and  the  meridians  of  96° 
26'  and  104°  3'  w.  long.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  North 
Dakota ;  on  the  east  by  Minne- 
sota and  Iowa;  on  the  south  by 
Nebraska ;  and  on  the  west  by 
Wyoming  and  Montana.  Por- 
tions of  its  boundary  are  marked 
by  Lake  Traverse  and  Big  Stone 
Lake  on  the  northeast,  by  the 
Big  Sioux  River  on  the  east,  and 
the  Missouri  River  on  the  south. 
The  total  area  is  76,536  square 
miles,  of  which  511  are  water 
surface. 

Topography, — The  surface 
of  the  state  is  divided  by  the 
Missouri  River  into  almost  equal 
parts.  East  of  the  river  it  is  a 
gently  rolling  plain,  treeless  ex- 
cept for  a  narrow  margin  along 
the  streams,  and  diversified  by  a 
number  of  small  lakes,  such  as 
Poinsett,  Kampeska,  and  Wau- 
bay.  The  region  west  of  the 
river  is  for  the  most  part  dry, 
barren,  and  more  deeply  eroded 
and  weathered.  It  is  diversified 
by  sandstone  buttes,  such  as 
Thunder,  Saddle,  Wedge  Tent, 
and  Twin  Buttes,  and  by  short 
ranges  of  hills,  such  as  the  Cave 
and  Short  Pine  Hills,  which  cul- 
minate in  the  southwest  corner 
in  the  Black  Hills  and  the  so- 
called  'Bad  Lands'  surrounding 
them.  The  Black  Hills  range  in 
elevation  from  about  3,000  to 
7,242  feet,  the  highest  summit 
being  Harney  Peak.  They  cover 
a  total  area  of  about  6,000  square 
miles,  of  which  more  than  one- 
third  is  covered  by  a  dense,  dark 
forest  of  yellow  pine. 

The  Missouri  River  drains  the 
entire  state,  except  a  small  area 
in  the  northeast,  which  drains 
into  the  Red  River  of  the  North. 
The  chief  tributaries  of  the  Mis- 
souri are,  on  the  west,  the  Grand, 
Moreau  (or  Owl),  Cheyenne, 
Bad,  and  White;  on  the  east,  the 
James  (or  Dakota),  which  rises 
in  North  Dakota  and  flows  en- 
tirely across  the  state,  and  the 
Big  Sioux,  which  flows  along  the 
eastern  boundary. 

Climate  and  Soil. — The  cli- 
mate is  distinctly  continental,  be- 
ing characterized  by  great  ex- 
tremes and  abrupt  changes.  The 
dryness  of  the  atmosphere  is  a 
marked  feature  and  makes  the 
winter  extremes  much  less  se- 
vere. The  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture at  Yankton  is  13°  f.  in 
January  and  74°  in  July,  with 
extremes  of  —34°  and  107°. 
Snow  -Storms  accompanied  by 
high  winds  are  occasional  fea- 
tures of  the  winter  season.  The 
mean  annual  precipitation  is 
about  20  inches,  ranging  from 


14  inches  at  Ashcroft  to  26 
inches  at  Aberdeen. 

The  soil  east  of  the  Missouri 
River  is  mainly  a  glacial  till, 
which  is  rich  and  easily  culti- 
vated. Much  of  the  soil  west  of 
this  river,  excluding  that  of  the 
Bad  Lands  and  mountainous  sec- 
tions, consists  of  aqueous  drift. 

Geology, — Except  for  the 
southeastern  and  southwestern 
corners,  the  state  is  covered  with 
Cretaceous  deposits  of  lime- 
stones, clays,  and  marls,  which 
include  in  the  northwest  portion 
the  sandstones,  conglomerates, 
and  clays  of  the  Laramie  stage. 
The  surface  soil  of  that  portion 
east  of  the  Missouri  River  is 
composed  of  the  glacial  till  of 
the  Pleistocene  ice  age.  There 
are  three  areas  of  Archaean 
rocks ;  near  Big  Stone  Lake  is 
an  area  of  Laurentian  granite ; 
in  a  limited  area  between  the  Big 
Sioux  and  James  rivers  is  an 
area  of  Sioux  quartzite  ;  and  in 
the  Black  Hills  and  surrounding 
region  a  series  of  concentric 
folds  of  Archaean  rocks  and  later 
formations,  representing  every 
period  of  the  Palaeozoic  age  ex- 
cept the  Devonian,  and  some 
limestones  of  Jura-Trias. 

Mining, — The  mineral  re- 
sources of  the  state  are  found 
principally  in  the  Black  Hills  in 
the  southwest.  Gold,  discovered 
in  that  region  in  1874,  has  always 
been  the  leading  mineral  product. 
South  Dakota  ranks  second  (to 
California)  among  the  states  of 
the  nation  in  gold  production. 
The  Homestake  Mine,  at  Lead 
in  Lawrence  County,  is  the  larg- 
est gold-producing  mine  in  the 
United  States,  and  has  yielded 
more  than  $300,000,000  worth  of 
the  precious  metal  since  1877. 
The  act  of  1934  which  fixed  the 
price  of  gold  at  $35  an  ounce 
brought  prosperity  to  the  gold- 
producing  regions. 

Although  gold  deserves  the 
greatest  emphasis,  there  is  a 
substantial  yield  of  other  min- 
eral substances,  as  well  as  of 
building  stone  and  other  struc- 
tural materials.  South  Dakota 
is  one  of  the  leading  states  in  the 
output  of  tin,  mica,  beryllium 
ore,  feldspar,  and  lithium  min- 
erals. Large  deposits  of  lignite 
coal  in  the  northwest  part  of  the 
state  have  not  been  exploited  be- 
cause of  the  lack  of  transporta- 
tion. 

Also  listed  among  the  state's 
products  are  sand  and  gravel, 
cement,  silver,  natural  gas,  raw 
clay,  clay  products,  gems  and 
precious  stones,  gypsum,  lead, 
manganese,  bentonite,  lime,  ar- 
senous  oxide,  sandlime  brick, 
tungsten  ore,  and  mineral  waters. 

Forestry, — Most  of  the  wood- 
land is  in  the  Black  Hills  dis- 
trict. The  principal  trees  are 
western  yellow  pine  and  white 


spruce  ;  others  are  red  cedar,  elm, 
Cottonwood,  box  elder,  aspan, 
ground  juniper,  balsam,  poplar, 
birch,  ash,  elm,  and  willow. 
There  are  three  national  forests, 
the  Harney  and  the  Black  Hills, 
covering  more  than  a  million 
acres  in  the  Black  Hills  region, 
and  the  Custer,  in  Harding  Coun- 
ty. 

Fisheries, — The  commercial 
fisheries  are  unimportant.  Game 
fish  abound  in  the  lakes  and 
streams  of  the  state.  The  Mis- 
souri River  and  its  tributaries 
yield  catfish  and  such  other  varie- 
ties as  sunfish,  crappies,  bull- 
heads, and  wall-eyed  pike ;  trout 
is  the  principal  variety  in  the 
Black  Hills  region  ;  and  there  are 
popular  fishing  resorts  at  numer- 
ous lakes,  among  them  Pickerel, 
Enemy  Swim,  Kampeska,  Trav- 
erse, and  Big  Stone.  The  state 
maintains  a  number  of  fish  hatch- 
eries. 

Agriculture, — Farming  is  the 
leading  industry  of  South  Da- 
kota. Corn,  the  most  important 
crop,  is  raised  in  all  counties,  but 
the  yield  is  heaviest  in  the  eastern 
river  valleys,  which  are  favored 
by  rich  soil  and  abundant  rain- 
fall. Wheat  is  next  in  impor- 
tance, and  in  the  output  of  spring 
wheat  South  Dakota  is  one  of  the 
leading  states  of  the  nation. 
Oats  and  barley  also  are  raised  in 
great  quantity,  and  there  is  a 
large  production  of  hay  and  for- 
age, rye,  flaxseed,  and  potatoes. 
Other  vegetables  include  cab- 
bage, string  beans,  cucumbers, 
tomatoes,  and  onions.  There  is  a 
considerable  yield  of  apples, 
strawberries,  raspberries,  plums, 
and  cherries. 

West  of  the  Missouri  River  are 
large  areas  not  suited  to  farming 
because  of  poor  soil,  scanty  mois- 
ture, or  unfavorable  topography, 
which  are  dependent  on  stock 
raising.  In  sharp  contrast  with 
the  surrounding  prairies  is  the 
irrigated  area  near  the  western 
boundary,  where  the  Belle 
Fourche  Dam  provides  water  for 
more  than  100,000  acres.  Here 
sugar  beets  are  the  important 
crop,  and  there  is  a  large  growth 
of  alfalfa.  In  the  valleys  of  the 
Black  Hills  vegetables,  especially 
potatoes  and  lettuce,  are  raised 
for  market. 

Drought,  accompanied  by  dust 
storms  and  hordes  of  grasshop- 
pers, in  the  years  1933-36, 
brought  sufl^ering  to  farmers 
throughout  the  state,  though  the 
southeastern  section  was  least  af- 
fected. Federal  aid  to  both  agri- 
culture and  business  was  invalu- 
able in  this  period  of  adversity. 

Stock  Raising, — Large  num- 
bers of  cattle  are  raised  on  the 
ranges  west  of  the  Missouri 
River.  Many  of  the  young  steers, 
however,  are  brought  from  the 
range  country  to  the  eastern  part 


Photos  Courtesy  The  Burlington  Route 

WEIRD  ROCK  B^ORMATIONS  IN  THE  BLACK  HILLS  OF  SOUTH  DAKOTA 


South  Dakota 


KFN 


332 


South  Dakota 


of  the  state,  where  they  are  fat- 
tened on  the  surplus  corn  grown 
here,  then  shipped  to  market. 
Dairying  is  important,  especially 
in  the  northeast  part  of  the  state. 
Sheep  are  raised  in  great  number, 
both  in  large  range  flocks  and  in 
farm  plots  throughout  the  state  ; 
an  area  of  a  hundred  square 
miles  in  the  northwestern  corner 
of  the  state  is  notable  for  the 
large  number  of  sheep  it  sup- 
ports. Hog  raising  accompanies 
the  production  of  corn  and  other 
grains.  A  large  revenue  is  de- 
rived from  the  poultry  industry. 

Manufactures, — With  a 
sparse  population  and  few  large 
cities,  South  Dakota  is  predomi- 
nantly an  agricultural  state,  and 
the  manufacturing  enterprises 
depend  largely  on  the  agricul- 
tural output.  In  the  total  value 
of  manufactured  products,  South 
Dakota  ranks  low  among  the 
states  of  the  nation.  In  1919  the 
value  of  products  was  nearly 
$62,200,000;  in  1929  it  was 
about  $97,700,000;  and  in  1939, 
nearly  $81,200,000. 

Meat  packing  is  the  most  im- 
portant industry.  Of  major  im- 
portance also  is  the  production 
of  butter,  cheese,  and  condensed 
milk.  Flour,  feed,  and  grain-mill 
products  and  bread  and  other 
bakery  products  are  of  consider- 
able value.  Other  leading  indus- 
tries or  products  are  railroad-car 
construction  and  repairs  ;  lumber 
and  timber  products  ;  newspaper 
and  periodical  printing  and  pub- 
lishing ;  wholesale  poultry  dress- 
ing and  packing ;  ice  cream ; 
planing-mill  products ;  sheet- 
metal  work  ;  non-alcoholic  bev- 
erages ;  and  concrete  products. 
The  state  owns  a  cement  plant  at 
Rapid  City,  which  has  virtually 
monopolized  the  cement  business 
of  the  state  since  1925. 

Transportation. — The  state 
is  well  provided  with  transporta- 
tion facilities.  Nearly  every 
county  has  one  or  more  railroads. 
The  total  railway  mileage  is 
about  4,200.  The  principal  lines 
are  the  Chicago  and  North  West- 
ern and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
St.  Paul  and  Pacific ;  others  in- 
clude the  Chicago,  Burlington 
and  Quincy,  the  Great  Northern, 
and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
and  Pacific.  There  are  six 
bridges  across  the  Missouri  Riv- 
er. The  state  has  an  excellent 
network  of  graveled  highways. 
The  port  of  entry  for  both  North 
and  South  Dakota  is  Pembina. 

Population, — According  to 
the  Federal  Census  for  1940  the 
population  of  South  Dakota  was 
642,961,  a  decrease  of  49,888,  or 
7.2  per  cent,  since  1930  (com- 
pared with  an  increase  of  8.8  per 
cent  during  1920-30).  The  ur- 
ban population  was  158,087,  or 
24.6  per  cent  of  the  total  (com- 
pared with  18.9  per  cent  in  1930). 


Cities  of  more  than  10,000 
population  in  1940  were:  Sioux 
Falls,  40,832;  Aberdeen,  17,015; 
Rapid  City,  13,844;  Huron,  10,- 
843;  Mitchell,  10,633;  Water- 
town,  10,617. 

The  population  according  to 
previous  census  reports  for  South 
Dakota  was:  (1890)  348,600; 
(1900)  401,570;  (1910)  583,- 
888;  (1920)  636,547;  (1930) 
692,849. 

Education, — South  Dakota 
has  a  state  board  of  regents  of 
five  members,  appointed  by  the 
governor  for  six  years,  having 
charge  of  the  state  educational 
institutions,  and  a  state  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction, 
elected  for  a  term  of  two  years. 
A  county  superintendent  is  elect- 
ed biennially  on  a  non-partisan 
basis  in  each  county.  Attendance 
is  compulsory  at  some  public  or 
private  school  for  children  of 
eight  to  seventeen  or  until  com- 
pletion of  the  eighth  grade,  for 
the  full  school  term,  which  is  at 
least  eight  months.  The  educa- 
tion and  training  of  teachers  are 
provided  in  state  teachers'  col- 
leges at  Aberdeen,  Madison, 
Spearfish,  and  Springfield. 

The  state  maintains  the  South 
Dakota  Agricultural  College 
(q.  v.),  at  Brookings;  State 
School  of  Mines,  at  Rapid  City  ; 
and  the  University  of  South  Da- 
kota (q.  v.),  at  Vermilion. 

The  denominational  colleges 
are  Augustana  College  (Luther- 
an) and  Sioux  Falls  College 
(Baptist),  both  at  Sioux  Falls; 
Dakota  Wesleyan  University 
(Methodist),  at  Mitchell;  Huron 
College  (Presbyterian),  at  Hu- 
ron; and  Yankton  College  (Con- 
gregational), at  Yankton. 

The  Federal  Government 
maintains  three  Indian  schools, 
at  Flandreau,  Rapid  City,  and 
Pierre. 

Charities  and  Corrections, 

— Under  control  of  the  state 
board  of  charities  and  correc- 
tions, consisting  of  three  mem- 
bers appointed  by  the  governor, 
are  the  following  state  institu- 
tions :  a  hospital  for  the  insane, 
at  Yankton  ;  a  tuberculosis  sana- 
torium, at  Sanator  ;  a  school  for 
the  deaf,  at  Sioux  Falls  ;  a  school 
and  home  for  the  feeble-minded, 
at  Redfield ;  a  school  for  the 
blind,  at  Gary ;  a  reformatory  at 
Plankinton  ;  and  the  state  peni- 
tentiary, at  Sioux  Falls.  At  Hot 
Springs  are  a  national  soldiers' 
home  and  a  state  soldiers'  home. 
Capital  punishment  was  abolished 
in  1915  but  was  restored  in  1939. 

Government. — The  present 
constitution  is  that  adopted  in 
1889,  as  since  amended.  Amend- 
ments must  be  approved  by  a 
majority  of  both  houses  of  the 
legislature,  and  subsequently  by 
a  majority  of  the  electors.  A 
convention  to  revise  the  consti- 


tution must  be  summoned  when 
desired  by  two-thirds  of  the 
members  of  each  house  of  the 
legislature  and  by  a  majority  of 
the  electors.  The  usual  suffrage 
qualifications  are  required.  The 
state  was  the  first  to  adopt  the 
initiative  and  referendum.  Five 
per  cent  of  the  voters  may  initi- 
ate legislation,  or  may  require 
the  referendum  of  bills  for  pop- 
ular approval. 

The  chief  executive  officers 
are  the  governor,  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor, secretary  of  state,  auditor, 
treasurer  (ineligible  after  two 
successive  terms),  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction,  attor- 
ney-general, and  commissioner  of 
school  and  public  lands — all 
elected  every  two  years.  The 
governor's  veto  extends  to  items 
in  an  appropriation  bill,  and  may 
be  overcome  by  a  two-thirds  vote 
of  both  houses  of  the  legislature. 

The  legislature  consists  of  a 
senate,  limited  to  not  fewer  than 
25  nor  more  than  45  members, 
and  a  house  of  representatives 
of  not  fewer  than  75  nor  more 
than  135  members — all  elected 
for  a  term  of  two  years.  Regu- 
lar sessions  convene  in  January 
of  odd  years,  and  are  limited  to 
sixty  days. 

Under  Congressional  appor- 
tionment based  on  the  1940  cen- 
sus. South  Dakota  has  two  Rep- 
resentatives in  the  National 
Congress.  Pierre  is  the  state 
capital. 

History, — The  present  State 
of  South  Dakota,  a  part  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  (q.  v.)  of 
1803,  was  first  visited  by  the 
Verendrye  brothers,  Frenchmen 
from  Canada,  in  1743  ;  later,  in 
1804  and  1806,  came  the  Lewis 
and  Clark  expedition.  In  1817 
Fort  Teton  was  established  on 
the  site  of  Fort  Pierre ;  and  in 
1831  the  American  Fur  Com- 
pany's steamboat  ascended  the 
upper  Missouri  River  to  Fort 
Pierre,  and,  the  following  year, 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Yellowstone. 
In  1838-39  General  Fremont 
(q.  v.)  made  extensive  explora- 
tions in  the  eastern  and  central 
portions  of  the  state. 

In  1851,  by  a  treaty  with  the 
Sioux  Indians,  the  United  States 
acquired  all  their  lands  east  of 
the  Big  Sioux  River.  Upon  the 
decline  of  the  fur  trade  in  the 
region.  Fort  Pierre  was  sold  to 
the  U.  S.  Government  for  a  mil- 
itary post,  which  in  1855  was 
occupied  by  General  Harney 
with  1,200  soldiers.  In  1857 
Sioux  Falls,  the  first  industrial 
settlement,  was  established  ;  and 
other  settlements  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  territory  followed  the 
chartering  of  the  Dakota  Land 
Company  in  the  same  year. 

Dakota  Territory,  as  organ- 
ized on  March  2,  1861,  had  orig- 
inally formed  part  of  Louisiana 


"Tislo 


hi  ^ 


-iMound  Cityj      \  °  Maitel 


Cogiwell 


A, 


JEvarts  eBangor\  .«»Hdle 
.AVALVVOUTI 


Houehtj?  Amhc!4tc  t     j'o.to        "»  ^^^vi^ 

'ATOr  T  11,    'r  .  Si$seto'S^s^o^S^^ 


Lindsay        l] g^,,^  j^jj^ 


,    ,.    "\  \LeVjie  (lH<>peU4ll  ( 

\h\>  a  k  o\  N  k 


loh<j  War 

!    UuV„iT:i»  *^''>nSSL^^  f     /        KA$htre,-r  IV     V    ^-^'"■'W     ^  Fort  Pier>«l^=aiffitW«<^e 


^Pavil' 


?    r'V       PorcupMe  ButtK  ' 


LjODtftl. 

ilmoe  \,„„„/?erf  Butte  \  „■^~--^<^i^^llaIube^•laia  1 
Hover  ,      \    o    5:"«Jla  ^^Uo"^sjlon^\p_^^™^^^^-;^o___^  jiln.bn 


Red  I^ke.  S.Dak.E  4 
Kee  Ilts.,  S.Uak.E  3 
Keliance,  S.  Uak.E  4 
Keva.  S.  Uak....A  2 
Revillo,  S.  Dak..H  2 
Rezek.  S.  Dak...G  4 
Richards.  S.  Dak.K  3 
Ridge.  Dak ...  F  3 
Riverside.  S.  Dak.CJ  4 
Roanoke,  S.  Uak.l-  2 
Robev,  S.  Dak.  .  .F  4 
Rochford,  S.  Dak. A  3 
Rockerville.S.Dak.A  4 
Rockham.  S.  Dak.F  3 
Roscoe,  S.  Dak..IC 
Rosebud.  S.  Dak.D  4 
Roslyn.  S.  nak..(;  2 
Roswell.  S.  Dak..(;  3 
Roubaix.  S.  Dak.A  3 
Rousseau,  S.  Dak.D  3 
Roweua,  S.  Dak.H  4 

Roy,  S.  Dak  K  3 

Rudolph.  S.  Dak.F  2 
Rumford,  S.Dak.G  2 
Running  Water, 

S.  Dak  G  5 


Twin  Brks.,S.Dak.H  2 
Tyndall,  S.  Dak.G  S 
Utica.  S.  Dak...G  S 


Vale.  S.  Dak  A  3 

ValleySprs.S.Dak.Il  4 

Valleyview,  .S.Dak.E  3 

Vandervoort.SDak.c;  3 

VanMetre,  S. Dak.D  3 

Veblen,  S.  Dak..G  2 

Vega,  S.  Dak  E  4 

Verdon,  S.  Dak.  .F  2 

Vermilion.  .S.  Dak. II  S 
Vernon.  S.  Dak.  .112 

Vesta,   .S.    Dak.  ...R  3 

Viborg,  .S.  D.il  (;  4 

Vienna,  S.  I )ak ...(',  3 

Viewfiehl.  .S,  Dak.li  3 
Vis  " 

Vin 

Virgil,  S.  Dak...F  3 
Vounany,  S.  Dak.G  4 
Volga,  .S.  Dak...H  3 

Volin,  S.  Dak  G  5 

Volunteer,  S.Dak.A  3 


St.  Elmo,  S.  Dak.F  4 

St.Herbert.  S.Dak.F  2 

St. Lawrence  SDak.F  3 

St.  Marys.  S.Dak.G  3 

St.Onge,    S.Dak..A  3 

Salem.  S.  Dak....G  4 

Savo.  S.   Dak....F  2 

Scalp,   S.   Dak.  .  .F  2 

Scoma,  S.  Dak.  ..A  3 

Scotlaii.l.  S.  Dak.G  4 

Scd^^»i^l,   S.  Dak.E  3 

Snin    S     :),,!    ...»  2 

Si'll.v,    S     1  1  11  .  .  .1)  2 

Suio;,,    .S.    li,:K..E  2 

Shc-ndan,  .S.  Dak.A  4 

Sherman,    S.  Dak. II  4 

Shiloh,   S.    Dak.  .1)  3 

Shindlcr,  S.  Dak.  II  4 

Silverfity,  S.Dak.A  3 

SiouxFalls,  S.  Dak.  1 1  4 

Sisoka,  S.  Dak... I!  4 

Sisseton,  S.  Dak.G  2 
Sisseton  Agency, 

S.  Dak  G  2 

Smith.  S.  Dak....C  3 

Smithville,  S.Dak.15  3 

Smithwick,  S.Dak.A  4 

So.Shore,  S.Dak..II  2 

Spain,  S.  Dak...G  2 

Spearfish,  S.  Dak.A  3 

Spencer.  S.  Dak..(;  4 

Spink,  .S.   Ilak.  .  ..II  S 

Spiil.K"^.  S.  1),,K.  ..F.  1 

S  HlM^lirM,  S,ll,,l.  (, 

Sta.rh.r.   S.   l).,k.l'  4 

Stearns,  S.  Dak.  .C  4 

Stephan,  S.  Dak.  .E  3 

Stickncv,  S.  Dak.F  4 

Stockholm,  S.Dak.lI  2 

Stoneville.  S.Dak.B  3 

Storm,  S.  Dak. .  .G  2 

Strandburg.S.Dak.H  2 

Strouseton, S.Dak.G  2 

Sturgis.   S.    nak..\  3 

Summit.  S.  Dak.  .(".  2 

Sunnyside,  S.Dak.G  2 

Sutherland,  S.Dak.F  2 

Sutley,  S.  Dak...E  2 

Sweeney,  S.  Dak.E  4 

Sylvia,  S.  Dak.  .  .E  4 


Wallace.  S.  Dak..G  2 
Wakot:da,  S.  Dak.G  4 
Ward,  S.  Dak...H  3 
Warner.  S.  Dak..F  2 
Watertown, S.Dak.lI  3 
Waterbury.  S.Dak.F  3 
Waubay,  S.  Dak..G  2 
Webster,  S.  Dak.G  2 
Templeton,  S.Dak.F  3 
Wentworth.S.Dak.H  4 
Weoley,  S.  Dak.  .F  2 
Wessington, S.Dak.F  3 
Wessington  Sprmgs, 

S.  Dak  F  3 

Westerville.S. Dak.G  5 
Wcstover,  S.Dak..D  4 
Weatport,  S.Dak.F  2 
Whec-lcr,  S.  Dak.F  4 
While  l.„  S.Dak.F  4 
W'Inlc.  S.  D.ik.  .  .11  3 
WhitiOwl.  S.Dak.B  3 
Whitcwood. S.Dak.A  3 
Willow  L.,  S.Dak.G  3 
Wilmot,  S.  Dak..  II  2 
Winans,  S.  Dak..H  2 
Windcave,  S.Dak.A  4 
Win. lorn,  S.  Dak.. II  2 
WiMlr.Ml.  S,  IV.k.d  3 
W  nmn-.  S.  I  V.k.  .  I'.  4 
Wnill.n'p.  S.   Dak.l-  3 


W  -il-.r^.  S.  I),k,  .1-  3 
W,M,ns,„Lrl.S.ll,-ik.l'  3 
Wurlhin^.  S.  Dak.U  4 


Zickrick,    S.  Dak..D  4 


Tabor,  S.  Dak...G  5 

Tea,  S.  Dak  11  4 

Tennis,  S.  Dak...E  3 
Tepee,  S.  Dak... A  3 
Terraville,  S.  Dak.A  3 
Terry,  S.  Dak.... A  3 
Tilford.  S.  Dak.. A  3 

Tislo,  S.  Dak  D  2 

Topbar,  S.  D.ak..C  3 
Toronto.  S.Dak..H  3 
Trent,  S,   D.ik.  .  .H  4 

Tripp.  S,  Dak  G  4 

Trov,  S.  Dak,...H  2 
Tulare,  S.  Dak.  .  .F  3 
Turton,  S.  Dak..F  2 


INDEX  OF  SOUTH  DAKOTA 


SOUTH  DAKOT.\— . 
Aberden,  S.Dak.  .F  2 
Academy,  S.  Dak.E  4 
Afton,  S.  Dak....E  3 

Agar,  S.  Dak  D  3 

Albany,  S.  Dak.  .A  3 
Albee,  S.  Dak...H  2 
Alcester,  S.  Dak.H  4 
Alexandria,  S.Dak.G  4 

Allen,  S.  Dak  C  4 

Alpena,  S.  Dak.  .F  3 
Alsen,  S.  Dak.  .  .H  5 
Altamont,  S.Dak.  H  3 
Altraria,   S.    Dak.H  3 

Ames,  S.  Dak  E  3 

Amherst.  S.  Dak.G  2 
Andover,  S.Dak.  .G  2 
Andrus,  S.  Dak..F  S 
Ardmore,  S.Dak.A  4 
Arlington.  S.  Dak.G  3 
Armour,  S.  Dak. .  F  4 

Artas,  S.  Dak  E  2 

Artesian.  S.  Dak.G  3 
Ashcreek,  S.  Dak.C  3 
Ashcroft,  S.  Dak.A  2 
Ashtori,  S.  Dak.  .F  2 
Astoria,  S.Dak....  H  3 
Athol,  S.  Dak....F  2 
Aurora,  S.  Dak..H  3 
Avon,   S.   Dak. .  .F  5 


Bailey,  S.  Dak...E  3 
Bakerville,  S.Dak.A  4 
Baltic,  S.  Dak.  .  .H  4 
Bancroft,  S.  Dak.G  3 
Bangor.  S.  Dak.  .D  2 

Bard,  S.  Dak  G  4 

Bates,  S.  Dak  F  3 

Bath,  S.  Dak  F  2 

Beaver,  S.  Dak.  .G  4 

Belle,  S.  Dak  G  3 

Belief ourcheSDak. A  3 
Bemis,  S.  Dak.  .  .H  3 

Bend,  S.  Dak  A  3 

Bendon,  S.  Dak..E  4 
Beresford,  S. Dak.H  4 

Bern,  S.  Dak  F  2 

Bethel,  S.  Dak.  .  .G  2 
Big  Bottom.S.Dak.A  3 
BigstoneCy,S. Dak.H  2 
BijouHills,  S.Dak.E  4 

Bison,  S.  Dak  B  2 

Bixby,  S.  Dak...  .B  2 
BlackHawk.S.Dak..\  3 
Blunt,  S.  Dak,...E  3 
Bonesteel,  S.Dak.F  4 
Bonilla,  S.  Dak...F  3 
Bossko,  S.  Dak.  .G  2 
Bowdle,  S.  Dak..E  2 

Boz,  S.  Dak  F  3 

Bradley,  S.  Dak.  .G  2 
Brandon,  S.  Dak.H  4 
Brandt,  S.  Dak.  .11  3 
BridgewaterS.Dak.G  4 
Bright,  S.  Dak.  .  .F  2 
Bristol,  S.  Dak.  .G  2 
Britton,  S.  Dak..G  2 
Broadland,  S.Dak.F  3 
Brookings.  S.Dak.lI  3 
Brown  Val.S.Dak.H  2 
Brule,  S.  Dak.  .  ..E  4 
Bruce,  S.  Dak.  .  .H  3 
Bryant,  S.  Dak...G  3 
Buffalo,  S.  Dak.. A  2 
Buffalo  Gap. S.Dak.A  4 
Burbank.  S.  Dak.H  5 
Burch,  S.  Dak.  .  .G  2 
Burdette,  S.  Dak.F  3 
Burkmere,  S.Dak.E  2 
Bushnell,  S.  Dak.H  3 
Butler,  S.  Dak..  .G  2 


Cactus,  S.  Dak.  ..H  3 

Cadwell,  S.  Dak.  .(;  2 

Callihan,    S.Dak.. G  3 

Campbell.  S.  Dak.D  2 

CampCrook.S.Dak..\  2 
Canastota.  S.Dak.G 

Canning,  S.  Dak.E  .■ 

Canova,  S.  Dak.  .G  i 

Canton.  S.  Dak.  .H  4 

Carbonate,  S.Dak.A  3 

Carpenter,  S.  Djk.G  3 


Carthage,  S.  Dak.G  3 
CascadeSps.S.Dak..A  4 
Castlewood,  S.Dak.G  3 
Cavite,  S.  Dak...D  4 
Cavour,  S.  Dak.  .F  3 
Centerville,S.Dak.H  4 
CentralCy.,  S.Dak.A  3 
Chamberlains  Dak.E  4 
Chance.  S.  Dak..B  2 
Chancellor,  S.Dak.H  4 
Chandler,  S.  Dak.E  4 
Chapelle.  S.  Dak.E  3 
Chautauqua, S.Dak.G  2 
Chester,  S.  Dak..G  4 
Cheyenne  Agency, 
Claremont,  S.Dak.F  2 
Clark,  S.  Dak....G  3 
Clayton,  S.  Dak..G  4 
ClearLake,  S.Dak.H  3 
Clifton,  S.  Dak..D  3 
Colman,  S.  Dak.  .H  4 
Colton,  S.  Dak...H  4 
Columbia,  S.Dak..F  2 
Cornell,  S.  Dak.  .F  3 
Corsica,  S.  Dak..F  4 
Corson,  S.  Dak.  .H  4 
Coyle,  S.  Dak.  ...F  4 
Conde,  S.  Dak.  .  .F  2 
Corona,  S.  Dak..H  2 
Crandon,  S.  Dak.F  3 
Crawford,  S.Dak.H  2 
Cresbard,  S.Dak..F  2 
Creston,  S.  Dak.  .B  4 
Crooks,  S.  Dak..H  4 
CrowCreek,  S.Dak.E  3 
Crowlake,  S.  Dak.F  4 

S.   Dak  D  2 

Custer,  S.  Dak... A  4 
Cyanide,  S.  Dak.. A  3 


Dakota  Cy.,S.Dak.B  3 
Dalenberg,  S.Dak.H  S 
Dallas,  S.  Dak...E  4 
Dalzell,  S.  Dak...B  3 

Date,  S.  Dak  B  2 

Davis,  S.  Dak ,  .  .  H  4 
Dead  wood,  S.Dak.A  3 

Dean,  S.  Dak  F  3 

Deerfield,  S.  Dak..\  3 
De  Grey,  S.  Dak.E  3 

Delhi,  S.  Dak  F  2 

DellRapids.  S.Dak.H  4 
Delmont,  S.  Dak.F  4 
Dempster,  S.Dak.H  3 
Denmark,  S.Dak..G  3 
De  Smet.  S.  Dak.G  3 
Detroit,  S.  Dak.  .F  2 
De  Voe,  S.  Dak..F  2 
Dexter,  S.  Dak.  .G  2 
Doland,  S.  Dak.  .F  3 
Dooge,  S.  Dak.  ..H  4 
Dolton.  S.  Dak..G  4 
Drakola,  S.  Dak.G  3 
Dumont,  S.  Dak.A  3 
Duncan,  S.  Dak..E  3 
Dunlap,  S.  D,ak..F  4 
Dunsmore.  S.Dak.E  3 
Dupree,  S.  Dak.  .C  2 


Eagle,  S.  Dak.  ...E  4 
Eales,  S.  Dak....D  2 
E.  SiouxF., S.Dak.H  4 
Eckard.  S.  Dak.. A  4 
Eddy,  S.  Dak....G  2 
Eden,  S.  Dak.  .  .  .G  2 
Edgemont,   S,Dak..\  4 

Edna,  S.  Dak  E  4 

Edwin.  S,  Dak,  ,  .  E  3 
Eflington.  S.  Dak, IT  2 
Egan,  T),,l:.  .  ,  .11  3 
Elhion,  S.  D.il.  ,  ,.[•■  2 
Elktn,,,  S.  Il.,k,  .113 
Elk  Mtn..  ,S.I)ak.,\  4 
Elk  Point,  S.Dak.  H  5 
Ellis.  S.  I)ak....H  4 
Ellisville.  S.  Dak.  E  3 
Elm  Spi-,. S.Dak.B  3 
Elro.l,  S.  DiK.  .  .  3 
Enierv.  S.  I  ).,!  .  .  .C  4 
Ei.iiilKM->-,  Ii,-,l  .(;  4 
Erwni.   ,s.  .  .(;  3 


Esterley,   S.   Dak.G  2 

Ethan,  S.  Dak. .  .G  4 

Eureka,  S.  Dak.  .E  2 

Evarts,  S.  Dak.  ..D  2 


Fairburn,  S.  Dak..\  4 

Fairfax,  S.  Dak.  .F  4 

Farmer.  S.  Dak.  .G  4 

FarmingdaleSDak.B  4 

Farnsworth,  S.Dak.F  3 

Fairbank,  S.  Dak.D  3 

Fairview,  S.  Dak.H  4 

Faulkton,    S.  Dak.E  2 

Fedora,  S.   Dak.  .G  3 

Ferney,  S.Dak  F  2 

Flandreau,  S.Dak.H  3 

Flynn,   S.   Dak...F  4 

Folsom,    S.  Dak.  .B  4 

Forestburg,  S.Dak.F  3 

ForestCity,  S. Dak.D  2 

Forestville,  S.Dak.H  2 

Ft.Bennett,  S. Dak.D  3 

Ft.Meade,  S.Dak.  ..\  3 

Ft.Pierre,   S.Dak..D  3 

Ft.Randall,  S.Dak.F  4 

Frank,  S.  Dak .  . .  G  2 

Frankfort,  S.  Dak.F  3 

Frederick,   S.Dak.F  2 

Freeman,  S.  Dak.G  4 

Fulton,   S.   Dak..G  4 


Gale,  S.  Dak  D  2 

Galena,  S.  Dak.  .  ..\  3 
Gamble,  S.  Dak..C  4 
Gann valley,  S.Dak.F  3 
GardenCity.S.Dak.G  3 
Garretson,  S.Dak.H  4 

Gary,  S.  Dak  II  3 

Gayville,  S.  Dak.G  5 
Geddes,  S.  Dak..F  4 

Gem,  S.  Dak  F  2 

Gettysburg,  S.Dak.E  2 
Giddings,  S.  Dak.E  3 

Glen,  S.  Dak  F  4 

Glendale,  S.  Dak.E  3 
Glenham,  S.  Dak.D  2 
Goodwill,  S.  Dak.G  2 
Goodwin,  S.  Dak.H  3 
Gordon,  S.  Dak.  .F  4 
Goudyville,  S.Dak.E  3 
Greenway,  S.Dak.E  2 
Greenwood,  S.Dak.F  5 
Gregory,  S.  Dak.,E  4 
Grenville.  S, Dak.G  2 
Grindstone,  S. Dak.C  3 
Grobe,  S,  Dak.  .  .F  3 
Grosse,  S.  Dak...E  4 
Groton,  S.Dak..  .  .F  2 
Grover,  S.  Dak...G  3 
Gustave,  S.  Dak.. A  2 


Hanson,  S.  Dak.  .G  4 
Harding,  S.  Dak..\  2 
HardingroveSDak.C  3 
Harrisburg.S.Dak.H  4 
Harrison,  S.  Dak.F  4 
Harrold,  S.  Dak.E  3 
Hartford.  S.  Dak.H  4 
Hartman,  S.  Dak.G  4 
Hawley,  S.  Dak.  .E  3 
Hayes,  S.  Dak.  .  .C  3 
Hayti,   S.    Dak.  .  .G  3 

Hazel,  S.  Dak  G  3 

Hecia,  S.  Dak.  .  .F  2 
Helgen,  S.  Dak..G  2 
Helmick,  S.  Dak.F  3 
Henry,  S.  Dak.  .  .0  3 
Hereford,  S.  Dak.B  3 
Hermnsa,  S.  Dak..\  4 
Herreid,  S.  Dak.  .D  2 
derrick.  S.  Dak.  .E  4 
Hetland,  S.  Dak.  .G  3 
Highmore,  S.  Dak.E  3 
Hill  City,  S.  Dak.A  4 
Hillside,  S.  Dak..F  4 
Hillsview,  S.Dak..E  2 
Hilmoe,  S.  Dak.  .D  4 
Hitchcock,  S.Dak.F  3 
Holabird,  S.  Dak.E  3 
Holmquist,  S.Dak.G  2 
Hooker.  S.  Dak.  .G  4 
Hopewell.  S.  Dak.D  3 


Hosmer,  S.  Dak..E  2 
Hot  Sprs.,  S.Dak..\  4 
Houdek,  S.  Dak..E  3 
Houghton,  S.  Dak.F  2 
Houston,  S.  Dak.E  4 
Hoven.  S.  Dak..E  2 
Howard,  S.  Dak..G  3 
Howell,  S.  Dak..F  3 
Hudson.  S.  Dak..H  4 
Hutfton.  S.  Dak..F  2 
Humboldt.  S.  Dak.G  4 
Hummer,  S.  Dak.F  4 
Ilurlev,  S.  Dak.  .(;  4 
Huron.  S.  Dak.  .  .F  3 
Hyde,  S.  Dak  F  3 


Ida,  S.  Dak  E  3 

Interior,   S.    Dak.C  4 

lona,   S.   Dak  E  4 

Ipswich,  S.  Dak..E  2 

Irene,  S.  Dak  C  4 

Iroquois,  S.  Dak.G  3 
Irving,  S.  Dak.  .  .F  3 


Tames,  S.   Dak. .  .F  2 

lava,   S.    Dak  E  2 

Tetferson,  S.  Dak.H  S 
Jolley,  S.  Dak....(;  3 
Joubert,  S.  Dak..F  4 
Junius,  S.  Dak...(;  3 


Kampeska,  S.Dak.G  3 
Kaspar,  S.  Dak .  .  E  3 
Kennebec.  S.  Dak.E  4 

Kent,  S.  Dak  t;  2 

Keystone.  .S.  Dak.. A  4 
Kidder,  S.  Dak..(;  2 
Kimball,  S.  Dak.F  4 
Komstad,  S,  Dak.H  4 
Kranzburg.S.Dak..II  3 
Kyle.   S.   Dak  I!  4 


Labolt,  S,  Dak,..TT  3 


I,akeAn.lrs,  S.|i:,l,.l'  4 
I.k.r'resl.in,  S.D.ik.i;  3 
Lakeside,  S.  Dak..F  3 

Lane,  S.   Dak  F  3 

Langford,  S.  Dak.G  2 
Laurel,  S.  Dak...D  3 

Lead.  S.  Dak  \  3 

Lebanon.  S.  Dak..E  2 
Le  Beau,  S.  Dak.D  2 
Lemmon,  S.  Dak .  H  2 
I^ennox.  S.  Dak .  .  H  4 
Leola,  S.  Dak.  .  .F  2 
Leslie.  S.  Dak.  .  .C  3 
I,estervillc.  S.Dak.G  4 
Letcher.  S.  Dak.  .  I"  4 
Lewiston.    S.  Dak.  I )  3 

Lily,  S.  Dak  C  ' 

Lindsay,  S.   Dak.l)  .i 

Lithia,  S.  Dak  \  4 

Littlehcn.l.  S.I)..K.M  ,i 
LittleEaKl.-,  S.Dal  I) 
Lohre,  S.  Dal  ...  .D 
Longlake.  S.  Dak.  !■:  J 
Loomis,  .S.  1  )ak .  .  k"  4 
Lorrett,  S.  Dak.  ..F  5 
Lo.  Brule. -S.Dak.E  3 
Loyalton.  S.  Dak.E  2 
Ludlow.  S  D.ik  .  .  \  ; 
Luffman,  S,  D,,l  i;  ' 
Lund,  S.  I  i.il  .  D  I 
Toyman.  S.   Dak  .  . .  k  ) 

Lynn,  S.   D.il  D  J 

Lyons.  S.  Dak.  .  .114 
Lyonville,  S.  Dak.F  4 


McCamley,  S.Dak.E  3 
McClure,  S.  Dak.D  3 
McCook,  S.  Dak. II  5 
Madison.  S.  Dak..G  3 
Manchestpr.S.Dak.t;  3 
Man,!,  rs,,,,,  S  Dak.B  4 
Manila.  S,  Dak,  .C  3 
Mansfield.  S,  Dak.F  2 
Marion,  S,  Dak..G  4 
Marlow,  S.  Dak..G  2 


Marston,  S.  Dak.D  3 
Martel,  S.  Dak..E  2 
Marvin,  S.  Dak..H  2 
Matthews,  S.Dak.G  3 
Meckling.  S.  Dak.G  5 
Medas,  S.  Dak.  ..F  3 
Mellette,  S.  Dak.F  2 
Menno.  S.  Dak..(;  4 
Merritt,  S.Dak... A  3 
Midland,  S.  Dak.C  3 
Milbank,  S.  Dak.H  2 
Millard,  S.  Dak...E  2 
Miller,  S.  Dak...F  3 
Milltown,  S.  Dak.G  4 

Mina,  S.  Dak  F  2 

Minnekahta,S.Dak..\  4 
Miranda,  S.  Dak.F  3 
Missionhill,  S.Dak.G  S 
Mitchell,  S.  Dak.F  4 
Mobridge,  S.  Dak.D  2 
Monroe,  S.  Dak.  .G  4 
Montrose,  S.  Dak.G  4 
Moore,  S.  Dak...D  4 
MoundCy.,  S. Dak.D  2 
Mt. Vernon,  S.Dak.F  4 
Mystic,  S.  Dak... A  3 


Naples,  S.  Dak.  .G  3 
Nemo.  S.  Dak.  .  .A  3 
Newark.  S.  I)ak..<;  2 
NewlI.illand.S.DakI'  4 

Ney,  S.  Dak  D  3 

Nora,  S.  Dak  H  5 

Norden.  S.  Dak.  .C,  3 
Northville,  S.Dak.F  2 
Nowlin,  S.  Dak..C  3 
Nutley,  S.  Dak..G  2 


Oacoma,  S.  Dak..E  4 
Oahe,  S.  Dak.  .  .  .D  3 
Oelriohs.  S.  Dak.. A  4 
Okolinju.  S,   Dak,,D  3 

Ola,    S,    D,,k  4 

<  Iklli.iin,  S,  I  l.ik,  ,(13 
(Hivul.  S,  Dak...(;  4 
Onida.  S.  Dak.  .  .1)3 

Oral,  S.  Dal<  A  4 

Ordway,  S.  Dak..F  2 
Orient.  S.  Dak.  .  .E  3 
Orleans.  S.  Dak.  .E  2 
Osceola.  S.   D.iK.  .(13 

Otis,  S.   D.ik  \  4 

Otto,  S.  D.ik  (;  2 

Ottumwa,  S.    Dak.C  3 


Pactola,  S.  Dak.  .A  3 

Parker,  S.  Dak.  .  .G  4 

Parkston,  S.  Dak.C  4 

Pedro,  S.   Dak,  .  ,  I!  3 

Pecver,  S.   Dak.  .  II  2 

Pemliriikc.  S.Dak.E  2 

Pi  no.   S,    D,ik  l',  3 


Phi 


Ramona,  S,  Dak..G  3 

Ranville.  S,   Dak.t;  2 

Rapid  City,  S.  D.ik.  A  3 

Raymond,  S.  I  ).ik  .(  ',  3 

Recluse,  S.  Dak,  .C  4 

Redfern.  S.   Dak.,\  3 

Redfield,  S.   Dak.F  3 


INDEX  OF  SOUTH  DAKOTA 


Red  Lake,  S.Dak. 
Ree  Hts.,  S.Dak. 
Reliance,  S.  Dak. 

Reva,  S.  Dak  

Revillo,  S.  Dak.. 
Rezek,  S.  Dak... 
Richards,  S.  Dak. 
Ridge,  S.  Dak.., 
Riverside,  S.  Dak 
Roanoke,  S.  Dak 
Robey,  S.  Dak.. 
Rochford,  S.  Dak 
Rockerville, S.Dak. 
Rockham,  S.  Dak 
Roscoe,  S.  Dak,. 
Rosebud,  S.  Dak. 
Roslyn,  S.  Dak. 
Roswell,  S.  Dak. 
Roubaix,  S.  Dak 
Rousseau,  S.  Dak 
Rowena,  S.  Dak. 

Roy,  S.  Dak  

Rudolph,  S.  Dak 
Rumford,  S.Dak. 
Running  Water, 
S.  Dak  


St.  Elmo,  S.  Dak 
St.Herbert,  S.Dak 
St.Lawrence  SDak 
St.  Marys,  S.Dak 
St.Onge,  S.Dak.. 
Salem,  S.  Dak... 
Savo,  S.  Dak... 
Scalp,  S.  Dak.. 
Scoma,  S.  Dak.. 
Scotland,  S.  Dak 
Sedgwick,  S.  Dak 
Seim,  S.  Dak.  .  . 
Selby,  S.  Dak... 
Seneca,  S.  Dak. 
Sheridan,  S.  Dak 
Sherman,  S.  Dak 
Shiloh,  S.  Dak.. 
Shindler,  S.  Dak. 
SilverCity,  S.Dak 
SiouxFalls,  S.Dak, 
Sisoka,  S.  Dak.. 
Sisseton,  S.  Dak 
Sisseton  Agency, 

S.  Dak  

Smith,  S.  Dak... 
Sniithville,  S.Dak 
Smithwick,  S.Dak 
So.Shore,  S.Dak.. 
Spain,  S.  Dak., 
Spearfish,  S.  Dak 
Spencer,  S.  Dak. 
Spink,  S.  Dak.., 
Springs,  S.  Dak.  . 
Springfield,  S.Dak 
Starcher,  S.  Dak 
Stearns,  S.  Dak. 
Stephan,  S.  Dak. 
Stickney,  S.  DaV 
Stockholm,  S.Dak 
Stoneville,  S.Dal< 
Storm.  S.  Dak.  . 
Strandburg,S.Dak 
Strouseton, S.Dak 
Sturgis,  S.  Dak 
Summit,  S.  Dak. 
Sunnysule,  S.Dak 
Sutherland,  S.Dat 
Sutley,  S.  Dak.  . 
Sweeney,  S.  Dak 
Sylvia,  S.  Dak.. 


Tabor,  S.  Dak.. 

Tea,  S.  Dak  

Tennis,  S.  Dak.. 
Tepee,  S.  Dak.. 
Terraville,  S.  DaV 
Terry,  S.  Dak... 
Tilford,  S.  Dak. 
Tislo,  S.  Dak. . . 
Topbar,  S.  Dak. 
Toronto,  S.Dak. 
Trent,  S.  Dak.. 
Tripp,  S.  Dak.  .  . 
Troy,  S.  Dak.  .  . 
Tulare,  S.  Dak.  . 
Turton,  S.  Dak. 


Carthage,  S.  Dak.G  3 
CascadeSps.S.Dak.A  4 
Castlewood,  S. Dak.G  3 
Cavite,  S.  Dak.  ,.D  4 
Cavour,  S.  Dak.  .F  3 
Centerville.S.Dak.H  4 
CentralCy.,  S.Dak.A  3 
Chamberlains  Dak.E  4 
Chance,  S.  Dak.  .B  2 
Chancellor,  S.Dak.H  4 
Chandler,  S.  Dak.E  4 
Chapelle,  S.  Dak.E  3 
Chautauqua, S. Dak.G  2 
Chester,  S.  Dak.  .G  4 
Cheyenne  Agency, 
Claremont,  S.Dak.F  2 

Clark,  S.  Dak  G  3 

Clayton,  S.  Dak..G  4 
ClearLake,  S.Dak.H  3 
Clifton,  S.  Dak..D  3 
Colman,  S.  Dak..H  4 
Colton,  S.  Dak...H  4 
Columbia,  S.Dak,.F  2 
Cornell,  S.  Dak.  .F  3 
Corsica,  S.  Dak,  .F  4 
Corson,  S.  Dak,,H  4 
Coyle,  S.  Dak.  ...F  4 
Conde,  S.  Dak. .  .F  2 
Corona,  S.  Dak..H  2 
Crandon,  S.  Dak.F  3 
Crawford,  S.Dak.H  2 
Cresbard,  S.Dak..F  2 
Creston,  S.  Dak,.B  4 
Crooks,  S.  Dak..H  4 
CrowCreek,  S. Dak.E  3 
Crowlake,  S.  Dak.F  4 

S.  Dak  D  2 

Custer,  S.  Dak.  .  .A  4 
Cyanide,  S,  Dak.. A  3 


Dakota  Cy,,S.Dak.B  3 
Dalenberg,  S.Dak.H  5 
Dallas,  S.  Dak...E  4 
Dalzell,  S.  Dak...B  3 

Date,   S.  Dak  B  2 

Davis,  S.  Dak.  .  .H  4 
Deadwood,  S.Dak.A  3 

Dean.  S.  Dak  F  3 

Deerfield,  S.  Dak.A  3 
De  Grey,  S.  Dak.E  3 
Delhi,  S.  Dak.  .  .  .F  2 
DellRapids,  S.Dak.H  4 
Delmont,  S.  Dak.F  4 
Dempster,  S.Dak.H  3 
Denmark,  S.Dak..G  3 
De  Smet,  S.  Dak.G  3 
Detroit,  S.  Dak.  .F  2 
De  Voe,  S.  Dak..F  2 
Dexter,  S.  Dak.  .G  2 
Doland,  S.  Dak..F  3 
Dooge,  S.  Dak.  ..H  4 
Dolton.  S.  Dak.  .G  4 
Drakola,  S.  Dak.G  3 
Dumont,  S.  Dak.A  3 
Duncan,  S.  Dak.  .E  3 
Dunlap,  S.  Dak..F  4 
Dunsmore,  S. Dak.E  3 
Dupree,  S.  Dak..C  2 


Eagle,  S.  Dak... 

Eales,  S.  Dak  

E.  SiouxF., S.Dak, 
Eckard.  S.  Dak,. 
Eddy,  S.  Dak..., 
Eden,  S.  Dak.  .  .  , 
Edgemont,  S.Dak 
Edna,  S.  Dak... 
Edwin,  S.  Dak.  . 
Effington,  S.  Dak, 
Egan,  S.  Dak.  .  .  . 
Elbion,  S.  Dak.. 
Elkton,  S.  Dak.. 
Elk  Mtn.,  S.Dak, 
Elk  Point,  S.Dak. 
Ellis,  S.  Dak.... 
Ellisville,  S.  Dak 
Elm  Sprs.. S.Dak 
El  rod,  S.  Dak... 
Emery,  S.  Dak .  . 
Epiphany,  S.  Dak 
Erwin,  S.  Dak .  . 
F^smond,  .S.  Dak 
Estelline.  S.  Dak, 


E  4 

E  3 


E  3 


Esterley,  S.  Dak.G  2 
Ethan,  S.  Dak.  .  .G  4 
Eureka,  S.  Dak..E  2 
Evarts,  S.  Dak.  ..D  2 


Fairburn,  S.  Dak.A  4 
Fairfax,  S.  Dak.  .F  4 
Farmer,  S.  Dak..G  4 
Farmingdale  SDak.B  4 
Farnsworth,  S.Dak.F  3 
Fairbank,  S.  Dak.D  3 
Fairview,  S.  Dak.H  4 
Faulkton,  S.  Dak.E  2 
Fedora,  S.  Dak..G  3 
Ferney,  S.Dak.  ...F  2 
Flandreau,  S.Dak.H  3 
Flynn,  S.  Dak.  .  .F  4 
Folsom,  S.  Dak.  .B  4 
Forestburg,  S.Dak.F  3 
ForestCity,  S. Dak.D  2 
Forestville,  S.Dak.H  2 
F't.Bennett,  S. Dak.D  3 
Ft.Meade,  S.Dak.. A  3 
Ft.Pierre,  S.Dak..D  3 
Ft.Randall,  S.Dak.F  4 
Frank,  S.  Dak.  .  .G  2 
Frankfort,  S.  Dak.F  3 
Frederick,  S.Dak.F  2 
Freeman,  S.  Dak.G  4 
Fulton,   S.   Dak..G  4 


Gale,  S.  Dak  D  2 

Galena,  S.  Dak... A  3 
Gamble,  S.  Dak..C  4 
Gannvalley,  S.Dak.F  3 
GardenCity,S.Dak.G  3 
Garretson,  S.Dak.H  4 

Gary,  S.  Dak  H  3 

Gayville,  S.  Dak.G  5 
Geddes,  S.  Dak..F  4 

Gem,  S.  Dak  F  2 

Gettysburg,  S. Dak.E  2 
Giddings,  S.  Dak.E  3 

Glen,  S.  Dak  F  4 

Glendale,  S.  Dak.E  3 
Glenham,  S.  Dak.D  2 
Goodwill,  S.  Dak.G  2 
Goodwin,  S.  Dak.H  3 
Gordon,  S.  Dak.  .F  4 
Goudyville,  S.Dak. E  3 
Greenway,  S. Dak.E  2 
Greenwood,  S.Dak.F  5 
Gregory,  S.  Dak..E  4 
Grenville,  S.Dak.  G  2 
Grindstone,  S.Dak.C  3 
Grobe,  S.  Dak...F  3 
Grosse,  S.  Dak. .  .E  4 

Groton,  S.Dak  F  2 

Grover,  S.  Dak...G  3 
Gustave,  S.  Dak.  .A  2 


Hanson,  S.  Dak.  .G  4 
Harding,  S.  Dak.A  2 
HardingroveSDak.C  3 
Harrisburg.S. Dak.H  4 
Harrison,  S.  Dak.F  4 
Harrold,  S.  Dak.E  3 
Hartford,  S.  Dak.H  4 
Hartman,  S.  Dak.G  4 
Hawley,  S.  Dak.  .E  3 
Hayes,  S.  Dak.  .  .C  3 
Hayti,   S.   Dak.  .  .G  3 

Hazel,  S.  Dak  G  3 

Hecla,  S.  Dak.  .  .F  2 
Helgen,  S.  Dak..G  2 
Helmick,  S.  Dak.F  3 
Henry,  S.  Dak. .  .G  3 
Hereford,  S.  Dak.B  3 
Hermosa,  S.  Dak.A  4 
Herreid,  S.  Dak.  .D  2 
llerrick,  S.  Dak.  .E  4 
Hetland,  S.  Dak.  .0  3 
Highmore,  S.  Dak.E  3 
Hill  City,  S.  Dak.A  4 
Hillside,  S.  Dak.  .F  4 
Hillsview,  S.Dak..E  2 
Hilmoe,  S.  Dak.  .D  4 
Hitchcock,  S.Dak.F  3 
Holabird.  S.  Dak.E  3 
Holmquist,  S. Dak.G  2 
Hooker.  S.  Dak.  .G  4 
Hooewell.  S.  Dak.D  3 


Hosmer,  S.  Dak..E  2 
Hot  Sprs.,  S.Dak.A  4 
Houdek,  S.  Dak..E  3 
Houghton,  S.  Dak.F  2 
Houston,  S.  Dak.E  4 
Hoven,  S.  Dak..E  2 
Howard,  S.  Dak..G  3 
Howell,  S.  Dak..F  3 
Hudson,  S.  Dak..H  4 
Huffton,  S.  Dak..F  2 
Humboldt,  S.  Dak.G  4 
Hummer,  S.  Dak.F  4 
Hurley,  S.  Dak..G  4 
Huron,  S.  Dak. .  .F  3 
Hyde,  S.  Dak....F  3 


Ida,  S.  Dak  E  3 

Interior,   S.   Dak.C  4 

lona,   S.   Dak  E  4 

Ipswich,  S.  Dak..E  2 

Irene,  S.  Dak  G  4 

Iroquois,  S.  Dak.G  3 

Irving,  S.  Dak.  .  .F  3 


James,  S.  Dak...F  2 

Java,   S.   Dak  E  2 

Jefferson,  S.  Dak.H  5 
Tolley,  S.  Dak.  ...G  3 
Joubert,  S.  Dak..F  4 
Junius,  S.  Dak...G  3 


Kampeska,  S. Dak.G  3 
Kaspar,  S.  Dak..E  3 
Kennebec.  S.  Dak.E  4 

Kent,  S.  Dak  G  2 

Keystone,  S.  Dak.A  4 
Kidder,  S.  Dak..G  2 
Kimball,  S.  Dak.F  4 
Komstad,  S.  Dak.H  4 
Kranzburg,S.Dak..H  3 
Kyle,  S.  Dak  B  4 


Labolt,  S.  Dak...H  2 

Lacy,  S.  Dak  D  3 

La  Delle,  S.  Dak.F  3 
LakeAndes,  S.Dak.F  4 
Lk.Preston,  S.Dak.G  3 
Lakeside,  S.  Dak..F  3 

Lane,  S.  Dak  F  3 

Langford,  S.  Dak.G  2 
Laurel,  S.  Dak...D  3 

Lead,  S.  Dak  A  3 

Lebanon,  S.  Dak..E  2 
Le  Beau,  S.  Dak.D  2 
Lemmon,  S.  Dak.B  2 
Lennox,  S.  Dak.  .H  4 
Leola,  S.  Dak...F  2 
Leslie,  S.  Dak.  .  .C  3 
Lesterville,  S.Dak.G  4 
Letcher,  S.  Dak..F  4 
Lewiston,    S.  Dak.D  3 

Lily,  S.  Dak  G  2 

Lindsay,  S.  Dak.D  3 
Lithia,  S.  Dak.... A  4 
Littlebend,  S. Dak.D  3 
LittleEagle,  S. Dak.D  2 
Lohre,  S.  Dak....G  2 
Longlake,  S.  Dak.E  2 
Loomis,  S.  Dak..F  4 
Lorrett,  S.  Dak.  ..F  5 
Lo.  Brule.  ^S. Dak.E  3 
Loyalton,  S.  Dak.E  2 
Ludlow,  S.  Dak.. A  2 
Luffman,  S.  Dak.G  2 

Lund,  S.  Dak  D  4 

Lyman,  S.  Dak...E  4 

Lynn,  S.  Dak  G  2 

Lyons,  S.  Dak...H  4 
Lyonville,  S.  Dak.F  4 


McCamley,  S. Dak.E  3 
McClure,  S.  Dak.D  3 
McCook,  S.  Dak.H  5 
Madison,  S.  Dak..G  3 
Manchester, S. Dak. (;  3 
Manderson,  S. Dak.B  4 
Manila,  S.  Dak  .  .  C  3 
Mansfield,  S.  Dak.F  2 
Marion,  S.  Dak..G  4 
Marlow,  S.  Dak..G  2 


Marston,  S.  Dak.D  3 
Martel,  S.  Dak..E  2 
Marvin,  S.  Dak..H  2 
Matthews,  S.Dak.G  3 
Meckling,  S.  Dak.G  5 
Medas,  S.  Dak...F  3 
Mellette,  S.  Dak.F  2 
Menno,  S.  Dak..G  4 
Merritt,  S.Dak..  .A  3 
Midland,  S.  Dak.C  3 
Milbank,  S.  Dak.H  2 
Millard,  S.  Dak...E  2 
Miller,  S.  Dak.  .  .F  3 
Milltown,  S.  Dak.G  4 

Mina,  S.  Dak  F  2 

Minnekahta,S. Dak.A  4 
Miranda,  S.  Dak.F  3 
Missionhill,  S.Dak.G  5 
Mitchell,  S.  Dak.F  4 
Mobridge,  S.  Dak.D  2 
Monroe,  S.  Dak.  .G  4 
Montrose,  S.  Dak.G  4 
Moore,  S.  Dak.  .  .D  4 
MoundCy.,  S. Dak.D  2 
Mt. Vernon,  S.Dak.F  4 
Mystic,  S.  Dak... A  3 


Naples,  S.  Dak..G  3 
Nemo,  S.  Dak.  ..A3 
Newark,  S.  Dak..G  2 
NewHolland.S.DakF  4 

Ney,  S.  Dak  D  3 

Nora,  S.  Dak  H  5 

Norden,  S.  Dak.  .G  3 
Northville,  S.Dak.F  2 
Nowlin,  S.  Dak.  .C  3 
Nutley,  S.  Dak..G  2 


Oacoma,  S.  Dak.  .E  4 

Oahe,  S.  Dak  D  3 

Oelrichs,  S.  Dak,. A  4 
Okobojo,  S.  Dak..D  3 

Ola,  S.  Dak  E  4 

Oldham,  S.  Dak..G  3 
Olivet,  S.  Dak...G  4 
Onida,  S.  Dak...D  3 

Oral,   S.   Da"k  A  4 

Ordway,  S.  Dak..F  2 
Orient,  S.  Dak...E  3 
Orleans,  S.  Dak..E  2 
Osceola,  S.  Dak..G  3 

Otis,  S.  Dak  A  4 

Otto,  S.  Dak  G  2 

Ottumwa,  S.  Dak.C  3 


Pactola,  S.  Dak.  .A  3 
Parker,  S.  Dak...G  4 
Parkston,  S.  Dak.G  4 
Pedro,  S.  Dak.  .  .B  3 
Peever,  S.  Dak.  .H  2 
Pembroke,  S. Dak.E  2 

Peno,  S.  Dak  E  3 

Perkins,  S.  Dak..G  5 
Philip,  S.  Dak...C  3 
Pickerel,  S.  Dak.G  2 
Piedmont,  S.  Dak.A  3 
Pierpont,  S.  Dak.G  2 
Pierre,  S.  Dak...D  3 
Pioneer,  S.  Dak.F  2 
Pine  Ridge.  S. Dak.B  4 
Plana,  S.  Dak.  .  .F  2 
Plankinton,  S.Dak.F  4 

Platte,  S.  Dak  F  4 

Poinsett,  S.  Dak..G  3 
Pollock,  S.  Dak..D  2 
Porcupine,  S.  Dak.B  4 
Potter,  S.  Dak.  .  .D  3 
Powell,  S.  Dak...E  2 
Presho,  S.  Dak.  .D  4 
Pringle,  S.  Dak.. A  4 
Provo,  S.  Dak.... A  4 
Pukwana,  S.  Dak.E  4 
Putney,  S.  Dak..F  2 


Ramona,  S.  Dak..G  3 
Ranville,  S.  Dak.G  2 
Rapid  City,  S.Dak.A  3 
Raymond,  S.  Dak.G  3 
Recluse,  S.  Dak..C  4 
Redfern,  S.  Dak.A  3 
Redfield,  S.   Dak.F  3 


South  Dakota  KFN  333  Southend-on-Sea 


Territory  in  1804 — changed  to 
Missouri  Territory  in  1812.  The 
part  east  of  the  Missouri  had 
been  successively  included  in 
Michigan  Territory  in  1834, 
Wisconsin  in  1836,  Iowa  in  1838, 
and  Minnesota  in  1849;  and  the 
part  west  of  the  Missouri  in  Ne- 
braska Territory  in  1854.  Da- 
kota Territory  later  included 
large  parts  of  Montana  and 
Wyoming,  which  were  set  off  in 
1863,  when  the  Territory  of 
Idaho  was  formed. 

In  1862  the  territorial  capital 
was  located  at  Yankton,  but  in 
1882  it  was  removed  to  Bis- 
marck. The  destruction  of 
Sioux  Falls  by  the  Indians  and 
the  building  of  Fort  Dakota 
marked  the  years  1862  and  1865, 
respectively. 

The  construction  of  the  rail- 
roads, begun  in  1872,  with  the 
discovery  of  gold  by  the  Custer 
expedition  in  1874,  and  the  open- 
ing of  the  Deadwood  and  White- 
wood  mines  in  1875,  hastened  the 
development  of  the  Black  Hills 
region.  In  1876  the  Indians  of 
that  region  ceded  their  lands  to 
the  government,  and  Deadwood 
was  laid  out. 

In  1883,  at  a  convention  held 
in  Sioux  Falls,  a  constitution 
was  drawn  up,  and  a  petition  for 
statehood  was  presented  to  Con- 
gress, but  it  met  with  no  success. 
In  1889  an  enabling  act  was 
passed,  providing  for  division  of 
the  Territory  'on  the  line  of  the 
seventh  standard  parallel,'  and 
the  admission  of  the  states  of 
North  and  South  Dakota.  State- 
hood by  South  Dakota  was  at- 
tained Nov.  3,  1889. 

The  opening  to  settlement  of 
9,000,000  acres  of  Sioux  land  in 
1890  was  the  occasion  for  a  no- 
table land  rush.  The  smaller 
tract  of  the  Sisseton  Indians  was 
opened  in  1892,  and  the  Rosebud 
Reservation  in  1904.  In  1909 
the  state  celebrated  the  public 
anniversary  of  its  settlement  with 
elaborate  ceremonies  at  Yankton. 

South  Dakota  has  been  among 
the  first  states  to  adopt  certain 
new  ideas  in  legislation.  An  act 
passed  in  1911  provided  that  con- 
tributory negligence  of  employees 
should  not  bar  recovery  for  dam- 
ages, and  a  primary  law  of  1912, 
known  as  the  Richards'  primary, 
practically  did  away  with  all  par- 
ty organizations.  Under  a  bank 
guaranty  law  of  1915  the  state 
sought  to  protect  bank  depositors 
by  administering  a  fund  to  which 
the  banks  contributed  and  by 
liquidating  closed  banks ;  the 
plan  failed,  however,  when  the 
fund  was  exhausted  during  eco- 
nomic depression.  A  rural  cred- 
its constitutional  amendment,  of 
1917,  provided  means  whereby 
landowners  could  borrow  money 
directly  from  the  state,  from 
funds  secured  by  bonds.   As  with 


the  bank  guaranty  project,  this 
plan  worked  during  normal  times, 
but  in  the  depression  of  the 
1930's  a  large  amount  of  land 
reverted  to  the  state  and  a  great 
bonded  indebtedness  had  accu- 
mulated. The  state  ventured  into 
the  operation  of  two  coal  mines, 
unsuccessfully,  but  the  state- 
owned  cement  plant  at  Rapid 
City,  which  began  operations  in 
1925,  proved  a  financial  success. 
A  law  providing  for  hail  insur- 
ance was  repealed  when  it  became 
clear  that  the  average  farmer  did 
not  want  the  insurance.  In  1924 
Gov.  William  H.  McMaster,  de- 
claring that  the  oil  companies 
were  charging  too  much  for  gas- 
oline, ordered  the  state  to  enter 
the  gasoline  business  ;  though  the 
step  was  popular  at  the  time,  and 
carried  McMaster  into  the  U.  S. 
Senate,  it  was  later  found  un- 
constitutional. 

In  1927  President  Coolidge 
spent  a  vacation  in  the  Black 
Hills,  occupying  the  State  Game 
Lodge  in  Custer  Park  and  using 
the  high  school  at  Rapid  City  as 
office.  At  that  time  he  dedicated 
Mount  Rushmore,  on  the  side  of 
which  a  national  memorial  was 
to  be  created,  in  the  form  of  a 
series  of  sculptures  carved  under 
the  direction  of  Gutzon  Borglum, 
the.  sculptor.  By  1939  colossal 
heads  of  Washington.  Jefferson, 
Lincoln,  and  Theodore  Roosevelt 
had  been  completed  in  the  rough 
and  unveiled. 

The  hard  times  resulting  from 
droughts,  grasshoppers,  dust 
storms,  and  business  depression 
were  reflected  in  a  decrease  of 
nearlv  50,000  in  the  state's  popu- 
lation during  1930-40.  At  the 
end  of  the  decade,  however,  the 
economic  picture  was  brighter. 

In  national  elections  South 
Dakota  has  been  Republican,  ex- 
cept in  1896,  when  a  coalition  of 
the  Populists  and  Democrats 
won;  in  1912,  when  Theodore 
Roosevelt  carried  the  state  for 
the  new  Progressive  party  ;  and 
again  in  1932  and  1936,  when  the 
state  went  Democratic. 

Bibliography . — C  o  n  s  u  1 1 
South  Dakota  Historical  Collec- 
tions;  South  Dakota  Legislative 
Manual  (biennial) ;  G.  W.  Kings- 
bury, History  of  Dakota  Terri- 
tory (5  vols.,  1915)  ;  L.  K.  Fox, 
Who's  Who  Among  South  Da- 
kotans  (2  vols.,  1924-28)  ;  D. 
Robinson,  Encyclopedia  of  Sotith 
Dakota  (1925),  Brief  History  of 
South  Dakota  (1926),  and  His- 
tory of  South  Dakota  (3  vols., 
1930)  ;  P.  D.  Peterson,  Through 
the  Black  Hills  and  Bad  Lands 
of  South  Dakota  (1929)  ;  O'Har- 
ra  and  Connolly,  Mineral  Wealth 
of  the  Black  Hills  (1929)  ;  Hun- 
kins  and  Lindsey,  South  Dakota  : 
Its  Past,  Present,  and  Future 
(1932);  E.  L.  Waldo,  Dakota; 
Scenes  from  Pioneer  Days  in  the 


Dakotas  (1936)  ;  Federal  Writ- 
ers' Project,  A  South  Dakota 
Guide  (1938). 

South  Dakota  State  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts,  a  co-educational 
institution  at  Brookings,  S.  D., 
founded  in  1881.  It  received  a 
grant  of  160,000  acres  of  public 
land  under  the  Act  of  1862.  The 
departments  of  instruction  in- 
clude graduate  courses,  arts  and 
sciences,  journalism,  agriculture, 
home  economics,  engineering, 
pharmacy,  and  music,  and  a  sec- 
ondary school  of  agriculture. 
The  college  owns  800  acres,  of 
which  640  acres  are  under  culti- 
vation. 

South  Dakota,  University 

of,  a  co-educational  state  insti- 
tution at  Vermilion,  S.  D.,  incor- 
porated in  1863,  and  organized 
in  1882.  It  is  controlled  and 
supported  by  the  state,  and  has 
an  endowment  of  86,000  acres  of 
land  granted  by  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment. The  university  con- 
sists of  the  Colleges  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  and  Fine  Arts,  Schools 
of  Business  Administration,  Ed- 
ucation, Law  and  Medicine,  and 
the  Graduate  School. 

Southdown,  a  breed  of  sheep. 
See  Sheep. 

Southeastern  Alps,  the  most 
easterly  division  of  the  Alps,  in- 
clude the  mountains  rising  south 
of  the  Drave  Valley  (separating 
them  from  the  central  Tyrolese 
Alps)  and  east  of  the  Piave  Val- 
ley (separating  them  from  the 
Dolomites).  Herein  three  dis- 
tinct groups  are  usually  distin- 
guished. East  of  the  Dolomites 
rise — (1)  the  Carnic  Alps,  which 
culminate  in  Kellerwand  (9,105 
ft.),  though  their  best-known 
summit  is  Paralba  (8,830  ft.)  ; 
while  the  principal  pass  is  the 
Monte  Croce  or  Plocken  Pass 
(4,462  ft.).  Separated  from  the 
Carnic  Alps  by  the  Pontebba  line 
of  the  railway  over  the  Saifnitz 
or  Pontebba  Pass  (2,615  ft.), 
from  Tarvis  to  Udine,  rise  to 
the  east  (2)  the  Julie  Alps, 
which  culminate  in  the  Terglou 
or  Triglav  (9,395  ft.)  and  the 
Montasio  (9,039  ft.),  their  best- 
known  pass  being  the  Predil 
(3,813  ft.)  ;  traversed  by  a  car- 
riage road  from  Tarvis  to  Gorz. 
To  the  northeast  of  the  Julie 
Alps,  and  separated  from  them 
by  the  Save  Valley,  (3)  the 
Karawanken  Alps  rise  iDetween 
that  valley  and  the  Drave.  See 
Alps. 

Southend-on-Sea,  municipal- 
ity, borough,  and  watering  place, 
Essex,  England,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Thames  ;  forty  miles  east  of 
London.  It  is  the  chief  station  of 
the  coast  survey.  In  1915  it  was 
bombarded  by  German  aircraft. 
Westcliff,  a  residential  suburb, 
has  many  attractive  villas.  Pop. 
(1931)  120,093. 


Southern  Alps 


KFN 


334 


Southey 


Southern  Alps,  a  chain  of 
snow-clad  mountains,  New  Zea- 
land, with  an  average  height  of 
8,000  feet,  and  a  snow  line  of 
7,500  feet,  forming  the  backbone 
of  the  South  Island,  running 
parallel  with  and  close  to  the 
west  coast  for  about  100  miles, 
and  thrusting  many  long  spurs 
eastward.  Their  culminating 
point  is  Mount  Cook  or  Aorangi 
(12,349  ft.),  and  several  others 
exceed  10,000  feet.  The  range 
is  crossed  by  three  low  passes — 
Harper's  Pass ;  Arthur's  Pass 
(3,000  ft.),  over  which  runs  the 
road  from  Christchurch  to  Hokit- 
ika,  and  over  which  the  Midland 
Railway  is  constructed ;  and 
Haast  Pass  (1,716  ft.).  This  re- 
gion was  first  explored  by  Sir 
Julius  von  Haast  in  1862. 

Southern  Baptist  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  a  divinity  school 
under  the  control  of  the  South- 
ern Baptist  Convention,  at 
Louisville,  Ky.,  established  at 
Greenville,  S.  C.,  in  1859.  It  was 
closed  during  the  Civil  War,  and 
was  removed  to  Louisville  in 
1877.  Courses  are  offered  for 
persons  without  collegiate  train- 
ing as  well  as  for  college  grad- 
uates. Opportunity  is  also  of- 
fered for  graduate  work  leading 
to  the  degree  of  doctor  in  theol- 
ogy, and  courses  are  provided  for 
training  women  missionaries. 

Southern  California,  Uni- 
versity of,  a  co-educational  in- 
stitution under  Methodist  con- 
trol, at  Los  Angeles,  founded  in 
1880.  It  includes  the  Colleges 
of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Commerce, 
Education,  Engineering,  Speech, 
Architecture,  Pharmacy,  Dentist- 
ry, Law,  Music  and  Theology ; 
and  directs  the  Marine  Biological 
Station  at  Venice,  Cal. 

Southern  Cross.    See  Crux. 

Southerne,  suth'ern,  Thom- 
as (1660-1746),  English  dram- 
atist, was  born  in  Oxmantown, 
near  Dublin.  His  first  play.  The 
Loyal  Brother,  or  the  Persian 
Prince,  was  produced  in  1682. 
His  best  plays  were  tragedies, 
brought  out  after  the  Revolution 
— The  Fatal  Marriage  (1694) 
and  Oroonoko  (1696). 

Southern  Education  Board, 
a  body  organized  in  1901,  as  an 
outcome  of  the  fourth  Conference 
for  Education  in  the  South  at 
Winston-Salem,  N.  C,  to  pro- 
mote the  development  of  state 
public  school  systems  in  the 
Southern  States.  Co-operation 
with  similar  bodies,  such  as  the 
General  Education  Board  and 
the  Peabody  and  Slater  Funds, 
is  secured  by  mutual  representa- 
tion in  the  membership. 

Under  the  impetus  of  the 
Board's  efforts  in  the  first  five 
years  of  its  existence  the  follow- 
ing increases  occurred  in  six  of 
the  Southern  States  :  expenditure 
for  public  education,  69  per  cent ; 


amount  raised  for  school  pur- 
poses from  local  taxation,  78  per 
cent ;  value  of  school  property, 
51  per  cent;  and  expenditure  for 
equipment,  164  per  cent.  The 
field  of  its  influence  along  similar 
lines  has  since  been  greatly  ex- 
tended ;  and  it  has  been  an  im- 
portant factor  throughout  the 
South  in  the  development  of  in- 
dustrial and  high-school  educa- 
tion and  the  training  of  teachers  ; 
in  the  improvement  of  supervi- 
sion, progress  in  rural  schools, 
and  the  founding  and  mainte- 
nance of  school-improvement 
leagues.  Consult  Dickerman,  Ed- 
iicational  Progress  in  the  South  ; 
Reports  of  U.  S.  Commissioner 
of  Education. 

Southern  (or  Cold)  Lakes 
of  New  Zealand,  twelve  large 
and  numerous  smaller  lakes  of 
glacial  origin  in  the  southwest  of 
South  Island.  Tekapo  (15  m.  by 
3  m.),  Pukaki  (10  m.  by  4  m.), 
and  Ohau  (12  m.  by  2^  m.)  are 
in  Canterbury,  and  are  drained 
by  the  Waitaki.  The  others  are 
all  in  Otago.  Hawea  (19  m.  by 
3  m.),  Wanaka  (35  m.  by  ^  m.), 
and  Wakatipu  (50  m.  by  ^  m.) 
are  drained  by  the  Clutha ;  Te 
Anau  (40  m.  by  %  m.),  Mana- 
pouri  (50  sq.  m.),  and  Monowai 
by  the  Waiau.  The  southernmost 
group  consists  of  Pouteriteri, 
Hakapoua,  and  Haviroto. 

Southern  Nigeria.  See  Ni- 
geria. 

Southern    Rhodesia.  See 

Rhodesia. 

Southern  University,  for- 
mer name  of  Birmingham-South- 
ern College,  a  co-educational  in- 
stitution under  the  control  of  the 
Methodist  Church  founded  in 
1856  in  Greensboro,  Ala.,  but 
removed  in  1918  to  Birmingham. 
It  offers  classical  and  scientific 
courses  leading  to  the  bachelor's 
degree  in  arts  and  science,  and 
graduate  courses  leading  to  the 
master's  degree. 

Southernwood,  Old  Man, 
Lad's  Love,  or  Maiden's  Ruin 
{Artemisia  abrotanum) ,  is  an  old 
garden  plant,  now  mainly  grown 
for  the  fragrance  of  its  leaves, 
but  formerly  valued  for  its  real 
or  supposed  medicinal  qualities. 

Southey,  Robert  (1774- 
1843),  English  poet  and  man  of 
letters,  was  born  in  Bristol.  He 
was  sent  in  1788  to  Westminster 
School,  from  which  he  was  ex- 
pelled for  writing  an  essay 
against  corporal  punishment,  and 
later  went  to  Balliol  College,  Ox- 
ford ( 1 792 ) .  There  he  met  Sam- 
uel Coleridge,  with  whom  he 
formed  an  intimate  friendship 
and  in  whose  dream  of  founding 
a  'Pantisocracy'  on  the  banks  of 
the  Susquehanna  in  the  United 
States  he  became  much  inter- 
ested. The  scheme  was  aban- 
doned, however,  for  lack  of 
funds,  and  in  1795  Southey  se- 


cretly married  Edith  Fricker  and 
went  to  Portugal  to  visit  an 
uncle.  Returning  to  England  in 
1796  he  began  the  study  of  law, 
but  soon  abandoned  this  to  de- 
vote himself  to  literature.  He 
finally  settled  with  his  wife  at 
Greta  Hall,  Keswick,  where  the 
Coleridges  and  Lovels  lived,  and 
labored  industriously,  support- 
ing not  only  his  own,  but  Cole- 
ridge's family  as  well.  In  addi- 
tion to  what  he  made  by  his 
writings  he  received  a  small  an- 


Robert  Southey. 


nuity  from  his  friend  Wynn,  re- 
placed in  1807  by  a  pension  from 
the  government  and  augmented 
in  1813  by  his  salary  as  poet 
laureate  and  in  1835  by  an  addi- 
tional pension  of  £300  from  the 
government.  His  wife  died  in 
1837,  and  in  1839  he  married  the 
poetess  Caroline  Anne  Bowles 
(1786-1854)  ;  but  his  mind  was 
by  this  time  giving  way,  and  he 
died  on  March  21,  1843. 

Southey's  works  fill  more  than 
a  hundred  volumes  and  he  con- 
tributed nearly  a  hundred  articles 
to  the  Quarterly  Review  alone. 
Among  his  best-known  works  are 
Joan  of  Arc  (1796);  Thalaba 
(1801);  Madoc  (1805);  The 
Curse  of  Kehama  (1810)  ;  Rod- 
erick, The  Last  of  the  Goths 
(1814) ;  History  of  Brazil  (1810- 
19)  ;  and  History  of  the  Penin- 
sula War  (1808-14).  His  best 
biographies  are  the  Life  of  Nel- 
son (1813)  and  the  Life  of  Wes- 
ley (1820).  He  wrote  also  a 
Life  of  Cowper  (1833-37),  trans- 
lations of  Amadis  (1803)  and 
The  Cid  (1808),  Espriella's  Let- 
ters (1807),  pseudo-Spanish 
sketches  of  England,  and  The 
Doctor  (1834-37),  a  medley  of 
aphorisms,  anecdotes,  and  humor. 
Southey  is  recognized  as  a  clas- 
sic prose  writer.  He  was  a  ca- 
pable biographer,  a  second-rate 
essayist,  and  a  poet  who  rarely 


South  Downs 


KFN 


335 


South  Portland 


rose  to  distinction.  His  Poeti- 
cal Works  appeared  (1837-8), 
Lives  of  the  Admirals  (1833- 
40),  and  Letters  (1849-50).  See 
Dowden,  Southey  in  English 
Men  of  Letters  (1879),  new  ed. 
(1895);  and  Dennis,  Southey: 
Story  of  His  Life  (1887). 

South  Downs.    See  Downs. 

South  Foreland,  on  the  coast 
of  Kent,  the  nearest  point  of 
England  to  the  coast  of  France. 
Off  it  an  important  naval  battle 
was  fought  on  Aug.  24,  1217. 
Eustace  the  monk,  in  the  service 
of  Louis  of  France,  left  Calais  in 
order  to  attempt  a  landing  in  the 
mouth  of  the  Thames.  Hubert 
de  Burgh,  justiciary  and  gover- 
nor of  Dover  Castle,  intercepted 
him,  and  the  French  were  com- 
pletely defeated,  only  fifteen 
ships  out  of  eighty  escaping. 

South  Fork,  borough,  Penn- 
sylvania, Cambria  county,  on  the 
Conemaugh  River,  and  on  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad ;  7  miles 
E.N.E.  of  Johnstown.  It  has  a 
brick  factory  and  planing  mill, 
but  the  leading  industry  is  the 
mining  of  bituminous  coal,  which 
abounds  in  this  region.  The  en- 
tire lower  part  of  the  borough 
was  destroyed  by  the  flood  which 
overwhelmed  Johnstown.  The 
breaking  of  the  South  Fork  dam, 
about  a  mile  above  South  Fork, 
was  the  cause  of  this  disaster. 
Large  coal  yards  of  the  Pa.  R.  R. 
now  occupy  the  bed  of  the  former 
lake  which  the  dam  confined. 
The  place  was  first  settled  in 
1865  and  incorporated  in  1884. 
Pop.  (1930)  3,227;  (1940) 
3,023. 

South  Fork  of  the  Platte, 

a  river  which  rises  in  Colorado, 
near  Mt.  Lincoln,  crosses  the 
South  Park,  and  continues,  in  a 
general  n.e.  and  n.  course  to 
Denver  and  Evans,  then  turning 
E.,  enters  Nebraska,  where  it 
joins  the  N.  Fork  after  a  course 
of  550  miles. 

South  Framingfham.  See 
Framingham. 

South  Glens  Falls,  village. 
New  York,  Saratoga  county,  op- 
posite Glens  Falls,  on  the  Hud- 
son River  at  the  falls,  and  on  the 
Delaware  and  Hudson  and  Hud- 
son Valley  railroads.  It  is  a 
manufacturing  center,  with  pa- 
per and  lumber  mills  and  lime 
kilns.  Paper  is  supplied  in  con- 
siderable quantities  to  the  New 
York  newspapers.  The  famous 
'Cooper's  Cave'  is  situated  in 
South  Glens  Falls.  The  village 
was  settled  in  1840  and  incorpo- 
rated in  1895.  Pop.  (1930) 
2,689;  (1940)  3,081. 

South  Hadley,  town,  Massa- 
chusetts Hampshire  county,  4 
miles  N.  of  Holyoke,  and  about 
2  miles  e.  of  the  Connecticut 
River.  It  is  the  seat  of  Mount 
Holyoke  College  (q.  v.).  Paper, 
woolen  goods,  bricks,  etc.,  are 


manufactured.  The  town  has 
two  public  libraries.  The  scen- 
ery of  the  region  is  very  beauti- 
ful. Features  of  special  interest 
are  Mount  Tom  and  Mount 
Holyoke  and  the  great  dam 
built  across  the  river.  The  town 
was  settled  in  1721  and  incorpo- 
rated in  1753.  Pop.  (1930)  6,- 
773;  (1940)  6,856. 

South  Haven,  city,  Michigan, 
Van  Buren  county,  on  the  shore 
of  Lake  Michigan,  and  on  the 
Pere  Marquette  and  the  Michi- 
gan Central  railroads ;  50  miles 
s.w.  of  Grand  Rapids.  It  is  a 
summer  resort  and  has  manufac- 
tures of  pianos,  lumber,  crates, 
flour,  canned  fruit,  and  two 
foundries.  It  is  a  shipping  point 
for  fruit,  which  is  extensively 
raised  in  the  vicinity.  The  city 
has  a  public  library  and  hospital. 
The  water-works  and  electric- 
lighting  plant  are  owned  and  op- 
erated by  the  municipality.  It 
was  settled  in  1833,  incorporated 
as  a  village  in  1869,  and  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  1902.  Pop. 
(1930)  4,803  ;  (1940)  4,745. 

South  Holland.  See  Hol- 
land, South. 

Southington,  borough,  Con- 
necticut, Hartford  county,  on  the 
New  Haven  and  Northampton 
Railroad;  15  miles  n.  of  New 
Haven.  Various  kinds  of  hard- 
ware are  manufactured.  It  was 
settled  about  1697.  The  town 
was  incorporated  in  1779  and  the 
borough  in  1889.  Pop.  (1930) 
5,125;  (1940)  5,088. 

South  Island.  See  New 
Zealand. 

South  MacAlester,  city, 
Oklahoma,  capital  of  the  Choc- 
taw Nation.  The  city  was  in- 
corporated in  1899.  In  1906  the 
town  of  MacAlester  (q.  v.)  was 
annexed  and  its  name  was  taken 
for  the  city.  Pop.  (1930)  11,- 
804;  (1940)  12,401. 

South  Milwaukee,  city, 
Wisconsin,  Milwaukee  county, 
10  miles  from  the  center  of  Mil- 
waukee, on  the  Chicago  and 
North  Western  Railroad.  It  is 
a  manufacturing  city.  The  out- 
put includes  steam  shovels, 
dredges,  and  wreckers.  Othei 
manufactures  are  stoves,  chains, 
hinges,  rakes,  merchant  iron, 
baskets,  and  woolen  goods.  The 
steam  dredges  and  shovels  made 
here  were  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Panama  Canal.  The 
first  settlers  arrived  in  1835. 
The  place  was  incorporated  in 
1892  and  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1896.  Pop.  (1930)  10,706; 
(1940)  11,134. 

South  Norwalk,  city,  Con- 
necticut, Fairfield  county,  consol- 
idated with  Norwalk  in  1913,  40 
miles  n.e.  of  New  York,  on  Long 
Island  Sound,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Norwalk  River,  on  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
Railroad.    It  has  important  man- 


ufactures, including  those  of 
hardware,  stoves,  corsets,  silk, 
woolen  goods,  gasoline  engines, 
air  compressors,  boats,  earthen- 
ware, paper  boxes,  and  shoes.  It 
has  a  good  harbor,  and  is  finely 
situated,  overlooking  the  Sound. 
The  water-works  and  electric- 
lighting  plant  are  owned  and  op- 
erated by  the  municipality.  Pop. 

(1930)  36,019;  (1940)  39,849. 
South  Orange,  village,  New 

Jersey,  Essex  county,  on  the  Del- 
aware, Lackawanna  and  Western 
Railroad  ;  4  miles  west  of  New- 
ark. It  is  a  residential  place, 
most  of  the  inhabitants  being 
New  York  businessmen,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  locali- 
ties in  the  neighborhood  of  New 
York.  It  is  the  seat  of  Seton 
Hall  College  (R.  C.)  and  has  a 
fine  public  library.  Essex  Coun- 
ty Park,  of  300  acres,  is  situated 
upon  Orange  Mountain,  which 
forms  the  n.w.  boundary  of  the 
village,  and  which  affords  an  ex- 
tensive view.  The  place  was  set- 
tled about  1670.  Pop.  (1930) 
13,630;  (1940)  13,742. 

South  Park,  a  tableland  in 
the  central  part  of  Colorado,  sur- 
rounded by  rugged  mountains. 
Alt.  9.000  ft.  It  is  fertile  and  is 
well  watered,  being  traversed  by 
the  South  Fork  of  the  Platte  and 
other  streams.  Its  area  is  2,000 
sq.  m.  On  the  n.,  lofty  moun- 
tains separate  it  from  Middle 
Park. 

South  Pole.  See  Antarctic 
Ocean. 

Southport,  municipal  borough 
and  watering-place,  Lancashire, 
England,  18  miles  n.  of  Liver- 
pool ;  it  has  a  handsome  espla- 
nade and  marine  drive.  Marine 
park  and  lake  (44  ac.)  front  the 
shore.  Hesketh  Park  is  prettily 
laid  out  at  the  northern  end  of 
the  town  ;  there  are  botanic  gar- 
dens, winter  garden  and  zoologi- 
cal park.  The  public  buildings 
include  town  hall,  Cambridge 
Hall,  Atkinson  Art  Gallery  and 
Free  Library,  and  market  hall, 
and  there  are  several  hydropathic 
establishments.  Birkdale  is  a 
southern  residential  suburb.  Pop. 

(1931)  78,927. 

South  Portland,  city,  Maine, 
Cumberland  county,  on  the  inner 
harbor  of  Portland,  opposite  that 
city,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  ferry.  It  is  a  residential  city 
and  summer  resort.  The  chief 
industrial  establishments  are 
boat-building  yards,  flour  mills, 
and  oil  and  lead  works.  The 
more  important  institutions  in- 
clude the  Maine  School  for  Boys 
and  the  City  Home.  Features  of 
interest  are  Cape  Cottage,  a  pic- 
turesque shore  resort,  and  Forts 
Preble  and  Williams,  each  with 
two  companies  of  coast  artillery. 
The  chief  industry  is  shipbuild- 
ing. The  city  was  chartered  in 
1899,  before  which  it  was  part 


South  River 


KFN 


336 


Souza-Botelho 


of  Cape  Elizabeth.  Pop.  (1930) 
13,840;  (1940)  15,781. 

South  River,  borough,  New 
Jersey,  Middlesex  county,  5 
miles  s.E.  of  New  Brunswick,  on 
the  South  River,  and  on  the  Rari- 
tan  River  Railroad.  It  has  brick 
yards,  conduit  works,  and  manu- 
factures of  handkerchiefs,  em- 
broidery, shirts,  dresses  and 
smoking  pipes.  Clay  and  mould- 
ing sands  are  abundant  in  the 
district.  The  place  was  first  in- 
corporated in  1871  and  char- 
tered as  a  borough  in  1898.  Pop. 
(1930)  10,759;  (1940)  10,714. 

South  Saint  Paul,  city,  Min- 
nesota, Dakota  county,  on  the 
Mississippi  River,  and  on  the 
Chicago,  Great  Western  and  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pacific 
railroads ;  5  miles  from  Saint 
Paul.  It  is  of  industrial  impor- 
tance as  a  packing  center.  Large 
stock  yards  are  situated  here. 
Malt,  plaster,  and  cement  are 
manufactured.  The  packing- 
houses and  allied  interests  em- 
ploy 5,000  hands.  The  river  is 
very  picturesque  at  this  point, 
having  high  bluffs  opposite  the 
city.  The  place  was  settled  about 
1880  and  incorporated  in  1887. 
Pop.  (1930)  10,009;  (1940)  11,- 
844. 

Southsea,  town,  Hants,  Eng- 
land, forming  part  of  Ports- 
mouth, immediately  s.  of  Land- 
port.  It  is  a  residential  suburb 
and  watering-place,  and  has  an 
esplanade  adorned  with  many 
naval  memorials. 

South  Sea  Scheme,  or,  as  it 
is  often  named,  the  'South  Sea 
Bubble,'  arose  out  of  Lord 
Treasurer  Harley's  desire  to  get 
taken  up  the  large  floating  debt 
which  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  (1701-13)  had  cre- 
ated. The  Company  of  Merchants 
of  Great  Britain  was  granted  ex- 
clusive rights  of  trading  on  the 
east  and  west  coasts  of  S.  Amer- 
ica, and  all  lands  it  might  dis- 
cover within  three  hundred 
leagues  from  the  shore  were  to 
be  held  by  the  company  under 
the  crown.  The  peace  of  Utrecht 
(1713)  transferred  to  England 
the  Assiento  privilege  of  carry- 
ing Negroes  to  Spanish  America, 
and  this  privilege  was  handed 
over  to  the  company.  In  1714, 
by  the  further  transformation 
of  government  debt,  the  capital 
stock  was  increased  to  £10,000,- 
000;  and  in  1719  the  directors  of 
the  company  proposed  to  absorb 
the  whole  national  debt  and  pay 
5  per  cent  interest  for  seven 
years  and  4  per  cent  thereafter. 
They  offered  for  this  privilege 
£7,567,000.  The  company  seems 
to  have  done  little  legitimate 
trading.  The  public,  however, 
misled  by  the  countenance  and 
support  which  the  government 
gave  to  the  company,  formed 
extravagant  ideas  of  the  possible 


value  of  the  South  Sea  trade, 
and  speculation  carried  the  stock 
to  £1,000  for  every  £100  sub- 
scribed. Then  all  sorts  of  com- 
panies were  floated,  and  men 
invested  blindly  in  the  most 
ridiculous  projects,  such  as  pro- 
posals to  import  asses  from 
Spain  and  to  extract  silver  from 
sea-water.  The  whole  of  Eng- 
land seemed  to  have  gone  mad, 
save  only  Walpole.  He  had  al- 
ways opposed  this  South  Sea 
Scheme,  and  to  him  the  nation 
turned  to  restore  the  public 
credit  and  to  find  the  best  way 
out  of  the  mess.  Walpole  dealt 
leniently  with  the  directors,  and 
remitted  the  obligations  of  the 
company  to  the  public,  thus  fa- 
voring the  ordinary  stockholder. 
The  South  Sea  Company  was  not 
dissolved,  but  it  carried  on  a  le- 
gitimate business  thereafter.  It 
engaged  in  the  whale  fishery  with 
no  great  success,  and  trafficked 
in  Negro  slaves.  Although  after 
1750  it  ceased  to  be  a  trading 
company,  it  was  not  till  1807  that 
it  was  deprived  of  its  exclusive 
trading  privileges  in  the  South 
Seas.  See  Mackay,  Memoirs  of 
Extraordinary  Popular  Delu- 
sions (1852),  and  Coxe,  Memoirs 
of  Sir  Robert  Walpole  (1802). 

South  Shetlands,  group  of 
mountainous  islands  in  the  Ant- 
arctic Ocean,  about  600  m.  s.  of 
Cape  Horn.  They  are  twelve  in 
number — Clarence,  George  i, 
Livingstone,  Deception,  and 
Smith  being  the  chief — and  cover 
an  area  of  880  sq.  m. 

South  Shields.  See  Shields. 

Southwark,  a  London  bor- 
ough, in  Surrey,  England,  on  the 
Thames,  called  by  Londoners  'the 
Borough.'  St.  Saviour's  Church, 
now  the  cathedral  of  the  diocese 
of  Southwark  (constituted  1905), 
belonged  to  the  11th-century 
priory  of  St.  Mary  Overy.  It 
was  rebuilt  13th  century.  Its 
monuments  include  one  to  the 
poet  Gower,  buried  here.  Among 
other  noteworthy  buildings  are 
Spurgeon's  Tabernacle,  St. 
George's  Church,  Roman  Catho- 
lic cathedral,  Guy's  Hospital, 
Hop  Exchange,  Bethlehem  Hos- 
pital, and  the  Surrey  and  Ken- 
nington  theatres.  The  site  of 
Shakespeare's  Globe  Theatre  is 
now  occupied  by  a  brewery.  Pop. 
(1931)  171,657. 

Southwell,  Robert  (c.  1561- 
95),  English  poet  and  Jesuit  spy, 
was  born  probably  at  Horsham, 
Norfolk,  and  admitted  a  Jesuit  in 
1578.  In  1586  he  went  to  Eng- 
land with  Father  Henry  Garnet, 
and  passed  as  a  Protestant  under 
the  name  of  Cotton.  In  1592  he 
was  caught,  and  was  taken  to 
prison  and  to  torture,  and  in  1595 
he  was  hanged  for  treason.  He 
left  a  good  deal,  of  prose  and 
verse  of  which  the  lines  The 
Burning  Babe  are  best  known. 


His  Collected  Poems  were  edited 
by  A.  B.  Grosart  (1872),  and 
Collected  Prose  by  W.  J.  Walter 
(1828). 

South  Williamsport,  bor- 
ough, Pennsylvania,  Lycoming 
county,  opposite  Williamsport,  on 
the  Susquehanna  River,  and  on 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad.  It 
has  a  furniture  factory,  dairy 
plant,  wholesale  produce  market, 
machine  shop,  etc.  The  place 
was  settled  in  1825  and  incorpo- 
rated in  1886.  Pop.  (1930)  6,- 
058;  (1940)  6,033. 

Southworth,  Emma  Doro- 
thy Eliza  (Nevitte)  (1819- 
99),  American  novelist,  born  in 
Washington,  D.  C.  Her  first 
novel.  Retribution  (1849),  was 
published  in  the  National  Era, 
and  she  wrote  many  other  works 
of  fiction,  dealing  mostly  with 
social  conditions  in  the  South. 
Her  collected  works  were  pub- 
lished in  1872. 

Souvestre,  Emile  (1806-54), 
French  litterateur,  born  at  Mor- 
laix,  settled  at  Paris  (1836), 
where  his  Breton  novels  won 
him  fame.  Among  these  are  Les 
Dernier  s  Bretons  (1835-7), 
Pierre  ct  Jean  (1842),  Foyer 
Breton  (1844),  Scenes  de  la 
Chouannerie  (1852)  and  Chro- 
niques  de  la  Mer  (1853).  His 
best  book  is,  however,  Un  Philo- 
sophe  sous  les  Toils  (1850).  He 
also  wrote  many  plays  and  farces 
and  published  Causeries  Histo- 
riques  et  Litteraires  (2  vols., 
1854). 

Souza-Botelho,  so'za-bo- 
tel'yo,  Adele  Marie  Emilie 
Filleul,  Marquise  de  Flahaut 
(1761-1836),  French  novelist. 
She  was  educated  in  a  convent, 
and  when  very  young  married 
Count  de  Flahaut.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Revolution  she  fled 
with  her  son  to  England,  where 
she  learned  of  the  death  of  her 
husband  on  the  scaffold  (1793). 
In  England  she  wrote  her  first 
novel  Adele  de  Senanges,  a  work 
full  of  freshness  and  charm. 
She  lived  for  two  years  in  Ham- 
burg where  she  earned  her  liv- 
ing as  a  milliner.  After  the 
fall  of  Robespierre  she  returned 
to  France,  and  at  the  home 
of  Talleyrand  met  the  Portu- 
guese diplomat  M.  Souza-Bo- 
telho, whom  she  married  in  1802. 
Her  wit,  the  charm  of  her  con- 
versation and  disposition  made 
her  a  favorite  among  distin- 
guished men  and  women  of  the 
time.  She  lost  her  social  power 
after  the  fall  of  the  First  Em- 
pire. Her  books  include  Eugene 
de  Rothelin,  generally  considered 
her  best  work ;  Emilie  et  Al- 
phonse  (1799);  Charles  et  Marie 
(1802);  Eugenie  ct  Mathilde 
(1811);  Mile,  dc  Fournon 
(1820)  ;  La  Comtcsse  de  Fargy 
(1822).  Her  CEuvres  Completes, 
revised,  appeared  in  six  volumes 


Souza-Boteiho 


337 


Sower 


sophe  sous  les  Toils  (1850).  He 
also  wrote  many  plays  and  farces 
and  published  Causeries  Histo- 
riques  et  Lilteraires  (2  vols.,  1854). 

Souza  -  Botelho,  s6'za-b6- 
tel'yo,  Adele  Marie  Emilie 
FiLLEUL,  Marquise  de  Flahaut 
(1761-1836),  French  novelist, 
was  born  in  Paris.  She  was  edu- 
cated in  a  convent,  and  when 
very  young  married  Count  de 
Flahaut,  The  union  was  not  a 
happy  one,  and  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution  she  fled  with 
her  son  to  England,  where  she 
learned  of  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band on  the  scaffold  (1793). 
While  in  England  she  wrote  her 
first  novel  Adele  de  Senanges,  a 
work  full  of  freshness  and  charm. 
After  the  fall  of  Robespierre  she 
returned  to  France,  and  at  the 
home  of  Talleyrand  met  the 
Portuguese  diplomat  M.  Souza- 
Botelho,  whom  she  married  in 
1802.  Her  wit,  the  charm  of  her 
conversation,  and  her  sweetness 
of  disposition  made  her  a  favor- 
ite among  the  distinguished  men 
and  women  of  the  time.  Her 
books  include  Eugene  de  Rothelin, 
generally  considered  her  best 
work;  Emilie  et  Alphonse  (1799)  ; 
Charles  et  Marie  (1802);  Eugenie 
et  Mathilde  (1811);  Mile,  de 
Fournon  (1820);  La  Comtesse  de 
Fargy  (1822).  Her  CEuvres  Com- 
pletes, revised  and  corrected,  ap- 
peared in  six  volumes  in  1821—22; 
and  CEuvres  Choisies,  with  a 
notice  by  Sainte-Beuve  in 
1840-5. 

Sovereign.  One  who  exer- 
cises supreme  control  or  do- 
minion, but  generally  applied 
only  to  the  hereditary  rulers  of 
states — e.g.  king,  emperor,  czar. 
See  also  Sovereignty. 

Sovereign,  a  British  "gold  coin 
worth  one  pound  sterling,  or 
$4.86f,  first  issued  by  Henry 
VII.,  and  which  continued  to  be 
issued  till  the  time  of  James  i. 
It  was  revived  by  George  iii., 
and  is  still  issued. 

Sovereignty.  During  the 
Middle  Ages  the  word  'sov- 
ereign' and  its  compounds  were 
simply  equivalent  to  'head'  or 
'chief.'  It  was,  of  course,  most 
frequently  applied  to  the  king 
as  the  head  of  the  state;  but  it 
was  also  used  to  describe  the 
bishop  of  a  diocese,  the  abbot 
of  a  monastery,  and  even  the 
provost  or  master  of  a  college. 
With  the  political  speculators 
of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  however,  especially 
with  Bodin,  Grotius,  Hobbes, 
and  Filmer,  the  term  was  used  to 
signify  that  absolute  freedom 
from  external  control,  combined 
with  that  absolute  power  over  its 
own  members,  which  the  revolt 
against  the  mediaival  doctrine  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire  led  the 
modern  school  of  thinkers  to 
attribute  to  every  independent 
state.  Thus  sovereignty  became 
Vol.  XL— March,  '20 


an  abstraction,  used  to  signify 
that  totality  of  independence  and 
power  which  may  be  vested  in  a 
king,  or  in  a  king  and  parliament, 
or  in  an  assembly  alone.  The 
great  champion  and  popularizer 
of  this  view  in  England  was  the 
jurist  John  Austin  (A  Plea  for 
the  Constitution,  1859).  Not 
only  did  he  labor  to  prove  that 
every  act  of  political  power  in 
the  United  Kingdom  (he  does 
not  seem  to  have  considered  the 
case  of  the  colonies)  was  the  act, 
direct  or  indirect,  of  the  crown, 
lords,  and  commons,  or,  as  he 
subsequently  modified  it,  of  the 
crown,  lords,  and  electors;  but 
he  asserted  in  spite  of  manifest 
evidence  to  the  contrary,  that  a 
person  or  body  of  persons  in- 
vested with  similar  powers  must 
necessarily  exist  in  every  organ- 
ized political  community. 

The  first  serious  check  which 
this  view  met  with  was  from  the 
advocates  of  the  new  historical 
method  of  legal  and  political 
study,  prominent  among  whom 
was  Sir  Henry  Maine,  whose 
brilliant  book  on  Ancient  Law 
was  published  in  1861.  Some- 
what staggered  by  his  attack,  the 
Austinian  school  of  jurists  fell 
back  on  the  compromise  that, 
whatever  may  have  been  the  case 
in  rudimentary  stages  of  develop- 
ment, the  Austinian  doctrine  was 
true  of  all  civilized  communities. 
Even  this  claim  has,  however, 
been  powerfully  resisted  by  re- 
cent writers,  conspicuously  by 
Professor  Dicey,  who  points  out 
that  many  of  the  most  advanced 
modern  political  communities 
have  in  practice  rejected  the  doc- 
trine of  sovereignty  as  Austin 
preached  it.  The  truth  of  the 
matter  appears  to  be  this,  that 
there  have  from  time  to  time  ex- 
isted certain  political  communi- 
ties in  which  the  acts  of  a  given 
person  or  body  of  persons  could 
not  be  legally  questioned  by  any 
regularly  constituted  authority, 
internal  or  external.  Two  con- 
spicuous examples  are  the  em- 
pire of  the  Russias,  in  which  the 
ukase  of  the  czar  could  not  be 
questioned  before  any  tribunal; 
and  the  British  empire,  in  which 
a  formally  enacted  statute  of 
the  crown  in  Parliament  enjoys 
a  similar  immunity.  Of  course 
there  is  always  the  'sacred  right 
of  revolt';  but  this  is  not  a  legal 
restriction.  Of  these  and  simi- 
lar communities  Austin's  doc- 
trine is  only  approximately 
true. 

One  of  the  most  conspicuous 
features  of  the  many  'written 
constitutions'  which  sprang  into 
life  during  the  nineteenth  century 
is  the  careful  restriction  placed 
by  them  on  the  powers  not  mere- 
ly of  the  monarch  or  head  of  the 
state,  but  on  the  parliament  or 
other  legislative  body.  These 
restrictions  are  legal;   they  can 


be  pleaded  before  regularly  con- 
stituted tribunals.  Their  exist- 
ence is  a  complete  answer  to  the 
theory  of  sovereignty  as  under- 
stood by  Austin.  This  is  the  case 
even  in  so-called  'unitary'  con- 
stitutions, such  as  those  of 
France  and  Belgium.  It  is  still 
more  true  of  Federal  constitu- 
tions, such  as  that  of  the  United 
States,  by  which  political  power 
is  elaborately  partitioned  out 
among  various  co-ordinate  and 
independent  authorities. 

The  writers  of  the  Austinian 
school  have  endeavored  to  rebut 
this  obvious  truth  by  arguing 
that  the  body  with  whom  lies  the 
power  of  amending  the  constitu- 
tion is  in  such  case  the  real  sov- 
ereign body.  This  argument  is 
a  shade  stronger  than  that  of 
Blackstone,  who  asserts  that  sov- 
erign  power  necessarily  belongs 
to  that  body  in  the  state  which 
has  power  to  enact  laws,  appar- 
ently quite  regardless  of  what 
laws  it  has  power  to  enact.  But 
even  the  Austinian  argument  re- 
veals the  weakness  of  the  doc- 
trine which  it  is  quoted  to  sup- 
port. Austin's  'sovereign'  is  an 
active,  constantly  watchful,  and 
vigilant  power,  from  which  pro- 
ceeds every  political  act — legis- 
lative, executive,  judicial.  The 
constitution-amending  power  of 
the  written  constitution  is  usually 
a  very  elaborately  formed  body, 
apparently  devised  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  present  the  most 
extreme  possible  difficulty  in 
calling  it  into  action.  Such  a 
power  may  be  a  sovereign  in  posse; 
and  to  such  a  sovereign  it  has 
been  proposed  to  apply  the  epi- 
thet of  'political,'  while  the  sov- 
ereign power  as  ordinarily  under- 
stood is  to  be  known  as  'legal.' 
But  to  make  such  a  distinction 
is  to  destroy  the  whole  point  of 
Austin's  theory.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  framers  of  the  written 
constitutions  have  usually  aimed 
at  preventing  the  exercise  of  un- 
limited power  by  any  person  or 
body  of  persons. 

See  States'  Rights.  Con- 
sult Merriam's  History  of  the 
Theory  of  Sovereignty  since  Rous- 
seau; Dicey's  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  Law  of  the  Constitu- 
tion (8th  ed.,  1915). 

Sovereignty,  Popular.  See 
Popular  Sovereignty. 

So'viet,  Russian  term  first 
applied  to  a  revolutionary  com- 
mittee of  workmen  in  1905,  and 
later  extended  to  a  large  variety 
of  revolutionary  councils  and 
committees.  It  is  used  especial- 
ly of  that  form  of  government  in 
which  the  unit  of  industrial  or- 
ganization becomes  the  nucleus 
of  political  organization.  See 
Bolshevism. 

Sow  Bread.    See  Cyclamen. 

Sower  (or  Saur),  Christo- 
pher (1693-1758),  American 
printer  and  publisher,  was  born 


Sowerby 


338 


Spadefooi 


in  Laasphe,  Germany,  studied 
medicine  at  Halle,  and  emigrated 
(1724)  to  the  United  States.  He 
settled  in  Germantown  (1731), 
established  a  printing  press  there, 
and  undertook  (1738)  the  publi- 
cation of  an  almanac  which  was 
continued  by  his  relatives  until 
1798.  He  established  a  quarterly 
magazine,  D  er  Hoch-Deutsch 
Pensylvanische  Geschichle-Schrei- 
ber,  in  1739,  and  in  1743  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Luther's 
translation  of  the  Bible,  the  first 
copy  of  the  book  (excepting 
Eliot's  Indian  Bible)  to  be 
printed  in  America. 

Sowerby  sou'er-bi,  James 
(1757-1822),  English  scientist 
and  artist,  was  born  in  London. 
He  taught  drawing  and  painting, 
was  employed  to  execute  plates 
for  the  Botanical  Magazine,  and 
thereafter  devoted  himself  to 
colored  illustrations  of  botan- 
ical, zoological,  and  other  scien- 
tific subjects.  He  published  Eng- 
lish Botany  (1790-1814),  with 
2,592  colored  plates;  Colored 
Figures  of  English  Fungi  (1797— 
1815);  The  Mineral  Conchology 
of  Great  Britain  (1812-46);  and 
similar  works. 

Sowerby,  James  de  Carle 
(1787-1871),  English  naturalist 
and  artist,  son  of  James  Sowerby 
(q.  v.),  was  born  at  Stoke 
Newington,  London,  and  fol- 
lowed the  lines  of  his  father's 
work.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  (1838)  and  secretary  of 
the  Royal  Botanic  (jar- 
dens. 

Sowerby  Bridge,  town.  West 
Riding,  Yorkshire,  England,  on 
the  Calder,  at  the  termination  of 
Rochdale  Canal,  2 5  miles  south- 
west of  Halifax.  The  town  has 
woollen  mills,  cotton  factories, 
and  engineering  and  chemical 
works.    Pop.  (1911)  11,350. 

Sowing  Machines.  See  Im- 
plements and  Machinery, 
Agricultural. 

Sow  Thistle,  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  order 
Compositas.  The  Common  Sow 
Thist\e(Sonchus  oleraceus),  some- 
times called  Milk  Thistle,  is 
found  throughout  North  America 
except  in  the  far  north.  It  is  a 
hardy  annual,  growing  to  a 
height  of  2  or  3  feet,  and  bearing 
large,  more  or  less  prickly  mar- 
gined leaves,  and  small  yellow 
flowers  in  corymbs.  It  blooms 
from  June  to  September.  5. 
arvensis,  the  Field  Sow  Thistle, 
closely  resembles  it,  but  has 
larger  flowers.  In  Europe  the 
plant  is  used  as  a  pot  herb  and  is 
kept  succulent  by  constantly 
pinching  out  its  buds. 

Soy  Bean  (Glycine  soja),  a 
bushy,  leguminous  annual,  grow- 
ing from  2 1  to  4  feet  high,  cul- 
tivated as  a  food  and  forage 
plant.  It  has  small  white  or 
purplish  flowers  and  fiat  white 
seed  pods,  2  to  3  inches  in  length. 
Vol.  XI.— March,  '20 


It  is  a  native  of  Asia  and  is 
largely  grown  in  Japan  and 
China,  where  it  constitutes  an 
important  element  in  the  national 
dietary.  In  the  United  States  its 
principal  use  is  as  a  forage  plant 
for  livestock  and  as  a  soil  reno- 
vator. It  is  cultivated  from 
Massachusetts  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  its  economic  im- 
portance is  rapidly  increas- 
ing. 

The  soy  bean  requires  about 
the  same'  temperature  and  soil 
constituents  as  corn,  though  it 
will  thrive  on  a  poorer  soil  than 
corn  provided  there  is  adequate 
drainage.  Planting  should  take 
place  after  all  danger  of  frost 
is  over,  in  soil  which  has  been 
well  prepared  by  deep  ploughing 
and  working  with  disc  and  har- 
row until  a  firm  seed  bed,  with 
two  or  three  upper  inches  of 
loose  mellow  soil,  is  secured. 
The  planting  should  be  shallow 
— one  to  two  inches — in  rows 
thirty  to  thirty-six  inches  apart 
if  the  crop  is  raised  for  seed; 
either  broadcast  or  in  rows  if 
for  forage.  A  bushel  of  seed 
is  sufficient  for  2  or  3  acres  if  the 
planting  is  in  rows.  The  seed- 
ling plants  appear  in  about  a 
week  and  tillage  should  then 
begin.  Soy  beans  may  be  plant- 
ed from  early  spring  to  midsum- 
mer, but  June  first  is  the  general- 
ly accepted  time.  In  Tennessee 
and  North  Carolina  and  farther 
south,  two  crops  may  be  raised 
in  a  season.  When  used  for 
hay,  soiling,  or  silage,  the  crop 
is  cut  wnen  m  blossom,  but  when 
grown  for  seed  the  harvest  is 
deferred  until  the  seeds  are  ripe. 
The  plant  is  little  subject  to  dis- 
ease or  insect  attacks.  Rabbits 
are  extremely  fond  of  it  and  are 
perhaps  its  most  destructive 
enemy. 

The  soy  bean  has  a  high  pro- 
tein content  and  may  be  ground 
and  used  in  combination  with 
other  feeding  stuffs.  Its  com- 
position is  as  follows:  water, 
10.8  percent.;  ash,  4.7  per  cent.; 
protein,  34  per  cent.;  fibre,  4.8 
per  cent.;  nitrogen-free  extract 
28.8  per  cent.;  fat  16.9  per  cent. 
The  whole  plant  is  frequently 
used  with  corn  as  ensilage. 

In  China,  Japan,  Cochin- 
China,  and  Annam  several  prod- 
ucts are  obtained  from  the  seed 
of  soy  beans.  In  Japan  a  con- 
centrated milk  and  a  flour  have 
been  prepared;  in  China  soya 
flour,  soya  bread,  soya  milk,  and 
soya  cheese  are  obtained;  and  in 
Cochin-China  and  Annam  vege- 
table milk  and  vegetable  cheeee 
are  made  for  food  and  a  vege- 
table casein  is  prepared  for  in- 
dustrial purposes.  Soy,  a  thick 
piquant  fauce,  is  made  by  mixing 
the  beans  softened  by  boiling 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  wheat 
or  barley  roughly  ground.  The 
mixture  is  covered  up  and  kept 


in  a  warm  place  to  ferment,  then 
put  into  a  pot  and  covered  with 
salt.  The  results  obtained  from 
the  utilization  of  the  soya  bean 
in  Asia  for  food  and  in  industry 
have  led  many  Europeans  to  a 
study  of  its  possibilities  with 
a  view  to  its  availability  in  the 
rationing  of  armies. 

In  the  United  States  in  1919 
the  production  of  soy  beans  was 
2,233,000  bushels  on  an  acreage 
of  157,900,  with  a  farm  value 
of  $7,704,000.  Consult  C.  V. 
Piper's  Forage  Crops  (1914); 
Farmers'  Bulletins  58  and  372  and 
509  (U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture). 

Soyer,  swa-ya',  Alexis 
Benoit  (1809-58),  French  cook 
and  practical  philanthropist,  was 
born  at  Meaux,  went  to  England 
in  1830,  and  eventually  became 
chef  at  the  Reform  Club,  London 
(1837-50),  where  he  made  a 
great  reputation.  At  the  time 
of  the  Irish  famine  he  was  sent 
by  the  government  to  superin- 
tend the  erection  and  working 
of  public  kitchens  for  the  issue  of 
rations,  and  there  succeeded  in  re- 
ducing the  cost  of  food  by  50  per 
cent.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Crimean  War  he  was  associated 
with  Florence  Nightingale  in 
reorganizing  the  victualling  of 
the  army  hospitals.  He  in- 
vented a  military  cooking  wagon, 
and  (in  1849)  a  magic  cooking 
stove,  and  published  successful 
books  on  cookery — e.g.  The 
Gastronomic  Regenerator  (1846), 
The  Modern  Housewife  (1849), 
and  Shilling  Cookery  Book  (1854). 
Consult  Memoirs  by  Volant  and 
Warren. 

Sozzini.    See  SociNUS. 

Spa,  town  and  watering-place, 
province  of  Liege,  Belgium,  is 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Spa  and  Picherotte;  20  miles 
southeast  of  Liege.  There  are 
sixteen  mineral  springs  in  or  near 
the  town,  which  is  frequented  by 
over  15,000  visitors  annually,  a 
large  number  of  whom  are  Eng- 
lish. The  town  is  the  original 
'Spa'  from  which  has  come  the 
generic  name  now  applied  to  any 
watering-place.  It  has  flourished 
since  the  sixteenth  century. 
Painted  and  varnished  articles  of 
wood  are  a  specialty.   Pop.  8,600. 

Space.  See  Psychology;  Di- 
mensions; Geometry, 

Spadeflsh.    See  Paddlefish. 

Spadefoot,  a  species  of  small 
toad  belonging  to  the  family 
Pelobatidce,  characterized  by  ab- 
sence of  the  tympanum  and  by 
extensive  webbing  of  the  hind 
feet.  The  skin  is  smooth  and 
brown,  marbled  on  the  upper 
part  with  darker  markings. 
Pelobates  fuscus  is  found  in  Cen- 
tral Europe,  from  Belgium  to 
Northwestern  Persia  and  from 
Sweden  to  Italy;  P.  cultripes  in 
Spain  and  Portugal;  P.  scaphio- 
pus  in  North  America. 


Spadl: 


KR 


339 


Spain 


Spadix.  See  Spathe. 
Spagnoletto.      See  Ribera, 

Jesepu  de 

Spahi,  spa-he',  a  term  applied 
to  the  irregular  Turkish  cavalry- 
men, who  were  from  1326  a 
formidable  body  in  the  army  of 
the  sultan,  down  to  its  reorgani- 
zation by  Moltke  in  1835.  The 
French  apply  the  name  to  the 
native  Algerian  cavalry  in  the 
French  service.  The  word  is 
Persian,  and  is  etymologically 
identical  with  sepoy. 

Spahlinger,  Henry  (1882). 
Swiss  bacteriologist,  studied 
medicine  at  the  University  of 
Geneva,  also  law,  but  decided 
to  devote  himself  to  research. 


tuberculosis,  the  Spahlinger 
method  seems  to  us  at  the  pres- 
sent  moment  the  most  helpful 
and  promising.'  Consult  R.  G. 
Lovell,  Why  Tuberculosis  Ex- 
ists; How  it  Can  Be  and  Has  Been 
Cured  and  Prevented  (London 
1927). 

Spahr,  spar,  Charles  Bar- 
ziLLAi  (1860-1904),  American 
author  and  editor,  was  born  in 
Columbus,  O.  He  was  an  asso- 
ciate editor  of  the  Outlook  (New 
York)  in  1886-1904,  and  in  the 
latter  year  became  editor  of  Cur- 
rent Literature,  a  position  which 
he  occupied  up  to  his  death.  Be- 
sides miscellaneous  essays,  he 
published  The  Present  Distribu- 


versed  by  loftier  ranges.  On 
the  east  the  plateau  is  buttressed 
by  chains  which  descend  rapidly 
to  the  Mediterranean.  The 
mountains  of  Oca,  the  Sierra  de 
Moncayo,  and  the  Idubeda 
Mountains  rise  sharply  from  the 
valley  of  the  Ebro  on  the  north; 
the  Sierra  Morena  on  the  south 
is  of  inferior  elevation;  the  west- 
em  ranges  run  into  the  frontier 
of  Portugal,  and  lose  themselves 
in  the  Atlantic.  Outside  the 
plateau  lie  the  highest  summits 
of  the  whole  country,  the  Aneto 
(11,168  feet)  and  the  Pic  de 
Nethou  in  the  Pyrenees  (11,151 
feet) ,  and  Nulhacen  in  the  Sierra 
Nevada    (11,420    feet),  while 


Courtesy  The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago 

Court  of  Myrtles  at  the  Alhambra  in  Granada,  Spain 


He  invented  numerous  me- 
chanical and  electrical  labora- 
tory devices  and  devised  two 
lines  of  attack  upon  tuberculosis: 
passive  immunization,  conferred 
by  a  serum  neutralizing  the 
toxin,  and  active  immunization, 
produced  by  vaccination  with 
antigens  which  stimulate  the 
body's  resistance  to  disease.  His 
first  experiments,  on  guinea  pigs, 
were  performed  in  1912.  In 
that  year  he  treated  his  first 
patient  and  effected  a  complete 
cure.  After  the  First  World 
War  he  began  replenishing  his 
sera  stocks  in  Geneva;  these  and 
the  antigens  require  four  years  to 
produce  by  intricate  and  costly 
processes.  He  treated  many  pa- 
tients free,  but  refused  to  re- 
veal or  commercialize  his  formu- 
las. Investigating  his  work  in 
1925,  a  commission  of  British 
physicians  declared  that  'of  all 
known   methods   of  combating 


lion  of  Wealth  in  the  United 
States  (1896)  and  America's 
Working  People  (1900). 

Spain  (Espana,  from  the 
Latin  Hispania),  a  nationalist 
state  of  western  Europe,  oc- 
cupying, except  for  the  small 
country  of  Portugal,  the  entire 
Iberian  peninsula.  It  extends 
from  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Bay 
of  Biscay  on  the  north  to  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar  on  the  south, 
and  from  the  Atlantic  on  the 
west  to  the  Mediterranean  on 
the  east.  Continental  Spain  has 
an  area  of  190,0.50  square  miles; 
the  total  area  of  the  country,  in- 
cluding the  Balearic  and  Canary 
Islands  (qq.v.)  is  195,504  square 
miles,  with  a  coast  line  of  1,317 
miles,  712  on  the  Mediterranean 
and  605  on  the  Atlantic. 

Topography . — The  greater 
part  of  Spain  consists  of  a  pla- 
teau of  between  2,000  and  3,000 
feet  above   the    sea-level,  tra- 


the  Picos  de  Europa  in  the  Can- 
tabrian  Range  attain  over  8,000 
feet.  The  plateau  itself  is  tra- 
versed by  four  mountain-ranges, 
the  Oca  and  Idubeda  Mountains 
mentioned  above,  which  separate 
the  valley  of  the  Ebro  from 
that  of  the  Douro;  the  Gua- 
darrama  Range,  which  divides 
this  river  from  the  basin  of 
the  Tagus;  the  Sierra  de  To- 
ledo, which  forms  the  water- 
shed between  the  Tagus  and  the 
Guadiana;  while  the  southern 
buttress,  the  Sierra  Morena, 
forms  the  northern  wall  of  the 
valley  of  the  Guadalquivir.  The 
whole  plateau  has  a  general 
slight  inclination  from  east  or 
northeast  to  southwest,  and 
hence  all  the  considerable  rivers 
of  Spain  except  the  Ebro  flow 
westward  to  the  Atlantic.  The 
five  great  rivers  are  the  Tagus. 
Douro,  Ebro,  Guadiana,  and 
Quadalquivir. 


Spain 


KR 


340 


Spain 


Climate  and  Soil. — The  posi- 
tion of  the  peninsula  at  the  ex- 
treme southwest  of  Europe,  its 
isolation  from  the  rest  of  the 
continent,  and  the  broken  and 
mountainous  character  of  its  sur- 
face give  it  a  great  diversity  of 
climate,  in  sharp  contrast  to  that 
of  other  countries  of  similar 
latitude.  In  the  northwest  the 
rainfall  is  almost  the  heaviest  in 
Europe,  while  the  east  and  south- 
east are  extremely  dry,  some- 
times without  rain  for  an  entire 
year.  The  great  central  table- 
land, owing  to  its  elevation,  is 
bleak  and  arid,  icy  winds  alter- 
nating with  parching  sunlight. 
In  the  southern  zone  the  climate 
is  subtropical,  with  rainless 
summers  and  mild  winters. 

Of  the  soil  88.45  per  cent 
is  classified  as  productive,  35.5 
per  cent  is  devoted  to  agricul- 
ture and  gardens,  2.5  per  cent 
to  vineyards,  2.9  per  cent  to 
olive  culture,  25.3  per  cent  to 
natural  grass,  and  22.2  per  cent 
to  fruits. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — The 
great  variety  of  the  Spanish  cli- 
mate and  soil  is  reflected  in  the 
country's  vegetation.  Shrubs 
and  herbaceous  plants  charac- 
teristic of  the  Mediterranean 
region  cover  considerable  areas 
of  the  central  plateau.  In  the 
south  the  vegetation,  like  the 
climate,  is  subtropical,  with 
many  varieties  of  bright-colored 
flowers  clothing  the  surface  after 
the  prolonged  drought  of  sum- 
mer. In  the  north  the  flora  is 
closely  similar  to  that  of  central 
Europe.  Forests  are  compara- 
tively insignificant,  covering  less 
than  6  per  cent  of  the  country. 
Beech,  Spanish  pine,  Corsican 
pine,  the  date  palm,  and  the 
dwarf  palm  occur  in  the  various 
climatic  zones.  Of  special  eco- 
nomic value  are  the  cork  oaks 
of  southern  Spain,  saffron,  and 
esparto  grass.  Insect  life  is 
abundant,  and  birds  are  numer- 
ous, owing  perhaps  to  the  fact 
that  Spain  lies  in  the  route  of  the 
birds  of  passage  which  cross 
from  Africa  to  Europe.  In  the 
oak  forests,  wild  boars  are  still 
hunted. 

Minerals. — Spain  is  one  of 
the  richest  countries  in  the  world 
in  mineral  resources.  The  Rio 
Tinto  copper  mines  in  Huelva 
were  worked  by  the  Phoenicians 
and  Romans.  Copper  is  abun- 
dant also  in  the  provinces  of  Se- 
villa  and  Cordoba  and  iron  in 
Vizcaya,  Santander,  Oviedo, 
Navarra,  Sevilla,  and  Huelva. 
Coal,  the  most  important  min- 
eral, contributes  over  40  per 
cent  of  the  value  of  all  minerals 
in  a  normal  year;  copper,  a 
sixth;  iron,  a  seventh;"  and  lead, 
an  eighth.  Zinc,  tungsten,  coke, 
cement,  manganese,  quicksilver, 
silver  and  tin  are  also  exported. 


Antimony,  barytes,  bismuth, 
bauxite,  fluospar,  graphite,  as- 
phalt, phosphate  rock,  potassium 
salts,  soapstone,  sodium  sul- 
phate, sulphur,  tripoli,  cobalt, 
and  wolfram  are  produced.  Gold, 
lime,  arsenic,  marble,  slate,  gar- 
net, amethyst,  jasper,  agate, 
vanadium,  platinum,  and  cinna- 
bar occur. 

Agriculture. — Agriculture  is 
the  leading  industry.  The  larg- 
est area  is  planted  to  wheat  and 
the  second  largest  to  barley,  but 
these  crops  do  not  average  more 
than  sufficient  for  home  con- 
sumption. Other  food  staples 
are  oats,  rye,  corn,  rice,  peas, 
chick-peas,  and  beans.  The  vine- 
yards are  world-famous  and  cov- 
ered 3,387,494  acres  in  1944, 
chiefly  in  Catalonia,  New  Cas- 
tille,  Aragon  and  Andalusia. 
The  wines  of  Malaga,  Jarez,  and 
Alicante  have  been  renowned  for 
centuries.  The  olive  crop,  grown 
chiefly  in  Jaen,  is  equally  im- 
portant. Of  the  large  orange 
crop  three-fourths  are  normally 
exported.  Lemons,  almonds, 
hazel  nuts,  raisins,  flax,  hemp, 
esparto,  pulse,  tomatoes,  and  po- 
tatoes are  grown.  Cotton  has 
been  successfully  raised  in  An- 
dalusia. Large  quantities  of  beet 
and  cane  sugar  are  produced. 
Silk  culture  is  carried  on  in 
Valencia,  Murcia,  and  else- 
where. 

Rich  pastures  are  abundant  in 
the  northern  provinces.  Fine 
Merino  sheep  supply  very  nearly 
all  the  requirements  of  the  na- 
tive woolen  factories.  Pigs, 
goats,  cows,  mules,  asses,  horses, 
and  camels  (Canary  Islands)  are 
also  raised. 

Fisheries. — The  extensive 
coasts  have  made  fishing  impor- 
tant, especially  in  the  Basque 
provinces.  The  catch  was 
worth  1,275,468,100  pesetas  in 
1945,  mostly  sardines,  tunny, 
and  cod. 

M anujactures . — Spain  is  a 
large  producer  of  cotton,  wool, 
and  silk  textiles.  An  increasing 
proportion  of  its  ores  are  smelted 
and  worked  into  finished  pro- 
ducts at  home,  the  output  in- 
cluding pig  iron,  puddled  iron, 
forged  iron,  cast  iron,  steel  sheets 
and  tempered  steel.  Numerous 
metal  refineries  produce  refined 
lead,  copper  and  other  metals. 
Sulphuric  acid,  zinc  in  pigs  and 
sheets,  sulphate  of  copper,  bri- 
quets, benzol,  and  cement  are 
produced.  Catalonia  is  Spain's 
chief  manufacturing  region,  with 
extensive  textile  mills  and  iron 
foundries.  Cotton  weaving  here 
dates  from  the  6th  century  and 
woolen  manufactures  from  the 
11th  and  12th.  Paper,  glass, 
machinery,  ships,  electrical  sup- 
plies, sugar  (beet  and  cane), 
olive  oil  and  hand-made  shoes 
are  also  produced. 


Commerce. — The  foreign  trade 
of  Spain  reached  a  peak  in  1928 
when  it  was  valued  at  5,188,469,- 
000  pesetas,  and  declined  to  742,- 
300,000  pesetas  in  1932.  In  1945 
the  value  of  Spain's  foreign  trade 
was  1,749,704,000  pesetas.  The 
principal  exports  are  olive  oil, 
wine,  cork,  oranges  and  other 
fruits,  and  preserves,  flax,  iron 
and  copper  ores,  timber,  pottery, 
and  stone  and  glassware.  Im- 
ports are  mainly  machinery, 
coal,  chemical  products,  and  tex- 
tiles. Great  Britain,  France  and 
the  United  States  (named 
in  ranking  order)  have  the 
largest  share  in  the  commerce 
of  Spain. 

Communications. — Spain  in 
1944  had  10,887  miles  of  rail- 
ways, all  privately  owned.  The 
railways  of  normal  gauge  passed 
into  state  ownership  Feb.  1,  1941 
and  under  the  control  of  a  gov- 
ernment board.  The  official 
gauge  of  the  principal  railways  is 
kept  different  from  that  of 
French  railways.  Passengers 
must,  therefore,  change  at  the 
frontier. 

The  state  operates  Madrid- 
Barcelona  and  Madrid-Seville 
airways.  In  1934  a  German  air- 
line linked  Cadiz,  the  Canary  Is- 
lands and  South  America.  Ships 
ply  from  Spain  to  all  parts  of  the 
world.  Barcelona,  Bilbao  and 
Cadiz  are  the  chief  ports. 

Population. — The  census  of 
1940  gave  a  population  of  25,- 
877,971  and  in  1946  the  popula- 
tion was  estimated  at  27,285.489 
with  a  density  of  139.5  per  square 
mile.  The  population  of  the 
leading  cities  a§  estimated  in 
1946  was:  Madrid,  1,171,428; 
Barcelona,  1,125,158;  Valencia, 
544,039;  Seville,  370,320;  Zar- 
agoza,  283,857;  Malaga,  271,407; 
Murcia,  221,209;  Bilbao,  216,- 
263;  Granada,  180,664;  and 
Cordoba,  171,735. 

Religion. — Catholicism  is  the 
established  religion  of  the  state 
but  under  the  republic,  religious 
orders,  which  took  a  vow  of  obe- 
dience to  the  pope,  had  been  ex- 
pelled and  their  properties  seized. 
Religious  orders  were  prohibited 
from  owning  property  except  for 
dwellings  and  for  religious  prac- 
tices. 

Education. — In  1943  42.35  per 
cent  of  the  people  could  neither 
read  nor  write.  Primary  educa- 
tion is  free,  compulsory,  and 
non-sectarian.  Secondary  schools 
(at  least  one  in  each  province) 
prepare  students  for  the  eleven 
universities — Barcelona,  Gra- 
nada, Madrid,  Murcia,  Oviedo, 
Salamanca,  Santiago,  Seville, 
Valencia,  Valladolid,  and  Zara- 
goza.  A  medical  and  science 
faculty  at  Cadiz  and  a  school  in 
the  Canary  Islands  are  connected 
with  the  University  of  Seville. 

Army   and   Navy. — Military 


Spain 


KSD 


341 


Spain 


service  is  compulsory,  the  total 
term  being  18  years.  Active 
service  in  the  army  is  norrnally 
for  2  years ;  5  years'  service  is 
required  in  the  First  Reserve. 
The  army  is  organized  with  3 
high  inspectors  under  major  gen- 
erals at  Madrid.  Eight  army  di- 
visions are  distributed  among  the 
provinces ;  a  military  command 
in  Africa  (2  military  districts  in 
Morocco)  ;  and  forces  in  the 
Balearic  Islands  and  the  Canary 
Islands.  In  1933  there  were 
about  135,798  men  in  active  serv- 
ice (105,367  soldiers). 

In  1933  the  strength  of  the 
navy  was  fixed  at  14,000  sailors 
(1,729  officers).  There  were  10 
flotilla  leaders,  4  destroyers,  12 
torpedo  boats,  4  gunboats,  13 
submarines,  two  10,000-ton 
cruisers  nearing  completion ;  and 
construction  was  authorized  of 
12  submarines  and  4  flotilla  lead- 
ers of  which  two  submarines  and 
the  flotilla  leaders  were  building. 
There  is  a  naval  wireless  station 
at  San  Fernando  and  wireless 
stations  at  Cartagena  and  Ferrol. 
There  is  also  a  naval  flying 
service. 

Government, — Spain  is  a 
democratic  republic  'of  workers 
of  all  classes.'  Legislative  power 
is  vested  in  the  people  who  ex- 
ercise it  through  the  Cortes  or 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  The 
president  'Head  of  the  Nation' 
cannot  succeed  himself  but  may 
be  reelected  after  an  interven- 
ing term  ;  he  appoints  the  premier 
and  through  him  the  other 
ministers  of  government ;  he  is 
elected  for  a  6-year  term  con- 
jointly by  the  single-chamber 
Cortes  (elected  for  4  years)  and 
a  number  of  compromisers  equal 
to  that  of  deputies.  Both  the 
compromisers  and  the  deputies 
are  elected  by  universal  suffrage, 
equal,  direct,  and  secret,  on  the 
system  of  proportional  represen- 
tation. The  right  to  vote  is 
limited  to  males  and  females 
over  23.  Initiative  and  referen- 
dum are  provided  for. 

By  Article  8  of  the  constitu- 
tion Spain  is  a  federative  repub- 
lic, since  autonomous  government 
may  be  established  to  handle 
local  affairs  as  in  the  case  of  Cat- 
alonia, Galicia,  and  the  Basque 
provinces. 

The  Cortes  authorizes  the  gov- 
ernment to  enact  laws  by  decrees 
on  the  recommendation  of  the 
Council  of  Ministers.  A  per- 
manent committee  of  the  Cortes 
may  suspend  public  guarantees 
and  arrange  for  the  prosecution 
of  members.  The  Premier  and 
his  cabinet  are  responsible  for 
the  program  of  the  government, 
as  in  England  and  France.  Right 
of  divorce  and  civil  marriage  are 
provided. 

The  flag  of  the  Spanish  Re- 
public is  a  plain  field  of  three 
equal  horizontal  stripes,  the  top 


one  red,  the  centre  yellow,  and 
the  bottom  purple ;  dimensions 
of  the  official  flag,  about  2%  by 
4  feet. 

The  state  may  intervene  in  the 
direction  and  control  of  industry 
and  may  nationalize  public  utili- 
ties. 

The  president  may  wage  war 
and  make  peace  subject  to  the 
conditions  prescribed  in  the 
Covenant  of  the  League  of 
Nations. 

Justice, — Justice  is  adminis- 
tered by  tribunals  and  courts. 
The  Supreme  High  Court  (con- 
sisting of  a  president,  appointed 
by  the  nation's  president,  3  courts 
of  justice — one  for  administra- 
tive purposes  and  one  for  mili- 
tary trials),  is  a  court  of  cassa- 
tion in  civil  and  criminal  trials 
and  decides  in  first  and  second 
instances  disputes  between  pri- 
vate individuals  and  the  state  ;  di- 
visional high  'courts  have  power 
to  try  in  second  instance  sen- 
tences passed  by  judges  in  civil 
cases  and  in  first  instance  all 
criminal  cases  of  the  province ; 
provincial  high  courts  may  try 
and  pass  sentence  in  first  instance 
on  all  cases  filed  for  delinquency ; 
district  courts,  consisting  of  a 
judge  and  2  deputy  judges  may 
try  small  civil  cases  involving 
values  of  20,000  pesetas  or  less 
and  petty  offenses.  A  Court  of 
Minors  tries  cases  involving  de- 
linquency of  boys  and  girls  from 
9  to  18  years  of  age.  Labor  dis- 
putes are  brought  before  the  In- 
dustrial Tribunal  for  decision. 
The  maximum  penalty  that  can 
be  imposed  in  Spain  for  any  of- 
fense is  30  years'  imprisonment. 
There  is  trial  by  jury. 

History, — The  recorded  his- 
tory of  Spain  begins  with  the 
establishment  by  the  Phoenicians 
of  the  trading  colonies  on  the 
south  coast,  especially  at  Ga- 
deira  (Cadiz),  about  1100  B.C. 
Almost  simultaneously  Greek 
settlements  were  founded  on  the 
east  coast,  first  at  Rhodae  (now 
Rosas)  and  the  Baleares,  and 
later  at  Emporiae,  Dianium 
(Denia),  and  Saguntum.  The 
settlers  found  in  possession  of  the 
country  a  short,  dark-skinned, 
hirsute  people  organized  on 
tribal  lines.  Whence  these  Ibe- 
rians came  is  disputed.  Some 
authorities  claim  them  as  a 
branch  of  the  great  Indo- 
European  family  ;  others  believe 
them  to  be  of  cognate  origin 
with  the  aboriginal  North  Afri- 
can tribes,  whose  descendants 
now  inhabit  portions  of  the  Atlas 
region.  Long  before  the  arrival 
of  the  Phoenicians  a  great 
invasion  of  undoubted  Celts 
took  place  across  the  western 
Pyrenees,  and  for  ages  they 
warred  with  the  Iberian  tribes. 
Eventually  the  two  races  (and 
probably  a  third  race  of  aborigi- 
nal cave-dwellers,  of  which  little 


is  known)  fused  to  a  great  ex- 
tent on  the  central  table-land, 
but  the  Celts  remained  almost 
pure  in  the  northwest  and 
west,  as  the  Iberians  did  in 
the  south  and  southeast.  The 
influence  of  the  Phoenicians  was 
almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
material  and  civilizing  effects  of 
commerce,  while  the  Greeks  to 
some  extent  colored  the  social 
and  religious  organization  of  thti 
people.  At  length,  about  500 
B.C.,  the  Phoenicians  attempted 
to  push  their  influence  into  the 
interior,  and  came  into  inimical 
contact  with  the  less  civilized 
tribes.  The  Phcenicians  were 
forced  to  appeal  for  help  to  their 
kinsmen,  the  Carthaginians.  The 
latter  came  to  Spain,  and  re- 
pelled the  Celtiberian  tribesmen. 

In  the  great  Punic  struggle 
with  Rome,  Iberia  furnished  the 
best  soldiers  to  the  armies  of 
Hamilcar  and  Hannibal  on  the 
one  side,  and  to  those  of  Gnaeus 
and  Scipio  Africanus  on  the 
other.  After  the  ruin  of  the 
Punic  power  the  victorious  Ro- 
mans dominated  (205  b.c)  Spain. 

True  to  their  system  of  cen- 
tralizing bureaucracy,  they  gov- 
erned the  new  dependency,  as 
they  governed  the  rest  of  their 
dominions,  from  Rome.  Once  a 
formidable  federation  of  Celtic 
(Lusitanian)  tribes  almost  wrest- 
ed independence  from  the  Ro- 
mans. The  leader  of  the  revolt 
(151-140  B.C.)  was  Viriatus,  a 
Lusitanian  shepherd,  who,  after 
holding  out  for  ten  years,  and 
beating  all  the  generals  that 
Rome  sent  against  him,  suc- 
cumbed only  to  the  knife  of  the 
hired  assassin.  With  the  fall  of 
the  heroic  city  of  Numantia  and 
the  suicide  of  its  brave  Iberian 
defenders  the  hope  of  rescuing 
any  portion  of  Spain  from  Ro- 
man control  came  to  an  end. 
The  revolt  of  Sertorius  (83-72 
B.C.) — a  Sabine  by  a  Spanish 
mother — was  raised  on  behalf  of 
the  party  of  Marius,  who  con- 
tinued in  Spain,  then  the  most 
influential  colony  of  Rome,  the 
political  conflict  which  shook  the 
metropolis.  For  a  time  he  was 
successful,  organizing  the  coun- 
try with  great  ability ;  but  he  too 
fell  by  the  dagger.  Finally  (45 
B.C.)  Caesar  succeeded  not  only 
in  trampling  down  in  Spain  the 
party  of  Pompey,  but  also  in 
extinguishing  the  hope  of  Ibe- 
rian independence.  Thencefor- 
ward Spain  became  an  integral 
part  of  the  Roman  possessions. 
Latinization  became  fixed. 

With  the  division  and  corrup- 
tion_  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
Spain  too  became  divided  and 
corrupt ;  and  when  the  barbarians 
swarmed  across  the  Pyrenees  at 
the  invitation  of  one  of  the  Ro- 
man claimants  to  empire  (a.d. 
409),  they  overran  the  country 
without  resistance.    Like  locusts 


Spain 


342 


Spain 


the  Alans,  Suevians,  and  Van- 
dals devastated  the  land — the 
Alans  spreading  down  the  ex- 
treme east  and  west  and  on  the 
central  tableland,  the  Suevians 
establishing  themselves  in  Gali- 
cia,  and  the  Vandals,  prior  to 
their  migration  to  Africa,  settling 
down  for  a  few  years  in  Baetica. 

In  415  Ataulf  the  Goth  crossed 
the  Pyrenees,  and  thencefor- 
ward the  Goth  held  sway,  for 
the  first  forty  years  in  the  name 
of  the  Roman  emperor,  and  after- 
wards independently,  ruling  all 
Spain,  except  the  Suevian  north- 
west corner,  from  the  Gothic 
capital  of  Toulouse.  But  the 
Visigothic  monarchy,  although 
introducing  new  cohesion  and 
vigor  into  the  chaotic  govern- 
ment which  had  survived  the 
fall  of  Roman  bureaucracy, 
never  succeeded  in  acclimatiz- 
ing to  any  great  extent  their  own 
governmental  traditions  in  Spain. 
On  the  contrary,  the  aristocracy, 
living  apart  and  not  intermarry- 
ing with  the  natives,  became 
themselves  to  a  large  extent 
Latinized. 

The  Gothic  monarchy  was 
destroyed  by  the  Saracens  under 
Tarik,  at  the  battle  of  the 
Guadelete  (711),  where  fell 
Roderic,  the  last  of  the  Gothic 
kings.  The  Jews,  whom  the 
ecclesiastical  councils  had  per- 
secuted, everywhere  made  com- 
mon cause  with  the  invaders,  and 
within  two  years  virtually  all 
Spain  bowed  beneath  the  rule 
of  the  infidel.  The  new  con- 
querors left  the  Spaniards  in  full 
enjoyment  of  their  religion,  social 
usages,  and  local  autonomy,  and 
were  gentler  masters  than  the 
Visigoths  had  been.  Almost  the 
only  permanent  trace  left  of  the 
domination  of  the  latter  in  Spain 
was  the  code  of  laws  called  the 
Lex  Visigothorum,  which  sub- 
sequently became  the  foundation 
of  the  law  of  Christian  Spain. 

For  the  first  forty  years  after 
the  Moslem  conquest  Spain  was 
ruled  in  the  name  of  the  caliph 
of  Damascus  by  Arab  or  Sara- 
cenic emirs.  After  the  over- 
throw of  the  Ommiade  dynasty 
of  the  caliphs  of  Damascus  by 
the  Abbasides  and  the  transfer 
of  the  caliphate  to  Bagdad,  the 
only  surviving  prince  of  the 
fallen  dynasty,  Abdur-Rahman, 
fled  to  Spain,  and  there  assumed 
independent  sovereignty  (755). 
Under  his  vigorous  rule  Islamic 
Spain  became  united  and  strong. 
In  an  attempt  to  subdue  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  Visigothic  force 
the  Arabs  were  crushingly  de- 
feated in  718  at  the  semi-legend- 
ary battle  of  the  cave  of  Cova- 
donga,  and  the  tiny  mountain 
principality  of  which  Pelayo 
then  became  the  head  was  the 
nucleus  out  of  which  the  Chris- 
tian kingdom  of  Asturias  was 
subsequently  organized.  On  the 
Vol.  XL- 


east  of  the  Pyrenees  another 
Christian  advance  was  made  al- 
most at  the  same  time  by  a 
powerful  force  from  Aquitaine, 
Catalonia,  having  been  conquered 
(800-801),  was  held,  first  as 
tributary  to  Aquitaine,  and  sub- 
sequently (after  811)  as  an  in- 
dependent dominion  by  its  own 
counts. 

For  the  next  two  centuries 
Spain  may  be  roughly  divided 
into  two  portions.  All  north  of 
the  Ebro  —  the  Guadarrama 
mountains  and  the  range  that 
separates  the  valleys  of  the 
Douro  and  the  Tagus — was 
Christian;  south  of  that  line  was 
Moslem.  There  was  as  yet  no 
persecution  on  the  Moslem  side; 
marriage  between  the  races  was 
common;  the  skill,  wealth,  and 
elegance  of  the  Arabs  were 
agreeable  to  the  Christians 
among  whom  they  lived;  and 
the  mass  of  the  population  was 
prosperous.  But  the  priests  and 
leaders  of  the  Asturian  kingdom 
fomented  the  religious  mysticism 
and  zeal  of  the  Christians.  Fanat- 
icism on  the  one  side  was  an- 
swered by  fanaticism  on  the 
other.  The  Christians  deliber- 
ately sought  martyrdom  by  in- 
sulting the  faith  of  Islam  (850); 
and  thus  gradually  religious 
persecution  embittered  the  situ- 
ation. Racial  disaffection  and 
discontent  drove  the  Moslems 
into  revolt,  until  the  Caliph 
Abdur-Rahman  ill.  (912-961) 
temporarily  subdued  all  the  jar- 
ring elements,  and  once  more 
unified  Islam.  Meanwhile  in 
the  kingdom  of  Asturias  the 
priests  had  not  been  able  to  re- 
establish the  purely  theocratic 
system.  But  the  sovereigns  of 
the  Frankish  state  of  Catalonia 
and  the  little  Basque  mountain 
kingdom  of  Navarre  were  politi- 
cal chiefs,  elected  by  their  peers 
with  strictly  limited  powers, 
and  with  no  trace  or  presence 
of  divine  warrant  or  sacer- 
dotal privilege.  These  growing 
obstacles  to  ultimate  Christian 
unity  were  increased  by  the 
elective  traditions  of  the  Visi- 
gothic monarchy,  which  led  suc- 
cessive kings  to  bequeath  sepa- 
rate realms  to  their  several  sons, 
and  so  to  weaken  the  Christian 
cause  by  division  and  regional 
jealousy.  Thus  when  Alphonso 
III.,  king  of  Asturias,  abdicated 
in  909,  he  divided  his  realm  into 
three;  and  this  subsequently 
allowed  the  great  Moslem  minis- 
ter Almansor  to  drive  the  Chris- 
tian power  back  again  to  its 
original  mountain  stronghold,  to 
lay  waste  Leon  and  Galicia,  and 
to  make  the  Asturian  king  a 
vassal  of  the  Moor  (981).  Even 
Barcelona  fell  before  Almansor 
(985). 

The  anarchy  that  followed  the 
death  of  Almansor  enabled  the 
Christians  again  to  advance  their 


borders,  and  the  period  is 
marked  by  the  assembly  (1020) 
in  Le6n,  then  the  premier  king- 
dom', for  the  first  time,  of  a  great 
legislative  council  of  bishops  and 
and  nobles  (the  former  prepon- 
derating). The  constant  divi- 
sion and  reintegration  of  the 
petty  kingdoms,  the  jealousies 
engendered  by  diversity  of  racial 
traditions  and  systems,  and  the 
topographical  causes  already 
referred  to  kept  the  Christian 
realms  constantly  at  war  with 
one  another.  The  border  nobles, 
especially  the  counts  of  Castile, 
upon  whom  the  lion's  share  of 
the  fighting  fell,  were  impatient 
of  the  control  of  the  central  sov- 
ereign in  Leon,  and  in  order  to 
strengthen  themselves  they  ac- 
corded charters  of  great  liber- 
ality to  the  vassal  towns  which 
sprang  up  in  the  conquered  ter- 
ritory, or  which  remained  peace- 
fully under  Christian  rule  when 
the  Moors  were  driven  back. 
Thus  the  autonomy  of  the  towns 
— always  a  cherished  tradition  of 
the  Iberian  race — grew  stronger 
and  stronger.  The  murder  of 
the  last  count  of  Castile  in  1027 
enabled  Sancho  the  Great  of 
Navarre  to  seize  the  country  in 
right  of  his  wife,  a  Castilian 
princess;  and  on  the  death  of 
Sancho  (1035),  Castile,  in  future 
a  kingdom,  fell  to  his  second  son, 
Fernando  I.,  who  succeeded  two 
years  afterwards  to  the  kingdom 
of  Le6n  in  right  of  his  wife. 
Although  Castile  ind  Leon  were 
on  more  than  one  occasion 
divided  again,  their  interests 
tended  to  unity,  as  their  tradi- 
tions were  the  same,  both  hav- 
ing sprung  from  the  Asturian 
advance;  and  in  1230  both 
realms  fell  by  inheritance  to  Fer- 
nando III.  (St.  Fernando),  and 
were  not  again  separated. 

Under  Alfonso  vi.  of  Castile 
and  Leon  (1072-1109)  a  great 
forward  Christian  movement  was 
made.  The  Moslem  caliphate  of 
Cordova  had  fallen  (1031),  and 
had  been  succeeded  by  twelve 
petty  kingdoms,  each  jealous  of 
the  others,  and  appealing  in  turn 
for  aid  to  the  strongest  power  in 
the  peninsula,  Castile  and  Leon. 
In  1085  Alfonso  vi.  took  posses- 
sion of  Toledo,  and  made  it  the 
Christian  capital,  the  Moorish 
king  of  Toledo  being  maintained 
in  the  kingdom  of  Valencia  as  a 
vassal  of  the  Christian.  The 
great  Castilian  free-lance,  Ruy 
Diaz  de  Bivar  (El  Cid).  who 
fought  now  on  one  side  and  now 
on  the  other,  seized  Valencia  for 
himself,  and  held  it  against  all 
comers  until  his  death  (1099). 
In  the  meantime  a  wave  of 
Moslem  fanaticism  had  swept 
over  North  Africa,  and  a  great 
host  of  the  puritans  of  Islam 
(the  Almoravides)  swarmed  into 
Spain.  At  the  battle  of  Valaca 
(near  Badajoz).  in  1086,  Alfonso 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood. 

NEAR  THE  OLD  SEA  WALL,  CADIZ.  SPAIN 


I  Spain 


344 


Spain 


VI.  met  with  a  complete  defeat, 
which  for  a  time  stayed  the 
Christian  advance,  and  allowed 
the  Almoravides  to  subdue  the 
Arab  kings.  Everything  that 
was  beautiful  and  artistic  was 
sternly  destroyed  by  the  Moslem 
puritans,  and  Islamic  Spain 
became  a  province  of  the  theo- 
cratic empire  of  Morocco. 

With  the  establishment  of  the 
Christian  capital  at  Toledo  a 
great  change  was  worked.  By 
the  influence  of  the  French  arch- 
bishop of  Toledo,  Bernard,  and 
of  the  French  queen  of  Castile 
and  Leon  (Constance  of  Bur- 
gundy), the  Roman  missal  was 
adopted  instead  of  the  Gothic 
ritual,  and  thus  a  great  step  was 
made  toward  the  submission  to 
the  Roman  pontiff  of  the  Castil- 
ian  church,  with  its  national  sac- 
erdotal traditions.  But  more 
far-reaching  still  was  the  policy 
of  Alfonso  VI.  in  inducing  the 
Moorish  inhabitants  of  the  con- 
quered kingdom  to  remain  peace- 
fully under  his  tolerant  rule.  He 
encouraged  marriage  between 
the  races,  and  his  policy  was 
powerful  in  introducing  into  the 
Christian  kingdoms  a  large  ad- 
mixture of  Moorish  blood,  cul- 
ture, and  taste. 

Meanwhile,  the  towns  success- 
fully withstood  all  attempts  upon 
their  rights,  and  finally,  by  means 
of  a  confederacy,  were  able  not 
only  to  become  the  leading  power 
in  the  state,  but  to  oust  the 
nobles  entirely  from  the  govern- 
ment. The  new  political  in- 
fluence was  first  felt  in  the  reign 
of  Urraca  of  Castile,  daughter  of 
Alfonso  VI.,  who  was  at  war  with 
her  husband,  Alfonso  the  Battler 
of  Aragon.  Discontented  with 
the  light  behavior  of  the  queen,  a 
confederation  of  towns  pro- 
claimed her  infant  son  by  her 
first  husband,  Raymond  of  Bur- 
gundy, king  of  Galicia,  under  the 
title  of  Alfonso  vii.  This  led 
Alfonso  VII.  (the  emperor)  gen- 
erally to  side  with  the  towns  as 
against  the  nobles  when  he  suc- 
ceeded his  mother  as  ruler  of 
Leon  and  Castile  (1126).  When 
in  1134  Alfonso  the  Battler  of 
Aragon  was  killed  in  battle,  leav- 
ing no  issue,  his  crown  passed  to 
his  brother  Ramiro  the  Monk, 
who  three  years  afterward  ab- 
dicated in  favor  of  his  infant 
daughter  Petronilla.  As  a  mili- 
tary elective  monarchy  such  as 
Aragon  could  not  be  ruled  by  a 
woman,  Petronilla  was  married 
to  Ramon  Berengar,  count  of 
Barcelona,  sovereign  of^  Catalo- 
nia, and  thenceforward  Aragon 
and  Catalonia  were  united  under 
one  crown,  though  each  state  re- 
tained its  autonomy  and  separate 
institutions.  The  same  period 
saw  the  rise  (1094)  of  Portugal  as 
a  separate  state. 

Meanwhile  the  Almoravide 
sect  had  become  infected  with  the 
Vol.  XL— March,  '20 


soft  luxury  of  the  Spanish  Mos- 
lems, and  their  dominion  became 
broken  up  into  a  great  number 
of  petty  mdependent  states, 
which  fell  before  another  great 
invasion  of  fanatics  from  the 
Atlas  tribes  (the  Almohades), 
who  between  1145  and  1149  sub- 
dued the  whole  of  Moslem  Spain, 
and  made  it  subject  to  the  mahdi 
of  Morocco.  Thenceforward  cruel 
oppression,  and  even  extermina- 
tion, were  the  fate  of  Jews  and 
Mozarabes  under  Moorish  rule; 
and  Christian  Spain  received 
great  numbers  of  refugees,  who 
brought  with  their  mixed  blood, 
their  Oriental  tastes,  habits,  and 
culture,  a  fierce  hatred  of  the 
Moors  who  had  driven  them  from 
their  homes. 

The  crowns  of  Leon  and  Cas- 
tile were  finally  united  by  the 
marriage  of  Berengana,  daughter 
of  Alfonso  III.  (viii.)  of  Castile  by 
Eleanor  Plantagenet,  to  Alfonso 
IX.  of  Leon  (1195).  The  fruit  of 
this  marriage  was  St.  Fernando 
(Ferdinand)  iii.,  who  succeeded 
to  the  united  kingdom  in  1230. 
The  Almohade  power  had  been 
broken  by  Alfonzo  viii.  at  the 
great  battle  of  Navas  de  Tolosa 
(1212),  and  during  the  reign  of 
his  grandson,  Fernando  the  Saint, 
the  Christian  conquests  were 
pushed  down  to  the  Moorish 
capital,  Cordova  (1236),  and  to 
Seville  (1248).  Simultaneously 
with  this,  the  great  and  vigorous 
king  of  Aragon,  Jaime  i.  (the 
Conqueror),  possessed  himself  of 
Majorca  (1229)  and  Valencia 
(1238) ;  and  the  Moslem  territory 
in  Spain  was  thenceforward  con- 
fined to  the  kingdom  of  Granada 
as  a  tributary  of  Castile.  The 
long  reign  of  the  masterful  and 
unscrupulous  Jaime  i.  was  a  con- 
tinued struggle  against  the  great- 
er feudal  nobles,  whose  power  he 
checked;  and  though  feudalism 
on  one  occasion  (1288)  again 
obtained  the  upper  hand  by  the 
extortion  of  the  Privilege  of 
Union,  its  power  waned  before 
that  of  king  and  parliament,  and 
the  institutions  of  Aragon  be- 
came representative  of  all  classes. 
It  was  at  this  period  that  the 
adaptation  of  the  old  Gothic 
Roman  law  code  to  the  modern 
spirit  was  undertaken  both  in 
Aragon  (1247)  and  in  Castile: 
the  Castilian  Siete  Partidas, 
ordered  by  St.  Fernando  and 
formed  by  his  son  Alfonso  the 
Learned,  was  recognized  for  cen- 
turies as  the  foundation  of  re- 
vived European  jurisprvtdence. 
Although  drawn  up  by  Alfonso 
the  Learned  (1284),  it  was  not 
promulgated  oflficially  as  the 
national  law  until  1348.  To 
the  literary  ardor  of  Alfonso 
the  Learned  the  world  owes 
much.  To  him  is  largely  due  the 
translation  into  modern  tongues 
of  the  Greek  classics  and  Eastern 
scientific  works  which  the  Span- 


ish Jews  and  Moslems  had  res- 
cued from  oblivion  in  Hebrew  or 
Arabic.  To  Alfonso  also  is  to 
be  credited  the  final  victory  of 
the  Castilian  tongue  as  the  na- 
tional speech  over  Gaiician,  Por- 
tuguese, and  Catalan  (or  Proven- 
cal). But  his  vague  ambitions, 
his  weakness,  and  his  bookish- 
ness  encouraged  the  nobles  of 
Castile  to  side  with  his  rebel- 
lious son  Sancho,  in  the  hope  of 
regaining  the  power  which  was 
fast  drifting  from  them.  San- 
cho, on  his  accession  (1284),  dis- 
appointed the  nobles,  and  a  civil 
war  ensued,  which  continued 
after  his  death  (1295)  against 
his  infant  successor  Fernando  iv. 
and  the  regent  Maria  de  MoHna. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that  a 
great  confederacy  of  self-govern- 
ing towns  banded  together  for 
mutual  defence  and  support;  and 
their  representatives,  meeting 
for  the  discussion  of  common 
interests,  developed  rapidly  into 
a  national  Cortes,  from  which 
nobles  and  priests  were  elimi- 
nated. The  struggle  between  the 
forces  continued  through  the 
reigns  of  Fernando  iv.  and  his 
son  Alfonso  xi.  (1312-50),  the 
sovereigns  and  regents  usually 
favoring  the  towns.  The  ac- 
cession of  the  boy  king  Pedro 
(1350)  seemed  a  good  opportu- 
nity for  the  nobles  to  make  a  final 
attempt  to  assert  their  power. 
The  violent  and  tyrannical  char- 
acter which  gained  for  Pedro  the 
name  of  the  Cruel  aided  the 
nobles;  they  chose  as  their 
puppet  Henry  of  Trastamara, 
illegitimate  son  of  Alfonso  xi. 
The  war  which  ensued  between 
the  half-brothers  was  compli- 
cated by  the  participation  of 
England  on  the  side  of  Pedro, 
and  of  France  and  Aragon  on 
that  of  Henry.  With  the  mur- 
der of  Pedro  the  Cruel  by  his 
half-brother  Henry  (1369),  and 
the  accession  of  the  latter,  the 
nobles  obtained  the  upper  hand; 
but  though  the  weak  king  dis- 
tributed fiefs  liberally  among 
them,  he  dared  not  entirely 
alienate  the  towns,  the  chief 
power  in  the  realm  that  could 
protect  him  against  the  numerous 
claimants  to  the  crown,  and 
especially  against  the  Planta- 
genet English  princes,  who  had 
married  the  two  daughters  of 
Pedro  the  Cruel. 

For  the  next  hundred  years, 
under  the  Trastamara  kings — 
Juan  I.  (1379-90),  Henry  ill., 
who  married  Catherine  of  Lan- 
caster (1387),  Juan  ii.  (1406- 
54),  and  Henry  iv. — the  'leagues' 
of  nobles  reduced  Spain  to  com- 
plete anarchy  outside  the  walls 
of  the  chartered  towns.  The 
towns  still  managed,  thanks  to 
their  unity  (Hermandad),  to 
withstand  the  open  infringement 
of  their  rights,  though  the  grad- 
ual introduction  by  the  crown  of 


Spain 


KFI 


345 


Spain 


of  Charles  ii  (1665-1700)  the 
decline  continued  unabated.  In 
the  Seven  Years'  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  which  en- 
sued upon  the  king's  death,  all 
Europe  took  part  (England  on 
the  side  of  the  Austrian  claim- 
ant), and  Spain  itself  was  swept 
from  end  to  end  by  civil  war. 
At  length,  by  the  treaties  (1713- 
14)  of  Utrecht  and  Rastadt, 
Philip  V,  the  grandson  of  Louis 
XIV  of  France  and  great-grand- 
son of  Philip  IV  of  Spain,  was 
recognized  as  king  of  Spain. 
Everything  was  changed  by  the 
introduction  of  French  culture, 
modern  finance,  and  vigorous 
administration,  and  for  a  time 
Spain  appeared  renascent.  Un- 
fortunately Philip  V  married  as 
his  second  wife  the  ambitious 
Elizabeth  Farnese  (1714),  who 
was  allowed  to  keep  Spain  at  war 
continually  for  many  years  in 
order  to  win  Italian  sovereign- 
ties for  her  sons.  Philip  was 
succeeded  (1746)  by  his  only 
surviving  son  by  his  first  wife, 
Fernando  vi,  who  brought  peace 
and  some  measure  of  prosperity 
to  Spain,  but  the  country  was 
still  ignorant  and  in  many  re- 
spects a  century  behind  the  rest 
of  Europe.  The  autonomous 
Aragonese  parliaments  had  all 
disappeared  in  the  great  war  of 
succession  (1714)  ;  the  town 
councils,  though  now  mainly 
nominative,  were  the  only  sur- 
viving framework  of  the  ancient 
popular  governments. 

On  the  death  of  Fernando  vi 
(1759),  Charles  iii,  king  of 
Naples,  the  eldest  son  of  Philip 
v  by  Elizabeth  Farnese,  ascend- 
ed the  Spanish  throne.  Shocked 
at  the  backward  condition  of  his 
people,  he  used  his  despotic 
power  freely  to  force  reform  and 
enlightenment  upon  them.  Pub- 
lic works,  roads,  canals,  sub- 
sidized factories,  academies,  and 
institutions  sprang  up  all  over 
Spain  ;  a  great  edifice  of  public 
credit  was  devised  to  pay  the 
vast  sums  needed  ;  but  when  the 
king  died  (1788)  reaction  set  in, 
and  under  his  weak,  uxorious 
successor,  Charles  iv,  collapse 
came.  The  wife  of  Charles  iv 
(Maria  Louisa  of  Naples)  im- 
posed upon  her  husband  an  ig- 
norant, foolish  young  man  with 
whom  she  was  in  love,  Manuel 
Godoy  (afterward  Prince  of  the 
Peace),  as  prime  minister  and 
generalissimo  of  the  army  and 
navy.  Godoy  was  beguiled  by 
Napoleon,  by  a  promise  of  prin- 
cipalities for  himself,  to  allow  the 
French  army  to  march  through 
Spain  (1808)  to  conciuer  Eng- 
land's ally  Portugal.  When  it 
was  too  late  the  Spanish  people 
saw  how  they  had  been  tricked 
and  the  Peninsular  War  ensued, 
Charles  iv  alxHcating  at  Napo- 
leon's bidding  in  1808.  While 


Charles'  son  and  heir  Fernando 
was  a  prisoner  in  France  and 
foreign  armies  covered  the  coun- 
try, a  Cortes  of  extreme  politi- 
cians met  at  Cadiz  (1812)  and 
devised  a  new  constitution,  com- 
pletely at  variance  with  old 
Spanish  traditions.  This  Fer- 
nando VII  repudiated  on  his  re- 
turn to  Spain  in  1814;  and 
though  he  was  forced  by  a  revolu- 
tion to  accept  it  in  1821,  he  reas- 
serted his  despotic  power  by  the 
aid  of  French  bayonets  in  1823. 
When  he  died,  in  1833,  he  left 
his  infant  daughter  Isabel  ii,  un- 
der the  regency  of  his  wife  Maria 
Christina  of  Naples,  the  injunc- 
tion to  maintain  intact  all  the 
old  regal  prerogatives.  It  was 
almost  impossible  for  her  to  do 
this  because  the  whole  Con- 
servative party  had  rallied  to 
Don  Carlos,  the  late  king's 
brother,  who  claimed  under  the 
Salic  law,  and  the  queen  could 
only  hope  to  reign  by  the  sup- 
port of  the  Liberals  whom  Fer- 
nando VII  had  persecuted  and 
banished.  A  long  civil  war  en- 
sued in  which  Don  Carlos  was 
beaten ;  but  the  impossibility  of 
reconciling  the  despotic  lean- 
ings of  the  queen  with  the  demo- 
cratic views  of  the  party  which 
upheld  her  produced  a  period  of 
turbulence,  military  pronimcia- 
micntos,  and  civil  revolts,  which 
culminated  with  Prim  and  Ser- 
rano's successful  revolution  of 
1868,  and  the  flight  of  Isabel  ii 
to  France. 

After  six  years  of  violent  ex- 
periment, a  limited  monarchy 
under  Amadeus  of  Savoy  (1870- 
3),  Duke  of  Aosta,  three  differ- 
ent types  of  republic,  and  a  mili- 
tary dictatorship,  the  only  son 
of  Isabel  ii  was  restored  in  1875 
as  Alfonso  xii.  A  new  mod- 
erate constitution  was  adopted 
with  some  reform. 

The  death  of  Alfonso  xii  in 
1885  placed  upon  his  widow, 
Maria  Christina  of  Austria,  the 
burden  of  the  regency  till  1902, 
when  her  son,  Alfonso  xiii,  as- 
sumed power.  During  her  re- 
gency the  material  progress  of 
the  nation  was  considerable.  Un- 
wise action  in  Cuba,  however,  led 
to  a  revolt  in  that  colony,  result- 
ing in  American  intervention  and 
finally  in  the  loss  to  Spain  of  her 
colonial  empire.  (See  Spanish- 
American  War.) 

In  May.  1906,  King  Alfonso 
married  Princess  Victoria  Eu- 
genie, daughter  of  Prince  Henry 
of  Battenberg  and  of  Beatrice, 
sister  of  Edward  VII.  On 
the  marriage  day  an  attempt  to 
assassinate  the  king  and  queen 
by  bomb  failed,  but  the  explosion 
cost  the  lives  of  several  persons 
in  the  crowded  streets.  A  few 
months  later  a  furious  agitation 
on  the  part  of  the  Catholic  clergy 
arose  when  the  king  signed  an 


ordinance  declaring  that  the  civil 
marriage  of  Catholics  was  valid. 

In  July,  1909,  a  campaign 
against  the  Riffs  in  Morocco 
caused  serious  riots  in  Barce- 
lona, order  only  being  restored 
after  the  invocation  of  martial 
law  and  the  shedding  of  much 
blood.  A  military  reign  of  ter- 
ror lasted  until  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember, and  Sehor  Ferrer,  who 
was  charged  with  being  the 
prime  mover  in  the  revolutionary 
movement,  was  arrested,  tried  by 
court-martial  on  October  9,  and 
shot.  This  caused  a  sensation 
throughout  Europe  and  America, 
there  being  a  widespread  sus- 
picion that  Ferrer  had  been  sac- 
rificed to  clerical  prejudices. 

On  June  11  a  royal  ordinance 
was  issued  canceling  the  prohibi- 
tion of  'any  emblem,  attribute, 
or  lettering'  on  the  exterior  walls 
of  places  of  worship  other  than 
Catholic.  A  violent  clerical  agi- 
tation followed,  and  Don  Jaime 
de  Bourbon,  who  had  succeeded 
his  father  Don  Carlos  as  pre- 
tender in  1909,  was  approached 
with  a  view  to  stirring  up  civil 
war.  Matters  were  complicated 
by  the  overthrow  of  the  mon- 
archy in  Portugal  on  October  5, 
1910,  and  on  November  4  the 
Senate  passed  the  Cadenas  Bill, 
which  forbade  the  settlement  of 
further  congregations  in  Spain 
until  negotiations  with  the  Vati- 
can should  have  been  completed. 

In  June,  1911,  the  situation  in 
Morocco  led  to  the  dispatch  of 
a  Spanish  force  to  Alcazar.  But 
the  indignation  aroused  in 
France  at  this  action  was  quite 
overshadowed  by  the  sensation 
caused  when  it  became  known 
that  Germany  had  sent  a  warship 
to  Agadir.  In  the  same  year  an 
attempt  was  made  to  pass  the 
suspensory  Bill,  the  chief  object 
of  which  was  to  cope  with  the  in- 
rush of  foreign  religious  orders. 
Trouble  between  Church  and 
State,  negotiations  with  France 
in  regard  to  Morocco,  and  a  seri- 
ous labor  outbreak  marked  an 
eventful  year.  In  1912  Spain 
lost  one  of  her  greatest  states- 
men by  the  assassination  of 
Senor  Canalejas.  Meanwhile  the 
struggle  between  capital  and  la- 
bor continued.  The  militarv 
class  of  1907  to  1911  was  called 
out,  and  railway  employees  were 
placed  under  military  law.  A 
second  attempt  on  the  life  of  the 
King  in  1913  was  denounced 
alike  by  monarchists  and  social- 
ists. 

Upon  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War  (1914),  Spain  de- 
clared her  neutrality,  which  she 
continued  to  maintain  in  spite  of 
an  extensive  German  propaganda 
on  the  one  hand  and  interference 
with  her  commerce  by  German 
submarines  on  the  other.  Dur- 
ing the  period  of  the  war  and  the 


Spain 


KFI 


346 


Spain 


reconstruction  era,  political,  so- 
cial, and  industrial  unrest  pre- 
vailed. A  general  strike  was 
called  in  July  1916,  martial  law 
was  proclaimed,  and  the  strikers 
were  compelled  to  accept  arbi- 
tration. Agitation  for  political 
and  economic  reform  continued, 
however,  and  from  June  27, 
1917,  to  Oct.  7,  1917,  the  coun- 
try was  again  under  martial  law. 
The  suspension  of  the  constitu- 
tional guarantees  led  to  further 
strikes  and  rioting  which,  at 
Barcelona  especially,  took  on  a 
revolutionary  character.  After 
numerous  cabinet  changes. 
Count  Romanones  succeeded  in 
forming  a  cabinet,  but  serious 
riots  in  the  spring  of  1919  led  to 
his  resignation  and  to  a  general 
election. 

Labor  troubles  marked  by 
numerous  strikes  continued 
throughout  the  year,  making  any 
permanent  civil  government  im- 
possible and  causing  a  constant 
change  in  ministries.  In  1921 
Dato,  who  in  April  1920_  had 
been  called  on  to  form  a  ministry, 
was  assassinated.  During  the 
years  1921—24  the  conduct  of  the 
war  in  Morocco  (see  Morocco, 
History)  was  a  leading  question 
in  the  country  and  the  cause  of 
frequent  cabinet  changes.  In 
December  1922,  General  Beren- 
guer,  former  high  commissioner 
for  Morocco,  assumed  full  re- 
sponsibility for  the  disasters  of 
the  preceding  year  and  demanded 
a  trial,  charging  general  ineffi- 
ciency and  lack  of  foresight  on 
the  part  of  the  government. 
Findings  of  an  investigating  com- 
mission, further  reverses  in  Mo- 
rocco, and  increasing  labor 
troubles  paved  the  way  for  a  mili- 
tary revolution  and  on  Septem- 
ber 13,  1923,  Cap.-General 
Primo  de  Rivera  seized  the  civil 
administration  of  Barcelona  and 
forced  the  resignation  of  the 
government.  Thereupon  the 
King  requested  de  Rivera  to 
head  a  military  directorate  and 
form  a  government.  Under  his 
regime  economic  and  adminis- 
trative reforms  were  carried  out, 
causing  considerable  discontent, 
particularly  among  the  propertied 
classes,  because  of  a  severe  tax 
policy,  but  on  the  whole  meeting 
with  general  approval.  On  July 
4,  1924,  by  royal  decree,  the 
military  directorate  was  placed 
on  a  civil  basis  and  de  Rivera's 
powers  were  somewhat  abridged. 
Toward  the  latter  part  of  the  year 
affairs  in  Morocco  became  so  se- 
rious that  de  Rivera  himself  went 
to  assume  charge  of  military  op- 
erations. His  policy  involved  a 
withdrawing  of  garrisons  from 
the  zone  extending  toward  the 
interior,  and  a  native  government 
in  the  Spanish  zone,  acting  under 
Spanish  direction.  In  December 
1925,  civil  government  was  re- 


stored in  Spain,  General  de 
Rivera  resigned  as  Chief  of  the 
Military  Directorate  and  the 
King  at  once  appointed  him 
premier  of  a  new  cabinet. 

In  September  1926,  a  national 
plebiscite  was  held  in  which  the 
balloting  resulted  in  a  vote  of 
confidence  of  nearly  7,000,000 
votes  for  de  Rivera  and  his  gov- 
ernment, but  it  was  claimed  by 
many  neutral  observers  that 
many  contributing  factors  must 
be  considered  before  reaching 
definite  conclusions  as  to  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  result. 

In  January  1930  de  Rivera  re- 
signed and  departed  for  Paris, 
where  he  died  suddenly  on  March 
17.  General  D'Amaso  Beren- 
guer  formed  a  new  government 
and  adopted  a  less  rigorous 
policy.  In  April  it  was  decided 
to  hold  parliamentary  elections  in 
the  Fall  of  the  year  and  a  return 
to  constitutional  government 
was  promised  to  the  people.  Re- 
publican sentiment  spread 
throughout  the  country  accom- 
panied by  numerous  riots  and 
disorders.  January  of  1931 
found  King  Alfonso  vainly  ex- 
perimenting with  various  expe- 
dients for  saving  his  throne  by 
concessions,  real  or  apparent,  to 
Republican  and  Socialist  de- 
mands. Chief  of  these  was  a 
proposal  to  hold  the  semblance 
of  general  elections  on  March 
1st,  and  then  convoke  an  ordi- 
nary parliament,  with  a  coalition 
cabinet  loyal  to  the  Crown.  This 
was  flatly  rejected  by  Spain's 
Liberal  statesmen,  who  declined 
to  take  any  part  in  the  venture. 
On  January  28,  former  Premier 
Sanchez  Guerra  served  notice 
upon  the  King  that  he  and  his 
followers  would  have  nothing  to 
do  with  the  proposed  'sham  elec- 
tions' and  would  be  satisfied 
with  nothing  less  than  the  calling 
of  an  honestly  elected  constitu- 
tional assembly  to  determine  the 
future  form  of  government.  In 
the  following  fortnight  the  situa- 
tion became  so  serious  that  for  a 
time  Alfonso  seemed  to  be  on  the 
point  of  a  complete  surrender  to 
the  Liberal  demands.  He  can- 
celled the  order  for  general  elec- 
tions and  on  Feb.  18,  after  forc- 
ing the  resignation  of  General 
Berenguer,  his  Prime  Minister, 
commissioned  Guerra  to  form  a 
new  government.  Senor  Guerra 
made  an  earnest  effort  to  induce 
Republican  and  Socialist  repre- 
sentatives to  take  part  in  the  new 
cabinet  and  even  visited  in  prison 
Alcala  Zamora  and  other  lead- 
ers awaiting  trial  on  the  charge 
of  complicity  in  the  revolt  at 
Jaca  in  the  preceding  December. 
His  efforts  were  fruitless,  how- 
ever, and  he  abandoned  the  at- 
tempt. The  King  thereupon  pro- 
ceeded to  the  organization  of  a 
new  government,  with  Admiral 


Juan  Bautista  Aznar  as  Premier 
and  Count  de  Romanones  as 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 
The  Aznar  cabinet  formulated 
a  new  plan  for  a  series  of  elec- 
tions, municipal,  provincial  and 
National.  The  municipal  con- 
tests were  scheduled  for  April 
12.  The  ultimate  intention  was 
to  call  a  constitutional  conven- 
tion to  modify  the  basic  laws  of 
the  nation  but  in  such  a  way  as 
to  continue  the  Monarchy  with 
powers  unimpaired. 

The  people,  however,  were  in 
no  mood  for  half-way  measures 
and  the  situation  in  March  be- 
came steadily  more  serious.  The 
threatened  execution  in  that 
month  of  Captain  Sediles,  the 
leader  of  the  Jaca  revolt,  was  the 
occasion  at  Madrid  and  Sara- 
gossa  of  riots  so  violent  that  the 
King  hastened  to  order  a  re- 
prieve. On  March  30,  Alfonso 
had  a  secret  meeting  with  Santi- 
ago Alba,  the  Liberal  leader,  and 
sought  his  cooperation  in  form- 
ing a  government  upon  conditions 
which  would  save  the  throne. 
With  this  effort,  which  met  with 
a  peremptory  refvisal,  Alfonso 
had  played  his  last  card  and  the 
fateful  elections  of  April  12  fol- 
lowed in  due  course. 

Their  outcome  was  overwhelm- 
ing and  decisive.  In  the  smaller 
towns  and  agricultural  villages 
which  count  for  little  or  nothing 
in  the  political  life  of  the  nation, 
the  Monarchists  found  some  ad- 
herents, but  in  nearly  all  the 
large  cities  the  Republicans  won 
by  sweeping  majorities,  secur- 
ing in  Madrid  30  seats  to  the  20 
won  by  their  opponents.  In  town 
after  town,  of  Old  Spain,  includ- 
ing Seville,  Barcelona,  Cordoba, 
Cartagena,  Malaga,  Bilbao,  Va- 
lencia and  San  Sebastian,  the 
verdict  was  the  same — an  em- 
phatic repudiation  of  the  Mon- 
archy. Although  the  elections 
were  for  municipal  offices  their 
significance  as  an  expression  of 
popular  sentiment  was  unmis- 
takable. To  all  save,  perhaps, 
the  King  himself,  it  was  obvious 
that  only  his  abdication  could 
save  the  country  from  violent 
upheaval  and  revolution.  At 
half-past  ten  o'clock  of  the  morn- 
ing of  April  14,  Admiral  Aznar 
called  at  the  Palace  and  tendered 
his  resignation,  and  Alfonso, 
after  a  last  fruitless  effort  to 
enlist  the  support  of  his  Minis- 
ters in  still  another  effort  to  save 
the  Crown,  drafted  and  signed  a 
proclamation,  in  which  without 
explicitly  abdicating,  he  made 
known  his  purpose  to  leave 
Spain,  ostensibly  to  avert  the  pos- 
sibility of  violence  and  blood- 
shed. T  do  not  renounce  any  of 
my  rights,'  he  declared,  'because 
they  are  more  than  mine — they 
are  the  accumulated  store  of  his- 
tory and  I  shall  have  one  day  to 


Spain 


KFI 


346  A 


Spain 


make  a  rigorov:s  account  of  their 
conservation.  I  am  waiting  to 
learn  a  real  expression  of  the  col- 
lective opinion  of  my  people,  and 
while  I  am  waiting  until  the  Na- 
tion shall  speak,  I  am  deliberate- 
ly suspending  the  exercise  of  the 
Royal  power.'  The  King's  deci- 
sion, which  became  known  early 
in  the  afternoon,  threw  all  Spain 
into  a  tumult  of  rejoicing.  At 
four  o'clock  the  flag  of  the  new- 
born Republic,  a  banner  of  red, 
yellow  and  purple  stripes,  was 
run  up  on  the  Madrid  postofhce. 
A  few  hours  later  the  King,  ac- 
companied by  only  three  mem- 
bers of  his  entourage,  including 
the  Duke  of  Miranda  and  the 
Infante  Alfonso,  the  Crown 
Prince,  left  the  Palace  incon- 
spicuously by  a  rear  door  and 
sped  in  an  automobile  to  Carte- 
gena,  where  he  embarked  on  the 
Spanish  cruiser  Principe  Alfonso 
for  Marseilles.  From  that  port 
he  proceeded  to  Paris  and  later 
to  England,  where  he  began  his 
life  of  exile.  The  momentous 
change,  which  involved  the  ex- 
tinction of  a  Monarchy  that  had 
endured,  with  but  one  brief  in- 
termission, for  fifteen  centuries, 
was  effected  with  no  more  seri- 
ous disturbances  than  the  cele- 
brations of  a  rejoicing  populace. 

A  Provisional  Republican  Gov- 
ernment was  constituted  on 
April  14,  1931  under  President 
Niceto  Alcala  Zamora.  The  ease 
and  almost  startling  rapidity 
with  which  the  transition  from 
Monarchy  to  Republic  was  ef- 
fected, bore  testimony  both  as  to 
the  care  with  which  the  Republi- 
cans had  prepared  for  the  event 
and  the  extent  of  the  popular 
discontent.  After  centuries  of 
dominion,  one  of  the  most  bril- 
liant courts  in  Europe  passed  out 
of  existence  within  the  space  of 
a  few  hours.  At  the  crisis,  the 
avowed  Monarchists  stood  aside 
and  allowed  events  to  take  their 
course.  Even  the  forces  of 
Army  and  Church,  traditionally 
the  first  to  come  to  the  defense  of 
the  Crown  in  times  of  stress, 
made  no  serious  effort  to  avert 
the  inevitable.  General  San 
Jurjo,  head  of  the  30,000  na- 
tional police  and  civil  guards, 
who  called  at  the  palace  just 
after  the  elections,  could  only 
tell  his  sovereign  that  these 
forces  were  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Republicans.  Such  personal 
popularity  as  Alfonso  had  among 
certain  classes — a  popularity 
based  on  admiration  for  his 
sportsmanship,  his  bonhomie  and 
his  undoubted  courage  rather 
than  upon  solid  esteem — was  ap- 
parently swept  away  in  the  wave 
of  resentment  aroused  by  his 
temporizing  policies  in  the  clos- 
ing months  of  his  reign. 

The  crisis  following  the  fall  of 
the  Monarchy  found  the  Republi- 


can leaders  fully  prepared.  The 
Revolutionary  Committee  at  Ma- 
drid had  already  drawn  up  a  list 
of  cabinet  officers  to  take  over 
the  duties  of  administration  and 
on  April  14  announced  the  ap- 
pointment of  Sehor  Zamora  as 
Provisional  President,  with  Mi- 
guel Maura  as  Minister  of  the 
Interior  and  Alejandro  Lerroux 
as  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 
The  other  important  offices  were 
taken  by  Indalecio  Prieto,  Min- 
ister of  Finance ;  Ferdinand  de 
Los  Rios,  minister  of  Justice ; 
Manuel  Azana,  Minister  of 
War ;  and  Casares  Quiroga, 
Minister  of  Marine.  The  ensu- 
ing steps  toward  the  erection  of 
a  stable  government  followed 
swiftly  and  with  the  precision  of 
a  pre-arranged  programme.  On 
April  14  the  Committee  issued 
its  first  decree  proclaiming  Spain 
a  Republic.  It  declared  that  're- 
ceiving its  powers  from  the  will 
of  the  Nation,  it  fulfills  an  im- 
perious political  duty  to  estab- 
lish the  standards  of  justice  re- 
quired by  the  people'  and  offered 
specific  pledges  to  submit  the  in- 
dividual and  collective  acts  of  its 
members  to  the  judgment  of  a 
Cortes  Constituyentes  (Constitu- 
tional Convention)  ;  to  hold  an 
open  inquiry  into  the  civil  and 
military  measures  of  the  late  re- 
gime ;  to  respect  'in  the  fullest 
manner'  religious  liberty  ;  to  up- 
hold and  increase  by  statute  civil 
rights  and  individual  liberties ; 
and  to  provide  immunity  of  pri- 
vate property  from  expropria- 
tion 'except  for  public  utility  and 
with  due  indemnity.' 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  the 
new  government  was  to  order  a 
general  amnesty  for  all  prison- 
ers except  those  charged  with 
capital  crimes.  In  preparation 
for  the  promised  elections  for  a 
constitutional  convention  in  June, 
the  government  on  May  4  abol- 
ished Spain's  antiquated  election 
system,  substituting  one  under 
which  each  district  would  elect 
one  representative  for  every 
50,000  inhabitants.  The  fran- 
chise was  extended  to  include 
priests  and  election  frauds  were 
to  be  severely  penalized.  To  be 
legally  elected,  candidates  must 
receive  20  per  cent  more  than  a 
majority  of  the  votes.  During 
the  first  weeks  of  the  Republic,  a 
number  of  measures  designed  to 
wipe  out  all  trace  of  Royalist 
tradition  and  influence  were 
adopted.  Coats  of  arms  and 
symbolic  crowns  were  removed 
from  monuments  and  public 
buildings.  By  formal  decree,  the 
red,  white  and  purple  banner 
was  made  the  offlcial  flag  of 
Spain.  Royal  parks  and  estates 
were  thrown  open  to  the  public. 
The  use  of  titles  of  nobility  or 
royalty  'except  for  social  pur- 
poses' was  forbidden  ;  this  order, 


according  to  statistical  records, 
affected  97  dukes,  1310  mar- 
quesses, and  very  nearly  3000 
counts,  viscounts,  barons  and 
grandees.  Simultaneously  dras- 
tic measures  were  taken  to  pre- 
vent a  recurrence  of  dictator- 
ships based  on  military  support. 
The  division  of  Spain  into  mili- 
tary districts  was  abolished,  the 
nvimber  of  mobilization  centers 
reduced  from  seventy  to  sixteen 
and  all  military  titles  above  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general  were 
prohibited. 

On  April  15,  1931,  France 
gave  official  recognition  to  the 
new  Republic,  the  governments 
of  Mexico,  Portugal,  Uruguay, 
Cuba,  Chile,  Argentina,  Turkey, 
Czecho-Slovakia,  Yugoslavia, 
Greece  and  Belgium  quickly  fol- 
lowing suit.  Recognition  was  ac- 
corded by  Great  Britain  and  her 
Dominions  on  April  21  and  by 
the  United  States  on  April  22. 
The  Minister  of  Finance  an- 
nounced on  April  18  that  in  ac- 
cordance with  Spain's  desire  to 
be  independent  of  foreign  influ- 
ence, the  loan  of  $60,000,000  ne- 
gotiated by  the  Monarchy  with 
French  and  American  bankers 
would  not  be  carried  out.  The 
negotiations  by  which  Spain 
withdrew  from  this  bargain  were 
tactfully  conducted  and  its  an- 
nulment was  effected  without  ill- 
feeling.  The  new  government 
was  prompt  in  taking  action 
upon  the  many  difficult  social  and 
political  problems  awaiting  solu- 
tion. One  of  the  most  urgent  of 
these  arose  from  the  strength  of 
the  autonomist  movements  in 
northern  Spain.  Catalonia  and 
the  Basque  provinces  seized  upon 
the  revolution  as  an  opportunity 
to  nenew  their  ancient  demands 
for  something  akin  to  independ- 
ence. A  Catalonian  republic  was 
declared  even  before  the  republi- 
can flag  had  been  raised  at  Ma- 
drid. On  April  26,  President 
Zamora  paid  an  official  visit  to 
Barcelona  to  confer  with  General 
Macia,  acting  president  of  Cata- 
lonia, and  effect  a  reconciliation. 
He  offered  to  concede  to  the 
Catalans  their  rights  to  their  own 
flag,  language,  national  anthem 
and  parliament,  provided  they 
recognized  the  superior  authority 
of  Madrid  and  paid  taxes  to  the 
Central  government.  He  was 
enthusiastically  received  but 
failed  to  secure  a  satisfactory 
settlement. 

In  a  decree  issued  May  4,  the 
Catalonian  government  assumed 
the  power  'to  take  whatever  reso- 
lutions of  action  may  be  neces- 
sary without  consulting  the 
central  government,  although 
later  submitting  the  action  to 
Madrid.'  In  the  Basque  prov- 
inces the  separatist  movement, 
while  less  acute,  was  the  occasion 
for  similar  demands.    A  prelimi- 


Spain 


KFI 


346  B 


Spain 


nary  draft  of  the  Federal  consti- 
tution, published  June  19,  pro- 
posed to  meet  the  issue  by  pro- 
viding that  any  Province  might 
secure  autonomy  if  its  legisla- 
ture, acting  upon  the  mandate  of 
three-fourths  of  its  voters,  asked 
for  it,  but  reserved  to  the  Central 
Government  the  right  to  give  or 
withhold  final  approval.  Other 
important  measures  proposed  in 
the  new  Constitution  provided 
for  the  abolition  of  state  religion, 
compulsory  primary  education, 
the  recognition  of  equality  in  sex 
and  the  correction  of  abuses  in 
the  elective  system.  Members  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  were  to 
be  elected  by  universal  suffrage, 
all  citizens  being  eligible  to  vote. 
The  Senate  was  to  have  240 
members,  60  elected  by  employ- 
ers' associations,  60  by  indus- 
trial, agricultural  and  mining 
groups,  60  by  free  associations 
of  professors  and  60  by  univer- 
sities and  cultural  or  religious 
associations.  A  Supreme  Court 
was  to  be  formed  by  the  chief  of 
the  State  from  members  of  the 
various  judicial  colleges  and  or- 
ganizations, the  president  of  the 
court  to  hold  office  for  ten  years 
and  the  other  judges  for  life. 

In  the  National  elections  for 
the  Constitutional  Cortes,  held  ac- 
cording to  programme  on  June 
28,  the  new  Republic  received 
decisive,  and  apparently  final, 
confirmation  in  power  at  the 
hands  of  the  people.  The  con- 
tests passed  with  little  or  no 
disorder.  Every  member  of 
the  Government  was  elected. 
Twenty-five  parties,  representing 
all  phases  of  political  thought, 
from  the  Monarchists  and  right 
wing  Republicans,  to  the  Com- 
munists, put  up  candidates.  The 
Republican-Socialist  coalition, 
comprising  the  moderate  groups 
forming  the  center,  won  an  over- 
whelming majority  of  the  462 
deputies,  the  Socialists  securing 
the  largest  number  of  seats.  The 
Communists  made  a  negligible 
showing.  Apparently  all  pros- 
pect of  Alfonso's  return  to  the 
Throne  or  of  a  revival  of  the 
Monarchical  form  of  government 
\\"as  removed,  for  a  time,  at  least, 
by  the  unexpected  weakness  of 
the  Monarchists,  who  elected 
only  five  Deputies,  most  of  them 
from  Navarre,  where  adherence 
to  Royalist  causes  is  a  tradition 
growing  out  of  medieval  times. 

The  Cortes  held  its  opening 
session  on  July  14,  when  the  Pro- 
visional Government  submitted 
its  draft  of  a  constitution  and 
took  up  in  earnest  the  task  of 
restoring  to  the  nation  the  par- 
liamentary rule  of  which  it  had 
so  long  been  deprived.  Don 
Julian  Besteiro,  leader  of  the  So- 
cialists, the  largest  homogeneous 
body  in  the  Cortes,  was  elected 
Speaker. 


A  constitution  providing  for  a 
unitary,  and  not  a  federal,  state 
was  unacceptable  to  the  Catalo- 
nians,  who  renewed  their  de- 
mands for  home  rule.  On  July 
28,  1931,  Sefior  Zamora  formally 
resigned  his  special  powers  as 
Provisional  President,  thus  ced- 
ing the  final  authority  in  legisla- 
tive matters  to  the  Cortes.  On 
Jvily  30  he  was  reelected  by  an 
almost  vmanimous  vote  of  con- 
fidence, and  thus  for  a  time,  at 
least,  confirmed  in  office.  From 
the  outset  the  new  Government 
found  itself  beset  with  difficul- 
ties ;  dissensions  arose  even  in 
the  ministry  and  the  Clericals 
were  alarmed  at  the  abolition  of 
discrimination  on  religious 
grounds. 

When  the  Spanish  Republic 
was  proclaimed  amid  general  re- 
joicing on  April  14,  1931,  it  was 
implicitly  believed  by  the  masses 
that  the  abuses  under  which  they 
had  groaned  for  centuries  would 
forthwith  be  swept  away.  The 
peasants  were  confident  that 
their  poverty  and  misery  were  at 
an  end,  and  that  the  huge  estates 
of  the  grandees  were  to  be  par- 
titioned among  them  ;  the  urban 
workers  expected  to  man  the  fac- 
tories, to  take  possession  of  the 
mines,  and  to  reap  the  benefits 
formerly  accruing  to  the  owners  ; 
and  the  Catalonians  and  Basques 
believed  they  had  now  achieved 
the  long-dreamed-of  autonomy. 
The  'Workers'  Republic'  was  to 
bring  about  the  Millenium  in  a 
twinkling. 

But  events  did  not  move  so 
swiftly.  Indeed,  it  was  only 
after  months  of  wrangling  that 
the  Cortes  adopted  the  Consti- 
tution (Dec.  9,  1931);  the  new 
leaders  of  the  country  were  soon 
beset  by  the  financial  difficulties 
of  the  world-wide  depression ; 
they  were  attacked  by  the  ex- 
treme Leftists  for  their  too  great 
moderation,  and  assailed  no  less 
by  the  Rightists  for  their  radi- 
calism. Armaments  had  to  be 
increased  ;  too  little  money  was 
available  to  institute  the  prom- 
ised agrarian  and  other  reforms. 
Though  many  months  or  even 
years  might  be  required  to  reme- 
dy economic  ills  already  cen- 
turies old,  the  masses  found  the 
waiting  for  the  'new  deal'  in- 
tolerable and  incomprehensible. 

On  Dec.  10,  1931,  ^  Alcala 
Zamora  was  formally  inaugu- 
rated as  constitutional  president 
for  six  years,  and  he  chose  as  his 
first  premier  Manuel  Azana  y 
Diaz.  These  men  did  their  best 
to  interpret  the  provisions  of  the 
Constitution,  which  declared  that 
Spain  was  a  Democratic  republic 
of  workers  of  all  classes,  an  in- 
tegral state  consistent  with  the 
autonomy  of  the  municipalities 
and  regions  ;  that  it  had  no  offi- 
cial religion  ;  that  all  citizens  en- 


joyed freedom  of  conscience  and 
liberty  of  worship  ;  and  that  all 
were  equal  before  the  law.  A 
national  flag  of  red,  yellow  and 
purple  was  adopted,  and  war  was 
renounced  as  an  instrument  of 
national  policy. 

The  most  pressing  problem 
following  adoption  of  the  Consti- 
tution was  disposal  of  the  de- 
mands of  Catalonia  for  virtual 
independence.  Under  the  leader- 
ship of  Col.  Francisco  Macia, 
the  Catalonians  had  declared  a 
republic  at  the  time  King  Al- 
fonso had  left  the  country,  and 
now  they  demanded  recognition 
of  claims  that  would  have  split 
the  country  permanently  both 
politically  and  economically. 
After  months  of  negotiation,  on 
Sept.  9,  1932,  the  Cortes  enacted 
a  statute  under  which  Catalonia 
(the  provinces  of  Barcelona, 
Tarragona,  Lerida  and  Gerona) 
became  'an  autonomous  region 
within  the  Spanish  state.'  Cata- 
lan became  an  official  language 
equally  with  Castilian  ;  the  Gene- 
ralidad  (comprising  a  local  legis- 
lature. President  and  Executive 
Council)  was  to  discharge  state 
legislation ;  and  Catalonia  was 
to  maintain  its  own  police  and 
educational,  economic  and  social 
systems.  To  the  central  govern- 
ment was  left  the  control  of  for- 
eign affairs,  the  collection  of 
customs  and  certain  taxes,  and 
the  right  to  preserve  public 
order. 

Also  on  Sept.  9,  1932,  another 
piece  of  legislation  of  equal  im- 
portance was  enacted.  This  was 
the  agrarian  reform  bill,  which 
authorized  expropriation  of  all 
lands  owned  by  the  nobility. 
Provision  was  made  for  indemni- 
ties to  be  paid  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances ;  some  fifty-two  mil- 
lion acres  of  land,  comprising 
twenty  former  royal  estates  and 
the  holdings  of  340  dukes,  mar- 
quises and  counts,  were  to  be 
taken  over  and  allocated  among 
the  peasants ;  the  government 
was  required  to  find  about  $4,- 
000,000  _  annually  to  put  the 
scheme  into  operation.  The  pro- 
posed plan  aroused  bitter  opposi- 
tion from  extreme  conservatives 
and  radicals  alike,  and  because 
the  lack  of  money  delayed  its 
execution  the  prospective  bene- 
ficiaries were  enraged  no  less. 

Yet  another  of  the  reversals  of 
previous  fundamental  policy  were 
the  despoliations  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  (Thurch,  which  alienated 
the  support  of  highly  influential 
persons.  Since  readmission  after 
1851,  the  religious  orders  had 
regained  much  of  their  wealth 
and  influence.  They  received 
from  the  state  some  $11,000,000 
annually  for  educational  and 
other  purposes,  and  derived  con- 
siderable income  from  invest- 
ments and  landed  property  ;  be- 


Spain 


KR 


346  C 


Spain 


ing  exempt  from  taxation,  they 
were  able  to  compete  success- 
fully in  commerce  and  industry. 
A  series  of  enactments  of  the 
Cortes  deprived  them  of  much  of 
their  property,  and  what  was  left 
to  them  was  burned  or  despoiled 
from  time  to  time  by  exasperated 
mobs. 

The  Jesuit  Order  was  dis- 
solved by  law  in  January,  1932, 
their  property,  valued  at  over 
$30,000,000,  being  distributed 
for  social  welfare ;  government 
subsidies  to  the  clergy,  it  was  en- 
acted in  December,  1932,  were 
to  cease  not  later  than  Nov.  11, 

1933.  On  March  24,  1933,  the 
Cortes  voted  to  nationalize  all 
church  property  (including 
buildings,  ornaments  and  pic- 
tures), valued  at  more  than 
$500,000,000.  In  May  of  the 
same  year  it  was  decreed  that 
members  of  religious  orders  must 
desist  from  teaching  and  trading, 
must  submit  to  taxation,  and 
must  render  annual  accounts  of 
their  investments.  Neither  a 
Papal  encyclical  of  protest  nor 
the  provisions  of  the  canon  law 
automatically  excomm,unicating 
those  enforcing  the  decrees 
served  to  delay  their  execution. 

These  *  great  changes  in  the 
social  fabric  of  Spain,  ardently 
as  they  had  been  sought  by  a 
majority  of  the  people,  only 
weakened  the  government  re- 
sponsible for  their  achievement. 
It  fell  ever  more  and  more  into 
disrepute,  on  the  one  hand  for 
going  too  far,  and  on  the  other 
for  not  going  far  and  fast  enough. 
The  nation  appeared  to  be  temper- 
amentally unable  or  unwilling  to 
hasten  slowly — those  whose  in- 
terests were  threatened  were  out- 
raged to  a  degree  scarcely  ex- 
celled by  those  eagerly  awaiting 
the  benefits  to  come. 

Conservatives  came  out  in  re- 
bellion in  August,  1932,  only  to 
be  defeated  and  have  their  lead- 
ers exiled,  but  national  elections 
in  November  of  the  following 
year  made  them  the  strongest 
party  in  the  new  Cortes.  Forth- 
with radicals  were  expelled  from 
the  government  and  the  public 
services ;  anti-clerical  and  land 
reform  laws  were  suspended  ;  the 
power  of  the  labor  unions  was 
checked ;  and  the  autonomy  of 
Catalonia  and  the  Basque  prov- 
inces was  curbed.  But  the 
workers  were  not  disposed  to  be 
supplanted  in  so  summary  a  fash- 
ion. 

Fighting  which  broke  out  in 
all  the  large  cities  in  October, 

1934,  endangered  the  very  ex- 
istence of  the  republic.  Unex- 
pectedly, the  army  remained 
loyal  to  the  government,  but  it 
was  only  after  a  bitter  struggle 
that  the  radical  opposition  was 
crushed.  Damage  to  public 
buildings  amounted  to  more  than 


300  million  pesetas;  1,378  lives 
were  lost ;  two  rebel  leaders  were 
shot,  and  hundreds  were  sen- 
tenced to  long  terms  of  imprison- 
ment. But  the  government  real- 
ized it  was  sitting  on  a  powder 
barrel.  Radicalism  was  crushed 
for  the  time  being  but  was  by  no 
means  extinguished,  while  Con- 
servative ranks  were  dividing  in- 
to schools  of  thought  with  con- 
flicting aims.  Amid  the  welter 
of  discord  but  one  fact  was 
emerging — that  there  were  not 
enough  moderates  in  the  country 
to  support  a  government  pre- 
pared to  hold  a  balance  between 
the  extremist  elements.  The  so- 
cial and  economic  justice  which 
the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy 
was  expected  to  ensure  was  ap- 
parently to  be  imattainable  with- 
out another  revolution. 

Within  the  next  twelve 
months,  no  less  than  six  cabinets 
came  and  went ;  constitutional 
guarantees  were  suspended  over 
much  of  the  country ;  and  on 
Jan.  7,  1936,  the  Cortes  was  dis- 
solved. To  the  surprise  of  many 
observers,  in  the  general  election 
of  Feb.  16  control  of  the  Cortes 
was  captured  by  the  Leftist 
united  front.  Manuel  Azana 
was  recalled  to  the  premiership, 
political  prisoners  were  released 
and  a  general  amnesty  was  or- 
dered. Now,  once  more,  it  was 
the  turn  of  the  Conservatives  to 
take  up  arms,  seeking  to  recap- 
ture by  force  the  power  which 
they  had  lost  through  the  ballot 
boxes.  Alcala  Zamora  was 
ejected  from  the  presidency  on 
April  7  on  the  charge  that  he  had 
illegally  dissolved  the  previous 
Cortes,  and  on  May  10  Azana 
was  formally  elected  to  his 
office. 

Meanwhile  the  cabinet,  though 
living  under  the  continual  threat 
of  an  armed  attack,  contented  it- 
self with  making  strong  speeches 
while  doing  almost  nothing. 
Anti-Republican  army  officers 
were  not  deprived  of  their  au- 
thority but  were  merely  trans- 
ferred to  commands  in  Africa, 
where  they  were  free  to  continue 
their  plottings  against  the  gov- 
ernment. Widespread  industrial 
strikes  broke  out  in  the  latter 
part  of  May,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing month  the  government  at 
length  commenced  to  act.  At- 
tacks were  launched  against 
armed  Monarchists  on  June  5, 
but  still  the  disorders  continued 
and  in  desperation,  on  July  6, 
the  government  ordered  the  sup- 
pression of  all  Fascist  organiza- 
tions. From  all  over  the  coun- 
try reports  of  risings  continued 
to  reach  the  outside  world,  but 
accounts  gradually  became  less 
trustworthy  because,  for  'politi- 
cal reasons,'  the  telephone  serv- 
ice with  Spain  was  terminated  on 
July  17.  1936. 


[What  follows  was  written  at 
the  time  Spain  was  in  the  throes 
of  a  desperate  Civil  War.  While 
the  causes  leading  up  to  the  out- 
break were  clear,  the  fog  of  cen- 
sorship and  partizan  propaganda 
obscured  the  facts  of  the  devel- 
oping situation  upon  which  the 
verdict  of  history  will  be  based.] 

As  was  to  be  anticipated,  the 
spark  that  touched  off  the  revo- 
lution was  set  in  Morocco.  Here 
Gen.  Francisco  Franco  com- 
menced a  revolt  with  the  aid  of 
native  troops  (July  18,  1936), 
seeking  to  bring  about  a  Fascist 
regime  in  his  country.  Without 
difficulty  he  consolidated  his  po- 
sition in  the  African  protector- 
ate, and  as  Insurgent  command- 
er-in-chief he  directed  the  oper- 
ations of  Gen.  Gonzalo  Quiepo 
de  Llano  in  southern  Spain. 
Gen.  Emilio  Mola  took  command 
of  Insurgent  forces  in  the  North, 
and  the  Provisional  President  of 
the  Insurgent  government  was 
Gen.  Miguel  Cabanellas. 

Catalonia  proclaimed  its  loy- 
alty to  the  Government  in  Ma- 
drid, which  was  supported  by  the 
Center  party  (comprising  the 
Radicals,  the  Conservative  Re- 
publicans and  Independents)  and 
the  Leftists  (comprising  Social- 
ists, Radical  Democrats,  the 
Communists  and  the  Anar- 
chists) ;  Government  forces  in- 
cluded a  portion  of  the  Civil 
Guard,  a  lesser  proportion  of  the 
Regular  Army,  a  Workers'  Mili- 
tia, armed  police  and  volunteers. 
The  Insurgents  were  made  up  of 
Royalists,  Fascists,  Catholic  Na- 
tionalists, peasant  militia,  the 
Foreign  Legion  and  native  Mo- 
roccan Regulars. 

As  the  conflict  spread,  the  am- 
bassadors and  ministers  of  lead- 
ing powers  withdrew  from  the 
country  to  neutral  territory,  and 
Great  Britain,  France,  Germany 
and  Italy  agreed  to  a  procedure 
of  strict  neutrality.  Portugal, 
whose  sympathies  were  avowedly 
with  the  Insurgents,  refused  to 
conform,  while  Russian  work- 
ers pledged  monetary  aid  to  the 
Government. 

By  the  end  of  July  the  Govern- 
ment was  retaining  control  of 
only  twenty-two  of  the  Spanish 
provinces,  the  remaining  twenty- 
eight  being  in  the  hands  of  the 
Insurgents.  As  one  important 
city  after  another  continued  to 
fall  to  the  forces  of  the  latter, 
the  character  of  the  Govern- 
ment's administration  underwent 
an  unmistakable  change.  No 
longer  was  it  dominated  by  par- 
tizans  of  the  conservative  Re- 
publicans but  by  'People's  Tri- 
bunals' and  Red  militia,  and  as 
the  Insurgents  drew  nearer  to 
Madrid  President  Azana  was 
compelled  to  take  a  realistic 
view  of  his  desperate  situation. 
In  September  he  offered  the  pre- 


Spain 


KR 


346D 


Spain,  Language 


miership  to  the  prominent  So- 
cialist Largo  Caballero  who,  on 
taking  ofifice,  announced  that 
when  he  had  achieved  victory  he 
would  proclaim  a  'dictatorship  of 
the  proletariat'  and  establish  a 
Soviet  regime.  So  little  was  this 
swing  of  the  Government  to  the 
extreme  Left  to  the  liking  of  its 
representatives  abroad  that  num- 
bers of  them  (including  the  Span- 
ish Ambassador  in  Washington) 
resigned  their  appointments. 

Thus  the  Spanish  people  were 
locked  in  the  greatest  struggle  in 
the  last  100  years  of  their  his- 
tory, with  the  republic,  in  the 
form  in  which  it  had  existed  for 
five  years,  fighting  desperately 
for  survival.  During  September 
1936,  the  insurgents  captured 
San  Sebastian  and  Toledo,  and 
on  Oct.  1  Franco  was  proclaimed 
head  of  the  revolutionary  gov- 
ernment. Madrid  was  invested 
on  Oct.  21,  and  its  resistance 
until  the  close  of  hostilities  was 
one  of  the  most  memorable  feats 
of  the  entire  conflict.  The  Re- 
publican government  moved  to 
Valencia  on  Nov.  6,  but  it  could 
do  little  to  check  the  spread  of 
the  insurgent  movement. 

Malaga  fell  to  the  insurgents 
on  Feb.  8,  1937,  but  the  follow- 
ing month  the  Loj^alists  were 
heartened  by  a  decisive  defeat 
at  Brihuega  of  the  Italians,  who 
were  advancing  on  Madrid  from 
the  north.  On  May  17  a  new 
Loyalist  government  was  formed 
under  the  premiership  of  Juan 
Negrin,  and  soon  it  had  to  with- 
stand repeated  air  bombings  of 
the  temporary  capital,  with  de- 
struction alike  of  lives,  buildings 
and  morale.  The  insurgents 
captured  Bilbao  (June  19)  and 
Santander  (August  25) ,  and  with 
the  fall  of  Gijon  (October  21), 
the  whole  of  the  north  was  in 
their  hands.  By  this  time  the 
position  of  the  Loyalists  was  des- 
perate. Their  capital  was  moved 
to  Barcelona  (October  28),  and 
though  they  recaptured  Teruel 
(December  21)  they  lost  it  once 
more  to  the  insurgents  (Feb.  22, 
1938). 

With  increasing  aid  from  both 
Italy  and  Germany,  Franco  now 
launched  great  offensives,  hop- 
ing to  force  a  quick  decision  in 
1938.  An  attack  on  the  Aragon 
front  (March  9)  signalized  a 
long-awaited  drive  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  more  than  1,000 
persons  lost  their  lives  in  re- 
peated air  raids  on  Barcelona 
(March  17).  Loyalist  Spain  was 
cut  in  two  when  the  Insurgents 
reached  the  sea  at  Vinaroz 
(April  1.5),  but  in  a  surprise  at- 
tack on  the  Ebro  river  the  gov- 
ernment forces  succeeded  in 
breaking  through  the  insurgent 
lines  (July  2.5-2G).  In  October 
Italy  began  a  'token  with- 
drawal' of  troops  from  Spain, 


and  the  government  commenced 
to  dispense  with  its  thousands  of 
foreign  volunteers,  but  still  the 
conflict  dragged  on,  with  the 
final  issue  still  undecided. 

In  Christmas  week  an  insur- 
gent offensive  was  launched 
against  Catalonia,  and  with  the 
fall  of  Borjas  Blancas  (Jan.  5, 
1939)  the  Loyalists  of  the  Madrid 
area  opened  a  desperate  attack 
on  the  Estramadura  front.  Tar- 
ragona was  captured  by  the  in- 
surgents on  Jan.  15,  and  the  re- 
lentless advance  continued  to- 
ward Barcelona.  That  city  fell 
on  Jan.  26  and  the  Republican 
resistance  collapsed.  The  gov- 
ernment and  soldiery  fled  into 
France;  President  Azaiia  re- 
signed his  office  in  February. 
Gen.  Jose  Miaja  maintained  a 
show  of  resistance  in  Madrid, 
but  on  March  28,  after  a  siege 
lasting  two  years,  four  months 
and  21  days,  the  city  surren- 
dered. The  civil  war  was  at  an 
end. 

On  April  19,  1937,  the  various 
political  groups  in  the  nationalist 
movement  were  united  by  Gen. 
Franco  into  a  single  political 
party  ruled  by  a  national  coun- 
cil of  100  members.  There  is  also 
a  Junta  Politica  presided  over  by 
the  chief  executive.  On  March 
31,  1947  Gen.  Franco  announced 
that  Spain  would  become  a  mon- 
archy with  a  regency  council  and 
with  himself  as  head  of  the  state. 
The  last  decision  came  after 
fruitless  negotiations  with  Don 
Juan,  son  of  Alfonso  xiii  who 
declined  the  Franco  terms.  The 
law  of  July  1942  restored  the 
Cortes  as  the  supreme  state  or- 
gan for  preparation  and  enact- 
ment of  laws. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Bol- 
laert.  Wars  of  Succession  in  Por- 
tugal and  Spain  (2  vols.);  Conde, 
History  of  Dominion  of  Arabs  in 
Spain  (3  vols.);  Coppee,  History 
of  Conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Arab 
Moors;  Macaulay,  War  of  Suc- 
cession in  Spain;  Prescott,  Reign 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  and 
Philip  the  Second;  Borrow,  Bible 
in  Spain;  Stanhope,  History  of 
the  War  of  the  Succession  in 
Spain;  de  Amicis,  Travels  in 
Spain;  Hare,  Wanderings  in 
Spain;  Hay,  Castilian  Days; 
Bates,  Spanish  Highways  and 
Byways;  Bonilla,  Spanish  Daily 
Life;  Marden,  Travels  in  Spain 
(1909);  Cambridge  Modern  His- 
tory (1909);  Fitzgerald,  Rambles 
in  Spain  (1910);  Bell,  The  Magic 
of  Spain  (1912);  Howells,  Famil- 
iar Spanish  Travels  (1913); 
Hume,  Spain:  Its  Greatness  and 
Decay  (3d  ed..  1913);  Batcheller, 
Royal  Spain  of  Today  (1913); 
Kenny,  Glimpses  of  Latin  Eu- 
rope (1913);  Keith  Clark,  The 
Spell  of  Spain  (1914);  Adams, 
Spain  and  Portugal  (1914); 
Hume,   Modern   Spain  (1923); 


Sedgwick,  Spain  (1925);  Alta- 
mira  y  Crevea,  Hisloria  de  Es- 
pana  de  la  Civilizacion  Espanola 
(4  vols,  1902;  Eng.  trs.  1930); 
Baerlein,  Spain:  Yesterday  and 
To-morrow  (1930);  Cooper,  Un- 
derstanding Spain  (1928);  Gallop, 
A  Book  of  the  Basques  (1930); 
Riggs,  The  Spanish  Pageant 
(1928);  Moore,  In  the  Heart  of 
Spain  (1927);  Martins,  A  His- 
tory of  Iberian  Civilization  (1930) ; 
Sencourt,  The  Spanish  Crown 
(1932);  Trend,  Origins  of  Modern 
Spain  (1934);  Cannes  and  Rep- 
ard,  Spain  in  Revolt  (1936); 
Peers,     The    Spanish  Tragedy 

(1936)  ;  Bone,  Old  Spain  (1936); 
Mendizabal,  Martyrdom  of  Spain 

(1937)  ;  Orwell,  Homage  to  Cata- 
lonia (1938);  Sencourt,  Spain's 
Ordeal  (1938) ;  Foss  and  Gerahty, 
The  Spanish  Arena  (1938) ;  Steer, 
The  Tree  of  Gernika  (1938). 

Spain,  Language  and  Lit- 
erature. The  Spanish  language 
is  one  of  the  modern  languages 
derived  from  the  Latin.  It  owes 
its  origin,  however,  not  to  the 
literary  language  of  Cicero  or 
Virgil,  but  to  the  so-called  vul- 
gar Latin  used  by  the  mass  of 
the  people  and  by  the  Roman 
soldiery.  At  the  present  time 
three  chief  Romance  languages 
still  survive  in  Spain:  the  Cas- 
tilian, generally  known  as  Span- 
ish; the  Catalan  (q.  v.),  a  dia- 
lect of  Proven  gal;  and  the  Galle- 
gan,  closely  allied  to  Portuguese. 
Castilian,  which  has  been  de- 
servedly called  'the  noblest 
daughter  of  Latin,'  is  spoken 
with  slight  local  variations  by 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the 
population,  having  to  a  great  de- 
gree supplanted  Catalan  and 
Gallegan.  Its  chief  character- 
istics are  the  purity  of  its  vowel 
sounds  and  the  strong  guttural, 
the  origin  of  which  is  doubtful, 
although  its  introduction  is  un- 
doubtedly modem.  The  Castil- 
ian vocabulary  contains  a  num- 
ber of  Arabic  words,  chiefly  con- 
nected with  agriculture  and  sci- 
ence, some  few  Greek  words, 
and  slight  traces  of  Basque 
and  Gothic.  The  influence  of 
French  is  noticeable,  particu- 
larly during  the  later  centuries. 
The  chief  literary  works  of  Spain 
are  written  in  CavStilian. 

The  earliest  monuments  of 
Spanish  literature,  which  began 
not  much  earlier  than  the  twelfth 
century,  are  poetical.  Among 
them  are  the  Poema  del  Cid,  a 
typical  chanson  de  geste  (see 
Chansons  de  Geste)  ascribed 
to  the  latter  half  of  the  twelfth 
century,  and  the  Poema  de 
Ferndn  Gonzalez,  which  deals 
with  the  life  and  deeds  of  Count 
Feman  Gonzalez,  the  first  inde- 
pendent sovereign  of  Castile. 
Gonzalo  de  Berceo,  a  secular 
priest,  the  first  Spanish  author 
whose  name  has  come  down  to 


TEMPORARY  PAGES  FOR  NELSON'S  L.  L.  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Insert  in  Volume  XI,  fpUowing  page  346B 

Spain:  The  Genesis  of  the  Civil  War  of  1936.  kff 


When  the  Spanish  Republic 
was  proclaimed  amid  general  re- 
joicing on  April  14,  1931,  it  was 
implicitly  believed  by  the  masses 
that  the  abuses  under  which  they 
had  groaned  for  centuries  would 
forthwith  be  swept  away.  The 
peasants  were  confident  that 
their  poverty  and  misery  were  at 
an  end,  and  that  the  huge  estates 
of  the  grandees  were  to  be  par- 
titioned among  them ;  the  urban 
workers  expected  to  man  the 
factories,  to  take  possession  of 
the  mines,  and  to  reap  the  bene- 
fits formerly  accruing  to  the 
owners  ;  and  the  Catalonians  and 
Basques  believed  they  had  now 
achieved  the  long-dreamed-of 
autonom}'.  The  'Workers'  Re- 
public' was  to  bring  abov:t  the 
Millennium  in  a  twinkling. 

But  events  did  not  move  so 
swiftly.  Indeed,  it  was  only 
after  months  of  wrangling  that 
the  Cortes  adopted  the  Constitu- 
tion (Dec.  9,  1931);  the  new 
leaders  of  the  country  were  soon 
beset  by  the  financial  difficulties 
of  the  world-wide  depression ; 
they  were  attacked  by  the  ex- 
treme Leftists  for  their  too  great 
moderation,  and  assailed  no  less 
by  the  Rightists  for  their  radi- 
calism. Armaments  had  to  be 
increased ;  too  little  money  was 
available  to  institute  the  prom- 
ised agrarian  and  other  reforms. 
Though  many  months  or  even 
years  might  be  required  to  rem- 
edy economic  ills  already  cen- 
turies old,  the  masses  found  the 
waiting  for  the  'new  deal'  in- 
tolerable and  incomprehensible. 

On  Dec.  10,  1931,  Alcala 
Zamora  was  formally  inaugu- 
rated as  constitutional  president 
for  six  years,  and  he  chose  as  his 
first  premier  Manuel  Azaha  y 
Diaz.  These  men  did  their  best 
to  interpret  the  provisions  of  the 
Constitution,  which  declared  that 
Spain  was  a  democratic  republic 
of  workers  of  all  classes,  an  in- 
tegral state  consistent  with  the 
autonomy  of  the  municipalities 
and  regions  ;  that  it  had  no  offi- 
cial religion  ;  that  all  citizens  en- 
joyed freedom  of  conscience  and 
liberty  of  worship ;  and  that  all 
were  equal  before  the  law.  A 
national  flag  of  red,  yellow  and 
purple  was  adopted,  and  war  was 
renounced  as  an  instrument  of 
national  policy. 

The  most  pressing  problem 
following  adoption  of  the  Con- 
stitution was  disposal  of  the  de- 
mands of  Catalonia  for  virtual 
independence.  Under  the  leader- 
ship of  Col.  Francisco  Macia, 
the  Catalonians  had  declared  a 


republic  at  the  time  King  Al- 
fonso had  left  the  country,  and 
now  they  demanded  recognition 
of  claims  that  would  have  split 
the  country  permanently  both 
politically  and  economically. 
After  months  of  negotiation,  on 
Sept.  9,  1932,  the  Cortes  enacted 
a  statute  under  which  Catalonia 
(the  provinces  of  Barcelona, 
Tarragona,  Lerida  and  Gerona) 
became  'an  autonomous  region 
within  the  Spanish  state.'  Cata- 
lan became  an  official  language 
equally  with  Castilian  ;  the  Gene- 
ralidad  (comprising  a  local  legis- 
lature. President  and  Executive 
Council)  was  to  discharge  state 
legislation ;  and  Catalonia  was 
to  maintain  its  own  police  and 
educational,  economic  and  social 
systems.  To  the  central  govern- 
ment was  left  the  control  of  for- 
eign affairs,  the  collection  of 
customs  and  certain  taxes,  and 
the  right  to  preserve  public 
order. 

Also  on  Sept.  9,  1932,  another 
piece  of  legislation  of  equal  im- 
portance was  enacted.  This  was 
the  agrarian  reform  bill,  which 
authorized  expropriation  of  all 
lands  owned  by  the  nobility. 
Provision  was  made  for  indemni- 
ties to  be  paid  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances ;  some  fifty-two  mil- 
lion acres  of  land,  comprising 
twenty  former  royal  estates  and 
the  holdings  of  340  dukes,  mar- 
quises and  counts,  were  to  be 
taken  over  and  allocated  among 
the  peasants ;  the  government 
was  required  to  find  about  $4,- 
000,000  _  annually  to  put  the 
scheme  into  operation.  The  pro- 
posed plan  aroused  bitter  opposi- 
tion from  extreme  conservatives 
and  radicals  alike,  and  because 
the  lack  of  money  delayed  its 
execution  the  prospective  bene- 
ficiaries were  enraged  no  less. 

Yet  another  of  the  reversals  of 
previous  fundamental  policy  were 
the  despoliations  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  which  alienated 
the  support  of  highly  influential 
persons.  Since  readmission  after 
1851,  the  religious  orders  had 
regained  much  of  their  wealth 
and  influence.  They  received 
from  the  state  some  $11,000,000 
annually  for  educational  and 
other  purposes,  and  derived  con- 
siderable income  from  invest- 
ments and  landed  property ;  be- 
ing exempt  from  taxation,  they 
were  able  to  compete  success- 
fully in  commerce  and  industry. 
A  series  of  enactments  of  the 
Cortes  deprived  them  of  much  of 
their  property,  and  what  was  left 
to  them  was  burned  or  despoiled 


from  time  to  time  by  exasperated 
mobs. 

The  Jesuit  Order  was  dis- 
solved by  law  in  January,  1932, 
their  property,  valued  at  over 
$30,000,000,  being  distributed  for 
social  welfare;  government  suId- 
sidies  to  the  clergy,  it  was  en- 
acted in  December,  1932,  were 
to  cease  not  later  than  Nov.  11, 

1933.  On  March  24,  1933,  the 
Cortes  voted  to  nationalize  all 
church  property  (including  build- 
ings, ornaments  and  pictures), 
valued  at  more  than  $500,000,- 
000.  In  May  of  the  same  year 
it  was  decreed  that  members  of 
religious  orders  must  desist 
from  teaching  and  trading,  must 
submit  to  taxation,  and  must  ren- 
der annual  accounts  of  their  in- 
vestments. Neither  a  Papal  en- 
cyclical of  protest  nor  the  pro- 
visions of  the  canon  law  auto- 
matically excommunicating  those 
enforcing  the  decrees  served  to 
delay  their  execution. 

These  great  changes  in  the 
social  fabric  of  Spain,  ardently 
as  they  had  been  sought  by  a 
majority  of  the  people,  only 
weakened  the  government  re- 
sponsible for  their  achievement. 
It  fell  ever  more  and  more  into 
disrepute,  on  the  one  hand  for 
going  too  far,  and  on  the  other 
for  not  going  far  and  fast 
enough.  The  nation  appeared  to 
be  temperamentally  unable  or  un- 
willing to  hasten  slowly — those 
whose  interests  were  threatened 
were  outraged  to  a  degree  scarce- 
ly excelled  by  those  eagerly 
awaiting  the  benefits  to  come. 

Conservatives  came  out  in  re- 
bellion in  August,  1932,  only  to 
be  defeated  and  have  their  lead- 
ers exiled,  but  national  elections 
in  November  of  the  following 
year  made  them  the  strongest 
party  in  the  new  Cortes.  Forth- 
with radicals  were  expelled  from 
the  government  and  the  public 
services ;  anti-clerical  and  land 
reform  laws  were  suspended ;  the 
power  of  the  labor  unions  was 
checked ;  and  the  autonomy  of 
Catalonia  and  the  Basque  prov- 
inces was  curbed.  But  the  work- 
ers were  not  disposed  to  be  sup- 
planted in  so  summary  a  fashion. 

Fighting  which  broke  out  in 
all  the  large  cities  in  October, 

1934,  endangered  the  very  exist- 
ence of  the  republic.  Unex- 
pectedly, the  army  remained 
loyal  to  the  government,  but  it 
was  only  after  a  bitter  struggle 
that  the  radical  opposition  was 
crushed.  Damage  to  public 
buildings  amounted  to  more  than 
300  million  pesetas;  1,378  lives 


Spain  KFF  2 


were  lost ;  two  rebel  leaders  were 
shot,  and  hundreds  were  sen- 
tenced to  long  terms  of  imprison- 
ment. But  the  government  real- 
ized it  was  sitting  on  a  powder 
barrel.  Radicalism  was  crushed 
for  the  time  being  but  was  by  no 
means  extinguished,  while  Con- 
servative ranks  were  dividing 
into  schools  of  thought  with  con- 
flicting aims.  Amid  the  welter 
of  discord  but  one  fact  was 
emerging — that  there  were  not 
enough  moderates  in  the  country 
to  support  a  government  pre- 
pared to  hold  a  balance  between 
the  extremist  elements.  The  so- 
cial and  economic  justice  which 
the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy 
was  expected  to  ensure  was  ap- 
parently to  be  unattainable  with- 
out another  revolution. 

Within  the  next  twelve 
months,  no  less  than  six  cabinets 
came  and  went ;  constitutional 
guarantees  were  suspended  over 
much  of  the  country ;  and  on 
Jan.  7,  1936,  the  Cortes  was  dis- 
solved. To  the  surprise  of  many 
observers,  in  the  general  election 
of  Feb.  16  control  of  the  Cortes 
was  captured  by  the  Leftist 
united  front.  Manuel  Azana 
was  recalled  to  the  premiership, 
political  prisoners  were  released 
and  a  general  amnesty  was  or- 
dered. Now,  once  more,  it  was 
the  turn  of  the  Conservatives  to 
take  up  arms,  seeking  to  recap- 
ture by  force  the  power  which 
they  had  lost  through  the  ballot 
boxes.  Alcala  Zamora  was 
ejected  from  the  presidency  on 
April  7  on  the  charge  that  he  had 
illegally  dissolved  the  previous 
Cortes,  and  on  May  10  Azana 
was  formally  elected  to  his 
office. 

Meanwhile  the  cabinet,  though 
living  under  the  continual  threat 
of  an  armed  attack,  contented  it- 
self with  making  strong  speeches 
while  doing  almost  nothing. 
Anti-Republican  army  officers 
were  not  deprived  of  their  au- 
thority but  were  merely  trans- 
ferred to  commands  in  Africa, 
where  they  were  free  to  continue 
their  plottings  against  the  gov- 
ernment. Widespread  industrial 
strikes  broke  out  in  the  latter 
part  of  May,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing month  the  government  at 
length  commenced  to  act.  At- 
tacks were  launched  against 
armed  Monarchists  on  June  5, 
but  still  the  disorders  continued 


and  in  desperation,  on  July  6, 
the  government  ordered  the  sup- 
pression of  all  Fascist  organiza- 
tions. From  all  over  the  coun- 
try reports  of  risings  continued 
to  reach  the  outside  world,  but 
accounts  gradually  became  less 
trustworthy  because,  for  'politi- 
cal reasons,'  the  telephone  serv- 
ice with  Spain  was  terminated 
on  July  17,  1936. 

[What  follows  was  written  at 
the  time  Spain  was  in  the  throes 
of  a  desperate  Civil  War.  While 
the  causes  leading  up  to  the  out- 
break were  clear,  the  fog  of  cen- 
sorship and  partizan  propaganda 
obscured  the  facts  of  the  devel- 
oping situation  upon  which  the 
verdict  of  history  will  be  based.] 

As  was  to  be  anticipated,  the 
spark  that  touched  off  the  revo- 
lution was  set  in  Morocco.  Here 
Gen.  Francisco  Franco  com- 
menced a  revolt  with  the  aid  of 
native  troops  (July  18,  1936), 
seeking  to  bring  about  a  Fascist 
regime  in  his  country.  Without 
difficulty  he  consolidated  his  po- 
sition in  the  African  protector- 
ate, and  as  Insurgent  command- 
er-in-chief he  directed  the  oper- 
ations of  Gen.  Gonzalo  Quiepo 
de  Llano  in  southern  Spain. 
Gen.  Emilio  Mola  took  command 
of  Insurgent  forces  in  the  North, 
and  the  Provisional  President  of 
the  Insurgent  government  was 
Gen.  Miguel  Cabanellas. 

Catalonia  proclaimed  its  loy- 
alty to  the  Government  in  Ma- 
drid, which  was  supported  by  the 
Center  party  (comprising  the 
Radicals,  the  Conservative  Re- 
publicans and  Independents)  and 
the  Leftists  (comprising  Social- 
ists, Radical  Democrats,  the 
Communists  and  the  Anar- 
chists) ;  Government  forces  in- 
cluded a  portion  of  the  Civil 
Guard,  a  lesser  proportion  of  the 
Regular  Army,  a  Workers'  Mili- 
tia, armed  police  and  vokmteers. 
The  Insurgents  were  made  up  of 
Royalists,  Fascists,  Catholic  Na- 
tionalists, peasant  militia,  the 
Foreign  Legion  and  native  Mo- 
roccan Regulars. 

As  the  conflict  spread,  the  am- 
bassadors and  ministers  of  lead- 
ing powers  withdrew  from  the 
country  to  neutral  territory,  and 
Great  Britain,  France,  Germany 
and  Italy  agreed  to  a  procedure 
of  strict  neutrality.  Portugal, 
whose  sympathies  were  avowedly 
with  the  Insurgents,  refused  to 


conform,  while  Russian  workers 
pledged  monetary  aid  to  the 
Government. 

By  the  end  of  July  the  Gov- 
ernment was  retaining  control  of 
only  twenty-two  of  the  Spanish 
provinces,  the  remaining  twenty- 
eight  being  in  the  hands  of  the 
Insurgents.  As  one  important 
city  after  another  continued  to 
fall  to  the  forces  of  the  latter, 
the  character  of  the  Govern- 
ment's administration  underwent 
an  unmistakable  change.  No 
longer  was  it  dominated  by  par- 
tizans  of  the  conservative  Re- 
publicans but  by  'People's  Tri- 
bunals' and  Red  militia,  and  as 
the  Insurgents  drew  nearer  to 
Madrid  President  Azana  was 
compelled  to  take  a  realistic 
view  of  his  desperate  situation. 
In  September  he  offered  the 
premiership  to  the  prominent  So- 
cialist Largo  Caballero  who,  on 
taking  office,  announced  that 
when  he  had  achieved  victory  he 
would  proclaim  a  'dictatorship  of 
the  proletariat'  and  establish  a 
Soviet  regime.  So  little  was 
this  swing  of  the  Government  to 
the  extreme  Left  to  the  liking  of 
its  representatives  abroad  that 
numbers  of  them  (including  the 
Spanish  Ambassador  in  Wash- 
ington) resigned  their  appoint- 
ments. 

Thus  the  struggle,  the  most 
important  in  Spanish  history  for 
one  hundred  years,  developed 
into  a  class  war.  The  Republic, 
in  the  form  in  which  it  had  ex- 
isted for  five  years,  appeared 
doomed  to  give  place  ultimately 
to  a  dictatorship,  of  the  Left  or 
of  the  Right,  which  in  either 
event  would  be  the  antithesis  of 
the  ideals  for  which  it  had  been 
brought  into  being.  Indisputable 
facts  clear  by  the  beginning  of 
October,  1936,  were  that  many 
thousands  were  losing  their 
lives  ;  historic  buildings  and  ob- 
jects were  being  ruthlessly  de- 
stroyed ;  homes  and  industries 
were  being  ruined  ;  and  untold 
suffering  was  being  inflicted 
upon  countless  numbers  of  the 
innocent.  Such  was  the  terrible 
toll  being  paid  by  the  Spanish 
people  in  its  efforts  to  secure 
liberty  and  freedom  for  all. 

Consult  H.  Cannes  and  Theo. 
Repard,  Spain  in  Revolt  (1936)  ; 
E.  A.  Peers,  The  Spanish  Trag- 
edy (1936). 

W.  B.  Preston. 


Spain,  Literature 


KFI 


347 


Spain,  Literature 


us,  wrote  lives  of  the  saints  and 
praises  of  the  Virgin,  in  rhyme, 
and  Alfonso  x  (q.  v.),  king  of 
Castile,  wrote  or  caused  to  be 
written  Side,  which  has  been 
the  groundwork  of  all  subsequent 
Spanish  legislation,  and  Cronica 
general,  a  kind  of  universal  his- 
tory, material  for  which  was 
gathered  from  many  sources. 
Alfonso's  literary  tastes  were 
shared  by  his  nephew  Don  Juan 
Manuel,  who  is  best  known  by 
the  Conde  Lucanor  or  Libro  de 
Patronio,  a  series  of  short  tales 
which  long  served  as  a  model  for 
similar  writings.  The  most 
original  writer  of  the  fourteenth 
century  was  Juan  Ruiz  (q.  v.), 
archpriest  of  Hita,  a  disreputa- 
ble cleric,  who  relates  his  love 
adventures  in  poetical  form, 
quaintly  interlarding  them  with 
moral  fables  and  religious  hymns. 
The  Jewish  rabbi,  Sem  Tob, 
wrote  endless  quatrains  of  Moral 
Proverbs  of  Eastern  or  Biblical 
origin.  Pedro  Lopez  de  Ayala 
(q.  v.),  one  of  the  few  Basqi;es 
to  attain  prominence  in  Spanish 
literature,  produced  both  verse 
and  prose.  He  wrote  an  histori- 
cal account  of  his  own  times 
(1332-1407)  and  Rimado  de 
Palacio,  a  series  of  independent 
poems,  cleverly  satirizing  all 
ranks  of  society  while  exhorting 
the  wicked  to  repentance. 

The  fifteenth  century  saw  the 
rise  of  a  school  of  lyric  poets 
markedly  influenced  by  Dante 
and  Petrarch.  They  include 
Enrique  de  Villena  (1384-1434), 
a  man  of  great  erudition,  who 
translated  the  Divina  Commcdia, 
but  whose  translation  has  been 
lost;  Juan  de  Mena  (1411-56), 
the  official  court  poet  of  the 
time,  who  wrote  an  allegorical 
poem  known  as  Laberiuto,  remi- 
niscent of  the  Divine  Comedy; 
Lopez  de  Mendoza,  Marques  de 
Santillana  (1398-1458),  whose 
sonnets  in  Petrarchan  fashion 
were  the  first  of  their  kind  in 
Spain ;  and  Jorge  Manrique 
(1440-78),  whose  Coplas  por  la 
miierfe  de  su  padre,  consisting  of 
43  stanzas,  is  among  the  famous 
monuments  in  the  Spanish  lan- 
guage. (See  Manrique  ;  Mena  ; 
Santillana;  Villena). 

In  the  late  fifteenth  and  early 
sixteenth  centuries  a  new  branch 
of  Spanish  literature  appears  — 
the  romances  of  chivalry  (libros 
de  caballerids) .  The  Amadis  de 
Gaida  (see  Amadis),  first  and 
best  of  books  of  this  type,  has 
come  down  to  us  in  a  translation 
from  a  Portuguese  version,  of 
which  the  original  is  lost.  Un- 
like later  books  of  its  class,  it 
contains  passages  of  great 
beauty.  Innumerable  imitations 
followed,  each  more  extravagant 
than  its  predecessor,  until  the  ap- 
pearance of  Cervantes'  immortal 
satire,  Don  Quixote,  with  its  rol- 


licking fun,  melancholy  touches, 
and  profound  views  of  human 
nature.  Unique  among  the  works 
of  its  time  and  far  superior  to 
the  other  efforts  of  its  author, 
it  belongs  to  no  class  and  has  no 
successor  in  Spanish  or  any 
other  literature  (see  Cervantes)  . 

The  rise  of  the  novel  in  its 
different  forms  is  coincident  with 
the  decline  of  the  romances  of 
chivalry.  The  Celestina  of  Fer- 
nando de  Rojas,  a  tragicomedy 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  had 
great  influence  on  the  theatre  as 
well  as  on  the  whole  realistic 
literature  of  Spain.  It  was  writ- 
ten in  dramatic  form  but  its  great 
length  precludes  its  presentation. 
The  Diana  Enamorada  of  Monte- 
mayor  (1520—61),  one  of  the  first 
of  the  Spanish  pastoral  romances, 
is  one  of  the  best,  and  the  novel 
of  the  same  name  by  Gil  Polo 
is  also  one  of  the  most  successful 
works  of  its  kind.  Cervantes  and 
Lope  de  Vega  (qq.  v.)  each  pro- 
dvtced  similar  works,  but  the 
false  and  exaggerated  sentiment 
and  inferior  verse  characteristic 
of  these  compositions  make  it 
hard  to  understand  their  popu- 
larity. Side  by  side  with  the 
pastoral  novel,  but  with  stronger 
growth,  throve  the  realistic  no- 
vela  picaresca  or  rogue's  story, 
subsequently  brought  to  perfec- 
tion by  Le  Sage,  who  in  his  Gil 
Bias  drew  largely  upon  Spanish 
models.  The  earliest  book  of 
the  kind  is  Lazarillo  de  Tormes 
ascribed  to  Diego  Hurtado  de 
Mendoza  (q.  v.),  but  whose  au- 
thorship is  unknown.  So  admi- 
rable a  vehicle  for  amusement 
and  satire  was  not  neglected,  as 
is  proved  by  the  popularity  of 
such  works  as  Guaman  de  Alfa- 
rache,  Marcos  de  Obregon,  and 
La  Picara  Justina.  A  solitary 
and  not  very  brilliant  example 
of  the  historical  novel  of  early 
date  is  the  Guerra  de  Granada, 
by  Hurtado  de  Mendoza. 

In  the  meantime,  at  the  court 
of  John  II  (1407-1454)  the  in- 
fluence of  Provengal  literature 
had  begun  to  make  itself  strongly 
felt,  and  a  generation  of  stilted 
and  affected  poetasters  arose. 
The  works  of  many  authors  of 
this  school  are  collected  in  the 
celebrated  Cancioncro  de  Baena. 

The  modern  Spanish  drama 
must  reckon  its  origin  from  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
when  Juan  del  Encina  (q.  v.) 
wrote  fourteen  dramatic  poems, 
Representaciones  of  pastoral 
character.  Gil  Vicente  (q.  v.) 
and  Torres  Naharro  imitated  and 
improved  upon  the  methods  of 
Encina,  but  Lope  de  Rueda 
(q.  v.),  playwright  and  actor 
(1510-65),  is  usually  considered 
the  father  of  the  Spanish  drama- 
tists, and  as  such  he  is  mentioned 
by  Cervantes.  Continuing  the 
pastoral  drama  of  his  predeces- 


sors, Rueda  also  wrote  short 
comedies  known  as  pasos,  full 
of  vigorous  wit.  Cervantes  com- 
menced his  career  as  a  dramatic 
author,  bvit  his  two  earlier  pieces, 
La  Numancia  and  El  Trato  de 
Argel,  thovigh  finely  conceived, 
were  unsuccessful.  Lope  de 
Vega  also  wrote  more  than  2,000 
dramas,  and  it  is  by  these  that 
he  is  best  known.  Other  impor- 
tant dramatists  of  the  school  of 
De  Vega  are :  Calderon  de  la 
Barca  (1600-81),  a  poet  of  fine 
passages  rather  than  a  dramatic 
author  of  high  merit,  Tirso  de 
Molina  (1571-1648),  Moreto  y 
Cabana  (1618-69),  Ruiz  de 
Alargon  y  Mendoza  1581-1639), 
and  Rojas-Zorilla  (1607-61) 
(qq.  v.).  Tirso  de  Molina  is 
known  chiefly  as  the  author  who 
first  dramatized  the  story  of 
Don  Juan  Tenorio,  the  Biirlador 
de  Sevilla.  Moreto  is  the  most 
correct  of  Spanish  dramatists, 
and  his  Desden  con  desden  merits 
special  mention,  even  in  an  age 
of  dramatic  excellence. 

Lyric  poetry  in  the  sixteenth 
century  had  as  its  leading  expo- 
nents, Fernando  de  Herrera 
(q.  v.),  who  sang  of  the  victories 
and  reverses  of  his  time ;  Luis 
Ponce  de  Leon  (q.  v.),  who 
drew  his  inspiration  from  nature, 
solitude,  and  religious  medita- 
tion ;  Cristoval  de  Castillejo, 
whose  poems  are  among  the  best 
of  his  time;  St.  Teresa  (q.  v.), 
one  of  the  world's  great  women, 
whose  mystical  experiences  are 
related  in  her  Moradas  O  Castillo 
inferior;  Luis  de  Gongora  y 
Argote  (q.  v.),  regarded  by  some 
as  the  greatest  poet  of  Spain  but 
whose  later  style  became  obscure 
and  complicated  ;  and  Quevedo  y 
Villegas  (q.  v.),  who  wrote  a 
picaresque  novel  in  addition  to 
many  poems. 

The  origin  of  the  Spanish 
ballads  is  uncertain,  though  they 
are  probably  of  indigenous 
growth.  The  great  mass  of  them 
was  collected  in  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries,  but 
many  of  them  are  of  much  earlier 
date.  In  subject  matter  they 
range  from  sacred  history  to  the 
Arthurian  and  Carolingian  cy- 
cles, but  far  the  most  interest- 
ing are  those  which  celebrate  the 
national  heroes  and  the  Moorish 
champions  against  whom  they 
fought. 

At  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  with  the  decline  of 
Spanish  glory,  the  sun  of  Span- 
ish literature  so  suddenly  and 
completely  disappeared  as  to 
leave  not  even  an  afterglow.  Of 
the  succeeding  century,  only  a 
few  names  deserve  mention. 
Jose  Francisco  de  Isla  (q.  v.), 
in  Fray  Geriindio,  with  wit  and 
good  sense  worthy  of  a  better 
age,  ridiculed  the  low  ebb  of  edu- 
cation.    Samaniego  and  Yriarte 


Spain,  Literature 


KFI 


348 


Spalding: 


wrote  some  clever  fables  in  the 
style  of  the  inimitable  La  Fon- 
taine. The  Spanish  Academy, 
founded  during  the  first  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  produced 
the  magnificent  dictionary  which 
is  its  chief  claim  to  the  gratitude 
of  scholars,  and  when  literature 
seemed  at  its  lowest  ebb,  Mora- 
tin  (q.  v.),  the  '  Spanish  Moliere,' 
came  to  add  one  more  name  to 
Spain's  glorious  list  of  drama- 
tists. 

The  War  of  Independence 
roused  the  Spaniards  from  the 
seemingly  hopeless  state  of  leth- 
argy into  which  they  had  sunk, 
and  there  arose  a  group  of  lyric 
poets  whose  patriotic  zeal  awoke 
the  whole  nation.  Chief  among 
them  are  Quintana,  Gallego, 
Olmedo,  Heredia,  and  Bello,  all 
distinguished  by  work  of  the 
highest  order. 

The  period  of  Romanticism 
was  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
epochs  in  the  history  of  Spanish 
letters.  The  movement  appeared 
in  Spain  somewhat  later  than  in 
other  parts  of  Europe,  and  only 
after  the  death  of  Ferdinand  vii 
did  literature  begin  once  more  to 
flourish.  Among  the  outstanding 
names  in  the  Romantic  move- 
ment are  Martinez  de  la  Rosa, 
who  gave  to  Spain  real  historic 
dramas,  full  of  life  and  move- 
ment ;  Jose  de  Larra,  whose 
novel  El  Donccl  dc  Don  Enrique 
el  Doliente  takes  high  rank  in 
the  Romantic  school ;  the  Duque 
de  Rivas,  whose  play  Don 
Alvaro  ensured  the  triumph  of 
romanticism  ;  Jose  de  Espronceda 
(q.  v.),  a  lyric  poet  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  Byron  ;  Gutierrez, 
a  dramatist ;  Zorilla,  lyric  poet 
and  dramatist ;  Campoamor  y 
Campoosorio  and  Nunez  de 
Arce  (qq.  v.),  both  notable  poets. 

By  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  Romantic 
drama  was  out  of  fashion  and 
there  came  a  period  of  transi- 
tion, in  which  writers  tried  to 
combine  the  classic  and  the  Ro- 
mantic schools.  Of  this  transi- 
tion period  the  most  famous  rep- 
resentatives are  Tamayo  y  Baus 
(1829-98),  often  regarded  as 
the  greatest  dramatist  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  his  Virginia 
being  the  only  Spanish  classic 
on  a  level  with  the  tragedies  of 
Sophocles  and  Racine  ;  and  Ade- 
lardo  Lopez  de  Ayala  (1828-79), 
whose  work  reveals  a  psycho- 
logical trend.  Jose  Echegaray 
(1832-1916)  attempted  a  return 
to  Romanticism  and  his  drama 
El  gran  Galcoto  is  a  powerful 
study  of  the  evil  effects  of  slan- 
der, A  renaissance  of  the  Span- 
ish novel  occurred  with  the  works 
of  Galdos  and  Valera.  Preced- 
ing Galdos  the  only  name  of 
importance  is  that  of  Fernan 
Caballero  ((|.  v.),  nom  de  plume 
of  Cecilia  Boehl  de  Faber  (1796- 


1877),  whose  novels  contain  an 
exact  picture  of  the  life  and 
customs  of  the  times.  Perez 
Galdos  (q.  v.)  (1845-1920),  is 
a  novelist  of  the  first  rank,  whose 
Episodios  nacionales  give  a  vivid 
idea  of  Spain  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  His  masterpiece  is, 
however,  Fortunata  y  Jacinta,  a 
vigorous  study  of  modern  Span- 
ish life.  Contemporary  with 
Galdos  and  of  almost  equal 
merit  are  Alargon  (1833-91),  a 
delightful  story  teller ;  Juan  de 
Valera  y  Alcala  Caliano  (1824- 

1905)  ,  whose  Pcpita  Jimenez  is 
a  keen  psychological  study  of  a 
soul  ;  and  Jose  de  Pereda  (1833- 

1906)  ,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
Spanish  realistic  writers,  the 
Balzac  of  Spain.  See  Alarcon, 
Pereda  ;  and  Valera. 

Following  the  realistic  school 
came  the  naturalistic  school, 
whose  members  claimed  to  be 
not  only  accurate  but  also  scien- 
tific in  their  treatment  of  things. 
The  leading  novelists  of  this 
group  are  Emilia  Pardo  Bazan 
(1851-1921),  an  imitator  of 
Zola,  the  author  of  Los  Pazos  de 
Ulloa,  La  Madre  Naturaleca,  and 
other  admirable  works ;  Palacio 
Valdes  (1853-1938),  whose  best 
works  are  Marta  y  Maria,  Jose, 
and  La  Hcrmana  San  Sulpicio ; 
and  Blasco  Ibanez  (1867-1928), 
probably  best  known  for  his 
powerful  novel  Los  cuatro  Jinetes 
del  Apocalipsis  (see  Pardo  Ba- 
zan ;  Valdes;  Blasco  Ibanez). 
Other  contemporary  writers  are 
Ramon  del  Valle-Inclan  (1870- 
),  whose  Sonata  de  Otono  is 
among  the  masterpieces  of  Span- 
ish literature ;  Jose  Martinez 
Ruiz  (1874-  ),  who  writes 
under  the  pseudonym  Azorin ; 
Rufino  Jose  Cuervo  (1844- 
1911),  an  important  philologist; 
Marcelino  Melendez  y  Pelayo 
(1856-1912),  one  oi  Spain's 
greatest  literary  critics,  whose 
masterpiece  is  Historia  dc  las 
ideas  cstcticas  en  Espaiia  ;  his  fol- 
lowers, Ramon  Pidal  (1869-  ) , 
Adolfo  Bonilla  y  San  Martin 
(1875-  ),  and  Jose  Enrique 
Rodo  (1872-1917);  and  the 
eminent  dramatists  Jacinto  Ben- 
avente  (1866-  ),  the  brothers 
Serafin  (1871-  )  and  Joaquin 
(1873-  _)  Quintero,  whose 
gay  comedies  present  a  whole- 
some picture  of  Andalusian  life  ; 
Martinez  Sierra  (1881-  ), 
Joaquin  Dicenta  (1863-1917), 
and  Manual  Linares  Rivas 
(1867-  ). 

The  Modernist  movement  in 
Spain  is  represented  by  the 
poets  Ruben  Dario  (1867-1916), 
whose  influence  in  America  as 
well  as  in  Spain  has  been 
considerable ;  Gabriel  y  Galan 
1871-1905);  Antonio  Machado 
(1875-  )  ;  Ramon  Jimenez 
(1881-  )  ;  and  Vincente  Me- 
dina (1866-       ).    The  Mexi- 


can Amado  Nervo  (1870-1919), 
the  Peruvian  Jose  Santos  Cho- 
cano  (1875-1934),  the  Cuban 
Sanchez  Galarraga  (1888-  ), 
the  Argentinian  Alfonsina  Storni 
(1892-  ),  and  the  Chilean 
Gabriela  Mistral  (Lucila  Goday) 
are  also  Spanish  poets  of  note, 
while  the  historian  Rafael  Alta- 
mira  (1866-  ),  the  philoso- 
pher Miguel  de  Unamuno  (1864- 
1937),  and  the  journalist  Ramido 
Maetzu  cannot  be  ignored. 

Bibliography, — Consult  F. 
Bouterwek,  History  of  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  Literature  ;  H.  S. 
Conant,  Primer  of  Spanish  Lit- 
erature;  Ticknor,  History  of 
Spanish  Literature  ;  Fitzmaurice 
Kelly,  History  of  Spanish  Litera- 
ture, Chapters  on  Spanish  Litera- 
ture, and  Spanish  Literature,  a 
Primer  (1922)  ;  Ford,  Main  Cur- 
rents of  Spanish  Literature 
(1919);  Perrier,  History  of 
Spanish  Literature  (1924)  ; 
Northrup,  An  Introduction  to 
Spanish  Literature  (1925)  ;  Bell, 
Contemporary  Spanish  Litera- 
ture (1933). 

Spalato,  spa'la-to,  Italian 
form  of  Split,  an  Adriatic  seaport 
of  Yugoslavia,  capital  of  the  Lit- 
toral banat,  situated  40  miles 
southeast  of  Sibenik  (Sebenico). 
In  the  old  town  is  the  quadrangu- 
lar Palace  of  Diocletian  (third 
century),  the  most  important 
Roman  monument  of  the  former 
Austrian  Empire ;  the  Cathedral, 
with  a  twelfth-century  campa- 
nile ;  the  Battistero  di  San  Gio- 
vanni ;  and  the  Museum.  The 
new  town  with  broad  streets  and 
modern  buildings  lies  to  the  west. 
Spalato  is  the  center  of  the  Dal- 
matian wine  trade  in  which  it 
does  a  large  export  business. 
From  1420  to  1797  it  belonged 
to  Venice.    Pop.  43,808. 

Spalding,  Albert  (1888- 
),  American  violinist,  was 
born  in  Chicago.  He  studied 
with  Buitrago  in  New  York,  with 
Chiti  in  Florence,  and  with 
Lefort  in  Paris,  where  he  made  a 
successful  debut  in  1905.  He 
toured  France,  Germany,  and 
England,  and  made  his  first 
public  appearance  in  the  United 
States  in  November  1908.  He 
made  a  second  American  tour  in 
1912,  and  after  1914  appeared  in 
the  United  States  annually,  with 
ever  increasing  popularity.  His 
works  include  Concerto  quasi 
fantasia;  Suite  for  Piano  and 
Violin ;  Sonata  for  Piano  and 
Violin  ;  twenty  violin  pieces  ; 
Prelude  and  Fugue  for  the  piano, 
variations  on  My  Old  Kentucky 
Home  for  violin  and  orchestra, 
and  other  orchestral  works. 

Spalding',  John  Franklin 
(1828-1902),  American  Prot- 
estant-Episcopal prelate,  was 
born  in  Belgrade,  Maine,  and 
was  graduated  (1853)  from 
Bowdoin,  and  from  the  General 


Spalding 


349 


Spaniels 


Theological  Seminary  in  1857. 
He  was  ordered  deacon  in  1857, 
ordained  priest  in  1858,  and  was 
rector  of  churches  in  Me.,  Mass., 
and  R.  I.  until  1862,  when  he 
became  rector  of  St.  Paul's 
Church,  Erie,  Pa.  In  1873 
he  was  consecrated  missionary 
bishop  of  Colorado,  his  juris- 
diction extending  over  Wyoming 
also.  Colorado  was  subsequently 
created  a  diocese,  of  which  he 
remained  as  bishop.  His  works 
include  The  Church  and  Its 
Apostolic  Ministry  (1887)  and 
Jesus  Christ,  the  Proo}  of  Chris- 
sanity  (1890). 

Spalding,  John  Lancaster 
(1840-1916).  American  R.  C. 
prelate,  nephew  of  Archbishop 
Martin  John  Spalding,  born  at 
Lebanon,  Ky.,  and  was  educated 
at  Mt.  St.  Mary's  College,  Md., 
at  the  University  of  Louvain, 
Belgium,  and  at  Rome.  He  was 
ordained  a  priest  in  1863,  and 
in  1865  was  appointed  secretary 
to  the  Bishop  of  Louisville, 
becoming  chancellor  of  the  diocese 
in  1871.  He  was  stationed  in 
New  York  from  1872  to  1877, 
when  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Peoria.  He  became  promi- 
nent as  an  adjuster  of  labor  dis- 

Eutes,  and  in  1902  was  appointed 
y  President  Roosevelt  one  of  the 
arbitrators  for  the  settlement  of 
the  anthracite  coal  strike.  A 
graceful  and  forcible  writer  on 
both  sacred  and  secular  subjects, 
his  many  publications  include 
America,  and  Other  Poems  (1885), 
Education  and  the  Higher  Life 
(1891),  Education  and  the  Future 
of  Religion  (1900),  Socialism  and 
Labor,  and  Other  Arguments 
(1902),  and  Religion  and  Art, 
and  Other  Essays  (1905). 

Spalding,  Martin  John  (1810- 
72),  American  R.  C.  prelate,  was 
born  near  Lebanon,  Ky.,  and 
was  educated  at  St.  Mary's 
Seminary,  Ky.,  at  St.  Joseph's 
Seminary,  Ky.,  and  at  Rome. 
He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1834, 
and  held  various  charges  in  Ky. 
until  1844,  when  he  was  appointed 
vicar-general  of  Louisville.  He 
became  Coadjutor  -  Bishop  of 
Louisville  in  1848,  Bishop  of  the 
same  diocese  in  1850,  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Baltimore  in  1864. 
Archbishop  Spalding  was  a 
founder  of  and  writer  for  the 
Catholic  Advocate,  and  published 
among  other  works  Sketches  of 
the  Early  Catholic  Missions  in 
Kentucky  (1846)  and  History 
of  the  Protestant  Reformation 
(1860).  See  Life  by  his  nephew, 
Bishop  J.  L.  Spalding  (1872). 

Spallanzani,  Lazzaro  (1729- 
99),  Italian  physiologist,  was 
bom  at  Scandiano  (Modena); 
taught  logic  and  Greek  at  Reggio 
(1754),  but  deserted  Homer  for 
science,  though  he  still  taught 
Greek  at  Modena  (1760).  He 
combated  the  theory  of  sponta- 


neous generation  advanced  by 
Bufifon  and  Needham  (1767),  and 
went  to  Pavia  (1768)  to  teach 
natural  science.  In  his  Opuscoli 
di  Fisica  Animale  e  Vegetabile 
(1777-80)  he  demonstrated  the 
theory  of  digestion  by  solution, 
not  trituration.  He  wrote  also 
on  reproduction  and  the  heart's 
action  (1768);  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  of  which  he  had  the 
first  notions  (1777);  respiration; 
and  animal  nature  of  infusoria. 

Spandau,  fort,  tn.,  Prussia,  8 
m.  by  rail  n.w,  of  Berlin,  at 


the  influx  of  the  Spree  into  the 
Havel.  Here  is  the  Julius  tower, 
containing,  since  1874  the  sum 
of  six  million  pounds  in  coin  for 
the  purpose  of  immediate  use  in 
case  of  war,  the  money  being 
part  of  the  war  indemnity  paid 
by  France  after  tTie  Franco-Ger- 
man War.    Pop.  (1905)  70,301. 

Spaniels  comprise  one  of  the 
six  generic  groups  into  which 
some  naturalists  have  divided  the 
canine  race — viz.,  (1)  wolf  dogs, 
(2j  spaniels,  (3)  greyhounds,  (4) 
hounds,  (5)  mastififs,  and  (6)  ter- 
riers. The  varieties  consist  of 
field  spaniels,  divided  into  two 


groups  known  as  springer  (the 
larger)  and  cocker  (the  smaller 
type);  water  spaniels;  and  toy" 
spaniels,  both  British  and  foreign. 
The  spaniel  characteristics  are 
large,  pendulous  ears,  long,  silky 
hair,  curled  or  shaggy,  an  acute 
scent,  great  intelligence,  and  a 
wonderful  affection  for  man. 

(1.)  The  Field  spaniel  (black), 
a  dog  to  which  very  great  atten- 
tion has  been  paid  by  breeders 
and  fanciers,  who  have  length- 
ened its  body  and  shortened  its 
legs  at  the  expense  of  symmetry. 


This  spaniel  must  be  active,  with 
plenty  of  life,  and  any  resem- 
blance in  shape,  action,  or  move- 
ment to  the  basset-hound  or 
dachshund  should  be  discarded. 

(2.)  The  Clumber  spaniel,  so 
called  from  the  breed  having 
originated  at  Clumber,  in  Not- 
tinghamshire, a  seat  of  the  Duke 
of  Newcastle.  This  variety  works 
mute,  and  is  wonderfully  intelli- 
gent. For  covert  shooting  it  is 
the  most  popular  of  all  spaniels, 
and  can  be  trained  to  hunt  in 
packs  and  take  the  place  of 
beaters. 

(3.)  The  Norfolk  spaniel  is 


Breeds  of  Spaniels. 
1.  Field  spaniel  (black).  2.  Irish  water  spaniel.  3.  Crocker.  4.  King  Charles. 
5.  Japanese  spaniel.  6.  Clumber. 


Spaniels 


550 


Spanisli-Amerlcan  Wat 


very  like  the  Clumber,  but  shorter 
in  body.  It  is  distinguished  by 
its  color,  which  is  black,  liver, 
and  yellow,  more  or  less  mixed 
with  white. 

(4.)  The  Sussex  spaniel  is 
smaller  than  the  Clumber,  and 
weighs  from  35  to  40  lbs.  It  is 
perhaps  the  oldest  variety  of  the 
breed.  It  is  now  rare,  its  place 
having  been  taken  by  the  Clum- 
ber, 

(5.)  The  Cocker  spaniel  is  a 
much  smaller  dog  than  the  vari- 
eties previously  noticed,  scaling 
from  18  to  25  lbs.  They  hunt 
nearly  mute,  but  whimper 
slightly  on  a  scent,  and,  when 
well  broken,  distinguish  each 
kind  of  game  by  the  note  they 


orange  star  must  appear.  The 
toy  spaniel  was  brought  into 
favor  by  the  Stewarts.  The 
modern  toy  spaniel  scales  between 
4  and  10  lbs.  The  colors  in  all 
should  be  brilliant;  dull  color 
is  a  great  defect. 

(8.)  Foreign  toy  spaniels.  There 
are  two  varieties,  the  Pekinese 
and  the  Japanese;  but  both  are 
probably  the  same  breed.  They 
were  first  imported  into  England 
toward  the  close  of  the  19th 
century,  and  fabulous  sums  were 
paid  for  fancy  specimens.  Later 
they  began  to  be  seen  in  New 
York,  The  Japanese  spaniel, 
sometimes  called  the  '  sleeve  dog,' 
is  black  and  white  or  lemon 
and  white  in  color;  coat  massive 


Maine,  while  in  Havana  harbor, 
was  blown  up,  with  a  loss  of  266 
of  her  officers  and  crew.  This 
catastrophe  vastly  intensified  the 
feeling  in  the  United  States  against 
Spain.  After  exhausting  the  re- 
sources of  diplomacy,  President 
McKinley  on  April  11  sent  a  mes- 
sage to  Congress  saying  that  'In 
the  name  of  humanity,  in  the  name 
of  civilization,  in  behalf  of  en- 
dangered American  interests  .  .  . 
the  war  in  Cuba  must  stop.' 
Eight  days  later  Congress  passed 
a  joint,  resolution  declaring  that 
the  people  of  Cuba  'are,  and  of 
right  ought  to  be,  free  and  inde- 
pendent,' demanding  that  Spain 
at  once^  relinquish  her  authority 
in  the  island,  and  directing  the 


give  out.  Their  proper  quarry  is 
the  woodcock. 

(6.)  The  Water  spaniel.  There 
rre  two  varieties,  the  English  and 
the  Irish,  but  the  former  is  sel- 
dom seen,  and  its  purity  of  strain 
is  doubtful.  The  Irish  water 
spaniel  is  admirable  as  a  re- 
triever. Its  height  is  about  22 
in,,  and  weight  40  lbs, 

(7.)  Toy  spaniels  have  for  many 
years  been  drawing-room  dogs. 
There  are  four  varieties,  distin- 
guishable by  color  only.  The 
King  Charles  is  black  and  tan; 
the  Prince  Charles,  black,  tan, 
and  white;  the  ruby,  rich  red: 
and  the  Blenheim,  orange  and 
white,  with  a  blaze  on  its  fore- 
head, in  the  centre  of  which  an 


San  Juan  Hill,  from  *  Bloody  Bend.* 
(Copyright,  1901,  by  Detroit  Photographic  Co.) 

and  very  silky;  tail  tightly  curled 
over  its  back,  with  flowing  plume ; 
very  diminutive,  some  specimens 
weighing  under  4  lbs,;  face  short; 
ears  small,  but  well  feathered.  Con- 
sult books  mentioned  under  DoG, 
Spanish  -  American  War,  a 
conflict  fought  in  1898  between 
the  United  States  and  Spain, 
In  1895  a  revolt  against  Spanish 
authority  broke  out  in  Cuba,  and 
much  sympathy  was  felt  in  the 
United  States  for  the  insurgents, 
particularly  after  the  Spanish 
government  adopted  a  'reconcen- 
tration'  policv  that  brought  suf- 
fering and  death  to  thousands 
of  the  inhabitants  of  both  sexes 
and  of  every  age.  On  Feb.  15, 
1898,  the  United  States  battleship 


President  to  use  the  land  and  naval 
forces  to  accomplish  that  result. 
On  April  21  the  President  sent  a 
copy  of  this  resolution  to  the  Span- 
ish minister,  and  he  thereupon 
asked  for  his  passports.  The 
ultimatum  was  also  cabled  to  the 
American  minister  at  Madrid, 
Gen.  Stewart  L.  Woodford,  but 
before  he  had  an  opportunity  to 
present  it  to  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment he  was  given  his  passports. 
On  the  same  day  the  American 
fleet  at  Key  West  was  ordered  to 
blockade  Havana;  on  the  23d  the 
Nashville  of  this  fleet  captured 
a  Spanish  merchant  vessel;  and 
on  the  25th  Congress  formally 
declared  that  a  state  of  war  had 
existed  since  April  21. 


Spanish-American  Wat 

The  first  notable  conflict  oc- 
curred in  the  far  East.  In 
February  Commodore  George 
Dewey,  commander  of  the  Amer- 
ican Asiatic  Squadron,  had  been 
instructed  by  assistant  secre- 
tary of  the  navy  Roosevelt  to 
assemble  his  vessels  at  Hong- 
kong and  be  prepared  for  opera- 
tions against  the  Spanish  naval 
forces  in  the  Philippines.  On 
April  26  a  despatch  was  received 
by  Dewey  announcing  that  war 
had  begun  and  directing  him  to 
'use  utmost  endeavors'  to  cap- 
ture or  destroy  the  Spanish  fleet. 
In  the  early  morning  of  May  1 
he  entered'  Manila  Bay  with 
seven    war    vessels    and  two 


351 

patliy  of  the  Continental  Eu- 
ropean powers  was  generally 
with  Spain,  and  a  movement 
to  intervene  in  her  favor  would 
probably  have  taken  place  if  it 
had  not  been  for  the  attitude  of 
Great  Britain,  By  the  end  of 
July  about  11,000  troops,  most- 
ly volunteers,  under  command 
of  Gen.  Wesley  Merritt,  had  ar- 
rived, and  after  a  few  .compara- 
tively bloodless  conflicts,  in  which 
the  army  was  assisted  by  the  fleet, 
Manila  was  forced  on  Aug.  13 
to  capitulate. 

Meanwhile  still  more  decisiye 
events  had  been  taking  place  in 
the  West  Indies.  Captain  W.  T. 
Sampson  (acting  rear-admiral)  with 


Spanish-American  War 

which  was  making  her  way  round 
South  America  from  California. 
In  the  thought  that  perhaps  the 
Spanish  fleet  would  put  in  at 
San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  Captain 
Sampson  visited  that  port  with 
his  fleet,  and,  not  finding  Cervcra, 
bombarded  the  fortifications  and 
then  withdrew.  The  Spanish 
fleet  had  reached  Martinique  on 
the  preceding  day,  and  from 
thence,  with  the  exception  of  one 
of  the  destroyers,  went  to  Cura- 
sao, and  finally  toward  the  end  of 
May  entered  the  harbor  of  San- 
tiago de  Cuba  in  southern  Cuba, 
where  it  was  a  few  days  later 
blockaded  by  both  the  American 
fleets,  Sampson  assuming  com- 


Spanish  FortificaHon  at  El  Caney,  Cuba. 
(Copyright,  1901,  by  Detroit  Photographic  Co.) 


auxiliaries,  and  within  a  few 
hours  destroyed  the  forces  op- 
posed to  him  (see  Manila,  Bat- 
tle of).  The  city  of  Manila  was 
now  at  the  mercy  of  the  victor, 
but  as  he  did  not  have  the  troops 
to  occupy  the  place  he  contented 
himself  with  seizing  the  arsenal 
of  Cavite,  instituting  a  blockade, 
bringing  over  from  Hong  -  kong 
Emilio  Aguinaldo,  a  former  in- 
surgent chieftain,  to  start  a  new 
revolution,  and  waiting  for  re- 
inforcements. Aguinaldo  suc- 
ceeded in  his  attempt,  and  soon 
a  large  force  of  natives,  partly 
armed  with  weapons  from  the 
Cavite  arsenal,  was  besieging 
the  citv  from  the  land  side. 
Throughout  the  war  the  sym- 


the  North  Atlantic  Squadron 
blockaded  Havana  and  other  ports 
as  soon  as  the  war  began,  while 
Cornmodore  W.  S.  Schley  with  the 
'flying  squadron'  was  held  in 
reserve  at  Hampton  Roads.  At 
the  end  of  April  five  Spanish 
cruisers  and  three  torpedo-boat 
destroyers  under  Admiral  Cer- 
vera  sailed  westward  from  the 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  and  for  some 
weeks  the  destination  of  this 
fleet  remained  a  mystery.  Much 
unnecessary  nervousness  was  felt 
in  some  of  the  American  coast 
towns  that  the  Spaniards  medi- 
tated a  descent  upon  them,  and 
there  was  a  better  grounded  fear 
that  the  fleet  might  attempt  to 
intercept  the  battleship  Oregon, 


mand  on  June  1.  The  more  ef- 
fectively to  bottle  up  the  harbor 
and  prevent  any  of  the  Spanish 
vessels  from  escaping,  Lieut. 
Richmond  P.  Hobson  (q.v.)  and 
seven  men,  early  on  the  morning 
of  June  3,  attempted  to  sink  a 
steam  collier,  the  Merrimac,  in 
the  entrance  of  the  harbor;  but, 
though  the  attempt  was  made 
with  great  gallantry,  the  vessel 
drifted  too  far  into  the  harbor 
to  block  Cervera's  exit.  To  as- 
sist the  navy,  an  army  of  about 
15,000  men,  mostly  regulars, 
under  Major-General  Shafter, 
was  despatched  from  Key  West, 
and  on  June  22  landed  at  Daiquiri 
IG  miles  southeast  of  Santiago. 
On  the  24th  Gen.  Wheeler,  with  a 


« 


Spanish-American  War 


352 


Spanish  Fork 


force  of  regulars  and  a  regiment 
of  Rough  Riders  under  Col.  Wood 
and  Lieut. -Col.  Roosevelt,  struck 
the  advanced  posts  of  the  Span- 
iards, and  won  the  battle  of  Las 
Guasinias.  The  rest  of  the  army 
came  up  a  few  days  later,  and  on 
July  1  the  main  land  battle  of  the 
war  occurred.  Gens.  Lawton  and 
Chaffee  stormed  the  Spanish 
fortifications  at  EI  Caney,  while 
the  positions  about  San  Juan 
Hill  were  captured  on  the  same 
day  in  brilliant  assaults,  led  by 
Col.  Roosevelt  and  Gen,  Haw- 
kins. The  total  losses  of  the 
American  forces  were  241  killed 
and  about  1,300  wounded,  while 
those  of  the  Spaniards  were  prob- 
ably much  greater.  Although  his 
army  had  achieved  considerable 
success  throughout  the  campaign, 
Gen.  Shafter  now  thought  of  re- 
treating and  waiting  for  reinforce- 


expedition  under  Gen.  Nelson 
A.  Miles,  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  American  forceS)  was 
despatched  against  Porto  Rico. 
The  expedition  seized  Guanica 
and  Ponce  on  the  south  coast; 
defeated  the  enemy  in  several 
skirmishes  and  captured  several 
other  towns;  and  was  advancing 
on  San  Juan,  when,  on  Aug.  13, 
all  operations  were  brought  to  a 
standstill  by  the  news  that  a 
peace  protocol  had  been  signed 
on  the  previous  day. 

This  protocol,  which  was  the 
result  of  negotiations  conducted 
through  M.  Cambon,  the  French 
ambassador  at  Washington,  stip- 
ulated for  a  relinquishment  by 
Spain  of  all  claims  of  sovereignty 
over  Cuba,  the  cession  to  the 
United  States  of  Porto  Rico  and 
an  island  in  the  Ladrones  to  be 
selected  by  the  victor,  and  for  the 


by  the  Senate  on  Feb.  9,  1899, 
with  but  one  vote  to  spare;  ana 
was  signed  by  the  queen  regent 
on  March  17. 

Consult:  Lodge,  The  War  with 
Spain  (1899);  Spears,  Our  Navy 
in  the  War  wUh  Spain  (1898); 
Wheeler,  The  Santiago  Cam- 
paign (1898);  Wilson,  The  Down- 
fall of  Spain  (1900);  Bonsai,  The 
Fight  for  Santiago  (1899);  Davis, 
The  Cuban  and  Porto  Ricap- 
Campaigns  (1898);  Goode,  With 
Sampson  through  the  War  (1899); 
Mahan,  Lessons  of  the  War  with 
Spain  (1899):  and  Roosevelt, 
The  Rough  Riders  (1899). 

Spanish-American  War,  Na- 
val AND  Military  Order  of 
THE.  An  organization  founded 
in  1899  to  preserve  th'^  memories 
and  associations  of  the  war  with 
Spain.  Membership  is  open  to 
those  who  served  as  regular  or 


2t 

I 


ments,  but  he  was  dissuaded  by 
some  of  the  under  officers  from 
doing  so,  and  instead  a  siege  of 
Santiago  was  immediately  begun. 
Believing  that  surrender  was  in- 
evitable, Admiral  Cervera,  having 
received  peremptory  orders  from 
Sp'ain,  on  July  3  issued  from  the 
harbor,  and.  after  a  running 
fight,  all  of  nis  vessels  were  de- 
stroyed or  sunk  (see  Santiago, 
Battle  of-  Sampson,  W.  T,;  and 
Schley,  W.  S.).  The  Americans 
now  pressed  closer  their  invest- 
ment of  the  city,  which  was  also 
bombarded  by  the  fleet.  On 
July  10  Gen.  Toral,  the  Spanish 
commander,  signed  articles  of 
capitulation,  not  only  for  the 
troops  in  Santiago,  but  for  those 
in  the  vicinity,  numbering  in  all 
more  than  22,000  men.  The 
formal  surrender  of  Santiago  took 
place  on  July  17. 

Later  in  the  same  month  an 


Morro  Castle,  Havaiui,  Cuba. 
(Copyright,  1901,  by  Detroit  Photographic  Co.) 
occupation  by  the  United  States 
of  the  city  and  bay  of  Manila 
pending  the  conclusion  of  a  defini- 
tive treaty.  This  treaty  was  ne- 
gotiated at  Paris,  the  head  ot 
the  American  commission  being 
Judge  WilHam  R.  Day,  who  had 
just  resigned  the  position  of  sec- 
retary of  state.  The  American 
commissioners  demanded  the  ces- 
sion of  the  Philippines.  To  this 
the  Spaniards  objected  with 
great  vigor  and  many  arguments; 
but  the  islands  were  ultimately 
ceded  to  the  United  States,  which 
paid  $20,000,000  in  return,  and 
also  agreed  that  for  ten  years 
Spanish  ships  should  be  admitted 
into  the  islands  on  the  same 
terms  as  those  of  the  United 
States.  Persistent  efforts  were 
made  to  induce  the  Americans 
to  assume  the  Cuban  debt,  but 
without  success.  The  treaty  was 
signed  on  Dec.  10;  was  ratified 


volunteer  commissioned  officers 
or  as  naval  or  military  cadets, 
and  to  the  olde^  male  descend- 
ants of  original  members.  The 
headquarters  of  the  National 
Commandery  are  in  New  York. 
State  Commanderies  have  been 
established  in  New  York,  Massa- 
chusetts, Pennsylvania,  Illinois, 
Ohio,  Connecticut,  and  California. 
Spanish  Fly.    See  Canthar- 

IDES. 

Spanish  Fork,  chy,  Utah  cc, 
Utah,  45  m.  s.  by  E.  of  Salt  Lake 
City,  on  the  Rio  Grande  W.  and 
the  S.  Ped,,  Los  A.  and  Sah  L. 
R.  Rs.  It  is  an  agricultural,  trade, 
and  manufacturing  centre.  Sugar 
beets  are  extensively  raised  in  the 
district  and  copper,  gold,_  coal, 
and  iron  are  found.  An  irriga- 
tion project  by  the  government  is 
to  cost  $1,500,000.  It  was  set- 
tled about  1852  and  incorporated 
in  1857.    Pop.(1910)  3,464. 


Spanish  Legion 


353 


Sp  arrow-hawk 


Spanish  Legion.  See  Evans 
George  de  Lacy. 

Spanish  Main,  name  applied 
indiscriminately  to  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  and  to  the  Spanish 
possessions  washed  by  it  on  the 
coasts  of  Central  and  S.  America. 
The  latter  was  the  original  mean- 
ing. 

Spanish  Reformed  Church, 

originated  in  Mexico,  after  the 
establishment  of  the  Mexican 
republic,  from  a  Protestant  mis- 
sion introduced  by  Miss  Rankin 
in  1866.  The  converts  approached 
the  American  Episcopal  Church, 
and  Dr.  H.  C.  Riley  was  conse- 
crated first  bishop  of  the  Mexican 
Reformed  Church  (1879).  Since 
then  two  other  bishops  have  been 
consecrated.  The  movement  then 
spread  to  Spain.  Lord  Plunket, 
bishop  of  Meath,  and  afterward 
archbishop  of  Dublin,  appealed  in 
its  behalf  in  1881.  There  are  re- 
formed congregations  at  Seville 
and  Malaga.  The  reforming 
movement  has  also  reached  Por- 
tugal. A  liturgy  has  been  drawn 
up  from  the  English  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  and  from  an- 
cient Mozarabic  sources. 

Spanish  Town,  tn.,  Jamaica, 
W.  Indies,  12  m.  w.  of  Kingston; 
was  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
island.    Pop.  about  6,000. 

Spanish  War  Veterans, 
United.  An  organization  founded 
in  1904  by  the  consolidation  of 
the  Spanish  War  Veterans,  Span- 
ish-American War  Veterans,  and 
Service  Men  of  the  Spanish  War. 
Membership  is  open  to  regular 
and  volunteer  soldiers,  sailors, 
and  marines  who  served  during 
the  war  with  Spain  or  in  the 
Philippine  insurrection.  The  so- 
ciety is  a  social  organization,  in- 
tended to  keep  alive  the  history 
of  the  war.  It  holds  annual  meet- 
ings. The  headquarters  of  the 
National  Encampment  are  in 
Cleveland,  O. 

Spar,  a  term  popularly  applied 
to  crystallized  vitreous,  cleavable 
minerals,  and  in  some  instances 
adopted  by  the  mineralogist  to 
designate  some  of  the  most  abun- 
dant species,  such  as  calc-spar, 
fluor-spar.  Formerly  the  spars 
were  considered  a  group  by  them- 
selves. The  present  chemical 
basis  of  classification  makes  them 
of  very  different  relationships. 
•  Sparaxis,  a  genus  of  South 
African  bulbous  plants,  belonging 
to  the  order  Iridiceae.  They  bear 
large  flowers,  mostly  yellow,  and 
are  often  cultivated  as  green- 
house plants. 

Spark  Discharge.  See  Elec- 
tro-magnetic Waves. 

Sparlis,  Jared  (1789-1866), 
American  historian,  born  in 
Willington,  Conn.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1815;  fought  against 
the  British  in  Maryland  in  1813- 
and  during  1817-19  studiecl 
divinity    at   Harvard   and  was 


acting  editor  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Review.  In  the  latter  year 
he  became  pastor  of  a  Unitarian 
church  at  Baltimore;  was  ap- 
pointed chaplain  of  the  Federal 
House  of  Representatives  in  1821; 
and  in  1823  returned  to  Boston, 
bought  the  North  American 
Review,  and  edited  it  during  the 
years  1824-1831.  In  1825  he 
Degan  to  edit  the  writings  of 
George  Washington,  and  the 
result  was  published  in  twelve 
volumes  in  the  years  1834-38. 
The  first  volume,  which  contained 
a  life  of  Washington,  was  also 
pubHshed  separately  in  1839, 
and  an  abridged  edition  of  the 
whole  work  in  two  volumes  ap- 

E eared  in  1843.  In  1830  he 
egan  to  publish  the  American 
Almanac  and  Repository  of  Useful 
Knowledge;  during  1839-49  was 
professor  of  ancient  and  modern 
history  in  Harvard;  and  was 
president  of  the  institution  during 
1849-53.  Among  his  numerous 
other  publications  are:  Life  of 
John  Ledyard  (1828);  Diplomatic 
Correspondence  of  the  American 
Revolution  (12  vols.  1829-30); 
Life  of  Gouverneur  Morris  (3  vols. 
1832);  Correspondence  of  the 
American  Revolution  (4  vols. 
1853),  and  Works  of  Benjamin 
Franklin,  with  Notes  and  a  Life 
of  the  Author  (10  vols.  1836-40). 
He  was  also  the  editor  of  The 
Library  of  A  merican  Biography  (10 
vols.  1834-8),  containing  twenty- 
six  lives,  and  a  second  series  (15 
vols.  1844-7)  containing  thirty- 
four  lives.  As  a  pioneer  in  the 
field  of  American  history  Sparks 
is  entitled  to  great  credit,  and  his 
works  have  been  much  used;  but 
unfortunately  he  had  a  habit  of 
changing  the  wording  of  the 
documents  which  he  edited  and 
of  omitting  passages  without 
warning,  and  in  consequence 
his  compilations  have  now  been 
largely  superseded  by  more  trust- 
worthy works.  Consult  his  Life 
by  H.  B.  Adams  (2  vols.  1893). 

Sparling,  or  Speriing,  the 
Scottish  name  for  the  smelt. 

Sparrow  (Passer),  a  genus  of 
finches,  which  includes  F.  do- 
mesticus,  the  house  sparrow.  The 
members  of  the  genus  are  widely 
distributed  over  the  Old  WorM, 
and  may  be  recognized  by  the 
short,  stout  bill  and  the  short 
wings.  The  diet  of  the  house 
sparrow  is  very  varied,  but  al- 
though in  the  early  part  of  the 
year  the  bird  is  useful  in  that  it 
feeds  its  young  upon  insect  larvae, 
yet  the  fact  that  the  adults  are 
excessively  destructive  both  in 
gardens  and  to  the  crops  of  the 
farmer  more  than  counterbalances 
this  benefit.  The  sparrow  is  an 
active  and  pugnacious  bird,  and 
drives  away  useful  insect-eating 
forms,  such  as  the  house  martin. 
In  plumage  there  is  a  distinct  dif- 
ference between  the  sexes,  and 


some  variation  in  color  according 
to  the  season.  The  adult  male 
may  be  recognized  by  the  black 
throat.  Partial  albinos  arc  not  at 
all  infrequent.  The  nest  is  very 
roughly  constructed,  and  is  usually 
of  straw  or  grass;  but  the  birds  are 
also  partial  to  rags,  especially  if 
these  are  brightly  colored.  There 
is  always  a  thick  lining  of  feathers. 
Several  broods  are  reared  in  a 
season.  There  are  from  five  to 
six  eggs  in  a  clutch,  these  being 
bluish-white,  speckled  or  blotched 
with  brown  and  black.  The  com- 
mon sparrow  is  now  scattered 
throughout  nearly  the  whole  civil- 
ized world,  where  it  has  followed 
colonists.  It  was  introduced  into 
the  United  States  about  1850,  and 
has  now  spread  all  over  the 
country,  and  is  everywhere  a 
lively  denizen  of  towns  and  vil- 
lages, in  the  latter  doing  some 
damage  to  fruit  buds,  and  making 
war  on  the  small  native  birds, 
especially  the  swallows,  which  it 
has  driven  from  barns  formerly 
thronged  with  these  pleasanter 
visitors.  Hence  the  bird  is  usually 
regarded  as  a  great  nuisance. 

The  native  sparrows  of  North 
America  are  many,  and  all  wear 
the  characteristic  brown-streaked 
plumage  of  the  group.  Among 
the  best  known  are  the  small 
chestnut-capped  chipping  spar- 
row of  gardens;  the  song-sparrow, 
whose  song  is  among  the  finest 
heard  in  American  fields;  the 
little  active  seashore  sparrows;  the 
white-throat  and  the  large,  hand- 
some fox  sparrow.   See  Finch. 

Sparrow  -  hawlc  [A  cc  ipiter 
nisus),  a  small  but  bold  and  rapa- 


Sparrow-hawk. 


cious  hawk,  which  inhabits  wood- 
ed districts  throughout  the  Tem- 
perate Zone.  It  is  very  variable  in 
size  and  color,  but  is  about  thir- 
teen inches  long  in  the  male,  the 
female  exceeding  this  measure- 
ment by  nearly  two  and  a  half 
inches.  In  the  adult  male  the 
plumage  of  the  upper  parts  is 
dark  bluish-gray;  the  under  sur- 
face, cheeks,  and  chin  are  rufous, 
barred  with  brown;  the  tail  has 
from  three  to  five  dark  bands. 
It  feeds  upon  the  smaller  mam- 
mals and  on  birds,  and  frequently 
captures  young  poultry.  The  bird 


Sparta 


"  354 


Sparta 


usually  builds  its  own  nest,  which 
is  placed  in  a  tree.  In  Europe 
the  sparrow  -  hawk  was  formerly 
employed  extensively  in  hawk- 
ing, and  the  sport  is  still  pur- 
sued in  Hungary.  In  India  and 
Japan  it  is  also  prized  by  fal- 
coners. There  are  in  all  about 
twenty  species  of  sparrow-hawk. 

Sparta,  the  chief  city  of  La- 
conia,  in  the  Peloponnesus  of 
Greece.  It  was  also  called  La- 
cedaemon,  which  was  the  original 
name  of  the  country.  Sparta 
stood  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Eurotas,  on  some  low  hills  run- 


one  royal  house  was  Dorian,  the 
other  Achaean  or  pre-Acha;an, 
though  later  legends  traced  both 
dynasties  back  to  Heracles.  Be- 
sides the  SpartiatcT,  or  Spartan 
citizens  proper,  there  were  two 
other  classes  in  the  state — the 
Helots  and  the  Perioeci.  The 
former  were  the  descendants  of 
the  conquered  population;  the 
latter  either  Dorians  dwelling  in 
other  communities  than  Sparta  it- 
self, or  non-Dorians  who  had  made 
terms  with  the  invaders  without 
being  conquered.  Thev  had  no 
political    rights    in    the  state, 


secret  police  was  kept  up  to 
watch  tnem,  and  to  remove  per- 
sons of  dangerous  ability.  About 
424  B.C.  the  government  issued  a 
proclamation  asking  all  Helots 
who  claimed  to  have  done  good 
service  in  the  war  to  give  in  their 
names.  About  two  thousand  did 
so,  and  were  crowned  and  treated 
with  honor,  and  shortly  after- 
ward all  were  done  to  death  in 
secrecy.  Again,  in  403  a  rising 
of  the  Helots  was  with  difficulty 
put  down.  The  establishment  of 
the  Spartan  constitution  was  at- 
tributed to  Lycurgus,  but  modern 
critics  regard  his  existence  as 
legendary.  In  any  case  the  con- 
stitution was  the  result  of  a  com- 
promise. The  two  kings  were 
perpetual  commanders-in-chief  of 
the  army;  they  had  the  right  of 
making  war  as  they  chose,  but 
were  accompanied  by  two  ephors 
on  their  campaigns,  and  were  re- 
sponsible to  the  people  for  their 
conduct.  They  also  held  certain 
priesthoods  and  judicial  func- 
tions, possessed  royal  domains 
and  a  variety  of  personal  privi- 
leges. The  oligarchic  element  in 
the  state  was  the  council  of  elders, 
consisting  of  twenty-eight  men 
over  sixty  years  of  age,  with  the 
two  kings.  They  were  chosen  by 
acclamation  in  the  assembly. 
This,  the  democratic  element  in 
the  state,  consisted  of  all  free 
citizens  over  thirty  years  of  age. 
The  ephors,  the  most  character- 
istic and  powerful  element  in  the 
state,  were  elected  by  the  people, 
and  were  five  in  number.  They 
could  indict  and  judge  the  kings, 
and  were  the  supreme  civil  court 
at  Sparta;  the  council  of  elders 
was  the  supreme  criminal  court. 
The  ephors  were. also  responsible 
for  the  maintenance  of  order  and 
discipline.  This  discipline  was 
practically  a  perpetual  military 
training.  No  deformed  child  was 
reared;  from  the  age  of  seven 
every  boy  was  taken  away  from 
his  mother's  side  and  trained  to 
war  and  hardship.  He  wore  the 
same  scanty  clothing  summer  and 
winter,  slept  on  the  bare  ground, 
and  was  exercised  in  hunting, 
gymnastics,  and  the  use  of 
weapons.  At  twenty  the  youths 
joined  the  army,  and  were  en- 
rolled in  the  military  messes  or 
syssitia.  Even  when  allowed  to 
marry,  a  Spartan  could  only  live 
with  his  wife  by  stealth.  The 
Spartan  women,  too,  were  trained 
to  gymnastics;  they  were  re- 
nowned for  their  beauty  and  their 
heroism,  and  also  for  their  in- 
fluence over  the  men.  Wealth  in 
Sparta  consisted  chiefly  in  land. 
The  use  and  possession  of  money 
was  forbidden;  instead  of  coin, 
bars  of  iron  were  used  until  320 
B.C.,  though  long  previous  to  that 
silver  coin  was  in  circulation. 
Such  a  state  of  society  pre- 
vented   any   growth   of  litera- 


Ancient  Sparta. 


ning  down  from  Mt.  Taygetus. 
It  was,  in  fact,  an  aggregation  of 
five  villages.  In  the  Mycenaean 
age  Amyclae  was  the  chief  town 
in  the  district.  In  Homer,  Mene- 
laus  is  king  of  Sparta;  this  fact 
implies  that  Achaean  conquerors 
superseded  the  native  rulers. 
Soon  after  the  Trojan  War,  prob- 
ably about  1100  B.C.,  the  Dorian 
invasion  took  place,  and  it  was 
in  Sparta  that  the  Dorian  char- 
acter and  institutions  were  dis- 
played to  the  fullest  extent.  The 
most  obvious  explanation  of  the 
double  kingship  at  Sparta  is  that 


though  they  were  free,  and  man- 
aged their  own  local  affairs;  they 
also  served  in  the  Spartan  armies. 
The  Helots  were  serfs  of  ^  the 
people,  not  of  individuals,  and 
were  attached  to  the  soil;  they 
cultivated  the  land  of  Spartan 
owners,  paying  them  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  produce.  They 
served  in  the  army  as  light  troops, 
attendants  of  the  Spartans,  and 
sometimes  as  regular  infantry. 
But  they  were  always  regarded 
with  suspicion  by  the  Spartan 
government,  as  they  v^ere  more 
numerous  than  the  citizens;  a 


Sparta 


355 


Spasm 


ture  or  art;  though  in  the  eighth 
and  seventh  centuries  B.C.,  before 
the  system  was  crystallized  into 
its  later  rigidity,  Spartan  poets 
and  musicians  were  famous,  and 
the  names  of  Spartan  artists  are 
known.  But  after  600  B.C.  Spar- 
ta's one  trade  was  war;  all  alien 
influences  were  discouraged,  and 
the  wit  of  Sparta  found  its  only 
expression  in  the  many  'laconic' 
sayings  quoted  by  ancient  writers. 

Sparta,  in  two  great  wars  dated 
traditionally  about  725  and  625 
B.C.,  conquered  Messenia,  ex- 
pelled its  kings,  and  made  the 
Messenians  Helots.  In  the  sixth 
century  she  overpowered  Argos, 
though  without  destroying  that 
city's  independence,  and  became 
the  head  of  a  league  which  in- 
cluded nearly  all  the  states  in 
the  Peloponnesus,  and  many, 
such  as  Athens,  outside.  Accord- 
ingly, Sparta  headed  Greece 
against  the  Persian  invasions 
(480  B.C.);  but  her  conduct  sub- 
sequently disgusted  many  Greeks, 
and  the  Athenian  confederacy 
was  established  as  a  rival  to  that 
of  Sparta.  The  Peloponnesian 
War  (431-404  B.C.)  restored  the 
supremacy  in  Greece  to  Sparta; 
but  again  her  domineering  treat- 
ment of  her  allies  caused  her  to 
lose  her  power,  and  in  371  the 
Theban  victory  at  Leuctra  re- 
duced her  to  a  secondary  position 
in  Greece.  In  369  B.C.  the  The- 
bans  restored  liberty  to  Messenia. 
Sparta  was  captured  by  the 
Macedonians  in  221  B.C.  It  then 
joined  the  Achaean  League,  was 
ruled  by  the  tyrants,  Nabis  and 
others,  and  in  146  was  conquered 
by  Rome. 

The  new  town  of  Sparta,  which 
was  founded  in  1834  after  the 
restoration  of  Greek  independ- 
ence, is  a  regularly  built  place, 
with  broad  streets  and  gardens, 
and  a  population  of  4,000. 

Spar'ta,  city,  Illinois,  Ran- 
dolph county,  on  the  Mobile  and 
Ohio  and  the  Missouri  Illinois 
Railroads;  56  miles  southeast  of 
St.  Louis.  The  leading  industries 
are  coal  mining,  railroad  repair 
shops,  and  the  manufacture  of 
ploughs  and  harrows,  ice,  flour, 
and  planing-mill  products.  Pop. 
(1910)  3,081;  (1920)  3,340. 

Sparta,  city,  Wisconsin,  county 
seat  of  Monroe  county,  on  the 
La  Crosse  River,  and  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul 
and  the  Chicago  and  North 
Western  Railroads;  24  miles 
northeast  of  La  Crosse.  The 
more  important  institutions  in- 
clude a  State  school  for  depen- 
dent children,  and  a  public 
library.  The  city  is  a  shipping 
point  for  small  fruits,  tobacco, 
and  live-stock.  Pop.  (1910) 
3,973;  (1920)  4,466. 

Spar'tacides,  Spartacans,  or 
Spartacists,  the  name  assumed 
by  the  'Spartacus  group'  of  Inde- 
pendent Socialists  in  Germany 


who,  after  the  signing  of  the 
Armistice  of  1918  (see  Armis- 
tice) attempted,  in  Berlin  and 
elsewhere,  to  overthrow  the  tem- 
porary German  government  and 
to  substitute  therefor  a  reign  of 
the  proletariat  akin  to  Bolshe- 
vism (q.  v.).  The  most  credible 
interpretation  of  the  name  ex- 
cludes its  association  with  that  of 
Spartacus  (q.  v.),  the  Thracian 
gladiator,  and  points  to  its  em- 
ployment by  Dr.  Karl  Liebnecht 
as  a  pseudonym  signed  to  his 
anti-war  pamphlets  early  in  the 
war — revolutionary  writers  in 
Germany  having  frequently  af- 
fected the  classical.  Liebnecht 
appeared  as  the  leader  of  the 
Spartacan  movement  soon  after 
his  liberation  from  prison,  in  the 
first  week  of  November,  1918, 
under  the  amnesty  decree  of  the 
Imperial  Chancellor,  Prince  Max- 
imilian. Formerly  a  member  of 
the  Reichstag  for  Potsdam,  and 
all  his  life  a  bitter  opponent  of 
German  militarism,  he  had,  in 
August,  1916,  been  convicted  of 
'war-treason'  and  sentenced  to 
penal  servitude.  Emerging  from 
prison  his  overtures  to  the  dele- 
gates of  the  Soldiers'  and  Work- 
ers' Council,  then  controlling 
Berlin,  were  rejected,  whereupon 
he  associated  himself  with  the 
anarchist,  Rosa  Luxemburg,  a 
Russian-Polish  Jewess  who  had 
married  a  Dresden  physician 
(leaving  him  next  day)  merely  to 
acquire  German  citizenship.  A 
Spartacan  manifesto  issued  in 
Berlin,  Nov.  26,  1918,  called  upon 
the  proletarians  of  all  nations  to 
unite  against  the  common  enemy, 
capital,  and  outbreaks  followed  in 
Berlin  and  other  German  cities. 
On  Jan.  7  civil  war  raged  in  the 
capital;  on  Jan.  11  the  Ebert 
Government  had  managed  to 
gain  the  ascendancy.  Meanwhile 
came  reports  of  disorders  in  the 
Rhine  towns;  of  rioting  in  Dres- 
den, Hamburg,  Augsburg,  and 
Dusseldorf.  On  Jan.  14  the  ar- 
rest of  Dr.  Liebnecht  was  or- 
dered; while  in  custody  of  the 
soldiers  he  attempted  to  escape, 
and  was  shot  and  killed.  Almost 
at  the  same  time,  Rosa  Luxem- 
burg was  seized  by  a  mob  and 
lynched.  But  Spartacan  activi- 
ties did  not  cease.  In  Bremen, 
Wilhelmshaven,  and  Munich  re- 
volts were  suppressed  with  diffi- 
culty. The  general  elections  late 
in  January  1919  proved  a  victory 
for  orderly  Government,  but  dis- 
orders continued  through  Febru- 
ary and  March,  after  which  the 
movement  died  out. 

Spar'tacus,  Roman  gladiator, 
was  by  birth  a  Thracian.  After 
being  by  turns  a  shepherd,  a  sol- 
dier, and  a  brigand  chief,  he  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Romans, 
and  sold  to  a  trainer  of  gladiators. 
In  73  B.C.  he  and  two  Gaulish 
fellow  prisoners  broke  loose  with 
about   seventy   comrades,  and 


took  refuge  in  the  crater  of  Vesu- 
vius. Spartacus  then  proclaimed 
freedom  to  slaves;  and  for  two 
years  he  defeated  all  the  armies 
sent  against  him,  finally  having 
100,000  men  under  his  command, 
and  holding  all  Lucania  and 
Bruttium.  He  was  defeated  and 
slain  by  Crassus  in  71  B.C. 

Spar'tanburg,  city.  South  Car- 
olina, county  seat  of  Spartanburg 
county,  on  the  Charleston  and 
Western  Carolina,  the  Southern, 
and  the  Carolina,  Clinchfield  and 
Ohio  Railroads,  93  miles  north- 
west of  Columbia.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Wofford  College  (men)  and 
Converse  College  (women),  the 
Kennedy  Free  Library,  and  a 
State  institution  for  the  deaf  and 
blind.  According  to  the  Federal 
Census  for  1919,  industrial  estab- 
lishments number  61,  with  $9,- 
588,547  capital,  and  products 
valued  at  $11,991,321.  Cotton 
mills  alone  number  33,  and  em- 
ploy 10,000  persons.  A  $5,000,- 
000  bleachery  and  finishing  plant, 
iron  works,  fertilizer  and  lumber 
mills,  and  cotton-seed  products 
plants  are  the  chief  industrial 
establishments.  The  city  has  the 
commission  form  of  government. 
A  large  army  training  camp  was 
established  here  in  1917.  Pop. 
(1900)  11,395;  (1910)  17,517; 
(1920)  22,638. 

Spasm,  a  violent  and  involun- 
tary contraction  of  a  muscle,  or 
a  group  of  muscles,  or  of  a  mus- 
cular organ.  The  contraction 
may  be  either  continuous — i.e. 
'tonic' — or  contraction  and  re- 
laxation alternating  in  quick, 
jerky  succession  may  produce  the 
form  of  spasm  known  as  'clonic' 
Cramp  is  tonic  in  character,  while 
convulsions  are  typical  of  clonic 
contraction.  Spasm  is  essential- 
ly a  nervous  disorder,  and  has  its 
centre  in  the  medulla  oblongata. 
This  centre  is  stimulated  by  the 
sudden  interruption  of  the  nor- 
mal gaseous  interchange  between 
the  blood  and  the  tissues;  also  by 
the  rapid  destruction  of  the  me- 
dulla. It  is  further  acted  upon 
by  certain  drugs;  many  poisons, 
both  inorganic  and  organic,  pro- 
ducing spasms  and  convulsions 
before  death.  Injury  and  elec- 
trical stimulation  of  the  motor 
areas  of  the  cortex  cerebri  have 
both  been  followed  not  only  by 
localized  but  by  general  convul- 
sions. Uraemia  frequently  pro- 
duces general  convulsions. 

A  very  large  group  of  neuroses, 
or  functional  disorders  of  the 
nervous  system,  are  classified  as 
spasmodic.  Spasm  is  the  chief 
symptom  in  cramp,  histrionic 
spasm,  wry-neck,  writer's  cramp, 
tetany,  chorea,  tarantism,  hydro- 
phobia, tetanus,  paralysis  agi- 
tans,  epilepsy,  strychnine  poison- 
ing, and  many  forms  of  hysteria. 
To  these  may  be  added  asthma, 
hay  fever,  Raynaud's  disease, 
laryngismus  stridulus,  whooping 
Vol.  XL— March  '24 


Spathe 


356 


Species 


cough,  renal,  biliary,  and  intes- 
tinal colic,  vesical  and  rectal 
spasm,  and  those  cases  of  angina 
pectoris  that  are  due  to  spas- 
modic contraction  of  the  coronary 
arteries  of  the  heart.  As  a  rule, 
rest  and  warmth  are  indicated, 
with  local  and  general  nerve  seda- 
tives, although  in  a  large  num- 
ber of  spasmodic  affections  coun- 
ter-irritation and  stimulation  are 
essential. 

Spathe,  spath,  in  botany,  a 
large  bract  which  occurs  on  the 
peduncle  below  an  inflorescence. 
A  fleshy  spike  "of  flowers  cov- 
ered by  a  spathe  is  termed  a 
spadix.  In  palms  the  spathe  usu- 
ally takes  the  form  of  a  broad 
blade. 

Spathic  Iron  Ore,  another 
name  for  Siderite  (q.  v.). 

Spavin.  See  Horse. 

S.  P.  C.  A.  See  Cruelty  to 
Animals. 

S.  P.  C.  C.  See  Cruelty  to 
Children, 

Speaker,  The,  the  presiding 
officer  in  various  legislative  bodies 
of  English-speaking  countries,  in- 
cluding the  House  of  Representa- 
tives at  Washington,  the  British 
Houses  of  Parliament,  the  lower 
houses  of  the  State  legislatures  of 
the  United  States,  the  Australian 
House  of  Representatives,  the 
houses  of  the  Federal  Parliament 
of  Canada,  and  of  the  provincial 
or  state  legislatures  in  these  and 
other  self-governing  British  col- 
onies. There  is  a  fundamental 
difference  between  the  functions 
of  the  speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  at  Washington 
and  the  speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons  in  London.  The  for- 
mer not  only  presides  over  the 
deliberations  of  the  House,  but 
is  the  chief  of  his  party  therein, 
and  advances  the  party  interests 
according  to  his  power  and  op- 
portunities. He  appoints  the 
committees,  and  has  the  right  to 
vote  and  debate.  The  British 
speaker  presides  over  and  en- 
forces the  rules  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  but  his  office  is  non- 
political.  He  cannot  debate,  and 
has  only  a  casting  vote  when  the 
votes  on  opposite  sides  of  a  ques- 
tion are  equal. 

Spealcing  Trumpet,  an  instru- 
ment for  artificially  magnifying 
the  sound  of  the  human  voice, 
formerly  much  used  at  sea,  but 
now  somewhat  superseded  by  the 
use  of  the  megaphone  or  by  the 
semaphore,  steam,  and  other 
methods  of  signalling,  though  still 
of  great  service  in  giving  orders 
in  a  storm.  In  the  United  States 
navy  it  is  the  recognized  badge 
of  the  officer  of  the  deck  when  at 
sea.  The  invention  ascribed  to 
Sir  Samuel  Morland  (1670),  has 
been  also  assigned  to  Athanasius 
Kircher. 

Spear,  a  weapon  of  offense, 
consisting  of  a  wooden  shaft  or 
pole  varying  in  length  up  to  8  or 

Vol.  XL— March  "24 


9  feet,  and  provided  with  a  sharp 
piercing  point.  The  spear  may 
be  regarded  as  the  prototype  of 
the  various  forms  of  piercing 
weapons,  such  as  the  arrow,  bolt, 
and  dart,  which 
are  projected 
from  bows, 
catapults,  or 
other  engines, 
and  the  javelin, 
assegai,  and 
lance,  held  in 
or  thrown  by 
the  hand.  The 
longer  and 
heavier  spears 
and  lances  are 
mainly  retained 
in  the  hand 
while  in  use, 
but  there  is  no 
absolute  dis- 
tinction, and 
the  throwing  of 
a  spear  has  in 
all  ages  been  a 
form  of  offen- 
sive warfare. 
In  its  earliest 
form  the  spear 
would  natural- 
ly consist  of  a 
simple  pole  of 
tough  wood 
sharpened  to  a 
point  at  one  ex- 
tremity, which 
point  might  be 
both  formed 
and  hardened 
by  charring  in 
fire.  From  this 
an  improve- 
ment would 
consist  in  fitting 
to  the  shaft  a 
separate  spear 
head  of  bone,  as 
is  still  practised 
amongst  primi- 
tive races.  No  trace  of  these  early 
spears  remains  to  us,  but  of  the 
more  developed  forms  having 
heads  of  chipped  flint  or  other 
hard  stones  examples  are  plentiful. 

The  bronze  spear  heads  found 
in  Northern  Europe  were  cast 
with  sockets,  into  which  the  end 
of  the  shaft  was  inserted,  but  on 
the  eastern  Mediterranean  coasts 
tanged  spear-heads  were  used. 
The  war  lance  of  the  mediaeval 
knights  was  16  feet  long.  The 
modern  spears  of  savage  tribes, 
used  equally  for  hunting  and  for 
warlike  purposes,  are  frequently 
barbed  with  fish  and  other  bones, 
and  their  fighting  spears  have 
sometimes  poisoned  tips. 

Spearmint.  See  Mint. 

Spear'wort,  a  name  given  to 
certain  species  of  the  genus  Ra- 
nunculus on  account  of  their  nar- 
row, tapering  leaves.  The  creep- 
ing R.  pusillus  and  R.  reptans  are 
among  our  spearworts. 

Special  Sessions,  in  England, 
a  court  formed  by  two  or  more 
justices  of  the  peace  sitting  to- 


gether for  the  trial  of  important 
cases  within  their  jurisdiction, 
in  New  York,  a  criminal  court, 
consisting  of  three  judges  sitting 
together,  without  a  jury,  for  the 


Various  Forms  of  Spears 
1-5.  Prehistoric   Irish    (bronze.)     6,   7.  Prehistoric  British. 
8.  Anglo-Saxon   (iron).    9.  Japanese.    10,   11.  Mediaeval  types. 
12.  German  boar  spear  (16th  century).    13,  14.  West  African. 
15.  Philippine.    16.  Bantu. 

trial  of  misdemeanors  and  petty 
criminal  cases. 

Specialty  Debt.  By  the  com- 
mon law,  a  debt  secured  by  deed 
— i.e.  by  writing  under  seal — as 
distinguished  from  a  simple  con- 
tract debt,  or  from  a  debt  of 
record,  such  as  a  judgment  or 
recognizance.  In  most  jurisdic- 
tions actions  to  recover  specialty 
debts  may  be  brought  at  any 
time  within  twenty  years,  where- 
as in  the  case  of  simple  contract 
debts  the  period  of  limitation  is 
six  years.  See  Seal. 

Specie,  spe'shi,  metallic  cur- 
rency, as  against  paper  money 
(bank  notes,  etc.)  ,  which  is  ordin- 
arily redeemable  in  specie.  Banks 
have  sometimes  suspended  specie 
payments  in  time  of  financial 
panic. 

Spe'cies,  one  of  the  grades  in 
biological  classification — a  group 
of  individuals,  fertile  inter  se,  and 
resembling  one  another  in  certain 
distinctive  hereditary  characters 
which  mark  them  off  from  other 
groups     Three  criteria  of  well- 


gpecies 

established  species  are: — (1.)  The 
distinctive  specific  characters 
which  the  members  share  should 
show  some  degree  of  constancy 
from  generation  to  generation, 
and  they  should  not  be  similar- 
ities directly  acquired  in  each 
individual  lifetime  through  the 
influence  of  similar  conditions  of 
life.  (2.)  The  distinctions  be- 
tween one  species  and  another 
should  always  be  of  greater  mag- 
nitude than  the  distinctive  fea- 
tures which  may  characterize  the 
members  of  a  family  (using  the 
word  family  here  to  mean  the 

Erogeny  of  a  pair).  (3.)  The  mem- 
ers  of  a  species  are  normally 
fertile  inter  se,  but  not  usually 
or  not  readily,  with  members  of 
other  species.  In  fact,  the  evolu- 
tion of  distinct  species  has  in  part 
depended  on  a  restriction  of  the 
range  of  fertile  intercrossing.  A 
species  often  means,  however, 
nothing  more  than  a  group  of 
individuals  whose  common  and 
distinctive  features  seem  to  natu- 
ralists important  enough  to  war- 
rant the  use  of  a  special  name. 
It  should  be  clearly  understood 
that  a  species  is  a  relative  concep- 
tion— a.  device  for  scientific  con- 
venience when  we  wish  to  include 
under  one  title  all  the  members 
of  a  group  of  individuals  who 
resemble  one  another  in  certain 
distinctive  hereditary  characters. 
But  as  resemblances  which  seem 
important  to  one  naturalist  may 
seem  trivial  to  others,  there  are 
often  wide  differences  of  opinion 
as  to  how  many  species  should 
be  recognized  in  any  particular 
case.  Thus  Haeckel  says  of  cal- 
careous sponges  that,  as  the 
naturalist  hkes  to  look  at  the 
problem,  there  are  3  species,  or 
21,  or  289,  or  591! 

When  we  study  a  large  number 
of  more  or  less  similar  organ- 
isms, we  find  that  they  can  be  ar- 
ranged in  groups.  In  each  group 
there  is,  so  to  speak,  a  densely 
packed  centre  of  closely  similar 
individuals,  and  a  more  sparsely 
peopled  periphery  of  more  diver- 
gent forms.  This  big  fact  of  ob- 
servation may  be  expressed  with 
precision  by  measuring  particular 
characters  throughout  a  large 
number  of  similar  individuals, 
and  plotting  out  a  curve,  known 
as  the  curve  of  frequency.  It 
will  then  be  seen  that  the  great 
majority  of  the  individuals  meas- 
ured occupy  an  area  near  the  top 
of  the  curve,  and  that  there  are 
only  a  few  at  the  two  basal  ends. 
Whether  we  call  one  of  these 
groups  a  variety,  a  subspecies,  a 
species,  or  a  genus,  matters  little. 
These  groups  represent  stages  in 
an  evolutionary  process:  they  are 
never  quite  constant,  and  often 
fade  into  one  another,  being 
linked  by  the  divergent  outliers 
or  variants  of  each  group. 

It  remains  to  give  an  illustra- 
VOL.  XI.— 24. 


357 

tion  of  the  different  grades  of 
classification.  All  the  tigers  are 
said  to  form  the  species  Felis 
Tigris,  of  the  genus  Felis,  in  the 
family  Fclidoe,  in  the  order  Car- 
nivora,  within  the  class  Mam- 
malia, in  the  series  or  phylum 
Vertebrata.  The  resemolances 
of  all  tigers  are  very  close;  well 
marked,  though  not  so  close,  are 
the  resemblances^  between  tigers, 
lions,  leopards,  jaguars,  pumas, 
cats,  etc.,  which  form  the  genus 
Felis;  broader  still  are  the  re- 
semblances between  all  members 
of  the  cat  family  Felidee,  which 
includes,  besides  the  genus  Felis, 
the  cheetah  {CyncElurus),  the 
extinct  'sabre  -  toothed  tiger' 
{Mach'xrodus),  etc.;  still  wider . 
the  likenesses  between  all  the 
cats,  dogs,  bears,  and  seals  which 
form  the  order  Carnivora;  even 
more  general  are  the  affinities  of 
structure  which  bind  mammals 
together  in  contrast  to  birds  or 
reptiles;  and,  finally,  there  are 
the  common  characters  of  all 
vertebrate  or  chordate  animals. 
A  list  of  about  a  score  of  defini- 
tions of  'species'  will  be  fcund 
in  Quatrefages's  Darwin  et  ses 
Precurseurs  frangais  (1870). 
Romanes  in  his  Darwin  and  after 
Darwin  (vol.  ii.  1895)  reduced 
the  number  of  logically  possible 
definitions  to  five. 

Specification.    See  Patents. 

Specific  Gravity,  or  Relative 
Density,  is  the  comparison  of 
the  heaviness  of  a  substance  with 
that  of  a  standard  substance,  and 
may  thus  be  defined  as  the  num- 
ber of  times  the  weight  of  a  cer- 
tain volume  of  the  substance 
contains  the  weight  of  the  same 
volume  of  the  standard.  In  the 
case  of  solids  and  liquids,  water 
at  the  point  of  its  maximum 
density — i.e.  at  4'^  c. — is  usually 
taken  as  the  standard;  while  in 
the  case  of  gases,  air,  or,  better, 
hydrogen,  measured  under  the 
same  conditions  of  temperature 
and  pressure  as  the  gas  m  ques- 
tion, is  employed.  As  the  result 
in  either  case  is  a  ratio,  the 
specific  gravity  is  independent 
of  the  actual  volume,  weights  or 
system  of  weights  and  measures 
used,  and  is  numerically  equal 
to  the  absolute  density,  or  weight 
of  unit  volume,  if  the  unit  of 
volume  of  the  standard  substance 
is  of  unit  weight,  as  in  the  metric 
system  is  the  case  with  water. 

Methods  of  Determination.  — 
For  solids  and  liquids  two  general 
principles  are  relied  on  to  deter- 
mine specific  gravities — viz.:  (1) 
by  weighing  measured  volumes; 
(2)  by  measuring  buoyancy.  In 
the  case  of  liquids  the  measure- 
ment of  their  hydrostatic  pres- 
sure can  also  be  utilized.  The 
methods  employed  for  gases  are 
in  general  similar  in  principle, 
and  are  described  in  the  article 
on  gas  and  vapor  density.  In 


Specific  Gravity 

the  weighing  method  a  suitable 
vessel  to  contain  a  measured 
quantity  of  the  substance  is 
weighed,  filled  to  the  mark  with 
the  substance,  if  a  liquid,  and 
weighed  again.  The  process  is 
then  repeated  with  water,  and 
the  weight  of  the  substance  is 
divided  by  the  weight  of  the 
equal  volume  of  the  water.  Due 
regard  has  to  be  taken  of  the 
temperature,  the  substance  being 


Specific  Gravity  Bottle. 

A,  Mark  to  which  stopper  is  pushed 
down. 

either  measured  at  the  required 
temperature  or  the  volume  cor- 
rected by  calculation  from  the 
coefficient  of  expansion.  In  using 
this  method  for  solids,  the  diffi- 
culty that  they  cannot  be  made 
to  fit  exactly  into  the  vessel  is 
got  over  by  filling  up  the  inter- 
stices with  water,  the  weight  of 
which  is  subtracted  from  the 
weight  of  water  filling  the  whole 
vessel  in  order  to  get  the  weight 
of  water  equal  in  volume  to  the 
substance.  The  vessels  used  in 
the  above  methods  are  called 
pyknometers  or  specific  gravity 
bottles,    and    consist  essentially 


Sprengel's  Pyknometer. 

of  a  bottle  with  a  very  narrow 
neck  or  perforated  stopper,  so 
that  the  Dottle  can  be  nlled  ex- 
actly with  the  same  quantity  ot 
liquid  each  time.  The  difficulty 
of  filling  is  got  over  by  the  plan 
suggested  by  Sprengel  of  using 
a  U-tube  with  very  narrow  tubes 
sealed  to  each  limb  into  which 
the  liquid  can  be  readily  sucked. 
In  the  case  of  solids  a  wider 
aperture  must  be  provided, 
so  that  the  solid  can  be  inserteq 


Specific  Gravity 

in  small  pieces;  this  opening 
is  afterwams  closed  by  a  stopper, 
and  the  bottle  or  tube  filled  up 
with  water  as  described.  With 
solids  that  are  affected  by  water, 
liquids  such  as  petroleum  or 
benzine  may  be  used,  or  the 
volume  may  be  determined  by 
the  volumenometer,  which  also 
allows  for  pores  in  the  substance 
not  readily  filled  hj  liquids. 
This  instrument  consists  of  an 
air-tight  vessel  to  enclose  the 
solid,  connected  by  a  tube  to  a 
mercury  reservoir,  so  that  the 
pressure  on  the  contained  gas 
can  be  varied.  The  increase  in 
volume  caused  by  a  given  dim- 
inution of  pressure  from  P  to  pi 
is  read  when  the  vessel  is  empty; 
when  in  accordance  with  Boyle's 
law  the  volume,  v,  of  air  in  the 
vessel  is  found  from  the  equation, 

VP  =  (vi  4-  v)pi,  whence  v  =— — j. 

Repeating  with  the  solid  in  posi- 
tion, a  second  and  smaller  value 
for  v  will  be  found,  the  difference 
giving  the  volume  of  the  solid, 
so  that  if  its  weight  is  known  the 
specific  gravity  can  be  calculated. 

The  buoyancy  methods,  which 
are  very  varied  in  detail,  depend 
upon  the  principle  discovered  by 
Archimedes,  that  a  body  im- 
mersed in  a  liquid  is  buoj^ed  up 
by  a  force  equal  to  the  weight  of 
liquid  it  displaces.  Thus,  if  an 
object  is  weighed  first  in  air,  and 
then,  when  suspended  by  a  thread, 
in  water,  it  weighs  less  the  second 
time  by  an  amount  equal  to  the 
weight  of  water  equal  in  volume 
to  itself.  This  weight,  divided  as 
before  into  the  weight  of  the  ob- 
ject, gives  the  specific  gravity.  In 
applying  this  method  to  liquids, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  find  the 
loss  of  weight  of  an  object  both 
in  the  liquid  and  in  water  to  ob- 
tain the  necessary  weights  of 
equal  volumes  of  the  two.  Hy- 
drometers, Mohr's  specific  gravity 
balance,  and  the  use  of  'heavy 
liquids'  also  depend  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  buoyancy.  Hydrometers 
are  of  two  kinds — viz.  of  fixed 
and  variable  immersion.  Nichol- 
son's hydrometer  is  an  example 
of  the  first  kind,  and  consists  of 
a  hollow  brass  cylinder  with 
conical  ends,  provided  with  a 
weighted  basket  at  the  lower  end 
to  make  it  float  upright,  and  a 
pan  supported  on  a  thin  vertical 
wire  at  the  upper  end.  The  in- 
strument is  adjusted  by  weights 
on  the  pan  so  as  always  to  be 
immersed  to  a  fixed  point  on  the 
wire.  If  the  weights  required  to 
produce  this  when  immersed  in 
water  and  in  the  liquid  of  which 
the  specific  gravity  is  sought  are 
added  to  the  weight  of  the  in- 
strument, the  weights  of  equal 
volumes  of  the  liquid  and  of 
water  are  obtained,  and  hence 
the  specific  gravity.  The  specific 
gravity  of  a  solid  can  also  be 


358 

determined  if  it  is  first  placed  in 
the  upper  pan  and  then  in  the 
basket,  the  hydrometer  being  ad- 
justed with  weights  each  time; 
the  difference  between  the  weights 
used  with  and  without  the  object 
in  the  upper  pan  gives  its  weight 
in  air,  while  its  weight  in  water 
is  equal  to  the  difference  of 
weights  used  when  the  body  is  in 
the  pan  and  in  the  basket.  The 
specific  gravity  is  then  calculated 
in  the  same  way  as  before.  Mohr's 
specific  gravity  balance  is  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  Nicholson 
hydrometer,  a  plummet  or  loaded 
glass  weight  being  sunk  to  the 
same  point  by  placing  riders  or 
D-shaped  weights  on  a  balanced 
beam,  from  which  the  weight  is 
hung  by  a  fine  wire.  It  is,  how- 
ever, much  more  sensitive  and 
easy  to  work  with,  as  the  plummet 
and  weights  are  made  of  such 
sizes  as  to  give  specific  gravities 
without  calculation 

Specific  gravity  beads  are  fixed 
immersion  hydrometers,  and  con- 
sist of  small  differently  weighted 
bulbs  that  sink  or  swim  in  a 
liquid  according  to  its  density, 
which  is  that  of  the  bead  that 
remains  in  equilibrium,  neither 
sinking  nor  floating.  The  same 
principle  is  made  use  of  in  deter- 
mining the.  density  of  minerals, 
a  heavy  liquid  being  adjusted  by 
admixture  with  a  light  one  till 
the  fragments  of  the  substance 
are  just  in  equilibrium;  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  the  liquid  is  after- 
ward found  by  a  hydrometer  or 
otherwise.  Suitable  heavy  liquids 
are  methylene  iodide,  solutions 
of  thallium  and  silver  nitrates, 
mercury  and  potassium  iodides. 

H3^drometers  of  variable  im- 
mersion are  usually  light  hollow 


Hydrometers. 

A,  Usual  form. 
B,  U.  S.  Internal  Revenue  pattern. 

glass  spindles  weighted  by  shot 
or  mercury.  The  divisions  on 
them  are  of  unequal  size,  for  as 
the  volumes  immersed  are  in- 


Specific  Gravity 

yersely  as  the  densities  of  the 
liquids,  the  spaces  representing 
equal  increments  in  densit}^  di- 
minish  harmonically.  Variable 


Sikes's  Hydrometer. 
A,  Weight  to  be  slipped  on  at  c. 

immersion  hydrometers  are  made 
of  special  forms  and  sizes  to  test 
the  specific  gravities  of  particular 
liquicls,  such  as  alcohol,  milk, 
urine.  The  U.  S.  Treasury  Dept. 
in  its  internal  revenue  service  uses 
a  series  of  carefully  adjusted  hy- 
drometers for  determining  the 
amount  of  alcohol  in  various  dis- 
tilled liquors.  In  Great  Britain 
for  a  similar  purpose  Sikes's 
hydrometer  is  used.  It  is  made  of 
gilded  brass,  and  is  provided  with 
weights  (a)  that  can  be  placed 
to  the  stem  to  increase  the  range; 
the  graduations  represent  .00175 
difference  in  specific  gravity, 
and  are  convertible  into  degrees 
under  and  over  proof  by  gradu- 
ated scales. 

In  using  the  hydrostatic  pres- 
sure method  of  measuring  spe- 
cific gravities,  the  liquid  is  poured 
into  one  limb  of  a  vertical  (J -tube 
and  water  into  the  other,  care 
being  taken  that  the  less  dense 
liquid  is  not  forced  round  the 
bend,  and  the  heights  of  the  bal- 
ancing columns  measured.  Then, 
as  the  product  of  the  height  of 
the  liquid  into  its  specific  gravity 
is  equal  to  the  same  product  in 
the  case  of  the  water  column, 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid 
is  found  by  dividing  the  height 
of  its  column  into  that  of  the 
water.  With  liquids  that  mix 
with  water  the  columns  are 
sucked  up  from  different  beakers 
into  an  inverted  U-tube  by  a 
branch  tube  at  the  bend,  so  that 
the  liquids  are  separated  by  an 
air  space.  The  same  principle  is 
then  applied. 


Specific  Heat  359 

In  general,  substances  vary  to,  but  differs  widely  with  the 
considerably  in  specific  gravity,  material  of  which  the  body  is 
Thus,  ordinary  liquids,  with  the  composed.  In  order  to  express 
exception  of  mercury,  which  has  a  this  difference,  it  is  necessary  to 
specific  gravity  of  13.6,  range  from  formulate  a  standard  unit  of  heat, 
about  .6  to  3,  and  homogeneous  The  one  most  commonly  used  is 
solids  from  under  1  to  over  22.  the  quantity  of  heat  that  is  re- 
Figures  for  the  specific  gravities  quired  to  raise  the  temperature 
of  the  elements  are  given  under  of  unit  mass  of  water  one  degree. 
Elements,  and  those  of  other  In  metric  units  this  is  called  a 
substances  under  their  specific  'calorie,'  and  is  the  heat  required 
headings.  A  table  of  the  specific  to  raise  the  temperature  of  1  gram 
gravities  of  a.  few  common  sub-  of  water  1°  c;  in  British  units  the 
stances  is  given  below.  Full  British  Thermal  Unit  (b.th.u.)  is 
tables  have  been  compiled  by  the  heat  required  to  raise  1  lb.  of 
F.  W.  Clarke,  and  published  by  water  1°  r.  As  the  quantity  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution.  The  heat  required  to  raise  the  tem- 
practical  details  of  carrying  out  perature  of  a  body  varies  some- 
the  various  methods  may  be  what  with  the  temperature,  the 
found  in  Kohlrausch's  Physical  unit  is  usually  specified  to  be 
Measurements,  Ostwald's  Phy-  measured  at  15°  c,  or  else  the 
sico  -  Chemical  Measurements  mean  value  between  0°  and  100*^'  C. 
(trans.  Walker,  1894),  and  Glaze-  is  chosen;  the  two  values,  how- 
brook  and  Shaw's  Practical  ever,  differ  but  slightly.  Instead 
Physics  (1893).  See  also  Hy-  of  using  a  water  standard,  it  is 
DROMETER.  perhaps  more  scientific  to  express 

quantities  of  heat  in  the  absolute 

Table  of  Specific  Gravities.  units  of  mechanical  work  into 

Solids.  which  the  heat  can  be  converted 

Aluminium   ....         2.7  (see  Thermodynamics);  but  un- 

Brass  8.4-8.7  til  the  exact  value  of  the  ratio 

Clay  1.8-2.6  between  the  two  is  more  definitely 

Coal  1.2-1.7  decided,  the  water  standard  will 

Copper    .....          8.9  probably  be  retained,  especially 

Diamond                                3.5  as  in  practice  most  measurements 

Ebony  1.1-1.2  are  compared  with  it. 

Gold                                    19.3  Methods    of    Determination. — 

Glass  2.4-3.4  The  method  of  determining  spe- 

Granite  2.5-2.9  cific  heats  most  frequently  used 

Ice                                          .92  is  the  'method  of  mixtures.'  A 

Iron                                      7.8  known  weight  of  the  substance. 

Lead                                    11.3  best  in  small  pieces,  at  a  known 

Marble  2.5-2.8  high  temperature  is  mixed  with  a 

Oak  85-.95  known  weight  of  water  at  a  lower 

Pinewood      ....            .5  temperature,  and  the  temperature 

Quartz                                   2.65  of  the  mixture  is  taken.  Then, 

Silver                                   10.6  as  the  heat  given  out  by  the  hot 

Sugar                                   1.59  substance  in  cooling  to  the  tem- 

Sulphur   ....      1.98-2.07  perature  of  the  mixture  is  equal 

Tin                                         7.3  to  that  received  by  the  cold  water 

Zinc                                      7.1  in  being  warmed  up,  the  product 

of  the  specific  heat  of  the  sub- 
Liquids.  stance  into  its  mass  and  fall  of 
Alcohol                                  .80  temperature  is  equal  to  the  prod- 
Ammonia  solution    .     .          .88  uct  of  the  mass  of  the  water  into 

Benzine                                  .89  its  rise  of  temperature,  the  spe- 

Ether                                      .73  cific  heat  of  the  water  being,  by 

Glycerin                                1.26  definition,  unity.    Due  allowance 

Hydrochloric  acid  .  .  1.27  must  be  made  for  the  heat  re- 
Mercury                                 13.6  quired  to  warm  the  vessel  (calo- 

Milk                                      1.03  rimeter)  in  which  the  experiment 

Nitric  acid     ....         1.56  is  carried  out,  and  for  heat  lost 

Sea-water      ....         1.03  to    the    atmosphere;    and  the 

Sulphuric  acid    ...        1.85  method  needs  to  be  further  modi- 

Tufpentine  86-.89  fied,  if  the  substance  and  water 

Gases  (compared  with  water).  interact,    by    substituting  some 

Air  .00129  other  liquid  for  water.    In  this 

4mmonia  00077  case,  as  m  the  case  of  liquids,  in 

Carbon  dioxide   .     .     .     .00198  which  a  hot  soHd,  such  as  iron  or 

Chlorine  00316  copper,  is  added  to  the  Hquid,  the 

Hydrogen  00009  specific  heat  of  the  substance  used 

Nitrogen  00126  instead  of  water  requires  to  be 

known;  and  from  the  fact  that 

Specific  Heat.    The  quantity  the  product  of  the  specific  heat 

of  heat  required  to  raise  the  tem-  into  the  change  of  temperature 

perature  of  a  body  is  proportional  and  mass  of  both  substances  is  the 

to  the  mass  of  the  body,  and  same,  the  unknown  specific  heat 

nearly  proportional  to  the  range  can  be  calculated.    This  process 

of  temperature  it  is  to  be  raised  requires   considerable  quantities 


Specific  Heat 

of  the  substance  in  question  in 
order  to  get  an  accurate  result— a 
difficulty  avoided  in  Bunsen's  ice 
calorimeter.  Ice  calorimeters, 
which  depend  on  the  fact  that  to 
melt  unit  weight  of  ice  requires 
approximately  eighty  times  as 
much  heat  as  is  required  to  raise 
the  same  weight  of  water  one  de- 
gree, were  invented  by  Black,  but 
did  not  give  very  good  results, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  measur- 
ing the  amount  of  ice  melted. 
This  was  obviated   by  Bunsen, 


Bunsen's  Calorimeter. 

who  measured  the  contraction 
caused  by  the  melting  of  ice,  this 
being  equal  to  .09  c.c.  per  gram 
melted.  In  Bunsen's  instrument 
a  test  tube  is  sealed  into  and  en- 
closed by  an  outer  tube,  the  lower 
part  of  which,  together  with  a 
tube  leading  from  it  to  a  narrow 
gauge,  is  filled  with  mercury. 
Water  fills  the  upper  part  of  the 
outer  tube,  and  is  frozen  round 
the  test  tube;  the  whole  appara- 
tus is  then  immersed  in  snow,  to 

grevent  the  ice  from  being  melted 
y  outside  heat.  The  substance 
of  weight  (w)  is  then  dropped 
into  the  test  tube,  and  the  volume 
(v)  by  which  the  mercury  recedes 
in  the  gauge  is  measured;  the 
specific  heat  of  the  substance 
can  be  calculated  from  the  rela- 
V  X  80 

=  .09  X  W  X  t^  ^^^^^  ' 
is  the  fall  of  temperature  of  the 
substance. 

The  rate  at  which  a  substance 
loses  heat  by  radiation  can  also 
be  utilized  to  measure  its  specific 
heat  by  noting  the  times  that 
heated  quantities  of  it  and  of 
water  take  to  cool  through  a  given 
range  under  exactly  similar  cir- 
cumstances. This  method  can, 
however,  only  be  applied  to 
liquids,  the  specific  heat  being 
given  by  dividing  the  product  of 
the  time  taken  by  the  substance 
into  the  mass  of  the  water  by  the 
product  of  the  time  taken  by  the 
water  into  the  mass  of  the  liquid. 
In  determining  the  specific  heat 
of  gases,  not  only  do  practical 
difficulties  arise  owing  to  the  bulk 
of  the  gas,  but  also  there  is  the 
theoretical  difficulty  that  gases 
have  a  different  specific  heat 
according  to  whether  they  are 
allowed  to  expand  when  heated 


Specific  Heat 


360 


Spectacles 


or  not.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  when  a  body  expands  in  the 
open  air  it  does  work  in  pushing 
back  the  atmosphere;  and  this 
work  requires  a  corresponding 
amount  of  heat  to  be  expended. 
This  amount  is  neghgible  in  the 
case  of  solids  and  liquids,  but  ow- 
ing to  the  great  expansibihty  it 
becomes  appreciable  in  the  case 
of  gases.  In  order  to  measure 
the  specific  heat  of  gases  at  con- 
stant pressure,  the  gas  is  con- 
ducted through  a  worm  heated  to 
a  known  temperature,  and  is  then 
passed  through  a  spirally  divided 
chamber  immersed  in  the  water 
in  a  calorimeter,  which  is  warmed 
up  at  the  expense  of  the  heat  of 
the  gas.  The  calculation  is  per- 
formed as  in  the  method  of  mix- 
tures given  above.  The  specific 
heat  of  gases  at  constant  volume 
may  be  determined  by  Joly's  steam 
calorimeter,  in  which  a  large 
globe  containing  the  compressed 
gas  is  immersed  in  steam,  some  of 
which  is  condensed  in  warming  up 
the  gas  and  globe.  Allowance  is 
made  for  the  heat  used  in  warm- 
ing the  globe  by  making  a  simi- 
lar measurement  with  an  empty 
globe,  and  the  specific  heat  is  cal- 
culated from  the  relation  s.H.  = 
w  X  536  ^  J  ^Yie  weight  of 

water  condensed,  536  is  the  latent 
heat  of  steam,  wi  is  the  weight  of 
the  gas,  and  i  its  rise  of  tempera- 
ture. The  ratio  of  the  specific 
heats  of  a  gas  at  constant  volume 
should  be  as  1.66:  1  if  the  gas  con- 
sists of  simple  particles.  This  is, 
however,  rarely  the  case,  the  ratio 
varying  from  1.42:  1  downward, 
except  in  the  cases  of  gases  such 
as  argon,  helium,  and  mercury. 
The  reason  is  that  internal  work 
between  the  parts  of  the  molecule 
has  to  be  done  in  most  gases, 
making  an  addition  to  both  figures 
of  the  ratio,  and  thus  approxi- 
mating it  toward,  unity.  The  de- 
termination of  this  ratio,  which 
may  be  carried  out  by  indirect 
as  well  as  by  the  above  direct 
methods,  affords  valuable  infor- 
mation as  to  the  complexity  of 
the  gas  molecule. 

With  the  notable  exception  of 
the  specific  heat  of  Hquid  hydro- 
gen, which  approaches  6,  the  spe- 
cific heats  of  almost  all  substances 
are  smaller  than  1 — i.e.  are  less 
than  that  of  water.  In  the  case 
of  most  of  the  sohd  elements 
they  vary  inversely  as  the  atomic 
weight,  the  atomic  heat  or  prod- 
uct of  atomic  weight  into  .spe- 
cific heat  being  approximately 
6.4.  This  fact  is  known  as  Du- 
long  and  Petit's  law,  from  its  dis- 
coverers. It 'shows  considerable 
divergences  from  exactness  in 
some  cases,  particularly  with  ele- 
ments of  low  atornic  weight,  such 
as  carbon  and  silicon,  in  which 
the  specific  heat  is  too  small,  but 


the  divergence  becomes  less  and 
less  the  higher  the  temperature 
at  which  the  element  is  measured. 
Dulong  and  Petit's  law  can  be 
applied  to  a  certain  extent  to 
some  compounds,  but  the  con- 
stancy is  confined  at  best  to  com- 
pounds of  similar  classes. 

A  knowledge  of  specific  heats 
is  utilized  to  determine  high 
temperatures  in  Siemens's  pyrom- 
eter, in  which  a  metal  cylinder 
is  heated  in  the  furnace  and  then 
dropped  into  water;  then  if  the 
rise  of  temperature  and  mass  of 
the  water  and  the  specific  heat 
and  mass  of  the  metal  cylinder 
are  known,  the  original  tempera- 
ture of  the  metal  cylinder  can  be 
calculated.  For  a  table  of  the 
specific  heats  of  the  elements  see 
Elements;  and  see  further  Ed- 
ser's  Heat  (1899),  Ostwald's 
Phys  too- Chemical  Measurements 
and  Kohlrausch's  Physical  Meas- 
urements. 

Specific  Performance.  In 
certain  cases  of  breach  of  con- 
tract, where  an  action  for  dam- 
ages would  not  be  an  adequate 
remedy,  courts  of  equity  will 
compel  the  actual  or  substantial 
performance  of  the  contract  by 
the  delinquent  party.  This  re- 
lief is  technically  known  as  specific 
performance.  There  must  be 
inadequacy  of  remedy  at  law; 
and,  in  general,  there  must  be 
mutuality,  that  is,  it  must  be  such 
a  case  that  if  a  bill  had  been  filed 
against  the  plaintiff,  the  same 
relief  could  have  been  obtained 
against  him.  Equity  will  almost 
invariably  decree  specific  per- 
formance of  contracts  for  the 
conveyance  or  purchase  of  real 
property,  but  not  generall}^  for 
personal  property  unless  it  is 
of  a  nature  that  cannot  be  ob- 
tained elsewhere,  as  in  the  latter 
case  damages  would  not  be  ade- 
quate relief.  Equity  will  usually 
enforce  an  award  or  compromise, 
and  in  some  states,  will  enjoin  a 
person  who  has  contracted  to 
give  exclusive  services  to  another 
and  agreed  not  to  work  elsewhere 
during  a  certain  period,  as  a 
singer,  from  rendering  services 
for  any  one  else  during  the  term 
of  the  contract.  Of  course  the 
plaintiff  must  perform  his  part  of 
the  contract.  If  great  hardship 
will  be  occasioned  to  the  de- 
fendant, and  little  corresponding 
benefit  to  the  plaintiff  by  specific 
performance,  the  court  will  refuse 
the  relief.  Equity  will  not  de- 
cree specific  performance  of  a 
contract  where  it  is  impossible 
to  enforce  the  decree,  as  to  com- 
pel personal  services,  or  where 
performance  would  be  practi- 
cally impossible.  See  Contracts; 
Equity.  Consult  Pomeroy,  Spe- 
cific Performance. 

Spectacles  are  frames  of  metal, 
supporting  lenses  of  ground  opti- 
cal glass,  and  are  aids  for  pre- 


serving sight  or  correcting  defects 
of  vision.  Spectacle  lenses  are  of 
two  principal  classes — spherical 
and  cyhndrical — and  these  in  turn 
are  either  convex  or  concave.  In 
some  cases  compound  spectacle 
lenses  are  used  where  the  person 
requires  the  one  pair  of  glasses 
to  suit  both  distance  and  reading. 
These  are  called  bi-focal,  and 
were  first  invented  by  Benjamin 
Franklin.  Torric  lenses  form 
another  combination;  in  them  a 
cross  cylinder  is  ground  on  one 
part  of  the  surface  and  a  spher- 
ical curve  on  the  other  half  of  the 
glass.  Pebble  lenses  are  made 
from  rock  crystal.  The  frames 
for  supporting  the  two  lenses 
are  of  two  forms — the  ordinary 
spectacle  frame  with  straight 
sides  or  curved  arms  extending  to 
behjnd  the  ears,  and  those  which 
by  means  of  a  spring  keep  in 
contact  with  the  nose  of  the 
wearer,  and  are  called  eye-glasses 
or  'pince-nez.'  The  latest  de- 
sign, the  frameless  spectacle, 
shows  the  minimum  of  bridge  or 
spring  in  the  centre  and  is  in 
great  contrast  to  the  heavy  tor- 
toiseshell  goggles  or  horn  frames 
of  a  century  ago. 

Spectacles  were  probably  first 
invented  by  the  Chinese.  Al- 
hazen,  an  Arab  writer,  makes 
mention  of  them  in  the  11th  cen- 
tury, and  Italian  monks  in  Pisa 
and  Florence  used  them  in  the 
13th  century.  Nuremberg  carried 
on  spectacle-making  in  1842,  and 
later  the  house  of  Dolland  in  Lon- 
don and  other  English  makers 
vied  with  those  of  Paris.  The  in- 
dustry was  soon  established  in  the 
United  States,  and  now  both 
frames  and  lenses  are  made  of  the 
highest  grades  and  in  large  quan- 
tities. 

There  are  four  general  conditions 
of  eyesight  which  require  spec- 
tacles. Presbyopia,  or  old  sight, 
becomes  manifest  after  forty-five 
years  of  age,  and  is  noticed  when 
persons  cannot  read  fine  print 
with  comfort  at  fourteen  inches 
distant.  Myopia,  or  near  sight, 
is  caused  by  an  over-development 
of  the  eyeball,  and  is  noticed 
when,  in  order  to  see  clearly,  a 
short-sighted  person  has  to  hold 
his  book  or  work  closer  to  his 
face  than  is  natural  or  comfort- 
able. To  correct  this  condition 
the  weakest  concave  lens  is  used 
that  will  afford  the  best  vision. 
Hypermetropia,  or  long-distance 
sight,  is  a  condition  caused  by  the 
under- development  of  the  eye, 
and  for  this  the  strongest  convex 
lens  is  used  that  will  make  the 
distant  vision  normal.  Astigma- 
tism is  a  condition  of  the  eye 
which  requires  the  most  careful 
fitting  of  spectacles.  It  is  a  dis- 
tortion of  the  image  on  the  retina, 
caused  by  the  curvature  of  the 
cornea  being  uneven.  Nearly 
every  eye  exhibits  traces  more  or 


Spectator 


Spectrum  and  Spectroscope 


less  of  this  defect.  The  test  is 
generally  made  for  this  by  the 
light  of  the  retitioscope  in  a 
darkened  room,  or  by  asking  the 
patient  to  look  at  certain  lines 
on  a  card,  or  at  the  hands  of  a 
clock  when  they  are  moved  to  the 
different  figures.  In  certain  forms 
of  astigmatism  the  clock  hands 
would  not  be  seen  when  they 
were  in  a  vertical  position,  as  at 
12.30,  but  would  be  distinguished 
quite  clearly  when  they  were 
horizontal  at  the  hour  9.15.  Once 
spectacles  have  been  used,  the 
eyes  should  be  tested  every  three 
years.  The  following  is  a  homely 
test  to  prove  whether  spectacles 
may  be  necessary: 

These  discs  are  equally  black 
and  distinct.  Hold  this  four  feet 
from  one  eye  at  a  time:  should 
one  appear  blacker  than  the 
other,  the  defective  vision  is  due 
to  astigmatism.  The  standard 
test  for  reading  is  to  read  the  fol- 
lowing passage  clearly,  when  the 
book  is  held  in  a  good  light  at  a 
distance  of  ten  inches  from  the 
eyes,  each  eye  being  tried  sepa- 
rately : 

'  It  is  natural  for  the  wonderful  accom- 
modative power  of  theej'e  to  bepradually 
depleted  and  the  elasticity  of  the  acute- 
ness  of  vision  diminished  with  advancing 
years.' 

For  distant  vision  the  following 
letters  should  be  placed  in  a  good 
light  at  a  distance  of  sixteen  feet 
from  the  eyes.  Each  eye  should 
be  tried  separately  while  the  per- 
son names  each  letter: 

DMIEF 

Spectator,  The.  See  Addi- 
son and  Steele, 

Spectator,  The,  British 
weekly  review,  was  started  in 
1828  by  Joseph  Hume  and  other 
Radicals,  the  editorship  being 
given  to  Robert  Stephen  Rintoul. 
Under  his  control,  which  en- 
dured without  a  break  until  his 
death  (1858),  the  Spectator  rose 
to  considerable  influence  and  con- 
sequence as  a  literary  and  politi- 
cal review;  but  it  had  declined 
again  when  it  passed  into  the 
hands  of  Meredith  Townsend. 
He,  with  the  assistance  of  Richard 
Holt  Hutton,  and,  after  1885, 
with  that  of  Mr.  St.  Loe  Strachey, 
made  the  Spectator  the  chief  ex- 
ponent of  cultured  Liberalism.  In 
1886,  when  Gladstone  declared 
for  Home  Rule,  the  Spectato 
withdrew  its  support.  Since  Hut- 
ton's  death  (1897)  the  paper  has 
been  owned  and  edited  by  Mr. 
J.  St.  Loe  Strachey. 


Spectre  of  the  Brocken.  See 

BRocKEisr. 

Spectroheliograph,  an  instru- 
ment devised  in  1889  by  Professor 
Hale  of  the  University  of  Chicago 
for  the  purpose  of  photographing 
the  solar  prominences.  It  is 
essentially  a  spectroscope  with 
a  double  slit  (as  suggested  by 
P.  Janssen  in  1869),  the  second 
slit  serving  to  exclude  from  the 
sensitive  plate  immediately  be- 
hind it  all  light  except  that  of 
one  selected  quality,  usually  the 
K-line  of  calcium.  By  giving 
properly  adjusted  movements  to 
the  several  parts  of  the  apparatus, 
a  picture  of  the  object  in  mono- 
chromatic light  can  thus  be  built 
up  in  sections  as  its  image  drifts 
across  the  collimator  slit.  The 
sun's  disc  can  be  similarly  photo- 
graphed in  light  of  any  chosen 
wave-length.  The  Rumford  spec- 
troheliograph of  the  Yerkes  Ob- 
servatory was  in  1900  the  most 
powerful  instrument  of  its  class 
in  existence,^  but  was  surpassed 
by  one  of  eight  inches  aperture 
erected  on  Mt.  Wilson  in  Cali- 
fornia in  1905. 

Spectroscope.  See  Spectrum 
AND  Spectroscope. 

Spectroscopic  Binaries  are 
coupled  stars  in  such  close  con- 
tiguity as  to  be  separable  only  by 
the  spectroscopic  effects  of  their 
motion.  At  quadratures  the  con- 
trary radial  velocities  of  the  stars 
attain  a  maximum,  and  their  spec- 
tral lines  are  observed  to  be  cor- 
respondingly displaced;  at  con- 
junctions, motion  being  then  di- 
rected across  the  line  of  sight, 
they  drop  to  zero,  and  the  lines 
resume  their  normal  positions. 
Systems  of  the  kind  are  very 
numerous.^  They  are  estimated 
to  exist  in  tue  proportions  of 
about  one  in  five  or  six  Sirian  and 
solar  stars,  and  of  at  least  one 
in  three  helium  stars.  Three 
varieties  are  distinguishable — (1) 
eclipsing  couples;  (2)  non-eclips- 
ing stars,  variable  in  the  period 
of  revolution;  (,3)  pairs  constant 
in  light.  Algol  is  the  exemplar 
of  the  first  class;  5  Cephei  of  the 
second,  which  at  present  includes 
twelve  members,  consisting,  in 
rnost  cases,  of  a  bright  and  a  sen- 
sibly dark  star.  In  the  third  and 
most  numerous  family  the  com- 
panion is  also  very  frequently  ob- 
scure; Polaris  and  both  the  tele- 
scopic components  of  Castor  are 
thus  conditioned.  The  periods  of 
spectroscopic  binaries  range  from 
a  few  hours  to  Iwo  and  one-third 
years  (that  of  tj  Pegasi).  At  the 
upper  limit  they  merge  into  tele- 
scopic binaries.  No  line  of  de- 
marcation separates  the  two 
families;  their  discrimination 
depends  solely  upon  visual  pos- 
sibilities. Most  of  the  orbital 
elements  of  revolving  stars  can 
be  calculated  from  spectroscopic 
data;  their  planes,  however,  evade 


determination  (in  non-eclipsing 
pairs)-  consequently  their  real 
exceea  their  measured  dimensions 
to  an  uncertain  degree,  and  hence 
only  minimum  values  can  be  as- 
signed to  the  mass(;s  of  the  bodies 
traversing  them.  A  catalogue  of 
140   spectroscopic   binaries  was 

Eublished  by  Prof.  W.  W.  Camp- 
ell  in  1905  (Lick  Bulletin,  No. 
79). 

Spectrum  and  Spectroscope. 

When  a  ray  of  sunlight  passes 
obliquely  across  the  surface  of  a 
transparent  medium  such  as  glass, 
it  is  spread  out  into  a  bundle  of 
rays  of  different  colors.  The  ex- 
periment is  usually  made,  as  New- 
ton originally  made  it,  by  means 
of  a  glass  prism;  and  to  view  the 
phenomenon  at  its  best 'the  ray 
should  be  first  passed  through  a 
narrow  slit  parallel  to  the  edge  of 
the  prism.  The  ray  then  emerges 
from  the  farther  side  of  the  prism 
as  a  broad  rectangular  strip  of 
rainbow  tints,  the  color  passing 
gradually  from  red  at  the  one  ex- 
tremity through  orange,  yellow, 
green,  and  blue  to  violet  at  the 
other  end.  This  strip  of  colors 
is  called  the  spectrum  of  sunlight 
or  the  solar  spectrurn.  It  demon- 
strates that  white  light  is  com- 
posed of  a  great  number  of  dif- 
ferently colored  constituents, 
which  have  different  refrangi- 
bilities.  (See  Dispersion.)  The 
narrow  slit  is  necessary  to  pre- 
vent as  far  as  possible  the  over- 
lapping of  the  diff'erently  col- 
ored rays.  The  light  from  any 
other  source  may  be  treated  simi- 
larly; and  in  every  case  a  spec- 
trum is  formed  characteristic  of 
the  particular  source.  _  Thus  an 
ordinary  gas  jet  will  give  a  spec- 
trum not  unlike  the  solar  spec- 
trum; but  gaslight  is  not  so  rich 
as  solar  light  in  blue  and  violet 
rays.  The  electric  light,  again, 
gives  a  spectrum  very  similar  in 
its  broad  outlines  to  the  solar 
spectrum.  If  we  burn  salt  in  a 
bunsen  flame,  the  flame  becomes 
strongly  yellow;  and  when  we 
examine  its  spectrum,  it  is  found 
to  consist  almost  entirely  of  two 
bright  yellow  bands  or  lines. 
This  is  the  spectrum  of  the  metal 
sodium  when  in  an  incandescent 
state,  .and  it  is  found  that  line 
spectra  are  characteristic  of  glow- 
ing masses  of  gas  or  vapor.  Not 
only  so,  but  each  gas  has  a  charac- 
teristic spectrum  of  its  own,  which 
means  that  molecules  vibrate  in 
definite  periods,  and  send  out 
through  the  ether  radiations  of 
these  particular  periods.  When 
the  substance  is  in  the  gaseous 
state,  the  molecules  vibrate  quite 
freely,  and  are  thus  able  to  emit 
rays  of  definite  wave-length. 
When  the  gas  is  highly  con- 
densed, or  when  the  substance 
is  solid,  the  molecules  have  not 
the  same  freedom  of  vibration, 
so  that  a  confusion  of  rays  of 


Spectrum  and  Spectroscope 

many  different  wave-lengths  is 
radiated  forth  into  the  ether. 

When  the  solar  spectrum  is 
looked  at  very  narrowly,  or  when 
by  means  of  a  lens  it  is  sharply 
focussed,  it  is  found  to  be  crossed 
by  thin  dark  lines.  These  dark 
lines  mean  a  diminished  intensity 
of  light  in  the  rays  correspond- 
ing to  them.  This  feebler  in- 
tensity may  be  an  original  prop- 
erty, or  it  may  be  the  result 
of  a  greater  absorption  by  media 
situated  between  us  and  the 
sun.  The  latter  is  the  more  prob- 
able cause,  and  indeed  may  be 
said  to  be  beyond  dispute.  For  ex- 
ample, there  are  certain  of  these 
lines  more  distinct  when  the  sun 
is  low  than  when  it  is  high,  simply 
because  they  are  due  to  the  ab- 
sorptive action  of  the  earth's  at- 
mosphere, and  the  rays  from  the 
rising  or  setting  sun  have  to  pass 
across  a  much  greater  breadth  of 
air  than  the  rays  from  the  sun  at 
noon  have  to  do.  Moreover,  it 
can  be  demonstrated,  by  a  direct 
comparison  of  the  solar  spectrum 
with  the  bright  line  spectra  of 
gases  and  metallic  vapors,  that 
many  of  the  dark  lines  in  the 
solar  spectrum  correspond  accu- 
rately with  the  bright  lines  of 
these  spectra.  Not  only  so,  but 
they  correspond  in  groups,  so  that 
the  observer  soon  recognizes  a 
certain  group  to  belong,  say,  to 
hydrogen,  a  certain  other  group 
to  calcium,  and  so  on  through  a 
great  range  of  metallic  vapors. 
For  example,  corresponding  to 
the  .wo  well-marked  yellow  lines 
in  the  spectrum  of  sodium  vapor 
we  find  in  the  solar  spectrum  two 
well-marked  and  closely  contigu- 
ous dark  lines  occupying  in  the 
yellow  exactly  the  position  of  the 
sodium  lines.  This  double  line 
is  called  the  D  line,  that  being 
the  name  given  to  it  (long  before 
its  true  significance  was  known) 
by  Fraunhofer,  who  was  the  first 
to  measure  the  positions  of  the 
dark  lines,  and  who  named  them 
after  the  first  few  letters  of  the 
alphabet.  We  now  know  that  C 
and  F  are  hydrogen  lines,  that 
a  characteristic  group  of  three 
lines  in  the  green  called  b  is  due 
to  magnesium,  and  so  on. 

For  the  careful  study  .of  the 
lines  in  any  spectrum  an  instru- 
ment called  the  spectroscope  has 
been  constructed.  Its  essential 
parts  are  a  collimator  with  slit 
arrangement  and  lens,  a  train 
of  prisms,  and  a  telescope  with 
cross  wires  in  the  eye-piece,  and 
mounted  on  a  graduated  circle 
so  that  its  angular  position  rela- 
tively to  the  direction  of  the  en- 
tering ray  can  be  measured.  Such 
an  instrument  enables  us  with 
great  accuracy  to  determine  the 
relative  refrangibilities  of  the 
different  colored  rays  which 
make  up  any  line  spectrum,  and 
also  the  refrangibility  of  the  rays 


corresponding  to  the  dark  rays  in 
the  solar  spectrum.  These  dark 
rays,  indeed,  form  a  very  conven- 
ient set  ^of  standard  rays  with 
which  to  describe  the  optical  prop- 
erties of  different  kinds  of  glass 
and  other  transparent  media.  It 
is  found,  for  example,  that  though 
the  lines  always  come  in  the  same 
order  with  prisms  of  different 
glass,  their  spacing  is  different. 
In  short,  the  law  of  dispersion 
varies  with  the  nature  of  the 
medium  of  which  the  prism  is 
constructed.  It  is  possible,  in- 
deed, to  form  a  prism  of  a  mate- 
rial for  which  the  law  of  disper- 
sion is  so  peculiar  as  to  show  blue 
and  violet  light  less  refrangible 
than  red  or  yellow  light. 

There  is,  however,  another  way 
of  producing  a  spectrum  in  which 
the  lines  are  arranged  in  accord- 
ance with  a  very  simple  law. 
Such  a  spectrum  is  called  a  'nor- 
mal spectrum,'  and  its  great 
merit  is  that  it  gives  immedi- 
ately the  relative  wave-lengths 
of  the  rays  which  make  it  up.  It 
is  produced  by  means  of  diffrac- 
tion grating,  which  consists  of  a 
surface  ruled  with  a  great  many 
very  fine  parallel  eciuidistant 
lines,  several  thousands  to  the 
inch.  The  surface  may  be  one 
side  of  a  glass  plate,  in  which 
case  the  spectrum  is  produced  by 
passing  light  through  it,  or  it 
may  be  the  surface  of  a  bright  re- 
flecting metal,  and  the  spectrum 
is  then  produced  by  reflecting  the 
light  off  it.  To  simplify  the  de- 
scription, let  the  grating  be  of 
the  latter  kind.    When  it  is  illu- 


9 


Diagram  of  Action  of  Diffraction 
Grating. 

minated  by  a  beam  of  light  fall- 
ing, say,  normally  on  it,  each  of 
the  ridges  between  the  ruled  lines 
becomes  a  centre  of  disturbance, 
and  is  the  source  of  spherical 
waves  radiating  out  in  all  pos- 
sible directions.  Let  A  B  be  a 
magnified  representation  of  part 
of  the  grating,  the  short  lines 
being  the  reflecting  ridges,  and 
the  gaps  the  comparatively  non- 
reflecting  furrows.    Since  by  sup- 

gosition  the  grating  is  illuminated 
y  a  normally  incident  beam,  the 
waves  from  the  contiguous  ridges 
start  in  the  same  phase.  Consider 
the  vKysp  e  and  ^' g',  which  start 
from  contiguous  ridges,  p  /?'and 
meet  at  a  point  in  the  direction  p  e 
-p'e'.  It  is  evident  that  the  path 


Spectrum  and  Spectroscopy 

p'  e'  is  longer  than  the  path  p  e 
by  a  length,  which  is  represented  by 
the  base  of  the  small  right-angled 
triangle  formed  by  dropping  a 


Spectroscope. 

C,  Collimator ;  p,  centre  of  group  of 
prisms ;  T,  telescope ;  s,  slit  through 
which  the  ray  of  light  enters  ;  R,  ray  on  its 
progress  through  prisms  to  telescope. 


perpendicular  from  p  on  p'  e'. 
Hence,  in  accordance  with  the 
rinciple  of  interference,  if  this 
ifference  is,  say,  equal  to  a  wave- 
length of  blue  light,  the  blue 
will  be  intensified.  In  directions 
farther  to  the  side  the  yellow  will 
be  intensified,  and  in  directions 
still  farther  the  red  will  be  in- 
tensified. The  result  will  be  the 
formation  of  a  spectrum,  with  its 
violet  end  nearest  to  the  incident 
ray  and  its  red  end  farthest  from 
it.  It  is  easy  to  show  that  the 
ratio  of  the  distance  of  any  part 
of  the  spectrum  from  the  grating 
is  to  the  distance  of  this  part 
from  the  incident  ray  in  the  same 
ratio  as  the  distance  between  the 
ridges  to  the  wave-length  corre- 
sponding to  that  part  of  the  spec- 
trum. These  diffraction  spectra 
are  formed  on  both  sides  of  the 
grating,  and  on  each  side  there 
is  theoretically  an  endless  suc- 
cession of  them  produced  by  con- 
tiguous rays  which  differ  by  two 
wave-lengths,  three  wave-lengths 
and  so  on.  Practically,  after  the 
second  and  third,  they  become 
confused  by  superposition.  The 
late  Professor  Rowland  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University  greatly  im- 
proved the  construction  of  dif- 
fraction gratings,  and  his  pho- 
tographs of  the  solar  spectrum 
are  the  best  we  have. 

An  important  use  of  the  spec- 
troscope is  in  the  study  of  what 
are  called  absorption  spectra. 
For  instance,  when  a  solution  of 
permanganate  of  potash  is  inter- 
posed in  the  path  of  the  ray  from 
a  white-hot  soHd,  the  spectrum, 
instead  of  being  of  uniform  bright- 
ness throughout,  shows  variations 
of  brightness,  especially  in  the 
green.  It  becomes  fluted  in  ap- 
pearance, demonstrating  selective 
absorption  in  the  permanganate 
of  potash  solution.  Many  other 
substances  may  be  similarly  stud- 


Spectrum  and  Spectroscope 

ied,  and  the  absorption  spectrum 
so  obtained  in  any  particular  case 
is  found  to  be  characteristic  of 
that  substance.  This  method  has 
some  valuable  applications,  as  in 
the  study  of  changes  in  blood  and 
the  coloring  matter  of  plants. 

The  careful  examination  of  the 
spectra  of  different  substances 
forms  a  practical  branch  of  sci- 
ence known  as  spectrum  analysis. 
It  is,  however,  in  the  domain  of 
astronomy  that  the  lessons  of  the 
spectroscope  appeal  most  strongly 
to  the  imagination.  Not  only 
have  we  learned  what  substances 
exist  in  the  cooler  regions  of  the  so- 
lar atmosphere,  but  similar  knowl- 
edge has  Deen  attained  regarding 
the  constitution  of  certain  stars, 
nebulae,  and  comets.  The  fact 
that  different  stars  give  different 
dark  lines  in  their  spectra  prove 
that  these  dark  lines  are  mainly 
due  to  absorption  in  the  stellar 
atmospheres.  Stars  have  been 
grouped  in  four  great  classes,  ac- 
cording to  the  broad  character  of 
their  spectra;  and  each  class  is  be- 
lieved to  indicate  a  certain  stage 
of  decay  in  the  life-history  of  the 
stars  that  belong  to  that  class. 
When  the  new  star  in  Perseus 
blazed  out  in  the  year  1901,  yery 
remarkable  changes  were  noticed 
in  the  nature  of  the  spectrum 
during  the  first  week  of  its  ap- 
pearance. The  spectrum  passed 
m  the  course  of  a  day  or  two  from 
the  condition  of  a  continuous  and 
uniformly  bright  spectrum  to  that 
of  a  faintly  continuous  spectrum, 
crossed  by  bright  bands  and  dark 
bands.  The  dark  bands  flanked 
the  bright  bands  on  the  more  re- 
frangible side,  which  means  that 
the  absorbent  and  probably  cooler 
medium  absorbed  light  of  wave- 
lengths slightly  shorter  than  the 
wave-lengths  of  the  light  emitted 
by  the  hotter  substance,  probably 
gaseous,  which  was  no  doubt  the 
source  of  the  extraordinary  but 
short-lived  brilliancy  of  the  star. 
It  is  conceivable,  however,  that 
these  bright  and  dark  bands  are 
really  due  to  the  same  substance 
in  different  physical  conditions, 
in  accordance  with  what  is  known 
as  the  Doppler  principle.  This 
principle  is  a  very  obvious  one 
when  the  wave-theory  of  light  is 
fully  realized.  For  it  is  evident 
that  the  wave-lengths  of  radia- 
tions coming  from  a  luminous 
source  to  an  observer  travelling 
from  or  toward  that  source  with 
a  fairly  large  speed  will  be  al- 
tered in  virtue  of  the  relative 
motion.  Thus  if  the  observer  is 
approaching  the  source  of  light, 
the  waves  will  come  a  little  more 
frequently,  and  the  ray  will  be 
raised  in  refrangibility;  whereas, 
on  the  other  hand,  if  the  observer 
is  moving  away  from  the  source 
of  light,  the  waves  will  seem  to 
come  a  little  less  frequently. 
This  is  precisely  what  has  been 


363 

observed  to  occur  in  the  case  of 
certain  stars.  When  carefully 
measured  by  means  of  a  high- 
power  spectroscope,  a  group  of 
lines  due  to  the  presence  of  some 
element  is  found  to  be  slightly 
shifted  toward  one  end  of  the 
spectrum.  And  the  same  shift 
exists  in  the  case  of  other  groups 
of  lines.  A  shift  toward  the 
violet  end  indicates  that  the  star 
and  observer  are  approaching 
each  other;  a  shift  toward  the 
red  end,  that  they  are  retreating 
from  each  other.  The  amount 
of  shift  depends  upon  the  ratio 
of  the  relative  speed  in  the  line 
of  sight  to  the  speed  of  light, 
and  consequently  the  spectro- 
scope enables  us  to  measure  this 
relative  velocity  in  the  line  of 
sight.  By  comparison  of  the 
spectra  of  the  light  coming  from 
the  opposite  sides  of  the  sun,  it 
has  been  found  possible  to  meas- 
ure the  rate  of  rotation  of  the 
upper  regions  of  the  sun,  the 
Fraunhofer  lines  in  the  two  spec- 
tra being  not  exactly  coincident. 
See  Kayser's  Handbuch  der  Spec- 
troscopic (1900-5). 

Specular  Iron  Ore.  See  Hem- 
atite. 

Speculation.  The  word  specu- 
lation in  commercial  usage  has 
two  meanings,  one  broad  and 
rather  vague,  the  other  clear  and 
definite.  In  the  broad  sense,  it 
is  applied  to  any  form  of  business 
which  is  peculiarly  risky  and  in 
which  results  depend  upon  future 
conditions  which  cannot  be  easily 
foretold.  In  this  sense  the  build- 
ing of  a  new  railroad  or  an  in- 
vestment in  a  new  patent  might 
be  spoken  of  as  speculative  en- 
terprises. In  the  narrower  sense 
speculation  means  the  buying  and 
selling  of  property  with  a  view 
to  making  money  from  chance 
fluctuations  in  its  value.  Thus,  to 
buy  a  farm  for  purposes  of  culti- 
vation is  not  speculation,  while  to 
buy  up  farms  in  a  *  boom  '  local- 
ity, with  the  intention  of  selling 
out  at  a  profit,  is  speculation. 
Furthermore,  speculation  is 
sharply  differentiated  from  ordi- 
nary mercantile  transactions. 
Every  merchant,  to  be  sure,  airns 
to  make  money  by  buying  his 
wares  at  a  low  and  selling  at  a 
high  price,  but  this  difference  in 
price,  though  not  always  certain, 
is  a  normal  difference  between 
different  markets.  The  specula- 
tor, on  the  other  hand,  is  con- 
cerned with  uncertain  fluctuations 
over  a  period  of  time  in  the  same 
market. 

Speculation,  then,  may  occur 
anywhere,  and  always  has  oc- 
curred, wherever  men  have  seen 
a  chance  to  make  money  from 
future  changes  in  price.  A  great 
speculative  deal  is  recorded  in 
Genesis  in  the  account  of  Jo- 
seph's corner  in  the  food-supplies 
of  Egypt,  and  Aristotle  in  his 


Speculation 

Politics  has  described  how  the 
philosopher  Thales  cornered  the 
olive-presses  of  Miletus. 

Commonly,  however,  we  think 
of  speculation  in  a  still  narrower 
sense  as  connected  with  such  in- 
stitutions as  the  New  York  Stock 
Exchange  or  the  Chicago  Board 
of  Trade.  This  is  the  '  organized 
speculation  of  the  exchanges,'  and 
has  two  important  characteristics. 
First,  it  is  carried  on  through 
a  body  of  professional  brokers, 
who  are  organized  in  an  associa- 
tion with  elaborate  rules  to  facili- 
tate business;  and,  secondly,  it 
provides  for  speculation  '  for  the 
fall '  as  well  as  '  for  the  rise.' 
Without  this  peculiar  feature, 
speculation  could  only  be  spo- 
radic. The  older  form  of  specu- 
lation was  always  '  f or_  the  rise.' 
and  consisted  simply  in  buying 
property  at  one  time  in  the  hope 
of  selling  later  at  a  higher  price. 
The  speculators  were  always 
those  who  expected  prices  to  rise; 
in  the  jargon  of  the  modern 
market,  they  were  *  bulls.'  But  if 
a  continuous  speculative  market 
is  to  exist,  in  which  buying  and 
selling  with  speculative  intent  is 
to  go  on  all  the  time,  some  ar- 
rangement is  necessary  by  which 
those  who  expect  prices  to  fall, 
in  modern  jargon  the  '  bears,'  can 
also  trade  in  the  hope  of  a  profit. 
How,  now,  can  men  make  money 
from  falhng  prices?  Since  profit 
is  the  difference  between  the 
buying  price  and  the  selling  price, 
this  can  be  done  only  by  revers- 
ing the  usual  practice  and  selling 
goods  before  one  buys  them.  This 
can  be  done  by  means  of  the  so- 
called  /  future-contract.'  A  '  fu- 
ture '  is  a  contract  by  which  one 
party  agrees  to  deliver  at  some 
future  time  certain  goods,  the 
character  and  price  of  which  are 
fixed  in  the  present  contract. 
This  may  be  done  by  a  manufac- 
turer, for  example,  who  Avishes  to 
take  advantage  of  prevailing  high 
prices,  fearing  that  they  will  not 
continue,  and  knowing  that  he 
can  make  delivery  on  the  contract 
out  of  his  future  production.  The 
practice  seems  to  have  _  arisen 
early  in  the  17th  century  in  con- 
nection with  the  whale  fisheries 
among  the  Dutch,  where  the  great 
uncertainty  of  the  enterprise  led 
dealers  to  sell  the  product  of  any 
particular  voyage  long  before  its 
result  became  known.  Indeed, 
by  the  early  part  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury the  Dutch  had  adopted  prac- 
tices almost  identical  with  those 
of  the  modern  speculative  market 
in  the  case  of  grain,  cocoa,  salt- 
petre, and  especially  coffee.  In 
the  United  States  such  sales  for 
forward  delivery  were  early 
adopted  in  the  cotton  trade, 
where  the  dealer  would  sell  a 
given  quantity  9f  cotton  '  in  tran- 
sit,' or  '  to  arrive,'  or  even  '  tor 
shipment.' 


I^peculatioii 


364 


Specuiatiofl 


In  such  cases  as  the  above, 
however,  these  future  sales  were 
made  by  the  men  who  already 
owned  or  had  contracted  for  the 
goods  in  question.  They  were 
made  rather  to  prevent  a  loss 
from  falling  prices  than  strictly 
to  make  a  profit.  But  if  a  person 
owning  none  of  the  goods  in 
question  should  contract  to  de- 
liver a  certain  quantity  at  pre- 
vailing prices  at  some  future 
date,  he  would,  of  course,  make 
a  profit  in  case  the  price  of  the 
goods  should  fall  before  the  time 
of  delivery,  since  he  could  then 
purchase  in  the  open  market  and 
fulfil  the  obligations  of  his  con- 
tract. Such  sales  are  known  as 
'  short-sales,'  and  the  person  who 
sells  goods  for  delivery  at  some 
future  time  which  he  does  not 
own  at  the  time  the  contract  is 
made,  is  known  as  a  'short-seller.' 
Without  such  short-selling  mod- 
ern speculation  would  be  impos- 
sible.^ 

It  is  a  common  impression  that 
the  practice  of  selling  what  one 
does  not  own  is  in  some  way  im- 
moral. A  slight  consideration 
will  show  the  falsity  of  this  idea. 
Many  contracts  have  to  be  *  for 
future  delivery.'  A  builder,  for 
example,  takes  a  contract  to  build 
a  certain  house  for  a  certain  price 
befpre  a  given  date.  He  is  really 
selling  what  at  the  time  he  does 
not  own.  All  manufacturers  con- 
stantly sell  goods  for  later  de- 
livery which  they  have  not  yet 
produced,  and  if  a  coal  dealer  or 
a  wheat  dealer  who  has  no  stock 
on  hand  agrees  to  deliver  a  re- 
quired amount  at  a  specified  time, 
knowing  that  he  can  procure  it 
in  the  regular  markets,  he  does 
nothing  wrong.  But  if  no  moral 
opprobrium  attaches  to  the  prac- 
tice, there  are  evident  difficulties 
attending  it.  Goods  to  be  sold 
short  must  possess  certain  definite 
characteristics.  Such  practices 
are  impossible  in  the  case  of 
real  estate,  since  a  contract  in 
such  case  must  specify  the  par- 
ticular parcel  of  land  to  be  trans- 
ferred, and  no  one  would  dare  to 
contract  to  give  future  title  to 
land  in  which  he  had  no  rights. 
For  this  reason  all  real  estate 
speculation  is  bull  speculation. 
For  purposes  of  short-selling 
goods  must  be  '  representative,' 
that  is,  of  such  a  character  that 
each  part  is  like  every  other  part, 
so  that  contracts  for  delivery  need 
not  specify  particular  lots,  but  may 
be  made  in  general  terms.  Money 
is  the  most  perfect  illustration,  or 
the  shares  of  any  specific  stock 
issue,  all  of  which  are  evidently 
identical  with  each  other.  Such 
identity  of  quality  does  not  exist 
in  the  case  of  commodities,  but 
may  be  secured  for  practical  pur- 
poses by  a  system  of  classification 
and  grading,  so  that  a  contract 
for  the  delivery  of  a  certain 


quantity  of  a  certain  grade  may 
be  made  in  general  terms.  The 
warrant  or  warehouse  receipt  is 
again  an  important  factor  in  fa- 
cilitating such  business.  The  sys- 
tem of  classification,  grading,  and 
warehousing  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  features  of  the  specu- 
lative market,  but  cannot  be  ex- 
plained at  length  here. 

Further  qualifications  are  nec- 
essary before  goods  can  become 
the  object  of  organized  specula- 
tion. They  must  be  of  uncertain 
demand  or  uncertain  supply, 
since  otherwise  the  fluctuations 
which  tempt  speculation  would 
not  arise,  and  they  must  be  inde- 
pendent of  control  by  a  monop- 
oly or  any  small  number  of  men, 
since  otherwise  the  supply  and 
price  can  be  arbitrarily  deter- 
mined. Consequently  speculation 
occurs  chiefly,  outside  of  stocks, 
in  the  great  staple  commodities — 
grain,  cotton,  cofi^ee,  and  the  like. 
Great  speculative  markets  have 
arisen  in  connection  with  particu- 
lar commercial  associations.  The 
greatest  speculative  market  for 
grain  and  provisions  is  the  Chi- 
cago Board  of  Trade.  The  chief 
centres  of  cotton  speculation  are 
the  Cotton  Exchanges  of  New 
York  and  New  Orleans.  _  The 
New  York  Stock  Exchange  is  far 
and  away  the  leading  market  for 
securities  in  this  country  and  one 
of  the  greatest  in  the  world. 
These  exchanges  are  made  up 
largely  of  brokers  (members) 
who  are  not  necessarily  specula- 
tors themselves,  but  through 
whom  all  outsiders  must  do  their 
business,  and  who  aim  to  keep 
as  much  of  a  monopoly  of  the 
trade  as  possible.  In  recent  years 
the  value  of  a  '  seat '  on  the  New 
York  Stock;  Exchange  has 
reached  $95,000,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  represent  the  value  of 
a  chance  to  make  brokerage  com- 
missions in  the  ceaseless  buying 
and  selling  of  this  market. 

The  speculation  of  these  noted 
exchanges  is  the  source  of  many 
evils,  and  at  the  same  time  an 
important  and  necessary  factor  in 
the  business  world.  The  evils  of 
speculation  are  more  generally 
commented  on  than  is  its  legit- 
imate function,  and  even  the 
evils  are  frequently  misunder- 
stood. The  chief  evil  is  the  in- 
centive and  opportunity  given  a 
wide  outside  public  to  engage  in 
transactions  which,  so  far  as  they 
are  concerned,  are  little  more 
than  gambling.  It  would  be  a  mis- 
take, however,  to  subscribe  to  the 
popular  notion  that  these  transac- 
tions are  themselves  nothing  but 
bets.  Every  contract  on  an  ex- 
change is  a  contract  involving 
definite  property  rights  and  obli- 
gations, and  differs  from  gam- 
bling proper  in  this,  that  whereas 
in  gambling  money  changes  hands 
on  account  of  some  artificially 


created  risk  of  a  fortuitous  event, 
in  the  case  of  speculation  there  are 
inevitable  economic  risks  of  fluc- 
tuating values,  and  the  speculator 
steps  in  and  assumes  these  risks. 
It  is  claimed  that  no  real  deliv- 
eries are  made  and  that,  there- 
fore, such  speculation  is  not  real 
business.  This  is  due  to  a  mis- 
understanding of  the  form  of 
contract.  All  speculation  on 
produce  exchanges  is  made  by 
means  of  futures,  and  every  con- 
tract of  sale  requires  a  delivery; 
but  since  the  time  of  delivery  is 
postponed,  the  short-seller  can 
*  cover  '  by  buying  in  before  that 
time  arrives,  and  whoever  sells 
to  him  can  be  directed  to  deliver 
on  the  original  contract.  This, 
of  course,  can  be  repeated  many 
times  before  delivery  time  ar- 
rives, and  convenient  methods  are 
adopted  for  'clearing'  all  these 
transactions  so  that  the  holder 
of  the  commodity  may  deliver  to 
the  final  purchaser  and  the  others 
settle  their  '  differences.'  This, 
however,  is  as  simple  and  legiti- 
mate as  the  clearing  process 
among  banks  and  does  not  im- 
pair the  strict  business  nature  of 
the  contracts.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  stock  exchange,  except  that 
in  New  York  futures  are  seldom 
used,  the  same  result  being  se- 
cured by  borrowing  stocks  for  de- 
livery on  short  sales.  Despite 
these  facts,  the  small  outside 
speculator  trades  in  a  gambling 
spirit,  and  the  facilities  afforded 
him  lead  to  demoralization,  bank- 
ruptcy, and  crime  of  an  alarm- 
ingly widespread  character. 

Another  evil  on  which  much 
stress  is  laid  is  the  manipulation 
of  the  market  by  powerful  forces 
to  the  detriment  of  the  public. 
In  the  case  of  the  produce  mar- 
kets the  extent  of  this  manipula- 
tion is  greatly  exaggerated.  The 
prices  of  these  commodities  are 
ultimately  regulated  by  the  actual 
and  anticipated  conditions  of  de- 
mand and  supply,  and  cannot  be 
much  controlled  by  plungers  or 
syndicates.  The  so-called  '  cor- 
ner,' for  example,  is  usually  tem- 
porary and  local,  resulting  from 
the  inability  of  the  '  shorts '  to 
deliver  on  a  certain  day  in  a  cer- 
tain market.  It  injures  the  specu- 
lators, but  not  the  outside  public. 
In  the  famous  wheat  corner  of 
September,  1888,  for  example, 
though  the  price  in  Chicago  went 
to  $2  at  the  end  of  the  month,  the 
New  York  market  was  hardly  af- 
fected; and  in  Chicago  the  price 
dropped  to  normal  on  the  first 
day  of  October.  In  the  case  of 
the  stock  market  the  chances  for 
manipulation  are  much  greater, 
since  the  directors  of  a  corpora- 
tion who  control  its  destinies 
may  at  the  same  time  speculate 
in  its  shares.  This  inside  specu- 
lation is  one  of  the  worst  scan- 
dals of  Wall  St.,  and  cases  have 


speculation 

not  been  lacking,  though  they  are 
on  the  whole  rare,  when  men 
have,  as  directors,  intentionally 
ruined  their  own  enterprises  in 
order  to  make  great  speculative 
profits  on  the  short  side  of  the 
market.  _  . 

Against  these  evils  must  be 
set  the  important  advantages  of 
organized  speculation.  In  the 
first  place,  it  provides  a  class  of 
professional  speculators,  among 
whom  there  are  some  ready  to 
buy  and  some  ready  to  sell  at  any 
moment  at  the  market  price. 
Holders  of  property  or  regular 
dealers  in  commodities  can  al- 
ways avoid  the  inevitable  dangers 
of  fluctuating  prices  by  throwing 
the  burden  on  these  speculators. 
This  risk-taking  function  of 
speculation  reveals  its  true  char- 
acter, as  a  form  of  business 
which  has  arisen  in  response  to 
the  enormously  increased  risks 
which  result  from  the  extension 
of  the  old  local  market  into  a 
world-wide  market  through  the 
growth  of  steam  transportation 
and  electric  communication.  In 
the  wheat  market,  for  example, 
prices  are  determined  by  world- 
wide conditions  which  are  so  un- 
predictable as  to  make  the  busi- 
ness of  a  wheat  dealer  extremely 
precarious  were  it  not  for  the 
speculative  market.  Now.  how- 
ever, he  can  use  this  market  to 
insure  himself  against  loss  by  the 
practice  called  '  hedging.'  When- 
ever he  buys  wheat,  instead  of 
carrying  himself  the  risk  of  a 
fall  in  price,  he  can  sell  short  on 
the  exchange  for  an  equal  amount 
for  future  delivery,  and  then 
cover  this  contract  by  buying  in 
from  another  speculator  when- 
ever he  sells  his  real  wheat.  By 
this  means  the  profit  or  loss  on 
one  contract  is  offset  by  the 
corresponding  loss  or  profit  on 
the  other.  The  rnerchant  avoids 
these  dangerous  risks,  which  are 
assumed  for  him  by  professional 
speculators. 

The  second  great  service  of  the 
speculative  market  lies  in  its 
price-making  function.  Here  all 
the  conditions  of  all  parts  of  the 
world  which  can  affect  the  price 
of  an  article  are  brought  to  a 
focus.  A  body  of  professional 
experts  express  their  opinion  of 
the  present  and  probable  future 
conditions  of  demand  and  supply 
by  means  of  their  purchases  and 
sales,  and  the  resultant  price 
shows  what  the  best  equipped 
judges  think  the  price  ought  to 
be.  This  distributes  the  use  of 
commodities  to  the  best  advantage 
of  the  public.  If  expert  opinion 
anticipates  a  shortage  in  supply, 
the  price  rises  now,  consump- 
tion is  lessened,  and  a  surplus  is 
carried  over  to  the  lean  period, 
preventing  a  disastrous  rise  in 
price  at  that  time.  The  reverse 
process  takes  place  when  a  bum- 


365 

per  crop  is  anticipated.  Thus 

speculation  steadies  prices  and 
intelligently  directs  the  use  of 
commodities  by  consumers. 

In  the  same  way  speculation  in 
securities  by  fixing  prices  which 
are  the  result  of  careful  study 
of  all  conditions  affecting  an 
enterprise,  furnishes  a  guide  to 
investment.  To-day  millions  of 
capital  are  put  into  enterprises 
by  small  investors  who  can  know 
nothing  of  their  intrinsic  merit. 
If,  however,  these  shares  are 
listed  on  the  stock  exchange,  a 
great  body  of  experts  is  set  to 
studying  their  value,  and  their 
opinion  is  inexorably  registered 
in  the  prices  made  by  their  trans- 
actions. Each  enterprise  is  here 
brought  to  the  bar  of  competent 
judgment,  and  the  ignorant  in- 
vestor receives  the  advantage  of 
it  gratis  and  can  place  his  money 
accordingly.  The  real  function 
of  speculation,  then,  may  _  be 
summed  up  as  follows :  To  relieve 
trade  of  the  risks  of  fluctuating 
values  by  providing  a  class  always 
ready  to  take  or  deliver  a  prop- 
erty at  the  market  price,  and,  in 
so  doing,  to  direct  commodities  to 
their  most  advantageous  uses  and 
the  investment  capital  into  the 
most  profitable  channels,  by  fixing 
for  commodities  and  securities 
comparative  prices  for  delivery 
at  different  times  and  places. 
See  Stock  Exchange. 

Bibliography. — For  further  in- 
formation the  reader  should  con- 
sult H.  C.  Emery's  Speculation  on 
Stock  Exchanges  of  the  United 
States  (1896) ;  Sereno  Pratt's 
Work  of  Wall  Street  (1903); 
Crump's  Theory  of  Stock  Specu- 
lation ;  Giffen,  Stock  Exchange 
Securities  (1877);  and  Clews, 
Twenty  -  eight  Years  in  Wall 
Street  (1888). 

Speculum,  in  medicine,  an  in- 
strument used  to  facilitate  the  in- 
spection of  some  passage  or  recess 
in  the  body  or  the  introduction  of 
remedies.  Specula  are  made  of 
various  materials,  silver  or  plated 
metal  being  much  used  on  account 
of  its  reflecting  power.  Other 
substances  are  necessary  when 
caustics  or  corrosives  are  to  be  in- 
troduced through  the  speculum. 

Speculum  Humanae  Salva- 
tionls,  a  rhyming  work  of  the 
14th  century,  dealing  with  Scrip- 
ture history  commingled  with 
media:val  legends,  and  traditions 
especially  relating  to  the  worship 
of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

Speculum  Metal  is  an  alloy 
of  two  parts  copper  and  one  tin, 
with  a  trace  of  arsenic.  It  is  hard, 
white,  and  brittle,  and  can  be 
highly  polished.  It  is  used  for 
making  the  mirrors  of  reflecting 
telescopes,  but  has  been  largely 
superseded  by  silvered  glass. 

Speculum  Perfectlonls,  a 
work  by  Leo  of  Assisi,  which  has 


Speedwell 

been  recently  brought  to  notice 
through  Sabatier,  contains  the 
oldest  account  extant  of  St. 
Francis,  having  been  written 
about  1227.  See  P.  Sabatier's  Col- 
lection d' Etudes  et  de  Documents 
pour  I'Hisioire  du  Moyen  Age; 
Speculum  Pcrjectionis,  vol.  i. 
(Eng.  trans,  by  S.  Evans,  1898). 

Spedding,  James  (1808-81), 
EngUsh  editor  of  Bacon's  Works, 
was  born  in  Cumberland.  At 
Cambridge  he  was  intimate  with 
the  Tennysons,  Arthur  Hallam, 
and  Trench.  He  was  secretary  to 
Lord  Ashburton's  mission  to  the 
United  States  in  1842,  and  secre- 
tary  to  the  Civil  Service  Commis- 
sion in  1855.  With  these  brief  ex- 
ceptions, his  life  was  entirely  de- 
voted from  1841  to  the  study  of 
Bacon.  In  1847  a  complete  edi- 
tion of  Bacon's  Works  was  under- 
taken conjointly  with  Heath  and 
Ellis,  and  appeared  in  1857-9  in  7 
vols.,  and  the  Life  and  Letters  in 
other  7  vols.  (1861-74).  See  Life 
by  Venables  prefixed  to  his  early 
essay  on  Macaulay's  *  Bacon,' 
Evenings  with  a  Reviewer  (1881), 
and  Lord  Tennyson's  Memoir  of 
his  Father  (1897). 

Speech.  See  Philology; 
Grammar;  Voice.  For  defects 
of  speech,  see  Aphasia;  Stam- 
mering; and  Deaf  and  Dumb, 
Education  of  the. 

Speed,  James  (1812-87),  Ameri- 
can politician,  born  in  Jefferson 
CO.,  Ky.  He  graduated,  at  St. 
Joseph's  College  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  beginning  his 
practice  in  Louisville.  He  was 
a  prominent  leader  of  the  Union 
cause  in  Ky.  during  the  Civil  War, 
and  was  attorney-general  of  the 
U.  S.  in  1864-66,  when  he  re- 
signed because  he  did  not  agree 
with  Johnson's  policy  of  recon- 
struction. 

Speed,  John  (?  1552- 1629), 
English  historian  and  cartogra- 
pher, was  born  at  Farringdon  in 
Cheshire.  Through  the  generosity 
of  Sir  Fulke  Greville  he  was  en- 
abled to  give  up  his  trade  (tailor- 
ing) and  devote  himself  to  the 
making  of  maps  of  the  counties 
of  England  {Theatre  of  the  Em- 
pire of  Great  Britain,  1611)  and 
to  The  History  of  Great  Britain 

Speed  Pulley.  See  Belt  and 
Rope  Gearing. 

Speedwell,  a  name  given  to 
certain  species  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  Veronica,  a  sub- 
division of  the  order  Scrophula- 
riaceae.  The  flowers  have  wheel- 
shaped  corollas  and  two  stamens. 
Among  the  species  are  the  thyme- 
leaved  speedwell  {V.  serpylU folia), 
a  common  little  prostrate  plant, 
with  oval  leaves  and  spikes  cf 
light  blue  flowers;  the  germander 
speedwell  (F.  chamcedrys),  a  little 
naturalized  plant,  with  bright 
blue  flowers  and  hairy  stems;  the 
common  speedwell  (F.  officinalis). 


Speer 


366 


Spelling  Reform 


found  on  dry  pastures;  and  the 

wall  speedwell  (V.  arvensis). 

Speer,  Emory  (1848),  American 
jurist,  born  in  CuUoden,  Ga.;  re- 
ceived a  classical  education; 
served  in  the  Confederate  army  in 
1864-5;  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Georgia  in  1869; 
and  the  same  year  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  and  began  practice  at 
Athens.  He  was  appointed  solic- 
itor-general for  the  eleven  coun- 
ties embraced  in  the  western 
judicial  circuit  of  the  state  in 
1873,  and  held  the  office  for  three 
years;  represented  his  district  in 
•  Congress  as  an  Independent 
Democrat  in  1879-81,  and  as  an 
Independent  in  1881-83,  during 
which  term  he  differed  with  his 
party  on  protection  and  other  is- 
sues and  supported  many  Repub- 
lican m.easures;  was  United  States 
attorney  for  his  district  in  1883— 
85;  and  was  appointed  judge  of 
the  southern  Federal  judicial  dis- 
trict in  1885.  He  was  also  presi- 
dent of  the  law  department  of 
Mercer  University.  He  achieved 
distinction  not  only  as  a  jurist  but 
also  as  an  orator,  especially  as 
chief  speaker  at  the  great  Peace 
Jubilee  at  Chicago  in  1898.  His 
publications  include  Removal  of 
Causes  from  State  to  United  States 
Courts  (1888),  Lectures  on  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States 
(1897),  and  Lectures  on  the  Storrs 
Foundation,  Yale  University 
(1906). 

Speise.    See  Metallurgy.  ^ 
Speiss,    the   impure  arsenide 
of  cobalt  or  nickel  obtained  on 
smelting   the   arsenical   ores  of 
those  metals. 

Speke,  John  Hanning  (1827- 
64),  English  African  explorer, 
was  born  near  Ilchester  in  Somer- 
setshire. After  serving  in  the 
Crimea,  he  was  associated  with 
Burton  in  an  expedition  to  dis- 
cover the  traditional  equatorial 
lakes.  Tanganyika  was  fully  ex- 
plored by  them,  and  Speke  com- 
mitted himself  to  the  theory  that 
the  Mountains  of  the  Moon  cir- 
cled the  north  of  the  lake.  This 
later  gave  Burton  his  opportunity 
to  vent  the  jealousy  he  felt  be- 
cause on  a  side  expedition  Speke 
discovered  Victoria  Nyanza,  which 
he  was  convinced  was  the  source  of 
the  Nile.  In  1860  Speke  renewed 
his  work  on  Victoria  Nyanza,  and 
followed  the  course  of  the  Nile 
for  some  distance;  and  he  gave 
Baker  information  which  led  to 
the  discovery  of  Albert  Nyanza. 
His  works  are  Journal  of  the  Dis- 
covery of  the  Source  of  the  Nile 

(1863)  and  What  Led  to  the  Dis- 
covery  of  the  Source  of  the  Nile 

(1864)  . 

Spell.     See  INCANTATION. 

Spelling.    See  Orthography. 

Spelling  Reform,  properly  so 
called,  consists  in  such  modifica- 
tion of  the  spelling  of  words 


as  to  increase  the  utility  of  the 
written  form  of  the  language  as  a 
medium  for  the  expression  of  ideas. 

The  written  form  of  a  language 
tends  to  become  fixed,  while  the 
changes  in  the  spoken  language 
continue  relatively  unchecked. 
In  order  to  prevent  the  written 
language  from  becoming  a  system 
of  arbitrary  symbols  it  is  necessary 
that  changes  should  from  time 
to  time  be  made  to  bring  it  into 
reasonable  ccnfoimity  to  the 
spoken  language.  Such  changes 
are  constantly  in  progress  by  the 
slow  natural  processes  of  develop- 
rnent,  and  they  are  also  occa- 
sionally effected  as  the  result  of 
deliberate  convention  or  govern- 
mental action.  The  conservatism 
of  the  public,  however,  is  such 
that  any  attempt  to  introduce  or 
force  the  use  of  reformed  spellings, 
however  wise  or  needful,  against 
public  opinion  meets  with  but 
little  success.  Changes  of  more  or 
less  importance  have,  however, 
been  brought  about  by  compulsive 
governmental  action,  as  in  Ger- 
many, and  in  other  cases  by 
public  agitation  and  a  convention 
among  scholars  or  literary  bodies, 
as  in  France  and  Spain. 

The  last  systematic  change  of  a 
deliberate  nature  in  all  English 
(British  and  American)  spelling 
was  the  dropping  of  the  'k'  in 
such  words  as  'politick,  fanatick, 
picnick,'  etc.,  and  the  substitution 
of  's'  for  'f.'  That  our  present 
spelling  needs  and  admits  of 
reform  is  the  general  view  of  com- 
petent persons.  As  to  how  this 
simplification  should  be  accom- 
plished, however,  no  such  con- 
sensus exists.  The  measures  ad- 
vocated vary  from  those  involving 
but  little  change  to  those  that 
would  Italianize  our  vowel  system 
and  by  this  and  other  fundamen- 
tal changes  revolutipnize  English 
spelling.  When  opinions  are  so 
divergent  it  is  evident  that  there 
are  no  generally  accepted  prin- 
ciples upon  which  they  are 
based. 

The  reasons  advanced  for  re- 
form are  various,  but  much  the 
most  important  one  is  the  saving  of 
time  and  labor  that  would  result 
from  the  adoption  of  a  reasonably 
phonetic  spelling.  The  chief  ob- 
jection to  a  change  in  spelling  is 
the  fact  that  the  new  spelling 
would  be  less  intelligible  and  sig- 
nificant than  the  old  one  to  per- 
sons educated  before  the  intro- 
duction of  the  reform.  Other 
objections  are  based  on  etymolog- 
ical grounds,  and  others  appear  to 
be  purely  sentimental.  Any  re- 
form, however,  must  evidently 
be  of  such  gradual  adoption  as 
not  suddenly  to  make  any  ma- 
terial loss  of  value  in  existing 
books,  and  not  seriously  to  inter- 
fere with  the  ability  of  persons  al- 
ready educated  to  read  and  write 
in  the  new  forms. 


The  saving  of  time  in  learning 
to  read  and  spell  that  would 
result  from  a  reformed  spelling 
of  English  is  variously  estimated 
at  from  about  one  and  a  half  to 
three  j^ears  in  school  work  for 
each  child.  Whether  any  of  these 
estimates  be  correct  or  not,  it 
may  reasonably  be  inferred  that 
the  gross  advantages  to  English- 
reading  people  to  be  derived  from 
a  reformed  spelling  are  likely  to 
lead  to  changes.  The  complicated 
orthography  of  English  is  a 
hindrance  to  its  acquisition  by 
foreigners;  and  this  is  of  special 
importance  in  the  U.  S.,  which 
absorbs  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
immigrants  every  year.  Our  arbi- 
trary spelling  also  hinders  the 
wider  adoption  of  English  as  a 
world-language — that  is,  as  the 
second  tongue  of  all  educated 
men,  whatever  their  native  speech. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  conse- 
quences of  a  sudden  or  general 
reform  would  mean  so  serious  a 
loss  to  the  present  generation 
as  to  make  any  radical  action 
both  unwise  anci  impossible;  and 
the  possible  injury  to  be  done  by 
unwise  change  is  so  great  as  to 
make  it  imperative  that  proposed 
changes  should  be  adopted  only 
when  they  have  been  shown  to 
afford  a  reasonable  certainty  of 
being  beneficial. 

From  the  time  of  Orm,  who 
about  1200  doubled  consonants 
to  indicate  short  vowels,  there 
have  been  various  agitations  for  a 
reform  by  convention  in  English 
spelhng.  The  most  important 
movement,  however,  is  that  pro- 
moted by  members  of  the  Ameri- 
can and  British  Philological 
societies.  This  movement  was 
along  the  general  lines  that  had 
been  in  part  followed  by  Webster 
in  his  dictionary,  and  that  gave 
'-or'  and  '-er'  as  the  preferred 
American  forms  instead  of  '-our' 
and  '-re,'  .as  in  'color,  flavor, 
center,  theater,'  etc.  The  move- 
ment had  its  principal  inception 
in  the  work  of  A.  J.  Ellis  and 
Pitman,  and  later  has  had 
among  its  promoters  the  chief 
American  and  British  philolo- 
gists. It  resulted  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  Spelling  Reform  Asso- 
ciation in  America  (1876)  and 
in  Great  Britain  (1879).  A  list 
of  several  thousand  reformed 
spellings  was  made,  and  public 
discussion  and  agitation  carried 
on.  Subsequently  the  Modern 
Language  Association  and  the 
National  Educational  Association 
of  America  also  took  up  the  work 
of  advancing  the  jcause  of  spelling 
reform,  and  in  connection  with  it 
have,  through  a  committee,  re- 
ported on  a  phonetic  English 
alphabet  for  ultimate  adoption, 
recognizing  that  this  at  present 
is  merely  an  ideal  to  be  aimed  at. 

In  the  winter  of  1905-6  a  few 
of  the  m.ore  active  promoters  of 


r 


Spelling  Reform 

the  spelling  reform  movement 
procured  a  fund  from  Andrew 
Carnegie  to  be  used  in  conducting 
a  campaign  for  furthering  the 
cause  of  speUing  reform,  accord- 
ing to  the  directions  of  a  body  of 
men  who  have  adopted  the  name 
of  the  'Simplified  Spelling  Board.' 
To  this  SimpUfied  Spelling^ Board 
belong  leading  professors^  in  Ox- 
ford and  Cambridge,  in  Yale  and 
Columbia,  the  editors  of  all  the 
dictionaries,  as  well  as  distin- 
guished educators  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  In  1909 
a  similar  body  was  organized  in 
England,  called  the  Simplified 
Spelling  Society.  The  campaign 
has  been  conducted  to  bring  into 
use  some  300  'simplified  spellings' 
recommended  to  the  public  by  the 
board;  and  as  a  result  of  it,  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt,  in  August,  1906, 
by  executive  order  directed  that 
these  spellings  be  used  in  printing 
public  documents,  and  that  they 
should  also  be  used  in  the  execu- 
tive correspondence.  At  the  open- 
ing of  Congress  in  December, 
1906,  opposition  was  manifested 
to  this  innovation,  and  the  cus- 
tomary spelling  was  re-established 
for  all  government  printing. 

Of  the  300  forms  recommended 
for  adoption,  nearly  one-half  are 
already  preferred  or  in  good  usage 
in  America.  The  only  consider- 
able changes  from  current  usage 
that  are  recommended  are  that 
past  participles  be  formed  by 
adding  't'  instead  of  'ed'  where 
this  represents  the  pronunciation, 
as  in  'claspt,  mist,  tipt,  tost,'  etc., 
instead  of  'clasped,  missed,  tipped, 
tossed,'  etc.;  and  that  words  now 
ending  in  '-gue'  and  their  deriva- 
tives be  spelled  with  '-g,'  as  'cata- 
log, demagog,  epilog,'  etc.,  for 
'catalogue,  demagogue,  epilogue,' 
etc. 

The  governing  principle  on 
which  the  simplifications  recom- 
mended by  the  Simplified  Spell- 
ing Board  are  based  is  that  the 
'only  proper  office'  of  spelling  is  to 
serve  as  'a  guide  to  pronunciation.' 
If  this  principle  is  not  true  it  is 
plain  that  such  changes  as  counter 
the  true  principle  are  unwise,  and 
that  to  give  them  a  forced  cur- 
rency by  propagandism  or  incon- 
siderate action  is  pernicious,  be- 
cause the  older  and  better  forms 
would  necessarily  be  restored  bv  the 
slow  processes  that  produced  tnem. 

The  spelling,  or  written  form,  of 
English  is,  equally  with  its  pro- 
nunciation, a  result  of  its  organic 
development,  and  its  history  be- 
gins with  the  history  of  our  alpha- 
bet. The  first  step  toward  the  for- 
mation of  alphabets  was  the  repre- 
sentation of  simple  ideas  or  events 
by  pictures  inscribed  upon  wood  or 
bone.  From  these  were  developed 
successively  (1)  the  system  of  picto- 
graphs  or  hieroglyphs  (the  expres- 
sion of  thought  by  the  use  of  pic- 


SB? 

tures  more  or  less  conventional- 
ized, and  directly  symbolizing 
some  object  or  idea);  (2)  the  sys- 
tem using  ideographs  (which  are 
symbols  for  ideas);  (3)  the  sylla- 
bary (or  system  of  representing 
words  by  syllabic  symbols,  as  in 
Japanese);  (4)  finally,  the  alphabet 
m  which  both  picture  and  ideo- 
graphic value  are  entirely  lost,  the 
sound  values  alone  remaining. 

With  the  establishment  of  the 
alphabet,  which  represents  pho- 
netic combination,  the  function  of 
the  word  symbols  has  shifted  from 
that  of  directly  symbolizing  the 
idea  to  that  of  symbolizing  a  sound 
that  is  the  name  of  an  idea.  The 
value  of  written  words  in  the  first 
stage  of  an  alphabet   is  purely 

Ehonetic,  or  sound  -  representing, 
ut  with  the  development  of  litera- 
ture the  written  word  acquires 
more  or  less  of  an  ideographic  (or 
idea-representing)  value.  This 
new  value  was  decidedly  subordi- 
nate, however,  even  as  late  as  the 
14th  century,  when  the  English 
language  was  taking  literary  shape. 
Then  there  was  no  standard  of 
English  spelHng,  and  there  con- 
tinued to  be  none  until  the  inven- 
tion of  printing  rendered  a  relatively 
uniform  spelling  and  a  practi- 
cally uniform  typography  essen- 
tial to  the  general  utility  of  books. 
Word  lists,  vocabularies,  and 
finally  dictionaries  were  made; 
and  at  last  by  the  time  of  the  pub- 
lication of  Johnson's  Dictionary 
(1755)  the  generally  accepted 
spellings  of  most  of  our  words  had 
become  fixed  as  they  now  are. 
Changes  have  not  now  altogether 
ceased;  they  are  only  relatively 
less,  and  are  mostly  effected  by  a 
slow  and  unconscious  process. 
The  results,  which  are  recorded  in 
the  successive  editions  of  larger 
dictionaries,  show  a  gradual  swing- 
ing toward  a  morephonetic spelling. 

Our  words  have  acquired  insep- 
arable literary,  scientific,  social, 
and  aesthetic  associations  and 
differentiations  of  meaning.  The 
multiplication  of  books  and  the 
universalizing  of  education  has 
worked  a  radical  change  in  the 
value  of  written  words,  and  now  a 
main  function  of  the  written  word 
is  to  suggest  ideas  directly  through 
the  visual  impression  made  by  it. 
Our  reading  vocabulary  becomes 
several  times  larger  than  our 
spoken  vocabulary,  and  we  read 
to  ourselves,  and  understand  with 
ease,  passages  that  we  should  be 
able  to  read  aloud  only  with 
considerable  stumbling.  Printed 
words  have  thus  become  more 
than  mere  sound  symbols:  they 
are  now  the  algebraic  symbols  of 
implicit  thinking. 

Nor  is  it  the  word  alone  that 
now  has  an  individuality  of  its 
own  and  aproper  significance  as  a 
symbol.  The  conditions  of  mod- 
ern English  terminology  have 
created  a  class  of  prefixes  and 


Spelling  R-eforni 

suffixes  or  combining  forms  that 
are  suggestive  of  the  primitive 
ideographs — forms  treated  as 
wholes  with  fixed  meanings  re- 
gardless of  differences  of  pronun- 
ciation. In  all  the  arts  and 
sciences  there  are  various  terms 
beginning  or  ending  in  -ide,  -itis, 
-logy,  -ism,  -meter,  haemo-,  hemi-, 
-graphy,  hypo-,  philo-,  phylo-, 
palaeo-,  sub-,  super-,  etc.,  the 
form  and  significance  of  which  is 
fixed;  but  their  pronunciation 
varies  both  with  different  persons 
and  with  the  same  person  for 
different  words.  The  British  pro- 
nunciation, also,  of  some  classes 
of  them  is  different  from  the 
American  pronunciation.  No 
corresponding  changes  take  place 
in  the  meanings  of  the  prefixes  or 
suffixes,  however;  they  remain  tha 
same  for  all  forms  and  for  all  per- 
sons. In  all  these  cases  any  at- 
tempt to  conform  the  spelling  to 
the  established  pronunciation  ol 
these  words  would  not  only  be 
impracticable,  but  would  nullifji 
the  effect  for  which  the  suffixea 
have  been  created.  Invariability 
of  form  and  of  the  suggested 
meaning  teaches  the  mind  to  neg- 
lect the  sound  and  depend  upon 
visual  impression  alone  for  the 
thought.  This  has  created  a  defi- 
nite consciousness  of  the  meanings 
of  visible  word  elements,  and  the 
mere  general  form  of  the  suffix  is 
sufficient  to  indicate  to  the  reader 
the  particular  sense  conveyed  by 
the  word.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  phases  of  the  devel- 
opments of  modern  English.  The 
classification  of  lists  of  suffixes  and 
prefixes  in  the  schoolbooks  for  the 
teaching  of  language  has  become 
nearly  universal,  and  the  child  is 
taught  that  a  certain  group  of  let- 
ters occurring  in  a  word  indicates 
a  certain  idea  or  group  of  ideas. 
Whole  compound  words  also  vary 
in  pronunciation,  while  the  form 
and  sense  remain  the  same.  Thus, 
in  the  word  'geography'  the  'o'  in 
the  accented  syllable  is  distinctly 
'o'  as  in  'not';  but  in  the  deriva- 
tive 'geographical'  the  'o'  as- 
sumes a  new  value.  Yet  the  con- 
sciousness of  this  alteration  is  en- 
tirely absent  in  reading;  and  any 
calling  of  the  attention  to  it  would 
undoubtedly  interfere  with  the 
intelligibility  of  the  word  as  a 
symbol  of  an  idea. 

If  these  facts  have  any  meaning 
we  are  inevitably  led  to  the  con- 
clusion that  with  the  majority  of 
educated  people  the  meaning  of 
the  printed  page  is  suggested 
directly  through  the  stimulation 
of  the  visual  organs  and  not 
through  the  mediation  of  the  sense 
of  hearing.  The  same  conclusion 
is  to  be  drawn  from  the  fact  that, 
as  psychologists  have  shown,  a 
majority  of  hterate  people  (and 
probably  of  all  people)  are  visu- 
alizers;  that  is,  complement  and 
aid  their  thought  processes  by  thR 


J 


Spel  man 


368 


Spencer 


formation  of  visual  images  of 
words.  Though  the  auditory 
image,  or  sense,  materially  assists 
the  process  of  thinking  with  most 
people,  and  with  some  is  a  pri- 
mary source  of  understanding,  for 
the  great  majority  the  visual  sense 
is  the  primary  basis  of  recognition 
and  the  means  of  quick  discrimi- 
nation. Ease  of  reading  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  immediate  sig- 
nificance of  the  symbol,  enalDling 
the  mind  to  associate  or  distin- 
guish directly  as  by  a  sort  of 
algebra  of  thought. 

We  must  conclude,  then,  that 
we  cannot  in  the  execution  of  any 
scheme  for  simplifying  our  spell- 
ing wisely  ignore  the  ideographic, 
or  thought-representing,  values  of 
our  written  words  and  assume 
that  their  sole  function  is  phono- 
graphic, or  to  serve  as  guides  to 
the  sounds  of  spoken  words;  nor 
can  we  so  arrive  at  results  that 
can  be  depended  upon  to  prove 
beneficial  rather  than  pernicious. 
Uniformity  and  distinctiveness  are 
desirable  as  well  in  our  thought 
symbols  as  in  our  sound  symbols, 
and  a  change  that  simplifies  the 
representation  of  sounds  may 
create  difficulties  in  the  symboliz- 
ing of  ideas  more  objectionable 
than  those  removed.  Also,  from 
the  great  complexity  of  English 
phonetics  and  spelling  a  change 
that  simplifies  the  spelling  of  one 
word  may  cause  difficulties  in  re- 
lated words  that  make  the  change 
unwise. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  complex  such 
as  the  English  language,  having 
upwards  of  one  hundred  thousand 
parts  (ignoring  the  fact  that  there 
are  several  times  this  number  of 
words  reckoned  as  part  of  the 
language),  cannot  be  grasped  in 
all  its  parts  by  the  mind  without 
the  aid  of  statistics;  and  no  scien- 
tist would  attempt  the  simplifica- 
tion of  so  complex  a  system  with- 
out exact  knowledge  of  the  parts 
affected, and  the  nature  of  the  effect 
caused  by  any  proposed  modifica- 
tion. Exact  knowledge  of  what 
would  be  the  result  of  any  particu- 
lar measure  of  reform  must  be  ob- 
tained by  the  systematic  making 
of  lists  and  tables  of  words  by 
which  the  effects  of  proposed 
changes  may  be  studied  and 
analyzed.  Lists  of  such  words 
have  already  been  made  by  the 
philological  societies,  but  they  are 
far  from  exhaustive;  indeed,  they 
are  but  the  beginning  of  the  task. 
In  the  end  these  will  be  made,  for 
a  wise  spelling  reform  cannot 
come  without  them. 

The  cause  of  orthographic  prog- 
ress can  be  aided  by  forming 
the  habit  of  always  using  the 
simpler  of  any  two  spellings  now 
in  reputable  use;  and  by  keeping 
our  minds  open  and  ready  to  wel- 
come such  further  simplifications 
as  may  recommend  themselves  to 
our  intelligence.    The  latest  book 


is  Professor  Lounsbury's  E.  Spell- 
ing and  Spelling  Reform  (1909). 

Speljnan,  Sir  Henry  (?1564- 
1641),  English  historian  and  an- 
tiquary, born  at  Congham  in  Nor- 
folk. His  chief  work,  Councils^ 
Decrees,  Laws,  and  Consiitulions 
of  the  English  Church,  appeared 
in  1639;  and  he  wrote  much  on 
ecclesiastical  antiquities,  his  His- 
tory and  Fate  of  Sacrilege  (1698) 
being  the  most  notable  book. 

Spelt  {'I  riticum  spelta),  a  variety 
of  the  comrnon  wheat  {T.  sativum). 
It  was  cultivated  by  the  Romans, 


Spelt  {Triticum  spelta). 

1,  Spicula ;  2,  calyx  (glumes) ;  3,  floret. 


and  is  still  grown  in  certain  parts  of 
Europe,  notably  in  the  south  of  Ger- 
many and  in  German  Switzerland. 

Spelter,  an  alloy,  consisting 
of  about  equal  parts  of  copper 
and  zinc,  used  for  hard  soldering 
or  brazing.  The  term  is  also  ap- 
plied to  zinc  in  the  ingot  form  as 
produced  by  the  smelter. 

Spence,  Joseph  (1699-1768), 
English  anecdotist  and  man  of 
letters,  was  born  at  Kingsclere  in 
Hampshire.  In  1726  he  published 
an  Essay  on  Pope's  Odyssey, 
which  won  him  the  poet's  friend- 
ship and  the  professorship  of 
poetry  at  Oxford  (1728-38).  He 
became  rector  of  Great  Horwood 
and  prebend  of  Durham.  In  1747 
he  published  Polymetis,  a  treatise 
on  classical  mythology;  but  he 
is  remembered  as  the  collector 
of  the  anecdotes  of  Pope  and  his 
literary  circle,  which  were  not 
published  till  1820.  See  Singer's 
Memoir  and  edition  of  Anecdotes, 
also  Dobson's  essay  on  Spence  in 
Eighteenth  Century  Vignettes  (first 
series,  1892). 


Speneer.     See  Sunderland, 

Earl  of. 

Spencer.  (1.)  Tn., Worcester  cO., 
Mass.,  10  m.  w.  by  s.  of  Worces- 
ter, on  the  Bost.  and  Alb.  R.  R, 
It  is  a  summer  resort.  It  has  manu- 
factories of  boots  and  shoes,  under- 
wear, woollen  goods,  wire  articles, 
satinet?,  boxes,  etc.  The  town 
possesses  the  Richard  Sugden 
Public  Library,  a  children's  in- 
dustrial home,  and  three  public 
parks.  Spencer  was  settled  in 
1720  as  a  part  of  Leicester.  In 
1753  it  was  incorporated  as  a 
separate  town.  Pop. (1910) (1,740. 
(2.)  City,  la.,  co.  seat  of  Clay  co., 
80  m.  N.E.  by  E.  of  Sioux  City,  on 
the  Little  Sioux  R.  and  on  the 
Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.  and  the 
Minn,  and  St.  L.  R.  Rs.  It  has 
manufactures  of  hay-presses,  tile, 
brick,  cement,  iron  products, 
wagons,  machinery,  shingles,  flour, 
flax  products,  etc.  Spencer  pos- 
sesses a  Carnegie  library.  The 
city  owns  and  operates  the  water- 
works and  electric-lighting  plant. 
It  was  settled  in  1866  and  incor- 
porated  in  1880.  Pop.  (1910) 
3,005.  (3.)  City,  Ind.,  co.  seat  of 
Owen  CO.,  37  m.  e.s.e.  of  Terre 
Haute,  on  the  W.  fork  of  the  White 
R.,  and  on  the  Vandalia  R.  R.  It 
manufactures  lumber,  flour,  kitch- 
en cabinets,  bricks,  tiles,  staves, 
bottles,  etc.  It  was  settled  in 
1815  and  incorporated  in  1846. 
Pop.  (1910)  2,150. 

Spencer,  Ambrose  (1765- 
1848),  American  jurist  and  poli- 
tician, born  at  Salisbury,  Conn. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1783, 
settled  in  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Assembly  in  1794 
and  state  senator  in  1795-1802, 
introducing  the  bill  which  abol- 
ished capital  punishment  except 
for  murder  and  treason.  He  was 
attorney-general  of  New  York  in 
1802-4,  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  in  1804-19,  and  chief  jus- 
tice in  1819-23.  He  was  a  promi- 
nent leader  of  the  Clintonian 
faction  of  the  Democratic-Repub- 
lican partVj  and  afterwards  be- 
came a  Whig.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  constitutional  convention  of 
1821,  and  after  leaving  the  bench 
was  mayor  of  Albany  in  1824-26 
and  member  of  Congress  in  1829~- 
31.  In  1844  he  presided  overthe 
convention  which  gave  Henry 
Clay  his  last  nomination  for  the 
presidency. 

Spencer,  Arthur  Coe  (1871), 
American  geologist,  born  in  Car- 
mel,  N.  Y.  He  graduated  at  the 
Case  School  of  Apphed  Science, 
Cleveland,  O.,  1892,  and  at 
Johns  Hopkins  in  1896.  In  1893-4 
he  surveyed  the  coal  deposits  of 
Iowa,  as  an  assistant  on  the  state 
geological  survey.  In  1896  he 
became  an  assistant  on  the  U,  S. 
geological  survey  and  was  as- 
signed to  survey  duties  in  the  San 
Juan  region,  Col.    In  1900-1  he 


Spencer 


369 


Spencer 


reported  on  the  mineral  resources 
of  the  Copper  river  district, 
Alaska,  and  in  1901-2  investi- 
gated the  geology  of  a  portion  of 
Cuba.  He  returned  to  Alaska 
again  in  1903  to  report  on  the  gold 
deposits  of  Juneau,  and  in  1904-5 
reported  on  the  Pre-Cambrian 
geology  of  New  Jersey. 

Spencer,  Herbert  (1S20- 
1903),  Enghsh  philosopher,  born 
at  Derby.  In  1837  young  Spen- 
cer accepted  a  position  as  engineer 
on  the  London  and  Birmingham 
Ry.  For  a  year  and  a  half  he 
worked  in  London  as  a  civil 
engineer,  and  subsequently  for 
two  and  a  half  years  on  the 
Birmingham  and  Gloucester  Ry. 
After  the  crisis  of  the  great  rail- 
wav  mania  he  had  to  begin  anew 
(1846).  In  1848  he  was  invited 
to  take  the  sub-editorship  of  the 
Economist  newspaper;  this  post 
he  held  till  1853.  It  is  a  mis- 
take to  suppose  that  when  he 
began  his  philosophical  studies 
Spencer  set  himself  consciously 
and  dehberately  to  search  for 
the  unifying  root  of  nature's 
multiform  manifestations.  At 
first  his  mind  was  mainly  directed 
to  questions  of  a  political  and 
social  nature.  In  1850  appeared 
Social  Statics,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  base  his  practical 
views  on  a  coherent  set  of  first 
principles.  It  is  a  common  ob- 
jection to  the  Spencerian  system 
of  thought  that  it  is  a  revival 
in  modern  times  of  the  a  priori 
methods  of  the  schoolmen — a  kind 
of  materialistic  Hegelianism,  in 
which  facts  are  made  to  fit  a  pre- 
conceived theoretic  framework. 
Nothing  could  be  further  from 
the  truth.  Spencer  began  with 
fact,  and  stuck  to  the  induc- 
tive process;  and  it  was  only  at  a 
certain  stage  of  his  scientific  ex- 
ploration that  the  thought  flashed 
across  his  mind  that  the  law  of 
biological  and  social  evolution  is 
a  universal  process,  traceable  in 
the  cosmical  changes  and  in  the 
latest  results  of  civilization.  His 
originality  consists  in  the  unique 
manner  in  which  he  has  combined 
the  two  processes,  induction  and 
deduction.  Even  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent than  in  England  his  works 
have  moulded  the  religious  and 
philosophic  thought  of  the  New 
World.  A  number  of  his  essays 
written  between  1852  and  1860 
reappeared  in  the  U.  S.,  where 
Mr.  Youmans,  editor  of  the 
Popular  Science  Monthly,  with 
others  of  his  American  friends, 
aided  Spencer  in  the  continuation 
of  his  work.  On  the  Continent 
his  books  have  been  translated  by 
enthusiastic  disciples,  and  among 
Oriental  thinkers,  in  India  and 
in  Japan,  the  bold  and  massive 
generalization  of  the  Spencerian 
philosophy  has  found  a  con- 
genial home. 

What,  then,  is  the  precise  po- 


sition which  Spencer  occupies 
in  the  history  of  philosophic 
thought  ?  In  his  First  Principles 
(1862)  he  adopts  and  approves  the 
Hamiltonian  demonstration  of 
the  relativity  of  knowledge,  hold- 
ing that,  from  the  constitution  of 
the  human  mind,  knowledge  of 
noumena  is  impossible.  Thus  his 
task  was  to  find  the  root  principle 
of  phenomenal  existence.  Spen- 
cer found  the  path  of  discovery 


cleared  by  three  great  general- 
izations— the  universal  law  of 
gravitation,  the  nebular  theory, 
and  the  doctrine  of  the  conser- 
vation or  persistence  of  force. 
These  three  isolated  generaliza- 
tions Spencer  fused  into  one  by 
his  theory  of  evolution.  Accord- 
ing to  him,  the  one  universal  and 
ultimate  fact  is  the  redistribution 
of  matter  and  motion,  all  phe- 
nomena being  simplv  the  multi- 
plex and  complex  phases  pf  the 


one  fact.  Evolution  is  defined 
as  an  integration  of  matter  and 
concomitant  dissipation  of  mo- 
tion, during  which  matter  passes 
from  an  indefinite  incoherent 
homogeneity  to  a  definite  coherent 
heterogeneity,  while  the  retained 
motion  goes  through  a  parallel 
transformation.  In  his  First 
Principles  (1862)  Spencer  has  ap- 
phed  his  formula  to  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  earth  from  its  nebu- 


lous to  its  present  stage.  In 
Principles  of  Biology  (1864-7)  the 
problem  Spencer  set  before  him 
was  to  explain  by  his  evolution 
hypothesis  the  structural  and 
functional  complexities  of  plant 
and  animal  life.  The  key  to 
this  part  of  the  subject  is  found 
in  the  Spencerian  definition  of 
life  as  the  continuous  adjustment 
of  inner  to  outer  relations. 
Given  an  environment  gradually 
increasing    in    heterogeneity,  it 


Herbert  Spencer. 
(Photo  by  E.  H.  Mills.) 


Spencer 

follows  that,  in  order  to  survive 
and  propagate  themselves,  organ- 
isms must,  in  adapting  them- 
selves, also  increase  in  hetero- 
geneity. Through  the  struggle 
for  existence  everywhere  going 
on  among  organisms,  there  is  se- 
cured the  killing  out  of  the  unfit, 
and  the  survival  and  perpetua- 
tion of  those  organisms  charac- 
terized by  successful  variations, 
which  by  the  law  of  heredity  be- 
come structural  and  functional. 
The  human  organism,  in  its  evo- 
lution from  the  germ  cell,  sum- 
marizes the  ancestral  develop- 
ment, in  being  progress  from  an 
indefinite,  incoherent,  protoplas- 
mic homogeneity  to  the  definite 
coherent  heterogeneity  of  the 
fully  developed  body,  through 
successive  integrations  and  differ- 
entiations, all  of  which  are  neces- 
sitated by  the  law  of  the  persist- 
ence of  force.  In  like  manner 
Spencer,  resting  on  organic  evo- 
lution, proceeds  to  trace  the  course 
of  psychological  evolution  from 
the  first  indefinite  unit  of  feeling 
to  the  most  complex  intellectual 
processes — instinct,  memory,  rea- 
son, being  all  evolved  in  the  mind 
by  its  efforts  to  maintain  the  ad- 

i'ustment  with  the  environment, 
n  his  Principles  of  Psychology 
(1855),  in  tracing  back  the  so- 
called  intuitions  of  the  individual 
to  racial  experiences,  he  has  dealt 
what  his  followers  beUeve  to  be  a 
heavy  blow  to  the  Kantian  and 
similar  philosophies,  and  has 
given  to  the  experiential  philos- 
ophy of  Mill  and  his  school  the 
scientific  basis  of  which  it  stood 
in  sore  need.  Philosophy,  deal- 
ing with  evolution,  not  with  orig- 
ination, can  throw  no  light  on 
the  great  cosmical  mysteries  of 
beginnings  and  endings.  Here 
the  mind  is  baffled,  and  thus  we 
are  brought  to  the  religious  as- 
pect of  the  evolution  philosophy 
— worship  at  the  altar  of  the  Un- 
known and  Unknowable.  Spencer 
visited  the  U.  S.  in  1882,  remained 
here  for  several  months  and  de- 
livered a  number  of  lectures. 
Spencer's  other  books  include 
Principles  of  Sociology  (1876), 
Principles  of  Ethics  (1892),  Edu- 
cation (1905).  See  Spencer's  Ati- 
tobiography  (1904),  Hudson's  iJer- 
bert  Spencer  (1894),  Collier's 
Epitome  of  the  Synthetic  Philos- 
ophy (1889),  and  Macpherson's 
Herbert  Spencer:  the  Man  and 
His  Work  (1900). 

Spencer,  Jesse  Ames  (1816- 
98),  American  clergyman  and 
scholar,  was  born  at  Hyde  Park, 
N.  Y.,  and  graduated  (1837)  at 
Columbia,  and  at  the  General 
Theological  Seminary  in  1840. 
He  was  ordered  deacon  in  1840 
and  ordained  priest  in  1841,  and 
was  in  charge  of  a  church  at 
Goshen,  N.  Y.,  during  1840-2. 
when,  his  health  failing,  he  passed 
several  years  in  travel  and  general 


370 

literary  and  educational  work. 
From  1851  to  1857  he  was  secre- 
tary and  editor  of  the  P.  E. 
Sunday-school  Union  and  Church 
Book  Society,  afterward  holding 
the  rectorship  at  Flatbush,  L.  I., 
from  1863  to  1865.  From  1869  to 
1891  he  was  professor  of  Greek 
at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York,  and  in  1883  he  was  made 
custodian  of  the  Standard  Bible. 
His  numerous  works  include  sev- 
eral Greek  and  Latin  text-books 
and  History  of  the  Reformation  in 
England  (1846),  History  of  the 
United  States  from  the  Earliest 
Period  to  the  Death  of  President 
Lincoln  (1856-69),  and  Memora- 
bilia: 1820-86  (1890). 

S  p  e  n  c  e  r ,  John  Canfield 
(1788-1855),  American  politician, 
born  at  Hudson,  N.  Y.  He  grad- 
uated at  Union  College  in  1806 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1809,  having  been  for  two  years 
private  secretary  to  Gov.  Tomp- 
kins. He  served  in  the  army  as 
judge-advocate-general  in  1813, 
and  in  1817-19,  while  a  member 
of  Congress,  wrote  the  report  of 
the  committee  which  investigated 
the  Bank  of  the  United  States. 
This  report  furnished  most  of  the 
arguments  afterward  used  by 
Jackson  in  his  attack  on  the  bank, 
while  its  author,  who  was  then  a 
Whig,  had  come  around  to  its  sup- 
port. He  was  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  in  1820,  1821,  1831,  and 
1833  (being  speaker  in  1820),  state 
senator  in  1825-28,  and  secretary 
of  state  of  New  York  in  1839-41. 
In  1829  he  was  appointed  special 
attorney-general  to  prosecute  the 
Morgan  abductors,  but  resigned 
in  1830  because  of  a  controversy 
with  the  governor.  He  was  in 
President  Tyler's  cabinet  in  1841- 
44,  first  as  Secretary  of  War  and 
then  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
resigning  because  of  his  opposi- 
tion to  the  annexation  of  Texas. 

Spencer,  Joseph  William 
WiNTHROP  (1851),  American  geol- 
ogist, born  in  Dundas,  Ont.  He 
graduated  at  the  McGill  Univer- 
sity, Montreal,  in  1874,  and  at  G5t- 
tingen  in  1877.  In  1877-80  he 
was  an  instructor  in  the  Colle- 
giate Institute,  Hamilton,  Ont., 
and  in  1880-2  professor  of  geol- 
ogy in  King's  College,  Nova 
Scotia.  He  was  professor  of 
geology  in  the  University  of  Mis- 
souri in  1882-7,  and  state  geologist 
of  Georgia  in  1888-93.  While 
holding  the  latter  position  he 
became  interested  in  the  geology 
of  the  Niagara  district,  and  wrote 
several  monographs  descriptive 
of  the  physical  changes  the  coun- 
try in  the  vicinity  of  the  Niagara 
Falls  has  undergone.  He  also 
published  Reconstruction  of  the 
Antillean  Continent  (1894)  and 
Submarine  Valleys  off  the  Ameri- 
can Coast  (1903). 

Spencer,  Platt  Rogers  (1800- 
64),  American  penman,  was  born 


Spencer  Family 

at  East  Fishkill,  N.  Y.,  and  early 
became  an  adept  at  penmanship, 
in  which  he  gave  instruction  at 
the  age  of  fifteen.  His  family  re- 
moving to  Ashtabula,  O.,  in  1810, 
he  taught  in  that  state  and  in 
New  York,  and  was  treasurer  of 
Ashtabula  co.  for  twelve  years. 
His  system  of  penmanship  was 
first  published  as  Spencer  and 
Rice's  System  of  Business  and 
Ladies'  Penmanship  (1848),  and 
was  subsequently  reissued  as 
The  Spencer ian  or  Semi- Angular 
Penmanship. 

Spencer,  Sara  Andrews 
(1837),  American  reformer,  was 
born  at  Savona,  Steuben  co.,  N. 
Y.,  and  graduated  at  the  St. 
Louis  normal  school.  She  was 
married  (1864)  to  Henry  C.  Spen- 
cer, and  afterwards  made  her 
home  at  Washington,  D.  C. 
Attention  was  called  to  her  by  her 
effort,  with  other  women  of  Wash- 
ington, to  register  and  vote  in 
April,  1871.  She  brought  suit  in 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  District 
of  Columbia,  but  received  an 
adverse  decision,  which  was 
reafj5rmed  by  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  in  1874.  She  was  active  in 
other  reforms  affecting  women, 
and  held  office  in  national  and 
local  woman  suffrage  associations. 
She  became  principal  of  the  Spen- 
cerian  Business  College  at  Wash- 
ington, and  published  Problems 
on  the  Woman  Question  (1871). 

Spencer,  William  Robert 
(1769-1834),  English  poet  and 
wit,  grandson  of  the  third  Duke 
of  Marlborough;  Jpecame  commis- 
sioner of  stamps  (1797-1826).  Pitt, 
Fox,  Sheridan,  and  Sydney  Smith 
were  his  friends.  His  works  in- 
clude translation  of  Burger's  Leo- 
nore  (1796);  Urania,  a  burlesque 
(1802);  The  Year  of  Sorrow;  Poems 
(1811);  ed.  with  Memoir  (1835). 

Spencer  Family.  Charles 
Spencer  (1706-58),  fifth  Earl  of 
Sunderland,  on  becoming  (1733) 
third  Duke  of  Marlborough,  as- 
signed the  Sunderland  estates  to 
his  younger  brother,  John,  father 
of  John  Spencer  (1734-83), 
created  first  Earl  Spencer  (1765). 
The  second  earl,  George  John 
Spencer  (1758-1834),  eldest  son 
of  the  preceding,  brother  of 
Georgiana,  the  beautiful  Duchess 
of  Devonshire,  represented,  as 
Lord  Althorp,  Northampton  (1780) 
and  Surrey  (1782)  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  reached  the 
Upper  House  in  1783.  A  sup- 
porter of  Burke  on  the  French 
revolution  question,  he  became 
(1794)  keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal, 
first  lord  of  the  Admiralty  (1794- 
1801),  home  secretary  under  Fox 
(1806-7),  and  first  president  and 
part  founder  of  the  Roxburghe 
Club  (1812).  He  built  up  the 
famous  Althorp  Library,  acquired 
(1892)  by  Mrs.  Rylands  for  the 
John  Rylands  Library  in  Man- 
chester.— John  Charles  Spen- 


Spener 


KFP 


371 


Spermaceti 


CER,  the  third  earl  (1782-1845), 
eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
member  of  Parliament  for  Oak- 
hampton  (1804)  ;  junior  lord  of 
the  Treasury  (1806);  Chancel- 
lor of  the  Exchequer  under  Earl 
Grey  (1830),  when  he  bore  the 
brunt  of  the  Reform  Bill  debate  ; 
attained  the  peerage  (1834)  ; 
and  when  the  Whigs  left  office 
devoted  himself  to  agricultural 
interests,  originating,  and  be- 
coming first  president  of,  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society 
(1838). — Frederick  Spencer, 
fourth  earl  (1798-1857),  young- 
er brother  of  the  preceding,  be- 
came member  of  Parliament  for 
Worcestershire  (1831)  and  Mid- 
hurst,  and  a  peer  (1845).  From 
1846-8  he  was  lord  chamberlain 
and  lord  steward  (1854). — John 
PoYNTz  Spencer,  fifth  earl 
(1835-1910),  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1857,  but  in  the  same 
year  was  elevated  to  the  peerage. 
In  Gladstone's  first  ministry  he 
was  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland 
(1868-74).  When  _  Gladstone 
came  into  power  again  in  1880 
Lord  Spencer  was  given  the  lord 
presidency  of  the  council.  But 
in  May,  1882,  Lord  Cowper, 
lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and 
W.  E.  Forster  resigned  their 
seats  in  the  cabinet  owing  to 
disagreement  with  the  govern- 
ment's Irish  policy,  and  Lord 
Spencer  and  Lord  Frederick 
Cavendish  were  appointed  to  the 
respective  positions.  The  ad- 
ministration of  Lord  Spencer 
during  the  succeeding  three 
years,  particularly  in  reference 
to  the  trial  and  execution  of  the 
Phoenix  Park  murderers,  and  of 
Myles  Joyce  for  the  Maamtrasna 
murder  in  1884,  was  the  object 
of  the  most  bitter  and  enven- 
omed attack  by  the  Irish  parlia- 
mentary party.  A  year  later  he 
declared  in  favor  of  Gladstone's 
Home  Rule  policy  for  Ireland. 
For  third  earl,  see  Memoir  by 
Sir  Denis  Le  Marchant  (1876), 
Biographical  Studies  by  Bagehot 
(new  ed.  1895),  and  Lord  Al- 
thorp  by  E.  Myers  (1890). 

Spener,  Philip  Jakob  (1635- 
1705),  German  clergyman,  the 
father  of  German  Pietism,  was 
born  at  Rappoltsweiler  in  Al- 
sace. He  became  public  preacher 
at  Strasbourg  in  1662,  and  from 
1666  was  first  pastor  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main.  His  attacks  on 
Calvinism  attracted  much  atten- 
tion, but  he  gradually  adopted  a 
more  spiritual  and  less  aggres- 
sive style,  and  in  1670  instituted 
the  collegia  pietatis,  from  which 
arose  the  sect  of  the  Pietists. 
In  1675  he  published  his  Pia 
Desideria,  which  urged  Christian 
charity  and  humility  of  faith.  In 
1686  he  was  made  court  preach- 
er at  Dresden.  There  the  clergy 
combined  against  his  teaching.  A 
di.spute  with  the  University  of 


Leipzig  led  to  the  condemnation 
of  his  religious  meetings,  after 
which  he  changed  (1691)  his 
residence  to  Berlin.  The  Univer- 
sity of  Halle  became  the  center 
of  Spener's  'pietism.'  See  Life 
by  Wildenhahn  (Eng.  trans, 
1881). 

Spengler,  Oswald  (1880- 
1936),  German  philosopher,  was 
educated  at  Halle  and  later  stud- 
ied at  Berlin  and  Munich.  He 
became  known  shortly  after  the 
First  World  War  by  the  publica- 
tion of  Untergang  dcs  Abend- 
landes  (Decline  of  the  West)  in 
which  he  predicted  the  end  of 
Western  civilization  within  200 
to  300  years,  'menaced  by  the 
proletarian  revolution.'  At  the 
time  of  his  death  appeared  his 
Hour  of  Decision  (Part  I).  In 
Man  and  Technics  he  prophesied 
that  increasing  technical  effi- 
ciency would  bring  man's  doom. 
He  denounced  all  forms  of  gov- 
ernments then  existing  in  West- 
ern countries. 

Spenser,  Edmund  (c.  1552- 
99),  English  poet,  was  born  in 
London,  being  related  to  the 
Spencers  of  Althorp.  In  1576  he 
retired  to  Hurstwood  in  Lanca- 
shire, where  he  wrote  verse  in 
the  pastoral  vein  in  honor  of  his 
Rosalind,  who  has  not  been  satis- 
factorily identified,  but  was  pos- 
sibly Rose  Dineley  of  Clitheroe. 
In  1578  he  went  to  London,  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Earl  of 
Leicester's  household,  and  ac- 
o,uainted  with  Sidney  and  Sir 
Edward  Dyer  ;  joined  with  them 
and  Harvey  in  the  literary  co- 
terie known  as  the  'Areopagus,' 
and  experimented  in  the  adapta- 
tion of  classical  meters  to  Eng- 
lish verse.  The  publication  of 
The  Shepheard's  Calendar  in 
1579  brought  him  literary  fame. 
In  1580  he  went  to  Ireland  as 
secretary  to  the  lord-deputy, 
Lord  Grey  de  Wilton.  In  1581 
he  was  made  clerk  of  the  Irish 
Court  of  Chancery.  He  also  ob- 
tained grants  of  land  at  New  Ab- 
bey, Co.  Kildare,  and  elsewhere. 
He  looked  upon  himself  as  an 
exile,  but  worked  away  at  The 
Faerie  Qucene,  and  in  1588  be- 
came clerk  of  the  council  of 
Munster,  and  later  obtained  a 
grant  of  Kilcolman  Castle,  Co. 
Cork,  the  Mulla  of  his  verse.  He 
had  litigious  neighbors  in  Lord 
Roche  and  others,  and  a  con- 
genial one  in  Sir  Walter  Ra- 
leigh at  Youghal.  From  1589- 
91  he  was  in  England,  and  pub- 
lished the  first  part  of  The 
Faerie  Queene  and  other  poems. 
By  this  time  Spenser  had  become 
the  leading  influence  in  English 
letters.  He  returned  to  Ireland, 
and  wrote  his  autobiographical 
Colin  Clout's  Come  Home 
Againe  (1595).  His  courtship 
and  marriage  of  Elizabeth  Boyle 
in   1594  produced  the  Sonnets 


and  Epithalamion,  and  in  the 
same  year  he  resigned  his  Clerk- 
ship. In  1597  he  once  more  re- 
turned to  Ireland,  and  in  1598  he 
was  sheriff  of  Cork.  Kilcolman 
Castle  was  burnt  during  the  ris- 
ing of  the  Earl  of  Tyrone  in  the 
same  year.  Spenser  fled  to  Cork, 
and  thence  went  to  London  to 
plead  the  wrongs  of  the  Munster 
colonists.  Here  he  died  in  pov- 


Edmund  Spenser. 


erty,  according  to  a  more  than 
doubtful  legend,  and  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey.  Poems 
— The  Shepheard's  Calendar 
(1579;  ed.  H.  O.  Sommer,  1890; 
ed.  C.  H.  Herford,  1895)  ;  The 
Faerie  Queene  (1590-6;  ed.  G. 
W.  Kitchin,  bks.  i,  ii,  1868-71; 
ed.  K.  M.  Warren,  1897-1900)  ; 
Daphnaida  (1591)  ;  Prothalami- 
on  (1596).  Prose  Work — View 
of  the  Present  State  of  Ireland 
(1633).  Collected  Works  (1611; 
ed.  J.  P.  Collier,  1862;  ed.  R. 
Morris,  with  Life  by  J.  W.  Hales, 
1869;  ed.  A.  B.  Grosart,  1880- 
2).  Biography  and  Criticism — 
Warton,  Observations  on  the 
Faerie  Queene  (1754)  ;  Craik, 
Spenser  and  His  Poetry  (1845) ; 
Prof.  F.  J.  Child's  edition  of  the 
works  (1855,  1878);  Courthope, 
Genius  of  Spenser  (1868)  ; 
Fleay,  Guide  to  Chaucer  and 
Spenser  (1877)  ;  essay  by  Low- 
ell in  Among  My  Books,  2d  se- 
ries (1876)  ;  Church,  Life  of 
Spenser  (1879);  Carpenter,  Out- 
line Guide  to  Study  of  Spenser 
(1894)  ;  Davis,  Edmund  Spen- 
ser (1933). 

Spermaceti  consists  chiefly  of 
cetyl  palmitate,  C51H31COOC16- 
H33,  along  with  smaller  quanti- 
ties of  similar  compounds.  It  oc- 
curs in  the  oil  of  the  sperm  and 
allied  whales,  particularly  in  the 
portion  obtained  from  the  head 
cavities,  from  which  it  separates 
in  the  solid  state  on  cooling.  Aft- 
er purification,  spermaceti  forms 
a  snow-white,  almost  odorless, 
crystalline  solid  of  specific  grav' 


Spermatozoa 


KFP 


372 


Sphere 


ity  .94,  that  melts  at  about  45° 
c,  and  is  insoluble  in  water,  but 
dissolves  in  hot  alcohol  and 
ether.  It  is  apt  to  become  rancid 
on  keeping  and  is  often  adul- 
terated with  paraffin,  fats,  and 
fatty  acids.  It  is  used  as  an  in- 
gredient of  ointments  and  for 
making  candles. 

Spermatozoa.  See  Repro- 
duction and  Sex. 

Sperm  Oil  consists  chiefly  of 
dodecatyl  oleate  C17H33COOC15- 
H25,  along  with  similar  esters  of 
the  higher  monohydric  alcohols, 
and  thus  differs  materially  from 
animal  and  vegetable  oils,  which 
are  glycerol  derivatives.  Sperm 
oil  is  obtained  from  the  cachalot 
or  sperm  whale.  The  bottle-nose 
whale  yields  a  similar  product — 
a  thin,  pale  yellow  liquid  of  spe- 
cific gravity  about  .88,  and  of 
more  or  less  fishy  odor.  It  does 
not  readily  become  rancid  or 
gummy,  and  is  thus  a  valuable 
lubricant. 

Sperm-whale.  See  Cacha- 
lot. 

Sperry,  Charles  Stillman 
(1847-1911),  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
He  received  a  public  school  edvi- 
cation  at  Waterbury,  Conn.,  and 
was  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Na- 
val Academy  in  1866.  He  be- 
came rear  admiral  in  1906.  His 
special  service  comprised  a  term 
as  president  of  the  U.  S.  Naval 
War  College,  membership  on  the 
General  Board  of  the  Navy, 
membership  in  the  National 
Coast  Defence  Board,  and  as- 
signments as  delegate  to  the  con- 
ference for  the  revision  of  the 
Geneva  Convention  for  the  treat- 
ment of  the  sick  and  wounded 
in  1906,  and  to  the  second  Peace 
Conference  at  The  Hague  in 
1907.  On  the  organization  of  the 
battleship  fleet  he  was  selected 
as  one  of  the  four  rear  admirals 
to  command  the  divisions,  and  he 
succeeded  to  the  chief  command 
after  Rear-Admiral  Evans  had 
taken  the  fleet  from  Hampton 
Roads  to  San  Francisco. 

Sperry,  Elmer  Ambrose 
(1860-1930),  electrical  engineer 
and  inventor,  was  born  in  Cort- 
land, N.  Y.  and  was  educated  at 
Cornell  University.  He  held 
more  than  400  patents  from 
America  and  Europe.  Among  his 
inventions,  he  is  perhaps  best 
known  for  his  gyro  compass, 
electric  automobile,  and  the 
'metal  mike'  or  automatic  steers- 
man which  stabilizes  sl\ips  and 
keeps  them  on  a  set  course  and 
an  even  keel.  He  was  a  founder 
of  the  American  Institute  of 
Electrical  Engineers  and  of  the 
American  Electro-Chemical  So- 
ciety. 

Sperryllte,  a  platinum  arsen- 
ide, PtAso,  found  in  the  nickel 
mines  of  Sudbury  in  Canada. 

Speusippus,    ancient  Greek 


philosopher,  was  a  native  of 
Athens,  and  nephew  of  Plato, 
whom  he  succeeded  as  the  head 
of  the  Academy  (347  to  339  B.C.). 

Spey,  second  longest  river  of 
Scotland ;  rises  between  Bade- 
noch  and  Lochaber,  Inverness- 
shire,  and  flows  110  m.  in  a  n.e. 
direction  to  Moray  Firth. 

Spezia  (near  ancient  Partus 
Lunac),  fort  tn.  and  summer  re- 
sort, Italy,  prov.  Genoa,  on  bay 
of  same  name,  56  m.  by  rail  s.e. 
of  Genoa ;  was  the  chief  naval 
station  and  arsenal  in  Italy. 
There  are  shipbuilding  yards 
and  docks.  In  the  bay  Shelley 
lost  his  life.  Pop.  107,958. 

Sphagnum,  a  genus  of  moss- 
es, commonly  known  as  bog- 
mosses.  They  have  erect  stems 
several  inches  long,  and  bear  the 
male  organs  on  lateral  stems, 
somewhat  resembling  catkins, 
and  the  female  organs  on  shorter 
lateral  stems,  resembling  buds. 
The  sphagnums  grow  in  compact 
masses,  often  covering  large 
areas.  They  are  much  used  by 
gardeners,  especially  in  the  cul- 
tivation of  orchids,  by  reason  of 
the  large  quantity  of  water 
which  they  absorb  and  yield  up 
according  to  the  needs  of  the 
plant. 

Sphene,  or  Titanite,  calcium 
silicate  and  titanate,  CaSiTiOc, 
and  a  common  accessory  rock- 
forming  mineral  of  the  acid 
rocks,  such  as  granite,  rhyolite, 
trachyte,  and  syenite.  It  has 
strong  double  refraction  and 
considerable  dispersive  power 
(h.  =  5  ;  sp.  gr.  3.5).  Fine  speci- 
mens of  dark  brownish-green 
color  are  used  as  gems,  though 
they  are  too  soft  to  be  of  great 
value.  The  best  stones  are  found 
in  the  gneiss  of  the  Alps,  espe- 
cially Tyrol. 

Sphenodon,  or  Hatteria,  the 
genus  name  of  a  New  Zealand 
lizard  {S.  pnnctatum).  It  is  the 
only  living  member  of  the  order 
Rhynchocephalia,  and  in  many 
respects  displays  archaic  char- 
acters, known  elsewhere  only 
among  fossil  forms.  The  usual 
length  is  under  two  feet.  There 
is  a  long  tail,  which  is  strongly 
compressed,  and  both  fore  and 
hind  limbs  each  bear  five  toes, 
which  are  clawed  and  webbed  at 
their  bases.  The  upper  parts  of 
the  body  are  clothed  with  small 
scales,  intermixed  with  tuber- 
cles, while  a  crest  of  spines  runs 
from  the  posterior  part  of  the 
head  to  the  tail.  It  excavates  bur- 
rows, in  which  it  remains  dur- 
ing the  day,  emerging  in  search 
of  food  in  the  evening.  The  food 
always  consists  of  small  living 
animals.  The  animals  are  fond 
of  lying  in  water,  and  can  re- 
main below  the  surface  for  a 
prolonged  period.  The  eggs  are 
deposited  in  a  hole  in  sandy  soil 
during  the  summer,  but  do  not 


hatch  till  about  thirteen  months 
afterwards.  The  embryos  appar- 
ently undergo  what  corresponds 
to  a  summer  sleep  within  the 
shell.  It  would  seem  also  that 
the  mortality  among  the  embryos 
is  very  great,  relatively  few^ 
hatching  out.  The  following  are 
among  the  more  generally  inter- 
esting features :  the  quadrate, 
the  bone  to  which  the  lower  jaw 
is  attached,  is  fixed  to  the  skull, 
and  not  movable  as  in  lizards 
and  snakes ;  the  vertebrae  are 
cupped  at  both  ends,  as  in  fish, 
and  the  primitive  reptiles,  in- 
stead of  having  the  ball  and 
socket  arrangement  usual  in  liv- 
ing reptiles ;  as  in  crocodiles, 
there  are  abdominal  ribs  on  the 
ventral  wall  of  the  abdomen ; 
the  wrist  bones  show  no  signs  of 
fusion,  the  primitive  number  of 
ten  bones  being  present.  But  the 
special  peculiarity  is  the  fact 
that  the  pineal  body  of  other 
vertebrates — a  curious  structure 
found  in  the  brain,  which  was 
long  an  entire  puzzle — here  takes 
the  form  of  a  median  unpaired 
eye,  which  retains  traces  of  the 
retina,  and  lies  beneath  a  hole  in 
the  bones  of  the  skull.  Gener- 
ally, Sphenodon  is  a  specialized 
remnant  of  the  stock  from  which 
the  other  existing  reptiles  arose.  , 

Sphere,  in  astronomy,  the 
hollow  vault  of  the  sky  upon 
which  the  heavenly  bodies  are 
seen  projected.  Its  momentary 
center  is  at  the  eye  of  the  ob- 
server ;  its  surface  is  conceived 
to  be  indefinitely  remote.  Hence, 
parallel  lines  produced  to  meet 
it,  such  as  meteor-tracks,  or  the 
earth's  axis  during  its  annual 
revolution,  converge  to  a  single 
point.  The  situations  of  objects 
on  the  sphere  are  defined  by  ref- 
erence to  two  alternative  systems 
of  polar  co-ordinates.  Aristotle 
assigned  seven  spheres,  centered 
on  the  earth,  to  the  sun,  moon, 
and  five  planets,  and  an  eighth 
to  the  fixed  stars  ;  Arab  astrono- 
mers added  a  ninth,  the  'primum 
mobile,'  exterior  to  the  rest,  and 
imparting  to  them  revolution  in 
twenty-four  hours.  The  purely 
ideal  'homocentric  spheres*  of 
Eudoxus  became  subsequently 
materialized  into  crystalline 
orbs,  finally  shattered  by  the  in- 
cursion of  the  comet  of  1577  as 
determined  by  Tycho  Brahe. 

Sphere,  in  mathematics,  a 
surface  every  point  of  which  is 
equally  distant  from  a  fixed 
point  known  as  the  center.  Every 
plane  section  of  a  sphere  is_  a 
circle — known  as  a  great  cir- 
cle, if  the  plane  be  diametral. 
Two  spheres  intersect  in  a  circle 
whose  plane  is  at  right  angles  to 
the  join  of  their  centers.  A  sphere 
may  be  described  through  any 
four  points,  as  a  circle  may  be 
described  through  any  three.  The 
shortest  line  in  the  surface  join- 


Sphere  of  Influence  ^ 

ing  any  two  points  is  an  arc  of  a 
great  circle.  Also  for  a  given 
surface  the  volume  of  the  sphere 
is  a  minimum.  The  Cartesian 
equation  to  the  sphere  is  a  par- 
ticular case  of  the  general  equa- 
tion of  the  second  degree,  and  is 
obtained  by  equating  to  a  con- 
stant r  (the  radius)  the  length  of 
the  straight  line  joining  the  centre 
to  any  point  on  the  surface.  Vol- 
ume of  sphere,  |  ;  surface  of 
sphere,  4  r^. 

Sphere  of  Influence,  a  com- 
paratively modern  development 
of  international  politics.  This 
and  cognate  phrases  date  prac- 
tically from  the  Conference  of 
Berlin  in  1884.  In  1885  arrange- 
ments were  entered  into  between 
Great  Britain  and  Germany,  'rel- 
ative to  their  respective  spheres 
of  action  in  portions  of  New 
Guinea.'  Other  similar  agree- 
ments were  made  in  relation  to 
the  British  and  German  spheres 
of  influence  in  the  Western  Pacific 
(1886);  betv/een  Great  Britain  and 
Russia  in  regard  to  Lake  Victoria 
and  the  Pamirs  (1895);  between 
Great  Britain  ana  France  in  ref- 
erence to  Siam  (1896),  Egypt 
(1899),  and  Morocco  (1904).  In 
like  manner,  after  the  Chino- 
Japanese  War,  the  various  Euro- 

f)ean  powers  and  Japan  estab- 
ished  spheres  of  influence  in 
China.  Disputes  between  Russia 
and  Japan  as  to  the  delimitation 
of  their  spheres  of  influence  in 
Manchuria  and  Korea  formed  the 
occasion  for  the  outbreak  of  hos- 
tilities between  the  two  powers  in 
1904.  Mr.  W.  E.  Hall,  in  his 
International  Law  (1904),  says  the 
expression  indicates  'the  regions 
which, geographically,  are  adjacent 
to,  or,  poHtically,  group  them- 
selves naturally  with,  possessions 
or  protectorates'  in  which  'control 
can  be  exercised  with  tolerable 
regularity,'  and  represents  'an 
understanding  which  enables  a 
state  to  reserve  to  itself  the  right  of 
excluding  other  European  powers 
from  territories  that  are  of  im- 
portance to  it,  politically,  as 
affording  means  of  future  ex- 
pansion to  its  existing  dominions 
or  protectorates,  or  strategically, 
as  preventing  civihzed  neighbors 
from  occupymg  a  dominant  mili- 
tary position.' 

Spherical  Aberration.  See 
Aberration;  Lenses;  and  Mi- 
croscope. 

Spherical  Harmonics,  a 
mathematical  method  of  great 
value  in  the  investigation  of 
distributions  of  attracting  and 
repelling  'matter'  (gravitational, 
electrical,  or  magnetic),  which 
act  on  other  distributions  of  the 
same  kind  according  to  the  New- 
tonian law  of  the  inverse  square. 
The  method  originated  with  La- 
place, and  consists  analytically 
m  finding  forms  of  functions  of 
position  which  satisfy  a  particu- 
Vo^.  XL— 25. 


373 

lar  differential  equation.  All 
such  functions  are  known  as  po- 
tential functions.  When  found 
for  any  region  of  space,  the  po- 
tential function  gives  at  once,  by 
its  rate  of  change  in  any  direc- 
tion, the  force  acting  in  that 
direction.  Now,  just  as  any 
simply  periodic  function  can  be 
expanded  as  a  Fourier  series,  in 
terms  of  sines  and  cosines  of  suc- 
cessive integral  multiples  of  the 
variable,  each  term  representing 
a  simple  harmonic  function,  so 
here  any  potential  function  can 
be  expressed  as  a  series  of  ascend- 
ing or  descending  powers  of  a 
certain  variable,  the  coefficients 
being  definite,  assignable  func- 
tions of  the  sines  and  cosines  of 
the  spherical  co-ordinates  which 
fix  the  position  of  a  line  in  space, 
say,  for  example,  the  latitude 
and  longitude  of  a  point  on  a 
spherical  surface.  Laplace  ap- 
plied the  method  to  the  cal- 
culation of  the  attraction  of  a 
spheroid  like  the  earth;  Gauss 
made  it  the  basis  of  his  theory  of 
terrestrial  magnetism;  and  im- 
portant contributions  to  the 
theory  have  been  made  by  Le- 
gendre,  Kelvin,  Dirichlet,  Jacobi, 
and  others.  See  Thomson  and 
Tait's  Natural  Philosophy  (1879), 
Heine's  Kugelfunctionen  (1878- 
81),  Todhunter's  Elementary 
Treatise  on  Laplace's  Functions 
(1875),  and  special  chapters  in 
Byerly's  Fourier's  Series  and 
Spherical  Harmonics  (1895),  and 
in  Whittaker's  Modern  Analysis 
(1893). 

Spherical  Triangle  and 
Spherical  Trigonometry* 

When  any  three  points  on  a 
spherical  surface  are  joined  by 
arcs  lying  wholly  on  the  surface, 
the  arcs  form  what  is  called  a 
spherical  triangle.  Each  of  the 
arcs  so  drawn  is  always  under- 
stood to  lie  in  one  plane;  and,  un- 
less there  is  a  statement  to  the 
contrary,  the  planes  in  which  the 
arcs  lie  are  always  understood  to 
pass  through  the  centre  of  the 
sphere.    In  other  words,  the  arcs 


C 


Spherical  Triangle, 
o.  Centre  of  sphere. 


are  parts  of  great  circles.  The 
relations  among  the  arcs,  and 
the  angles  between  each  pair  of 
planes  containing  the  arcs,  form 
an  important  branch  of  mathe- 
matics known  as  spherical  trigo- 
nometry. It  is  incfispensable  for 
the  astronomer  and  geodetic  sur- 


Sphinx 

veyor.  The  solution  of  a  spherical 
triangle  can  be  made  to  depend  on 
the  solution  of  the  right-angled 
spherical  triangle — that  is,  the  tri- 
angle two  of  whose  arcual  sides 
^ie  in  perpendicular  planes.  Thus 
the  spherical  triangle  abc  may  at 
once  be  divided  into  two  right- 
angled  spherical  triangles  by 
simply  drawing  through  one  ver- 
tex, say  A,  a  plane  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  bc  containing  the 
other  two  vertices.  This  will 
form  on  the  spherical  surface  an 
arc  AP  meeting  the  arc  bc,  pro- 
duced if  necessary,  in  the  point 
p.  The  triangles  apb  and  apc 
are  two  right-angled  spherical 
triangles. 

Spheroid  is  the  surface  gener- 
ated by  the  rotation  of  an  ellipse 
about  either  its  major  or  its  minor 
axis.  When  the  major  axis  is  the 
axis  of  rotation,  the  surface  is  a 
prolate  spheroid  somewhat  like 
an  egg.  When  the  minor  axis  is 
the  axis  of  rotation,  the  spheroid 
is  oblate.  The  figure  of  the  earth 
is  approximately  an  oblate  sphe- 
roid. The  spheroid  is  a  particular 
case  of  the  ellipsoid. 

Sphex,  a  genus  of  fossorial 
Hymenoptera,  belonging  to  the 
family  Sphegidae.  It  has  attracted 
special  attention  from  the  pe- 
culiar habits,  first  studied  by 
Fabre.  The  female  excavates 
horizontal  galleries  in  the  soil, 
usually  ten  in  number,  with  each 
of  which  are  connected  three  or 
four  cells  intended  for  the  young. 
The  cells  are  fully  provisioned  and 
closed  up,  and  the  whole  gallery 
is  abandoned.  The  provisions 
consist  of  three  or  four  large  in- 
sects, such  as  cicadas  or  crickets, 
which  are  stung  by  the  wasp  in 
three  spots,  corresponding  to  the 
position  of  the  three  chief  nerve- 
centres.  The  result  is  that  the 
quarry  is  paralyzed,  but  not  killed. 
When  the  sphex  larva  hatches,  it 
consumes  the  living  crickets. 
Later,  pupation  occurs,  and  the 
imago  emerges  from  the  ground 
to  begin  the  life  history  anew. 

Sphincter  Muscles  surround 
an  opening  or  a  short  canal  (e.g. 
pupil  of  eye,  mouth,  rectum), 
which  they  either  constrict  or 
close  when  it  contracts,  the  mus- 
cular fibres  being  arranged  in  a 
more  or  less  circular  fashion. 

Sphinx,  in  ancient  Greek  le- 
gend, was  a  monster,  which 
appeared  in  Boeotia,  and  killed 
all  the  inhabitants  who  could 
not  solve  a  riddle  which  she  pro- 
pounded to  them.  The  riddle 
was — 'What  animal  is  it  that  has 
four  feet,  and  two  feet,  and  three 
feet,  and  only  one  voice;  yet  its 
feet  vary,  and  when  it  has  most 
it  is  weakest  ? '  OEdipus  answered 
rightly,  'Man;  for  he  crawls  on 
all  fours  as  an  infant,  and  in  old 
age  moves  on  his  feet  and  a  staff.* 
Upon  this  the  Sphinx  slew  her- 
self.   The  idea  of  the  Sphinx 


Sphinx 


374 


Spldel 


came  to  Greece,  no  doubt,  from 
Egypt.  But  in  Egypt  the  Sphinx 
is  represented  as  a  lion  without 
wings,  with  a  human  head;  while 
the  Greek  Sphinx  is  a  winged 


The  smoked  plate  is  moved  at  a 
known  rate  by  clockwork,  and 
the  pressure  of  the  spring  upon 
the  artery  can  be  regulated  by  a 
screw.  A  most  convenient  instru- 


other  substances  containing  salt. 
Among  the  chief  spices  are  cassia, 
cloves,  ginger,  mace,  nutmegs, 
cinnamon,  pepper,  pimento,  cara- 
way, and  coriander. 


lion,  with  a  woman's  breast  and 
head.  See  Sophocles's  CEdipus 
Tyrannus. 

Sphinx.    See  Hawk-moth. 

Sphygmograph,  or  Pulsom- 
ETER,  an  instrument  for  recording 
the  movements  of  the  arterial  wall 
during  and  between  the  pulse- 
beats.  The  earliest  form  was  in- 
vented by  Vierovdt  and  per- 
fected by  Marcy,  and  consists  of 
a  lever  with  an  elastic  spring. 
One  end  of  the  spring  is  placed 


Dudgeon's  Sphygmograph. 

on  the  radial  artery,  and  has 
above  it  a  rack  and  pinion  at- 
tached to  a  lever.  The  other  end 
of  the  lever  carries  a  style,  which 
records  on  a  moving  smoked  plate 
the  movements  of  the  vessel  wall. 


The  Egyptian  Sphinx  at  Gizeh, 

ment  is  Dudgeon's  sphygmograph, 
in  which  clockwork  moves  a  strip 
of  smoked  paper  below  a  style 
attached  to  a  spring  that  rests 
on  the  radial  artery.  The  writ- 
ing levers  are  so  adjusted  that 
the  movements  of  the  arterial 
wall  are  magnified  fifty  times. 
Besides  yielding  much  valuable 
information  about  the  frequency, 
strength,  and  regularity  of  the 
cardiac  pulsations,  the  sphygmo- 
graph records  the  tension  of  the 
pulse,  which  is  often  altered  by 
morbid  changes  in  the  blood  pres- 
sure and  in  the  vessel  walls. 

S  p  i  c  a  {a  Virginis  ),  in  as- 
tronomy, a  helium  star  of  1.2 
magnitude,  representing  the  ear 
of  wheat  held  by  the  zodiacal 
Virgin.  Vogel  discovered  it  in 
1890  to  be  a  spectroscopic  binary, 
revolving  in  four  days  round  a 
semi-obscure  companion. 

Spica.    See  Bandage. 

Spice  Islands.  See  Moluccas. 

Spices,  vegetable  products  with 
a  definite  and  pronounced  taste 
used  for  adding  flavors  to  simpler 
foods,  usually  to  articles  of  food 
which  contam  sugar.  They  are 
distinguished  from  condiments, 
which  are  commonly  used  with 
meat  or  meat  substitutes,  or  with 


Spicheren,  vil.,  Eorraine, 
Prussia,  3  m.  s.  of  Saarbriick, 
was  the  scene  of  a  defeat  of  the 
French  under  Frossard  by  the 
Germans,  Aug.  6,  1870. 

Spider.  1  he  spiders  consti- 
tute the  specialized  order  Ara- 
neida  of  the  class  Arachnida. 
The  specialization,  as  compared 
with  the  scorpion,  is  shown  in  the 
absence  of  apparent  segmenta- 
tion, and  in  thfe  shortening  of  the 
body,  which  consists  of  an  an- 
terior cephalothorax,  separated 
by  a  constriction  from  the  large, 
rounded  abdomen.  The  append- 
ages of  the  cephalothorax  consist 


Normal  Pulse  Curve. 

of  two  small  chelicerae  close  to 
the  mouth,  which  here  contain 
the  poison  gland  used  in  ob- 
taining prey;  the  pedipalps,  or 


Spider-crab 


375 


Spielhagen 


second  pair  of  appendages,  which 
are  not  chelate  at  the  extremity; 
and  four  pairs  of  walking  legs. 
On  the  ventral  surface  of  the  ab- 
domen in  most  spiders  are  the 
openings  of  a  pair  of  lung-sacs, 
but  a  few  have  two  pairs  of  these 
structures.  In  most  spiders  there 
are  also  present  tracheal  tubes 
:omparable  to  those  of  insects; 
the  spiders  therefore  illustrate 
the  transition  between  these  two 
modes  of  breathing.  The  other 
structural  pecuUarities  include 
the  spinnerets  at  the  end  of  the 
abdomen;  these  are  little  tuber- 
cles perforated  by  a  great  number 
of  holes,  through  which  exudes 
the  silk  of  which  the  web  is  made. 
The  mouth  is  minute,  as  is  also 
the  lumen  of  the  aUmentary 
canal;  for  the  spider  does  not 
take  solid  food,  but  feeds  upon 
animal  juices.  The  nervous  sys- 
tem shows  much  specialization, 
and  there  are  numerous  eyes  on 
'the  head  region.  The  sexes  are 
separate,  the  males  being  smaller 
than  the  females.  The  prey  is 
usually  entangled  in  the  web  or 
lures,  and  killed  by  the  poison 
glands  of  the  chelicerae.  The 
web  is  very  varied  in  shape  and 
structure.  The  orb  form  is  well 
seen  in  that  of  the  common  garden 
spider,  where  there  is  a  well- 
marked  difference  between  the 
radial  lines  which  form  the  scaf- 
folding of  the  web  and  the  viscid 
circular  ones  which  catch  the  in- 
sects. Other  species  use  the  silk 
to  make  snares  or  traps  (c/.  the 
trap-door  spider).  Another  inter- 
estmg  point  is  the  frequency  of 
what  IS  known  as  protective 
coloration  among  spiders.  There 
are  a  very  large  number  of  spiders, 
the  majority  of  which  have  two 
lung -sacs,  while  relatively  few 
(like  Mygale.  the  bird-catching 
spider)  have  four.  See  M'Cook's 
American  Spiders  and  their  Spin- 
ning Work  (1890-4),  Moggridge's 
Trapdoor  Spiders  (1872),  Thorell's 
European  Spiders  (1870),  and 
Camb.  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  iv.  (1905). 

Spider-crab.   See  Crab. 

Spider-monlcey  (Ateles),  a 


by  the  slender  body,  the  very 
long  prehensile  tail,  and  the 
elongated,  spider-like  limbs.  On 
the  fore  limbs  the  thumb  is  ab- 
sent. The  best-known  species  is 
A.  paniscus,  sometimes  called  the 


Spieiberg.    See  Brunn. 

Spiegei  -  ei.sen,  or  Mirror- 
iron,  a  pig-iron  containing  from 
about  ten  per  cent,  to  forty  per 
cent,  of  manganese  and  about  five 
per  cent,  of  carbon,  prepared  by 


Spiders. 

1.  Garden  spider  (Epeira  diadema)  and  web.  2.  Spinneret  of  spider.  3.  Enlarged 
view  of  spiral  thread  or  web,  showing  viscid  globules.  4.  Trap -door  spider.  5.  Lycosa 
tarantula.  6.  Thomisus  foka.  7.  iMtrodectus  Menavodi.  8.  Platform  web  of  house 
spider.  9.  House  spider  (Tegenaria  domestica).  10.  Segrstria  perjioa.  11.  Tetragnatha 
'  sailing '  by  means  of  loose  webs.  12.  Water  spider  and  nest.  13.  Gasteracantha  can- 
cri/ormis.  U.  Foot  of  garden  spider,  showing  'combs '  for  clinging  to  web. 


Spider-monkey  (Ateles  paniscus). 


genus  of  New  World  monkeys, 
whose  members  are  characterized 


coaita,  in  which  the  fur  is  black, 
while  the  naked  parts  of  the  face 
are  reddish.  This  monkey  is 
readily  tamed,  and  is  a  favorite 
S.  American  pet.  There  are  a 
considerable  number  of  other  spe- 
cies, all  purely  arboreal  in  habits, 
and  remarkable  for  their  extreme 
agility. 


smelting  manganiferous  iron  ores 
in  a  blast  furnace.  When  broken, 
it  forms  large  crystalline  plates 
of  vex-y  lustrous  appearance,  from 
which  it  derives  its  name.  It  is 
used  to  add  to  the  molten  pure  iron 
of  the  Bessemer  and  open-hearth 
processes  in  order  to  obtain  steels. 
Spielliagen,  Friedrich  (1829)f 


Splelmann 

German  novelist,  born  at  Magde- 
burg. He  produced  novels  of  the 
Young  German  school,  influenced 
by  Gutzkow,  well  constructed  in 
plot,  but  somewhat  over- weighted 
with  moraUzings.  These  placed 
him  in  the  front  rank  of  author- 
ship. They  include  Problematical 
Natures  (1861;  9th  ed.  1880),  with 
sequel.  Through  Night  to  Light 
(1862);  Hammer  and  Anvil  (1869-, 
8th  ed.  1881);  Storm-Floods  (1878); 
Noblesse  Oblige  (1888);  A  New 
Pharaoh  (1889);  Faustulus  (1897); 
Ever  Forward  (1872)-  What  the 
Swallow  sang  (1873);  The  Hohen- 
steins  (1864);  Rank  and  File 
(1866);  Low  Land  (1879);  Love 
for  Love  (1875);  Quisisana  (1880). 
See  Study  by  Karpeles  (1889).  He 
translated  into  German  Curtis's 
Howadji  and  Emerson's  English 
Traits,  among  other  translations. 

Spielmann,  Marion  Harry 
(1858),  English  art  critic  and 
author,  born  in  London;  was  an 
engineer  till  1884.  He  soon  turned 
to  literature,  and  contributed  to 
the  Pa//  Mall  Gazette  (1883-90), 
Daily  Graphic,  and  Graphic  as 
art  critic  (till  1891);  Black  and 
White  as  art  editor  (1890).  Spiel- 
mann was  editor  of  the  Magazine 
of  Art  from  1887  till  its  publication 
ceased  in  July,  1904.  (See  Maga- 
zine OF  Art.)  In  1886  he  pub- 
lished a  Pall  Mall  extra  on  '  The 
Works  of  Mr.  G.F.  Watt§,  R.A.'; 
also  Henrietta  Ronner  (1891),  The 
Hist,  of  Punch  (1895),  Millais  and 
his  Works  (1898),  Thackeray  (1899), 
Ruskin  (1900),  Chaucer's  Portraits 
(1900),  Charles  Kean  (1903),  and 
The  Art  of  John  MacWhirter, 
R.A.  (1904). 

Spigelia,  a  genus  of  American 
herbaceous  plants  belonging  to 
the  order  Loganiaceae.  They 
bear  spikes  of  yellow,  red,  or 
purple  flowers,  and  a  few  species 
are  sometimes  grown  in  gardens. 
S.  Marylandica,  with  scarlet  and 
yellow  tubular  flowers  in  a  one- 
sided spike,  is  the  Indian  pink  or 
pink  root,  somewhat  used  as  a 
vermifuge. 

Spike,  an  inflorescence  in 
which  the  flowers  are  arranged 
without  stalks  along  a  simple,  un- 
divided axis,  as  in  the  plantain. 
Strobilus,  spadix,  and  amentum 
are  terms  used  to  indicate  special 
forms  of  spikes,  as  illustrated  by 
the  inflorescences  of  the  hop, 
the  arum,  and  the  willow  respec- 
tively. 

Spikenard,  or  Nard,  a  hardy 
perennial  Himalayan  herbaceous 

giant  {Nardostachys  jatamansi) 
elonging  to  the  order  Valerian- 
aceae.  It  has  a  thick,  fusiform 
root,  which  is  very  fragrant,  and 
it  bears  dense  heads  of  reddish 
flowers  in  late  autumn.^  It  is 
quite  easy  of  cultivation  in  ordi- 
nary soil.  As  a  perfume  and  as  a 
stimulant  medicine,  spikenard 
root  has  always  been  held  in  great 
esteem  in  the  Orient. 


376 

Spiking  Guns  is  now  prac- 
tically an  obsolete  term.    It  ap- 

f)hed  to  muzzle-loaders,  fired 
rom  a  vent  or  touch-hole  in  the 
breech,  which  was  closed  by 
driving  into  it  a  spike  or  iron  rod, 
afterwards  broken  short  off  by  a 
hammer.  The  only  remedy  was 
drilUng  another  vent,  a  long  and 
tedious  process.  The  modern 
equivalent  is  the  removing  or  de- 
stroying of  the  breech-block  and 
the  sights  of  the  gun. 

Spina  Bifida,  or  Cleft  Spine, 
a  condition  due  to  arrest  of  de- 
velopment in  some  vertebrae,  re- 
sulting in  the  protrusion  of  the 
spinal  cord  and  its  membranous 
coverings.  It  may  occur  in  any 
part  of  the  spinal  column.  The 
appearance  is  that  of  a  tense, 
fluctuating  tumor,  covered  often 
by  only  a  very  thin  skin.  The 
condition  is  generally  fatal  within 
a  few  days  or  weeks  after  birth. 
But  sometimes  the  condition  is 
spontaneously  cured  bv  the  grad- 
ual oozing  away  of  the  cerebro- 
spinal fluid  and  the  closure  of 
the  aperture  in  the  column.  In- 
jections of  iodine  sometimes  suc- 
ceed by  inducing  absorption. 


Forms  of  Spike. 

1.  Spadix  (arum).  2.  Catkin  (willow). 
3.  Spike  (plantain),   i.  Strobilus  (hop). 

Spinach.  An  annual  kitchen 
vegetable  {Spinacia  oleracea),  the 
arrow-shaped  root  leaves  of  which 
are  used  for  greens.  It  may  be 
sown  out  of  doors  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  the  ground  can  be 
worked,  in  rows  12  inches  apart, 
putting  in  30  to  40  seeds  to  each 
foot  of  row.  For  the  early  spring 
crop  the  seed  is  planted  in  August 
or  early  Septemoer  and  the  crop 
covered  on  the  approach  of  winter 
with  a  2-inch  mulch  of  leaves, 
straw,  or  other  clean  litter.  This 
is  removed  early  in  the  spring,  and 
the  plant  rapidly  reaches  edible 
size.  The  plants  are  thinned  to  6 
to  8  inches  in  the  rows  and  are 
ready  for  gathering  within  about 
8  weeks  from  the  time  of  planting. 
Spinach  is  in  greatest  demand  in 


Spinal  Column 

early  spring  and  late  fall.  Th^ 
growth  of  the  plant  is  greatly 
accelerated  by  a  top  dressing  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  using  about  160 
pounds  per  acre. 

Spinal  Column,  called  also 
Spine,  Backbone,  or  Vertebral 
Column,  consists  in  man  of 
thirty-three  bones,  of  which  in 
the  adult  the  four  lowest  are 
united  to  form  the  coccyx,  and 
the  five  above  the  coccyx  are 
fused  together  as  the  sacrum. 
Of  the  others,  the  seven  highest, 
which  are  situated  in  the  neck, 


Spinal  Column. 

A.  The  spinal  column,  side  view.  b. 
Atlas  (1st  cervical  vertebra)  from  above. 

C.  Axis  (2d  cervical  vertebra),  side  view. 

D.  Dorsal  vertebra,  side  view.  E.  Section 
of  a  vertebra,  showing  structure,  f.  Sec- 
tion of  two  lumbar  vertebrae,  showing 
ligaments.  1,  Cervical,  2,  dorsal,  3,  lumbar 
vertebrae  ;  i,  sacrum  ;  5,  coccyx  ;  6,  body  of 
vertebra  ;  7,  spinous  process  ;  8,  9,  trans- 
verse process  ;  10,  superior  articular  sur- 
face ;  11,  inferior  ;  12,  superior  articular 
process;  13,  inferior;  14,  articulation  for 
rib ;  15,  intervertebral  substance ;  16,  an- 
terior common  ligament;  17,  posterior; 
18,  ligamenta  subflava ;  19,  interspinous 
ligament ;  20,  supraspinous  ligament ;  21, 
foramen  for  spinal  cord  ;  22,  foramen  for 
blood-vessel. 

are  called  cervical-  the  next 
twelve  lie  between  the  shoulders 
and  the  waist,  and  are  known  as 
dor  al;  while  the  remaining  five, 
the  lumbar  vertebrae,  are  situated 
immediately  above  the  sacrum. 
Each  vertebra  consists  ci  two 
essential  parts — an  anterior  solid 
segment  or  body,  with  concave 
surfaces  above  and  below,  and  a 
posterior  hollow  segment  or  arch. 
The  vertebrae  are  superimposed 
one  upon  the  other,  so  that  the 
bodies  make  a  strong,  solid  pillar, 
while  the  arches  form  a  con- 
tinuous bony  canal  behind.  Be- 
tween each  pair  of  vertebrae 
apertures  exist  for  the  spinal 
nerves  arising  from  the  spinal 
cord  within  the  canal.  The  two 
highest  cervical  vertebrae  pre- 
sent characteristic  modifications 
in  connection  with  the  move- 
ments of  the  head,  the  upper 
being  known  as  the  atlas,  and 
the  second  as  the  axis.  The  atlas 
has  no  body,  but  is  a  mere  bony 
ring,  capable  of  rotation  around 
the  odontoid  process  of  the  axis. 


Spinal  Column 

All  the  cervical  vertebrae  have 
the  transverse  process  on  each 
side  pierced  by  a  foramen,  through 
which  the  vertebral  artery  and 
vein  pass.  The  spine  is  thick  and 
nearly  horizontal  in  direction. 
It  furnishes  attachment  for  the 
strong  ligamentum  nuchae  or 
ligament  of  the  neck.  Its  aver- 
age length  is  about  two  feet  two 
inches.  Viewed  laterally,  the 
spine  presents  several  curvatures 
which  correspond  with  its  differ- 
ent regions.  The  cervical  curve 
is  the  least  marked,  and  is  con- 
cave backward,  the  dorsal  is 
concave  forward,  the  lumbar  is 
concave  posteriorly,  while  below 
the  lumbar  region  the  sacrum 
and  coccyx  form  the  pelvic  curve, 
which  has  its  concavity  looking 
forward.  From  the  greater  trac- 
tion exercised  by  the  muscles  of 
the  right  arm,  the  dorsal  region 
of  the  spine  generally  presents  a 
lateral  curvature,  the  convexity 
of  which  is  toward  the  right 
side,  and  also  a  slight  compensa- 
tory curve  of  an  opposite  nature 
in  the  lumbar  region.  The  carti- 
lages between  the  vertebrae  form 
in  the  aggregate  nearly  one-fourth 
of  the  total  length  of  the  spine; 
but  they  are  not  uniform  in 
thickness,  being .  thinner  in  the 
dorsal  than  in  the  cervica4  and 
lumbar  regions,  which  have,  con- 
sequently, greater  pliancy  and 
mobility.  The  ligaments  of  the 
spinal  column  are  mostly  char- 
acterized by  the  large  amount  of 
elastic  tissue  which  they  contain, 
and  which  serves  to  maintain  the 
upright  position  with  but  little 
expenditure  of  muscular  energy. 
The  transverse  ligament  of  the 
atlas  stretches  across  the  ring 
of  that  bone,  and  retains  the 
odontoid  process  of  the  axis  in 
the  anterior  arch.  Death  by 
hanging  is  due  to  the  rupture 
of  this  ligament,  as  a  result 
of  which  the  odontoid  process 
crushes  the  medulla  oblongata 
and  destroys  the  vital  centres. 
Strong  ligaments  also  connect 
the  occipital  bone  with  the  axis 
and  with  the  atlas.  The  spinal 
column  is  the  central  support 
for  the  framework  of  the  body. 
The  maximum  of  movement  be- 
tween two  adjacent  vertebrae  is 
very  slight,  but  the  aggregated 
movements  of  several  such  joints 
amount  to  a  considerable  range 
of  mobility.  The  curvature  of 
the  spine  adds  to  its  strength, 
and  confers  upon  it  the  properties 
of  an  elastic  spring.  It  thus  dis- 
sipates the  force  of  a  fall  instead 
of  transmitting  it  to  the  head,  as 
a  rigid  and  straight  column  would 
do.  The  spine  also  forms  an 
armored  flexible  tube  for  the 
protection  of  the  delicate  spinal 
cord. 

The  spinal  column  may  be  the 
seat  of  sprains,  fractures,  or  dis- 
locations, as  well  as  of  synovitis 


377 

in  one  or  more  of  the  many  syno- 
vial joints.  Sprains  are  apt  to 
be  associated  with  persistent 
pain,  and  are  often  followed  by 
rheumatic  inflammations.  Frac- 
tures and  dislocations  are  at- 
tended by  the  serious  risk  that 
the  spinal  cord  may  suffer  either 
laceration  or  compression.  Dis- 
location of  the  spine  without 
fracture  is  impossible  except  in 
the  cervical  region,  and  there  it 
is  uncommon.  For  Pott's  disease 
of  the  spine  and  for  abnormal 
curvatures,  see  Hunchback. 

Spinal  Cord,  the  elongated 
cylindrical  part  of  the  central 
nervous  system.  It  is  usually 
about  sixteen  inches  in  length, 
and  does  not  nearly  fill  the  spinal 
canal,  its  investing  membranes 
being  separated  from  the  bony 
wall  by  areolar  tissue  and  a 
plexus  of  veins,  as  well  as  by 
cerebro-spinal  fluid,  while  in  the 
adult  it  does  not  reach  lower 
than  the  first  lumbar  •  vertebra, 
where  it  terminates  as  a  slen- 
der thread  of  gray  matter.  The 
spinal  cord  is  a  flattened  cylinder, 
with  a  deep  longitudinal  furrow 
or  fissure  on  both  the  anterior 
and  the  posterior  aspects.  These 
fissures  divide  the  cord  into  sym- 
metrical halves,  which  are  united 


Diagrammatic  Section  of  Spinal 
Cord  in  Cervical  Region. 
1,  Anterior  cornu  of  gray  matter ;  2,  pos- 
terior cornu  ;  3,  commissure ;  4,  central 
canal ;  5,  anterior  nerve  root,  6,  postei'ior; 
7,  anterior  median  Assure,  8,  posterior  ;  9, 
fasciculus  of  Tiirck  ;  10,  antero-internal 
column  ;  11,  probable  tract  of  sensations 
of  pain,  heat,  and  cold  ;  12,  crossed  pyra- 
midal tract ;  13,  posterior  column ;  14, 
postero-internal  column  of  Goll ;  15, 
tract  for  sensation  of  touch  and  muscular 
sense ;  16,  postero-median,  or  postero- 
internal column,  or  column  of  Goll. 

in  the  middle  line  throughout 
their  whole  length  by  a  trans- 
verse band  of  nervous  substance 
known  as  the  commissure.  In 
transverse  section  the  cord  is 
seen  to  consist  of  white  and  gray 
matter,  of  which  the  white  lies 
externally,  and  constitutes  the 
greater  part.  The  gray  matter 
IS  arranged  somewhat  in  the 
shape  of  a  crescent  in  each  half 
of  the  cord,  the  two  crescents 
being  united  near  their  middle 
by  gray  matter  which  passes 
across  the  commissure.  Both  the 
white  and  the  gray  matter  contain 
a  supporting  tissue  known  as  neu- 
roglia, which  consists  of  elastic 
fibres  and  nucleated  cells.  The 


Spinal  Cord 

nerve  cells  are  large,  and  stellate 
or  multipolar,  possessing  many 
processes,  which  break  up  like 
the  branches  of  a  tree  into  fine 
nerve  networks.  The  spinal  cord 
is  suppHed  with  a  large  number 
of  blood-vessels,  and  the  blood- 
vessels and  ganglion  cells  are 
surrounded  by  lymph  spaces. 
The  cord  is  enveloped  in  three 
membranes — the  dura  mater,  the 
arachnoid  membrane,  and  the 
pia  mater — which  are  composed 
of  fibrous  connective  tissue  and 
endothelium. 

The  _  white  medullated  fibres 
which  join  the  anterior  pyramids 
of  the  medulla  oblongata  decus- 
sate almost  entirely  before  en- 
tering the  spinal  cord,  and  it  is 
owing  to  this  that  hemiplegic 
paralysis  so  often  affects  the  side 
of  the  body  opposite  to  that  on 
which  the  lesion  is.  The  nerve 
filaments  of  the  white  matter 
depend  for  their  vitality  upon 
the  cells  from  which  they  spring, 
and  should  haemorrhage  or  other 
lesion  destroy  the  cell  in  the 
cortex  cerebri,  the  whole  filament 
undergoes  speedy  degeneration. 
Should  the  filament  be  severed 
at  any  point,  the  portion  situated 
distally  from  the  cell  degenerates 
in  the  same  way.  Destruction  of 
the  ganglionic  cells  of  the  cord  is 
followed  by  degeneration  of  the 
motor  fibres  of  the  corresponding 
spinal  nerve,  and  the  muscles  are 
also  dependent  upon  these  cells 
for  their  nutrition.  Throughout 
the  entire  length  of  the  spinal 
cord  sensory  fibres  cross  from  one 
side  to  the  other.  A  unilateral 
lesion  of  the  spinal  cord,  there- 
fore, produces  motor  paralysis  on 
the  same  side  as  the  lesion,  along 
with  sensory  paralysis  on  the 
opposite  side,  the  paralysis  in 
each  case  being  only  below  the 
seat  of  the  lesion.  The  column 
of  Goll,  which  lies  in  the  pos- 
terior column  close  alongside  the 
posterior  median  fissure,  seems  to 
convey  the  sensation  of  touch  and 
the  muscular  sense. 

All  the  nervous  system  is  built 
up  on  the  reflex  plan.  The  spinal 
cord  alone  may  carry  out  a  re- 
flex act,  a  sensation  being  re- 
ceived bv  the  sensory  ganglion 
cell  of  the  cord,  transmitted  to 
the  motor  cell,  and  transformed 
into  a  motor  impulse.  But  com- 
monly part  of  the  sensory  im- 
pulse is  sent  up  to  the  higher 
centres  in  the  brain,  which  may 
then  direct  or  control  the  result- 
ing motor  phenomena.  In  strych- 
nine poisoning  the  subordinate 
spinal  centres  become  hyper- 
excitable,  and  the  slightest  sen- 
sory stimuli  lead  to  excessive 
discharge  of  energy,  which  is 
altogether  beyond  the  control  of 
the  brain.  Similarly,  a  lesion 
which  cuts  the  communicating 
fibres  between  the  brain  and  cord 
leaves  the  reflex  centres  uncon- 


Spinazzola 

trolled,  and  the  reflex  move- 
ments which  then  follow — say, 
tickling  of  the  sole — are  conse- 
quently enormously  exaggerated 
from  want  of  the  restrainmg  in- 
fluence of  the  higher  centres.  See 
also  Sclerosis, 

Spinazzola,  tn.,  prov.  Bari, 
Italy,  42  m.  w.  by  s.  of  Bari;  ex- 
ports oil  and  fruit.  Pop.  (1901) 
11,532. 

Spindle  Tree.  The  common 
spindle  tree  {Euonymus  euro- 
paus)  is  a  European  shrub,  which 
Dears  glossy  lanceolate  leaves,  and 
in  late  spring  clusters  of  small 


Spindle  Tree. 
1,  Flower ;  2,  section  ;  3,  fruit ;  4,  seed. 


greenish  flowers,  followed  by 
Fruits  which  become  beautifully 
rose-colored.  The  wood  is  very 
compact,  and  is  used  for  making 
skewers.  See  Euonymus. 
Spine.    See  Spinal  Column. 


378 

oxide,  but  zinc  and  manganese 
may  also  be  present.  As  a  rule 
the  spinels  form  excellently  de- 
veloped octahedral  crystals,  be- 
longmg  to  the  regular  or  iso- 
metric system,  and  their  refractive 
index  is  high  and  their  hardness 
usually  great.  The  best  known 
are  precious  spinel  or  balas  ruby 
(pink  and  transparent  MgAl204), 
magnetite  (black,  metallic,  and 
magnetic),  chrornite  (dark  brown 
or  black);  but  zinc- spinel  (frank- 
linite),    chrome-spinel  (picotite), 

gleonaste,  and  hercynite  also 
ave  a  wide  distribution. 
Spinel  lo  Arctino,  properly 
LucA  Spinello  (c.  1330-1410), 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Arezzo. 
He  was  a  disciple  of  Giotto,  and 
is  known  for  his  painting  of  fres- 
coes, only  a  few  of  which  have 
been  preserved.  His  most  famous 
are  the  Fall  of  the  Rebel  Angels 
and  those  executed  for  the  sacristy 
of  the  church  of  San  Miniato 
(Florence),  with  others  at  Pisa, 
Siena,  and  Arezzo. 

Spines,  in  botany.  See  Thorn. 
Spinet,  a  keyed  musical  instru- 
ment much  in  use  from  1500  to 
1760.  It  derived  its  name  from 
the  spines  or  crowquills  which, 
attached  to  levers  called  jacks, 
plucked  the  string  and  produced 
the   tone.    In   England  it  was 


Interior  Mechanism  of  Spinet. 


A,  Jack  ;  B.  tonprue ;  c,  quill ;  d,  bristle 
spring  ;  E,  cloth  damper ;  F,  pivot ;  g,  wire. 

specially  popular  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  its  other  name 
being  virginal.  In  1611  there 
appeared  Parthenia,  the  First 
Musicke  that  ever  was  printed  for 


Spinoza 

in  that  continent.  Its  narrow 
leaves  are  coarse  and  hard,  and 
land  covered  with  the  grass  is 
not  easy  to  traverse. 

Spinning.  See  Cotton  {Manu- 
facture); Woollen  Textiles; 
Silk;  Yarns. 

Spinola,  Ambrosio,  Marquis 
OF  (1569-1630),  general,  in  the 
service  of  Spain,  Dorn  at  Genoa. 
He  served  under  Mendoza  in  the 
Netherlands,  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief to  cope  with 
Maurice  of  Nassau  (1604),  when 
he  took  Ostend  after  a  three 
years'  siege;  raised  the  siege  of 
Ghent  (1605),  concluding  a  twelve 
years'  truce  (1609).  In  1620  he 
conquered  part  of  the  Palatinate 
for  the  emperor;  and  returning 
(1621)  to  the  Netherlands,  took 
Breda  (1625).  See  Life,  in  French, 
by  Siret  (1851). 

Spinoza,  Baruch  or  Benedic- 
TUS  de  (1632-77),  Cartesian  phi- 
losopher, was  born  at  Amsterdam, 
and  belonged  to  a  Jewish  family, 
but  was  later  excommunicated  on 
account  of  his  heretical  views. 
His  life  was  entirely  uneventful. 
His  livelihood  was  earned  by 
grinding  lenses,  his  leisure  de- 
voted to  philosophy.  The  works 
pubHshed  by  Spinoza  in  his  hfe- 
time — an  exposition  of  Descartes's 
philosophy  and  (anonymousl)^) 
the  Tractatus  Theologico-Politi- 
cus  (1670) — are  of  less  impor- 
tance than  those  published  after 
his  death — his  masterpiece,  the 
Ethica,  which  is  really  a  meta- 

ghysics  as  well;  the  short,  un- 
nished  treatise  De  Intellectus 
Emendatione;  and  the  Tractatus 
Politicus.  His  system  is  essen- 
tially a  development  of  Carte- 
sianism,  the  most  conspicuous 
feature  of  which  is  the  funda- 
mental dualism  between  thinking 
and  extended  substance.  The 
res  cogitans  and  the  res  extensa, 
aUke  in  being  substances,  are  so 
totally  diverse  in  nature  other- 
wise, that  the  problem  of  their 
relation  to  each  other  could  only 
be  solved  by  subordinating  them 
both  to  God  as  the  infinite  and 
only  self  -  subsistent  substance 
Thinking  and  extension  are  for 
Spinoza  not  two  substances  of 
different  nature,  but  only  two 
diverse  attributes  of  one  and  the 
same  substance.  They  no  longer 
have  to  be  brought  together  by 
divine  agency,  for  they  are  them- 
selves alreacly  attributes  of  God 
— the  infinite,  as  He  is  also  the 
only  substance.  The  dualism  of 
Descartes  is  thus  transformed 
into  a  pantheistic  monism,  and 
this  pantheism  is  worked  out  by 
Spinoza  in  terms  of  the  three 
related  conceptions  of  substance, 
attribute,  and  mode.  His  method 
of  exposition  and  proof  is  an 
imitation  of  geometry,  then  the 
ideal  of  scientific  demonstration, 
and  starts  with  definitions  and 
axioms,  from  which  a  series  of 


Spinet. 


Spinel,  a  mineral  group  which 
contains  a  combination  of  a 
protoxide  and  a  sesquioxide,  the 
commonest  bases  being  iron  (in 
the  ferrous  and  ferric  states), 
alumina,  magnesia,  and  chromic 


theVirginalls.  The  composers  were 
WiUiam  Byrd,  Dr.  John  Bull, 
and  Orlando  Gibbons. 

Spinifex,  or  Porcupine  Grass, 
an  Australian  grass  {Triodia  irri- 
tans),  which  covers  large  areas 


Spinthariscope 

propositions  is  then  deduced.  In 
the  original  definitions  the  main 
features  of  the  system  are  virtu- 
ally involved  and  assumed.  God, 
the  infinite  substance,  has,  accord- 
ing to  Spinoza,  an  infinity  of  attii- 
butes,  but  all  finite  things  known 
to  us  belong  to  the  two  attributes 
of  thought  and  extension.  And 
since  it  is  the  same  substance  that 
is  expressed  in  both  these  attri- 
butes, there  is  a  thoroughgoing 
parallelism  between  the  modes 
of  thought  and  the  modes  of  ex- 
tension. The  difficulties  of  Spi- 
noza's doctrine  in  regard  to  tlie 
attributes  were  already  seen  in 
his  own  day  by  his  acute  critic 
and  correspondent,  Tschirnhau- 
sen.  The  leading  idea  of  the 
ethical  part  of  Spinoza's  great 
work  is,  that  in  becoming  con- 
scious of  the  unity  of  all  things 
in  God  we  rise  above  the  bondage 
of  the  passions  and  desires  which 
belong  to  our  finitude.  His  po- 
litical doctrine  owes  much  to 
the  EngUsh  philosopher  Hobbes. 
The  standard  edition  is  that  of 
Van  Vloten  and  Land  (1882), 
There  are  translations  of  the 
Works  by  Elwes  (1884),  and  of 
the  Ethica  and  De  Intell.  Emend. 
by  Hale  White  (1883),  expositions 
by  Caird  (1888),  Martineau  (1882). 
Pollock  (1880),  Joachim,  and  of 
his  ethico-poiitical  doctrine  by 
Duff  (1903).  See  also  Fullerton's 
trans.  The  Philosophy  of  Spinoza, 
selections  with  introduction  (1894), 
and  Fullerton's  On  Spinozistic 
Immortality  (1899),  for  a  study. 

Spinthariscope,  an  instru- 
ment contrived  by  Sir  William 
Crookes  in  1903  to  show  the 
luminous  effects  due  to  radium. 
It  consists  of  a  short  brass  tube 
closed  at  one  end  by  a  convex 
lens,  and  at  the  other  by  a  zinc 
sulphide  screen,  with  a  small 
piece  of  radium  salt  placed  close 
in  front  of  it.  An  observer,  look- 
ing at  the  screen  through  the 
lens,  sees  it  lit  up  by  dazzling 
scintillations,  each  of  which 
marks  the  impact  of  an  'alpha 
particle,'  hurled  from  the  disin- 
tegrating radium.  The  flashes  of 
light  are  held  by  Becquerel  to  be 
occasioned  by  actual  cleavage  of 
the  crystals  composing  the  screen; 
but  Prof.  R.  W.  Wood  has  obtained 
from  later  experiments  some 
data  which,  though  not  conclusive, 
make  it  probable  that  this  is  not 
the  actual  process  in  operation. 

Spiraea,  a  genus  of  herbs  and 
shrubs  belonging  to  the  order 
Rosaceae.  It  includes  the  hard- 
hack  {S.  tomentosa),  meadow- 
sweet {S.  salicifolia),  and  a  large 
number  of  beautiful  cultivated 
plants. 

Spiral,  a  curve  which  winds 
round  a  centre  or  pole,  while  con- 
tinuously approacning  or  reced- 
ing from  it.  The  following  are  the 
best-known  spirals:  (1)  r  =  aO, 
spiral  of  Archimedes;   (2)  rO  =  a. 


379 

hyperbolic  or  reciprocal  spiral; 
(3)r2  0  =  a^,  lituus;  (4)  r_==  ae  *»t0^ 
equiangular  or  logarithmic  spiral. 


Forms  of  Spiral. 

1.  Spiral  of  Archimedes.  2.  Lituus 
spiral.  3.  Logarithmic  spiral,  i.  Hyper- 
bolic spiral. 

In  all  these  curves  r  is  the  radius 
vector,  0  the  angle  it  has  de- 
scribed, a  and  m  constants.  These 
curves  may  be  traced  by  finding 
the  values  of  r  for  given  values 
of  9,  and  plotting  by  polar  co- 
ordinates the  points  so  obtained. 
There  are  an  infinite  number  of 
convolutions  about  the  pole  in 
each  case;  r  sin  0  —  a  is  an  asymp- 
tote to  (2),  the  initial  line  is  an 
asymptote  to  (3),  while  in  (4)  as 
the  angle  increases  in  arithmetical 
progression,  the  radius  vector  in- 


Splrlfet 

creases  in  geometrical  progression. 

Spiranthes,  a  genus  of  terres- 
trial orchids,  bearing  flowers  in 
spikes.  The  American  species 
are  now  included  in  the  genus 
Gyrostachys  and  are  known  as 
'ladies'  tresses.'  The  small  flow- 
ers are  pale  or  white  in  spirals  or 
close  ranks. 

Spire,  an  elongated  pyramidal 
roof^  over  a  tower.  It  is  a  very 
important  feature  in  Gothic 
churches  and  cathedrals.  Spires 
are  usually  of  stone,  but  are 
formed  also  of  wood  and  covered 
with  slate  or  lead.  In  the  Norman 
period  corner  turrets  were  com- 
monly terminated  with  a  sort  of 
spire,  the  form  or  plan  being  the 
same  as  the  turret  itself,  either 
round  or  square,  and  rising  direct 
from  the  top  of  the  tower  without 
any  parapet,  as  at  St.  Peter's  at 
Oxford,  or  St.  Stephen's  at  Caen. 
Later  the  spire  proper,  being  a 
much  longer  pyramid,  was  octag- 
onal, on  a  square  tower,  the  cor- 
ners being  filled  in,  as  it  were,  with 
angular  pieces,  when  it  was 
termed  a  Droach.  In  later  styles 
the  parapet  is  well  marked  and 
ornamented  with  pinnacles  and 
flying  buttresses,  as  at  Lichfield 
Cathedral;  while  the  spire  itself  is 
often  perforated  with  openings, 
either  simply  moulded  or  having 
perpendicular  jambs,  covered  with 
small  gables  and  sometimes  filled 
in^  with  regular  tracery.  The 
spire  is  also  ornamented  with 
moulded  or  ornamental  bands,  as 
at  Salisbury,  while  the  angles  are 
sometimes^  enriched  with  beads 
and  sometimes  with  crockets.  In 
Germany  the  later  spires  are 
entirely  composed  of  tracery,  as 
at  Freiburg,  Vienna,  Cologne. 

Spires  (Ger.  Speyer),  tn.,  prov. 
Palatinate,  Bavaria,  on  the  Rhine, 
21  m.  by  rail  s.  of  Worms.  There 
are  remains  of  town  walls,  of  an 
old  palace,  and  of  a  subterranean 
bath.  The  cathedral  was  built  in 
1030,  and  contains  the  tombs  of 
eight  German  emperors  and  some 
of  their  consorts.  The  Diet  of  the 
empire  was  frequently  held  here, 
and  Spires  was  tne  seat  of  the  im- 
perial tribunal  from  1513  to  1689. 
The  town  was  taken  and  almost  de- 
stroyed by  the  French  in  1689, 
and  again  in  1794.  Pop.  (1905) 
21,823. 

Spirifer,  a  fossil  brachiopod. 
The  shell  is  usually  marked  ex- 
ternally with  radiating  furrows, 
and  the  ventral  valve  has  often 
in  addition  a  well-marked  mesial 
groove,  to  which  a  ridge  corre- 
sponds on  the  dorsal  valve.  The 
opening  for  the  peduncle  is  found 
only  on  the  dorsal  valve.  In  the 
interior  there  are  two  large  spi- 
rally coiled  supports  for  the  arms. 
In  shape  the  species  vary  greatly, 
some  being  oblong,  others  very 
broad  from  side  to  side  and  short 
from  front  to  back.  The  number 
of  fossil  forms,  especially  in  th" 


Spirit 


380 


Spiritualism 


Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Carbon- 
iferous formations,  is  very  large. 


Spirifers. 

1.  S.  Sowerbyi.    2.  S.  Sheppardi.  3.  S. 
costalis. 


Spirit.  Originally  there  ex- 
isted no  distinction  between  spirit 
and  soul  or  mind,  because  the  only 
distinction   that  appeals  to  the 

Erimitive  mind  is  the  broad  one 
etween  the  outward  and  visible 
body  and  the  inward  or  animat- 
ing principle.  Moreover,  this 
latter  principle  is  conceived  in 
materialistic  fashion,  and  is  very 
usually  identified  with  the  breath. 
Even  for  philosophical  reflection 
the  true  distinction  between  the 
material  and  the  immaterial  is  not 
easily  seized,  and  the  early  Greek 
philosophers  were  not  much  in 
advance  of  primitive  thought  in 
that  respect.  But  when  at  last  the 
immaterial  nature  of  the  soul  was 
recognized,  the  notion  of  spirit 
still  continued  to  play  an  impor- 
tant part  in  physiological  theory 
(e.g.  with  Aristotle  and  the  Peri- 
patetics), and  spirit  was  regarded 
as  a  sort  of  connecting  link  be- 
tween soul  and  body — a  view 
which  survives  as  late  as  Des- 
cartes's  doctrine  of  'animal  spir- 
its.' When  materialism  revived, 
as  it  speedily  did,  this  ambiguous 
position  of  spirit  made  the  notion 
peculiarly  available,  and  in  the 
Stoic  philosophy  it  was  widely 
extended  to  signify  the  principle 
which,  all  pervasive  yet  material, 
animates  the  whole  world,  as  in 
the  particular  form  of  the  human 
soul  it  animates  the  human  body. 
In  the  religious  notion  of  spirit 
as  developed  in  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  the  central  element 
comes  to  be  that  of  divine  or 
supernatural  agency  operative  in 
the  life  of  man.  Hence  spirit, 
though  it  may  still  be  conceived 
in  materialistic  fashion,  takes  the 
highest  place  as  the  presence  of 
the  divine  in  man.  Both  the 
materialistic  or  physiological  and 
the  religious  notions  of  spirit  have 
now  ceased  to  possess  any  psycho- 
logical significance — the  former 
because  it  has  disappeared  before 
a  truer  physiology,  the  latter  be- 
cause it  is  a  religious  notion  with 
which  a  purely  scientific  psychol- 
ogy has  no  concern  one  way  or 
the  other.  Consequently,  in  phi- 
losophy, the  term  spirit  has  now 
no  special  meaning  distinct  from 
mina  or  soul. 

Spirit.  See  Alcohol;  Distil- 
lation; Methylated  Spirit; 
Proof  Spirit;  Rectified  Spirit. 


Spirit,  Holy.  See  Holy 
Spirit. 

Spirit  -  fresco.  See  Mural 
Decoration. 

Spirit-level.   See  Level. 

Spiritualis m.  Spiritualism  is  a 
term  that  denotes  two  closely  re- 
lated and  yet  distinguishable  be- 
liefs. Its  older  import  applied 
to  that  view  of  the  human  mind 
which  opposed  it  to  materialism 
and  which  maintained  that  the 
soul  in  consequence  of  its  not 
being  a  function  of  the  bodily 
organism  survived  death.  This 
view  describes  the  position  of 
Christianity  against  the  claims  of 
Epicurean  materialism.  It  repre- 
sented the  philosophic  conception 
of  past  history  from  the  decline 
of  ancient  civilization,  and  it  did 
not  begin  to  lose  its  hold  on  men's 
minds  until  the  agnosticism  of  Im- 
manuel  Kant  substituted  Idealism 
for  it.  He  accepted  the  term  as 
properly  defining  the  opposing 
conception  to  materialism,  but 
was  too  sceptical  to  protect  it 
from  the  weakness  of  philosophic 
systems.  The  existence  of  the 
soul  and  its  survival  were  really 
a  matter  of  faith  and  not  of  fact, 
and  the  term  had  no  suggestion 
of  communication  with  the  dead 
to  give  it  meaning.  But  the 
second  import  of  the  term,  which 
is  a  scientific  one,  was  conferred 
by  the  belief  that  communication 
with  the  deceased  is  possible  or 
a  fact.  Swedenborg  was  perhaps 
the  first  to  give  this  idea  its 
present  standing,  though  he  was 
not  the  inventor  of  the  term  nor 
the  person  who  gave  it  the  asso- 
ciations of  charlatanism  which 
pervade  its  history  since  his  time. 
This  second  meaning  of  the  term 
concedes  that  materialism  can  be 
supplanted  only  by  communica- 
tion with  the  dead,  and  so  bases 
its  contention  upon  the  facts  of 
present  experience,  or  evidence 
of  communication,  while  the 
older  vie^y  was  based  upon  purely 
philosophic  speculation.  The  two 
points  of  view  are  reconcilable 
and  may  ultimately  be  united. 

The  possibility  of  communicat- 
ing with  the  dead  early  gave  rise 
to  the  fraudulent  simulation  of  it, 
and  the  revival  of  modern  Spir- 
itualism is  usually  traced  to  the 
Fox  sisters  instead  of  Sweden- 
borg. Raps  and  knockings  con- 
stituted the  method  by  which 
these  adventurers  and  others  pre- 
tended to  establish  communica- 
tion with  the  dead.  But  the  dis- 
covery of  their  frauds  and  their 
final  confession  of  them  gave  the 
doctrine  a  setback,  from  which  it 
has  been  very  difficult  to  recover. 

It  was  the  organization  of  the 
Society  for  Psychical  Research 
that  has  revived  recent  interest 
in  the  doctrine,  and  its  work  has 
tended  to  put  limits  to  the  claims 
which  have  generally  been  made 
for  communication  with  the  dis- 


carnate,  though  it  has  at  the  same 
time  tended  to  strengthen  the  be- 
Hef  by  giving  it  better  scientific 
credentials  than  it  has  hitherto 
possessed.  Its  publications  have 
discriminated  between  pseudo- 
spiritistic  phenomena  and  such  as 
have  genuine  claim  to  being 
supernormal,  whatever  the  final 
explanation.  To  escape  the  mis- 
conceptions which  have  accom- 
panied the  term  '  spiritualism,'  it 
has  coined  that  of  '  spiritism  '  to 
denote  the  point  of  view  descrip- 
tive of  many  of  its  phenomena, 
though  not  committing  itself  to 
the  belief  in  the  fact  of  commu- 
nication with  the  dead.  Much  of 
the  Society's  material  bears  upon 
other  questions  than  spiritism, 
and  so  relates  to  such  ideas  as 
telepathy,  clairvoyance,  premoni- 
tions, coincidental  dreams,  coin- 
cidental apparitions  whether  of 
the  living  or  of  the  dead,  and 
other  residual  phenomena.  Medi- 
umistic  phenomena,  which  usually 
claim  to  have  their  source  in  dis- 
carnate  spirits,  are  equally  a  sub- 
ject of  its  investigations,  though 
they  often  have  not  adequate  evi- 
dential claims  to  the  source 
which  they  superficially  represent. 
Spiritism  or  spiritualism,  there- 
fore, in  its  expurgated  form,  is 
confined  to  the  idea  of  communi- 
cation with  the  dead,  at  least  in 
so  far  as  its  strictly  scientific  im- 
port is  concerned. 

There  are  various  phenomena 
which  have  given  the  popular 
mind  its  conception  of  the  prob- 
lem and  its  solution.  They  are 
such  as  *  materializations  '  asso- 
ciated with  cabinets  and  dark 
seances,  independent  slate  writing 
in  which  messages  purporting  to 
come  from  the  discarnate  are 
thought  to  be  written  between 
closed  or  concealed  slates  by  in- 
visible agencies,  rope-tying  per- 
formances which  Zollner  ex- 
plained by  a  fourth  dimension, 
the  movement  of  objects  without 
physical  contact,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  sounds  in  some  way  not 
explicable  by  ordinary  means. 
Assuming  these  as  genuine,  for 
which  there  is  no  adequate  scien- 
tific evidence  as  yet,  they  are  not 
indicative  of  spirit  agency  what- 
ever they  may  suggest  and  al- 
though they  might  be  explicable 
by  it  when  once  proved.  The 
real  problem  of  discarnate  agency 
is  in  the  evidence  of  personal 
identity  after  death  and  some- 
thing very  different  from  physical 
marvels,  though  scientific  obser- 
vation should  neither  neglect  the 
investigation  of  such  claims  nor 
refuse  them,  if  true,  the  possible 
explanation  which  they  claim. 

The  phenomena  which  are  m9st 
pertinent  to  the  doctrine  of  spir- 
itism are  apparitions  of  the  dying 
and  the  dead  and  mediumistic 
communications,  when  they  are 
undoubtedly    supernormal  and 


m  1  ^  t942 

Spirochaeta  KFK  381  Spleen 


referable  to  the  memories  of 
surviving  souls.  One  of  the 
best  illustrations  of  this  type  of 
phenomena  was  the  experience  of 
the  Rev.  Stainton  Moses.  The 
automatic  writing  of  this  gentle- 
man purported  to  represent  the 
communications  of  discarnate 
spirits,  and  had  it  received  the 
scientific  investigations  which  it 
deserved  might  have  substan- 
tiated his  claims.  His  phe- 
nomena, however,  were  an  im- 
portant influence  in  suggesting 
the  organization  of  the  Society 
for  Psychical  Research. 

The  Proceedings  of  this  soci- 
ety supply  much  more  material 
having  at  least  a  plausible 
claim  to  representing  spiritistic 
agency.  The  Reports  on  the  re- 
markable case  of  Mrs.  Leonora 
Piper,  published  in  five  different 
volumes  of  the  Proceedings,  of- 
fer the  best  mass  of  scientific 
evidence  extant  in  support  of 
possible  spirit  communication. 
For  this  case  and  its  extensive 
record  the  world  is  indebted  to 
Dr.  Richard  Hodgson,  the  late 
Secretary  of  the  American 
Branch  of  the  Society  for  Psy- 
chical Research.  The  work  of 
Mr.  Frederick  W.  H.  Myers  is 
only  less  important  and  impres- 
sive in  the  same  direction.  It 
was  published  in  two  large  vol- 
umes, Human  Personality  and 
its  Survival  of  Bodily  Death. 
This  includes  most  of  the  best 
results  of  psychical  research. 

Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Barrett,  and  Professor 
Charles  Richet  of  Paris  have 
made  important  contributions  to 
the  subject  during  the  last  three 
decades,  most  of  which  are  em- 
bodied in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Society.  Professor  Henry  Sidg- 
wick  and  Dr.  Richard  Hodgson 
share  in  the  same  work  to  an 
equal  extent.  Mr.  Frank  Pod- 
more  contributed,  besides  arti- 
cles, a  work  on  Apparitions  and 
Thought  Transference,  and  Mod- 
ern Spiritualism.  Both  are  criti- 
cal and  sceptical  works,  though 
admitting  the  existence  of  phe- 
nomena oridnarily  inexplicable. 

Important  literature  on  the 
subject,  in  addition  to  what  has 
been  named  will  be  found  in 
the  following:  Phantasm  of  the 
Living,  2  vols.,  by  Gurney  and 
Myers ;  Spirit,  Identity  and 
Spirit  Teachings,  both  by  Rev. 
Stainton  Moses ;  L'Inconnu,  by 
M.  Flammarion.  Less  impor- 
tant or  evidential  are  the  works 
of  Judge  Edmunds,  of  Alfred 
Russel  Wallace,  and  Andrew 
Jackson  Davis.  Consult  also, 
H.  Houdini,  A  Magician  Among 
the  Spirits  (1924)  ;  D.  H.  Buett- 
ner,  The  Spirit  Life  of  Pure 
Spiritualism  (1939). 

Spi'rochaeta,  or  Spirochete, 
a  genus  of  flexile  protozoa  in- 
cluding  Spirochccta  obermcieri. 


the  causative  organism  of  re- 
lapsing fever,  Spirochccta  {Tre- 
ponema) pallida,^  the  pathogenic 
parasite  of  syphilis,  and  a  large 
number  of  other  species. 

Spitalfields,  spit'al-feldz,  a 
northeastern  district  of  London, 
England,  deriving  its  name  from 
the  Hospital  of  St.  Mary  found- 
ed there  in  1197. 

Spit'head,  roadstead,  English 
Channel,  between  the  northeast 
of  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  Ports- 
mouth. It  is  14  miles  long  by 
about  4  miles  in  breadth. 

The  Battle  of  Spithead  was 
fought  in  1545,  between  the  Eng- 
lish fleet  and  the  French  fleet. 
The  latter  was  kept  at  bay,  and 
finally  driven  off. 

Sp'itsbergen  (Norwegian 
Svalbard),  an  Arctic  archipel- 


ago between  Greenland  and  No- 
vaya  Zemlya,  some  400  miles 
north  of  Norway.  Total  area 
about  24,294  sq.  miles.  They 
include  West  Spitsbergen  or 
Mainland  (15,200  sq.  m.),  North 
East  Land  (6,000  sq.  m.).  Edge 
Island  (2,500  sq.  m.),  Barents 
Island  (580  sq.  m.),  Prince 
Charles  Foreland,  the  Wiche  Is- 
lands, Hope  Island,  Bear  Island 
(68  sq.  m.)  and  many  smaller 
islands.  The  interior  is  covered 
with  a  thick  ice  sheet,  through 
which  project  peaks,  some  of 
which  are  2,000  feet  high,  and 
one,  Hornsund,  in  West  Spits- 
bergen, 4,500  feet.  There  are 
magnificent  glaciers  on  the  east 
of  North  East  Land.  Seals  and 
walruses  are  found  on  the 
coasts,  and  sea-fowl — e.g.,  eider 
duck — breed  on  the  islands. 
There  are  extensive  deposits  of 
coal  especially  in  West  Spits- 
bergen, and  these  are  being 
worked  by  Norwegian,  Swedish, 
and  Dutch  companies.  British 


companies  also  control  large 
coal  areas.    Pop.  about  3,000. 

It  is  believed  that  the  archi- 
pelago was  discovered  by  the 
Norsemen  in  1194  and  re-dis- 
covered by  the  Dutch  navigator 
Wm.  Barents  in  1596.  The 
English  explorer  Henry  Hud- 
so  visited  Spitsbergen  in  1607, 
and  thereafter  was  visited  by 
British  and  Dutch  whalers  and 
later  (18th  century)  by  Russian 
hunters  and  trappers.  Attempts 
at  permanent  settlement  came  to 
nothing,  and  the  islands  re- 
mained a  sort  of  no-man's  land 
until  well  into  the  20th  century. 
In  1920  a  treaty  was  signed  by 
the  Great  Powers  (Feb.  9)  rec- 
ognizing Norwegian  sovereignty 
over  the  archipelago.  The  is- 
lands were  formally  proclaimed 


Norwegian  territory  on  Aug.  14, 
1925.  Many  North  Pole  expe- 
ditions have  started  from  Spits- 
bergen. See  Arctic  Explora- 
tion. 

Spitzka,  Edward  Charles 
(1852-1914),  American  psychia- 
trist, was  born  in  New  York. 
He  was  the  first  to  discover  the 
interoptic  lobes  in  saurians,  the 
absence  of  pyramidal  tracts  in 
the  cetacea,  and  the  interoptic 
lobes  of  the  lower  brain.  He 
was  professor  of  medical  juris- 
prudence and  neurology  in  the 
New  York  Post-Graduate  Hos- 
pital (1885);  editor  of  the 
American  Journal  of  Neurology 
(1881-4),  and  author  of  a  Trea- 
tise on  Insanity  (1883). 

Spleen,  in  anatomy,  a  small 
organ,  the  largest  of  the  so-called 
ductless  glands,  is  about  five 
inches  long,  lying  high  on  the 
left  side  of  the  abdomen,  near 
the  upper  end  of  the  stomach, 
and  partly  behind  it  and  the  in- 
testine.   It  is  of  soft,  pulpy  tis- 


Spitzbergen 


Spleenwort 


KFK 


382 


Spokane 


sue,  in  a  meshwork  of  fibrous  and 
elastic  substance,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  an  elastic  capsule. 

The  spleen  is  believed  to  assist 
in  maintaining  the  portal  circu- 
lation; to  be  concerned  with  the 
destruction  of  the  red  blood  cor- 
puscles and  the  formation  of 
both  red  and  white  ones,  especi- 
ally the  latter;  to  exercise  a 
special  nitrogenous  metabolic 
function;  and  to  have  a  definite 
connection  with  digestion. 

Spleen'wort,  any  fern  of  the 
genus  Asplenium,  of  the  family 
Polypodiaceae,  the  distinguishing 
characteristics  of  which  are  the 
long  sori,  or  spore  cases,  at  the 
back  of  the  fronds,  covered  by  a 
protective  membrane  (the  indu- 
sium).  A  number  of  varieties  oc- 
cur in  the  Eastern  United  States. 

Splenic  Fever.  See  Anthrax. 

Splicing,  a  method  of  uniting 
two  ropes,  or  two  parts  of  the 
same  rope,  in  which  the  separate 
strands  are  interwoven  and 
tucked  in  so  as  not  to  alter 
materially  the  size  or  flexibility 
of  the  rope  at  the  point  of 
splicing.      The  two  commonest 


Common  Methods  of  Splicing 


methods  are  the  short  splice,  for 
uniting  the  ends  of  two  separate 
ropes,  and  the  eye-splice,  for 
making  a  permanent  loop  in  the 
end  of  a  rope.  In  making  a  short 
splice  the  ends  of  the  ropes  are 
unlaid  for  a  short  distance  and 
brought  together,  the  strands 
interlacing  (a  in  the  illustration). 
Taking  any  one  strand,  this  is 
woven  into  the  laid  strands  of  the 
other  rope,  working  from  left  to 
right;  the  other  two  strands  are 
similarly  woven,  but  from  right 
to  left  (shown  at  b).  For  making 
an  eye-splice,  the  end  of  the  rope 
is  unlaid  and  the  strands  are 
bent  back  upon  the  body  of  the 
rope  and  interwoven  as  in  the 
short  splice 

Other  common  splices  are:  the 
long  splice,  in  which  the  ropes 
are  unlaid  tor  a  considerable  dis- 
tance and  the  two  sets  of  strands 
relaid  upon  each  other  before 


being  interwoven;  and  the  chain- 
splice,  for  splicing  a  rope  to  a 
chain.  Wire-rope  may  also  be 
spliced,  but  the  operation  is  one 
for  an  expert.   See  Knot;  Ropes. 

Splint,  or  Splent.  See  Horse 
— Diseases. 

Splints,  in  surgery,  are  certain 
mechanical  contrivances  for 
keeping  a  fractured  limb  in  its 
proper  position,  and  for  prevent- 
ing any  motion  of  the  ends  of  the 
broken  bone;  they  are  also  em- 
ployed for  securing  perfect  im- 
mobility of  the  parts  in  other 
cases,  as  in  diseased  joints,  after 
resection  of  joints,  etc. 

The  ordinary  splint  is  now  to  a 
great  degree  superseded  by  im- 
movable bandages,  which  consist 
of  the  ordinary  bandage  satu- 
rated with  a  thick  mucilage  of 
starch,  with  glue,  or  with  water- 
glass  (a  solution  of  silicate  of 
soda),  or  plaster  of  Paris. 

Spliigen,  shplu'gen,  Alpine 
pass  (6,946  feet),  traversed  by  a 
good  carriage  road  from  Coire 
(Swiss  canton  of  Grisons)  in  the 
Rhine  valley  to  Chiavenne  in 
Italy.  This  pass  was  crossed  in 
the  winter  of  1800  by  the  French 
army  under  Macdonald. 

Spofford,  AiNSwoRTH  Rand 
(1825-1908),  American  librarian, 
was  born  in  Gilmanton,  N.  H. 
Removing  to  Cincinnati,  O.,  he 
became  a  bookseller  in  that  city, 
and  was  associate  editor  of  the 
Cincinnati  Commercial  from  1859 
to  1861.  He  was  appointed 
assistant  librarian  of  Congress  in 
1861,  and  was  librarian  of  Con- 
gress from  1864  to  1899,  when  he 
became  chief  assistant  under 
Herbert  Putnam.  Besides  writ- 
ing many  miscellaneous  articles, 
he  edited  several  compendiums, 
including  Library  of  Choice  Liter- 
ature (1881-8)  and  Library  of 
Wit  and  Humor  (1884).  He  also 
published  a  Practical  Manual  of 
Parliamentary  Rules  (1884)  and 
A  Book  for  all  Readers  (1900). 

Spofford,  Harriet  (Eliza- 
beth) Prescott  (1835-1921), 
American  author,  was  born  in 
Calais,  Me.  She  early  removed 
to  Newburyport,  Mass.,  and  in 
1865  was  married  to  Richard  S. 
Spofford,  a  lawyer  of  Boston. 
Her  books  include  Sir  Rohan's 
Ghost  (1859);  The  Amber  Gods, 
and  Other  Stories  (1863);  New 
England  Legends  (1871);  The 
Marquis  of  Car  abas  (1882); 
Poems  (1882);  Ballads  about  Au- 
thors (1888);  The  Children  of  the 
Valley  (1901);  The  Great  Proces- 
sion (1902);  Four  Days  of  God 
(1905);  Old  Washington  (1906); 
A  Fairy  Changeling  (1910);  The 
Making  of  a  Fortune  (1911). 

Spohr,  shpor,  Ludwig  (1784- 
1859),  German  violin  virtuoso 
and  composer,  was  born  in 
Brunswick.  He  was  musical 
director  successively  at  Gotha 
(1805-13),  Vienna  (1813-15), 
Frankfort  -  on  -  Main  (1817-19), 
and  Kassel  (1822-57).  Though 


he  seldom  deviated  from  tradi- 
tional principles  in  his  com- 
positions, he  was  among  the 
first  to  recognize  and  proclaim 
the  genius  of  Wagner.  His  num- 
erous musical  compositions  in- 
clude operas,  oratorios,  sym- 
phonies, concertas  and  other 
works.  He  is  also  the  author  of  a 
celebrated  Violin  School.  Con- 
sult his  Autobiography. 

Spokane,  sp6-kan',  city, 
Washington,  county  seat  of  Spo- 
kane county,  on  the  Spokane 
River,  60  miles  above  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Columbia  River 
and  on  the  Northern  Pacific, 
Great  Northern,  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee and  St.  Paul,  Union  Pa- 
cific, and  Spokane  International 
Railroads ;  340  miles  east  of 
Seattle.  It  is  the  urban  center 
of  a  region  of  100,000  square 
miles  rich  in  a  variety  of  natu- 
ral resources. 

The  city  occupies  an  area  of 
some  40  square  miles  on  both 
sides  of  the  river  which  runs 
through  the  heart  of  the  business 
section  and  falls  spectacularly 
about  70  feet.  It  has  the  larg- 
est park  area  per  capita  of  any 
city  in  the  country,  comprising 
53  parks,  16  playgrounds,  and 
five  golf  courses.  Manito  Park 
and  Natatorium  Park,  the  latter 
across  the  river  from  the  Fort 
George  Wright  Reservation,  are 
especially  popular  recreation 
spots.  The  surrounding  country 
is  famous  for  its  rugged  beauty. 

The  city  has  a  commission 
form  of  government.  Among 
the  notable  buildings  are  the 
Court  House,  Old  National 
Bank,  Carnegie  Library,  Masonic 
Temple,  Sacred  Heart  Hospital, 
and  the  Spokane  Amateur  Ath- 
letic Club.  There  are  133 
churches,  13  public  libraries, 
and  13  theatres.  The  public 
school  system  includes  38  grade 
schools,  three  high  schools,  and 
two  junior  high  schools.  There 
are  three  colleges — Gonzaga 
University,  Whitworth  College, 
and  Spokane  Junior  College — 
eight  business  schools,  20  pri- 
vate schools,  three  training 
schools  for  nurses,  and  several 
aviation  schools. 

Felts  Field,  the  municipal  air- 
port, is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
best  of  its  type  in  the  country. 
Daily  Mail,  express,  and  passen- 
ger service  is  provided  by  the 
United  Airlines  over  the  mid- 
Transcontinental  routes  and  by 
the  Northwest  Airlines  over  the 
northern  Transcontinental  route. 
The  city  is  a  key  point  in  the 
national  system  of  air  defense 
and  the  headquarters  of  the  Sec- 
ond United  States  Army  Air 
Corps  operating  in  the  north- 
western States. 

Spokane  is  the  industrial  and 
commercial  metropolis  of  east- 
ern   Washington,  northeastern 


THE  SPOKANE  CIVIC  CENTER 


Photos  Courtesy  Spokanf:  (  li  i         ,  i  .un-n-i; 

THE  BEAUTIFUL  SUNKEN  GARDENS  OP  MANITO  PARK  IN  SPOKANE,  WASHINGTON 

Vol.  XL— Page  383 


Spokane  River 


KFK 


384 


Sponges 


Oregon,  northern  Idaho,  western 
Montana,  and  southern  British 
Columbia.  It  is  in  the  heart  of 
a  country  rich  in  lumber  and 
mines,  with  great  agricultural, 
livestock,  and  dairying  interests 
and  vast  water  power  resources. 
The  commercial  apple  industry 
is  very  extensive.  Generating 
plants  supply  electric  service  to 
77,645  patrons  in  19  counties  of 
eastern  Washington  and  north- 
ern Idaho.  The  several  hundred 
manufacturing  establishments 
operating  in  Spokane  have  a  to- 
tal output  of  $60,000,000  annu- 
ally, based  on  a  five-year  aver- 
age. The  city  is  one  of  the  pri- 
mary jobbing  and  wholesale 
markets  of  the  Pacific  North- 
west, distributing  products  val- 
ued in  excess  of  $70,000,000  an- 
nually, is  the  hub  of  more  rail- 
road mileage  than  any  other  city 
west  of  Omaha,  and  is  the  center 
of  a  vast  network  of  improved 
highways,  embracing  more  than 
13,000  miles,  including  the  main 
transcontinental  arterials  from 
the  east  and  the  south.  The 
city's  growth  from  a  pioneer 
trading  post  in  1872  has  been 
remarkable.  Pop.  (1880)  300; 
(1900)  36,848;  (1920)  104,437; 
and  (1940)  122,001. 

Spokane  River,  the  outlet  of 
Coeur  d'Alene  Lake  in  north- 
western Idaho.  It  flows  north- 
west through  the  State  of  Wash- 
ington to  its  confluence  with  the 
Columbia  River,  a  course  of  120 
miles. 

Spoleto,  sp5-la'to,  city,  prov- 
ince of  Perugia,  Italy  ;  60  miles 
by  rail  n.e.  of  Rome.  It  is  the 
seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  has  a 
fine  cathedral  dating  from  the 
eleventh  century,  an  ancient  cit- 
adel now  employed  as  a  prison, 
and  the  ruins  of  a  theatre  and 
triumphal  arch — traces  of  the 
Roman  colony  of  Spoletium, 
founded  about  240  b.c.  The 
principal  industries  are  the  gath- 
ering of  truffles,  the  mining  of 
lignite,  the  preserving  of  fruits 
and  vegetables,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  olive  oil  and  silk.  In  574 
Spoleto  became  the  seat  of  a 
powerful  duchy  until  the  twelfth 
century.    Pop.  (1938)  32,341. 

Spo'lia  O'pima,  the  arms  taken 
by  a  Roman  commander  in  per- 
son from  a  hostile  commander, 
whom  he  had  slain.  They  were 
consecrated  to  Jupiter  Feretrius. 
Only  three  occasions  are  known 
upon  which  these  'richest  spoils' 
were  won:  by  Romulus,  from 
Aero,  king  of  the  Caeninenses;  by 
Aulus  Cornelius  Cossus,  from 
Toluminus,  king  of  the  Veientes; 
and  by  Marcus  Claudius  Marcel- 
lus  from  Viridomarus,  king  of  the 
Gaesata?. 

Spon'dee,  in  prosody,  a  foot 
consisting  of  two  long  syllables,  as 
fdlu.    It  is  metrically  equivalent 


to  a  dactyl  or  an  anapaest,  and  is 
therefore  found  in  all  dactylic  and 
anapaestic  metres;  it  is  also  used 
under  certain  restrictions  in  tro- 
chaic and  iambic  rythms. 

Spondias,  spon'di-as,  a  genus 
of  tropical  trees  belonging  to  the 
family  Anacardiaceae.  They  bear 
small  flowers,  followed  by  fleshy 
drupes.  The  principal  species  are 
5.  lutea,  the  so-called  golden  ap- 
ple or  Jamaica  plum,  and  5.  dul- 
cis,  the  sweet  Otaheite  apple. 

Sponges,  a  group  of  aquatic 
animals  characterized  by  extreme 
simplicity  of  structure.  While 
they  cannot  be  classed  with  the 
Metazoa,  neither  do  they  prop- 
erly belong  to  the  Protozoa,  since 
the  embryo  consists  of  different 
groups  of  cells  giving  rise  to  dis- 
tinct tissues.  Many  zoologists, 
therefore,  place  them  in  a  special 
subkingdom  known  as  Porifera. 
About  two  thousand  species  of 
sponges  are  known,  ranging  in 
size  from  a  pin's  head  to  masses 
several  feet  in  height,  and  vary- 
ing in  weight  from  a  grain  to  over 
a  hundred  pounds.  They  are  ex- 
tremely varied  in  shape;  when 
alive  they  are  of  all  colors  and 
may  be  soft  and  glutinous,  fleshy, 
leathery,  or  stony.  They  are 
found  in  all  seas  and  at  all  depths, 
from  the  shallows  along  the  shore 
margin  to  water  many  fathoms 
deep. 

One  of  the  simplest  of  sponges, 
which  may  be  taken  as  typical, 
Ascetta  primordialis,  a  Mediter- 
ranean variety,  has  a  small  vase- 
shaped  body,  fixed  at  its  base  and 
open  at  the  apex.  Examined  mi- 
croscopically the  body  shows  an 
internal  layer  of  ciliated  cells,  a 
very  delicate  external  skin,  and 
between  these  a  middle  stratum 
in  which  lie  numerous  needles  of 
lime  forming  the  supporting  skel- 
eton of  the  sponge.  Currents  of 
water,  bearing  microscopic  organ- 
isms and  particles  of  organic 
debris  as  food  for  the  sponge,  en- 
ter through  minute  pores,  are 
conveyed  through  the  walls  by 
numerous  fine  canals,  and  are  ex- 
pelled by  the  larger  apical  aper- 
tures. Respiration  is  effected  in  a 
similar  manner,  the  bright  pig- 
ments characteristic  of  many 
sponges  readily  absorbing  oxygen. 

Sponges  do  not  move  about, 
yet  there  is  great  motor  activity 
in  the  ciliated  cells  of  the  endo- 
derm.  Like  many  other  passive 
organisms,  they  are  profoundly 
influenced  by  environment,  their 
shapes  varying  with  the  nature  of 
their  anchorage  and  of  the  cur- 
rents which  play  around  them. 
Sensitiveness  to  external  stimuli 
is  shown  by  the  closure  of  the  lit- 
tle superficial  pores  and  some- 
times even  of  the  larger  exhalent 
aperture  or  apertures.  Sponges 
multiply  by  overgrowth  and  bud- 
ding, as  well  as  by  sexual  pro- 
duction. They  are  hermaphro- 
ditic, development  after  fertiliza- 


tion of  the  ova  by  spermatozoa 
proceeding  through  several  stages 
before  the  embryo  leaves  the 
parent. 

Not  infrequently  sponges  form 
associations  with  other  animals, 
ranging  from  the  apparently 
chance  connections,  such  as  that 
of  the  Halichondria  and  certain 
spider-crabs,  to  an  apparently 
definite  symbiosis,  such  as  occurs 
in  the  glass-rope  sponge,  which 
seems  always  to  have  a  coelen- 
terate  colony  (Palythoa)  on  its 
long  'rope'  of  spicules.  Since 
sponges  are  usually  inedible,  this 
association  with  Crustacea  can  be 
partially  explained  as  protective 
to  the  latter.  Sponges  are  abun- 
dantly represented  as  fossils  in 
all  rocks. 

There  are  three  classes  of 
sponges — the  Calcarea,  in  which 
the  skeleton  consists  of  lime;  the 
Hexactinellida,  or  glass  sponges, 
in  which  the  spicules  are  siliceous; 
and  the  Demospongia,  or  common 
sponges,  which  are  also  siliceous 
in  structure.  The  Calcarea  are 
divided  into  two  groups,  the 
Homocoela,  in  which  the  collar- 
cells  line  the  entire  interior  of  the 
simple  or  branched  sac,  and  the 
Heterocoela,  in  which  the  collar- 
cells  are  confined  to  the  radial 
tubes,  the  gastric  cavity  being 
lined  with  flat  cells;  examples  of 
this  class  are  Ascetta  primordialis, 
Sycandra,  and  Grantia.  Calcar- 
eous sponges  are  found  chiefly  in 
caves,  under  stones,  and  in  thick- 
ets of  seaweed.  They  are  widely 
distributed,  but  are  commonest 
in  shallow  water,  rarely  being 
found  at  depths  exceeding  150 
fathoms. 

The  Hexactinellida,  or  glass 
sponges,  the  simplest  in  form  of 
the  non-calcareous  sponges,  are 
divided  into  two  groups,  the  Lys- 
sacina,  in  which  the  spicules  are 
loose  and  separate,  and  the  Dic- 
tyonina,  in  which  the  spicules 
form  a  solid  framework.  To  this 
class  belong  the  beautiful  'Venus's 
flower-basket'  (Euplectella)  and 
the  curious  glass-rope  sponge 
(Hyalonema)  of  Japan.  The 
members  of  the  class  for  the  most 
part  inhabit  water  more  than  150 
fathoms  in  depth,  and  have  elab- 
orately beautiful  skeletons. 

The  Demospongia,  unlike  the 
well-defined  group  of  hexactinel- 
lid  sponges,  are  difficult  of  classi- 
fication. Among  them  are 
sponges  whose  skeletons  consist 
chiefly  of  uniaxial  spicules,  others 
in  which  the  skeleton  consists  of 
horn,  and  still  others  in  which  it 
is  composed  of  quadriradiate 
spicules.  In  consequence  four 
interrelated  subdivisions  of  this 
group  are  generally  recognized: 
(1)  monaxonid  sponges,  (2)  horny 
sponges,  (3)  tetractinellid  sponges 
and  (4)  fleshy  sponges.  To  the 
monaxonid  division  belong  many 
of  the  common  northern  sponges 
— the  Cliona,  which  bores  into 


SPECIES  OF  SPONGES 

1.  Spongilla  fluviatilis  (fresh-water  sponge).  2.  S.  lacustris  (fresh-water  sponge).  3.  Thrinacophcra 
funiformis.  4.  Dendropsis  bidentifera.  5.  Esperiopsis  Challengeri.  6.  Siphonochalina  annulata. 
7.  Hyalonema  Sieboldii.  8.  Euplectella  aspergillum.  9.  Semperella  Schultzei.  10.  Selerothamus 
clausii.  11.  Desmacidon  grandis.  12.  Farea  occa.  13.  Periphragella  elisa?.  14.  Reniera  aquaeductus. 
15.  Echinoclathria  Carteri.  16.  Phakelha  flabellata.  17.  P.  ventilabrum.  18.  Cinachyra  barfata. 
19.  Isodictya  palmata.    20.  Diagram  showing  circulation  of  water  in  living  sponge. 

Vol.  XL— Oct.  '22. 


Sponges 


386 


Spontaneous  Generation 


various  shells  and  constitutes  an 
active  agent  in  their  disintegra- 
tion; the  orange-yellow  Suberite, 
which  lives  in  symbiosis  with  a 
hermit-crab;  the  mermaid's  glove 
(Chalina),  a  common  branched 
sponge;  the  extraordinarily  abun- 
dant crumb  -  of  -  bread  sponge 
(Halichondria),  which  forms  a 
thick  crust  over  many  objects  be- 
tween tide-marks;  and  the  cu- 
rious fresh-water  sponge  (Spongil- 
la),  with  its  green  coloring  mat- 
ter. The  monaxonids  mostly  in- 
habit shallow  water  (under  50 
fathoms) ;  the  siliceous  skeleton 
is  never  complex,  and  shows  a 
tendency  to  become  reduced. 

Of  the  horny  sponges  (Cera- 
tosa)  the  most  important  are  the 
bath  sponges  (Euspongia  and 
Hippospongia),  in  which  the 
horny  fibres  are  exceptionally 
soft,  fine,  and  elastic.  These 
sponges  are  widely  distributed  in 
the  eastern  half  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, the  most  favorable  local- 
ities being  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  Adriatic,  the  coast  of  Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  and  parts  of  the  Af- 
rican coast;  they  also  occur  in  the 
Red  Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Aus- 
tralia, round  the  Bahamas,  and 
elsewhere.  They  are  found  at  all 
depths  down  to  200  fathoms. 
Efforts  have  been  made  in  the 
Adriatic  and  off  the  Florida  coast 
to  cultivate  horny  sponges  arti- 
ficially by  a  process  of  planting 
cuttings;  but,  owing  to  the  slow- 
ness of  growth,  the  experiments 
have  hitherto  proved  to  be  of  no 
economic  value. 

The  tetractinellid  sponges  in- 
clude some  of  the  most  highly 
specialized  genera,  as  the  stony 
sponges(Lithistids) ,  which  usually 
live  in  depths  exceeding  100  fath- 
oms. This  group  is  commonest  at 
depths  of  from  50  to  200  fathoms. 

The  fleshy  sponges  (Carnosa) 
constitute  a  small  group,  charac- 
terized by  a  tough  rind  enclosing 
a  softer  pith,  a  slightly  developed 
skeleton,  and  a  highly  developed 
canal-system.  The  sea-kidney 
leather  sponge  (Chondrosia  reni- 
fiormis)  is  included  in  this  sub- 
division. 

Sponge  Fishing.  —  In  various 
regions,  notably  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  waters  off  the 
coast  of  the  Bahamas,  Cuba,  and 
Florida,  sponge  fishing  is  an 
industry  of  great  importance. 
Five  methods  are  employed — 
wading,  naked  diving,  harpoon- 
ing, trawling,  and  machine  diving. 

Wading,  perhaps  the  earliest 
method,  is,  with  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  sponge  from  shallow 
waters,  rapidly  becoming  obso- 
lete, save  along  the  coast  of 
Tunis.  Sponges  so  obtained  are 
inferior  in  quality. 

Naked  diving,  also  a  method  of 
great  antiquity,  is  practiced 
mainly  by  the  Greeks  and  Syri- 
ans. The  diver  carries  a  stone  so 
shaped  that,  by  holding  it  in  a 
Vol.  XL— Oct.  '22. 


certain  position,  a  required  point 
of  the  ocean  bottom  can  be 
reached.  This  method  is  best 
suited  to  an  uneven  ocean  bottom 
and  to  water  of  moderate  depth. 

Harpooning,  or  hooking,  is 
employed  where  the  water  is  not 
too  deep,  and  is  the  sole  method 
permitted  in  the  valuable  Ba- 
hama grounds.  The  harpoon, 
an  implement  fitted  with  a  long 
handle  and  a  varying  number 
of  points  or  tines,  is  used,  while 
the  sea  bottom  is  scanned 
through  the  water  telescope,  a 
bucket-like  instrument  with  a 
glass  bottom.  Since  the  sponges 
are  often  torn  or  rent  by  this 
process,  they  are  of  less  value;  on 
the  other  hand,  the  beds  are  less 
likely  to  be  depleted,  since  a 
portion  of  the  sponge  remains  to 
insure  reproduction. 

Trawling,  or  dredging,  is  em- 
ployed only  on  smooth  bottoms, 
and  requires  a  round  iron  bar 
about  three  inches  in  diameter 
with  the  ends  bent  at  right  angles 
and  connected  by  a  wooden  bar 
to  form  the  top.  It  is  a  very 
destructive  method,  and  hence 
is  either  limited  or  prohibited 
entirely. 

Machine  diving  was  intro- 
duced in  1866  and  has  since  come 
into  general  use.  While  the 
diving  dress,  or  scaphander, 
permits  the  attainment  of  greater 
depth,  the  objection  is  raised 
that  the  diver  must  take  large 
and  small  sponges  indiscrimi- 
nately, thus  depriving  the 
grounds  of  the  growth  necessary 
for  reproduction. 

Consult  Zoological  Articles,  by 
Professor  Ray  Lankester  and 
others;  the  Challenger  volumes  on 
sponges,  especially  vol.  xx.  (Re- 
port on  Monaxonida,  by  Ridley 
and  Dendy),  vol.  xxv.  (Report  on 
Tetractinellida,  by  W.  J.  Sollas), 
and  vol.  xxi.  (Report  on  Hexacti- 
nellida,  by  F.  G.  Schultze) ;  'The 
Position  of  Sponges  in  the  Ani- 
mal Kingdom,'  by  G.  A.  Minchin, 
in  Science  Progress  (vol.  i,  1897) ; 
'Sponges,'  by  R.  Kirkpatrick  in 
Royal  Natural  History,  vol.  vi.; 
and  the  publications  of  the  U.  S. 
Fish  Commission  and  National 
Museum. 

Sponsors,  spon'serz,  the  god- 
parents of  infants  baptized  into 
the  Christian  church.  They  be- 
come sureties  for  the  child,  prom- 
ising in  its  name  to  renounce  the 
devil  and  all  his  works,  and  to  be- 
lieve in  God,  and  serve  Him;  and 
undertaking  that  the  child  shall 
be  brought  up  in  the  Christian  re- 
ligion. In  the  early  Christian 
church  the  parents  of  the  child 
were  allowed  to  be  its  godparents, 
but  this  was  formally  prohibited 
by  the  Council  of  Mainz  in  813. 
There  was  originally  no  rule  gov- 
erning the  number  of  godparents; 
but  in  the  16th  century,  the 
Council  of  Trent  determined  that 
there  should  be  preferably  one, 


or  at  the  most  two.  In  the  Church 
of  England  the  rubric  of  the  Pray- 
er Book  directs  that  there  shall 
be  for  every  male  child  two  god- 
fathers and  one  godmother,  and 
for  every  female  one  godfather 
and  two  godmothers.  The  Luth- 
eran churches  retained  god- 
parents at  the  Reformation;  the 
other  reformed  churches  imposed 
the  duty  on  the  parents. 

Spontaneous  Combustion,  ig- 
nition occurring  without  any  ap- 
parent cause.  It  is  an  important 
phenomenon,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
reputed  to  be  the  cause  of  many 
fires,  especially  among  such  or- 
ganic materials  as  cotton,  soot, 
hemp,  hay,  and  oil-soaked  waste. 
It  usually  occurs  in  materials 
closely  confined  and  not  reached 
by  air,  especially  when  these  ma- 
terials are  minutely  subdivided 
and  porous,  as  moist  hay.  The 
explanation  lies  in  the  fact  that 
certain  substances  have  such  an 
affinity  for  oxygen  that  they  will 
ignite  at  a  temperature  only  very 
slightly  in  excess  of  ordinary  con- 
ditions of  temperature. 

Spontaneous  Generation,  or 
the  direct  production  of  life  from 
non-living  matter,  was  held  by 
the  ancients  to  be  true,  and  their 
belief  was  adhered  to  by  some  in- 
vestigators as  late  as  the  nine- 
teenth century,  though  it  is  gen- 
erally considered  as  untenable  in 
the  light  of  modern  scientific  re- 
search. Aristotle  taught  that 
some  animals  sprang  from  putrid 
matter,  and  that  some  insects 
arose  from  dew,  and  for  many 
years  this  view  was  accepted.  In 
1638  Redi  proved,  by  a  very  sim- 
ple experiment,  that  decaying 
meat  does  not  'breed  maggots'  if 
the  access  of  flies  be  prevented 
by  using  screens  of  fine  gauze, 
and  from  this  he  drew  the  con- 
clusion that  there  is  'no  life  with- 
out antecedent  life.'  The  work  of 
Redi  was  perfected  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  by  Pasteur  and 
Tyndall,  whose  experiments  indi- 
cated that  no  form  of  life  comes 
into  being  save  from  a  parent 
body  of  the  same  kind.  Yet  in 
that  century  certain  scientists, 
notably  Huxley,  Haeckel,  Nageli, 
Pfliiger  and  Lankester,  main- 
tained that  in  the  beginning  of 
organic  evolution  protoplasm 
originated  from  non-living  mat- 
ter. Helmholtz  and  Kelvin  sug- 
gested that  life  germs  were  borne 
to  earth  by  meteorites. 

While  the  scientific  attitude  to- 
ward spontaneous  generation 
must  remain  agnostic,  the  discus- 
sion has  resulted  in  many  re- 
markable achievements:  facts  of 
prime  importance  in  the  preser- 
vation of  foodstuffs;  knowledge 
regarding  the  occurrence  of  para- 
sites, the  use  of  antiseptics,  and 
the  nature  of  disease;  and  ad- 
vances in  synthetic  chemistry, 
such  as  the  building  up  of  sugars 
from  inorganic  substances.  See 


Spontlni 


387 


Spore 


Burke's  The  Origin  of  Life,  and 
Nature;  also  Huxley's  Presiden- 
tial Address  to  the  British  Asso- 
ciation (1870);  Spencer's  Prin- 
ciples of  Biology;  Haeckel's 
Natural  History  of  Creation; 
Verworn's  General  Physiology 
(trans.);  Bastian's  Studies  in 
Hetero genesis.   See  Biology, 

Spontini,  spon-te'ne,  Gasp  arc 
LUIGI  PacifiCO  (1774-1851), 
Italian  operatic  composer,  was 
bom  in  Majolati,  Ancona.  In 
1803  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
chiefly  resided  until  1820,  when 
he  was  appointed  musical  direc- 
tor to  Frederick  William  iii.  of 
Prussia,  a  position  which  he  held 
until  1842.  His  operas,  once  very 
popular,  are  now  almost  forgot- 
ten. The  most  celebrated  were 
Milton  (1804),  La  V estate  (1807), 
Ferdinand  Cortez  (1809),  and 
Olympia  (1819). 

Spoonbill,  a  bird  of  the  family 
Plataleidae,  resembling  the  ibis 


Spoonbill 


(q.  V.)  in  structure  and  color,  and 
having  a  broad  spoon-shaped  bill. 
There  are  about  six  species,  all 
but  one  of  which  are  found  in 
Central  and  Southern  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Northern  Africa.  The 
American  representative,  the  Ro- 
seate Spoonbill  (Ajaja  ajaja), 
found  in  tropical  and  subtropi- 
cal America,  is  a  handsome  bird 
about  thirty  to  thirty-five  inches 
long,  with  beautiful  rosy  plum- 
age. It  has  been  nearly  extermi- 
nated by  hunters  seeking  its 
lovely  plumes. 

The  name  Spoonbill  is  also 
applied  to  a  duck — the  Shoveller 
(q.  v.). 

Spoon'er,  John  Coit  (1843- 
1919),  American  public  official, 
was  born  in  Lawrenceburg,  Ind. 
He  was  graduated  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin  in  1864  and 
served  in  the  Civil  War,  attaining 
the  rank  of  captain  and  brevet 
major  of  volunteers.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Wisconsin  legisla- 
ture in  1872-4,  U.  S.  senator  in 
1885-91,  and  in  1892  was  unsuc- 
cessful Republican  candidate  for 
governor.  He  was  again  elected 
to  the  Senate  in  1897,  and  in 
1903,  but  resigned  on  March  3, 
1907,  to  resume  the  practice  of 
law.    He  was  generally  consid- 


ered one  of  the  ablest  of  the 
Republican  senators,  and  was  a 
fine  speaker. 

SpOOner,SHEARJASHUB  (1809- 
59),  American  dentist  and  author, 
was  born  in  Brandon,  Vt.  He 
was  graduated  from  Middlebury 
College  in  1830,  and  from  the 
New  York  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  in  1835,  and  suc- 
cessfully practised  his  profession 
in  New  York  City  until  1858. 
Besides  several  books  on  dentistry, 
he  published:  Anecdotes  of  Paint- 
ers,   Engravers,    Sculptors,  and 


Architects,  and  Curiosities  of  Art 
(3  vols.,  1853)  and  Biographical 
and  Critical  Dictionary  of  Paint- 
ers, Engravers,  Sculptors,  and 
Architects  (1853).  He  purchased 
and  republished  John  Baydell's 
Shakespeare  Gallery. 

Sporades.  See  Grecian  Ar- 
chipelago. 

Sporad'Ic  Disease,  an  infec- 
tive disease  occurring  occasion- 
ally in  a  district,  but  not  present 
as  an  epidemic  or  endemic. 

Sporangium.    See  Spore. 

Spore,  a  specialized  reproduc- 
tive cell,  capable  of  giving  rise  to 
a  new  vegetable  organism.  This 
method  of  multiplication,  charac- 
teristic of  the  Cryptogams  (see 
Cryptogamia),  may  be  antici- 
pated in  single-celled  bacteria, 


algae,  and  fungi,  where  the  vege- 
tative body  divides,  each  portion 
developing  into  an  independent 
plant.  In  higher  algae  and  fungi, 
spores  are  formed  in  special 
organs  called  sporangia. 

Propagation  by  spores  may  be 
asexual  or  sexual.  The  simplest 
mode  of  sexual  reproduction  is  by 
conjugation,  or  the  union  of  two 
similarly  formed  sexual  cells  or 
gametes,  producing  a  zygospore 
or  zygote.  In  some  of  the  higher 
cryptogams  the  sexual  cells  are 
differentiated  into  microspores, 


or  male  cells,  and  macrospores 
or  megaspores,  the  female  cells. 
When  the  spores  are  all  of  one 
kind — i.  e.  undifferentiated — the 
plants  are  said  to  be  homospor- 
ous,  as  the  true  ferns,  horsetails, 
and  club  mosses;  the  water-ferns 
and  Selaginaceae  are  hetero- 
sporous.  Tetraspores  are  spores 
produced  in  groups  of  four,  as 
in  some  of  the  higher  algae. 
Chlamydospores  are  spores  in- 
vested by  two  distinct  envelopes, 
as  in  the  common  Mucor. 
Teleutospores  and  uredospores 
are  the  winter  and  summer 
spores,  respectively,  of  the  rust 
fungi  (q.  v.).  Spore-cases  also 
receive  special  names,  as  micro- 
sporangium,  macrosporangium; 
the  part  on  which  they  are  borne 

Vol.  XL— March  '25 


Types  of  Spores 

1.  Tetraspores  of  alga  in  sporangium.  2.  Spores  escaped.  3.  Chlamydospores  of  fungus. 
4.  Chlamydospores  germinating  and  bearing  a  sporangium.  5.  Spores  extruded  from 
sporangium.  6.  Teleutospores,  one  germinating,  bearing  conidia.  7.  Zygospore  from  two 
conidia  conjoined.  8.  Cone  of  horsetail.  9.  One  sporophyll  with  empty  sporangia.  10.  A 
spore.  11.  Scale  sporophyll  and  sporangium  of  club  moss.  12.  Three  spores  from  same.  13. 
Frond  of  fern  bearing  sporangia  in  sori.  14.  One  sporangium  of  fern.  15.  One  spore.  16. 
Macrosporangium  of  Selaginella,  containing  four  macrospores.  17.  Microsporangium  of 
Selaginella,  containing  microspores. 


Sporer 


388 


Spottsylvanla  Court  House 


is  the  sporophyll — a  frond,  as  in 
ferns,  or  the  apex  of  a  shoot, 
sometimes  known  as  the  fiower- 
cone,  as  in  the  horsetails.  See 
also  Reproduction. 

Sporer,  shpu'rer,  Friedrich 

WiLHELM     GUSTAV  (1822-95), 

German  astronomer,  was  born  in 
Berlin.  He  was  educated  in  his 
native  city,  and  began  to  observe 
sun-spots  at  Anklam  in  1860.  He 
verified  the  equatorial  accelera- 
tion of  the  sun's  rotation,  and 
established  a  relation  between 
the  mean  latitude  of  spots  and 
the  course  of  the  eleven-year 
cycle.  He  joined  the  German 
eclipse  expedition  to  the  East 
Indies  in  1868,  was  appointed 
observer  in  the  astrophysical 
observatory  at  Potsdam  in  1874, 
and  was  chief  observer  from  1882 
to  1894. 

Sporozo'a,  a  class  of  Protozoa 
(q.  v.),  including  the  Gregarina 


Sporozoa 
A.  Adult  individual,  b.  Two  individuals 
conjugating,  c.  A  spore,  d.  Cyst  con- 
taining spores.  1.  Protomerite;  2.  deuto- 
merite;  3.  cortex;  4.  nucleus;  5.  cyst; 
6.  capsule;  7.  spores;  8.  ducts. 

(q.  V.)  and  its  allies,  which  occur 
as  parasites  in  invertebrates; 
Sacrocystis,  parasitic  in  the 
muscles  of  cattle  and  other  ani- 
mals and  possibly  in  man;  and 
certain  organisms  parasitic  in  the 
red  blood  corpuscles  of  man  and 
animals,  as  the  malarial  parasites. 
See  also  Protozoa. 

Sports.  See  Athletics  and 
articles  cited  under  that  heading. 

Sports,  Book  of,  or  Declara- 
tion OF,  the  proclamation  made 
by  James  i.  of  England,  in  1618, 
that,  after  divine  service  on  Sun- 
days, 'no  lawful  recreation  should 
be  barred  to  my  good  people,'  such 
sports  being  permitted  as  morris 
dances,  dancing  round  the  May- 
pole, archery,  May  games,  vault- 
ing, Whitsun-ales,  running,  leap- 
ing, and  the  like;  such  pursuits 
as  dramatic  interludes,  bear- 
baiting,  bull-baiting,  and  bowling 
were  forbidden.  This  'declara- 
tion' was  called  forth  by  the 
action  of  some  of  the  Lancashire 
Puritans.  The  Book  of  Sports  was 
ordered  by  the  Long  Parliament 
to  be  burned  by  the  common 
hangman  (1644). 

Spot.  See  Lafayette  Fish. 


Spotted  Fever,  a  term  some- 
times applied  to  epidemic  cere- 
brospinal meningitis  (see  Menin- 
gitis), and  sometimes  to  typhus 
fever  (q.  v.). 

Spott'iswoode,  John  (1565- 
1639),  Scotch  prelate,  archbishop 
of  St.  Andrews,  was  born  in  Mid- 
Calder,  near  Edinburgh,  He 
was  educated  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity and  in  1583  succeeded  his 
father  as  minister  of  Calder.  In 
1601  he  accompanied  the  Duke 
of  Lennox  on  his  embassy  to 
France,  and  in  1603  went  with 
James  vi.  to  England.  The 
same  year  he  became,  archbishop 
of  Glasgow  in  succession  to 
James  Beaton;  in  1615  he  was 
transferred  to  vSt.  Andrews.  He 
crowned  Charles  i.  at  Holyrood 
in  1633,  and  in  1635  received  the 
chancellorship  of  Scotland.  As 
moderator  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly he  promoted  the  establish- 
ment of  Episcopacy  in  vScotland, 
and  by  his  influence  the  ob- 
noxious Five  Articles  of  Perth 
(1618)  were  sanctioned.  On  the 
ascendency  of  the  Covenanters 
he  was  deposed  (1638)  and  ex- 
communicated, and  was  com- 
pelled to  resign  his  office  of 
chancellor.  He  was  buried  in 
Westminster.  His  History  of  the 
Church  and  State  of  Scotland 
(1655)  was  reprinted,  with  a  Life, 
by  the  Spottiswoode  Society 
(1847-51). 

Spottiswoode,  William(1825- 
83),  English  mathematician  and 
physicist,  was  born  in  London. 
He  was  educated  at  Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  in  1846  suc- 
ceeded to  his  father's  business  as 
Queen's  Printer.  He  remained, 
however,  a  devoted  student  of 
mathematical  and  physical  sci- 
ence and  spent  much  time  in 
travelling  and  lecturing.  From 
1878  until  his  death  he  was 
president  of  the  Royal  Society. 
His  published  works  include 
Meditationes  Analyticce  (1847), 
The  Polarization  of  Light  (1874), 
and  A  Lecture  on  the  Electrical 
Discharge,  its  Forms  and  Func- 
tions (1881). 

Spottsylvania  Court  House, 
spot-sil-va'ni-a.  Battles  of,  a 
series  of  engagements  in  the  Civil 
War,  fought  around  Spottsyl- 
vania Court  House,  Va.,  11  miles 
southwest  of  Fredericksburg, 
from  May  8  to  May  21,  1864,  be- 
tween the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
commanded  by  General  Meade, 
but  directed  by  General  Grant, 
and  the  Army  of  Northern  Vir- 
ginia, under  General  Lee.  After 
the  battles  of  the  Wilderness  (q. 
V.)  Grant  determined  to  concen- 
trate his  army  at  Spottsylvania 
Court  House,  15  miles  away,  be- 
tween Lee  and  Richmond,  and 
on  May  7  began  the  movement, 
which  Lee,  however,  had  fore- 
seen. When  the  van  of  Warren's 
corps  had  advanced  within  one 
and  a  half  miles  of  the  court 


house,  on  the  morning  of  May  8, 
it  was  met  and  repulsed  by  two 
brigades  of  Longstreet's  corps, 
then  commanded  by  General  R. 
H.  Anderson.  Later  in  the  day  a 
part  of  the  Sixth  Corps,  com- 
manded by  General  Sedgwick, 
together  with  troops  of  Warren's 
corps,  again  attacked  Anderson 
and  a  part  of  Ewell's  corps,  but 
were  finally  driven  back.  The 
next  day  was  occupied  by  each 
commander  in  getting  troops  into 
position  and  in  studying  the 
other's  line.  Lee  occupied  a  well- 
intrenched  arc  of  a  circle 
about  eight  miles  in  length  with 
Anderson  (Longstreet's  corps) 
on  the  left,  Ewell  in  the  centre, 
and  Early  (commanding  Hill's 
corps)  on  the  right.  During  the 
day  General  Sedgwick  was  killed 
by  a  sharpshooter  and  was  suc- 
ceeded in  the  command  of  the 
Sixth  Corps  by  Gen.  H.  G. 
Wright. 

On  the  morning  of  May  10  the 
Confederate  left  was  attacked, 
but  the  assault  was  repulsed,  and 
two  other  attacks  in  the  afternoon 
likewise  failed.  General  Heth 
struck  the  rear  of  Hancock's 
corps,  which  had  been  ordered  to 
threaten  the  Confederate  left  and 
rear.  Late  in  the  afternoon, 
Rodes'  division,  in  the  centre  of 
the  Confederate  line,  was  furi- 
ously attacked  by  a  part  of  the 
Sixth  Corps,  led  by  Colonel 
Upton.  He  broke  the  line, 
forced  the  Confederates  back  to 
a  second  line  of  defences,  but  was 
not  properly  supported,  and  was 
forced  to  retire  with  a  heavy  loss, 
though  taking  several  hundred 
prisoners.  The  Confederate  loss 
in  killed  and  wounded  on  May  10 
was  about  2,000,  while  the  Fed- 
eral loss  was  at  least  4,100. 

A  storm  raged  on  the  next  day 
and  there  was  little  fighting,  but 
Grant  determined  to  attack  the 
centre  of  Lee's  line,  where  a 
salient  projected  nearly  a  mile 
beyond  the  remainder  of  the  line. 
During  the  day  Lee,  fearing  that 
Grant  was  planning  another  flank 
movement,  had  removed  the 
greater  part  of  the  artillery  pro- 
tecting this  part  of  his  line. 
About  half-past-four  on  the 
morning  of  May  12,  Hancock 
attacked  the  salient,  took  nearly 
a  mile  of  the  works,  and  captured 
General  Edward  Johnson,  20 
guns,  and  more  than  2,800  pris- 
oners. General  Stuart  was  also 
taken  prisoner.  The  divisions 
of  Barlow  and  Birney  pushed  on 
until  halted  by  the  second  line, 
held  by  Gen.  J.  B.  Gordon.  Both 
sides  were  heavily  reinforced 
from  other  parts  of  the  line,  and 
the  heaviest  and  fiercest  fighting 
of  the  whole  war  took  place  over 
the  possession  of  the  salient. 
The  battle  continued  without 
ceasing  until  12  o'clock  at  night, 
making  nearly  twenty  hours  of 
deadly  struggle.    The  Federal 


Vol.  XI.— March  '25 


S.  p.  Q.  R. 


389 


Spree 


assaults  on  the  Confederate  right 
and  left  during  the  day  were  un- 
successful. The  Federal  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing  number- 
ed nearly  7,000,  and  the_  Con- 
federate loss  was  decidedly 
greater. 

From  the  13th  to  the  18th 
there  was  little  fighting,  but 
Grant  prepared  to  turn  Lee's 
right  flank.  On  the  morning  of 
May  18  the  Second  Corps,  well 
supported,  attacked  the  line  held 
by  Ewell,  but  was  repulsed  with 
a  loss  of  2,000  or  more,  and  this 
ended  the  attempt  to  break 
through  the  Confederate  lines. 
Grant  began  on  May  19  a  move- 
ment toward  the  North  Anna 
River,  but  was  checked  for 
twentj'-four  hours  by  Ewell,  who 
crossed  over  to  attack  the  Fed- 
eral left.  The  movement  toward 
the  North  Anna  began  in  earnest 
on  May  20,  but  Lee  again  moved 
by  a  shorter  road  and  reached  the 
stream  first.  The  total  Federal 
strength  is  given  as  118,000,  the 
Confederate  _  as  61,000.  The 
Federal  loss  is  reported  as  2,725 
killed,  13,416  wounded,  and  2,- 
258  captured  or  missing.  The 
amount  of  the  Confederate  loss  is 
not  accurately  known.  Consult 
Johnson  and  Buel,  Battles  and 
Leaders  of  the  Civil  War ;  Gor- 
don, Reminiscences  of  the  Civil 
War ;  Grant,  Personal  Memoirs. 

S.  P.  Q.  R.  {Senatus  Popii- 
lusqiie  Romamis) ,  the  Senate  and 
People  of  Rome,  the  motto  placed 
at  the  top  of  the  Roman  stand- 
ards. 

Sprague,  sprag,  Charles 
(1791-1875),  American  poet, 
was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  and 
received  a  public  school  educa- 
tion. From  1820  to  1824  he  was 
teller  in  the  State  Bank  at  Bos- 
ton, and  from  1825  to  1865  was 
cashier  of  the  Globe  Bank  in  the 
same  city.  Among  his  best- 
known  poems  are  The  Winged 
Worshippers,  Curiosity,  and  The 
Family  Meeting.  A  collective 
edition  of  his  Poetical  and  Prose 
Writings  appeared  in  1841  (rev. 
eds.  1850,  1876). 

Sprague,  Frank  Julian 
(1857-1934),  American  electri- 
cal engineer,  was  born  in  Mil- 
ford,  Conn.  He  was  graduated 
from  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy 
(1878)  and  served  in  the  Navy 
until  1883.  In  1885  he  began 
experiments  in  electric  traction 
on  the  New  York  Elevated  Rail- 
way, previously  steam  operated, 
and  in  1887  built  an  electric  line 
in  Richmond,  Va.,  working  out 
the  basis  of  many  present  prac- 
tices, as  the  separation  of  the  car 
body  and  motor  truck,  the  under- 
running  trolley,  and  multiple-unit 
control.  He  was  responsible, 
also,  for  the  introduction  of  the 
high-speed  electric  elevator,  and 
did  much  to  promote  under- 
f^round  railway  development.  He 


was  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Naval 
Advisory  Board  during  the  First 
World  War,  devoting  special  at- 
tention to  the  development  of 
fuses  and  air  and  depth  bombs. 
He  was  awarded  the  Elliott  Cres- 
son  medal  of  the  Franklin  Insti- 
tute in  1904  ;  the  grand  prize  for 
invention  and  development  in 
electric  railways  at  the  St.  Louis 
Exposition  in  1904;  the  Edison 
gold  medal  in  1910;  and  the 
Franklin  medal  in  1921. 

Sprague,  Williaim  Buell 
(1795-1876),  American  clergy- 
man and  annalist,  was  born  in 
Andover,  Conn.  Having  grad- 
uated from  Yale  and  studied 
divinity  at  Princeton,  he  was 
ordained  as  co-pastor  of  the  First 
Congregational  church  at  West 
Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1819.  He 
remained  there  as  sole  pastor 
from  1820  to  1829,  and  was 
pastor  of  the  Second  Presby- 
terian church  in  Albany,  N.  Y., 
from  1829  to  1869.  Sprague 
made  large  collections  of  auto- 
graphs, pamphlets,  and  manu- 
scripts connected  with  the  reli- 
gious and  secular  history  of  the 
country.  His  chief  literary  work 
is  his  Annals  of  the  American 
Pulpit  (10  vols.  1857-69). 

Sprain,  or  Strain.  A  sprain 
is  due  to  laceration  of,  and  effvi- 
sion  into  and  around,  the  liga- 
ments of  a  joint  and  the  neigh- 
boring tendons,  and  is  usually 
produced  by  a  violent  twist  or 
wrench.  Even  slight  sprains  are 
accompanied  by  severe  pain  and 
by  considerable  swelling,  partly 
from  extravasation  of  blood  into 
the  surrounding  tissues,  and 
partly  from  inflammatory  effu- 
sion into  the  joint.  Permanent 
weakness  and  stiffness,  or  even 
anchylosis,  may  follow  a  neg- 
lected sprain. 

Treatment.  —  Immediately 
after  the  accident  the  injured 
part  should  be  held  under  a  cold 
jet  and  then  a  hot  jet,  alternating 
for  a  few  minutes.  The  limb 
should  then  be  raised,  wrapped 
thickly  in  cotton  and  snugly 
bandaged.  In  most  cases  a  splint 
should  be  applied,  and  the  limb 
raised  to  the  greatest  height  con- 
sistent with  the  patient's  com- 
fort. When  the  acute  symptoms 
have  subsided,  gentle  passive 
movement  should  be  employed, 
and  a  little  later  active  move- 
ments of  the  joint  may  be  made. 
If  treatment  is  not  initiated  for 
some  hours,  the  pain  may  be  so 
intense  as  to  necessitate  the  ap- 
plication of  hot  fomentations ; 
but  as  these  dilate  the  blood 
vessels  and  tend  to  increase  the 
swelling,  they  should  be  em- 
ployed as  little  as  possible.  In- 
flammatory symptoms  are  best 
combated  by  cold  applications. 
As  soon  as  the  pain  permits, 
elastic  pressure  should  be  applied 
to  the  joint  by  means  of  band- 


ages. Novocain  injected  into  thd 
injured  ligament  at  the  site  of 
maximum  tenderness  is  a  valu- 
able therapeutic  measure.  A 
gentle  massage  may  help  to  dis- 
pel the  swelling. 

Sprat  {Clupea  spraitus) ,  a 
fish  of  the  herring  family,  abun- 
dant on  the  coasts  of  Great  Brit- 
ain. Young  sprats  are  not  easily 
distinguished  from  young  her- 
ring, though  they  differ  from  the 
herring  in  having  seven  rays  in 
the  pelvic  fin  instead  of  nine ;  the 
edge  of  the  belly  is  narrow  in- 
stead of  blunt  as  in  the  herring, 
and  the  spines  in  this  region  are 
strong  and  sharp.  The  sprat  is 
about  five  inches  long,  and  its 
eggs  are  pelagic  or  floating.  The 
adults  live  in  brackish  water, 
from  which  they  migrate  to  the 
open  sea.  Besides  being  used  as 
food  in  London  and  elsewhere, 
sprats  are  sometimes  sold  for 
manure.  They  are  also  dried  and 
salted,  and  put  upon  the  market 
as  'kilkies' — i.e.  sprats  from  the 
Baltic  cured  with  spices — and  as 
'Norwegian  anchovies.'  In  nar- 
now  waters,  such  as  estuaries, 
sprats  are  chiefly  taken  in  stow- 
nets ;  seines  and  small-meshed 
drift-nets  are  also  used. 

Sprat,  Thomas  (1635-1713), 
English  bishop  and  man  of  let- 
ters, was  born  in  Beaminster  in 
Dorsetshire.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford  and  soon  became 
known  as  a  clever  versifier  and 
wit.  He  was  originally  a  fol- 
lower of  Cromwell  but  after  the 
Restoration  he  developed  into  an 
ardent  royalist.  He  was  ordained 
priest  in  1661  ;  was  appointed 
canon  in  1669,  dean  of  West- 
minster in  1683,  and  bishop  of 
Rochester  in  1684.  He  assisted 
at  the  coronation  of  William  and 
Mary.  His  most  important 
works  are  Observations  on  M.  de 
Sorhicr's  Voyage  into  England 
(1664)  and  History  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London  (1667). 

Spreck'els,  Claus  (1828- 
1908),  American  businessman, 
was  born  in  Lamstedt,  Germany. 
He  emigrated  to  Charleston,  S. 
C,  in  1846,  and  in  1856  went  to 
San  Francisco,  where  he  became 
a  brewer  and  later  a  sugar  re- 
finer. In  order  to  learn  the  most 
approved  methods  used  in  refin- 
ing sugar,  he  visited  Europe  in 
1865,  and  returning  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, built  up  a  flourishing  busi- 
ness, acquiring  such  large  inter- 
ests in  California,  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  elsewhere  that  he 
became  known  as  the  'sugar 
king.' 

Spree,  shpra,  river,  Germany, 
rises  in  Saxony  and  flows  in  a 
northwesterly  direction,  empty- 
ing into  the  Havel  at  Spandau. 
It  is  about  250  miles  long  and 
is  navigable  for  almost  its  entire 
length.  Several  canals  connect  it 
with  the  Oder. 


Sprensel 


KFN 


390 


Springer 


Sprengel,  shpreng'el,  Her- 
mann   JOHANN    PhILIPP  (1834- 

1906),  German  chemist  and  phys- 
icist, was  born  in  Schillerslage, 
near  Hanover,  He  was  educated 
at  the  Universities  of  Gottingen 
and  Heidelberg  and  in  1859  went 
to  England.  His  name  is  princi- 
pally connected  with  the  Sprengel 
pump  for  obtaining  high  vacua 
by  the  fall  of  drops  of  mercury  in 
a  narrow  tube;  with  the  Spren- 
gel tube  for  the  accurate  deter- 
mination of  specific  gravity;  and 
with  the  explosive  properties  of 
aromatic  nitro-derivatives,  large- 
ly employed  as  safety  explosives 
— e.  g.  melinite,  lyddite. 

Sprengel,  Kurt  (1766-1833), 
German  physician  and  botanist, 
was  born  in  Boldekow  (Pome- 
rania).  He  was  educated  at  Halle 
and  became  professor  of  medi- 
cine there  in  1789,  and  of  botany 
in  1799,  retaining  both  chairs 
until  his  death.  His  works  in- 
clude: Geschichte  der  Arzneikunde 
(1792-1803);  Antiquitates  Bo- 
tanicce  (1798);  Geschichte  der 
Botanik  (1817-18);  Institutiones 
Medicce  (1809-16) ;  FlorcB  Halen- 
sis  tentamen  novum  (1806-15, 
1832). 

Sprenger,  shpreng'er,  Aloys 
(1813-93),  Austrian  Orientalist, 
was  born  in  Nassereit  in  Tyrol. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Vienna,  was  naturalized  as 
a  British  subject  in  1838,  and  in 

1843  obtained  an  appointment  in 
the  medical  service  of  the  East 
India  Company  at  Calcutta.  In 

1844  he  became  principal  of  a 
Mohammedan  college  at  Delhi 
and  in  1848  was  made  assistant 
resident  at  Lucknow.  He  left 
India  in  1857,  going  first  to 
Heidelberg  and  later  to  Bern, 
where  he  was  professor  of  Orien- 
tal languages  (1858-81).  His 
chief  works  are  Life  and  Doctrine 
of  Mohammed  (1861-5),  The 
Ancient  Geography  of  Arabia 
(1875),  and  Babylonia  (1886),  all 
in  German.  He  edited  numerous 
editions  of  Persian  and  Arabic 
classics. 

Sprigg,  Sir  John  Gordon 
(1830-1913),  British  colonial 
statesman,  was  born  in  Ipswich, 
England,  and  went  to  South 
Africa  in  1858,  settling  in  Cape 
Colony.  He  was  elected  to  the 
House  of  Assembly  in  1869,  and 
later  became  Colonial  Secretary 
and  Prime  Minister  (1878-81). 
He  was  again  Prime  Minister, 
and  Treasurer,  in  1886-90,  in 
1896-98,  and  in  1900-04.  He 
was  a  strong  Imperialist  and  one 
of  the  most  conspicuous  figures  in 
the  political  history  of  Cape 
Colony. 

Spring,  an  underground  body 
of  water  which  appears  at  the 
surface  without  extraneous  aid. 
When  the  contour  of  the  ground 
intercepts  what  is  known  in  geol- 
ogy as  the  water-table,  i.e.,  the 
upper  level  of  ground-water,  this 
ground  water  appears  at  the  sur- 


face; if  it  issues  in  a  quantity 
sufficient  to  make  a  distinct  cur- 
rent it  forms  a  spring.  Porous 
surface  rock  and  impervious  rock 
strata  at  a  lower  level  are  neces- 
sary to  produce  a  spring.  Some 
springs  are  exceedingly  cold,  only 
one  degree,  or  even  less,  above 
the  temperature  of  ice,  while  the 
waters  of  others,  especially  in 
volcanic  districts,  issue  at  the 
boiling  point.  Between  these 
two  extremes  every  degree  may 
be  registered.  Thermal  springs, 
or  those  having  a  higher  tem- 
perature than  the  locality  in 
which  they  are  found,  are  prob- 
ably warmed  by  the  internal  heat 
of  the  earth.  All  springs  con- 
tain dissolved  gases  and  at  least 
a  small  portion  of  mineral  solu- 
tions abstracted  from  the  soil 
and  rocks  through  which  they 
have  passed,  the  amount  depend- 
ing on  the  chemical  energy  of  the 
water  and  on  the  composition  of 
the  rocks,  and  all  deep  well 
waters  are  radio-active. 

Springs  may  be  grouped  in  a 
general  way  into  two  classes: 

(1)  common  springs,  fit  for  or- 
dinary domestic  purposes,  and 

(2)  mineral  springs,  in  which 
there  is  so  great  a  proportion  of 
dissolved  mineral  matter  as  to 
differentiate  the  water  from  or- 
dinary potable  water.  Com- 
mon springs  frequently  have  a 
lower  temperature  than  the  local- 
ities at  which  they  rise  and  or- 
dinarily contain,  besides  atmos- 
pheric air,  calcium-carbonate  and 
sulphate,  salt,  chlorides  of  cal- 
cium and  magnesium,  and  occa- 
sionally organic  matter.  Spring 
water  which  contains  a  minute 
percentage  of  mineral  matter, 
dissolves  soap  readily  and  is 
known  as  'soft'  water;  that 
which  contains  an  appreciable 
amount  of  magnesic  carbonate, 
sulphate  or  chlorides,  decomposes 
soap,  causing  a  white  curdy  pre- 
cipitate, and  is  known  as  'hard' 
water.  For  a  discussion  of  min- 
eral springs  see  M  iner  al  Waters. 
Consult  Geikie's  Text  Book  of 
Geology  (1924). 

Spring,  the  first  season  of  the 
year.  As  astronomically  defined, 
it  begins  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere about  March  21,  when  the 
sun  enters  the  sign  of  Aries — i.e. 
at  the  vernal  equinox.  It  ter- 
minates at  the  summer  solstice, 
about  June  22,  with  the  sun's 
attainment  of  its  greatest  north- 
ern declination.  In  the  southern 
hemisphere  spring  extends  from 
the  northern  autumnal  equinox 
to  the  winter  solstice. 

Spring,  Gardiner  (1786- 
1873),  American  clergyman,  son 
of  Samuel  Spring,  was  born  in 
Newburyport,  Mass.  He  was 
graduated  from  Yale  University 
(1805)  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  (1808),  but  the  following  year 
entered  Andover  Theological 
Seminary.  As  pastor  of  the  Brick 
Presbyterian    Church    in  New 


York  City  from  1810  until  his 
death,  he  became  one  of  the  most 
notable  preachers  in  the  country. 
He  was  instrumental  in  organiz- 
ing the  American  Bible  Society, 
the  American  Tract  Society,  and 
the  American  Home  Missionary 
Society.  Consult  his  Personal 
Reminiscences  of  the  Life  and 
Times  of  Gardiner  Spring,  pub- 
lished in  1866. 

Spring,  Samuel  (1746-1819), 
American  clergyman,  was  born 
in  Northbridge,  Mass.  He  was 
graduated  from  Princeton  Col- 
lege in  1771,  and  studied  theology 
there  until  1774.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  Revolution  he  be- 
came a  chaplain  in  the  Conti- 
nental army,  went  with  Arnold's 
expedition  against  Quebec,  took 
part  in  the  attack  on  that  city, 
and  is  said  to  have  carried  Aaron 
Burr,  wounded,  from  the  field. 
He  left  the  army  in  1776,  and  in 
1777  became  pastor  at  Newbury- 
port, Mass.  He  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  church  party 
known  as  the  Hopkinsonians, 
and  was  active  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Andover  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  and  in  the  founda- 
tion of  the  American  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions.  Among  his 
published  writings  were  A  Ser- 
mon on  the  Death  of  Washington 
(1779),  and  a  sermon  on  the 
Hamilton-Burr  duel  entitled  A 
Discourse  in  Consequence  of  the 
Late  Duel  (1804). 

Spring  Balance.  See  Bal- 
ance. 

Spring  Beauty  (Claytonia),  a 
low  annual  or  perennial  herb 
having  delicate  pink  flowers, 
blooming  in  early  spring.  Two 
species  are  known  in  the  United 
States — C.  virginica  and  C.  caro- 
liniana.  Other  species  are  found 
in  Europe  and  Asia. 

Springbolc  (Gazella  euchore),  a 
South  African  gazelle,  with  bold 
markings  in  white  and  dark  brown 
on  a  yellowish  ground.  Down 
the  middle  of  the  back  there  runs 
a  stripe  of  long,  white  erectile 
hairs.  The  name  is  given  on  ac- 
count of  the  animal's  habit  of 
springing  up  into  the  air. 

Spring  City,  borough,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  Chester  county,  on 
the  Schuylkill  River  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad;  27  miles 
N.w.  of  Philadelphia.  Its  indus- 
tries include  the  manufacture  of 
paper,  stoves,  window  glass,  bot- 
tles, foundry  facings,  knitted 
goods,  terra  cotta,  and  shafting. 
Pop.  (1930)  2,963;  (1940) 
3,022. 

Springer.    See  Spaniels. 

Springer,  Alfred  (1854- 
),  American  chemist,  was 
born  in  Cincinnati,  O.  He  was 
graduated  in  chemistry  from  the 
University  of  Heidelberg,  Ger- 
many, and,  settling  in  Cincinnati, 
began  to  practise  as  a  consulting 
chemist.  He  devoted  much  at- 
tention to  the  chemistry  of  brew- 
ing.    In    1883    his  monograph 


Springer 


KFN 


391 


Springfield 


on  the  Reduction  of  Nitrates  by 
Ferments  drew  attention  to  his 
discovery  of  denitrifying  ele- 
ments occurring  in  the  soil,  which 
opened  a  new  field  of  scientific 
research.  In  1884  he  became 
general  secretary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  and  in  1892 
vice-president.  He  was  also  a 
corresponding  member  of  the 
British  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science.  He  was 
a  co-inventor  of  the  torsion  bal- 
ance. In  1931  he  received  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Natural 
Science  from  Ruperto  Carola 
University,  Germany.  He  wrote 
many  papers  in  the  fields  of 
chemistry  and  physics. 

Springer,  William  McKen- 
DREE  (1836-1903),  American 
public  official,  born  in  New 
Lebanon,  Ind.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Indiana  State  Univer- 
sity in  1858,  and  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1859.  Removing  to 
Illinois,  he  was  a  member  of  the 
State  Legislature  in  1872-4,  and 
of  Congress,  1875-95,  where  he 
was  the  author  of  the  resolution 
that  declared  it  inadvisable  for 
any  man  to  serve  more  than  two 
Presidential  terms.  He  became 
judge  of  the  Northern  District 
of  Indian  Territory  and  chief 
justice  of  the  U.  S.  Court  of 
Appeals  of  the  Territory  (1895- 
9). 

Springfield,  city,  Illinois, 
capital  of  the  State  and  county 
seat  of  Sangamon  county,  on  the 
Chicago  and  Alton,  the  Illinois 
Central,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
the  Wabash,  the  Chicago,  Spring- 
field and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Chi- 
cago and  Illinois  Midland  Rail- 
roads;  185  m.  by  rail  s.w.  of 
Chicago  and  96  m.  n.e.  of  St. 
Louis.  It  has  a  municipal  air- 
port and  is  the  centre  of  a  net- 
work of  hard  surfaced  roads.  It 
stands  on  the  Sangamon  River, 
in  a  fertile  valley  producing 
grain  and  live  stock,  and  in  the 
heart  of  great  coal  fields  which 
extend  in  parts  under  the  very 
city.  Oil  fields  are  distant  about 
150  miles.  Nearby  are  deposits 
of  sand  and  gravel,  oil  shale,  and 
limestone. 

The  city  is  regularly  laid  out 
with  broad  streets  and  a  number 
of  fine  parks,  notable  among 
which  is  Washington  Park,  cov- 
ering 240  acres.  In  beautiful 
Oak  Ridge  Cemetery  is  the  mau- 
soleum of  the  Lincoln  National 
Monument  (Lincoln's  tomb). 
Springfield  has  preserved  many 
spots  sacred  to  his  memory.  The 
house  in  which  Lincoln  lived,  the 
only  one  he  ever  owned,  is  main- 
tained by  the  State.  Notable 
buildings  are  the  State  Capitol, 
an  imposing  structure  of  Niagara 
limestone ;  the  State  Arsenal  ; 
the  State  Supreme  Court  Build- 
ing; the  Federal  Building;  City 


Hall ;  Lincoln  Library ;  the  Gov- 
ernor's mansion ;  and  the  Cen- 
tennial Building  containing  the 
State  Museum  and  the  State  His- 
torical Society's  library  with  its 
fine  collection  of  Lincolniana. 
Educational  institutions  include 
the  Springfield  High  School, 
Concordia  Seminary  (Evangel- 
ical Lutheran),  Ursuline  Acad- 
emy (R.  C.)  and  the  Academy 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  (R.  C). 

Springfield  is  noted  for  its 
commercial  development  and  the 
diversity  of  its  industries  which 
include  railroad  shops  and  manu- 
factures of  shoes,  garage  equip- 
ment, electric  meters,  clocks,  and 
watches,  mining  camp  supplies, 
boilers,  cast  iron  pipe,  radio 
parts,  machinery,  and  flour.  It 
ships  large  quantities  of  coal, 
grain,  live  stock,  and  the  products 
of  its  factories. 

Springfield  was  first  settled  in 
1818;  became  the  county  seat  in 
1821,  named  Springfield.  It  was 
called  Calhoun  for  a  short  period 
after  1823,  in  1832  it  was  in- 
corporated as  a  town,  and  in 
1837  it  became  the  State  capital. 
The  city  charter  dates  from  1840, 
the  original  government  being 
changed  only  at  the  adoption  in 
1911  of  commission  government. 
Among  outstanding  public  im- 
provements are  the  sanitary  dis- 
posal plant  and  ample  water  sup- 
plies. Pop.  (1930)  71,864; 
(1940)  75,503. 

Springfield,  city,  Massachu- 
setts, port  of  entry,  county  seat 
of  Hampden  county,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Connecticut  River, 
here  spanned  by  4  bridges  ;  99  m. 
by  rail  s.w.  of  Boston.  It  has 
a  municipal  airport  and  is  served 
by  the  Boston  and  Albany,  the 
Boston  and  Maine,  and  the  New 
York,  New  Haven,  and  Hart- 
ford Railroads,  bus  and  truck 
lines.  It  is  attractively  located 
on  a  level  strip  of  land  along  the 
river  bank  and  on  higher  ground 
to  the  east,  commanding  a  fine 
view  of  the  Connecticut  valley. 
Springfield  is  called  'The  City  of 
Homes'  as  there  is  a  home  for 
approximately  every  five  people 
of  the  population.  Under  the 
control  of  the  Springfield  Park 
Department  are  more  than  a 
score  of  children's  playgrounds 
and  94  parks  (1,647  acres)  ; 
Forest  Park,  the  largest  (757 
acres)  contains  a  zoological  gar- 
den with  a  fine  collection  of  lotus 
plants.  Features  of  interest  in- 
clude a  Soldiers'  and  Sailors* 
Monument,  the  Miles  Morgan 
statue,  and  The  Puritan  by 
Saint-Gaudens. 

Since  1921  the  city  has  had  a 
planning  board.  The  Union 
Railroad  Station  (1926)  is  one 
of  the  most  complete  in  New 
England.  The  'Municipal  Group' 
includes  the  Administration 
Building    and    the  Auditorium 


flanking  the  imposing  Campanile 
Tower  (its  carillon  purchased  by 
public  subscription).  Other 
notable  buildings  are  the  Court 
House  ;  the  library  ;  the  Art  Mu- 
seum, a  handsome  edifice  in  the 
Italian  Renaissance  style,  hous- 
ing a  fine  collection  of  art  ob- 
jects contributed  by  G.  W.  V. 
Smith  ;  the  Fine  Arts  Museum, 
founded  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  James 
P.  Gray  (1933);  the  Science 
Museum,  containing  a  scientific 
library  and  natural  history  col- 
lections ;  the  U.  S.  Armory  for 
the  manufacture  of  Springfield 
rifles  and  small  arms ;  the  Y.  W. 
C.  A.  and  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Build- 
ings ;  and  the  William  Pynchon 
Memorial  Building  (1927)  of  the 
Connecticut  Valley  Historical 
Society.  There  are  many  fine 
business  structures  and  church 
edifices. 

The  public  educational  pro- 
gram is  of  a  high  order  and  leads 
through  junior  high  schools  into 
a  choice  of  four  high  schools : 
Central  High  School  (academ- 
ic) ;  the  Technical  High  School 
(engineering)  ;  the  High  School 
of  Commerce  (business),  and 
Springfield  Trade  School  (indus- 
trial). There  is  also  a  Junior 
College.  Springfield  is  the  seat 
of  the  American  International 
College,  the  International  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  College,  and  Bay  Path 
Institute.  There  are  4  general 
hospitals,  ^  2  maternity  hospitals, 
an  isolation  hospital,  and  the 
Shriner's  Hospital  for  Crippled 
Children  for  the  New  England 
area. 

Industry  is  highly  diversified 
with  the  manufacture  of  elec- 
trical goods  and  equipment  par- 
ticularly important.  Many  prod- 
ucts manufactured  here  are 
known  the  world  over.  Westing- 
house  Motors,  Bosch  Radios, 
Indian  Motorcycles,  Rolls  Royce 
automobiles.  Smith  and  Wesson 
revolvers,  Springfield  rifles,  Ab- 
sorbine  Junior  liniment,  Fiber- 
loid  products,  and  Milton  Brad- 
ley games  and  toys  are  typical. 
Carpets  and  rugs,  stationery, 
foundry  and  machine  shop  prod- 
ucts, confectionery,  paper  goods, 
valves,  tools,  and  bakery  prod- 
ucts are  of  major  importance. 
Springfield  is  the  home  of  the 
New  Lamed  History  and  also  of 
Webster's  Dictionary. 

Springfield  was  settled  by 
William  Pynchon  of  Roxbury  in 
1636,  who  named  it  Agawam. 
Four  years  later  it  became 
Springfield,  the  name  of  Pyn- 
chon's  English  home.  It  was 
burned  in  1675  during  King 
Philip's  War ;  was  the  scene  of 
rioting  during  Shays's  Rebellion 
(q.  v.),  the  most  serious  trouble 
being  the  demonstration  on  Jan- 
uary 27,  1787,  when  a  body  of 
2,000  malcontents  were  dispersed 
by  the  militia.    Springfield  was 


Springfield 


KFN 


392 


Spring-Rice 


chartered  as  a  city  in  1852.  Pop. 
(1930)  149,900;  (1940)  149,554. 

Springfield,  city,  Missouri, 
county  seat  of  Greene  county, 
on  the  St.  Louis-San  Francisco 
and  the  Missouri  Pacific  rail- 
roads ;  202  miles  s.e.  of  Kansas 
City,  and  238  miles  s.w.  of  St. 
Louis.  It  is  beautifully  situated 
in  the  Ozark  Mountains  at  an  al- 
titude of  1,300  feet.  Here  are 
located  Drury  College,  the  South- 
west Missouri  State  Teachers 
College^  the  Assembly  of  God 
Bible  College,  St.  de  Chantal 
Academy  ('Elfindale') ,  the  Pub- 
lic Library,  O'Reilly  General 
Hospital,  U.  S.  Medical  Center 
for  Federal  Prisoners,  and  the 
Abou  Ben  Adhem  Shrine  Mosque 
with  auditorium  seating  3,500, 
the  Mecca  for  Masons  in  the 
Middle  West.  Sequiota  State 
Park  is  6  m.  distant. 

Springfield  is  located  in  a  rich 
agricultural  and  mining  region, 
and  has  large  fruit,  grain,  lum- 
ber, dairy,  live-stock,  and  mining 
interests.  It  is  also  an  important 
jobbing  and  manufacturing  cen- 
ter. Transcontinental  air  lines 
use  the  municipal  airport.  The 
city  is  called  the  poultry  capital 
of  the  United  States.  Industrial 
establishments  include  packing 
plants,  creameries,  railroad  re- 
pair shops,  and  factories  produc- 
ing furniture,  lime,  overalls, 
flour,  grain,  and  clothing. 

The  city,  strategically  situated 
almost  equidistant  between  St. 
Louis,  Tulsa,  Kansas  City  and 
Memphis,  is  the  northern  gate- 
way to  the  Ozarks,  and  the  cen- 
ter of  a  network  of  fine  high- 
ways. 

Springfield  was  settled  about 
1830.  It  was  incorporated  as  a 
town  in  1838  and  chartered  as 
a  city  in  1847.  During  the  Civil 
War  it  was  a  strategic  point,  the 
battle  of  Wilson's  Creek  (q.  v.) 
being  fought  about  10  miles 
south.  In  1863  the  2,400  militia- 
men stationed  here  were  attacked 
by  General  Marmaduke  in  com- 
mand of  a  force  of  4,000  Con- 
federates. Fighting  began  in  the 
forenoon,  and  at  nightfall  Mar- 
maduke retired,  both  sides  hav- 
ing suffered  heavy  losses. 
Springfield  adopted  the  commis- 
sion form  of  government  in 
1916.  Pop.  (1930)  57,527; 
(1940)  61,238. 

Springfield,  city,  Ohio, 
county  seat  of  Clark  county,  is 
situated  at  the  junction  of  Mad 
River  and  Lagonda  Creek,  and  on 
the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chi- 
cago, and  St.  Louis,  the  Detroit, 
Toledo,  and  Ironton,  the  Erie, 
and  the  Pennsylvania  railroads  ; 
45  m.  west  of  Columbus.  On  an 
elevated  site  are  the  fine  build- 
ings of  Wittenberg  College 
(q.  V.)  and  the  State  Homes  of 
the  Masons,  the  Odd  Fellows,  the 
Eagles,    and    the    Knights  of 


Pythias.  Fernclifif  Cemetery  west 
of  the  college  contains  a  hand- 
some Soldiers'  Monument.  The 
city  has  238  acres  of  parks,  the 
largest,  Snyder  Park  (217  acres), 
containing  the  Snyder  Memorial 
Bridge  and  a  memorial  arch. 
There  is  a  municipal  golf  course. 
Notable  edifices  are  the  County 
Building,  the  Court  House,  the 
City  Building,  Clark  County 
Memorial  Building,  Municipal 
Court  Building,  Warder  Public 
Library,  City  Hospital,  the  High 
School  Building,  and  the  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce  Building. 

Springfield  lies  in  the  midst 
of  grain  and  dairy  farms.  In 
1932  it  ranked  second  in  the 
United  States  as  a  producer  of 
rose  plants,  shipping  about  4,- 
500,000.  Baby  chick  and  duck 
hatcheries  are  important.  It  is 
the  home  of  the  International 
Harvester  Company  and  is  a 
leading  city  of  the  world  in  the 
production  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments. Other  important  prod- 
ucts are  gas  and  steam  engines, 
tools,  coffins,  steam  rollers,  piano 
plates,  iron  wheels,  automobile 
accessories,  incubators,  electric 
fans,  motors,  paper-hangers'  sup- 
plies, castings,  rubber  products, 
blank  books,  electric  washing 
inachines,  wood  patterns,  fabric 
gloves,  sewing  machine  parts  and 
furnaces. 

_  The  first  settlements  in  the 
vicinity  of  Springfield  were  made 
in  1799;  it  became  the  county 
seat  in  1818;  was  incorporated 
as  a  town  in  1827  and  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1850.  The  commis- 
sion-manager type  of  government 
was  adopted.  Pop.  (1930)  68,- 
743  ;  (1940)  70,662. 

Springfield,  town.  Tennes- 
see, Robertson  county,  on  the 
Sulphur  Fork  of  the  Red  River, 
and  the  Louisville  and  Nashville 
Railroad ;  about  27  miles  north 
of  Nashville.  Pop.  (1930)  5,- 
577;  (1940)  6,668. 

Springfield,  town  and  village, 
Vermont,  Windsor  county,  the 
town  bordered  on  the  east  by  the 
Connecticut  River,  and  the  vil- 
lage is  situated  on  the  Black 
River;  42  miles  s.e.  of  Rutland. 
The  falls  on  the  Black  River 
furnish  power  for  various  indus- 
trial establishments  making  gear 
cutting  machinery,  thread  gen- 
erators and  cvitters,  lathes,  cast- 
ings, cloth  shearing  machinery, 
grinders  and  tools  and  re-worked 
wool.  Settlements  were  made 
here  about  1760.  Pop.  (1940) 
of  town  7,720 ;  of  village 
5,182. 

Spring  Frog,  another'  name 
for  the  Green  Frog  (q.  v.). 

Spring  Gun,  a  gun  having 
wires  connected  with  its  trigger, 
was  so  fixed  and  planted  that 
when  wild  animals,  or  trespassers 
stumble  against  the  wire  the  gun 
is  discharged. 


Springhill,  town,  Cumberland 
county,  Nova  Scotia,  Canada,  on 
the  Canadian  National  Railroad  ; 
121  m.  N.w.  of  Halifax.  The 
principal  industry  is  coal-mining. 
It  is  a  region  of  soft  and  hard 
wood  timber  and  diversified 
farming  (hay,  grain,  and  truck 
crops).  There  are  bottling 
works.  Salt  and  limestone  occur 
in  the  neighborhood.  Pop. 
(1931)  6,355;  (1941)  7,123. 

Spring  Hill,  Battle  of,  a  bat- 
tle of  the  Civil  War,  which  oc- 
curred at  Spring  Hill,  Tennes- 
see, Nov.  29,  1864,  between  a 
part  of  the  Federal  Army  of  the 
Cumberland  under  General  Scho- 
field,  and  a  part  of  the  Confeder- 
ate Army  of  Tennessee  under 
General  Hood.  While  General 
Thomas  was  concentrating  his 
army  at  Nashville  upon  the  ap- 
proach of  Hood,  28,000  men  un- 
der the  command  of  Schofield 
were  overtaken  at  Colvnnbia  by 
45,000  Confederates.  About  3 
P.M.  Cleburne's  division  of 
Cheatham's  corps  attacked  Brad- 
ley's brigade,  which  held  the  out- 
post near  Spring  Hill,  and  drove 
it  back,  but  in  return  was  re- 
pulsed by  the  artillery  with  the 
loss  of  150  men  on  each  side. 
The  failure  of  the  Confederates 
to  occupy  Spring  Hill  probably 
had  great  influence  on  the  result 
of  the  Battle  of  Franklin,  fought 
the  next  day  (see  Franklin, 
Battle  of). 

Spring  Hill  College,  a  Ro- 
man Catholic  institution,  directed 
by  the  Jesuits,  situated  in  Mobile, 
Ala.  It  was  founded  in  1830, 
incorporated  in  1836,  and  em- 
powered in  1840  to  grant  degrees 
in  philosophy  and  theology.  The 
college  offers  a  four-year  classi- 
cal course,  leading  to  the  degree 
of  A.B.,  and  a  four-year  scientific 
course,  leading  to  the  degree  of 
B.S.,  and  grants  certificates  for  2 
years  of  engineering,  pre-dental, 
or  pre-legal  or  2  or  3  years  of 
pre-medical  work.  Teacher 
training  courses  are  given. 

Spring-Rice,  Sir  Cecil  Ar- 
thur (1859-1918),  British  dip- 
lomat, was  educated  at  Oxford 
University.  He  served  succes- 
sivel}^  as  secretary  of  legation  at 
Brussels,  Washington,  Tokyo, 
Berlin,  and  Constantinople; 
charge  d'affaires  at  Teheran, 
Iran  (1900);  British  Commis- 
sioner of  Public  Debt  at  Cairo, 
Egypt  (1901)  ;  first  secretary  of 
embassy  at  St.  Petersburg 
(1903-5)  ;  minister  and  consul- 
general  to  Persia  (1906-8)  ; 
and  minister  to  Sweden  (1908- 
12).  In  1912  he  succeeded 
Viscount  Bryce  as  British  Am- 
bassador to  the  United  States. 
He  was  knighted  in  1916.  He 
died  at  Ottawa  on  his  way 
home  to  England,  February 
14,  1918.  Consult  S.  Gwynn, 
Letters    and    F  riendships 


Springs 


KSE 


393 


Sprue 


of  Sir  Cecil  Spring-Rice  (2  v. 
1929). 

Springs.    See  Carriages. 

Springtail  Duck.  See  Pin- 
tail Duck. 

Springtails,  or  Snow  Fleas 
of  the  order  Collembola,  with 
the  somewhat  similar  Thysanura 
(q.  v.),  make  the  subclass  Ap- 
terygota;  very  small,  showing 
not  more  than  6  segments ;  an- 
tennae with  6  to  8  joints;  caudal 
appendages  absent ;  usually  hav- 
ing a  forked  spring  attached  on 
the  abdomen,  folded  beneath, 
which  serves  for  leaping.  At 
times  they  destroy  planted  seeds 
or  young  plants  by  eating  them 
or  carrying  fungous  diseases. 
They  may  be  killed  by  watering 
frequently  with  40%  nicotine  sul- 
fate to  800  parts  of  water.  They 
inhabit  moist  places,  the  young 
living  in  darkness ;  the  adults  in 
winter  massed  on  snow  or  stag- 
nant water. 

Spring  Valley,  city,  Bureau 
county,  Illinois,  on  the  Illinois 
River,  and  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton and  Quincy,  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island,  and  Pacific,  and 
the  Chicago  and  Northwestern 
Railroads ;  6  miles  west  of  La 
Salle,  with  river  craft  connec- 
tion. The  leading  industry  is 
the  mining  of  bituminous  coal. 
Timber  lands  and  good  farming 
country  are  nearby  and  there  are 
sand  and  gravel  pits.  Overalls 
and  garters  are  manufactured. 
Pop.  (1930)  5,270. 

Spring  Valley,  village,  Rock- 
land county.  New  York,  on  the 
Erie  Railroad ;  30  m.  north  of 
New  York  City.  Pop.  (1930) 
3,948. 

Springville,  city,  Utah 
county,  Utah,  on  the  Denver  and 
Rio  Grande  and  the  Union  Paci- 
fic Railroads  ;  50  m.  s.e.  of  Salt 
Lake  City.  Fruit  growing  is  the 
principal  industry.  Stock  raising 
and  dairying  are  also  important. 
Its  factories  produce  steel,  sugar 
and  canned  goods.  Pop.  (1930) 
3,748. 

Sprit  Sail,  a  fore-and-aft  sail, 
bent  to  the  mast  at  the  weather 
leech,  and  having  the  after  peak 
stretched  by  a  spar  or  sprit,  the 
foremost  and  lower  end  of  which 
is  hitched  to  the  mast.  In  small 
boats  the  sprit  end  rests  in  a  cord 
collar,  attached  to  a  cord  ring 
round  the  mast,  which  may  be 
pushed  upward  to  extend  the 
sail,  and  which  will  remain  fast 
with  the  angular  pressure.  (See 
Sail.) 

Sprocket  Wheel,  a  toothed 
wheel  working  in  a  chain.  (See 
Gearing.) 

Spruce  (Picea),  a  genus  of 
trees  of  the  family  Coniferae,  in- 
cluding 40  species  native  to  the 
Arctic  and  Temperate  regions  of 
the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and 
ranging  from  the  Arctic  Circle 
to  the  slopes  of  the  Southern 


Appalachians,  Northern  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona,  in  the 
United  States. 

The  spruces  are  slow-growing 
evergreen  trees,  pyramidal  in 
form,  with  tall,  straight,  taper- 
ing trunks ;  slender,  horizontal 
brcMches  occurring  in  whorls  at 
regular  intervals ;  and  drooping 
branchlets.  The  leaves  are  soli- 
tary, stiff,  linear,  and  four-sided, 
spirally  arranged  on  the  branch- 
lets,  and  jointed  to  persistent 
woody  bases,  from  which  they 
fall  in  7  to  10  years  or  upon 
drying.  The  catkin-like  flowers, 
which  appear  in  the  early  spring 
from  buds  of  the  previous  year, 
are  yellow  to  scarlet  in  color  and 
monoecious  in  character.  The 
fruit  is  a  pendant,  woody  cone 
maturing  in  one  season.  At  the 
base  of  each  fertile  scale  are  two 
ovoid  or  oblong  winged  seeds. 

The  timber  is  soft  and  straight 
grained,  and  is  much  used  for 
general  construction,  interior  fin- 
ish, the  spars  and  masts  of  sail- 
ing vessels,  fuel,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  wood  pulp  (q.  v.). 
The  bark  of  some  species  is  used 
in  tanning,  and  the  resin  is  em- 
ployed medicinally  and  as  spruce 
gum  for  chewing. 

The  White  Spruce  {P.  cana- 
densis), known  also  as  the  Single, 
Double,  Skunk,  and  Cat  Spruce, 
extends  across  the  entire  north- 
ern portion  of  North  America, 
constituting  the  great  bulk  of  the 
forests  of  Alaska  and  Northern 
Canada,  and  reaching  south  to 
South  Dakota,  Southern  Minne- 
sota, Wisconsin,  Northern  New 
York,  and  in  the  Appalachians 
to  Northern  Virginia.  Attain- 
ing a  height  of  150  feet  farther 
north,  in  its  southeastern  limits 
it  is  seldom  more  than  60  to  70 
feet  tall.  The  timber  is  used  ex- 
tensively for  making  wood  pulp. 

The  Weeping  Spruce  {P. 
Brcwcriana) ,  native  to  Oregon 
and  Northern  California,  is  the 
most  elegant  and  graceful  picea. 
It  resembles  the  Norway  spruce ; 


Sprit  Sail. 

its  distinguishing  beauty  is  in 
long  pliant  pendulous  branchlets, 
6  to  8  feet  long  and  slender  as  a 
pencil. 


P.  pungens  called  'queen  of 
the  species'  is  a  noble  tree,  hardy 
on  all  soils  where  tested.  The 
Red  Spruce  (P.  rubra),  known 
also  as  the  Spruce  Pine,  ranges 
from  Prince  Edward  Island  and 
the  St.  Lawrence  Valley  south- 
ward to  Cape  Cod ;  it  occurs  in 
the  interior  highlands  of  New 
England  and  New  York,  and  on 
the  peaks  of  the  Appalachians  as 
far  south  as  North  Carolina.  It 
is  from  70  to  100  feet  high,  with 
branches  reaching  to  the  ground. 
The  timber  is  valuable  for  gen- 
eral construction,  but  its  chief 
use  is  for  pulp. 

The  Englemann  Spruce  (P. 
Englcnianni)  is  a  Rocky  Moun- 
tain species  sometimes  known  as 
White  Spruce.  It  is  planted  as 
an  ornamental  tree  in  the  East. 
An  important  foreign  variety  is 
the  Norway  Spruce  (P.  excelsa), 
extensively  used  in  Europe  for 
general  construction  work  and 
interior  finish,  and  planted  in 
America  as  an  ornamental  tree 
and  as  a  windbreak. 

The  trees  of  the  genus  Pseu- 
dotsuga,  or  False  Hemlocks,  are 
sometimes  incorrectly  grouped 
with  the  Spruces.  These  include 
three  species  :  the  Red  Fir,  Doug- 
las Fir  or  Douglas  Spruce  (P. 
mucronata),  and  the  Big  Cone 
Spruce  or  California  Hemlock 
(P.  macrocarpa). 

Sprue,  or  Psilosis,  a  tropical 
affection  of  the  digestive  tract, 
prevalent  in  India,  China,  the 
Straits  Settlements,  and  the  Phi- 
lippine Islands ;  also  known  as 
Ceylon  Sore  Mouth  and  Diar- 
rhoea Alba.  It  is  characterized 
by  an  inflamed,  superficially  ul- 
cerated, extremely  sensitive  con- 
dition of  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  tongue  and  mouth,  render- 
ing deglutition  exceedingly  pain- 
ful; irregular  action  of  the 
bowels,  with  the  passage  of  copi- 
ous, pale,  frothy  stools  ;  contrac- 
tion of  the  liver ;  the  general 
symptoms  of  dyspepsia,  as  sour 
eructations,  heartburn,  and  flatu- 
lence ;  and  progressive  emacia- 
tion, associated  with  anaemia, 
great  physical  and  ^  intellectual 
debility,  and  not  infrequently 
marked  depression  and  irritabil- 
ity of  temper.  The  course  of  the 
disease  is  chronic,  characterized 
by  frequent  relapses.  With- 
out proper  treatment  the  patient 
becomes  gradually  worse,  and 
dies  as  a  result  of  intense  anaemia 
or  from  an  attack  of  some  inter- 
current disease,  or  infrequently, 
from  perforation  of  an  intestinal 
ulcer. 

Treatment,  to  be  successful, 
should  be  undertaken  early  in 
the  course  of  the  disease  and  be 
persistently  carried  out.  Com- 
plete rest  and  a  milk  diet  have 
proven  valuable,  with  calcium 
lactate  and  extract  of  parathyroid 
(free  from  thyroid).    Consult  T. 


Spur 


KSE 


393  A 


Spy 


Thaysen,  Non-tropical  Sprue 
(1932). 

Spur,  an  appliance  fastened 
to  the  heel  of  a  horseman,  for 
goading  or  controlling  the  horse. 
It  is  much  less  used  than  for- 
merly, and  the  modern  apparatus, 
having  only  minute  serrations  on 
its  rim,  does  not  possess  the  cruel 
effect  of  the  formidable  spiked 
spurs  of  olden  times.  In  the  age 
of  chivalry  spurs  were  an  essen- 
tial ensign  of  knighthood,  the 
spurs  of  knights  {equites  aurati) 
being  golden  or  gilt,  while  those 
of  squires  were  of  silver.  In  the 
degradation  of  a  knight,  one  part 
of  the  proceedings  consisted  in 
hacking  the  spurs  from  his  heels. 

Spurge,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  order  Euphorbia- 
ceae.    (See  Euphorbia.) 

Spurge  Laurel.  See  Daphne. 

Spurgeon,  spur'jun,  Charles 
Haddon  (1834-92),  noted  Eng- 
lish Nonconformist  preacher,  was 
born  at  Kelvedon,  Essex,  and  at- 
tached himself  to  the  Baptists, 
becoming  pastor  of  a  congrega- 
tion at  Water-beach,  Cambridge- 
shire, in  1852.  In  1853  he  was 
invited  to  preach  in  New  Park 
Street  Chapel,  London,  and  in 
1854  he  was  unanimously  called 
to  become  pastor  of  the  church. 


Charles  Haddon  Spurgeon. 


Growing  popularity  rendered  the 
enlargement  of  New  Park  Street 
Chapel  a  necessity  in  1855,  and 
again  in  1856.  In  1859  the  erec- 
tion of  the  vast  Metropolitan 
Tabernacle  was  begun,  in  which 
Spurgeon  preached  to  the  end 
of  his  life.  Strangers  flocked 
thither  from  all  parts  of  the 
world  to  hear  him.  In  1879  he 
received  a  pastor's  silver  wed- 
ding testimonial  of  over  $30,000  ; 
a  further  sum  of  about  $25,000 
was  presented  to  him  on  his  at- 
taining his  fiftieth  year,  all  of 
which  he  devoted  to  benevolent 
projects. 

A  rigid  Calvinist,  Spurgeon 
was  no  ascetic.  A  musical  voice, 
clearness,   directness,  independ- 


ence, and  simplicity  of  style, 
combined  with  humor,  common 
sense,  a  rich  store  of  anecdote 
and  continuous  hard  work,  were 
the  chief  factors  in  his  great 
success.  In  his  zeal  for  pure 
doctrine  he  abandoned  the  Evan- 
gelical Alliance. 

Besides  weekly  sermons  and  a 
monthly  magazine,  Sword  and 
Trowel  (1865),  Spurgeon  gave 
to  the  world  upward  of  a  hun- 
dred volumes.  He  always 
preached  extemporaneously,  and 
had  his  notes  written  on  a  half 
sheet  of  notepaper.  His  ser- 
mons, taken  down  in  shorthand, 
were  afterward  carefully  revised 
by  himself.  The  average  weekly 
circulation  of  his  sermons  was 
30,000.  He  published:  The 
Saint  and  His  Saviour  (1867)  ; 
John  Ploughman's  Talk  (1868)  ; 
John  Ploughman's  Pictures; 
Treasury  of  David,  a  commen- 
tary on  the  Psalms  in  7  vols. 
(1865-80);  Interpreter  (1874); 
Morning  by  Morning;  Evening 
by  Evening;  Feathers  for  Ar- 
rows; Lectures  to  My  Students ; 
Commenting  and  Commentaries ; 
My  Sermon  Notes ;  Salt  Cellars 
(Proverbs)  ;  Flashes  of  Thought ; 
Sermons  in  Candles  (1891)  ; 
Messages  to  the  Multitude 
(1892).  Consult  Autobiography, 
Letters,  and  Records,  in  4  vols., 
compiled  by  his  widow  and  Mrs. 
Harrald  (1897-1900);  J.  C. 
Carlile,  C.  H.  Spurgeon  (1933)  ; 
R.  E.  Day,  Shadow  of  the  Broad 
Brim  (1934)  ;  J.  J.  Ellis  and 
J.  T.  Allen,  Mighty  Messenger 
of  Christ  (1933)  ;  C.  F.  Perry, 
Spurgeon's  Boyhood  and  Won- 
derful Life  (1934). 

Spurn  Head,  a  promontory 
with  two  lighthouses  stretching 
2^  miles  into  the  mouth  of  the 
Humber,  and  forming  the  south- 
eastern extremity  of  Yorkshire, 
England. 

Spurry  (Spergula  Sativa),  a 
species  of  dull  green  viscid  plants 
of  the  Caryophyllaceae  family 
growing  in  waste  lands  and  sandy 
soils  ;  annuals  ;  much  branched, 
often  grow  in  spreading  rosettes, 
have  linear  leaves,  clustered  so 
as  to  resemble  verticils,  seeds 
margined,  not  papillate.  The 
flowers  have  a  calyx  of  5  sepals, 
5  white  petals,  5  or  10  stamens, 
and  5  styles ;  the  capsule  is  5 
valved.  In  Germany,  France, 
Holland,  and  Belgium,  spurry  is 
grown  as  a  soil  renovator  and 
forage  crop.  In  Holland  it  has 
long  been  used  to  hold  in  place 
the  sifting  sands  near  the  sea. 
It  is  recommended  in  America 
only  as  a  cover-crop  to  plow 
under. 

Spurs,  Battle  of  the.  See 

CoURTRAI  ;  GUINEGATE. 

Spur  Wheel,  a  toothed  wheel, 
the  teeth  radiating  from  the  cen- 
tre.   (See  Gearing.) 

Spurzheim,  shpoorts'him,  Jo- 


HANN  Kaspar  (1776-1832), 
German  physician,  one  of  the 
founders  of  phrenology.  While 
a  student  of  medicine  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Franz  Gall  (q.  v.), 
and  imbibed  many  of  his  doc- 
trines. The  two  in  1805  started 
on  a  lecturing  tour  through  the 
principal  countries  of  Central 
Europe,  and  in  1807  settled  in 
Paris.  Spurzheim  after  1814  de- 
voted himself  largely  to  prosecut- 
ing his  campaign  in  England, 
where  George  Combe  became  his 
disciple.  From  1817-25  he  was 
engaged  in  spreading  his  views 
in  France.  In  1832  he  came  to 
the  United  States,  but  died  sud- 
denly in  Boston  the  same  year. 
His  chief  works  are  :  Elementary 
Principles  of  Education  (1821)  ; 
Phrenology  (1825)  ;  Philosophi- 
cal Principles  of  Phrenology 
(1832).  Consult  Memoir  by  A. 
Carmichael  (1833)  ;  N.  Capen, 
Reminiscences  of  IDr.  Spurzheim 
and  George  Combe  (1881). 

Sputum,  medical  term  for  the 
secretion  ejected  from  the  mouth 
in  spitting.  It  consists  of  saliva 
and  mucus  from  the  nasal  fossae 
and  the  fauces.  In  diseased  con- 
ditions it  may  contain  pus, 
mucus,  fibrin,  or  blood.  Con- 
sult R.  Clifford,  Sputum  (1932). 

SpuytenDuyvil,  spi't'n  di'v'l, 
a  creek  connecting  the  Harlem 
and  the  Hudson  Rivers,  bound- 
ing the  extreme  north  end  of 
Manhattan  Island.  The  former 
village  of  Spuyten  Duyvil  is  part 
of  New  York  City  (q.  v.). 

Spy,  in  military  usage  a  per- 
son who  secretly  and  in  disguise 
collects  information  as  to  the 
enemy's  condition  or  designs,  for 
the  purpose  of  communicating 
such  information  to  the  opposing 
force.  The  use  of  spies  is  held 
to  be  legitimate  in  war ;  but  if  a 
spy  is  captured,  he  or  she  may  be 
lawfully  'executed.* 

Espionage  was  used  among 
primitive  peoples  ;  it  was  impor- 
tant and  well-organized  in  an- 
cient Asia  ;  fell  into  disrepute  in 
Europe  as  incompatible  with  an 
age  of  chivalry ;  and  was  a 
strong  arm  of  the  medieval 
church  during  five  centuries.  Up 
to  1870  no  spy  system  surpassed 
that  of  the  Mongols  of  the  12th 
and  13th  centuries;  emperors  of 
India  employed  thousands  of 
spies.  Akbar  sent  them  in  the 
role  of  scavengers  into  every 
house  twice  daily.  Espionage  as 
a  part  of  military  science  was 
described  by  Maurice  de  Saxe 
in  Reveries  ou  memoires  sur 
I'art  de  la  guerre  (1756),  and 
later  distinguished  the  skill  of 
Frederick  the  Great.  In  1870 
Wilhelm  Stieber,  Bismarck's  po- 
lice minister,  claimed  that  he  had 
over  30,000  spies  in  France. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War   the   too   complicated  spy 


Spy 


KSE 


393  B 


Squall 


systems  of  Europe  were  bewil- 
dering and  led  to  counter-espio- 
nage, or  spying  upon  spies,  which 
proved  very  effective.  After 
peace,  governments  continued  to 
employ  counter-spies,  an  efficient 
system  merging  with  the  mili- 
tary police.  Secret  police  spied 
upon  minorities.  In  the  United 
States  they  spied  upon  radical 
organizations.  After  the  World 
War  the  U.  S.  Espionage  Act 
of  1917  was  not  repealed. 

The  Espionage  Act. — In  the 
United  States  a  drastic  Espion- 
age Law  was  passed  by  Congress 
shortly  after  the  entrance  of  that 
country  into  the  World  War.  As 
approved  June  15,  1917,  the  Act 
provides  for  the  punishment  by 
a  fine  not  to  exceed  $10,000,  or 
imprisonment  for  not  more  than 
two  years,  or  both,  of  any  per- 
son who,  with  intent  or  reason 
to  believe  that  the  information 
to  be  obtained  is  to  be  used  to 
the  injury  of  the  United  States, 
or  to  the  advantage  of  any  for- 
eign nation,  obtains  information 
concerning  any  place  directly 
connected  with  the  national  de- 
fence or  any  place  in  which  ves- 
sels, aircraft,  arms,  munitions,  or 
other  materials  or  instruments 
for  use  in  time  of  war  are  be- 
ing made,  prepared,  repaired,  or 
stored,  under  any  agreement  with 
the  United  States,  or  otherwise 
on  behalf  of  the  United  States ; 
or,  with  like  intent  or  reason  to 
believe,  copies,  takes,  makes,  or 
obtains,  or  attempts,  or  induces 
or  aids  another  to  copy,  take, 
make,  or  obtain,  any  sketch,  pho- 
tograph, photographic  negative, 
blue  print,  plan,  map,  model,  in- 
strument, appliance,  document, 
writing,  or  note  of  anything  con- 
nected with  the  national  de- 
fence ;  or,  lawfully  or  unlawfully 
having  possession  of,  access  to, 
or  control  over  such  material, 
wilfully  communicates  or  trans- 
mits or  attempts  to  communicate 
or  transmit  the  same  to  any  per- 
son not  entitled  to  receive  it, 
wilfully  retains^  the  same  and 
fails  to  deliver  it  on  demand  to 
the  officer  or  employee  of  the 
United  States  entitled  to  receive 
it,  or,  through  gross  negligence, 
permits  the  same  to  be  removed 
from  its  proper  place  of  custody 
or  delivered  to  any  one  in  viola- 
tion of  his  trust,  or  to  be  lost, 
stolen,  abstracted,  or  destroyed; 
or  any  person  who,  when  the 
United  States  is  at  war,  shall 
wilfully  make  or  convey  false 
reports  or  false  statements  with 
intent  to  interfere  with  the  oper- 
ation or  success  of  the  military 
or  naval  forces  of  the  United 
States  or  to  promote  the  success 
of  its  enemies  and  whoever,  when 
the  United  States  is  at  war,  shall 
wilfully  cause  or  attempt  to 
cause  insubordination,  disloyal- 
ty, mutiny,  or  refusal  of  duty,  in 


the  military  or  naval  forces  of 
the  United  States,  or  shall  wil- 
fully obstruct  the  recruiting  or 
enlistment  service  of  the  United 
States,  to  the  injury  of  the  serv- 
ice or  of  the  United  States. 

It  provides  also  that  whoever, 
with  intent  or  reason  to  believe 
that  it  is  to  be  used  to  the  injury 
of  the  United  States,  communi- 
cates to  any  foreign  government 
information  relating  to  the  na- 
tional defence,  shall  be  punished 
by  imprisonment  for  not  more 
than  twenty  years,  or,  in  time  of 
war,  by  death  or  by  imprison- 
ment for  not  more  than  thirty 
years  ;  and  that  whoever,  in  time 
of  war,  with  intent  that  the  same 
shall  be  communicated  to  the 
enemy,  shall  collect,  record,  pub- 
lish, or  communicate,  or  attempt 
to  elicit  any  information  with 
respect  to  the  movement,  num- 
bers, description,  condition,  or 
disposition  of  any  of  the  armed 
forces,  ships,  aircraft,  or  war  ma- 
terials of  the  United  States,  or 
any  other  information  relating  to 
the  public  defence  which  might 
be  useful  to  the  enemy,  shall  be 
punished  by  death  or  by  impris- 
onment for  not  more  than  thirty 
years. 

The  Hague  Convention  (1907) 
makes  the  following  rulings  con- 
cerning spies :  'An  individual 
can  only  be  considered  a  spy  if, 
acting  clandestinely,  or  on  false 
pretences,  he  obtains  or  seeks  to 
obtain  information  in  the  zone  of 
operations  of  a  belligerent,  with 
the  intention  of  communicating 
it  to  the  hostile  party. 

'Thus,  soldiers  not  in  disguise 
who  have  penetrated  into  the 
zone  of  operations  of  a  hostile 
army  to  obtain  information  are 
not  considered  spies.  Similarly, 
the  following  are  not  considered 
spies  :  soldiers  or  civilians,  carry- 
ing out  their  mission  openly, 
charged  with  the  delivery  of  des- 
patches destined  either  for  their 
own  army  or  for  that  of  the  ene- 
my. To  this  class  belong  like- 
wise individuals  sent  in  balloons 
to  deliver  despatches,  and  gen- 
erally to  maintain  communica- 
tion between  the  various  parts  of 
an  army  or  territory. 

'A  spy  taken  in  the  act  can- 
not be  punished  without  previous 
trial. 

'  A  spy  who,  after  rejoining  the 
army  to  which  he  belongs,  is  sub- 
sequently captured  by  the  ene- 
my, is  treated  as  a  prisoner  of 
war,  and  incurs  no  responsibility 
for  his  previous  acts  of  espion- 
age.' 

Commercial    espionage  is 

often  practiced.  British  spies 
claimed  early  in  the  World  War 
that  they  had  obtained  the  se- 
crets of  the  German  dye  indus- 
try. Consult  G.  G.  Aston,  Secret 
Service  (1930);  S.  C.  Howard 
and  R.  Dunn,  The  Labor  Spy 


(1924)  ;  R.  Mennevee,  L'espion- 
nage  international  en  temps  de 
paix  (2  vols.  1929)  ;  R.  W. 
Rowan,  Spy  and  Counter-spy 
(1928)  ;  J.  Vidor,  Spying  in 
Russia  (1929). 

Squadron. — (1)  A  unit  of 
cavalry.  In  the  United  States 
the  normal  command  of  a  major 
composed  basically  of  a  head- 
quarters and  two  or  more  troops. 
(2)  In  the  navy,  one  or  more  di- 
visions of  battleships,  destroyers, 
or  aircraft,  or  a  group  of  vessels 
assigned  to  a  special  duty.  (3) 
In  military  aviation,  an  air  fleet 
or  division  of  an  air  fleet.  In 
Great  Britain,  airplanes  and  men 
sufficient  to  maintain  12  airplanes 
ready  for  service.  In  the  United 
States,  the  basic  unit  of  three 
flights  of  three  to  six  airplanes 
each,  known  as  bombardment 
squadrons,  attack  squadrons,  ob- 
servation squadrons,  pursuit 
squadrons,  service  squadrons. 

Squall,  a  sudden  violent  in- 
crease of  wind  velocity,  which 
may  rise  for  a  few  seconds  to 
hurricane  violence.  Squalls  are 
caused  by  meteorological  condi- 
tions and  are  frequently  associ- 
ated with  thunderstorms.  The 
circulation  of  the  winds  is  shown 
in  the  diagram.  Here  we  may 
assume  that  a  cold  westerly 
current  impinges  on  a  warmer 
one  from  the  southeast  or  south. 
The  warmer  current  ascends,  as 
indicated  by  the  small  arrows, 
and   curls    over    at   the  black 


Diagram  of  'Line  SqualL* 


wreath  (ti)  of  cloud,  and  then 
the  commingling  of  the  two  cur- 
rents forms  an  imposing  dark 
dome  (v)  of  cloud,  from  which 
heavy  rain  (r)  or  hail  descends. 
The  light  grayish  cloud  which 
is  seen  behind  the  black  wreath 
is  the  rain  descending  from  the 
dark  dome.  The  heavy  rain- 
drops bring  down  a  large  quan- 
tity of  cold  air,  which  flies 
straight  out  in  advance  of  the 
storm,  and  produces  the  squall 
(q)  indicated  by  the  long  arrow. 

It  has  been  suggested  as  a  con- 
tributory cause  that  the  expan- 
sion of  the  moist  rising  air,  in- 
creased by  the  warmth  due  to  the 
cloudy  condensation  that  results, 
may  produce  a  downward  pres- 
sure upon  the  air  below,  or  that 
the  low  temperature  of  the  cold 
column  of  air  preceding  the  storm 
may  cause  a  difference  of  pres- 
sure sufficient  to  force  the  air 
outward  toward  the  lower  pres- 
sure of  the  warmer  ascending 


Squarcione 


KSE 


394 


Squier 


portion.  That  rain  alone  can- 
not account  for  the  phenomenon 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  squalls 
sometimes  occur  under  clouds 
from  which  no  rain  is  falling. 
The  white  squall  derives  its  name 
from  the  whitening  of  the  sea 
with  foam  and  spoondrift  as  it 
traverses  the  water.  (See 
Storm.) 

Squarcione,  skwar-cho'na, 
Francesco  (1394-1474),  Italian 
painter.  He  is  called  the  'father 
of  painting'  from  his  being  the 
founder  of  one  of  the  first  Italian 
academies  of  art.  Among  his 
pupils  was  Mantegna  (q.  v.).  He 
was  chiefly  engaged  in  church 
decoration,  his  best-known  work 
being  an  altar  piece  in  Padua. 

Square  is  a  four-sided  plane 
rectilineal  figure,  having  all  its 
sides  equal,  and  all  its  angles 
right  angles.  Its  area  is  deter- 
mined by  multiplying  the  length 
of  the  side  by  itself,  represented 
algebraically  by  the  formula 
a  X  a  =  a2.  (See  Quadra- 
ture.) 

Square  Knot.    See  Knot. 
Square  Measure.  See 

Weights  and  Measures. 

Square  Rig  is  a  nautical  term 
implying  that  the  principal  sails 
of  a  vessel  are  extended  by  yards, 
slung  to  the  masts  by  the  middle, 
and  not  by  gaffs,  booms,  or  lateen 
yards.  They  can  thus  be  braced 
to  a  greater  or  less  angle  on  either 
side  to  suit  the  wind,  but  not 
directly  fore  and  aft.  (See 
Sail.) 

Square  Root.  See  Involu- 
tion. 

Squares,  Magic.  See  Magic 
Squares. 

Squares,  Method  of  Least. 

By  this  method  the  most  prob- 
able value  may  be  determined 
from  a  number  of  observations, 
and  the  accuracy  of  observations 
and  adjusted  results  ascertained. 
If  a,  a2.  .  .a^  be  value  of  the  same 
quantity  derived  from  different 
observations  of  equal  precision, 
the  most  probable  value,  x,  is 
that  which  renders  the  expression 

2  2  2 

  or  (x— o)2H  

X — a  X — fl2  X — an 

a  minimum.  The  differential  of 
the  expression  when  equated  to 
zero  gives  the  arithmetical  mean 
of  the  observed  values  as  the 
most  probable  value.  The  prob- 
able error  (c)  of  a  single  obser- 
vation is  given  by  the  equation 

e  =0.6745- /^^,  where Sm2  is  the 
\  n — 1 

sum  of  the  above  squares,  and 
the  probable  error  («)  of  the 
arithmetical  mean  by  the  equa- 
tion €=    /— .  When  the  observa- 

tions  are  not  of  equal  precision, 
the  squares  must  be  weighted  by 
coefficients  derived  from  the 
number  of  observations,  the  man- 
ner of  taking  the  observations, 


etc.,  and  in  this  and  more  com- 
plicated cases  the  most  probable 
value  is  not  the  arithmetical 
mean.  By  this  method  the  most 
probable  values  of  the  constants 
or  parameters  in  any  function  of 
independent  variables  may  be  ob- 
tained. Consult  Prof.  Merri- 
man's  Text  Book  on  the  Method 
of  Least  Squares. 

Squaring  the  Circle.  See 
Quadrature. 

Squash,  a  trailing  vine  of  the 
genus  Cucurhita,  bearing  large 
leaves,  large  yellow  blossoms,  and 
gourd-like  fruits,  which  are  used 
as  a  vegetable  and  a  filling  for 
pies.  The  summer  sorts,  includ- 
ing the  Crook  Neck  and  Scallop 
varieties,  belong  principally  to 
Cucurhita  pcpo,  while  the  winter 
squashes,  like  the  Hubbard  and 
Boston  Marrow,  belong  to  C. 
maxima,  and  winter  crook-necks, 
Cushaws,  etc.,  to  C.  moschata. 
They  thrive  best  in  warm  situa- 
tions and  rich  sandy  loam. 
There  are  bush  and  trailing 
forms.  The  seeds  are  planted  in 
hills  8  to  10  feet  apart  for  run- 
ning varieties,  4  to  5  feet  apart 
for  bush  squash.  A  couple  of 
shovelfulls  of  well-rotted  barn- 
yard manure^  is  usually  placed 
under  each  hill  to  insure  vigor- 
ous growth.  When  danger 
from  insects  is  past  the  hills 
are  thinned  to  three  or  four  of 
the  strongest  plants.  Summer 
squashes  are  cooked  and  eaten 
whole  before  the  skin  hardens. 
Winter  squashes  are  gathered  as 
soon  as  fall^  frosts  threaten,  and 
left  to  lie  in  piles  in  the  stm- 
shine  for  a  few  days  until  the 
skin  becomes  hard  and  flinty. 
If  frost  threatens,  they  are  cov- 
ered at  night.  They  should  be 
stored  in  a  dry  room  at  a  tem- 
perature of  about  50°  F.  Sum- 
mer Crook  Neck  is  one  of  the 
best  early  summer  sorts.  Bos- 
ton Marrow,  Hubbard,  and 
Marblehead  are  all  excellent 
winter  varieties. 

Squash  Insects  are  trouble- 
some Squash  Bugs  (Anasa 
tristis),  about  Ys  inches  long; 
adults  brownish-black,  nymphs 
(Yii  to  5^  inch  long)  w-hitish 
with  black  legs  ;  lay  eggs  on  the 
foliage  in  spring,  the  young  bugs 
feeding  on  plant  juices.  The  lat- 
ter may  be  killed  by  a  spray  of 
1  part  nicotine  sulphate  to  400 
parts  soapy  water,  but  it  is  al- 
most impossible  to  reach  them. 
No  known  insecticide  kills  the 
adults  which  must  be  removed 
by  hand  before  eggs  are  laid. 
The  eggs  of  the  Squash  Vine 
Borer  (Melittia  satyriniformis) 
may  be  killed  by  a  spray  of  40% 
nicotine  sulphate  (1  oz.  to  2^ 
gals,  water)  and  1  ounce  caustic 
potash  fish-oil  soap.  The  Striped 
Cucumber  Beetle  (Diabrotica 
vittata)  is  the  most  serious  pest 
of  Cucurbits  east  of  the  Rocky 


Mountains  and  the  Western 
Cucumber  Beetle  (Diabrotica 
trivittata)  is  worst  on  the  Pacific 
Coast.  These  feed  on  the  plants 
at  all  stages  of  growth  and  also 
carry  wilt ;  to  combat  them,  cover 
plants  as  soon  as  they  pierce  the 
ground.  Dust  with  1  part  cal- 
cium arsenate  and  20  parts 
burned  gypsum  or  land  plaster. 

Squash  Rackets,  a  court 
game,  similar  to  rackets  (q.  v.), 
is  played  with  ball  and  racket  by 
two  persons.  The  floor  of  the 
court  is  divided  into  four  smaller 
courts,  while  on  the  front  wall 
are  drawn  the  'service  '  line  and 
the  'play'  line,  72  and  19  inches 
from  the  floor  respectively.  The 
player  serving  stands  in  one  of 
the  rear  courts  and  sends  the 
ball  to  the  front  wall,  above  the 
service  line,  causing  it  to  re- 
bound. His  opponent  tries  to  re- 
turn the  ball  to  the  front  wall, 
above  the  play  line.  A  player 
scores  a  point  when  his  oppo- 
nent returns  the  ball  on  any  but 
the  first  rebound,  returns  it  be- 
low the  play  line,  or  fails  en- 
tirely to  return  it.  In  the  United 
States,  IS  points  and  in  Eng- 
land 9  constitute  a  game.  Con- 
sult F.  D.  Amr,  Art  of  Squash 
Rackets  (1934). 

Squid,  popular  name  for 
members  of  the  sub-order  Teu- 
thoidea  of  Cephalopoda  (q.  v.), 
aggressive,  with  ten  arms,  a 
horny  (except  in  Sepia)  pen,  the 
remnant  of  a  shell,  and  a  cornea 
closing  the  eye.  The  body  is 
long  pointed  behind,  and  bears 
two  triangular  posterior  fins. 
The  skin  round  the  mouth  bears 
suckers  ;  the  two  longest  seizing 
arms  bear  four  or  more  rows  of 
suckers,  and  are  not  entirely  re- 
tractile ;  one  of  the  shorter  arms 
becomes  much  modified  in  the 
male  to  form  a  sperm-holding 
organ.  Some  fossil  forms  oc- 
cur in  the  Jurassic  strata. 

The  Common  Squid  (Loligo 
vulgaris)  has  a  pinkish  or  yellow- 
ish white  color,  with  purplish 
brown  spots,  and  measures  a  foot 
and  a  half  or  more  in  length,  not 
including  the  arrns.  It  is  com- 
mon in  the  Atlantic  and  Mediter- 
ranean, swims  actively  in  shoals 
and  is  sometimes  eaten,  or  used 
as  bait.  The  Giant  Squid 
{Architeuthis  princeps)  reaches 
a  record  length  of  52  feet  (in- 
cluding tentacles).  Other  'giant 
squids'  are  over  7  feet  long. 
There  are  phosphorescent  squids 
bearing  light-organs  upon  their 
bodies.  Flying  Squids  attain 
their  motion  by  a  series  of  leaps 
sometimes  landing  on  ships. 

Squi'er,  Ephraim  George 
(1821-88),  American  archaeol- 
ogist, born  in  Bethlehem,  N.  Y. 
With  E.  H.  Davis  he  examined 
pre-historic  ruins  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi valley  ^  (1846-7)  and 
later   studied  similar   ruins  in 


Squill 


395 


Squirrel  Monkey 


several  districts  in  New  York. 
In  1849  he  was  special  charge 
d'affaires  to  the  Central  Ameri- 
can states,  and  negotiated  the 
treaties  with  Nicaragua,  Salva- 
dor, and  Honduras.  He  was  au- 
thor of:  Aboriginal  Monuments 
of  the  State  of  New  York  (1849); 
Serpent  Symbols  (1852);  Nica- 
ragua, Its  People,  Scenery,  and 
Monuments  (1852);  Notes  on 
Central  America  (1854);  The 
States  of  Central  America  (1857); 
Tropical  Fibres  (1861);  Peru,  In- 
cidents and  Explorations  in  the 
Land  of  the  Incas  (1877). 

Squill,  any  plant  of  the  ge- 
nus Scilla  (q.  v.).  In  medicine, 
squill  is  a  drug  consisting  of  the 
inner  part  of  the  bulb  of  Urginea 
scilla,  a.  liliaceous  plant  of  the 
Mediterranean  region,  cut  into 
slices  and  dried.  It  is  an  expec- 
torant and  diuretic,  and  in  large 
doses  is  purgative  and  emetic. 
It  is  used  in  bronchitis,  croup, 
and  dropsy. 

Squilla,  or  Mantis  Shrimp,  a 
genus  of  marine  Crustacea, 
which,  with  some  closely  allied 
genera,  constitutes  the  suborder 
Stomatopoda.  The  common 
species  is  5.  mantis,  so  called 
from  a  fancied  resemblance  to 
the  insect  mantis.  It  is  abundant 
in  the  Mediterranean,  and  oc- 
curs   occasionally    in  British 


Squilla  mantis 


waters.  It  attains  a  length  of 
seven  inches.  The  body  is 
slightly  flattened,  and  the  short 
carapace  leaves  a  part  of  the 
thorax  uncovered.  The  abdomen 
ends  in  a  powerful  tail  fin.  The 
second  maxillipedes  form  power- 
ful prehensile  appendages. 

Squinting.    See  vStrabismus. 

Squire,  an  abbreviated  form 
of  esquire  (q.  v.),  denoting  under 
the  old  system  of  chivalry  a 
knight's  armor-bearer.  He  was 
next  in  degree  to  the  knight, 
and  was  himself  entitled  to  coat 
armor,  and  to  exemption  from 
jury  duties.  The  title  is  now 
used  somewhat  loosely.  It  is 
extended  to  country  gentlemen 
in  England,  and  sometimes  in 
the  United  States  to  local  judges 
and  justices  of  the  peace. 

Squirrel,  a  rodent  belonging 
to  the  genus  Sciurus,  character- 


ized by  a  long  and  bushy  tail, 
usually  held  curled  over  the 
back.  On  the  fore  hmbs  the 
thumb  is  rudimentary,  but  the 
other  digits  are  well  developed, 
and  are  furnished  with  long, 
sharp,  curved  claws.  The  color- 
ing   is    usually  reddish-brown 


above  and  white  below,  but 
many  species  are  gray  or  black; 
in  the  tropics  they  are  often 
brightly  variegated.  The  squirrel 
is  an  arboreal  animal,  and  climbs 
and  leaps  with  great  agility.  Its 
food  consists  chiefly  of  nuts, 
seeds,  bark,  buds,  and  young 
shoots,  but  at  times  it  eats  eggs 
and  even  young  birds.  In  the 
more  northerly  parts  of  the 
world  squirrels  hibernate  during 
the  winter,  but  the  sleep  is 
never  very  profound,  and  in  mild 
weather  they  often  go  abroad, 
even  in  mid-winter.  Their  tem- 
porary periods  of  inactivity  are 
provided  for  by  the  storing  in 
the  autumn  of  a  winter  supply 
of  food.  The  young  are  produced 
in  early  summer,  often  four  or 
five  in  number.  The  pelts  of 
the  squirrel  are  of  considerable 
commercial  value,  particularly 
the  soft,  thick  fur  of  the  more 
northern  species. 

Squirrels  inhabit  all  temperate 
and  tropical  parts  of  the  globe 
except  Madagascar  and  Aus- 
tralia. There  are  some  fifty  or 
sixty  species,  most  numerous  in 
the  Malayan  region.  Of  these 
Malayan  squirrels,  the  best 
known  are  the  large  S.  bicolor, 
sometimes  measuring  ten  or 
twelve  inches  exclusive  of  the 
tail;  the  Indian  Palm  Squirrel 


(S.  palmarum),  a  small  prettily 
striped  animal,  easily  tamed; 
and  the  Golden-backed  squirrel 
(S.  caniceps),  which  assumes  a 
beautiful  orange  color  during 
the  breeding  season.  The  best- 
known  American  species  are  the 
Red  Squirrel  or  Chickaree  (5. 


hudsonianus) ,  found  all  over  the 
northern  portions  of  the  country, 
a  lively  and  fearless  little  crea- 
ture about  eight  inches  long;  the 
Grey  Squirrel  (5.  carolinensis) , 
a  larger  species  found  farther 
south,  also  very  active  and  easily 
tamed;  and  the  large,  dark  Fox 
Squirrel  (5.  niger)  of  the  South 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  States.  The 
common  European  squirrel  (5. 
vulgaris)  much  resembles  the  red 
squirrel  in  appearance  and  hab- 
its, but  in  winter  its  ears  are 
tipped  with  a  thick  fringe  of 
hair.  It  is  found  throughout 
Europe,  Northern  Africa,  North- 
ern Asia,  and  as  far  east  as 
Japan.  Related  to  the  true 
squirrels  are  the  Ground  Squirrel 
or  Chipmunk  (q.  v.)  of  the  genus 
Tamias  and  the  Flying  Squirrel 
(q.  v.).  Consult  works  on  natural 
history,  especially  Stone  and 
Cram's  American  Animals  and 
Hornaday's  American  Natural 
History  (1915). 

Squirrel  Monkey,  a  small,  ac- 
tive, furry  South  American 
monkey  of  the  genus  Chrysothrix. 
The  common  squirrel-monkey 
(C.  sciurea)  inhabits  the  valley 
of  the  Orinoco.  It  is  not  much 
larger  than  a  squirrel  and  has  a 
remarkably  expressive  face.  To 
one  species  (C.  torquata)  the 
Spaniards    give    the    name  of 

Vol.  XL— March  '25 


Courtesy  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  N.  Y. 

Western  Fox  Squirrel 


Srinagar 


395  A 


Stadholder 


'widow,'  on  account  of  its  black 
and  white  coloring.  All  the 
species  have  elongated  heads  and 
large  eyes,  and  are  favorite  pets 
in  the  tropics,  but  rarely  survive 
long  in  colder  climates. 

Srinagar,  town,  India,  capital 
of  the  native  state  of  Kashmir, 
115  miles  northeast  of  Rawal- 
pindi. The  city  is  divided  by 
the  Jhelum  River,  crossed  here 
by  several  quaint  wooden  bridges, 
and  is  traversed  by  numerous 
canals.  It  contains  the  summer 
residence  of  the  Maharaja  and 
many  interesting  mosques,  some 
constructed  of  wood.  It  was 
formerly  a  shawl-weaving  centre, 
but  is  now  engaged  chiefly  in 
silver-working,  carpet-weaving, 
and  the  manufacture  of  paper 
and  leather.  Pop.  (1921)  141,735. 

Srirangam,  town,  India,  in 
Madras,  on  the  Coleroon  River, 
3  miles  north  of  Trichinopoli.  It 
is  famous  for  its  huge  temple  to 
Vishnu.  This  enormous  struc- 
ture comprises  seven  concentric 
squares,  each  surrounded  by 
walls  and  having  four  high- 
towered  gates.  The  outer  wall  is 
at  least  four  miles  in  circum- 
ference.   Pop.  (1921)  23,153. 

Srlrangapatam.    See  Serin- 

GAPATAM. 

Srivillipatur,  town,  India, 
capital  of  Tinnevelli  district, 
Madras,  45  miles  southwest  of 
Madura.    Pop.  (1921)  31,195. 

S.  S.,  Steamship,  Sunday- 
school. 

Ssu-mao,  or  Esmote,  city, 
China,  in  the  province  of  Yiin- 
nan,  on  the  route  from  Yiin- 
nan-fu  to  East  Burma.  It  was 
opened  to  foreign  trade  in  1897. 
It  contains  an  interesting  medley 
of  population,  but  the  Chinese 
are  predominant.  Pop.  (1922) 
22,069. 

St.    See  Saint. 

Staal,  Marguerite  Jeanne 
Delaunay,  Baronne  de  (1684- 
1750),  French  writer,  was  born 
in  Paris.  She  became  the  confi- 
fidential  maid  of  the  Duchesse  de 
Maine  at  Sceaux,  and  underwent 
two  years'  imprisonment  in  the 
Bastille  for  complicity  in  the 
Cellamare  conspiracy  to  deprive 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  of  the 
regency.  In  1735  she  married 
the  Baron  de  Staal.  She  is  gen- 
erally designated  Staal-Delaunay 
to  distinguish  her  from  Madame 
de  Stael-Holstein.  She  left  val- 
uable Memoir es  (4  vols.,  1755), 
edited  by  Lescure  (2  vols.,  1878). 
Consult  Sainte-Beuve's  Portraits 
litter  aires. 

Stabat  Mater,  a  Latin  poem 
sung  during  Passion  week  in  Ro- 
man Catholic  churches,  begin- 
ning'Stabat  mater  dolorosa.'  It 
is  said  to  have  been  written  near 
the  close  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury by  Jacobus  de  Bencdictis 
(Jacopone  da  Todi).  Celebrated 
musical  settings  of  it  are  those  by 
Palestrina,  Pergolesi,  Haydn, 
Astorga,  Rossini,  and  Dvorak. 

Vol.  XI.— March  '25 


Stablse,  an  ancient  town  in 
Campania,  Italy,  a  few  miles 
south  of  Pompeii.  In  89  B.C.  it 
was  destroyed  by  Sulla,  but  was 
restored,  only  to  perish  with  Her- 
culaneum  and  Pompeii  in  a.d. 
79.  It  was  at  Stabise  that  the 
elder  Pliny  died.  Excavations 
were  begun  in  1750.  The  modern 
town  of  Castellammare  di  Stabia 
(q.  V.)  occupies  the  site. 

Stability,  the  dynamic  condi- 
tion of  a  body  or  system  in  virtue 
of  which  it  retains  its  position  or 
configuration  of  equilibrium  or 
approximately  steady  motion.  It 
is  usual  to  distinguish  static 
stabiUty  and  kinetic  stability. 
The  test  of  static  stability  is, 
however,  to  give  a  displacement 
or  motion  to  the  body  or  system. 
In  other  words,  static  stability  is 
conditioned  by  kinetic  stability, 
and  is,  in  fact,  a  particular  limit- 
ing case.  The  stability  of  steady 
motion  has  many  important  illus- 
trations, of  which  the  spinning 
top  is  one  of  the  most  familiar. 
The  rotating  projectile  fired  from 
a  rifled  gun  or  firearm  is  another 
interesting  case  of  stability,  the 
rotation  being  effectual  in  keep- 
ing the  projectile  always  pointing 
in  the  line  of  flight.  The  motions 
of  the  solar  system  furnish  a  re- 
markable example  of  stability  on 
a  large  scale.  If  no  dissipative 
forces  exist  in  the  system,  it  can 
be  demonstrated  that  such  a  sys- 
tem will  continue  in  approxi- 
mately the  same  configuration 
forever,  the  variations  in  the 
form  and  position  of  the  various 
orbits  being  of  a  fluctuating 
character,  never  causing  devia- 
tions beyond  a  certain  limit.  The 
existence  of  dissipative  or  fric- 
tional  forces,  however,  leaves  no 
doubt  that  the  history  of  the 
system  has  not  been  and  will  not 
be  in  accordance  with  this 
theoretical  conclusion;  but  dur- 
ing long  lapses  of  time  the  condi- 
tions of  everlasting  stability  are 
very  approximately  realized.  It 
is  an  interesting  point  that,  if  we 
assume  the  planets  to  be  under 
the  influence  of  a  central  force, 
depending  on  an  inverse  power  of 
the  distance,  stability  is  not  pos- 
sible for  an  integral  power  greater 
than  2. 

Dynamically  the  condition  of 
stability  is  that  the  potential 
energy  should  be  a  minimum; 
but  when  we  deal  with  physical 
systems  undergoing  chemical  and 
thermal  changes,  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  take  strict  account  of  this 
principle.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
in  the  interplay  of  chemical  and 
physiological  processes  the  condi- 
tions for  stability  and  instability 
are  of  first  importance.  To 
Willard  Gibbs  in  particular  is  due 
the  credit  of  showing  how  to  take 
account  of  the  complicated  ther- 
modynamic relationships  in- 
volved. Consult  his  Elementary 
Principles  in  Statistical  Mechan- 
ics. 


Stable  Fly,  a  biting  fly  (Sto- 
moxys  calcitrans)  closely  re- 
sembling the  House  Fly  (q.  v.). 

Stachys,  Hedge-Nettle,  or 
Woundwort,  a  genus  of  herba- 
ceous plants  belonging  to  the 
order  Labiatae.  There  are  more 
than  250  species,  found  mainly 
in  the  temperate  zones,  with  a 
few  in  the  tropics.  The  flowers, 
purple,  scarlet,  yellow  or  white 


Stachys  sylvatica 
1.  Single  flower. 


in  color,  have  a  tubular,  bell- 
shaped,  ten-ribbed  calyx,  an  un- 
equally two-lipped  corolla,  the 
lower  lip  being  three-lobed,  and 
four  stamens,  the  two  front  ones 
being  the  longest.  Among  the 
species  are  the  European  Hedge 
Woundwort  (5.  sylvatica),  a  tall 
hairy  plant,  with  heart-shaped 
leaves,  and  numerous  whorls  of 
dull  purple  flowers,  usually  six 
in  a  whorl;  the  Corn  Woundwort 
(5.  arvensis),  a  small  plant  bear- 
ing whorls  of  light  purple  flowers 
— six  in  a  whorl — in  autumn; 
and  the  Marsh  Woundwort  (S. 
palustris),  found  from  Maine  to 
Pennsylvania  and  westward  to 
the  Pacific.  The  Japanese  5. 
sieboldi  has  edible  tubers  known 
as  'chorogi,'  crosnes  du  Japan,  or 
Japanese  artichokes,  for  whicla  it 
is  sometimes  cultivated. 

Stade,  town,  Germany,  in 
Hanover,  24  miles  west  of  Ham- 
burg. It  has  manufactures  of 
leather,  cigars,  alcohol,  and  beer. 
Pop.  (1919)  10,590. 

Stadholder,  or  Stadtholder, 
corrupt  forms  of  Stadhouder 
(Dutch)  and  Statthalter  (Ger- 
man), a  title  formerly  applied  to 
the  governor  or  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor of  a  province,  and  in  a 


stadium 


396 


Stafford 


higher  sense  to  the  chief  magis- 
trate of  the  United  Netherlands. 

Stadium,  originally  a  Greek 
measure  of  length,  600  Greek 
feet  (606  feet,  9  inches).  The 
exact  distance  between  the  pil- 
lars of  the  great  Olympic  amphi- 
theatre on  the  Altis,  where  the 
foot  races  were  held,  was  a 
stadium,  and  the  word  eventually 
came  to  be  used  for  the  structure 
in  which  the  athletic  contests 
took  place.  Historic  stadia  in- 
clude that  of  Laodicea,  in  Asia 
Minor;  the  Panathenaic  stadium 
in  Athens,  which  was  erected  in 
the  fourth  century  B.C.;  the 
stadium  at  Ephesus,  accommo- 
dating more  than  75,000  persons; 
and  the  stadium  on  the  Palatine 
in  Rome.  Modern  stadia,  usually 
constructed  of  concrete  and  seat- 
ing from  6,000  to  100,000  persons, 
are  a  feature  of  many  of  the 
leading  American  universities, 
and  some  few  municipal  stadia 
have  also  been  erected.  Among 
the  best  known  of  the  modern 
structures  in  America  are  the 
following. 

The  Greek  Theatre  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  California  (q.  v.), 
modelled  after  the  famous  theatre 
at  Epidaurus.  It  was  built  in 
1903,  one  of  the  first  of  such 
structures  in  the  United  States, 
and  has  a  seating  capacity  of 
7,000.  It  is  not,  however,  in  the 
strictest  sense  a  stadium,  being 
intended  primarily  for  theatrical 
performances  rather  than  ath- 
letic contests.  The  University 
of  California  has  also  a  large 
Memorial  Stadium  seating  72,800 
persons. 

The  Harvard  Stadium,  con- 
structed in  1903,  with  a  per- 
manent seating  capacity  of 
23,000,  capable  of  being  in- 
creased temporarily  to  49,000. 

The  Syracuse  Stadium,  erected 
at  Syracuse  University  in  1907, 
having  a  seating  capacity  of 
more  than  20,000. 

The  Tacoma  Stadium,  built  in 
1910  for  the  Tacoma,  Wash., 
High  School  with  a  seating 
capacity  of  30,000. 

The  Yale  Bowl  at  New  Haven, 
a  true  amphitheatre  in  type, 
built  in  1914-15,  having  a  seat- 
ing capacity  of  more  than  60,000. 

The  San  Diego  Stadium,  built 
by  the  city  of  San  Diego,  Cal., 
in  1914-15,  with  a  seating  ca- 
pacity of  28,000. 

The  Palmer  Stadium  at  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.,  built  in  1914,  seating 
41,000. 

The  University  of  Michigan 
Stadium,  built  in  1914,  seating 
47,000. 

The  Grant  Park  Municipal 
Stadium  in  Chicago,  seating 
100,000. 

There  are  many  other  fine 
stadia  in  the  United  .States  ac- 
commodating from  5,000  to 
70,000  persons,  and  larger  and 
finer  structures  are  constantly 
being  built.     Mention  may  be 

Vol.  XI.— March  '25 


made  of  the  Venable  Stadium, 
Baltimore,  Md.  (seating  78,000); 
the  Los  Angeles  (Cal.)  Stadium 
(75,000);  Ohio  State  Universitv 
Stadium  (63,000);  Ilhnois  Uni- 
versity Stadium  (60,000) ;  Frank- 
lin Field  Stadium,  University  of 
Pennsylvania  (53,100). 

Stael-Holstein,  Anne  Louise 
Germaine,  Baronne  de,  gen- 
erally known  as  Madame  de 
Stael  (1766-1817),  a  French 
writer,  was  born  in  Paris,  the 
daughter  of  Jacques  Necker  (q. 
v.),  minister  of  finance  under 
Louis  XVI.  Her  parents  were  the 
centre  of  a  brilliant  intellectual 
group  of  philosophers  and  wits, 
and  in  this  literary  environment 
she  spent  her  girlhood.  In  1786 
she  was  married  to  Baron  de 
Stael-Holstein,  Swedish  Ambas- 
sador to  Paris.  Soon  after  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  she 
fled  to  Coppet,  Switzerland,  and 
there  established  herself  on  her 
father's  estate  near  Lake  Geneva. 
During  an  extended  visit  to  Paris 
after  the  Revolution,  she  incurred 
the  displeasure  of  Napoleon,  and 
in  1803  was  banished  from  that 
city  and  again  retired  to  Coppet. 
Having  separated  from  her  first 
husband  in  1788,  she  married,  in 
1811,  a  young  officer  named  De 
Rocca,  and  with  him  travelled  in 
Russia,  Sweden,  and  England, 
returning  to  France  after  the  fall 
of  Napoleon  and  reopening  her 
famous  salons. 

Madame  de  Stael's  writing, 
though  not  notable  from  the 
point  of  view  of  style,  is  distin- 
guished for  its  clearness  of 
thought  and  for  the  writer's 
enthusiastic  belief  in  human 
progress  and  democracy.  Her 
principal  works  include  Lettres 
sur  J.  J.  Rousseau  (1788);  Del- 
phine,  a  novel  (1802);  Corinne, 
her  greatest  novel  (1807);  De 
VAllemagne  (1810),  an  eloquent 
account  of  the  life  and  literature 
of  the  German  people,  for  which 
Napoleon  exiled  her  from  France 
after  ordering  the  confiscation  of 
the  entire  edition;  Dix  annees 
d'exil  (1821);  Considerations  sur 
la  revolution  franQaise  (1818). 
Her  complete  works  appeared  in 
1820-1,  in  17  volumes.  Consult 
biographies  by  D'Haussonville, 
Stevens,  Lady  Blennerhasset,  and 
Bella  Duffy. 

Staff,  a  military  term  used  in 
its  most  general  sense  to  dis- 
tinguish the  administrative  and 
supply  departments  of  an  army 
from  the  line  or  the  fighting  units 
composed  of  men  in  the  ranks. 

The  business  of  the  general 
staff  in  all  countries  is  to  study 
all  matters  which  can  serve  the 
general  in  understanding  the 
situation  in  which  he  is  placed, 
and  in  forming  his  plans,  and 
which  may  assist  him  in  carrying 
out  his  operations,  actually  in 
war  or  prospectively  in  peace. 
The  arrangement  and  planning 
of  these  operations  in  detail  are 


also  part  of  its  duties,  as  are  the 
gathering  of  statistics  and  record- 
ing of  facts  and  circumstances. 
In  European  armies  the  'great 
general  staff'  carries  out  this 
work  on  a  large  scale  for  the 
army  as  a  whole;  while  the  staff 
of  each  general  attends  to  the 
special  requirements  of  his  com- 
mand in  the  same  way,  issuing 
the  general's  orders,  and  having 
charge  of  all  documents;  there  is 
often  added  to  these  purely  staff 
duties  a  large  amount  of  execu- 
tive and  administrative  work, 
connected  with  discipline,  inte- 
rior economy,  drill,  and  instruc- 
tions. For  the  organization  of 
the  Staff  in  the  United  States 
Army,  see  Army  of  the  United 
States. 

The  personal  staff  of  a  general 
officer  consists  of  one  or  more 
aides-de-camp  (according  to  his 
rank),  and  in  some  cases  of  an 
assistant  adjutant-general.  These 
officers  are  usually  chosen  and 
recommended  for  appointment 
by  the  general  concerned. 

Staffa,  uninhabited  island  of 
the  Inner  Hebrides,  Argyllshire, 
Scotland,  54  miles  west  of  Oban. 
It  is  built  up  of  basalt  and  has  an 
area  of  71  acres.  Caves  are 
numerous,  Fingal's,  or  the  Great 
Cave,  being  the  most  remarkable. 

Staff  College,  an  army  school 
for  the  training  of  staff  officers. 
The  U.  S.  Command  and  General 
Staff  School  is  at  Fort  Leaven- 
worth, Kansas,  and  is  governed 
by  regulations  issued  by  the  War 
Department  from  time  to  time 
in  the  form  of  general  orders.  Its 
object  is  to  provide  instruction 
for  selected  officers  (who  have 
completed  the  advanced  course 
in  the  special  service  schools  of 
their  branch  or  equivalent  in- 
struction in  actual  service  or  in 
other  schools)  in  the  use  of  the 
combined  arms  of  divisions  and 
larger  units  and  in  the  duties  of 
commanders  and  general  staff 
officers  for  divisions  and  army 
corps.  The  course  covers  about 
ten  months,  and  after  its  com- 
pletion officers  are  eligible  for 
selection  to  take  the  Army  War 
College  course. 

The  Command  and  General 
Staff  School  provides,  also,  a 
short  special  course  for  officers 
of  the  National  Guard  and  Or- 
ganized Reserves  who  have  com- 
pleted the  command  and  gen- 
eral staff  correspondence  course 
in  corps  area  correspondence 
schools.  See  Military  Educa- 
tion. 

Stafford,  municipal  and  par- 
liamentary borough,  England, 
county  town  of  Staffordshire,  on 
the  Sow;  16  miles  northwest  of 
Lichfield.  Features  of  interest 
are  the  parish  church  of  St. 
Mary's,  which  contains  a  bust  of 
Izaak  Walton,  who  was  born  in 
Stafford  in  1593;  St.  Chad's,  a 
Norman  church  largely  rebuilt 
by   Scott;    the   William  Salt 


Stafford 


398 


Stair 


Library,  with  a  valuable  collec- 
tion of  books  and  Mss.;  and  the 
royal  brine  baths.  The  chief 
industry  is  the  manufacture  of 
boots  and  shoes.  Pop.  (1921) 
28,632. 

Stafford,  town,  Connecticut, 
in  Tolland  county,  on  the  Central 
Vermont  Railroad;  23  miles 
northeast  of  Hartford.  It  in- 
cludes the  borough  of  Stafford 
Springs,  which  contains  a  famous 
mineral  spring.  It  is  a  popular 
summer  resort  and  has  manufac- 
tures of  woollen  goods.  Iron 
mines,  now  exhausted,  supplied 
material  for  cannon  used  in  the 
Revolution.  Pop.  (1910)  5,233; 
(1920)  3,383. 

Stafford,  William  Howard, 
Viscount  (1614-80),  English  Ro- 
man Catholic  nobleman,  fifth 
son  of  Thomas,  Earl  of  Arundel 
and  Surrey.  He  was  accused 
(1680)  of  complicity  in  the  Popish 
plot,  on  the  evidence  of  Titus 
Oates  (q.  v.),  and  beheaded  on 
Tower  Hill. 

Staffordshire,  inland  county, 
England,  surrounded  by  Derby- 
shire, Leicestershire,  Warwick- 
shire. Worcestershire,  Shropshire, 
and  Cheshire;  area  1,128  square 
miles.  It  is  especially  rich  in  de- 
posits of  coal,  with  the  famous 
'Potteries'  field  in  the  north; 
the  'Black  Country,'  rich  also  in 
iron,  in  the  south;  and  the 
Cannock  Chase  field  in  the  central 
part,  southeast  of  the  town  of  Staf- 
ford. The  county  is  drained 
chiefly  by  the  Trent  and  its 
affluent  the  Dove.  It  is  pre- 
eminently an  industrial  region, 
with  manufactures  of  iron  and 
steel  goods,  chemicals,  boots  and 
shoes,  bricks,  pottery,  cotton 
goods,  silks,  and  glass.  Agricul- 
ture is  unimportant.  Pop.  (1921) 
711,003. 

Stag.    See  Red  Deer. 

Stag  Beetle,  agenus  (Lucanus) 
of  beetles  remarkable  for  the 


Stag  Jieetle 


large  size  of  the  mandibles  (in 
the  male),  which  bear  some  re- 
semblance to  the  antlers  of  a 
stag.  The  adult  male  of  the 
common  European  Stag  Beetle 
sometimes  reaches  a  length  of 
over  two  inches,  with  mandibles 
about  one  inch  long.  It  feeds  on 
the  juices  of  plants,  whose  bark 

Vol.  XL— March  '25 


it  pierces  with  its  strong  jaws, 
while  the  larva  lives  in  wood, 
especially  that  of  the  oak.  The 
larval  state  lasts  about  four 
years.  There  is  great  variation 
in  the  size  and  development  of 
the  males,  dwarf  forms  being 
frequent.  Stag-beetles  are  lamel- 
licorns,  related  to  the  Scara- 
bseidae,  or  sacred  beetles. 

Stage.  See  Drama;  Opera; 
Theatre. 

Stagecoach.    See  Coaching. 

Staggers.  See  Horse  :  Dwea^e^ 

of. 

Stag-horn  Moss,  the  common 
club  moss  (Lycopodium  clava- 
tum),  so  named  from  its  branched 
stem.   See  Lycopodium. 

Staghound,  a  name  applied 
both  to  the  buckhound  and  to 
the  Scottish  deerhound.  The 
deerhound  is  an  immense  shaggy 
dog,  standing  nearly  30  inches 
high  in  some  cases,  and  has  a 
peculiar  swing  in  his  action  sug- 
gestive of  great  speed,  with  a 
keen,  determined  expression.  In 
conformation  the  deerhound  is 
similar  to  the  greyhound,  but 
with  more  bone  and  power;  the 
head  is  long,  with  powerful  jaws. 
The  body  is  covered  with  wiry 
hair  about  3  inches  long. 

Stagirus,  or  Stagira,  ancient 
Greek  city,  on  the  east  side  of 
Chalcidice  peninsula,  Macedonia. 
It  was  the  bithplace  of  Aristotle, 
often  called  'the  Stagirite.' 

Stagnelius,  Erik  Johan 
(1793-1823),  Swedish  poet,  was 
born  on  the  island  of  Oland.  He 
established  his  literary  reputa- 
tion in  1817  by  his  epos,  Vladimir 
den  Store,  which  was  crowned  by 
the  Swedish  Academy.  His  chief 
works,  however,  are  his  semi- 
philosophical,  semi-religious  col- 
lection of  poems  entitled  Liljor 
i  Saron,  and  the  dramas  Visbur, 
Sigurd  Ring,  Glddjejlickan  i  Rom, 
Kdrleken  efter  Doden,  and  Mar- 
tyrerne.  Stagnelius  is  one  of  the 
most  powerful  and  pathetic  of 
Scandinavian  writers.  His  Sam- 
lede  Skrifter  were  published  in 
1830-2  (new  ed.  1866-8). 

S  t  a  h  1 ,  Friedrich  Julius 
(1802-61),  German  legal  writer, 
was  born  in  Munich  and  became 
a  convert  from  Judaism  to  Prot- 
estantism. He  studied  law,  and 
after  teaching  at  Erlangen  and 
Wurzburg  (1832-40),  became 
professor  of  the  philosophy  of 
law  in  Berlin  University  (1840). 
As  a  member  of  the  Prussian 
upper  house,  he  was  an  ardent 
conservative  in  church  and  state. 
Among  his  published  works  were: 
Die  philosophie  des  Rechts  (1830- 
7);  Der  christliche  Staat  (1847); 
Der  Protestantismus  als  polit- 
isches  Prinzip  (1853);  Wider 
Bunsen  (1856). 

Stahl,  Georg  Ernst  (1660- 
1734),  German  chemist,  was  born 
in  Anspach.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  medicine  and  chem- 
istry at  Halle  in  1694,  and  physi- 
cian to  the  Prussian  king  in 


Berhn  in  1716.  Though  his 
theory  of  'phlogiston'  was  un- 
sound, it  at  all  events  was  a  rea- 
sonable attempt  to  explain  com- 
bustion and  classify  it  with  the 
phenomena  of  calcination  and 
reduction  of  metals,  and  at- 
tracted many  adherents.  His 
chief  works  are  Experimenta  et 
Observationes  Chemicce  (1731)  and 
Theoria  Medica  Vera  (1707). 

Stained  Glass.   See  Glass. 

Stainer,  Jacob (1621-83),  Aus- 
trian violin-maker,  was  born  in 
Absam,  near  Innsbruck.  He 
was  the  founder  of  the  Tyrolese 
school  of  vioHn-making,  and  as 
regards  excellence  of  material 
and  beauty  of  workmanship,  his 
instruments  rank  with  the  best 
productions  of  Cremonese  mak- 
ers. Unfortunately  the  model  he 
used  is  too  high,  and  the  tone  of 
his  violins,  though  pure  and 
penetrating,  lacks  roundness  and 
volume. 

Stainer,  Sir  John  (1840-1901) , 
English  musical  composer  and 
organist,  was  born  in  London. 
From  1872-88  he  was  organist  of 
St.  Paul's.  He  was  knighted  in 
1888,  and  became  a  professor  of 
music  at  Oxford  (1889).  His 
works  include  two  sacred  can- 
tatas. The  Daughter  of  Jairus 
(1878)  and  Mary  Magdalen 
(1883);  an  oratorio.  The  Cruci- 
fixion (1887);  and  a  popular 
Treatise  on  Harmony. 

Stains.  See  Inks  and  Stains. 

Stair,  a  Scots  family,  which 
took  its  titular  designation  from 
the  village  of  that  name  in  Ayr- 
shire, 'Dalrymples  of  Stair'  afj^ 
pearing  in  history  as  early  as  the 
reign  of  James  iv.  The  first  mem- 
ber of  the  house  to  attain  celeb- 
rity was  James  Dalrymple  of 
Stair  (1619-95) ,  who  was  created 
by  Cromwell  one  of  the  lords  of 
Session  (1657),  and  rose  to  be 
president  of  the  court  (1670). 
When  the  Duke  of  York  (after- 
wards James  ii.)  came  to  Scot- 
land, Dalrymple  had  to  retire 
from  the  bench.  He  then  com- 
piled his  Institutes  of  the  Law 
of  Scotland.  Being  a  staunch 
Covenanter,  he  was  forced  to  flee 
to  Holland  (1682),  but  returned 
with  William  of  Orange  (1688), 
and  was  restored  to  his  position 
as  president  of  the  Court  of  Ses- 
sion on  the  death  of  Lockhart  of 
Carnwath.  He  was  also  created 
Viscount  Stair  and  Lord  Glenluce 
and  Stranraer. — His  eldest  son, 
John  Dalrymple  (1648-1707), 
first  Earl  of  Stair,  after  suffer- 
ing imprisonment  for  the  Cove- 
nant, was  suddenly  taken  into 
favor  by  James  ii.,  appointed 
king's  advocate  (1685),  and  lord 
justice-clerk  three  years  later. 
After  the  revolution  he  was  ap- 
pointed lord  advocate,  created 
Earl  of  Stair  (1703),  and  became 
a  prominent  advocate  for  the 
union  of  the  kingdoms. — His  son, 
John  Dalrymple  (1673-1747), 
second  Earl  of  Stair,  after  dis- 


stalactites 


KFN 


399 


Stambul 


tinguishing  himself  as  a  soldier 
under  Marlborough,  was  ap- 
pointed British  minister  pleni- 
potentiary in  Paris  (1715-20), 
where  he  did  much  to  thwart  the 
schemes  of  Cardinal  Alberoni  to 
succor  the  Jacobites.  In  the  War 
of  the  Austrian  Succession  he 
had  persistent  ill-fortune,  though 
he  showed  great  personal  cour- 
age. Sir  David  Dalrymple,  Lord 
Hailes,  was  a  collateral  descend- 
ant of  the  first  viscount. 

Stalactites  and  Stalagmites, 
long  masses  of  lime  or  other 
mineral  substances  which  occur 
in  caves,  forming  pillars  which 
rise  from  the  floor  to  the  roof, 
pendent  spearlike  masses,  erect 
columns,  draped  curtains,  mush- 
room-shaped projections,  and  oth- 
er varied  configurations.  When 
grouped  together  they  often  re- 
semble the  vaulted  aisles  of  a  ca- 
thedral. They  are  all  deposited 
by  water  which,  dripping  from 
apertures  and  cracks  in  the  roof, 
is  charged  with  calcium  carbon- 
ate in  solution.  As  it  evaporates 
the  mineral  inatter  is  deposited 
partly  on  the  roof  before  it  falls, 
partly  on  the  floor  as  it  soaks 
away,  and  two  columns  grow,  one 
downward  (stalactite),  one  up- 
ward (stalagmite).  The  great 
caverns  and  grottos — such  as 
Adelsberg  (Carniola),  the  Mam- 
moth Cave,  the  Peak  Cavern, 
Aggtelek  in  Hungary,  the  caves 
of  central  France,  Jenolan  (New 
South  Wales),  contain  the  finest 
examples. 

St.  Albans,  etc.  See  Saint 
Alban.s,  etc. 

Stalin,  Joseph   (Iosif  Vis- 

SARIONOVITCK      Dz  HUGAS  HVILI ) 

(1879-  ),  Russian  premier, 
supreme  commander  of  all  Soviet 
forces,  and  marshal  of  the  Soviet 
Union,  who  became  dictator  of 
the  U.S.S.R.  on  May  6,  1941  by 
virtue  of  his  appointment  as 
chairman  of  the  Peoples'  Commis- 
sars, at  the  same  time  succeeding 
Vyacheslaff  Molotov  as  premier. 
He  was  born  at  Gori,  Tiflis  Prov- 
ince, Georgia,  Dec.  21,  1879,  the 
son  of  a  peasant  shoemaker 
named  Vissarion  Dzhugashvili ; 
he  assumed  the  pseudonym  of 
Stalin  (Man  of  Steel)  in  1905. 
He  was  educated  at  Tiflis  Semi- 
nary, and  from  his  student  days 
was  an  active  revolutionary,  later 
helping  to  plan  the  abortive  rev- 
olution of  1905.  He  met  Lenin 
the  same  year  and  became  his  de- 
voted follower.  He  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned  several  times, 
and  the  last  time  was  freed  by 
the  amnesty  granted  after  the 
fall  of  the  Romanov  dynasty  in 
March,  1917.  He  was  given 
command  of  the  Red  Army  soon 
after  and  gained  several  victories 
over  the  forces  of  reaction. 

Stalin's  rise  to  power  was  ex- 
pedited by  Lenin's  withdrawal 
from  politics  in   1922,  and  on 


Lenin's  death  in  1924,  he  as- 
sumed the  highest  political  posi- 
tion in  the  Soviet.  He  brought 
about  Leon  Trotsky's  expulsion 
from  the  Communist  Party  and 
his  subse'quent  exile  in  1928.  He 
sponsored  the  First  Five-Year 
Plan  for  industrialization  and 
collectivism  the  same  year,  the 
Second  Five-Year  Plan  in  1933, 
and  the  Third  Five-Year  Plan  in 


1937.  Meantime  he  had  become 
one  of  the  37  members  of  Pre- 
sidium of  the  All-Union  Central 
Executive  Committee  of  the 
U.S.S.R.,  his  first  government 
position,  as  distinguished  from 
party  posts.  His  prestige  suf- 
fered considerably  when,  in  1939, 
he  signed  a  non-aggression  pact 
with  Nazi  Germany  and  subse- 
quently launched  the  war  against 
Finland.  It  was  not  until  June, 
1941,  when  Hitler  attacked  Rus- 
sia, that  Stalin's  policies  began 
to  receive  some  sympathetic  un- 
derstanding on  the  part  of  the 
democratic  nations.  The  ensu- 
ing conflict  between  Germany 
and  Russia  definitely  placed  the 
latter  in  the  camp  of  those  coun- 
tries struggling  against  the  Nazi 
power.  In  December  of  1941 
Stalin  launched  his  brilliant 
counter  offensive  which  ultimate- 


ly raised  the  siege  of  Leningrad, 
removed  the  danger  from  Mos- 
cow, expelled  the  foe  from  the 
Ukraine  and  the  Crimea,  liber- 
ated all  but  a  small  portion  of 
Russian  territory,  and  invaded 
both  Poland  and  Rumania.  Sta- 
lin was  acclaimed  as  the  genius 
behind  this  series  of  heroic  cam- 
paigns. In  November,  1943, 
Marshal    Stalin    met  President 


Roosevelt  and  Prime  Minister 
Churchill  at  Teheran,  Iran,  and 
there  was  planned  the  grand 
strategy  which  brought  such  no- 
table results  in  the  Russian, 
French,  and  Italian  campaigns  of 
1944.  Consult  Mikhail  Kalinin. 
A  Book  About  the  Leader,  and 
Boris  Souvarine,  Stalin  (1939). 

Stalingrad.    See  Tsaritsin. 

Stalybridge,  municipal  bor- 
ough, England,  in  Cheshire,  on 
the  Tame,  and  on  the  Hudders- 
field  and  Manchester  Canal ;  8 
miles  northeast  of  Stockport. 
Public  buildings  include  the  town 
hall,  market  hall,  Astley  Cheet- 
ham  Free  Library  (1901),  and 
mechanics'  institute.  Industries 
comprise  cotton  mills,  iron 
foundries,  machine  and  engineer- 
ing works.    Pop.  (1937)  25,000. 

Stambul.  See  Constanti- 
nople. 


Press  Association,  Inc. 

Joseph  Stalin. 


Stambuloff 


KFN 


400  Stamp  Act  Congress 


Stambuloff,  Stepan  Nikol- 
OFF  (1855-95),  Bulgarian  states- 
man, was  born  in  Tirnova.  He 
studied  for  the  priesthood  but 
was  forced  to  resign  because  of 
revolutionary  sympathies.  In 
1879  he  was  elected  to  the 
Sobranye  (national  assembly)  of 
which  for  two  years  (1884-6)  he 
was  president.  On  the  abdica- 
tion of  Prince  Alexander  (1886), 
Stambulofif  became  head  of  a 
council  of  regency,  and  was  suc- 
cessful in  obtaining  the  election 
of  Prince  Ferdinand  to  the 
throne  (1887),  with  himself  as 
prime  minister.  His  tyranny 
brought  about  his  dismissal 
(1894),  and  in  the  following  year 
he  was  killed  by  assassins  in 
Sofia. 

Stamens.    See  Flower. 

Stamford,  municipal  borough, 
England,  in  Lincolnshire,  on  the 
Welland  River,  13  miles  n.w.  of 
Peterborough.  Features  of  inter- 
est are  St.  Mary's  Church,  with  a 
fine  tower  and  spire  (c.  1300)  ; 
All  Saints',  containing  15th  cen- 
tury brasses  and  monuments  ;  St. 
John's,  St.  George's,  and  St. 
Martin's,  attractive  old  churches  ; 
the  fine  gateway,  formerly  be- 
longing to  Brazenose  College ; 
ruins  of  a  Benedictine  priory 
church  (11th  century)  ;  and  me- 
diaeval hospitals,  called  calises 
(from  the  Calais  merchants  with 
whom  the  town  had  trade),  the 
oldest  being  Browne's  Hospital 
(15th  century).  Industrial  es- 
tablishments include  coach  fac- 
tories, agricultural  implements, 
motor,  and  engineering  works. 
Stamford  was  one  of  the  'five 
burghs'  of  the  Danes.  Brazenose 
College  was  founded  in  1333. 

After  the  battle  of  St.  Albans 
(1461),  the  town  suffered  ter- 
ribly at  the  hands  of  the  Lan- 
castrians. Southwest  of  the 
town,  in  Northamptonshire,  is 
Burghley  (seat  of  Lord  Exeter), 
with  magnificent  park  and  a  rich 
collection  of  pictures.  Pop. 
(1931)  9,947. 

Stamford,  city,  Connecticut, 
in  Fairfield  county,  on  Long 
Island  Sound,  and  on  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
Railroad  ;  35  miles  n.e.  of  New 
York  City.  It  is  a  favorite  resi- 
dential place  and  summer  resort 
of  New  York  people,  and  has  im- 
portant industries.  Among  the 
philanthropic  and  educational  in- 
stitutions are  the  Stamford  Hos- 
pital, the  Children's  Home,  Day 
Nursery,  Ferguson  Library,  and 
several  private  preparatory  and 
business  schools.  The  town  hall 
was  erected  in  1906.  Features 
of  interest  are  Shippan  Point 
and  other  places  of  resort  along 
the  shore.  The  leading  manufac- 
tured products  are  locks,  build- 
ers' hardware,  engines,  choco- 
late, stoves,  embroideries,  boats, 
wall  paper,  rubber  supplies,  arti- 


ficial leather,  and  chemicals. 
The  first  settlement  here  was 
made  in  1641,  and  the  town  was 
incorporated  in  1662.  The  city 
charter  was  granted  in  1895. 
Pop.  (1930)  46,346;  (1940)  47,- 
938. 

Stamford,  village.  New  York, 
in  Delaware  county,  on  the  Ul- 
ster and  Delaware  Railroad;  75 
miles  N.w.  of  Kingston.  It  is  sit- 
uated in  the  Catskill  region  and 
is  a  popular  summer  resort.  Mt. 
Utsayantha  (3,213  feet)  is  near 
the  village.    Pop.  (1940)  1,088. 

Stammering,  or  Stuttering, 
a  spasmodic  disorder  of  speech, 
in  which  the  production  of  cer- 
tain sounds  is  arrested.  A  stam- 
merer's chief  difficulty  lies  in 
harmonizing  the  mechanism  for 
vowel  sounds  and  consonantal 
sounds.  In  his  effort  to  shape 
the  mouth  aright  for  consonant 
production  he  has  difficulty  in 
using  his  respiratory  and  laryn- 
geal apparatus  for  the  production 
of  voice.  But  even  bad  stam- 
merers do  not  stammer  when 
they  sing,  because  in  singing  the 
thoughts  are  concentrated  upon 
the  production  of  voice.  A  sec- 
ond phenomenon  associated  with 
stammering  is  the  occurrence  of 
spasmodic  muscular  convulsions. 
The  tongue  may  be  protruded, 
the  eyes  wink,  or  more  complex 
facial  contortions  display  the 
stammerer's  anxiety  and  effort. 
While  forgetting  his  respiratory 
muscles  and  larynx,  the  stam- 
merer sends  message  after  mes- 
sage to  the  nerve  centers  which 
control  the  muscles  of  the  mouth 
and  tongue  employed  in  speech. 
From  the  nerve  centers  sur- 
charged by  successive  messages 
the  energy  overflows  to  neighbor- 
ing centers,  so  that  other  facial 
muscles  contract,  and  frequent 
repetition  of  these  movements 
leads  to  the  establishment  of  a 
habit  spasm.  In  the  treatment 
of  the  condition  the  stammerer 
must  be  carefully  taught  the 
mechanism  and  physiology  of 
speech.  He  must  also  acquire 
the  habit  of  filling  his  lungs  with 
air  before  he  attempts  to  speak, 
and  by  slow  and  careful  practice 
must  accustom  himself  to  syn- 
chronize the  laryngeal  with  the 
oral  movements.  Reading  aloud 
for  a  definite  period  each  day  is 
beneficial.  Consult  Wyllie,  The 
Disorders  of  Speech. 

Stamp  Act,  an  act  passed  in 
1765  by  the  British  Parliament 
taxing  the  American  colonies. 
When  in  1763  George  Grenville 
became  prime  minister,  he  re- 
solved upon  a  more  vigorous 
colonial  policy,  involving  the 
three  following  points  :  the  more 
vigorous  enforcement  of  the  Acts 
of  Trade,  the  establishment  in 
the  colonies  of  a  permanent  Brit- 
ish force,  both  for  protection 
against  foreign  enemies  and  for 


strengthening  the  power  of  the 
royal  governors,  and  the  raising 
by  parliamentary  taxation  within 
the  colonies  of  at  least  a  part  of 
the  money  necessary  for  the  sup- 
port of  these  forces.    In  March, 

1764,  therefore,  he  brought  for- 
ward and  secured  the  passage  in 
the  House  of  Commons  of  a  res- 
olution to  the  effect  that  'for  fur- 
ther defraying  the  expenses  of 
protecting  the  colonies  it  may  be 
proper  to  charge  certain  stamp 
duties  in  the  said  colonies.'  Fur- 
ther measures  were  then  post- 
poned for  a  year  in  the  hope  that 
the  colonists  would  themselves 
propose  some  way  of  furnishing 
the  necessary  money,  but,  as  this 
was  not  done,  the  government  in 
February,  1765,  carried  through 
a  bill  making  it  necessary  that 
stamped  paper  be  used  for  all 
colonial  bills,  bonds,  leases,  in- 
surance, and  legal  documents  of 
all  kinds,  and  that  stamps  be  af- 
fixed to  playing  cards,  newspa- 
pers, pamphlets,  and  various  oth- 
er articles.  Stamps  and  stamped 
paper  were  to  be  sold  by  public 
officers.  The  bill  passed  without 
attracting  much  attention  in  Eng- 
land, but  the  colonists  claimed 
that  Parliament  had  no  right  to 
tax  them  without  their  consent, 
and  opposed  the  act  so  vigorously 
(see  Stamp  Act  Congress)  that 
the  government  found  that  it 
could  not  be  enforced  and  in 
1766,  after  the  fall  of  Grenville, 
the  measure  was  repealed,  but  at 
the  same  time  Parliament  in  the 
Declaratory  Act  set  forth  its 
legal  right  to  tax  the  colonies. 

Stamp  Act  Congress,  a 
body  of  delegates  from  the 
American  colonies,  except  North 
Carolina,  Georgia,  Virginia,  and 
New  Hampshire,  which  met  in 
New  York  City  on  October  7, 

1765,  to  protest  against  the 
Stamp  Act  (q.  v.).  The  Con- 
gress continued  in  session  until 
the  25th,  and  in  a  Declaration  of 
Rights  and  Grievances  set  forth 
the  case  of  the  colonies.  This 
paper  acknowledged  that  the 
colonies  owed  allegiance  to  the 
Crown,  and  'all  due  subordina- 
tion to  that  august  body,  the  Par- 
liament of  Great  Britain' ;  but 
maintained  that  Americans  were 
entitled  to  all  the  inherent 
rights  and  liberties  of  natural 
born  subjects ;  'that  it  is  insep- 
arably essential  to  the  freedom 
of  a  people,  and  the  undoubted 
right  of  Englishmen,  that  no 
taxes  be  arbitrarily  imposed  on 
them' ;  that  the  colonists  'are 
not,  and  from  their  local  circum- 
stances cannot  be,  represented  in 
the  House  of  Commons  of  Great 
Britain' ;  that  the  only  repre- 
sentatives of  the  colonies  con- 
stitutionally competent  to  tax 
them,  were  the  members  of  the 
colonial  assemblies  ;  and  'that  all 
supplies  of  the  Crown  being  free 


stamps 


KFN 


401 


Standards 


gifts  of  the  people,  it  is  incon- 
sistent with  the  spirit  of  the  Brit- 
ish Constitution  to  grant  to  his 
majesty  the  property  of  the  colo- 
nies.' A  petition  to  the  king  and 
memorials  to  both  houses  of  Par- 
liament were  drawn  up  embody- 
ing these  views.  The  memorial 
sent  to  the  House  of  Commons 
was  objected  to  as  proceeding 
from  an  unconstitutional  gather- 
ing and  as  being  a  denial  of  the 
right  of  parliamentary  taxation, 
and  no  further  attention  was  paid 
to  it.  The  memorial  to  the  Lords 
and  the  petition  to  the  king  met 
with  an  equally  unfavorable  re- 
ception. The  work  of  the  Con- 
gress was,  however,  approved  by 
many  of  the  colonial  assemblies, 
and  unquestionably  did  much  to- 
ward strengthening  opposition  to 
the  enforcement  of  the  act. 

Stamps.  See  Post  Office, 
Mining,  and  Engineering. 

Stamp  Taxes.  Stamp  taxes 
appear  to  have  been  first  devised 
by  the  Dutch  in  1624.  They  were 
introduced  into  England  in  1694. 
In  1765  they  came  into  promi- 
nence when  Grenville's  Stamp 
Act  aroused  the  violent  opposi- 
tion of  the  American  colonies. 
In  the  United  States  stamp  taxes 
became  an  important  part  of  the 
fiscal  machinery  in  1814;  and 
with  the  development  of  the  in- 
ternal revenue  system  during  the 
Civil  War,  stamp  taxes  were  im- 
posed upon  a  wide  range  of  ob- 
jects. Another  important  devel- 
opment of  such  taxes  took  place 
during  the  Spanish  War.  Stamp 
taxes  were  imposed  upon  a  great 
variety  of  commercial  transac- 
tions involving  the  use  of  docu- 
ments, such  as  the  sale  of  cor- 
poration securities ;  upon  bank 
checks,  bills  of  exchange,  drafts, 
etc. ;  upon  express  and  freight 
receipts,  telephone  and  telegraph 
messages,  insurance  policies,  and 
a  great  variety  of  other  business 
operations.  Stamps  were  also 
used  in  taxing  wines,  proprietary 
medicines,  oleomargarine,  chew- 
ing gum.  Most  of  these  duties 
have  since  been  repealed.  At 
present  the  most  important  stamp 
tax  is  that  upon  cigars  and  other 
forms  of  manufactured  tobacco. 

Stamp  taxes  upon  various  com- 
mercial documents,  as  bills  of  ex- 
change, drafts,  bank  checks,  are 
employed  by  some  of  the  leading 
nations.  They  are  also  gener- 
ally levied  upon  legal  papers 
relating  to  commercial  transac- 
tions, as  deeds,  etc.  In  such  cases 
a  great  advantage  of  this  form  of 
impost  is  the  ease  of  collection, 
since  legal  provisions  invalidat- 
ing documents  not  stamped,  or 
in  any  degree  impairing  their  va- 
lidity, are  a  simple  means  of 
checking  evasion.  Stamp  taxes 
upon  ordinary  articles  of  com- 
merce, like  cigars  or  tobacco, 
give  greater  occasion   for  eva- 


sion ;  they  have  nevertheless 
proven  very  efficacious  in  Ameri- 
can finance. 

A  serious  objection  to  stamp 
taxes  is  their  tendency  unduly 
to  burden  small  transactions,  al- 
though such  taxes  are  generally 
graded,  large  bills  of  exchange, 
for  example,  requiring  more 
stamps  than  small,  there  are  very 
few  stamp  taxes  that  are  graded 
in  such  a  way  as  to  impose  pro- 
portional burdens  upon  the  large 
transaction.  Furthermore,  heavy 
stamp  taxes  tend  to  check  com- 
mercial activity. 

Stanberry,  city,  Missouri, 
Gentry  county,  on  the  Wabash 
Railroad;  35  miles  n.n.e.  of  St. 
Joseph.  It  is  the  trade  center  of 
an  extensive  farming  district. 
The  place  was  settled  and  incor- 
porated in  1879.  Pop.  (1930) 
2,029;  (1940)  1,893. 

Standard  Oil.    See  Trusts. 

Standards,  Royal,  are  heral- 
dic banners  rather  than  stand- 
ards, the  essentials  of  a  true 
standard  (in  England)  being  that 
it  shall  have  the  red  cross  of  St. 
George  next  to  the  staff,  with  the 
rest  of  the  flag  bearing  the  ap- 
propriate device  of  the  bearer ; 
that  it  shall  be  split  at  the  end, 
and  rounded  off  ;  and  that  it  shall 
contain  the  cognizance  of  the 
owner.  The  three  lions  were  not 
established  as  the  royal  arms  un- 
til they  appeared  on  the  great 


British  Royal  Standard  {English 
Quartering). 


seal  o£  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  in 
1195.  In  the  modern  arms  the 
rampant  lion  within  a  tressure  or 
border  represents  the  arms  of  the 
kings  of  Scotland,  and  is  found 
on  the  great  seal  of  Alexander  ii 
about  1230.  The  harp  in  the 
third  quartering,  for  Ireland, 
first  appeared  in  the  royal  arms 
in  1603.  Its  adoption  was  by 
virtue  of  conquest,  and  not  of  the 
political  union  of  Jan.  1,  1801. 
Edward  iii  in  1340  quartered 
the  golden  fleurs-de-lis  of  France. 
When  George  i  came  to  the 
throne,  the  arms  of  Hanover 
were  added ;  but  were  removed 
when  Victoria  succeeded  Wil- 
liam IV. 

The  imperial  standard  of  Ger- 
many consisted  of  the  black  iron 
cross  with  white  border  on  a  field 
of  gold.    In  the  center  was  a  shield 


bearing  the  arms  of  Prussia,  sur- 
mounted by  a  crown  and  sur- 
rounded by  the  collar  of  the  order 
of  the  Black  Eagle.  The  Czar's 
imperial  standard  was  yellow, 
bearing  the  black  two-headed  ea- 
gle displayed.  Its  distinctive  fea- 
tures were,  that  both  heads  were 
crowned  ;  that  on  the  breast  was 
a  red  shield  with  a  figure  of  St. 
George  and  the  dragon  in  white, 
surrounded  by  a  golden  collar  of 
St.  Andrew's  order ;  that  in  the 
dexter  talon  was  a  scepter,  in  the 
sinister  a  regal  sphere  ;  and  that  on 
the  wings  of  the  eagle  were  four 
shields  representing  incorporated 
territory.  The  royal  standard  of 
Spain  bore  in  the  first  quarter 
the  golden  tower  on  red  for  Cas- 
tile, and  the  red  lion  on  white  for 
Leon,  arranged  quarterly ;  sec- 
ond quarter,  (a)  the  nine  vertical 
yellow  and  red  bars  of  Aragon, 
and  (b)  the  device  of  Sicily,  the 
same  vertical  bars  surmounted  by 
two  demi-lozenges  inverted,  ar- 
gent, a  spread  eagle  sable,  these 
two  portions  being  arranged  side 
by  side;  third  quarter,  (a)  the 
red  and  white  horizontal  stripes 
of  Austria,  above  (b)  the  yellow 
and  blue  diagonal  bars,  sur- 
mounted by  a  red  border  for  Bur- 
gundy, and  (c)  the  black  lion  on 
golden  ground  of  Flanders ; 
fourth  quarter,  (a)  the  fleurs-de- 
lis  and  red  and  white  checkers 
of  Burgundy,  (b)  the  golden  lion 
rampant  on  black  for  Brabant, 
and  (c)  the  red  spread  eagle  on 
white  for  Antwerp.  The  whole 
was  charged  with  two  escutcheons 
vertically  placed — (1)  the  arms 
of  Portugal,  (2)  three  golden 
fleurs-de-lis  on  blue  within  a  red 
border  for  France. 

Standards,  National  Bu- 
reau OF,  a  bureau  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Commerce 
which  functions  as  one  of  the 
principal  research  and  testing 
laboratories  of  the  Government, 
a  large  part  of  its  work  being 
conducted  at  the  request  of  or  in 
cooperation  with  government 
agencies.  Its  main  plant  is  in 
Washington ;  small  branch  lab- 
oratories for  testing  cement  and 
miscellaneous  materials  are 
maintained  at  Allentown,  Pa. ; 
Denver,  Col. ;  San  Francisco, 
Permanente,  and  Riverside, 
Calif. ;  and  Seattle,  Wash.  The 
Bureau's  services  may  be  noted 
under  the  following  heads  :  Main- 
tenance of  Working  Standards  ; 
Electrical  Measurements  and 
Services ;  Standards  of  Weights 
and  Measures;  Temperature 
Standards,  and  Motor  and  Build- 
ing Material  Tests ;  Develop- 
ment of  Radiation  Standards : 
Chemical  Tests  ;  Testing  of  In- 
struments, Appliances,  and  Struc- 
tures ;  Standards  for  Organic 
Materials ;  Metallurgical  Serv- 
ices ;  Tests  of  China,  Porcelain, 
and  Building  Materials ;  Scien- 


standard  Time 


KFN 


402 


8tang 


tific  Instruments  and  Gages ; 
Standardization  of  Manufac- 
tured Products ;  and  Commer- 
cial Standards.  The  Bureau 
was  organized  in  1901.  It  pub- 
lishes a  Bulletin. 

Standard  Time.    See  Time. 

Standing  Orders  (ParHamen- 
tary),  the  permanent  resolutions 
which  the  House  of  Lords  and 
the  House  of  Commons  have 
agreed  to  for  the  regulation, 
guidance,  and  order  of  their  pro- 
ceedings. Each  house  has  its 
own  standing  orders,  and  those 
of  one  house  have  no  force  in  or 
application  to  the  other  house. 
In  the  United  States  such  orders 
are  commonly  known  as  rules. 
The  purpose  of  the  rules  is  to  per- 
mit the  majority  to  determine 
what  measures  shall  be  debated 
and  voted  upon;  to  free  legislative 
procedure  from  factional  obstruc- 
tion, and  to  preserve  order.  The 
rules  of  the  Senate  are  a  cumbrous 
bodv  which  only  long  experience 
enables  a  member  to  master; 
hence  they  play  a  potent  part  in 
limiting  the  mfluence  upon  legisla- 
tion of  new  members.  _  In  the 
House  the  rules  expire  with  each 
Congress;  they  are  generally  re- 
adopted  in  a  body  by  the  follow- 
ing House.  They  are,  howeyer, 
subject  to  frequent  and  radical 
change. 

Standing  Stones.  See  Cir- 
cles OF  Stone. 

Standi sh,  Miles  (or  Myles) 
(c.  1584  -  1650),  American  colo- 
nist, born  probably  at  Duxbury 
in  Lancashire,  England.  After 
serving  in  che  Netherlands  in  the 
English  army  he  joined  the 
Separatists  at  Leyden  and  with 
them  came  to  Plymouth  in  1620. 
For  the  first  five  years  of  the 
colony's  existence  he  was  its 
principal  military  leader,  and 
rendered  excellent  service  in 
keeping  the  Indians  quiet  and  in 

f)rotecting  the  infant  settlement 
rom  its  disorderly  neighbors. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1625 
and  in  1626  came  back  and 
founded  Duxbury,  where  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
He  is  the  subject  of  Longfellow's 
poem,  'The  Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish.'  See  Bradford's  Plym- 
outh Plantation  (1898). 

Stand  Pipe,  a  tall  pipe  open 
to  the  water  main  at  the  foot  and 
to  the  air  at  the  top,  and  used  at 
pumping  stations  for  equalizing 
or  taking  up  the  successive  im- 
pulses of  the  pump  which  is  sup- 
plying water  to  the  mains,  in 
order  that  a  continuous  stream 
may  be  delivered.  Air  vessels  are 
used  as  cushions  for  the  same 
urpose.   See  Pumps  and  Water 

UPPLY. 

Stanfleld,  Clarkson  (1793- 
1867),  English  marine  painter, 
born  at  Sunderland.  ^  Disabled  by 
an  accident  while  in  the  navy, 
he  became  a  scene-painter,  first 


in  Edinburgh  and  then  in  Lon- 
don. He  exhibited  A  Calm  at 
the  Royal  Academy  (1827),  and  in 
1831  received  a  commission  from 
William  iv.  for  The  Ceremony 
of  Opening  New  London  Bridge 
and  Portsmouth  Harbor.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  elected 
A.R.A.,  and  A.R.  in  1835.  His 
work  is  remarkable  for  his  great 
technical  knowledge  of  shipping 
and  the  sea,  and  for  the  origi- 
nality and  realism  of  his  treat- 
ment. In  the  National  Gallery 
and  South  Kensington  Museum 
are  pictures  by  him. 

Stanford,  Sir  Charles  Vil- 
liers  (1852-1924),  Irish  com- 
poser and  conductor,  born  in 
iDublin.  In  1872  he  became  or- 
ganist of  Trinity  College;  was 
appointed  professor  of  composi- 
tion and  orchestral  playing  in  the 
Royal  College  (1882)  and  profes- 
sor of  music  at  Cambridge  (1887). 
He  stands  in  the  front  rank  of 
British  composers,  and  his  pro- 
ductions comprise  operas,  choral- 
orchestral  works  in  various  forms, 
symphonies,  orchestral  suites, 
chamber  music,  compositions  for 
piano  and  for  violin,  and  numer- 
ous songs.  His  cantata  Eleg^'ac 
Ode  (1884)  is  a  setting  of  Walt 
Whitman's  Burial  Hymn. 

Stanford,  Jane  Lathrop 
(1825-  1905),  American  philan- 
thropist, born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  a 
daughter  of  Dyer  Lathrop,  who 
was  sheriff  of  Albany  county. 
She  was  married  in  1850  to 
Leland  Stanford  (q.v.),  subse- 
quently governor  of  California  and 
tJ.  S.  senator.  After  the  death 
of  their  only  son,  Leland,  in  1884, 
and  the  establishment  in  his 
memory  by  Senator  Stanford  of 
the  Leland  Stanford  Junior  Uni- 
versity (q.v.)  at  Palo  Alto,  Cal., 
Mrs.  Stanford  actively  interested 
herself  in  the  development  of  the 
institution,  _  presenting  to  it  a 
museum  building.  After  her  hus- 
band's death,  in  1893,  she  devoted 
her  entire  time  and  thought  to  the 
university,  of  which  by  the  terms 
of  the  original  grant  she  and  her 
husband  were  during  their  lives 
in  effect  the  board  of  trustees. 
Her  devotion  and  force  of  char- 
acter were  shown  on  many  occa- 
sions in  the  early  history  of  the 
university,  as  when  she  insisted 
that  the  university  should  remain 
open  although  the  government 
suit  for  $15,000,000  against  the 
estate,  and  the  difficulties  attend- 
ing the  payment  of  legacies  aggre- 
gating $7,000,000  under  her  hus- 
band's -will,  made  it  seem  to  her 
advisers  impossible  to  do  so.  Her 
interest  in  the  university  lay 
chiefly  in  the  completing  of  the 
buildings  as  her  husband  had 
planned  them.  The  development 
of  the  educational  side  of  the  insti- 
tution she  left  entirely  to  the  presi- 
dent and  faculty,  and  to  the  board 
of  trustees  after  her  retirement  from 


active  control,  which  occurred  in 
1903,  when  the  last  of  the  impor- 
tant buildings  of  the  university 
was  under  way.  She  had  the  sat- 
isfaction of  seeing  the  full  endow- 
ment of  the  university  of  more 
than  $30,000,000  secured  to  it  safe 
from  possible  contest  and  the  origi- 
nal plan  of  its  buildings  practi- 
cally complete.  Prior  to  the 
establishment  of  the  university 
she  devoted  herself  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  a  system  of  kindergarten 
schools  for  San  Francisco.  In 
later  years  the  university  absorbed 
her  interests,  but  her  benefactions 
included  a  children's  home  at 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  many  chari- 
table and  religious  organizations 
in  California  and  elsewhere  re- 
ceived substantial  remembrances 
in  her  will.  Notable  among  her 
bequests  was  the  gift  of  her  private 
jewels,  estimated  at  nearly  a 
million  dollars  in  value,  which 
she  directed  the  trustees  of  the 
university  to  sell,  devoting  the 
proceeds  to  the  establishment  of  a 
fund,  to  be  known  as  the  'Jewel 
Fund,'  for  the  endowment  of  the 
University  Library.  Her  death 
occurred  on  Februarj^  28,  1905,  in 
Honolulu,  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
under  circumstances  which  lent 
some  color  to  the  theory  that  some 
one  had  put  poison  in  a  bottle  of 
medicine  she  had  used;  but  au- 
thoritative analyses  and  exam- 
inations assured  her  friends  that 
her  death  was  due  to  natural 
causes. 

Stanford,  Leland  (1824-93), 
American  capitaHst  and  states- 
man, born  at  Watervliet,  N.  Y. 
He  began  to  practise  law  at  Port 
Washington,  Wis.,  in  1849,  re- 
moved to  California  in  1852,  and 
there,  after  some  experience  in 
mining,  entered  the  mercantile 
business  in  Sacramento.  He  was 
one  of  the  prime  movers  in  the 
building  of  the  Central  Pacific 
Railroad  in  1861  and  became  its 
first  president.  He  was  also  one 
of  the  four  builders  and  owners  of 
the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  and 
amassed  a  fortune  of  many  rn.il- 
lions.  He  was  governor  of  Cali- 
fornia during  1861-63,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  U.  S.  Senate  from 
1885  until  his  death  in  1893.  He 
founded  the  Leland  Stanford 
Junior  University,  in  memory  of 
his  son.  After  providing  liber- 
ally for  relatives,  he  left  the  resi- 
due of  his  large  estate  to  his  wife. 
Jane  Lathrop  Stanford  (q.v.),  to  be 
turned  over  oy  her  to  the  univer- 
sity. 

Stanford  University.  See  Le- 
land Stanford  Junior  Uni- 
versity. 

Stang,  Frederik  (1808-84), 
Norwegian  statesman;  chief  of 
the  department  of  the  interior 
(1845-56).  During  the  illness  of 
the  king  in  1857  he  was  one  of  the 
members  of  the  interim  govern- 
ment.   In  1861  he  formed  a  new 


stanhope 

ministry,  which  he  reconstructed 
in  1873,  but  resigned  in  1880. 
His  work,  Om  den  Kongelige 
Sanktionsret  efter  Norges  Grimd- 
lov  (1883),  is  an  important  contri- 
bution to  the  constitutional  ques- 
tion in  Norway. 

Stanhope,  Charles,  third 
Earl  Stanhope  ( 1 7 53- 1 8 1 6),  E ng- 
lish  politician  and  scientist,  was 
born  in  London.  He  was  created 
F.r.S.  in  1772,  having  published 
a  memoir  on  the  pendulum,  and  a 
volume  dealing  with  the  coinage. 
He  made  numerous  experiments 
regarding  the  application  of 
steam  to  ships;  made  great  im- 
provements in  the  art  of  printing, 
inventing  a  printing  press,  which, 
like  his  microscopic  lens,  is 
known  by  his  name;  and  con- 
structed calculating  machines. 
With  the  assistance  of  Robert 
Fulton,  the  American  engineer, 
he  projected  a  canal  from  his 
estate  in  Devonshire  to  the  British 
Channel.  Stanhope  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Philadelphia  Philosoph- 
ical Society.  In  politics  he  first 
allied  himself  with  the  younger 
Pitt,  but  disapproved  of  the  war 
with  the  American  colonies,  and 
heartily  approved  of  the  French 
Revolution.  He  was  a  steady 
advocate  of  the  cause  of  the  slave, 
was  earnest  for  education,  fiscal 
reform,  electoral  reform,  and 
spoke  and  wrote  on  the  monetary 
questions  of  his  day.  See  Fletch- 
er's The  Late  Earl  Stanhope's 
Opinions  (1819). 

Stanhope,  Lady  Hester  Lucy 
(1776-1839),  the  eccentric  daugh- 
ter of  the  third  Earl  Stanhope. 
She  kept  house  for  her  uncle, 
the  younger  Pitt  (1803-6),  and 
many  stories  are  told  of  her 
brilliant  manner  and  wit.  She 
wielded  an  enormous  political 
influence.  After  Pitt's  death  she 
set  out  for  the  East  (1810),  and 
settling  among  the  Druses  of 
Mount  Lebanon,  constructed  a 
kind  of  mediaeval  castle  and 
maintained  a  sort  of  mediaeval 
state.  She  died  as  she  had  lived 
— proud,  isolated,  and  eccentric. 
See  Meryon's  Travels  of  Lady 
Hester  Stanhope  (1846)  and  Me- 
moirs of  Lady  Hester  Stanhope 
(1854);  also  Kihglake's  Edthen 
(ed.  1896). 

Stanhope,  James,  first  Earl 
Stanhope  (1673  -  1721),  British 
statesman  and  general,  was  born 
in  Paris.  After  service  in  Italy 
and  Flanders  and  in  the  Peninsula 
he  was  despatched  with  Peter- 
borough's expedition  to  Spain 
(1705),  his  main  achievement 
being  the  capture  of  Port  Mahon 
in  the  Balearic  Isles.  In  1710  he 
was  captured  by  the  French,  but 
returned  to  England  in  1712. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Jacobite  rebellion 
of  1715,  and  in  passing  the  Sep- 
tennial Act;  but  his  strongest  in- 
clination was  for  foreign  affairs. 


403 

The  Peerage  Bill,  which  he  pro- 
moted, was  a  failure,  owing  to 
Walpole's  opposition;  but  the 
collapse  of  the  South  Sea  Bubble, 
which  occurred  in  1720  while  he 
was  first  minister,  raised  such  an 
outcry  against  the  ministry  that 
his  health  gave  way  under  the 
strain. 

Stanhope,  Philip  Henry, 
FIFTH  Earl  Stanhope  (1805-75), 
English  historian,  was  born  at 
Walmer.  He  sat  in  the  House  of 
Commons  from  1830  till  1852,  a,nd 
was  under-secretary  for  foreign 
affairs  (1834-5)  and  secretary  of 
the  India  Board  (1845);  but  he 
shared  Peel's  conversion  to,  and 
loss  of  office  on  account  of,  free 
trade.  His  chief  parliamentary 
monuments  are  the  Copyright 
Act  (1842),  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery  (1856),  and  the  Historical 
Manuscripts  Commission  (1869). 
It  is  mainly  as  a  historian  that  he 
is  noted.  He  had  access  to  private 
documents  inaccessible  to  other 
writers,  and  his  History  of  the 
War  of  Succession  in  Spain  (1832) 
is  on  that  account  specially  val- 
uable. He  published  also  The 
History  of  England  from  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht  to  the  Peace 
of  Versailles  (1836-53),  and  a 
connecting  link,  entitled  The 
History  of  England,  compris- 
ing the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne 
to  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  (1870). 
His  most  important  work  out- 
side this  series  was  The  Life  of 
the  Right  Hon.  William  Pitt 
(1861-2). 

Stanislau,  cap.  of  dist.  of 
same  name,  Galicia,  Austria,  on 
Bistritza,  58  m.  s.v^^.  of  Tarnopol; 
has  railway  workshops,  tanneries, 
flour  mills,  dye  works,  and  tile 
works.    Pop.  (1900)  29,628. 

Stanislaus.    See  Poland. 

Stanley,  city,  Chippewa  co., 
Wis.,  30  m.  e.n.e.  of  Eau  Claire, 
on  the  Wis.  Cent.  R.  R.  It  is  a 
manufacturing  centre,  producing 
lumber,  boxes,  brick,  etc.  It  was 
setded  in  1890.  Pop.  (1910) 
2,675. 

Stanley.  See  Derby,  Earl  of. 

Stanley,  Arthur  Penrhyn 
(1815-81).  English  scholar  and 
divine.  A  pupil  of  Dr.  Arnold  at 
Rugby,  he  became  a  fellow  of  Uni- 
versity College,  Oxford,  in  1838, 
and  in  1839  was  ordained.  Stanley 
was  neither  a  High  Churchman 
nor  an  Evangelical,  and  was 
therefore  suspected  by  both  par- 
ties; and  it  was  only  the  appoint- 
ment of  Dr.  Arnold  to  the  chair 
of  modern  history  in  1841  that 
reconciled  him  to  stay  at  the  uni- 
versity. The  sudden  death  of 
Arnold  in  1842  led  Stanley  to 
write  his  greatest  and  only  per- 
manent book,  The  Life  and  Corre- 
spondence of  Dr.  Arnold  (1844). 
He  continued  to  live  at  Oxford, 
and  in  his  Sermons  on  the  Apos- 
tolical Age  fl847)  he  became 
marked  as  tne   Broad  Church 


Stanley 

leader.  After  his  Commentary 
on  Corinthians  (1855)  he  con- 
fined himself  to  historical  and 
descriptive  work.  Many  of  his 
best  books  arose  out  of  his  vaca- 
tion journeys — Sinai  and  Pales- 
tine (1856)  and  Lectures  on  the 
Eastern  Church  (1861).  He  be- 
came canon  of  Canterbury  in 
1851  {Memorials  of  Canterbury, 
1854),  and  in   1856  returned  to 


Dean  Stanley. 
(Pnoto  by  London  Stereoscopic  Co.) 


Oxford  to  the  chair  of  ecclesi- 
astical history  and  a  canonry 
at  Christ  Church.  In  1864,  after 
a  journey  to  the  East  in  the 
train  of  the  young  Prince  of 
Wales,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
deanery  of  Westminster,  where 
he  was  able  to  put  in  practice 
his  convictions  regarding  the  com- 
prehensive and  Broad  Church 
character  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. He  invited  ministers  of 
all  Christian  churches  to  his 
pulpit.  He  visited  the  U.  S.  in 
1878,  travelled  extensively,  and 
delivered  many  sermons  and 
addresses  which  were  later  pub- 
lished as  Addresses  and  Sermons 
delivered  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  See  Prothero's  Life 
(1893),  and  Bradley's  Recollec- 
tions (1883), 

Stanley,  Davip  Sloane  (1828- 
1902),  American  soldier,  born  in 
Cedar  Valley,  O.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1852,  fought  at 
Wilson's  Creek  and  in  other 
battles  in  Mo.  during  the  first 
year  of  the  Civil  War;  and  was 
commissioned  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  in  September,  1861. 
He  participated  in  the  operations 
against  Island  No.  10  and  Cor- 
inth; served  at  Stone  River  and 
in  the  Atlanta  campaign;  and 
was  severely  wounded  in  the 
battle  of  Franklin.  After  the 
Civil  War  he  served  in  various 
Indian    campaijorns;     was  com' 


Stanley 

missioned  brigadier  -  general  of 
regulars  in  1884;  and  retired 
from  the  service  in  1892. 

Stanley,  Sir  Henry  Mor- 
ton (1841-1904),  Anglo-American 
African  explorer,  whose  original 
name  was  John  Rowlands,  was 
born  at  Denbigh  in  Wales,  At 
seventeen  he  sailed  to  New  Or- 
leans, and  found  employment  with 
Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley.  Having  as- 
sumed the  name  of  his  bene- 


404 

yika,  and  returned  to  the  coast 
at  Bagamoyo,  bringing  with  him 
the  traveller's  journals  and  pa- 
pers. On  his  return  from  the 
Ashanti  expedition  of  1873-4  he 
was  provided  by  the  proprietors 
of  the  Daily  Telegraph  and  New 
York  Herald  with  funds  for  a 
journey  across  Central  Africa, 
which  he  began  from  Bagamoyo 
on  Nov.  17,  1874.  On  this  occa- 
sion   he    circumnavigated  the 


factor,  Stanley  served  in  the  Con- 
federate army  until  captured  at 
Shiloh.  In  1863  he  entered  the 
Federal  navy,  serving  throughout 
the  war  and  until  1867,  when  he 
entered  on  a  journalistic  career. 
His  first  important  journey  was 
to  Magdala  with  the  British  army 
as  war  correspondent  for  the  New 
York  Herald.  In  1869  Stanley 
was  commissioned  to  find  Living- 
stone, and  met  him  on  Nov.  10, 
1871,  at  Ujiji,  on  Lake  Tangan- 


Sir  Henry  M.  Stanley. 
(Photo  by  Russell  &  Sons.) 

Victoria  Nyanza  and  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika, partly  surveyed  the  Al- 
bert Nyanza,  and  traced  the 
Congo  from  Nyangwe,  the  lowest 
point  on  the  Lualaba  reached  by 
Cameron  and  Livingstone,  to  the 
highest  point  reached  from  the 
ocean  by  Tuckey  in  1816,  proceed- 
ing thence  to  Banana.  He  re- 
turned to  the  Congo  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  king  of  the  Belgians, 
and  remained  there  from  August, 
1879,  till  June,  1884.  Stanley's  last 


Stannaries 

visit  to  Africa  (1887)  was  as  leader 
of  the  Emin  Pasha  relief  expedi- 
tion, when  he  discovered  Ruwen- 
zori  and  the  Albert  Edward  Ny- 
anza. The  following  year,  on 
June  12,  he  married  Miss  Do- 
rothy Tennant,  and  in  1899  he 
received  the  Grand  Cross  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George.  From 
1895  to  1900  he  sat  in  Parliament 
as  member  for  North  Lambeth. 
His  chief  works  are :  How  I  Found 
Livingstone  (1872),  Coomassi  and 
Magdala  (1874),  Through  the 
Dark  Continent  (1878),  The  Congo 
and  the  Founding  of  its  Free  State 

(1885)  ,  In  Darkest  Africa  (1890), 
and  My  Early  Travels  and  Adven- 
tures (1895). 

Stanley,  Thomas  (1625-78), 
English  poet  and  classical  scholar, 
was  born  at  Cumberlow,  Hert- 
fordshire. He  studied  law  at  the 
Middle  Temple,  but  preferred  to 
devote  himself  to  letters.  In  addi- 
tion to  two  volumes  of  Poems 
(1647  and  1651),  including  a  trans- 
lation of  Anacreon  (ed.  A.  H. 
Bullen,  1893),  he  produced  a 
History  of  Philosophy  (1655-62) 
and  an  ed.  of  yEschylus  (1663). 
His  Collected  Poems  were  ed.  by 
S.  E.  Brydgesin  1814-5. 

Stanley  Pool,  expansion  (25 
m.  by  16  m.)  of  Lower  Congo, 
Africa,  above  the  rapids  4°  s. 

Stanmore,  Arthur  Hamil- 
ton Gordon,  Baron  (1829),  Brit- 
ish colonial  governor,  youngest 
son  of  the  fourth  Earl  of  Aber- 
-  deen,  whose  biographer  he  be- 
<^  came  in  the  Prime  Ministers 
of  Queen  Victoria  Series  (1893). 
'  He  was  secretary  to  Gladstone's 
Corfu  mission  (1858-9),  governor 
of  New  Brunswick  (1861-6),  of 
Trinidad  (1866-70),  Mauritius 
(1871-4),  Fiji  (1875-80),  New 
Zealand  (1880-2),  and  Ceylon 
(1883-90).  During  1877-83  he 
was  high  commissioner  for  the 
Western  Pacific.  He  sat  in  the 
House  of  Commons  as  member 
for  Beverley  (1854-7),  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  in  1893. 
He  is  author  of  Wilderness  Jour- 
neys in  New  Brunswick  (1864), 
and  Story  of  a  Little  War  (1879). 

Stannard,  Mrs.  Arthur 
(1856),  English  novelist,  writing 
_  under  the  name  of  'John  Strange 
^Winter,'  was  born  in  York;  wrote 
^  her  first  story  in  1874,  and  since 
rq  that  date  has  produced  a  large 
number  of  novels,  dealing  chiefly 
with   army   life   and  character. 
Her  works,  which  were  the  favor- 
ite   fiction    of    Ruskin,  include 
Booties^  Baby  (1885),  Army  Society 

(1886)  ,  Beautiful  Jim  (1888),  Grip 
(1896),  The  Man  I  Loved  (1901), 
Uncle  Charles  (1902),  Love  and 
Twenty  (1905),  and  many  other 
books. 

Stannaries,  those  districts  in 
Cornwall  and  Devon,  England, 
where  special  customs  as  to  tin- 
mining,  and  special  courts  in 
which  tin  miners  may  sue  and  be 


Stannic  Acid 


405 


Stanton 


sued,  have  existed  from  time 
immemorial.  The  jurisdiction 
formerly  exercised  by  stannary 
courts  has  been  transferred  to  the 
county  court,  from  which  an 
appeal  lies  to  the  Court  of  Appeal. 
(Companies  which  work  mines 
on  what  is  known  as  the  cost- 
book  system,  although  not  ab- 
solutely confined  to  the  stan- 
naries, were  first  known  and 
chiefly  exist  there.  A  license  to 
search  for  minerals  is  obtained 
by  one  or  two  persons,  and  then 
the  persons  who  intend  to  become 
adventurers  meet  and  decide  as 
to  the  regulations  under  which 
the  company  is  to  work,  the 
number  of  the  shares,  the  allot- 
ment of  the  shares  among  them, 
and  the  liability  to  contribute 
to  the  working  expenses.  These 
particulars,  together  with  the 
.  names  and  addresses  of  the  ad- 
venturers, are  entered  in  the  cost 
book,  or  the  book  kept  for  the 
purpose  of  entering  the  working 
expenses. 

Stannic  Acid.   See  Tin. 

Stanton,  Edwin  McMasters 
(1814-69),  American  statesman 
and  secretary  of  war,  born  at  Steu- 
benville,  p.,  Dec.  19,  1814.  After 
an  experience  as  clerk  in  a  book 
Store  ne  entered  Kenyon  College 
in  1831,  but  did  not  complete  the 
course,  leaving  college  in  1833  to 
study  law.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1836,  and  practised  for 
three  years  in  Cadiz,  O.,  serving 
in  1837-39  as  prosecuting  attorney 
of  Harrison  county.  He  returned 
to  Steubenville  in  1839  and  in 
1848  removed  to  Pittsburg.  While 
he  was  practising  in  Steubenville 
he  was  for  three  years  (1842-45) 
reporter  of  the  Ohio  Supreme 
Court,  and  after  his  removal  to 
Pittsburg  he  soon  gained  a  leading 
position  at  the  bar  of  that  city  and 
a  national  reputation  as  a  sucess- 
ful  advocate.  His  increasing  prac- 
tice before  the  United  States  Su- 
preme Court  led  to  his  making  his 
norne  at  Washington  in  1856,  and 
during  the  next  five  years  he  was 
retained  in  many  of  the  most  im- 

Eortant  causes  before  that  court, 
[e  was  in  California  in  1857-58  in 
relation  to  important  land  cases, 
having  been  retained  by  the  gov- 
ernment. Among  the  other  im- 
portant cases  in  which  he  acted  as 
counsel  during  this  period  was  the 
McCormick  Reaper  case. 

Stanton  had  always  been  a 
Democrat,  although  he  supported 
the  Free-Soil  candidacy  of  Van 
Bijren  in  1848,  and  after  the  se- 
cession of  South  Carolina  and  the 
resignations  of  Cobb  and  Cass 
from  Buchanan's  cabinet  (the 
first  caused  by  the  expressed  in- 
tention of  the  President  not  to  give 
up  the  Southern  forts  and  the 
latter  bv  his  decision  not  to  rein- 
force them)  he  was  appointed 
attorney-general  in  place  of  Jere- 
miah S.  Black,  who  nad  succeeded 
Vol.  XL— 27. 


Cass  as  secretary  of  state.  He 
served  with  credit  until  the  close 
of  the  administration.  Black, 
John  A.  Dix,  and  Stanton,  three 
old-time  Democrats  of  the  Jack- 
sonian  school,  did  much  to  stiffen 
Buchanan's  backbone  and  make 
him  less  vielding  to  Southern  de- 
mands during  the  trying  time 
between  the  secession  of  S.  C.  and 
the  inauguration  of  Lincoln.  He 
became  a  bitter  critic  of  Lincoln's 
administration,  but  in  spite  of 
that  fact  the  latter  nominated  him 
for  Secretary  of  War,  to  succeed 
Simon  Cameron,  Jan.  13,  1862, 
and  the  nomination  was  con- 
firmed the  same  day.  Stanton 
found  the  department  in  a  disor- 
ganized condition  and  honey- 
combed with  corruption,  but  his 
immense  energy  and  capacity  for 
hard  work,  coupled  with  an  un- 
swerving integrity,  soon  brought 
it  to  a  high  state  of  efiiciency. 
From  the  time  when  McClellan 
was  relieved  of  the  command  of 
all  the  armies,  March  11,  1862,  to 
Tune  11,  1862,  when  Halleck  was 
brought  from  the  West  to  become 
general-in-chief,  Stanton  practi- 
cally acted  in  that  capacity,  and 
during  the  entire  war  took  an 
active  part  in  overseeing  the  cam- 

?aigns  of  the  Federal  generals, 
n  this,  however,  he  was  not  as 
successful  as  in  the  more  purely 
administrative  part  of  his  duties. 
His  ignorance  of  the  art  of  war 
and  his  inability  to  understand  the 
problems  with  which  the  com- 
manders in  the  field  had  to  con- 
tend, made  his  interference  with 
the  movements  of  the  armies 
always  inadvisable  and  often 
disastrous.  For  this,  however, 
Lincoln  must  share  the  blame. 
Stanton,  too,  was  harsh  and  des- 

f)Otic  in  his  manner,  was  often  un- 
air  in  his  treatment  of  others, 
and  sometimes  was  not  over- 
scrupulous in  the  measures  he 
took  in  order  to  rid  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  services  of  any  offi- 
cer who  had  incurred  its  displeas- 
ure or  lost  its  confidence.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  integrity  and 
ability  which  he  showed  in  pro- 
tecting the  Treasury  against  the 
rascalitj'  of  contractors,  the  energy 
which  he  infused  into  every 
branch  of  the  service,  and  the 
lofty  courage  which  he  displayed 
in  the  face  of  every  disaster  and  in 
times  of  deep  despondency,  were 
of  invaluable  service  to  the  nation 
and  to  the  administration,  and 
place  him  among  the  great  war 
ministers  of  all  time.  It  is  prob- 
able that  Stanton  was  a  prospec- 
tive victim  with  Gen.  Grant  in  the 
plot  which  resulted  in  the  assassi- 
nation of  Lincoln  and  in  the 
wounding  of  Seward,  but,  if  so,  the 
conspirators  made  no  actual 
effort  to  carry  out  their  intentions, 
and  after  offering  his  resignation 
to  President  Johnson,  who  de- 
clined to  accept  it,  he  continued  in 


office  as  Secretary  of  War  in  the 
latter's  cabinet. 

Wheh  the  break  came  between 
President  Johnson  and  Congress 
over  the  policy  to  be  pursued  in 
the  Southern  states,  Stanton 
favored  the  position  taken  by 
Congress,  and  on  Au^.  5,  1867, 
Johnson  asked  for  his  resigna- 
tion. He  refused  to  resign. 
By   the  Tenure   of   Office  Act, 

Eassed  in  the  preceding  March,  it 
ad  been  provided,  as  a  curb  to 
the  President,  that  the  consent  of 
the  Senate  was  necessary  for  the 
removal  of  any  officer  whose  ap- 
pointrnent  was  subject  to  con- 
firmation, but  gave  the  executive 
power  to  suspend  such  an  officer 
during  the  recess  of  Congress, 
and  if  in  any  case  the  Senate  at  its 
next  session  did  not  approve  the 
removal  the  officer  was  to  be 
reinstated.    Accordingly,  on  Aug. 

12,  1867,  Johnson  suspended 
Stanton.  At  its  next  session  the 
Senate  refused  to  concur,  Jan. 

13,  1868,  and  Stanton  was  thus 
restored  to  office.  Johnson  re- 
fused to  recognize  him,  and  on 
Feb.  21  removed  him  in  con- 
travention of  the  terms  of  the  act. 
By  the  advice  of  the  Republican 
leaders  in  Congress,  Stanton  re- 
fused to  get  out.  This  attempted 
removal  of  Stanton  was  the  direct 
cause  of  Johnson's  impeachment, 
which  was  voted  in  the  House  on 
February  24,  and  the  main  charge 
upon  which  he  was  tried.  After 
Johnson's  acquittal  Stanton  re- 
signed, resumed  the  practice  of 
law,  and  on  December  20,  1869, 
was  nominated  by  President 
Grant  an  associate  justice  of  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court. 
His  nomination  was  confirmed  by 
the  Senate,  but  he  died  at  Wash- 
ington December  24,  1869.  See 
Gorham's  Lije  (2  vols.  1899). 

Stanton,  Elizabeth  Cady 
(1815-1902),  American  reformer, 
was  born  in  Johnstown,  N.  Y.. 
and  was  the  daughter  of  Daniel 
Cady,  afterward  a  judge  of  the 
N.  Y.  Supreme  Court.  She  was 
educated  at  the  Emma  Willard 
Seminary,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  in 
1840  was  married  to  Henry  B. 
Stanton  (q.v.),  the  anti-slavery 
orator  and  journalist.  She  re- 
moved to  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y.,  in 
1846,  and  there  issued  the  call  for 
and  organized  the  first  woman's 
rights  convention  held  in  the 
U.  S.,  at  which  she  secured  the 
passage  of  resolutions  demanding 
woman  suffrage.  She  had  previ- 
ously (1840)  advocated  laws  giv- 
ing married  women  special  prop- 
erty rights,  and  in  1848  her  advo- 
cacy resulted  in  the  passing  of  a 
bill  by  the  N.  Y.  legislature.  From 
1865  to  1893  she  was  president  of 
the  National  Woman  Suffrage 
Association,  and  afterward  hon- 
orary president.  Mrs.  Stanton 
addressed  the  N.  Y.  legislature 
on  reform  topics  in  1854  and  1860, 


Stanton 


406 


Staraya-Bussa 


and  after  1869,  for  twenty-five 
years,  annually  addressed  congres- 
sional committees  on  the  rights  of 
women,  and  she  forwarded  v/oman 
suffrage  movements  in  many 
parts  of  the  country.    In  1868, 


Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton. 


He  married  Elizabeth  Cady  (q.v.) 
in  1840,  and  the  same  year  visited 
London  as  delegate  to  an  anti- 
slavery  congress  in  that  city. 
He  subsequently  studied  law 
with  his  father-in-law,  Daniel 
Cady,  and  settled  at  Seneca  Falls, 
N.  Y.,  in  1846.  Mr.  Stanton 
served  in  the  N.  Y.  state  senate. 
Originally  a  Democrat,  he  ioined 
the  Free  Soil  party,  and  took  part 
in  the  founding  of  the  Republican 

garty.    He  wrote  frequently  for 
rarrison's    Abolitionist  papers, 
and  was  a  constant  supporter  of  the 
cause  with  word  and  pen.  From 
1868  until  his  death  he  was  a 
member  of  the  editorial  staff  of 
the  Sun,  to  which  he  contributed 
^  principally    political    and  bio- 
^  graphical  material.    He  published 
^1  Sketches  of  Reforms  and  Reformers 
wi  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (1849) 
^and  Random  Recollections  (1886). 
J     Stantony  Oscar  Fitzalan 
Hs(1834),   American   naval  officer, 
^  ^  born  at  Sag  Harbor,  N.  Y.  He 
'V  graduated  at  Annapolis  in  1855 
A  and  served  in  the  Civil  War  both 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  and  in  the 


ulf    of    Mexico.    He  became 
with    Susan    B.    Anthony    and    Vieutenant  commander  in  1862, 
Parker  Pillsbury,  she  established  '  Jcommander  in  1867,  captain  m 
The  Revolution,  which  was  issuedV  V  1879,  commodore  in    1891,  and 
>  •    -  was  retired  m  1894  with  the  rank 


for  several  years,  and  in  the  same 
year  she  was  a  candidate  for  Con- 
gress. She  was  a  joint-author  of 
A  History  of  Woman  Suffrage 
(3  vols.  1881-8),  and  her  auto- 
biography, Eighty  Years  and 
More,  appeared  in  1895. 

Stanton,  Frank  Lebby  (1857), 
American  poet  and  journalist,  was 
born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.  He 
began  work  as  a  printer  on  the 
Savannah  Morning  News,  and 
in  1887  published  the  Smithville, 
Ga.,  News  for  a  year.  In  1889 
he  joined  the  staff  of  the  Atlanta 
Constitution,  of  which  he  became 
an  editor  in  1890,  and  to  which, 
as  well  as  to  the  magazines,  he 
contributed  pastoral  lyrics  which 
met  with  critical  and  popular 
approval.  His  books  include: 
Songs  of  a  Day  (1892),  Songs  of 
the  Soil  (1894),  Comes  one  with 
a  Song  (1898),  Songs  from  Dixie 
Land  (1900),  Up  from  Georgia 
(1902),  and  Little  Folks  Down 
South  (1904). 

Stanton,  Henry  Brewster 
(1805  -  87),  American  reformer 
and  journalist,  was  born  at 
Griswold,  Conn.,  and  began  work 
as  a  newspaper  man  on  the 
Monroe  Telegraph  at  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  in  1826.  He  soon  entered 
political  life,  and  gained  reputa- 
tion as  a  speaker.  He  studied 
for  a  time  at  Lane  Theological 
Seminary,  left  this  institution  to 
take  up  anti-slavery  work,  and 
was  mobbed  at  the  anniversary 
of  the  Anti-slavery  Society  in 
New  York  in  1834.  Mr.  Stanton 
was  one  of  those  who  endeavored, 
in  the  late  '30s,  to  organize  the 
Abolitionists  as  a  separate  party. 


of  rear-admiral. 

Stanton  Drew,  par.,  Somer- 
set, England,  7  m.  S.  of  Bristol, 
with  a  group  of  stone  circles. 
The  great  circle  has  a  diameter 
of  368  ft.  (Dymond). 

Stanwix,  Fort.  A  fortress  built 
by  General  Stanwix  in  1758  on 
the  present  site  of  Rome,  New 
York.  On  August  3,  1777,  the 
fort,  which  had  been  renamed 
Fort  Schuyler,  was  besieged  by 
a  motley  force  of  British,  In- 
dians, and  Tories  under  General 
St.  Leger.  General  Nicholas 
Herkimer,  commander  of  the 
militia  of  Tryon  county,  hurried 
to  the  relief  of  the  fort,  but  after 
a  desperate  battle,  in  which  he 
was  mortally  wounded,  his  forces 
were  compelled  to  retreat. 
Meanwhile,  however,  the  garrison 
under  Colonel  Peter  Gansevoort 
made  a  sortie,  drove  back  the 
enemy,  and  captured  large  quan- 
tities of  supplies.  Upon  return- 
ing into  the  fort,  the  garrison 
hoisted  a  rude  flag,  hastily  ex- 
temporized out  of  a  white  shirt, 
an  old  blue  jacket,  and  some 
strips  of  cloth  from  the  petticoat 
of  a  soldier's  wife  —  the  first 
Arnerican  flag  with  stars  and 
stripes  ever  hoisted.  The  enemy, 
however,  were  still  strong  enough 
to  continue  the  siege,  but  on  Au- 
gust 22,  upon  the  approach  of  a 
strong  force  under  General  Ar- 
nold, retreated  in  great  haste  to 
Oswego.  See  Bogg's  Pioneers  of 
Utica  (1877),  and  Stone's  Life  of 
Joseph  Brant  (2  vols.  1838). 

Stanyhurst,  Richard  (1547- 
X618),  translator  of  Virgil,  was 


born  in  Dublin.  In  1577  he  pub- 
lished, in  vol,  i.  of  Holinshed's 
Chronicles,  his  Description  of  Ire- 
land and  his  History  of  Ireland. 
His  translation  of  the  first  four 
books  of  the  JBneid  (1582)  illus- 
trated the  contention  of  Gabriel 
Harvey,  that  quantity  rather 
than  accent  should  govern  Eng- 
lish prosody.  In  1602  he  became 
a  convert  to  Roman  Catholicism, 
and  was  then  involved  in  various 
Catholic  and  Spanish  plots  against 
England.  See  Arber's  introduc- 
tion to  a  reprint  of  his  Transla- 
tion (1895). 

Stapfer,  Paul  (1840),  French 
essayist,  born  at  Paris,  became 

{professor  of  French  at  the  Col- 
ege  Elizabeth,  Guernsey,  and 
of  foreign  literature  at  Geneva 
(1876).  He  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed to  a  chair  at  Grenoble 
and  at  Bordeaux.  He  has  written 
Petite  Comedie  de  la  Critique 
Litteraire  (1866),  Causeries  Guer- 
nesiaises  (1869),  Laurence  Sterne 

il870),    Moliere    et  Shakspeare 
1886),   Racine  et   Victor  Hugo 
1887),  and  La  Grande  Predica- 
tion Chretienne  en  France  (1898). 

Staple.  The  staple  system 
was  a  method  employed  in  me- 
diaeval England  for  regulating  the 
export  trade  with  a  view  (1)  to 
maintaining  the  prices  of  exports, 
and  (2)  to  facilitating  the  collec- 
tion of  the  king's  customs.  The 
staple  exports  were  wool,  wool- 
fells,  leather,  lead,  and  tin.  The 
earliest  form  of  the  system  was  the 
selection  of  a  town  in  Flanders 
as  the  sole  market  in  which  Eng- 
lish wool  might  be  sold.  This  led 
to  quarrels  and  to  changes  of  the 
staple  town,  and  eventually  to  the 
transfer  of  the  staple  to  certain 
English  towns  (1353).  But  this 
method  did  not  answer;  and 
when  Calais  fell  into  English 
hands  (1363)  the  staple  was 
removed  thither,  and  there  it 
remained  till  the  capture  of 
Calais  in  1558. 

Staples,  city,  Todd  co.,  Minn., 
65  m.  N.w.  of  St.  Cloud,  on  the  N. 
Pac.  R.  R.  It  is  important  as  a 
railroad  division  headquarters 
and  transfer  point.  It  was  settled 
and  incorporated  in  1892.  Pop. 
(1910)  2,558. 
Star,  bee  Stars. 
Star  Apple,  the  popular  name 
of  shrubs  and  trees  belonging  to 
the  genus  Chrysophyllum,  a  sub- 
division of  the  order  Sapotaceae. 
C.  cainito,  a  native  of  the  W. 
Indies,  is  the  best-known  species. 
It  bears  delicious  fruit,  beauti- 
fully colored  green,  yellow,  and 
red.  All  the  species  are  natives 
of  the  tropics. 

Staraya-Bussa,  tn.,  Novgorod 
gov..  Central  Russia,  36  m.  s.  of 
Novgorod  city.  It  is  an  episcopal 
see  (cathedral,  built  in  1701), 
and  has  an  imperial  palace,  saline 
baths,  salt  deposits,  and  tan- 
neries, brick  fields,  sawmills,  and 


Stara-Zagora 


407 


Starling 


tallow  foundries.  Pop.  (1897) 
15,234. 

Stara  -  Zagora  (Turk.  Eski- 
Zagra),  tn.,  s.  of  Balkans,  E. 
Roumelia,  Bulgaria,  50  m.  N.E. 
of  Philippopolis;  manufactures 
coarse  clotn  and  copper,  and  has 
tanneries  and  mineral  springs. 
Totally  destroyed  by  the  Turks 
in  1878  and  rebuilt  on  modern 
lines.   Pop.  (1901)  19,428. 

Starch,  (CeHioOs)!!,  a  carbohy- 
drate of  undetermined  composi- 
tion, found  in  granules  of  varying 
size  in  different  plants.  Cereals 
contain  most — rice  approximately 
76  per  cent.,  corn  and  wheat  70 
per  cent.,  corn  about  54  per  cent., 
peas  50  per  cent.,  and  potatoes  20 
per  cent.  Starch  is  prepared 
from  such  sources  by  grinding, 
steeping,  or  fermentation;  the 
starch  granules  are  then  washed 
out  and  allowed  to  settle  after  the 
liquid  has  been  strained  from  the 
cellular  tissue.  Starch  is  insol- 
uble in  cold  water,  but  swells  up 
and  becomes  gelatinous  with  hot. 
It  is  colored  intensely  blue  bv 
iodine.  When  it  is  boiled  witn 
dilute  acids,  glucose  is  obtained, 
and  by  the  action  of  diastase  it  is 
converted  into  maltose;  dextrine 
is  an  intermediate  product  that  is 
also  obtained  by  neating  alone. 
Starch  is  also  converted  into 
maltose  and  dextrine  'oy  the 
action  of  the  saliva  and  pancreatic 
juice,  and  is  thus  a  valuable  food. 

Star  Chamber,  an  English 
court,  founded  in  1487  by  Henry 
VII.  Tradition  says  that  it  de- 
rived its  name  from  the  golden 
stars  which  decorated  the  ceiling 
of  the  room  in  which  it  met.  It 
revived  certain  of  the  former 
powers  of  the  king's  council,  but 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  constitute 
a  new  court  of  justice.  The  reason 
for  its  creation  was  the  desire  of 
the  king  to  curb  and  bring  fully 
under  the  law  of  the  land  the 
greater  nobles,  who  were  in  their 
own  districts  powerful  enough  to 
overawe  both  judge  and  jury.  Its 
function  was  to  punish  the  mis- 
demeanors of  sheriffs  and  juries, 
and  all  illegal  assemblies  and 
disturbances.  The  new  court  was 
composed  of  the  chancellor,  the 
treasurer,  the  keeper  of  the  privy 
seal,  the  president  of  the  council, 
a  bishop,  and  the  chief  justices. 
It  had  jurisdiction  over  all  cases 
short  of  capital  offences,  both 
civil  and  criminal.  In  tho  hands 
of  Laud  it  became  the  instrument 
of  oppression.  Torture  was 
freely  used  to  extort  confession 
of  some  sort,  whereupon  the  pro- 
ceedings became  oral,  and  the 
prisoner  was  condemned  without 
ever  having  been  given  a  chance 
of  being  heard  in  his  own  defence; 
In  1641  it  was  abolished. 

Stare  Decisis.  A  doctrine  of 
the  law  to  the  effect  that  the  prin- 
ciples of  cases  decided  in  courts  of 
superior  jurisdiction  will  be  fol- 


lowed by  inferior  courts  in  the 
determination  of  analogous  cases 
arising  subsequently.  court  is 
not  bound  by  the  decisions  of 
another  court  of  concurrent  juris- 
diction, but  may  give  them  great 
weight.  Where  the  decision  of  a 
court  of  last  resort  in  a  state  is 
reversed  by  a  United  States  court, 
the  inferior  courts  of  the  state  will 
recognize  the  later  decision  as 
binding.  In  writing  an  opinion  a 
judge  may  use  illustrations  and 
reasoning  which  are  not  approved 
by  his  colleagues.  They  may, 
therefore,  only  concur  in  the  de- 
cision and  not  in  the  reasons  ad- 
vanced by  the  judge  writing  the 
opinion.  In  such  a  case,  such 
reasoning,  etc.,  is  not  given  the 
weight  of  a  decision  of  the  entire 
court.  Statements  of  law  not 
involved  in  the  determination  of  a 
case  are  known  as  obiter  dicta,  and 
need  not  be  followed  under  the 
doctrine  of  stare  decisis.  Rulings 
of  departments  of  the  government 
have  not  the  effect  of  decisions. 
Contracts  entered  into,  and  vested 
rights  acquired  with  reference  to 
the  law  declared  by  a  decision,  are 
not  impaired  by  a  reversal.  See 
Precedents;  Res  Judicata. 

_  Starfish  form  the  class_  Aster- 
oidea  of  the  phylum  Echinoder- 
mata.  A  considerable  number  of 
species  occur.  On  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  starfish  is  the  central 
mouth,  from  which  lead  five  open 
grooves,  extending  to  the  tips  of 
the  arms.  These  are  the  ambu- 
lacral  grooves,  and  lodge  the 
numerous  tube-feet,  which  are  the 
organs  of  locomotion,  and  ter- 
minate in  suckers.  On  the  upper 
surface  are  the  spines,  which  have 
the  curious  pedicellariae  mingled 
with  them.  Less  conspicuous  are 
the  delicate  skin-gills,  protrusions 
of  the  skin  which  serve  for  pur- 
poses of  respiration.  Between 
two  of  the  arms  on  the  dorsal 
surface  lies  the  madreporite,  or 
perforated  plate,  which  allows  of 
the  entrance  of  water  into  the 
water-vascular  system.  The  anus 
is  a  minute  opening  also  on  the 
dorsal  surface.  The  viscera 
extend  into  the  arms.  Starfish 
feed  chiefly  upon  bivalve  molluscs. 


Starfish  {Asterias  ruhens). 


and  are  very  destructive  to  oyster 
and   mussel  beds.     The  oyster 

Elantations  in  New  York  Bay, 
ong  Island  Sound,  and  on  the 
Rhode  Island  shores  are  especially 


harassed  bv  them,  and  it  is  neces- 
sary for  the  oystermen  to  catch 
them  by  draggmg  tangles,  or  the 
beds  would  be  utterly  destroyed. 
They  do  not  as  a  rule  mutilate 
themselves  so  readily  as  do  brittle- 
stars,  but  possess  a  remarkable 
power  of  regenerating  parts  of 
the  body  which  have  been  acci- 
dentally injured.  The  sexes  are 
separate,  and  the  free-swimming 
larva  is  known  either  as  a  bipin- 
naria  or  as  a  brachiolaria.  See 
Reports  of  the  10th  U.  S.  Census, 
and  Mayer's  Sea-shore  Life  (1906). 

Stargard,  tn.,  prov.  Pomer- 
ania,  Prussia,  22  m.  by  rail  E.  of 
Stettin.  The  cathedral  dates 
from  the  14th  century.  The  town 
manufactures  machinery  and 
woollen  and  cotton  goods.  Pop. 
(1905)  26,908. 

Starii-Krim,  or  Eski-Krim, 
tnship.,  Crimea,  15  m.  w.  of  Feo- 
dosia,  on  the  s.  coast  of  the  pen- 
insula; the  first  capital  of  the 
Nogai  khans  in  the  13th  century. 

Starli,  John  (1728-1822), 
American  soldier,  born  in  Lon- 
donderry, N.  H.  He  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Indians  in  1752, 
but  was  later  ransomed;  served 
in  the  French  and  Indian  War, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  captain; 
and  after  the  war  became  a  farmer 
at  Derryfield  in  his  native  prov- 
ince. He  assisted  as  colonel  of  a 
regiment  in  the  siege  of  Boston- 

earticipated  in  the  battle  of 
unker  Hill;  and  afterward 
served  at  Trenton  and  Princeton: 
but  not  having  received  deserved 
promotion  he  left  the  army  and 
went  back  to  his  farm.  When, 
however.  Gen.  Burgoyne  began 
his  invasion  from  Canada,  Stark 
accepted  comrnand  of  the  N.  H. 
troops,  and  with  them  defeated 
and  destroyed  two  detachments 
of  British  troops  at  the  glorious 
battle  of  Bennington  (Aug.  16, 
1777).  For  this  service,  which 
did  much  toward  forcing  the  sur- 
render of  Burgoyne,  Stark  was  ap- 
pointed a  brigadier-general,  and 
received  the  thanks  of  Congress. 
He  commanded  the  northern  de- 
partment during  1778-81,  and  at 
the  close  of  the  war  retired  once 
rnore  to  private  life.  See  his 
biography  by  Edward  Everett  in 
Sparks's  American  Biography^ 
and  his  Life  and  Official  Corre- 
spondence by  his  grandson,  Caleb 
Sparks  (1860). 

Starling  {Sturnus  vulgaris),  a 
passerine  bird,  generally  distrib- 
uted throughout  temperate  Eu- 
rope. It  destroys  vast  numbers  of 
the  larvae  of  insects;  but  attacks 
cultivated  fruit,  sometimes  causing 
great  destruction  in  orchards  on 
account  of  its  large  numbers.  It 
also  eats  the  eggs  and  young  of 
other  birds.  The  diet  further 
includes  worms,  slugs  and  snails, 
wild  berries,  and  even  small  mam- 
mals. The  nests  are  usually 
constructed  in  holes  in  walls  or 


Staro-Byelsk 


408 


Stars 


buildings,  or  in  banks  and  cliffs, 
or  even  in  trees.  To  a  consider- 
able extent  the  birds  roost  in  com- 

Sanies,  and  assemble  in  large 
ocks  in  the  evening.  The 
starling  has  considerable  power 
of  song,  but  much  more  striking 
is  the  habit  of  imitating  the  notes 
of  other  birds,  or  even  mere  noises. 
The  blackbird  is  frequently  mim- 
icked. The  male  in  summer  has 
the  plumage  black,  shot  with  bril- 
liant metallic  reflections.  After 
the  autumn  moult  it  is  spotted 
with  buff  above  and  white  below. 
In  S.  Europe  the  common  starling 
of  Britain  is  replaced  by  the  black 
starling  (S.  unicolor),  and  this 
same  bird  has  become  acclimated 
about  New  York  city.  To  the 
starlings  in  the  wide  sense  (family 
Sturnidae)  belong  a  large  number 
of  beautiful  birds — e.g.  pastor, 
myna,  and  grackle.  The  last- 
named  belongs  to  the  tree-star- 


cum  has  fragrant  white  flowers, 
and  is  of  large  size.  It  is  a  tender 
plant. 


Common  Starling. 

lings  which  are  sometimes  erected 
into  a  separate  family  as  the 
Eulabetidae.  Of  the  tree-star- 
lings, the  glossy  starlings  (Lam- 
protornis)  of  Africa  have  a  beauti- 
ful  plumage,  displaying  shades  of 
bluish-green,  purple,  and  violet, 
relieved  by  golden  bronze.  Star- 
lings occur  also  in  India  and 
Africa,  but  there  are  no  American 
species. 

Staro-Byelsk,  tn.,  Kharkov 
gov.,  S.  Russia,  130  m.  e.s.e.  of 
Kharkov  city.  It  has  flour  mills, 
tallow  foundries,  and  manufac- 
tures of  candles  and  Astrakhan 
caps.   Pop.  (1897)  13,128. 

Starodub,  tn.,  Chernigov  gov., 
S.W.  Russia,  94  m.  n.n.e.  of 
Chernigov  city.  It  has  flower 
nurseries,  hemp  culture,  tanner- 
ies, tallow  and  bell-metal  foun- 
dries, and  manufactures  of  leather 
and  copper  ware.  Pop.  (1897) 
12,451. 

Star  of  Bethlehem,  or  Or- 

NITHOGALUM,  a  genus  of  bulbous 

Elants  belonging  to  the  order 
riliaceae.  The  flowers  are  white, 
and  the  petals  do  not  fall  as  the 
seed  ripens,  as  do  those  of  the 
scillas.  The  best-known  species 
is  O.  umbellatum;  its  white-mar- 
gined, greenish  flowers  are  borne 
in  umbel-like  corymbs.  It  is  often 
escaped  from  gardens.   O.  Arabi- 


Star  a}  Bethlehem  {Ornithogalum 
umbellatum). 
1,  Pistil ;  2,  stamen. 

Star  of  India.  See  Orders 
OF  Knighthood. 

Starokonstantinov,  tn.,  Vol- 
hynia  gov.,  W.  Russia,  62  m.  w. 
of  Berdichev.  It  has  breweries, 
distilleries,  brick  fields,  tallow 
foundries,  and  manufactories  of 
soap,  potash,  and  tobacco.  Pop. 
(1897)  16,527,  largely  Jews. 

Starr,  Eliza  Allen  (1824- 
1901),  American  author,  was  born 
at  Deerfield,  Mass.,  and  became 
a  Roman  Catholic  in  1850.  She 
subsequently  removed  to  Chicago. 
Her  early  eaucation  was  obtained 
in  her  native  town.  She  gave 
many  years'  study  to  religious  art, 
on  which  subject  she  lectured. 
Her  writings  received  the  special 
approbation  of  Leo  xiii.,  who  sent 
her  a  medallion.  They  include: 
Patron  Saints  (1871),  Songs  of  a 
lifetime  (1887),  Christian  Art  in 
our  Own  Age  (1891),  and  The 
Three  Archangels  and  the  Guard- 
ian Angels  in  Art  (1899). 

Starr,  Frederick  (1858), 
American  anthropologist,  born  in 
Auburn,  N.  Y.  He  graduated 
at  Lafayette  College  in  1885;  was 
professor  of  science  in  the  Normal 
School,  Lock  Haven,  Pa.,  in 
1883-4,  and  professor  of  biology 
in  1884-7  in  Coe  College.  In 
1889-91  he  had  charge  of  the 
department  of  anthropology  in 
the  American  Museum  of  Natural 


History,  New  York,  and  in  1893 
was  appointed  professor  of  an- 
thropology in  the  University  of 
Chicago.  In  1Q06  he  lived  with 
Ndombe,  a  South  African  chief 
ruling  a  small  dominion  near  the 
headwaters  of  the  Kassai,  the 
largest  southern  tributary  of  the 
Congo  river.  The  object  of  his 
visit  to  the  Congo  Free  State 
was  the  ethnological  and  an- 
thropological study  of  certain 
native  tribes.  His  chief  publica- 
tions are:  On  the  Hills  (an  ele- 
mentary geology,  1890);  Some 
First  Steps  in  Human  Progress 
iXS^f);  American  Indians  (1899); 
Indians  of  Southern  Mexico 
(1899);  Strange  Peoples  (1900); 
and  Readings  from  Modern  Mexi- 
can Authors  (1904). 

Starr,  Moses   Allen  (1854), 
American   neurologist,    born  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.    He  graduated 
M.D.  at  Columbia  University  in 
1880,  established  a  medical  prac- 
tice in  New  York  and  specialized 
diseases  of  the  nervous  system, 
vin  1889  he  was  appointed  pro- 
>Afessor  of  nervous  diseases  in  the 
k  medical  department  of  Columbia 
i|  University.    He   edited  Psycho- 
cj  logical  Review  and  Journal  of 
\  Nervous   and   Mental  Diseases, 
^  and     has    published  Familiar 
Forms  of  Nervous  Diseases  (1893): 
Brain  Surgery  (1895);  Atlas  of 
Nerve  Cells  (1897);  and  Organic 
Nervous  Diseases  (1903). 

Star  Route  Frauds.  The  name 
given  to  frauds  perpetrated  at 
the  expense  of  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment in  the  conduct  of  the 
mail  service  on  the  '  Star  Routes ' 
— that  is,  -lines  upon  which  the 
mail  could  not  be  carried  by  rail- 
road or  steamboat.  Officials  in 
authority  showed  favors  to  a 
combination,  or  *  ring,'  of  con- 
tractors, who  obtained  control 
over  a  large  number  of  routes  in 
the  West  and  Southwest,  and 
after  the  service  had  been  let 
on  contracts  the  compensation 
was  largely  increased  by  expedit- 
ing the  time  required  for  trips 
and  increasing  the  number  of 
trips  beyond  the  necessities  of 
the  service.  In  1882  indictments 
were  found  against  Thomas  J. 
Brady,  who  had  just  resigned  the 
position  of  second  assistant  post- 
master-general, Senator  S.  W. 
Dorsey  of  Arkansas,  and  others 
on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  to  de- 
fraud the  government.  On  the 
first  trial  two  of  the  defendants 
were  convicted,  while  in  the 
cases  of  others  the  jury  dis- 
agreed, but  on  the  second  trial 
all  escaped  punishment. 

Stars,  self-luminous  bodies  in 
space.  About  4,400  are  visible  to 
the  naked  eye  in  both  hemi- 
spheres; but  the  total  number 
it  is  possible  to  photograph  with 
long  exposures  may  reach,  or 
surpass,  100,000,000.  Their  total 
light  is  estimated  by  Professor 


stars 


409 


State 


Simon  Newcomb  at  680  times 
that  of  Vega.  Their  total  heat, 
judging  from  experiments  by 
Professor  Nichols,  does  not  ex- 
ceed that  derived  from  a  standard 
candle  six^y  feet  distant.  The 
classification  of  the  stars  by  mag- 
nitude depends  upon  their  appar- 
ent brightness,  tnat  by  spectral 
quality  upon  their  physical  con- 
stitution. They  may  thus  be 
divided  into  five  leading  families 
or  types:  (1.)  Helium  stars,  the 
absorlDing  layers  of  which  are 
composed  mainly  of  helium,  hy- 
drogen, oxygen,  nitrogen,  and 
magnesium.  They  are  intensely 
luminous  bodies  of  low  mean 
density.  Nearly  half  of  them 
are  close  binaries.  Most  of  the 
stars  in  Orion  are  of  the  helium 
kind.  (2.)  Sirian  stars  are  bril- 
liantly white  and  strongly  actinic. 
They  give  spectra  in  which  dusky 
hydrogen  bands  are  prominent, 
iron  lines  being  faint  and  fine. 
More  than  half  the  stars  belong 
to  the  Sirian  type.  (3.)  The  sun 
is  the  prototype  of  the  next  class, 
which  is  also  very  numerously 
represented.  (4.)  Antarian  stars 
show  a  fluted  spectrum  due  to  ab- 
sorption by  titanium,  in  addition 
to  a  spectrum  of  lines  resembling 
that  of  the  sun.  They  are  red  or 
orange,  and  frequently  variable. 
Antares  and  Mira  Ceti  are_  ex- 
amples. About  1,000  such  objects 
have  been  discovered.  (5.)  Carbon 
3tars  are  distinguishea  by  deep 
bands  of  carbon-absorption,  with 
which  are  associated  dark  lines 
indicating  the  presence  of  iron, 
calcium,  and  other  metals.  Nu- 
merous bright  lines  of  unknown 
origin  have  further  been  detected 
by  Professor  Hale  in  their  photo- 
graphed spectra.  The  arresting 
action  of  their  atmospheres  on 
';heir  blue  and  violet  rays  causes 
them  to  appear  red  and  faint. 
The  brightest  (152  Schjellerup) 
is  of  5.5  magnitude.  About  250 
carbon  stars  are  known,  of  which 
14  per  cent,  are  variable.  The 
first  four  star  types  are  connected 
by  close  gradations,  and  are  held 
to  be  in  course  of  development, 
each  into  the  next,  through  the 
advance  of  cooling  and  condensa- 
tion. ^  The  position  of  carbon 
stars  in  the  evolutionary  scheme 
is  not  clear.  The  spectra  of  vari- 
able stars  are  rarely  of  helium  or 
Sirian  quality. 

The  stars  differ  enormously  in 
size  and  light  power.  The  giants 
among  them,  such  as  Canopus 
and  Rigel,  are  thousands  of  times 
more  luminous  than  our  sun; 
while  others  give  only  a  fraction 
of  his  light,  and  an  undetermined 
multitude  are  sensibly  obscure. 
A  few  of  these  are  known  by 
their  gravitative  effects;  but  they 
are  not,  properly  speaking,  stars. 
The  massiveness  of  the  stars  va- 
ries less  than  their  luminosity, 
owing  to  the  circumstance  that 


the  most  brilliant  orbs  are  the 
most  distended  (Newcomb).  The 
parallaxes  of  about  80  have,  so 
far,  proved  measurable.  They 
are  excessively  minute,  implying 
distances  needing  the  great  unit 
of  the  '  light-year'  to  express 
them.  Thus,  stellar  observations 
are  all  belated  by  intervals  rang- 
ing from  4j  years  for  a  Centauri 
to  3,000  or"  4,000  for  outlying  ob- 
jects. Most  stars  are  so  nearly 
fixed  that  their  displacements 
will  be  perceptible  only  after 
the  lapse  of  several  centuries. 
Bossert's  catalogue  of  2,675  proper 
motions  (189G)  includes,  however, 
1,500  which  exceed  0".2  annually; 
and  an  eighth-magnitude  star  in 
Pictor  describes  a  yearly  arc  of 
8". 7.  Apparent  stellar  move- 
ments are  in  part  'peculiar'  or 
individual,  in  part  parallactic — 
a  perspective  effect  of  the  sun's 
translation.  Using  this  latter 
element  as  a  criterion  of  the 
mean  distance  of  bodies  of  stars. 
Professor  Kapteyn  reached  the 
conclusion  (anticipated  by  Monck 
of  Dublin)  that,  on  an  average, 
Sirian  are  fully  twice  as  remote 
from  us  as  solar  stars.  From  an 
analysis  of  280  radial  velocities. 
Professor  Campbell  found  the 
mean  rate  of  stellar  movement 
through  space  to  be  twenty-one 
miles  a  second.  A  few  stars, 
however,  progress  with  from  five 
to  fourteen  times  this  medium 
speed;  others,  particularly  those 
of  helium  type,  are  relatively 
slow-paced.  No  general  plan  of 
sidereal  movement  is  discernible; 
but  in  Taurus,  Ursa  Major,  and 
other  parts  of  the  sky,  squadrons 
of  stars  drift  together,  swayed  by 
a  common  impulse.  The  modes 
of  stellar  distribution  vary  with 
spectral  type.  Solar  and  Anta- 
rian stars  appear  to  constitute  an 
immense  quasi-globular  assem- 
blage, with  the  sun  near  its  centre. 
They  show  none  of  the  preference 
for  the  Milky  Way  that  is  strongly 
visible  in  the  Sirian  and  helium 
classes.  Towards  this  zone  the 
varieties  of  bright-line  objects 
are  also  attracted;  so  that,  as 
Professor  Pickering  remarks,  a 
galactic  and  an  extra  -  galactic 
world  of  stars  can  be  distinguished. 
The  combined  structure,  although 
of  colossal  magnitude,  is  evidently 
of  finite  compass.  See  also  Fixed 
Stars. 

Stars  and  Stripes.    See  Flag. 

Star  Spangled  Banner,  the  na- 
tional anthem  of  the  United  States, 
prescribed  by  military  and  naval 
regulations  to  be  played  on  oc- 
casions of  ceremony.  It  was 
written  by  Francis  Scott  Key 
(q.v.)  while  a  witness  from  a 
British  ship  of  the  bombardment 
of  Fort  McJHenry  near  Baltimore, 
in  1814.  The  words  were  sung 
to  a  British  air,  'Anacreon  in 
Heaven,'  and  at  once  acquired 
wide  popular  favor  as  a  patriotic 


hymn.  Naval  and  military  regu- 
lations prescribe  that  officers  and 
men  should  either  uncover  or 
stand  at  attention  and  salute  when 
this  hymn  is  played,  and  it  is  the 
custom  in  all  public  gatherings 
for  the  audience  to  rise  and  stand 
uncovered.  It  should  never  be 
played  in  a  medley  or  with  other 
patriotic  airs. 

Star-stone.   See  Sapphire. 

Start,  Edwin  Augustus  (1863), 
American  educator,  was  born  at 
North  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  and 
graduated  (1884)  at  Tufts.  His 
early  years  were  devoted  to  news- 
paper work,  and  from  1892  to 
1900  he  was  professor  of  history  at 
his  alma  mater,  after  which  he 
devoted  himself  to  general  writing. 

Starvation.    See  Fasting. 

Starwort.    See  Stellaria. 

Stas,  Jean  Servais  (1813-91), 
Belgian  chemist,  born  at  Louvain. 
He  worked  in  Paris  with  Dumas 
till  1840,  when  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  mili- 
tary school  at  Brussels,  a  post 
he  held  till  1865.  He  held  the 
office  of  commissaire  des  mon- 
naies  till  1872.  Stas's  life-work 
was  his  masterly  revision  of  the 
atomic  weights.  It  settled  the 
question  that  atomic  weights  are 
invariable,  and  disposed  of  the 
hypothesis  of  Prout,  that  they 
were  integral  multiples  of  the 
atomic  weight  of  hydrogen.  Stas 
also  developed  a  process  of  de- 
tecting alkaloids  which  has  been 
of  great  service  in  forensic  medi- 
cine. His  CEuvres  Completes  ap- 
peared in  1894.  See  Mallet's 
'Memorial  Lecture,'  in  Jour. 
Chem.  Soc.  (1893). 

Stassfurt,  tn.,  prov.  Prussia, 
19  m.  by  rail  S.  of  Magdeburg. 
The  principal  product  is  salt, 
which  is  exported  in  large  quan- 
tities.   Pop.  (1900)  20,011. 

State.  The  lofty  political  con- 
ceptions of  Socrates,  Plato,  and 
Aristotle  have  had  an  immense 
influence  upon  the  history  of  the 
state.  Aristotle's  work  is  of  a 
far  more  practical  character  than 
that  of  Plato.  But  in  those  days 
the  state  was  only  merging  from 
the  chrysalis  stage  of  the  farnily 
and  the  clan.  Notwithstanding 
the  increased  importance  of  terri- 
torial rights,  arising  from  the 
development  of  commerce,  the 
Greek  regarded  blood  and  re- 
ligion as  the  only  binding  polit- 
ical ties.  His  fellow  -  citizens 
were  those,  and  those  only,  who 
could  claim  descent  _  from  an 
ancestor  common  to  him  and  to 
them.  Strangers  in  blood  might 
be  tolerated  as  helots  and  slaves, 
or  possibly  as  resident  aliens; 
they  formed  no  part  of  the  state. 
As  a  consequence  the  Greek  con- 
ception of  the  state  was  that  of  a 
minute  community.  At  moments 
of  intense  enthusiasm,  such  as 
that  which  preceded  the  Persian 
invasion,  these   little  communi- 


state 


410 


State 


ties  sometimes  formed  a  tempo- 
rary union  ior  defensive  purposes. 
But  any  attempt  at  closer  soli- 
darity, such  as  the  Athenian 
hegemony,  was^  regarded  with 
the  bitterest  jealousy.  Plato 
likens  the  state  to  an  individual, 
and  makes  the  organization  of  his 
model  state  approach  as  nearly  as 

Eossible  to  the  organization  of  a 
uman  being.  With  him,  there-^ 
fore,  unity  is  everything.  All ' 
independent  organization  which 
could  possibly  militate  against 
the  complete  unity  of  the  state 
is  to  be  rigidly  suppressed.  Aris- 
totle lays  it  down  that  a  state  is 
formed  by  the  union  of  clans  and 
villages.  Hence  the  complete  ab- 
sorption of  the  individual  in  the 
community,  which  is  so  striking  a 
characteristic  of  Greek  political 
speculation,  is  explained  by  the 
fact  that  in  the  patriarchal  house- 
hold the  authority  of  the  house- 
father was  supreme.  Thus  is  ex- 
plained also  tne  unlimited  sphere 
of  the  state's  authority  and  ac- 
tivity. 

To  the  Romans  belongs  the 
credit  of  having  found  a  prac- 
tical difference  between  the  house- 
hold and  the  state.  The  early 
history  of  Rome  strikingly  resem- 
bles the  early  history  of  Athens 
and  Sparta.  We  find  there  the 
same  patriarchal  basis  of  theory, 
the  same  exclusiveness  toward 
strangers,  the  same  devotion  to 
blood  and  ancestor  worship  as 
the  basis  of  society.  But  the 
great  revolution  with  which  is 
connected  the  name  of  Servius 
Tullius  marks,  far  more  than 
the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  an 
epoch-making  change.  The  co- 
mitia  centuriata  was  a  body  organ- 
ized on  totally  different  lines  from 
those  of  the  patriarchal  state. 
It  did  not  exclude  any  one  on  the 
ground  of  birth.  Its  members 
were  not  grouped  together  in 
bodies  of  kmdred.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  was  no  democratic  body, 
either  in  the  ancient  or  the  modern 
sense.  Though  it  included  all  free 
titizens,  it  gave  immense  pre- 
ponderance to  wealth,  and  prob- 
ablv  to  wealth  of  a  peculiarly 
Stable  kind — to  land,  cattle,  and 
slaves.  But  the  comitia  centu- 
riata was  even  more  remarkable 
in  its  military  than  in  its  eco- 
nomic character.  It  enunciated 
the  essential  principle  that  every 
free  citizen  of  the  state,  house- 
holder or  subordinate,  native  or 
immigrant,  is  bound  to  serve 
the  state  in  arms.  These  were 
the  essential  principles  of  a  new 
type  of  state — the  state  founded 
on  military  liability  and  the 
ownership  of  property.  _  The 
new  state  was  capable  of  infinite 
expansion,  so  long  as  it  could  find 
men  willing  to  enroll  themselves 
as  citizens  and  undertake  the  lia- 
bility to  military  service.  The 
old  race  distinction  between  the 


patricians  and  the  plebeians 
gradually  disappeared  in  politics. 
The  alien  blood  of  the  Italian 
communities  found  a  place  in  the 
Roman  state;  the  old  Latin  feder- 
ation was  replaced  by  the  Roman 
empire.  Citizenship  had  ceased 
to  be  a  matter  of  birth;  it  had 
become  a  matter  of  allegiance. 
The  new  idea  was  independent 
of  any  particular  form  of  govern- 
ment. It  began  with  the  patri- 
archal kings  and  senate;  it  suited 
equally  the  republican  system  of 
co-ordinate  magistrates;  and  it 
was  not  even  inconsistent  with 
the  despotic  empire  of  the  Csesars. 
Nor  did  it  change  until  the  Caesars 
substituted  paid  professional 
troops  for  the  citizen  armies  of 
the  republic.  Then,  indeed,  the 
conception  of  citizenship  altered. 
It  was  no  longer  military  service 
but  military  subjection  which 
made  the  bond  of  the  state. 

To  the  political  speculator  of 
the  middle  ages  the  universal 
empire  of  Rome  was  the  highest 
ideal  of  the  state.  Accordingly, 
he  strove  to  re-create  the  empire, 
and  more  than  once  succeeded  in 
doing  so.  The  Frank  empire  (800- 
888)  and  the  Holy  Roman  empire 
(962-180G)  were  the  results  of  his 
teaching.  The  only  serious  in- 
road upon  Roman  imperial  theory 
was  made  hy  the  growing  power 
of  the  church,  chiefly  as  concen- 
trated in  the  pretensions  of  the 
Roman  see.  The  object  of  polit- 
ical speculators  was  to  reconcile 
the  conflicting  claims  of  the  two 
powers;  and  the  solution  of  the 
problem  usually  put  forward  was 
that  the  pope  was  to  wield  the 
spiritual,  the  emperor  the  phys- 
ical, powers  of  the  universal  em- 
pire. If  they  could  not  agree, 
there  was  no  real  remedy.  The 
feudal  state  arose  as  the  Frank 
empire  dissolved,  and  the  feudal 
state  was  a  compromise  between 
patriarchal  leadership  and  mili- 
tary supremacy.  Based  on  cus- 
tom, supported  largely  by  ser- 
vices which,  in  fact  as  well  as  in 
name,  were  free  gifts,  the  feudal 
state  recognized  the  rights  of 
subjects  as  well  as  of  rulers. 
The  duty  of  the  ruler  was  to 
protect  his  vassals  against  inva- 
sion and  disturbance;  the  duty 
of  the  vassals  was^  to  support 
their  ruler  loyally  in  his  task. 
It  is  formally  admitted  by  the 
feudal  law-books  that  if  a  ruler 
fails  in  his  duty,  his  vassal  may 
solemnly  defy  him  and  dissolve 
the  bond;  just  as,  if  the  vassal 
fails  in  his  allegiance,  the  ruler 
may  deprive^  him  ^  of  that  fief  or 
benefice  which,  in  theory,  the 
feudal  vassal  always  received 
from  his  lord.  In  this  system 
the  husbandmen  and  the  crafts- 
men, the  producers  of  the  com- 
munity, were  left  almost  out  of 
account,  probably  because  they 
usually  represented  a  conquered 


community.  The  winning  of 
their  way  to  power  was  the  task 
of  modern  history.  Mediaeval 
ideas  of  polity  rested,  therefore, 
on  two  great  distinctions — the 
distinction  between  the  spiritual 
and  the  secular  power  in  the 
papacy  and  the  empire,  and  the 
distinction  between  the  military 
classes  and  the  other  classes  in 
each  community.  Two  great 
events  were  destined  to  destroy 
these  distinctions.  One  was  the 
Reformation  of  the  16th  century; 
the  other  was  the  development  of 
a  world-commerce  which,  taking 
its  rise  in  the  crusades,  expanded 
rapidly  from  the  time  of  tne  dis- 
coveries of  Vasco  da  Gama  and 
Columbus.  The  effects  of  the 
growth  of  commerce  made  them- 
selves felt,  politically,  in  the 
movement  toward  representative 
government  which  took  place  all 
over  Europe  in  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries.  The  consequent  fall 
in  the  value  of  money  compelled 
resort  to  new  kinds  of  taxation, 
and  this  resort  led  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  representative  states- 
general  and  parliaments.  But 
in  almost  every  country  save  Eng- 
land the  movement,  after  a  bril- 
liant beginning,  received  a  decided 
setback.  During  the  14th,  15th, 
and  16th  centuries,  the  English 
nation,  compact  and  strong,  was 
gradually  formed  by  the  habit  of 
political  association.  Elsewhere 
in  Western  Europe  the  old  class 
divisions  survived,  and  the  theory 
of  the  dual  empire  still  hung  over 
the  field  of  politics,  until  it  per- 
ished in  fact  (though  a  shadow  of 
it  long  survived)  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  It  was  impossible 
for  a  pope  to  claim  authority  over 
countries  which  considered  him  as 
Antichrist.  It  was  necessary  to 
find  a  substitute  for  mediaeval 
ideas.  The  task  was  taken  up 
with  alacrity  by  the  writers  of 
those  states  which  had  discarded 
the  supremacy  of  Rome,  and  even 
by  those  who  still  remained  Catho- 
lics, Bodin,  Grotius,  Hobbes, 
Montesquieu,  each  in  his  own 
way,  freed  the  theory  of  the  state 
from  the  trammels  of  mediaeval- 
ism.  Wherever  there  existed  a 
definitely  recognized  community, 
manifesting  obedience  to  an  organ- 
ized government  (which  govern- 
ment did  not,  in  fact,  obey  the 
directions  or  acknowledge  the 
authority  of  any  external  author- 
ity), there  was  a  sovereign  state. 
Forms  of  government  were  imma- 
terial, though  each  writer  had  his 
own  preference.  All  states  were 
equal  in  law,  whatever  their  differ- 
ences of  wealth  and  strength,  be- 
cause, recognizing  no  human 
authority,  they  were  in  a  condition 
of  nature-  and  in  a  condition  of 
nature  all  men  are  equal.  This 
doctrine  has  remained  supreme 
in  international  politics  until  our 
own  day.    But  with  regard  to  the 


state  KFK  411  State  Rights 


relations  of  rulers  with  their 
subjects,  the  agreement  of  the 
post-Reformation  publicists  dis- 
appears. Although  the  sever- 
ance of  England  from  Rome  at 
the  Reformation  had  been 
brought  about  by  the  king,  the 
principles  of  the  Reformation 
soon  led  to  a  desire  for  free  criti- 
cism and  independence  in  po- 
litical as  well  as  in  religious  mat- 
ters. This  desire  found  its 
natural  expression  in  Parlia- 
ment, and,  after  the  desperate 
struggle  of  the  Civil  War,  re- 
sulted in  the  establishment  of 
constitutional  government  at  the 
time  of  the  revolution  of  1688. 
In  the  Netherlands  the  adoption 
of  Protestant  principles  had 
much  to  do  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  republic.  In  Scot- 
land, where  Parliament,  though 
surviving,  had  never  obtained  a 
deep  hold  on  national  feeling,  an 
entirely  new  organization  for  the 
furtherance  of  Reformation  prin- 
ciples was  called  into  existence. 
But  in  the  Protestant  states  of 
Germany  the  excesses  which  fol- 
lowed on  the  adoption  of  Protes- 
tantism roused  even  ardent  re- 
formers like  Luther  to  take  the 
side  of  authority  ;  while  in  Ro- 
man Catholic  countries,  such  as 
Southern  Germany,  France,  and 
Italy,  the  hands  of  authority 
were  apparently  strengthened  by 
the  movement,  and  from  the  pe- 
riod of  the  Reformation  may  be 
dated  the  rise  of  that  absolutism 
which  lasted  until  the  French 
revolution. 

It  is  not,  therefore,  surprising 
to  find  that,  just  at  this  very 
time,  the  absolutist  theory  of  the 
state  as  the  actual  property  of 
the  ruler  found  distinguished 
supporters — e.g.,  Machiavelli  in 
Italy,  and  Filmer  in  England. 
The  'divine  right'  theory  of  mon- 
archy is  in  truth  a  curious  blend 
from  several  distinct  sources,  in 
which  Roman  law,  ecclesiastical 
doctrine,  and  feudal  conceptions 
are  moulded  to  the  advantage  of 
the  ruler.  But  as  the  popular  in- 
fluence on  politics  became  great- 
er, the  old  contrast  between 
rulers  and  ruled  gradually  dis- 
appeared, and  reformers  began 
to  look  upon  the  machinery  of 
government  as  a  thing  to  be 
coveted  rather  than  destroyed. 
England  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury exhibited  a  monarch  not 
merely  bound  by  the  rules  of 
positive  law,  but  actually  exer- 
cising his  undoubtedly  legal  pre- 
rogatives at  the  bidding  of  men 
who  called  themselves  his  serv- 
ants, but  who  really  were  his 
masters.  And  when  it  was  per- 
ceived that  the  choice  of  these 
servants  could  be  (luite  directly 
influenced  by  means  of  popular 
elections,  it  was  soon  realized 
that  without  violence  or  illegal- 
ity, the  majority  in  a  community 


could  really  get  its  wishes  car- 
ried out. 

Under  the  influence  of  this 
conception  the  attitude  of  the 
masses  toward  the  state  has  en- 
tirely changed.  The  desire  is 
now,  not  to  destroy  state  machin- 
ery, but  to  control  it.  The  anti- 
political  thinkers — the  nihilists, 
the  anarchists,  and  the  individu- 
alists— are  decidedly  at  a  dis- 
count. So  obvious  is  the  path 
before  the  reformers  that  the 
privileged  classes  have  awakened 
to  their  danger,  and  have  organ- 
ized themselves  into  opposition. 
The  old  opposition  to  the  State 
as  an  institution  has  almost  en- 
tirely disappeared.  It  is  regard- 
ed as  a  natural  organ  for  the 
expression  of  the  national  will, 
and  the  only  dispute  is  as  to  what 
are  the  precise  dictates  of  that 
will.  See  Government;  Poli- 
tics ;  Sovereignty. 

State  and  Church.  A  State 
church  is  one  established  by  acts 
of  the  legislature  or  otherwise  as 
the  church  par  excellence  of  the 
nation.  It  receives  official  recog- 
nition from,  and  officially  recog- 
nizes in  retvirn,  the  head  of  the 
State.  It  also  receives,  directly 
or  indirectly,  endowment  from 
the  State,  but  is  not  necessarily 
under  State  control. 

State  religion  has  brought 
about  order  in  most  national 
emergencies.  The  Roman  em- 
pire since  the  days  of  Constan- 
tine  (313),  and  the  mediaeval 
kingdoms  which  succeeded  it, 
went  further  than  this  (a)  by 
recognizing  the  duty  of  the  State 
to  support  the  Christian  Church, 
(b)  by  requiring  all  their  sub- 
jects to  be  members  of  that 
church.  Since  the  division  of 
the  Christian  Church,  which  be- 
gan with  the  Reformation  and 
the  growth  of  toleration,  these 
principles  have  been  abandoned, 
and  in  modern  times  the  endow- 
ment of  churches  is  left  almost 
entirely  to  private  beneficence, 
while  all  persons  are  allowed 
complete  liberty  of  conscience. 
The  existence  of  an  established 
church  in  countries  which  still 
retain  one,  such  as  England  and 
Scotland,  merely  means  that  the 
State  professes  that  form  of 
Christianity  in  its  corporate  ca- 
pacity, and,  in  the  case  of  Eng- 
land, defines  by  law  the  condi- 
tions under  which  any  person 
may  call  himself  a  member  of 
the  established  church.  See 
Church  ;  Papacy. 

Staten  Island,  the  Borough 
of  Richmond,  one  of  the  five 
counties  of  New  York  City,  is  lo- 
cated in  New  York  Harbor,  ly- 
ing south  of  Manhattan  Island, 
between  New  Jersey  and  Brook- 
lyn. Triangular  in  shape,  it  is 
13.9  miles  long,  7.13  miles  across 
at  its  widest  point,  and  has  an  area 
of  57.154  square  miles.  Todt 


Hill  (413  ft.)  is  the  highest  point 
on  the  Atlantic  Coast  between 
Maine  and  Florida.  There  are 
124  churches,  83  private  and 
public  schools,  3  colleges,  several 
hospitals,  libraries  and  museums, 
and  47  city  parks  with  a  total  of 
2,800  acres.  East  shore  ship- 
building terminals  include  the 
U.  S.  Foreign  Trade  Zone  No.  1. 
The  north  shore  is  a  shipbuilding 
center.  The  Island  is  mainly  a 
residential  community,  but  there 
are  extensive  truck  farms  and 
industries,  the  chief  manufac- 
tures being  soap,  oil  refining, 
shipbuilding,  dental  products, 
brewing,  smelting  and  refining, 
etc.  Pop.  (1930)  158,346; 
(1940)  174,441. 

Staten  Island,  a  lofty  rocky 
island  off  the  southeastern  ex- 
tremity of  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
South  America,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  Le  Maire  Strait. 
It  is  long  (45  miles)  and  narrow 
in  shape,  with  steep  coasts  pene- 
trated by  deep  fiords,  and  rises 
to  nearly  3,000  feet.  Snow  cov- 
ers it  almost  all  the  year.  It  has 
a  lighthouse  at  its  eastern  end. 

State  Rights,^  a  term  used  to 
designate  those  rights  of  govern- 
ment and  administration  that  a 
'State'  which  has  become  a  mem- 
ber of  a  federal  union  or  confed- 
eration may  still  exercise,  and 
within  which  the  central  admin- 
istration may  not  legally  intrude. 
State  rights  are  of  two  classes  : 
residuary  and  delegated.  They 
are  delegated  when  derived  from 
some  central  supreme  authority 
which  existed  before  and  created 
the  'States.'  Thus  the  rights  of 
the  Mexican  'States'  are  dele- 
gated to  the  States  by  central 
national  authority.  In  federa- 
tions like  the  American  Union 
formed  of  'States'  once  separate 
or  independent.  State  rights  are 
usually  residuary,  that  is,  in 
forming  a  central  government 
certain  specific  powers  are  given 
to  it,  while  the  remaining  or 
residuary  rights  of  government 
(what  they  are  is  seldom  speci- 
fied) are  left  to  the  States.  In 
federations  of  the  former  class 
there  is  seldom  any  controversy 
over  State  rights,  the  presump- 
tion being  in  favor  of  the  author- 
ity of  the  central  government ; 
but  the  reverse  is  true  of  federa- 
tions of  the  second  class.  In 
these  the  States  cling  to  the  pow- 
ers of  government,  allowing  to 
the  central  government  only 
those  rights  definitely  granted  in 
the  organic  law.  The  rights  re- 
served to  the  State  range  all  the 
way  from  simple  police  powers  to 
complete  sovereignty. 

In  the  United  States  the  ques- 
tion of  State  rights  has  been  and 
is  still  of  great  practical  impor- 
tance. In  theory  the  rights  re- 
tained by  the  States  can  be  re- 
duced   only    by  constitutional 


state  Rights 


KFK 


411  A 


State  Rights 


amendment.  Since  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Union  in  1789  there 
have  been  two  methods  of  con- 
struing the  Constitution  or  or- 
ganic law  of  the  Union — one 
would  interpret  it  strictly  and 
would  limit  as  much  as  possible 
the  sphere  of  the  central  govern- 
ment ;  the  other  would  construe 
it  liberally  and  thus  restrict  the 
rights  of  the  States  by  expanding 
the  authority  of  the  central  gov- 
ernment. State  rights  advocates 
have  based  their  case  largely 
upon  the  record  of  events  during 
and  following  the  Revolution,  to 
the  formation  of  the  Union  in 
1789.  The  British  colonies  were 
separate  before  the  Revolution  ; 
during  the  Revolution  there  was 
no  organic  imion,  each  State  as- 
serting separately  its  independ- 
ence and  sovereignty ;  by  the 
provisional  articles  of  peace  in 

1782  and  in  the  final  treaty  of 

1783  the  English  king  recognized 
the  former  colonies  as  'free,  sov- 
ereign and  independent  States.' 
Under  the  Confederation,  1781- 
1789,  the  central  government  was 
given  few  powers,  while  each 
State  remained  'sovereign' ;  the 
union  of  1789  under  the  Consti- 
tution was  a  stronger  one,  but 
still  the  central  government  was 
given  only  specific  limited  pow- 
ers, each  State  retaining  for  ex- 
clusive control  almost  the  whole 
field  of  governmental  activity  re- 
lating to  the  every-day  life  of 
the  people.  Sovereignty,  it  was 
claimed  by  some,  was  reserved 
by  each  State,  but  it  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  Constitution.  The 
theories  of  Nullification  (q.  v.) 
and  Secession  (q.  v.)  were  based 
upon  this  view. 

Various  methods  have  been  re- 
sorted to  by  States  to  retain  their 
respective  sovereignty :  inter- 
state compacts,  Federal-State  co- 
operation and  trade  barriers. 
The  most  notable  tendency  in  re- 
cent years  has  been  the  conflict 
between  the  growth  of  centrali- 
zation in  an  effort  to  maintain  a 
free  national  market  and  the  de- 
sire to  preserve  the  rights  of 
States  to  perform  their  tradi- 
tional function.  By  virtue  of  the 
commerce  clause  of  the  Federal 
Constitution,  the  power  of  Con- 
gress has  in  the  past  been  de- 
clared to  be  plenary  in  scope — 
free  from  interference  by  the 
States,  paramount  to  all  State 
legislation  in  the  premises,  capa- 
ble of  being  exerted  to  its  utmost 
extent  over  every  part  of  such 
commerce  and  acknowledging  no 
limitations  other  than  are  pre- 
scribed in  the  Constitution.  The 
majority  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
in  the  face  of  a  long  line  of 
precedents  to  the  contrary,  ruled 
that  control  of  the  United  States 
over  its  waterways  was  not  lim- 
ited strictly  to  navigation,  but 
could  be  utilized  for  the  inter- 


ests of  the  commerce  of  the 
whole  country.  Proof  of  the 
fluctuating  nature  of  'newer'  law 
is  the  Court's  insistence  that 
'navigability'  could  not  be  deter- 
mined by  a  formula  fitting  every 
stream  under  all  circumstances 
and  at  all  times.  This  pro- 
nouncement was  evoked  by  the 
protest  of  Mr.  Justice  Roberts  to 
the  effect  that  if  the  philosophy 
of  the  majority  of  the  court  be 
the  law  of  the  land.  Congress 
can  create  'navigability'  by  de- 
termining to  improve  any  non- 
navigable  stream.  (U.  S.  v.  Ap- 
palachian Electric  Power  Com- 
pany, 61  Sup.  Ct.  291.) 

On  the  other  hand,  in  Federal 
Trade  Commission  v.  Bunte 
Brothers,  Inc.,  (61  Sup.  Ct. 
580)  the  Court  set  aside  a  cease 
and  desist  order  of  the  Federal 
Trade  Commission  as  being  in 
excess  of  its  authority.  Bunte 
Brothers  manufactured  and  sold 
candy  in  Illinois  in  what  the 
trade  called  'break  and  take' 
packages,  which  made  the  amount 
of  candy  which  the  buyer  re- 
ceived dependent  upon  chance. 
The  Federal  Trade  Commission, 
deeming  this  an  unfair  method 
of  competition,  prohibited  the 
use  of  this  method.  The  Court 
was  of  the  opinion  that  the  Fed- 
eral Trade  Commission  Act  only 
empowered  the  Commission  to 
restrict  practices  employed  in  in- 
terstate commerce  and  did  not 
give  them  the  power  to  restrict 
practices  in  intrastate  sales 
whose  only  relation  to  interstate 
commerce  was  to  affect  such 
commerce  detrimentally. 

The  Supreme  Court  has  re- 
cently encouraged  many  of  these 
measures  erecting  trade  barriers 
on  the  theory  that  they  were 
neither  arbitrary  nor  discrimina- 
tory and  were  predicated  upon 
justifiable  classification.  For- 
merly fixed-sum  license  fees,  re- 
gardless of  the  amount,  for  the 
privilege  of  carrying  on  the  com- 
merce, have  been  thought  likely 
to  be  used  to  discriminate  against 
interstate  commerce.  Privilege 
taxes  requiring  a  percentage  of 
the  gross  receipts  from  interstate 
transportation  or  from  other  ac- 
tivities in  carrying  on  the  move- 
ment of  that  commerce,  which  if 
sustained  could  be  imposed  wher- 
ever the  interstate  activity  oc- 
curs, have  been  struck  down  for 
fear  they  would  place  interstate 
commerce  at  a  competitive  dis- 
advantage. 

In  the  now  famous  New  York 
City  sales  tax  case,  McGoldrick 
V.  Berwind-White  Coal  Mining 
Co.,  (309  U.  S.  33)  the  Supreme 
Court  recently  upheld  a  sales  tax 
levied  by  the  city  of  New  York 
of  2%  on  every  sale  for  consump- 
tion, of  tangible  personal  prop- 
erty in  the  city,  in  any  manner 
or  by  any  means  whatsoever — 


the  tax  to  be  measured  by  the 
sales.  The  Coal  Company  was 
a  Pennsylvania  corporation  min- 
ing coal  in  Pennsylvania  but  hav- 
ing a  sales  office  in  New  York 
City  and  selling  through  this  of- 
fice direct  to  buyers'  plants  and 
steamship  companies.  The  city 
sought  to  collect  the  sales  tax  on 
such  direct  sales  and  was  upheld 
by  this  decision.  The  Court  said 
that  it  must  balance  protection  of 
the  commerce  clause  from  dis- 
criminatory state  action  against 
State  taxing  power  under  which 
interstate  commerce  must  bear  a 
fair  share  of  the  tax  burdens. 

In  Nelson  v.  Sears,  Roebuck 
and  Co.  (61  Sup.  Ct.  586),  the 
Court  sustained  the  Iowa  use 
tax  as  imposed  upon  Iowa  pur- 
chasers of  goods  from  a  New 
York  corporation,  Sears,  Roe- 
buck &  Co.,  and  required  the 
company  to  collect  the  tax.  It 
was  conceded  that  Iowa  can  im- 
pose a  use  tax  upon  State  resi- 
dents buying  goods  outside  the 
State  and  bringing  them  in  and 
using  them  in  the  State,  but  in 
this  case  the  company  asserted 
that  Iowa  cannot  require  it,  an 
out-of-state  corporation  in  an 
out-of-state  transaction,  to  col- 
lect the  tax  simply  because  the 
corporation  carries  on  a  distinct 
line  of  business  in  owning  and 
operating  stores  in  Iowa.  To 
the  claim  that  the  company  was 
at  a  serious  disadvantage  as  com- 
pared with  other  foreign  cor- 
porations not  owning  stores  in 
Iowa  in  making  out-of-state 
sales  to  residents  of  Iowa,  the 
Court  answered  that  other  cor- 
porations escape  merely  because 
of  the  'impotence  of  State  power' 
and  that  this  company,  by  hav- 
ing stores  in  Iowa,  receives  ben- 
efits from  Iowa  for  which  that 
State  may  exact  a  price. 

However,  States  through  such 
taxing  power,  have  not  been  per- 
mitted to  discriminate  against  in- 
terstate commerce.  In  Best  & 
Company,  Inc.  v.  Maxwell,  (61 
Sup.  Ct.  334)  the  Court  held 
that  a  North  Carolina  tax  on  out- 
of-state  merchants  discriminated 
against  interstate  commerce. 
The  statute  levied  an  annual 
privilege  tax  of  $250  on  every 
person  or  corporation,  not  a  reg- 
ular retail  merchant  in  the  State, 
who  displayed  samples  for  the 
purpose  of  the  privilege  of  do- 
ing business  even  where  they 
engaged  in  the  sale  of  goods  by 
sample  in  display  rooms.  The 
Court  said  that  interstate  com- 
merce could  hardly  survive  such 
hostility.  A  $250  investment  in 
advance  can  operate  only  to  dis- 
courage interstate  commerce. 
Extra- State  merchants  would  be 
compelled  to  turn  over  their 
trade  to  local  merchants  selling 
by  sample.  To  the  extent  North 
Carolina    inerchants  prospered, 


Mi  1  4  ^^42 

States  KFK  411  B  State,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 


Name  of  State  Popular  Name  Flower 

Alabama   Cotton ;    Lizard ;  Yallerham- 

mers   Goldenrod 

Arizona   Baby  ;  Sunset ;  Apache  Sahuaro  Cactus 

Arkansas  Bear  ;  Bowie  Apple  Blossom 

California   Golden  ;  El  Dorado  Golden  Poppy 

Colorado   Centennial ;  Silver  Columbine 

Connecticut    .  .  .  Constitution  ;  Nutmeg  Mountain  Laurel 

Delaware  Diamond ;  Blue  Hen's  Chick- 
ens  Peach  Blossom 

Florida   Everglade  ;  Land  of  Flowers  .  Orange  Blossom 

Georgia   Empire   State  of  the   South ; 

Cracker  ;  Buzzard   Cherokee  Rose 

Idaho   Gem   Syringa 

Illinois   Sucker  ;   Prairie   Wood  Violet 

Indiana   Hoosier   Tulip  Tree  Blossom 

Iowa   Hawkeye   Wild  Rose 

Kansas   Sunflower  ;  Jayhawk  Sunflower 

Kentucky   Dark    and    Bloody    Ground ; 

Blue  Grass  ;  Corn-Cracker  .  Trumpet  Vine 

Louisiana   Pelican  ;  Creole   Magnolia 

Maine   Pine  Tree  ;  Old  Dirigo  

Maryland   Old  Line  ;  Cockade  Blackeyed  Susan 

Massachusetts    .  Bay  ;  Old  Colony  Mayflower 

Michigan   Wolverine  ;  Auto  Apple  Blossom 

Minnesota   Gopher  ;  North  State  Moccasin  Flower 

Mississippi   ....  Bayou  ;  Eagle  ;  Magnolia  ....  Magnolia 

Missouri   Ozark  ;  Iron  Mt.  ;  Show  Me  .  .  Hawthorne 

Montana   Stub  Toe;  Bonanza;  Treasure  Bitter  Root 

Nebraska   Antelope  ;  Black  Water  ;  Corn- 

husker   Goldenrod 

Nevada   Silver  ;  Sage  Brush  Sagebrush 

New  Hampshire  Granite  Purple  Lilac 

New  Jersey  ....  Garden  ;    New   Spain  ;  Jersey 

Blue  ;  Mosquito   Violet 

New  Mexico  .  .  .  Sunshine  ;  Spanish   Cactus 

New  York  Empire  ;  Excelsior   Rose 

North  Carolina  .  Old  North  ;  Turpentine  ;  Tar 

Heel   Goldenrod 

North  Dakota  .  .  Flickertail ;  Sioux  Wild  Prairie  Rose 

Ohio   Buckeye   Scarlet  Carnation 

Oklahoma   Sooner   Mistletoe 

Oregon   Beaver  ;  Web-Foot   ,  Oregon  Grape 

Pennsylvania    .  .  Keystone  ;  Steel ;  Coal   No  choice 

Rhode  Island  .  .  Little  Rhody  ;  Plantation  ....  Violet 

South  Carolina  .  Palmetto   Yellow  Jasmine 

South  Dakota  .  .  Sunshine  ;  Swiagecat   Pasque  Flower 

Tennessee   Big   Bend ;    Volunteer ;  Hog- 

and-Hominy   Passion  Flower 

Texas   Lone  Star  ;  Beef   Bluebonnet 

Utah   Deseret ;  Beehive  ;  Mormon  . .  Sego  Lily 

Vermont   Green  Mountain   Red  Clover 

Virginia   Old  Dominion  ;  Mother   Amer.  Dogwood 

Washington    .  .  .  Evergreen  ;  Chinook   Rhododendron 

West  Virginia  .  Panhandle  ;  Mountain  Rhododendron 

Wisconsin   Badger  ;  Copper  Violet 

Wyoming   Equality  (Suffrage  Pioneer)  .Indian  Paintbrush 


interstate  commerce  would  suf- 
fer. 

States,  Popular  Names  and 
Flowers,  generally  applied  to 
States  because  of  some  physical 
characteristic  or  historical  inci- 
dent peculiar  to  that  State.  The 
State  flower  has  usually  been 
chosen  by  the  legislature,  al- 
though in  some  instances  the 
schools  of  the  State  or  the  peo- 
ple by  popular  vote  have  selected 
it.  These  popular  names  and 
flowers  are  given  in  the  table  on 
this  page. 

State's  Evidence,  in  Eng- 
land called  Queen's  or  King's 
evidence,  a  term  applied  to  testi- 
mony given  by  one  who  has  been 
an  accomplice  in  committing  a 


crime,  used  in  the  conviction  of 
the  person  or  persons  with  whose 
cooperation  he  committed  the 
crime,  the  State  prosecutor  hav- 
ing agreed,  in  view  of  the  evi- 
dence rendered,  not  to  bring  to 
trial  the  accomplice  who  has  thus 
aided  the  State.  According  to 
popular  parlance,  when  an  ac- 
complice thus  aids  the  State,  he 
is  said  to  'turn  State's  evidence.' 
A  number  of  States  have  stat- 
utes which  stipulate  that  such 
evidence,  if  uncorroborated,  is 
insufficient  to  convict  a  man  of 
crime.  In  such  a  case,  unless 
the  facts  are  unquestioned,  or 
some  rule  of  law  may  settle  the 
question,  it  is  for  the  jury  to 
decide  whether  or  not  a  witness 


is  an  accomplice  whose  testimony 
should  be  corroborated.  If  a 
prosecutor  obtains  a  confession 
by  promising  immunity,  and 
later  withdraws  the  promise  and 
prosecutes  the  criminal,  a  gen- 
eral rule  re(iuires  that  such  con- 
fession be  not  used  against  the 
person  who  made  it.  For  a  while 
the  law  does  not  declare  valid  an 
agreement  between  prosecutor 
and  accomplice,  actually  a  prose- 
cutor generally  keeps  faith  in 
such  an  instance,  and  the  courts 
approve  of  this  method  as  a 
proper  means  of  securing  evi- 
dence for  the  State. 

Statesboro,  city,  Georgia, 
county  seat  of  Bulloch  county, 
on  the  Central  of  Georgia  and 
Georgia  and  Florida  Railroads  ; 
50  miles  n.w.  of  Savannah.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  South  Georgia 
Teachers  College.  Pop.  (1930) 
3,996  ;  (1940)  5,013. 

States-General,  the  name 
given  to  the  representative  body 
of  the  three  estates  in  France — 
nobility,  clergy,  and  burghers. 
They  seem  to  have  been  first 
summoned  in  1302  by  Philip  the 
Handsome  ;  but  their  sole  func- 
tion was  to  give  sanction  to 
measures  imposing  general  taxa- 
tion. They  had  no  legislative 
function,  and  only  by  petition 
could  they  affect  the  course  of 
public  affairs ;  moreover,  they 
were  very  seldom  called  together. 
When  in  1614  Louis  xiii  sum- 
moned them,  they  displayed  such 
an  interest  in  the  finances  of  the 
country  that  he  hastened  to  dis- 
miss them.  They  did  not  meet 
again  until  the  revolution  of 
1789,  when  they  transformed 
themselves  (at  the  invitation  of 
the  third  estate  of  burghers,  who 
were  as  numerous  as  the  other 
two  put  together)  into  a  National 
Assembly  (June  17). 

The  name  states-general  is  also 
applied  to  the  representative 
body  elected  by  the  seven  united 
provinces  of  The  Netherlands,  a 
body  which  continued  to  meet  at 
The  Hague  until  the  French  con- 
quest (1593-1795).  It  was  of  a 
federal  character,  voting  being 
by  provinces.  The  name  is  re- 
tained for  the  existing  legislative 
body  or  parliament  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  Netherlands. 

States  of  the  Church.  See 
Church,  States  of  the. 

State,  U.  S.  Department  of, 
a  department  of  the  U.  S.  Gov- 
ernment authorized  by  act  of 
July  27,  1789,  and  originally 
known  as  the  Department  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  whose  principal 
officer,  at  first  designated  Secre- 
tary for  the  Department  of  For- 
eign Affairs,  was  'to  perform  and 
execute  .  .  .  duties  relative  to 
correspondence,  commissions,  or 
instructions,  to  or  with  public 
ministers  or  consuls,  from  the 
United  States,  or  to  negotiations 


state,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 


KFK 


412 


Statice 


with  public  ministers  from  for- 
eign States  or  princes,  or  to  me- 
morials or  other  applications 
from  foreign  public  ministers,  or 
other  foreigners,  or  to  such  other 
matters  respecting  foreign  affairs 
as  the  President  of  the  United 
States  shall  assign  to  said  de- 
partment.' On  Sept.  15,  1789, 
by  an  act  which  made  this  ofificer 
keeper  of  the  Seal  of  the  United 
States,  and  gave  him  authority 
to  afifix  it  'to  all  civil  commis- 
sions to  officers  of  the  United 
States  to  be  appointed  by  the 
President,'  the  name  of  the  de- 
partment was  changed  to  Depart- 
ment of  State,  and  the  title  of 
the  principal  officer  was  changed 
to  Secretary  of  State. 

The  Secretary  of  State  is  the 
ranking  member  of  the  Presi- 
dent's Cabinet  and,  with  an  Un- 
der Secretary  of  State  and  fovir 
Assistant  Secretaries  of  State, 
supervises  the  Department  which 
consists  of  various  divisions  and 
offices.  There  are  three  advisers 
to  the  Secretary — Legal,  Eco- 
nomic, and  Political  Relations 
and  a  Counselor.  Divisions  of 
the  Department  are  Far  Eastern 
Affairs,  American  Republics, 
European  Affairs,  Near  Eastern 
Affairs,  Passport,  Current  In- 
formation, Foreign  Service  Ad- 
ministration, Foreign  Service 
Personnel,  Protocol,  Internation- 
al Communications,  International 
Conferences,  Treaty,  Research 
and  Publication,  Commercial 
Treaties  and  Agreements,  Visa, 
Communications  and  Records, 
Cultural  Relations,  Accounts, 
Controls,  and  Special.  The  of- 
fices of  the  Department  are 
those  of  Arms  and  Munitions 
Control,  Central  Translating, 
Consular  Commercial,  Editor  of 
Treaties,  Coordination  and  Re- 
view, Fiscal  and  Budget  Affairs, 
Foreign  Service  Buildings,  For- 
eign Service  Officers'  Training 
School,  and  Philippine  Affairs. 
In  addition  the  Department  com- 
prises the  Foreign  Service  Per- 
sonnel Board,  Committee  for 
Reciprocity  Information,  and 
National  Munitions  Control 
Board. 

The  Secretary,  as  directed  by 
the  President,  conducts  negotia- 
tions relating  to  the  foreign  af- 
fairs of  the  United  States,  and 
has  charge  of  the  correspondence 
with  the  diplomatic  and  consular 
representatives  of  the  United 
States  and  with  representatives 
of  foreign  powers  accredited  to 
the  United  States.  He  grants 
and  issues  passports  to  nationals 
of  the  United  States,  and  issues 
exequaturs  to  foreign  consuls. 
He  prescribes,  promulgates,  and 
administers  regulations  under 
treaties  and  laws  governing  in- 
ternational traffic  in  arms.  He 
has  custody  of  the  Seal  of  the 
United  States,  of  current  rec- 


ords relating  to  presidential  elec- 
tors, and  of  the  originals  of  acts 
and  resolutions  of  Congress  sub- 
sequent to  the  Sixty-seventh 
Congress,  and  treaties,  conven- 
tions, and  other  international 
agreements  of  the  United  States 
since  Aug.  14,  1906,  the  procla- 
mations thereof  by  the  President. 
He  certifies  the  adoption  of 
amendments  to  the  Constitution. 
He  publishes  the  acts  and  reso- 
lutions of  Congress,  Territorial 
papers,  treaties  and  other  inter- 
national acts  of  the  United 
States,  and  papers  relating  to  the 
foreign  relations  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Under  Secretary  of  State 
is  one  of  the  two  principal  as- 
sistants to  the  Secretary  in  the 
discharge  of  his  various  func- 
tions, aiding  in  the  formulation 
and  execution  of  the  foreign  pol- 
icy of  the  Government  and  the 
reception  of  representatives  of 
foreign  governments  and  in 
other  responsible  work.  He 
gives  special  attention  to  politi- 
cal relations  with  foreign  gov- 
ernments. In  the  absence  of  the 
Secretary  he  becomes  Acting 
Secretary. 

The  Liaison  Office  serves  as 
a  part  of  the  secretariat  of  the 
Liaison  Committee  composed  of 
the  Chief  of  Staff,  Chief  of  Na- 
val Operations,  and  the  Under 
Secretary  of  State.  The  Office 
is  responsible  for  the  coordina- 
tion of  communications  between 
the  Department  of  State  and  the 
War  and  the  Navy  Departments. 

The  Division  of  Foreign  Serv- 
ice Administration  is  charged 
with  the  general  administration 
of  the  Foreign  Service,  includ- 
ing matters  of  appropriations 
and  expenditures,  rentals,  equip- 
ment and  supplies,  organiza- 
tions, instruction  of  diplomatic 
and  consular  offices,  etc. ;  cor- 
respondence relating  to  the 
foregoing  and  to  customs  cour- 
tesies, letters  rogatory,  diplo- 
matic pouch  service  between  the 
United  States  and  foreign  coun- 
tries, and  the  designation  of  mil- 
itary and  naval  attaches ;  the 
whereabouts  and  welfare  of 
Americans  abroad,  settlement  of 
estates  of  deceased  Americans  in 
foreign  countries,  consular  pro- 
tection of  American  interests 
and,  other  than  commerce,  the 
general  work  of  consular  offices 
such  as  quarantine,  notarial  acts, 
protection  of  the  customs  rev- 
enue, etc. ;  supervision  over  the 
Department's  agencies  in  New 
York,  New  Orleans,  and  San 
Francisco. 

The  Division  of  Protocol  is 
charged  with  presentation  to  the 
President  of  foreign  ambassa- 
dors and  ministers,  their  accepta- 
bility, their  rights  and  immuni- 
ties, and  arrangements  for  all 
ceremonies  national  and  interna- 


tional and  for  the  reception  of 
distinguished  foreign  visitors ; 
in  short,  all  matters  involving 
official  courtesies. 

The  first  Secretary  of  State 
was  John  Jay  (1789).  Others 
have  been :  Thomas  Jefferson 
(1789);      Edmund  Randolph 

(1794)  ;      Timothy  Pickering 

(1795)  ;  John  Marshall  (1800)  ; 
James  Madison  (1801);  Robert 
Smith  (1809)  ;  James  Monroe 
(1811)  ;  John  Q.  Adams  (1817)  ; 
Henry  Clay  (1825)  ;  Martin  Van 
Buren  (1829);  Edward  Living- 
ston (1831);  Louis  McLane 
(1833);  John  Forsyth  (1834); 
Daniel  Webster  (1841);  Hugh 
S.  Legare  (1843);  Abel  P. 
Upshur  (1843)  ;  John  C.  Cal- 
houn (1844);  James  Buchanan 
(1845)  ;      John     M.  Clayton 

(1849)  ;      Daniel  Webster 

(1850)  ;     Edward  Everett 

(1852)  ;     William     L.  Marcy 

(1853)  ;  Lewis  Cass  (1857); 
Jeremiah  S.  Black  (1860)  ;  Wil- 
liam H.  Seward  (1861);  Elihu 
B.  Washburne  (1869);  Hamil- 
ton Fish  (1869);  William  M. 
Evarts  (1877)  ;  James  G.  Blaine 
(1881);  Frederick  T.  Freling- 
huysen  (1881)  ;  Thomas  F.  Bay- 
ard (1885);  James  G.  Blaine 
(1889)  ;  John  W.  Foster  (1892)  ; 
Walter  Q.  Gresham  (1893); 
Richard  Olney  (1895);  John 
Sherman  (1897)  ;  William  R. 
Day  (1898)  ;  John  Hay  (1898)  ; 
Elihu  Root  (1905);  Robert  Ba- 
con (1909)  ;  Philander  C.  Knox 
(1909);  William  J.  Bryan 
(1913)  ;  Robert  Lansing  (1915)  ; 
Bainbridge  Colby  (1920); 
Charles  E.  Hughes  (1921); 
Frank  B.  Kellogg  (1925)  ;  Hen- 
ry L.  Stimson  (1929);  Cordell 
Hull  (1933). 

States'ville,  city,  North  Car- 
olina, county  seat  of  Iredell 
county,  on  the  Southern  Rail- 
way ;  44  miles  north  of  Char- 
lotte. Here  are  located  Mitchell 
College,  Statesville  Academy, 
two  hospitals,  a  public  library, 
and  a  State  experimental  farm. 
Tobacco  and  grain  are  shipped. 
Lumber,  furniture,  cotton,  to- 
bacco, and  leather  are  manu- 
factured. Pop.  (1930)  10,490; 
(1940)  11,440. 

Statia.  See  Saint  Eu- 
STACHE  Island. 

Statice,  a  genus  of  herbaceous 
and  shrubby  plants,  belonging  to 
the  order  Plumbaginaceae.  They 
are  mostly  of  Asiatic  origin, 
though  the  sea  lavender  (S.  li- 
monium)  is  a  native  British 
plant,  being  fairly  common  in 
certain  parts  of  the  coast.  It 
has  broad  oblong  leaves,  and  in 
late  summer  bears  spike-like 
clusters  of  scentless  flowers. 
Other  British  species  of  less  fre- 
quent occurrence  are  S.  spathu- 
lata,  the  spathulate  sea  lavender, 
and  S.  reticulata,  the  netted  sea 
lavender.   The  flowers  of  the  sea 


m  1 4  mz 

statics  KFK  413  Statistics 


lavender  usually  consist  of  a 
funnel-shaped  calyx,  of  a  corolla 
five-cleft  nearly  to  the  base,  and 
of  five  stamens  and  carpels.  The 
S.  caroliniana,  a  native  of  the 
United  States,  known  as  'Marsh 
Rosemary,'  is  bitter  and  astrin- 
gent. The  hardy  species  are  eas- 
ily grown  in  ordinary  garden 
soil ;  the  greenhouse  kinds  re- 
quire a  light,  sandy,  fibrous  loam. 


Statice  Limonium 


1.  Single  flower.   2.  Section. 

Statics,  stat'iks,  the  branch  of 
dynamics  which  deals  with  the 
equilibrium  of  bodies  and  sys- 
tems of  bodies.  As  usually  de- 
veloped, it  is  based  upon  the 
fundamental  theorems  of  the  bal- 
ancing of  forces.  In  order  that 
the  forces  acting  on  a  system 
should  produce  equilibrium,  it  is 
necessary  that  there  should  be 
no  tendency  to  translational  and 
rotational  motion.  If  then  the 
system  be  supposed  to  suffer 
small  displacements  consistent 
with  the  geometrical  conditions 
of  constraint,  and  if  the  work 
done  during  these  small  displace- 
ments against  the  forces  be  esti- 
mated by  multiplying  each  force 
by  the  displacement  in  its  direc- 
tion of  the  point  of  its  applica- 
tion, then  by  adding  all  the 
products  together,  the  sum  so  ob- 
tained ought  to  vanish.  This 
is  the  principal  of  virtual  veloc- 
ities or  virtual  displacements 
which  Legrange  made  the  basis 
of  his  Mecanique  Analytiquc 
(1788).  It  is  really  fundamen- 
tally equivalent  to  the  principle 
of  the  minimum  potential  energy. 
For  special  types  of  problems 
other  methods  of  attack  lead 
more  easily  to  the  solution.  For 


example,  equilibrium  requires 
that  the  sum  of  the  moments  of 
all  the  forces  about  each  and 
every  axis  must  vanish.  This 
method  may  apparently  not  be 
immediately  applicable  when,  as 
is  often  the  case,  the  forces  are 
not  all  completely  specified.  But 
in  such  cases  there  are  always 
other  conditions  given,  which, 
with  the  statical  conditions  of 
equilibrium,  lead  to  the  complete 
determination  of  the  position  of 
equilibrium  and  of  the  non-speci- 
fied forces.  For  example,  to  find 
the  position  of  a  hemisphere  rest- 
ing on  two  smooth  inclined 
planes,  the  only  force  given  is 
the  weight  of  the  hemisphere  act- 
ing through  its  known  center  of 
gravity.  The  inclinations  of  the 
planes  give  the  directions  of  the 
pressures  on  the  planes ;  and 
since  these  two  pressures  known 
in  direction  must  balance  the 
known  weight  acting  vertically, 
the  values  of  the  pressures  are 
practically  known.  The  equa- 
tion of  the  vanishing  resultant 
moment  about  any  convenient 
point  will  give  the  positions  of 
contact  of  the  hemisphere  and 
the  planes.  Problems  of  this 
kind  are  readily  solved  by  use 
of  graphical  methods,  aided  by 
calculation.  (See  Graphic 
Statics.)  It  is  usual  in  most 
treatises  to  discuss  attractions 
as  a  branch  of  statics,  simply  be- 
cause the  mathematics  is  of  the 
same  kind — vi^.  the  calculation 
of  the  resultant  of  a  number  of 
forces.  If  under  the  action  of 
this  resultant  force  the  particle 
begins  to  move,  the  problem 
ceases  to  be  statical.  Another 
important  branch  of  statics  is 
that  which  deals  with  the  equi- 
librium of  a  strained  solid.  (See 
Elasticity.)  The  best  known 
English  treatises  on  statics  are 
those  by  Todhunter,  Routh,  and 
Minchin.  Jellett's  treatise  on 
Friction  has  many  excellent 
points. 

Stations.  (1.)  The  weekly 
fasts  on  Wednesdays  and  Fri- 
days. These  were  called  station- 
ary days.  (2.)  Churches  in 
which  indulgences  are  granted 
on  special  days,  in  the  Church  of 
Rome.  A  'station'  also  signifies 
the  ceremonial  procession  of 
clergy  and  choir  from  the  church 
to  a  tomb  or  other  hallowed 
place.  (3.)  A  picture  or  carv- 
ing placed  in  a  church,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  stages  of 
Christ's  passion,  and  before 
which  devotional  exercises  are 
practised  ( Stations  of  the 
Cross).  They  are — (1)  His 
condemnation;  (2)  bearing  the 
cross;  (3)  falling  under  the 
cross;  (4)  meeting  the  Virgin; 
(5)  the  Cyrenian ;  (6)  Veroni- 
ca; (7)  Christ  falling;  (8)  con- 
soling the  daughters  of  Jerusa- 
lem ;  (9)  falling;  (10)  stripped; 


(11)  His  crucifixion;  (12)  His 
death  ;  (13)  the  descent  from  the 
cross;  (14)  in  the  grave. 

Statira,  the  sister  (and  wife) 
of  Darius  iii  (Codomannus) , 
the  last  king  of  the  ancient  Per- 
sian dynasty,  who  was  captured 
by  Alexander  the  Great  after  the 
battle  of  Issus  (333  b.c).  She 
died  shortly  after  the  battle  of 
Arbela,  two  years  later. 

Statistical  Association, 
American.  An  organization 
founded  in  1839  and  incorpo- 
rated in  1841  to  study  and  dis- 
cuss the  collection  and  interpre- 
tation of  statistical  data  and 
their  application  to  practical 
problems,  and  to  encourage  im- 
provements in  statistical  meth- 
ods and  data.  Membership  in- 
cludes about  3,000  college  and 
university  teachers,  business  and 
government  executives,  research 
workers,  and  administrators  in  a 
wide  variety  of  fields.  Holds  an- 
nual and  special  meetings,  and  its 
chapters  in  twenty  cities  hold 
quarterly  or  monthly  meetings. 
Publishes  quarterly  the  Journal 
of  the  American  Statistical  As- 
sociation, and  six  times  yearly 
the  American  Statistical  Associ- 
ation Bulletin. 

Statistics,  the  study  of  social 
facts  in  so  far  as  these  can  be 
counted  or  enumerated ;  though 
some  writers  would  include  all 
arithmetical  investigation  or  ar- 
rangement of  facts.  In  this 
work  there  are  three  stages — 
(1)  Collection;  (2)  analysis; 
(3)  comparison.  The  collection 
of  statistics  is  an  expensive  mat- 
ter, and  is  undertaken  chiefly  by 
governmental  and  quasi-govern- 
mental agencies,  though  occa- 
sionally individuals  undertake 
the  task.  Governments  collect 
statistics  of  trade  to  facilitate 
the  collection  of  revenue.  They 
collect  statistics  of  crime  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  judicial  pro- 
cedure. They  collect  vital  sta- 
tistics to  prevent  crime,  to  facili- 
tate the  transference  of  property, 
and  to  make  the  foundations  of 
social  life  secure.  In  some  cases 
governments  count  social  facts 
that  are  not  susceptible  of  exact 
estimates.  The  United  States 
census  is  a  case  in  point.  The 
collection  of  statistics  may  be 
according  to  one  of  two  methods 
—  (1)  periodical  enumeration,  of 
which  the  census  is  the  best  in- 
stance ;  and  (2)  continuous  reg- 
istration, as  of  births,  marriages, 
and  deaths.  Registration  is  the 
method  employed  when  the  date 
of  occurrence  is  almost  as  im- 
portant as  the  fact.  The  mere 
figures  collected  are  of  little  val- 
ue. They  are  simply  the  raw 
material,  and  need  to  be  worked 
up.  But  unfortunately  statistics 
are  frequently  analyzed  and  ma- 
nipulated to  establish  some  fore- 
gone conclusion  rather  than  to 


statistics 


KFK 


414 


Statutes 


elicit  or  illustrate  a  truth.  Com- 
parison of  statistics,  into  which 
the  question  of  average  generally 
enters,  may  be  according  to  time, 
comparing  wages  or  prices  or 
population  in  the  19th  century 
with  wages,  etc.,  in  other  cen- 
turies. Or  it  may  be  according 
to  place,  as  when  we  compare 
birth-rates  of  France  and  Ger- 
many ;  or  according  to  social 
conditions,  as  when  we  compare 
the  income  of  different  classes  or 
trades.  Comparison,  however,  is 
a  very  dangerous  operation,  be- 
cause of  the  complexity  of  social 
phenomena. 

Probably  the  most  important 
of  the  statistical  work  performed 
in  the  United  States  is  that  of 
the  Bureau  of  the  Census  and 
the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Do- 
mestic Commerce,  both  in  the 
Department  of  Commerce,  of  the 
Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  in 
the  Department  of  Labor,  and 
of  the  Bureau  of  Agricultural 
Economics  in  the  Department  of 
Agriculture.  There  are  also  the 
statistics  of  wages  and  prices 
compiled  by  the  state  statistical 
and  labor  bureaus  and  the  vital 
statistics  compiled  in  the  large 
cities  of  the  country.  See  Cen- 
sus, Bureau  of  the. 

The  Bureau  of  Foreign  and 
Domestic  Commerce  is  charged 
with  the  promotion  and  develop- 
ment of  the  foreign  and  domestic 
commerce  of  the  United  States, 
and  serves  as  the  direct  liaison 
between  American  business  in- 
terests and  the  Government. 
Statistical  information  showing 
the  articles  imported  and  ex- 
ported as  well  as  the  countries 
traded  with  is  compiled  by  the 
Collectors  of  Customs. 

The  statutory  functions  of  the 
Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  are 
'to  acquire  and  diffuse  among  the 
people  of  the  United  States  use- 
ful information  on  subjects  con- 
nected with  labor,  and  especially 
upon  its  relation  to  capital,  the 
hours  of  labor,  the  earnings  of 
laboring  men  and  women,  and 
the  means  of  promoting  their 
material,  social,  intellectual,  and 
moral  prosperity.'  The  Bureau 
prepares  and  publishes  current 
reports  on  employment,  pay  rolls, 
earnings,  and  hours  of  labor  in 
manufacturing,  trade,  public 
service,  building  construction, 
other  industries,  union  wages, 
industrial  accidents,  labor  turn- 
over, industrial  disputes,  prices, 
and  changes  in  cost  of  living  of 
workers'  families  in  the  princi- 
pal cities.  The  Bureau  puljlishes 
the  Monthly  Labor  Review  and 
the  Labor  Information  Bulletin, 
also  special  bulletins  on  specific 
subjects. 

The  statistical  work  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  includes 
estimates  of  crop  conditions  and 
production   of   leading  articles. 


the  value  of  crops,  farm  prices 
of  the  principal  articles,  records 
of  rainfall,  and  other  statistical 
statements  bearing  upon  agricul- 
tural production. 

Statutes.  Legislative  enact- 
ments, declaratory  of  existing 
common  law,  prescribing  new 
principles  of  law,  or  otherwise 
expressing  the  legislative  will,  in 
the  form  necessary  to  make  them 
authoritative.  With  reference  to 
their  application  they  are  classed 
as  public  or  general,  private,  and 
local.  Public  or  general  statutes 
are  those  which  affect  the  whole 
community ;  private  statutes  af- 
fect only  an  individual,  or  several 
persons ;  local  statutes  affect  a 
limited  locality,  as  a  county  or 
a  municipality.  The  formalities 
connected  with  the  enactment  of 
a  statute  include  :  the  favorable 
vote  of  a  majority  of  all  the 
members,  or  a  majority  vote  of 
a  quorum  of  members,  of  a  prop- 
erly constituted  legislative  body, 
after  a  proper  introduction  and 
presentation,  usually  by  three 
readings  on  different  days,  etc. ; 
the  enrolment  of  the  bill  upon 
the  legislative  journal ;  authenti- 
cation by  the  presiding  officers  ; 
and  usually  the  approval  of  the 
chief  executive.  The  constitu- 
tions of  most  States  require  the 
legislative  body  to  send  a  bill  to 
the  governor  for  his  approval  or 
veto,  after  its  passage  and  au- 
thentication by  the  signatures  of 
the  presiding  officers  of  both 
houses.  If  the  governor  signs 
the  bill,  it  becomes  a  law ;  if  he 
vetoes  it,  that  is,  sends  it  back 
with  his  objections,  it  must  usu- 
ally be  passed  again  by  a  greater 
majority  of  the  members  than  is 
ordinarily  required  in  order  to 
become  a  law.  There  is  no  abso- 
lute power  in  the  executive  to 
prevent  the  legislature  from  en- 
acting a  statute.  If  the  chief 
executive  does  not  sign  or  veto 
a  bill,  the  constitutions  of  most 
States  provide  that  it  shall  be- 
come a  law,  after  the  lapse  of  a 
certain  number  of  days,  unless 
meanwhile  the  legislature  ad- 
journs sine  die,  in  which  case  it 
is  of  no  effect.  ■  In  most  States 
a  statute  must  have  a  descriptive 
title.  A  statute  usually  contains 
a  clause  fixing  the  time  when  it 
shall  take  effect.  It  will  ordi- 
narily take  effect  when  signed  by 
the  governor,  or  after  the  lapse 
of  the  proper  number  of  days  in 
case  of  his  failure  to  act ;  or 
after  it  has  again  passed  both 
houses  in  case  it  is  vetoed  by  the 
governor  ;  or  on  the  date  fixed  in 
the  statute  itself.  A  statute  may 
be  made  retroactive  in  its  op- 
eration by  its  terms.  If  it  ap- 
plies to  civil  matters  it  must  not 
interfere  with  vested  rights,  and 
if  penal  it  comes  within  the  in- 
hibition against  ex  post  facto 
laws  found  in  most  constitutions. 


Most  State  constitutions  provide 
that  a  statute  shall  have  only  one 
subject  or  object.  This  is  to 
avoid  confusion.  Punctuation  is 
generally  held  not  to  constitute 
a  part  of  a  statute,  although  it  is 
sometimes  considered  in  order  to 
arrive  at  its  meaning.  English 
statutes  formerly  were  not  punc- 
tuated at  all.  A  statute  which 
contravenes  any  of  the  provi- 
sions of  the  constitution  of  the 
State  or  United  States  is  invalid. 
A  statute  may  be  mandatory,  that 
is,  of  such  a  nature  as  to  render 
void  any  act  done  contrary  to  its 
provisions ;  directory,  in  that  it 
prescribes  the  manner  in  which 
acts  may  be  done,  or  proceedings 
conducted ;  permissive,  in  that  it 
confers  rights  or  privileges  upon 
those  who  care  to  take  advantage 
of  it,  as  to  form  a  volunteer  fire 
company  or  corporation  ;  or  pro- 
hibitory or  penal,  defining  and 
prescribing  penalties  for  crimes 
and  misdemeanors.  Where  a 
statute  is  contrary  to  the  com- 
mon law  it  supersedes  the  latter, 
but  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  incon- 
sistent. The  construction  and 
interpretation  of  statutes  is  a 
function  of  the  courts.  In  some 
States  there  are  statutory  con- 
struction acts,  which  prescribe 
certain  rules  of  construction. 
The  ordinary  meaning  of  words 
is  followed  where  possible,  un- 
less it  is  clear  that  words  or 
phrases  are  employed  in  a  tech- 
nical sense.  The  courts  will  not 
consider  the  opinions  of  the  leg- 
islators who  enacted  a  statute, 
but  may  look  to  the  legislative 
journal  in  some  cases. 

A  bill  cannot  generally  be 
amended  during  its  passage  in 
such  a  way  as  to  change  its  orig- 
inal purpose,  but  can  be  to  make 
the  object  clear,  or  to  better  ef- 
fectuate the  purpose.  It  may  be 
subsequently  amended  by  a  spe- 
cial act.  The  usual  course  is  to 
amend  it  by  redrafting  the  stat- 
ute in  proper  form,  including  the 
amended  matter,  and  to  incorpo- 
rate in  the  enacting  clause  a  pro- 
vision that  the  former  statute  be 
amended  'so  as  to  read  as  fol- 
lows.' This  obviates  special 
mention  of  words  or  clauses 
changed,  or  new  matter  added, 
and  avoids  confusion.  Where 
the  amendment  obviously  super- 
sedes the  act  as  originally  passed, 
a  special  repealing  clause  is  un- 
necessary in  some  States,  but  it 
is  usually  added.    See  Repeal. 

There  is  a  tendency  to  codify 
existing  law  upon  particular  sub- 
jects in  general,  comprehensive 
statutes,  as,  for  example,  the  law 
of  real  property,  the  law  of  nego- 
tiable instruments,  etc.  Both  the 
common  law  and  existing  statu- 
tory law  on  the  subject  are  incor- 
porated in  such  acts.  The  object 
is  to  cover  the  entire  subject  and 
settle  all  uncertainties,  so  that  the 


statutes  of  Limitation 


KFP 


415 


Stead 


statute  may  be  referred  to  as  the 
complete  law  on  the  subject,  but 
there  are  usually  some  omis- 
sions, and  the  common  law  still 
remains  operative  to  supply  such 
defects. 

Revisions  of  all  the  statutes  of 
a  state  are  now  commonly  made 
by  legislatures.  The  work  is 
done  by  committees  or  commis- 
sioners, and  the  result  of  their 
labors  submitted  to  the  legisla- 
ture for  enactment.  The  object 
of  a  revision  is  to  revise  where 
necessary,  and  classify  all  the 
statutes  relating  to  each  branch 
of  the  law  under  proper  head- 
ings, and  arrange  miscellaneous 
statutes  in  as  systematic  order 
as  possible.  The  titles  or  head- 
ings are  usually  arranged  in  al- 
phabetical order,  and  a  complete 
alphabetical  index  is  also  pre- 
pared, so  that  even  a  person  not 
skilled  in  the  law  may  refer  to 
the  statute  on  any  subject.  A 
compilation  of  statutes  at  large 
is  merely  a  collection  and  clas- 
sification of  all  the  statutes  in 
force  in  a  state,  without  revision 
or  reenactment.  Statutes  con- 
tained in  the  revised  or  compiled 
statutes  of  a  state,  or  of  the 
United  States,  may  be  amended 
or  supplemented  by  subsequent 
acts,  and  it  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  consult  the  year  books  of 
volumes  of  statutes  published 
since  the  date  of  the  revision. 
These  are  published  at  least  once 
a  year  in  most  states,  and  'ad- 
vance sheets/  or  temporary  pub- 
lications of  statutes  and  deci- 
sions, are  generally  sent  out 
through  private  enterprise  or  by 
the  public  printer  as  often  as 
once  a  week.  Consult  Sedgwick, 
Statutory  Laws;  Cooley,  Con- 
stitutional Limitations. 

Statutes  of  Limitation. 
See  Limitation,  Statutes  of. 

Statu  to,  the  constitution 
granted  to  Piedmont  and  Savoy 
by  Charles  Albert  in  1848;  it 
was  afterwards  extended  to  the 
whole^  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  is 
still  in  force.  Copied  mainly 
from  the  United  States  Consti- 
tution and  from  the  French  of 
1830,  it  has  the  same  defects,  es- 
pecially in  the  separation  of  the 
executive  and  legislature. 

Staubbach,  celebrated  water- 
fall (980  ft.),  in  s.  of  Canton 
Bern,  Switzerland,  8  m.  s..  of 
Interlaken. 

Staunton,  city,  Virginia,  co. 
seat  of  Augusta  co.,  100  m. 
w.N.w.  of  Richmond,  on  the 
Ches.  and  O.  and  the  B.  and  O. 
R.  Rs.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Western  State  Hospital  for  the 
Insane,  the  Virginia  School  for 
the  Deaf  and  the  Blind,  and  of 
the  Mary  Baldwin  Seminary,  the 
Virginia  Female  Institute, 
Staunton  Military  Academy,  and 
Corlier's  Academy.  Gipsy  Hill 
Park  is  a  noteworthy  feature. 


Situated  in  the  Shenandoah  Val- 
ley, Staunton  is  the  trade  cen- 
ter of  a  rich  agricultural  dis- 
trict. The  leading  manufactures 
are  structural  iron,  organs,  wag- 
ons, agricultural  implements, 
planing-mill  products,  flour,  etc. 
The  water-works  and  electric 
lighting  plant  are  owned  and  op- 
erated by  the  municipality.  It 
was  settled  in  1745,  incorporated 
as  a  town  in  1802,  and  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1870.  Pop.  (1930) 
11,900;  (1940)  U,?>?>7. 

Staunton,  city,  Illinois,  Ma- 
coupin CO.,  35  m.  N.E.  of  St. 
Louis,  on  the  Wabash  and  the 
Litch.  and  Mad.  R.  Rs.  Coal 
mining  is  the  chief  industry. 
The  water-works  and  electric 
lighting  plant  are  owned  and  op- 
erated by  the  municipality.  The 
place  was  settled  about  1830  and 
incorporated  in  1892.  Pop. 
(1930)  4,618;  (1940)  4,212. 

Staunton,  Howard  (1810- 
74),  English  chess-player  and 
Shakespearean  commentator, 
was  almost  entirely  self-educat- 
ed. He  early  acquired  a  reputa- 
tion as  a  chess-player,  and  in 
1843  beat  St.  Amant,  the  cham- 
pion of  Europe,  and  for  nearly 
ten  years  was  unbeaten.  He  uti- 
lized his  chess  knowledge  to  con- 
duct newspapers  devoted  to 
chess,  and  chess  columns  in  oth- 
er newspapers,  and  to  write  var- 
ious handbooks  on  the  game. 
From  1854  he  devoted  much  at- 
tention to  the  study  of  Shake- 
speare, and  in  1857—60  issued  an 
edition  with  notes,  showing 
sound  scholarship  and  sound 
sense. 

Staurolite,  an  aluminium, 
magnesium,  and  ferrous  silicate, 
which  crystallizes  in  the  rhom- 
bic system,  usually  in  twinned 
crystals.  It  is  brown  in  color, 
with  vitreous  luster,  and  is  often 
filled  with  minute  enclosures  of 
other  minerals  (sp.  gr.  3.4-3.8; 
h.  =  7-7.5).  It  is  found  princi- 
pally in  metamorphic  rocks,  such 
as  gneiss  and  mica-schist,  where 
it  IS  one  of  the  products  of  re- 
crystallization,  and  fine  crystals 
are  obtained  from  the  St.  Goth- 
ard,  Tyrol,  and  Brittany. 

Stavanger,  tn.,  w.  coast  of 
Norway,  in  co.  of  same  name,  on 
a  s.  arm  of  Bukken  Fiord.  The 
seat  of  a  bishopric  till  1685,  its 
cathedral  (12th-13th  century)  is 
in  the  Norman  style,  restored 
1866.  Navigation  and  fishing 
are  the  chief  occupations.  Pop. 
46,780. 

Stave,  or  Staff.  See  Mu- 
sic, section  Notation. 

Stavesacre.  See  Delphin- 
ium. 

Stavropol.  Former  Russian 
gov.  N.  of  the  Caucasus,  em- 
braces the  Stavropol  highlands 
and  the  valleys  of  the  upper 
Kuma  and  Kalaus.  Cossacks 
form  the  bulk  of  the  population. 


Area,  23,398  sq.  m.  Pop.  876,- 
298. 

Stavropol,  town,  Russia,  147 
m.  E.  of  Yekaterinodar,  with 
flour  mills  and  gardening.  Pop. 
70,000. 

Stay.  In  law,  this  term  de- 
notes a  suspension  of  legal  pro- 
ceedings by  order  of  a  court.  A 
stay  may  be  granted  for  a  num- 
ber of  purposes  in  the  interests 
of  justice.  _  If  the  plaintiff  has 
lost  a  motion  bearing  upon  his 
case  and  owes  the  defendant 
costs,  his  further  proceeding 
may  be  stayed  until  the  costs  are 
paid ;  where  more  than  one  ac- 
tion is  brought  for  the  same 
cause,  all  actions  but  one  will  be 
stayed ;  and  a  stay  will  usually 
be  granted  where  it  becomes  nec- 
essary to  take  the  testimony  of 
a  foreign  witness  under  a  com- 
mission, and  the  case  is  about  to 
be  reached  for  trial ;  where  it  is 
necessary  to  make  a  motion  be- 
fore_  trial ;  and  where  a  defend- 
ant in  an  action  files  a  petition  in 
bankruptcy,  until  the  bankruptcy 
court  can  pass  upon  his  applica- 
tion for  a  discharge.  In  the  last 
case  proceedings  in  a  state  court 
may  be  stayed  by  an  order  of 
a  judge  of  the  Federal  courts. 
The  court  in  which  an  action  is 
pending  may  order  a  stay  of  pro- 
ceedings, or  it  may  be  ordered 
by  a  superior  court.  Execution 
upon_  a  judgment  will  be  stayed 
pending  the  determination  of  an 
appeal,  upon  a  proper  bond  being 
furnished. 

Stays,  ropes,  usually  of  wire, 
which  support  a  mast  by  extend- 
ing from  it  to  the  ship's  hull  in  a 
fore-and-aft  plane,  the  fore  stays 
being  led  to  the  bow  and  the  back 
stays  running  to  the  stern  and 
contributing  a  certain  amount  of 
side  support.  On  these  stays  are 
rigged  sails  known  as  staysails. 
A  ship  is  said  to  be  'in  stays' 
when  her  head  points  to  the 
wind,  and  the  sails  are  loose 
while  she  is  going  about.  To 
'miss  stays'  is  to  fail  to  come  up 
in  the  direction  of  the  wind  so 
as  to  get  on  the  other  tack. 

Stead,  William  Thomas 
(1849-1912),  English  journalist, 
born  at  Embleton,  Northumber- 
land ;  was  appointed  editor  of 
the  Northern  Echo,  Darlington, 
in  1871,  and  in  1880  assistant 
editor  of  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette. 
Three  years  later  he  succeeded 
to  the  editorial  chair.  He  was 
the  first  to  introduce  American 
journalism,  e.g.,  the  system  of 
interviewing  and  illustrations,  as 
well  as  'extras,'  into  the  English 
press,  and  thus  founded  what 
became  known  as  the  'new  jour- 
nalism.' A  great  sensation  was 
created  by  his  series  of  articles, 
'The  Maiden  Tribute  to  Modern 
Babylon'  (July,  1885).  A  sen- 
tence of  three  months'  impris- 
onment   upon    Stead,    and  the 


Stealingr 


KFP 


416 


Steam  Hammers 


passing  of  the  Criminal  Law 
Amendment  Act,  1885,  were  two 
incidents  arising  out  of  this.  In 
1890  he  started  the  Review _  of 
Reviews,  a  monthly  magazine, 
which  has  achieved  a  great  suc- 
cess. He  also  founded  the 
American  Review  of  Reviews 
(1891),  the  Australasian  Review 
of  Reviews  (1894),  and  the 
'Masterpiece  Library  of  Penny 
Poets,  Novels  and  Classics' 
(1895).  He  published  from 
1893  to  1897  Borderland,  a  pe- 
riodical devoted  to  the  subject 
of  psychical  research ;  and  in 
January,  1904,  the  Daily  Paper, 
which  was,  however,  discontin- 
ued after  a  brief  existence.  His 
publications,  either  in  book  form 
or  as  Pall  Mall  Gazette  'extras,' 
include :  The  Truth  about  the 
Navy  (1884)  ;  The  Truth  about 
Russia  (1888);  The  Pope  and 
the  New  Era  (1889)  ;  //  Christ 
Came  to  Chicago  (1893);  The 
Labor  War  in  the  United  States 
(1894)  ;  Satan's  Invisible  World 
— A  Study  of  Despairing  De- 
mocracy (1897)  ;  The  Ameri- 
canization of  the  World  (1902)  ; 
and,  in  French,  The  Conference 
at  The  Hague.  He  lost  his  life 
in  the  Titanic  disaster  (April 
15,  1912). 

Stealing^.  See  Burglary, 
Larceny,  and  Robbery. 

Steam,  the  transparent,  col- 
orless gas  into  which  water  is 
converted  when  it  vaporizes. 
This  change  takes  place  quietly 
and  by  evaporation  from  the 
surface  if  the  vapor  pressure  is 
below  the  external  pressure : 
thus  at  the  temperature  of  melt- 
ing ice  (0°  c.)  the  vapor  pres- 
sure is  only  4  mm.  of  mercury 
(.077  lb.  per  sq.  in.),  but  it  in- 
creases with  rise  of  temperature, 
till  at  100°  c.  (212°  f.)  it  be- 
comes equal  to  760  mm.  of  mer- 
cury (14.7  lbs.  per  sq.  in.).  If 
the  external  pressure  is  that  of 
the  atmosphere,  it  will  be  ap- 
proximately equal  to  this  amount, 
and  with  the  slightest  excess  of 
the  vapor  pressure  over  it  the 
change  of  the  water  into  steam 
occurs  rapidly  and  with  ebulli- 
tion. If  the  external  pressure  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  atmos- 
phere, as  in  a  steam  boiler,  boil- 
ing does  not  occur  till  the  water 
is  at  a  much  higher  tempera- 
ture :  for  example,  in  a  boiler 
giving  steam  at  250  lbs.  per  sq. 
in.  the  temperature  of  the  water 
is  approximately  205"  c.  (401° 
F.)  instead  of  100°  c.  Steam 
under  these  conditions  in  the 
presence  of  water  is  called  sat- 
urated steam,  and  is  of  a  definite 
density  for  each  pressure.  This 
density  is  the  greatest  that  steam 
can  possess  under  the  given 
pressure,  and  also  corresponds 
to  a  particular  temperature,  fall 
of  temperature  producing  a  fall 
of  pressure  and  condensation  of 


some  of  the  steam,  while  rise  of 
temperature  produces  the  con- 
verse effect,  the  pressure  increas- 
ing much  more  rapidly  than  the 
temperature.  Observations  of 
the  relation  between  the  two 
were  very  carefully  made  by 
Regnault,  and  the  results  tabu- 
lated, though  in  the  absence  of 
the  tables  they  may  be  calcu- 
lated from  the  equation  given 
B  c 

by  Rankine  :  log  p  —  a  —  -  —  — , 

T 

where  p  is  the  pressure  and  T  the 
absolute  temperature ;  and  for 
pounds  on  the  square  inch  and 
degrees  of  the  Fahrenheit  size, 
A  =  6.1007,  log  B  =  3.43642,  log 
c  =  5.59873.  If  the  pressure  is 
required  in  inches  of  mercury, 
A  =  6.4095,  while  for  centigrade 
degrees  log  b  =  3.18115  and  log 
c  =  5.08819.  The  absolute  tem- 
perature in  Fahrenheit  degrees 
is  found  by  adding  461.2  to  the 
temperature  f.,  and  in  centigrade 
degrees  by  adding  273  to  the 
temperature  c. 

If  steam  is  heated  away  from 
water,  it  is  said  to  be  'super- 
heated,' and  then  obeys  the  ordi- 
nary laws  governing  the  expan- 
sion of  gases.  The  quantity  of 
heat  required  to  bring  about  the 
change  of  state  from  water  to 
steam  changes  with  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  evaporation  takes 
place,  about  600  calories  being 
required  to  evaporate  1  gram 
at  0°  c,  536  calories  at  100°  c. 
(1,146  B.T.u.  to  evaporate  1  lb. 
at  212°  f.),  thereafter  diminish- 
ing, till  at  200°  c.  it  is  reduced 
to  about  470  calories.  This  fall- 
ing off  may  be  calculated  from 
the  expression  l  =  (heat  required 
to  convert  water  into  steam  at 
t"  c.)  =  606  -  .7t;  but  this  prob- 
ably only  holds  good  for  mod- 
erate temperatures,  as  ^  water 
reaches  its  critical  point,  at 
which  the  difference  between  liq- 
uid and  vapor  can  not  be  distin- 
guished, at  a  temperature  of 
365°  c.  To  heat  the  steam  itself 
requires  .481  calorie  per  gram 
per  degree  c.  (.481  b.t.u.  per  lb. 
per  degree  f.)  at  constant  pres- 
sure and  .346  calorie  at  constant 
volume.  In  this  way,  though  the 
total  amount  of  heat  required  to 
generate  steam  increases  as  the 
temperature  at  which  it  is  re- 
quired rises,  yet  owing  to  the 
falling  off  in  the  heat  of  vapori- 
zation the  difference  is  but  small, 
and  for  use  in  steam-engines  is 
overbalanced  by  the  increased 
economy  due  to  the  higher  work- 
ing temperature. 

Steam  naturally  occupies  a 
very  much  larger  volume  than 
the  water  it  is  obtained  from  : 
thus  1  volume  of  water  at  ordi- 
nary temperature  produces  about 
1,700  volumes  of  steam  at  100° 
c.  The  vapor  is  lighter  than  air 
at  the  same  temperature,  and, 


contrary  to  the  common  idea,  i.^ 
invisible ;  the  white  cloud  seen 
issuing  from  a  steam-pipe,  and 
usually  called  'steam,'  is  in  real- 
ity a  fog  of  minute  liquid  parti- 
cles produced  by  condensation. 

Besides  its  commonest  use  as 
the  working  substance  in  en- 
gines, steam  is  also  largely  em- 
ployed for  heating,  its  large  la- 
tent heat  being  restored  on  con- 
densation, for  introducing  mois- 
ture in  various  operations,  and 
for  disinfection  ;  thus  saturation 
of  clothing,  etc.,  with  steam  un- 
der slight  pressure  is  very  effec- 
tive in  that  respect.  Steam  is 
also  an  excellent  fire-extin- 
guisher if  the  fire  is  burning  in 
an  enclosed  space,  such  as  a  com- 
partment in  a  ship's  hold,  which 
can  be  effectually  filled  with 
steam. 

Steam  and  Pneumatic 
Hammers.  The  shaping  of 
hot  metal  by  forging  is  one  of 
civilization's  oldest  arts.  Be- 
fore the  advent  of  power,  the 
blacksmith  provided  the  energy ; 
with  commercial  development  of 
the  steam  hammer  in  the  1840's 
there  was  laid  the  foundation 
for  modern  industrial  products. 
The  locomotive,  power-plant 
equipment,  automobiles,  house- 
hold devices,  farm  machinery, 
and  countless  other  items  in 
common  use  require  one  or  many 
forgings  in  their  construction. 
As  a  consequence,  several  thou- 
sand steam  and  air-operated 
forging  hammers  were  in  use  in 
the  United  States  in  1945. 

The  United  States  forging  in- 
dustry was  considerably  extend- 
ed during  the  years  of  the  Sec- 
ond World  War.  To  produce 
the  great  flood  of  forgings  re- 
quired for  shell,  gun  parts, 
tanks,  aircraft  engines,  ships, 
and  many  other  military  com- 
ponents, an  80  per  cent  expan- 
sion took  place  in  installations 
of  steam  and  air-operated  forg- 
ing hammers  during  the  five- 
year  period  1940-45. 

Steam  and  pneumatic  ham- 
mers shape  steel,  aluminum, 
brass,  and  other  metals  by  im- 
pact forging.  Maximum  applica- 
tion of  force  occurs  when  an 
upper  die,  fastened  to  a  movable 
ram,  strikes  the  workpiece 
which  is  supported  by  a  lower 
die.  on  an  anvil.  The  forging 
action  continues  until  the  upper 
die  is  brought  to  rest  by  absorp- 
tion of  kinatic  energy  in  the 
plastic  deformation  of  the  metal. 
By  manipulation  of  controls,  the 
hammer  driver  can  obtain  any 
desired  effect  within  the  capac- 
ity of  his  machine ;  that  is,  a 
single  dead  blow  of  maximum 
force  for  maximum  penetration 
and  flow  of  metal  can  be  used, 
or  he  can  apply  a  light  stroke  for 
finishing  purposes. 

All  modern  forging  hammers 


steam  Hammers 


KFP 


417 


Steam  Hammers 


are  of  double-acting  design.  average  force  of  that  blow  can 
Through  suitable  valve  arrange-  be  determined  if  it  is  known  how 
ment,  steam  can  be  admitted  to  far  the  ram  moves  in  giving  up 
the  upper  or  the  lower  sides  of  its  energy.  Sometimes  the  force 
the  piston  in  the  steam  cylinder,  involved  is  so  great  that  the  lay- 
depending  upon  the  desired  di-  man  would  hesitate  to  believe  the 
rection  of  ram  travel.     Thus,  figures. 


forging  dies  are  often  made  with 
several  impressions,  the  operator 
manipulating  the  piece  to  them 
in  succession  for  progressive 
shaping. 

Forging  hammers  are  distin- 
guished from  drop  hammers  by 


Fig.  1 — Steam  Drop  Hammer.  Fig.  2 — Lower  Die  for  Drop  Hammer  {Upper  Die  Similarly 
Machined).  Fig.  3 — Single-Frame  Forging  Hammer.  Fig.  4 — Parts  Like  Alloy- 
Steel  Locomotive  Connecting  Rods  Forged  on  Double-Frame  Steam  Hammers. 


the  ram  is  lifted  quickly  to  the 
desired  height  by  steam  pres- 
sure, and  on  the  downstroke  a 
greater  velocity  is  possible  than 
by  gravity  fall.  The  kinetic  en- 
ergy of  the  blow  at  the  instant 
of  impact  can  be  calculated  by 
estimating  the  mean  effective 
pressure  in  the  steam  cylinder, 
and  knowing  the  weight  of  the 
falling  mass.  With  the  kinetic 
energy  of  the  blow  known,  the 


Two  forms  of  steam  hammers 
are  built :  the  steam  drop  ham- 
mer and  the  steam  forging  ham- 
mer. The  drop  hammer  is  so 
called,  because  it  is  used  for 
making  forgings  in  closed-im- 
pression dies,  which  form  the 
bar  of  metal  to  the  exact  shape 
and  size  of  the  die  cavity  when 
closed.  Excess  material  is 
forced  out  to  form  a  flash  which 
is    later    trimmed   off.  Drop- 


two  circumstances:  (1)  flat  dies 
are  used  (sometimes  they  have 
simple  grooves  in  the  face  for 
shaping  and  sizing  purposes), 
and  the  billet  or  bar  is  manipu- 
lated between  these  dies  for  re- 
ducing the  cross-section  or  shap- 
ing purposes  ;  and  (2)  the  anvil, 
except  in  small  sizes  of  ma- 
chines, is  mounted  on  a  separate 
foundation.  In  the  drop  ham- 
mer it  is  necessary  to  mount  the 


steam  Hammers 


KFP 


418 


Steam-engine 


frame  rigidly  on  the  anvil  to  pre- 
serve accurate  alignment  of  the 
upper  and  lower  dies.  With  the 
forging  hammer  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  have  the  anvil  rigidly 
connected  with  the  frame  of  the 
machine.  Probably  the  drop 
hammer  is  the  more  important 
factor  in  American  industry 
than  the  forging  hammer,  al- 
though the  latter  is  more  widely 
distributed. 

Steam  hammers  are  rated  by 
the  weight  of  the  reciprocating 
parts.  In  the  case  of  forg- 
ing hammers  this  rating  includes 
the  weight  of  the  piston,  piston 
rod,  ram,  and  upper  die.  Since 
dies  are  not  furnished  with  drop 
hammers,  and  the  die  weights 
will  vary  considerably,  the  rat- 
ing of  drop  hammers  covers  only 
the  weight  of  the  piston,  piston 
rod,  and  ram. 

Two  frame  styles  are  utilized 
in  the  construction  of  forging 
hammers.  The  first,  or  single 
frame,  is  C-shaped,  with  the  ram 
at  the  front.  Double-frame 
hammers  have  two  columns  sup- 
porting the  piston  and  cylinder 
between  them,  and  furnishing 
guides  for  the  ram.  Drop  ham- 
mers are  double-frame  machines. 

There  is  a  wide  variation  in 
the  capacity  and  ratings  in 
which  the  various  types  of  ham- 
mers are  built.  Single-frame 
forging  hammers  are  built  with 
ratings  from  50  lb.  to  6,000  lb. 
or  more.  Double-frame  forg- 
ing hammers  may  range  from 
1,000  lb.  to  24,000  lb.,  the  latter 
machine  standing  25  ft.  or  more 
above  the  floor  line.  Steam  drop 
hammers  of  50,000  lb.  ratings 
were  built  during  the  war  to  pro- 
duce large  drop  forgings  in  alu- 
minum, but  customary  ratings 
range  downward  to  1500  lb.  or 
smaller.  Some  idea  of  the  tre- 
mendous amount  of  energy  con- 
tained in  a  blow  is  furnished  by 
this  example:  In  a  single-frame 
forging  hammer  rated  at  1100 
lb.,  where  the  falling  weight  is 
1200  lb.,  the  cylinder  bore  is  10 
inches,  the  mean  effective  steam 
pressure  is  80  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  and 
the  actual  stroke  is  27  in.,  it  has 
been  calculated  that  the  average 
force  of  the  blow  amounts  to 
over  800  tons. 

Compressed  air  is  frequently 
used  for  operating  any  of  the 
so-called  steam-drop,  or  steam- 
forging  hammers.  Pressures  of 
80  to  100  lb.  per  sq.  in.  are 
used.  Of  course,  hammers  de- 
signed especially  for  operation 
by  compressed  air  are  on  the 
market.  These  are  generally 
used  for  light  work,  although 
some  very  large  drop-hammers 
have  been  operated  on  com- 
pressed air  rather  than  stearn. 

Hydraulic  presses  are  widely 
used  for  such  work  as  cogging 
down  ingots  or  for  forging  large 


shafting  or  similar  heavy  parts. 
These  machines  may  be  either 
straight  hydraulic  types,  where- 
in the  fluid  is  pumped  into  the 
cylinder,  or  the  steam-hydraulic 
type  in  which  steam  is  used  to 
boost  the  hydraulic  pressure. 
The  former  provides  continuous 
velocity  and  power  through  a 
relatively  long  stroke  ;  the  latter 
continuous  velocity  and  greater 
power  through  a  relatively  short 
stroke.  The  distinction  between 
a  hydraulic  press  and  a  hammer 
is  that  the  former  exerts  a  slow 
squeeze,  whereas  the  hammer 
has  high  impact  velocity  and  ex- 
erts great  force  because  of  the 
kinetic  energy  stored  in  the  ram. 
Some  alloys  are  worked  better 
by  the  low  velocity  squeeze  of 
the  hydraulic  press  than  by  the 
high  velocity  impact  of  the  ham- 
mer. Where  the  mass  of  the 
piece  being  worked  is  large  in 
proportion  to  the  hammer,  the 
press  will  often  work  the  metal 
more  uniformly.  On  the  other 
hand,  large  flat-die  hammers  of 
the  double-frame  type  are  gener- 
ally used  for  finishing  bars  of  tool 
steel  or  high-alloy  steels,  where 
considerable  impact  is  required 
to  start  plastic  ^  deformation. 
Such  work  requires  a  short 
stroke  of  very  high  force.  Some 
simple  drop  forgings  have  been 
made  on  the  hydraulic  press,  hut 
applications  have  been  limited 
by  die  life  and  excessive  press 
cost  for  a  machine  able  to  exert 
a  tonnage  equal  to  the  average 
force  of  blow  by  the  hammer. 

Steam-chest.  (1.)  Of  an  en- 
gine, the  chamber  in  which  the 
valve  works  which  admits  steam 
to  the  cylinder.  ^  (2.)  In  textile 
printing,  a  tank  in  which  cloths 
are  steamed  to  fix  their  colors. 

Steam-engine.  The  steam- 
engine,  in  its  many  forms,  is  the 
agent  by  means  of  which  part  of 
the  energy  stored  up  in  the 
steam,  as  supplied  by  a  boiler,  is 
converted  into  mechanical  or 
useful  work.  It  is  well  known 
that  Hero  of  Alexandria  (prob- 
ably of  the  first  or  second  cen- 
tury B.C.)  described  in  his  work 
entitled  Spiritalia  seu  Pneumati- 
ca  the  use  of  steam  to  drive  a 
kind  of  steam-turbine ;  also  that 
the  Italian  engineer  Branca 
(1629)  made  a  wheel  to  rotate 
by  means  of  a  jet  of  steam  which 
impinged  on  vanes  set  on  its  rim. 
These,  however,  were  not  much 
more  than  toys,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  time  of  the  Marquis  of 
Worcester  (1663),  Savery,  Pa- 
pin,  Newcomen,  and  Watt  that 
the  energy  of  steam  was  applied 
to  any  useful  purpose. 

The  earlier  steam-engines  were 
used  almost  entirely  for  pumping 
water  from  mines.  Savery's  en- 
gine (1698)  was  the  first  prac- 
tical steam-engine,  and  consisted 
of   two   egg-shaped   vessels  of 


equal  size,  the  upper  and  lower 
ends  of  which  could  be  connected 
alternately  with  a  boiler  and  with 
a  pipe  leading  to  a  well,  respec- 
tively. One  of  the  vessels  hav- 
ing been  filled  with  steam,  com- 
munication with  the  boiler  was 
shut  off,  and  the  steam  condensed 
by  the  cooling  action  of  a  jet  of 
water  on  the  outside  of  the  ves- 
sel. This  resulted  in  a  partial 
vacuum  being  formed,  and  water 
was  forced  by  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  from  the  well  in- 
to the  vessel.  Fresh  steam  was 
then  admitted,  and  the  water 
forced  by  it  from  the  vessel  to  a 
tank  at  some  higher  level.  This 
action  went  on  alternately  in  the 
two  vessels  ;  while  one  was  fill- 
ing the  other  was  being  emptied. 
This  engine  has  a  modern  repre- 
sentative in  the  pulsometer,  in 
which  the  principle  of  action  is 
practically  the  same. 

The  first  steam-engine  with 
cylinder  and  piston  was  no  doubt 
the  invention  of  Denis  Papin 
(1690),  who  suggested  that  a 
vacuum  could  be  formed  under 
a  piston  by  the  condensation  of 
steam  previously  used  for  rais- 
ing the  piston.  Fifteen  years 
later  Papin  devised  a  modified 
form  of  his  first  engine,  consist- 
ing of  a  displacement  chamber 
or  cylinder  with  a  diaphragm  or 
piston  floating  on  the  top  of  the 
water.  When  communication  was 
made  with  the  boiler,  steam  acted 
upon  the  upper  surface  of  the 
diaphragm,  pressing  it  down  and 
forcing  the  water  through  a  pipe 
fitted  with  a  non-return  valve 
into  a  vessel  at  a  higher  eleva- 
tion. At  the  conclusion  of  a 
working  stroke  (down)  the  steam 
was  allowed  to  escape  through 
a  cock,  and  more  water  was  ad- 
mitted from  the  source  of  sup- 
ply, bringing  the  piston  to  its 
top  position  again,  ready  for  the 
next  down  stroke.  Papin's  sec- 
ond engine  can  hardly  be  looked 
upon  as  an  improvement  on  his 
first,  as  it  had  many  of  the  de- 
fects of  Savery's  engine,  while 
the  first  was,  without  doubt,  an 
atmospheric  engine,  afterwards 
elaborated  by  Newcomen  and 
Watt.  Papin  also  introduced  a 
mass  of  hot  metal  into  a  recess 
in  the  top  of  the  piston,  with  the 
object  of  keeping  the  steam  dry. 
He^  also  invented  a  boiler  with 
an  internal  fire-box,  a  type  which 
is  now  in  common  use.  Papin 
did  not  reach  a  practical  success 
in  any  of  his  inventions,  but  he 
paved  the  way  for  others. 

Newcomen,  in  conjunction  with 
Galley  (1705),  made  the  piston 
engine  a  practical  machine.  New- 
comen's  was  an  atmospheric  en- 
gine ;  in  this  type  the  piston  is 
forced  down  by  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere,  a  partial  vacuum 
having  been  previously  formed 
within  the  cylinder.  Newcomen's 


steam-engine 


419 


Steam-engine 


engine  consisted  of  a  vertical 
cylinder,  open  at  the  top  and 
placed  above  the  boiler.  The 
piston  was  connected  by  a  chain 
with  one  end  of  an  overhead 
rocking  beam,  the  opposite  end 
of  the  beam  having  a  long  pump- 
rod  hung  from  it,  also  a  heavy 
weight  or  counterpoise  to  bring 
the  piston  to  the  top  of  its  stroke 
when  steam  was  admitted  into 


The  piston  is  connected  to  the 
crank  D  through  a  piston  rod  PR 
and  a  connecting  rod  cr.  The 
reciprocating  motion  of  the  pis- 
ton is  thus  converted  into  a  ro- 
tary motion'  of  the  crank  shaft. 
The  piston  is  made  to  move  to 
and  fro  in  the  cylinder  by  the 
action  of  the  steam,  which  is  ad- 
mitted alternately  to  the  oppo- 
site ends  of  the  cylinder  through 


Elevation 


Sectional  Plan 


the  cylinder  from  the  boiler. 
Steam  was  then  shut  off,  and  a 
jet  of  cold  water  allowed  to  enter 
the  cylinder,  condensing  the 
steam  and  producing  a  partial 
vacuum.  The  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  acting  on  the  upper 
face  of  the  piston  forced  it  down 
and  lifted  the  pump-rod  at  the 
other  end  of  the  beam.  The  con- 
densation of  the  steam  inside  of 
the  cylinder  was  Savery's  inven- 
tion, and  Savery  claimed  and 
received  an  interest  in  the  New- 
comen  engine.  About  1711  New- 
comen's  engine  began  to  be  intro- 
duced for  pumping  water  out  of 
mines. 

In  1763  James  Watt  wae  en- 
gaged in  repairing  a  model  of 
Newcomen's  engine  belonging  to 
Glasgow  University,  and  from 
this  date  the  true  development 
of  the  steam-engine  may  be  said 
to  have  begun.  Watt  saw  that  it 
was  absolutely  essential  that  the 
cylinder  should  be  kept  as  hot  as 
possible  to  prevent  undue  loss  of 
steam,  and  that  all  condensation 
must  take  place  in  a  vessel  sepa- 
rate from  the  cylinder.  To  deal 
with  the  various  inventions  and 
improvements  made  in  the 
steam-engine  by  James  Watt  is 
beyond  the  scope  of  this  article, 
which  is  meant  rather  to  de- 
scribe the  construction  and  gen- 
eral design  of  a  few  of  the  more 
important  and  best  types  of  the 
modern  steam-engine. 

The  plain  slide-valve  steam- 
engine  (Fig.  1)  is  one  of  the 
simplest  forms.  It  consists  of  a 
cast-iron  cylinder  c,  here  shown 
in  section,  fitted  with  a  piston  p, 
which  is  made  steam-tight  by 
means   of   expansible   rings  R. 


ports  ss.  The  face  of  the  piston, 
opposite  to  that  on  which  the 
driving  pressure  is  acting,  is  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  stroke  in 
communication  with  the  exhaust 
port  EP.  The  steam  enters  and 
leaves  the  cylinder  through  the 
steam  ports,  and  is  discharged 
into  the  atmosphere  (non-con- 
densing; engine),  or  into  a  con- 
denser '  (condensing  engine) 
through  the  exhaust  port. 

Slide  Valve. — The  admission 
of  the  steam  and  its  discharge 


-Slide  Valve  in  Mid- 
position 

after  it  has  effected  its  purpose 
is  determined  by  a  slide  valve  sv, 
which  is  made  to  travel  to  and 
fro  across  the  port  openings  by 
the  action  of  an  eccentric  E  keyed 
to  the  crank  shaft  cs.  The  pres- 
sure of  the  steam  acting  on  the 


permits  either  steam  port  to  com- 
municate with  the  exhaust  port. 
The  amount  by  which  the  slide 
valve  overlaps  the  outer  and  in- 
ner edges  respectively  of  each 
steam  port  when  in  mid  position 
(Fig.  2)  is  called  the  'outside'  or 
'steam  lap'  o,  and  the  'inside'  or 
'exhaust  lap'  i.  The  object  of 
the  outside  lap  is  to  cut  off  the 
steam  before  the  piston  has 
reached  the  end  of  a  stroke,  so  as 
to  take  advantage  of  the  expan- 
sive energy  of  the  steam,  and 
thus  to  work  much  more  econom- 
ically than  if  the  steam  were  ad- 
mitted throughout  the  entire 
stroke.  The  inside  lap  acts  in 
the  same  way  with  regard  to  the 
steam  leaving  the  cylinder — a 
certain  portion  of  the  exhaust 
steam  is  retained  and  compressed 
by  the  piston,  forming  an  elastic 
cushion,  which  assists  in  bringing 
the  piston,  etc.,  to  rest  without 
shock  at  the  end  of  each  stroke. 
The  steam  port  s  begins  to  open 
for  the  admission  of  steam  just 
before  the  piston  reaches  the  end 
of  each  stroke,  so  that  at  the 
commencement  of  a  stroke  the 
port  is  open  by  a  small  amount, 
which  is  called  the  'lead.'  The 
dotted  lines  show  the  valve  in 
this  position.  Admitting  steam 
on  the  exhaust  side  just  before 
the  end  of  the  stroke  completes 
the  cushioning  action,  and  en- 
ables the  full  pressure  to  be 
brought  to  bear  on  the  piston  at 
the  commencement  of  each  work- 
ing stroke.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  expansion  or  working  stroke 
the  slide  valve  is  in  such  a  posi- 
tion that  the  steam  can  escape 
through  tjie  cavity  f  into  the  ex- 
haust port  EP.  This  point  is 
called  the  'release.'  The  driv- 
ing pressure  is  thus  relieved,  and 
at  the  commencement  of  the  re- 
turn stroke,  owing  to  the  further 
motion  of  the  valve,  there  is 
ample  opening  for  the  exhaust 
steam  to  pass  out  of  the  cylinder 
without  producing  undue  back 
pressure,  A  delayed  release 
causes  excessive  back  pressure, 
and  reduces  the  effective  driving 
pressure  on  the  piston. 

The  respective  positions  of  the 
slide  valve  (in  section)  and  pis- 
ton with  reference  to  the  steam 
and  exhaust  ports  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  stroke,  cut-off,  release, 


Commencement  of  Stroke 

Fig. 

back  of  the  valve  keeps  it  in 
steam-tight  contact  with  the 
working  face  of  the  cylinder.  The 
cavity  f  in  the  centre  of  the  valve 


Release 


and  compression,  are  shown  in 
Fig,  3  and  in  Fig.  4.  The  arrows 
indicate  the  direction  in  which 
the  slide  valve  and   piston  are 

Vol.  XI.— March  '29 


steam-engine 


419  A 


Steam-engine 


moving  for  each  position.  By 
these  figures  it  will  be  apparent 
that  the  cut-off,  release,  etc.,  do 
not  occur  at  the  same  points  on 


ing  the  point  of  cut-off  to  any 
desired  degree.  The  sUde  valve 
is  sometimes  made  in  the  form  of 
a  piston;  an  example  of  a  piston 


Cut-off 


Fig.  4. 


Compression 


the  forward  and  return  strokes 
respectively,  because  the  obliq- 
uity of  the  connecting  rod  to  the 
line  of  stroke  causes  the  piston  to 
be  more  advanced  in  the  one 
stroke  and  less  advanced  in  the 
other  than  it  should  be  to  corre- 
spond exactly  with  the  crank's 
position. 

A  single  slide  valve  is  not  suit- 
able for  a  cut-off  earlier  than 
half-stroke,  because  with  it  the 
period  of  expansion  is  equal  to 
the  period  of  compression,  and 


valve  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  The 
action  is  identical  with  that  of  a 


the  inner  openings  get  their 
steam  from  two  passages  a  a  cast 
in  the  body  of  the  valve.  It  is 
therefore  evident  that,  with  a 
given  movement  of  the  valve, 
the  area  of  port  opening  will  be 
twice  that  obtained  with  an  or- 
dinary slide  valve;  consequently 
the  travel  of  the  valve  can  be 
considerably  reduced. 

The  eccentric,  which  gives  the 
reciprocating  motion  to  the  slide 
valve,  is  set  with  its  radius  oe 
(Fig.  8)  in  a  definite  position 
with  respect  to  the  crank  CO: 
thus  the  angle  6  is  termed  the 
'angular  advance  of  the  eccen- 
tric,' and  the  eccentric  radius  is 


simple  slide  valve.  The  total 
pressures  on  the  opposite  ends 
of  a  piston  valve  are  practically 


Fig.  5. — Meyer  Variable  Expansion  Gear 


consequently  many  engines  have 
two  sets  of  valves,  one  set  work- 
ing at  the  back  of  the  other,  as 
in  Fig.  5,  which  shows  a  form 
known  as  the  'Meyer  variable  ex- 
pansion gear.'  The  steam  admis- 
sion, release,  and  compression  aye 
determined  by  a  main  valve  MV, 
and  the  cut-off  is  effected  by  the 
two  valves  or  blocks  vv,  which 
slide  across  the  back  of  the  main 
valve  and  are  operated  by  a 
separate  eccentric.  The  cut-off 
valve  spindle  s  is  usually  pro- 
vided with  a  right  and  left  hand 
screw  working  in  suitable  nuts 


equal;  consequently  very  little 
force  is  required  to  operate  it. 
Piston  rings  are  fitted  to  the 


90  +  6  degrees  in  advance  of  the 
crank,  ef  is  perpendicular  to  cf, 
and  OF  is  equal  to  lap  plus  lead. 
The  travel  of  the  valve  is  equal 
to  twice  the  throw  or  radius  of 
the  eccentric;  also  the  eccentric 
radius  is  equal  to  the  lap  of  the 
valve  plus  the  maximum  opening 
of  the  port  to  steam. 

The  valves  discussed  were  ac- 
tuated by  eccentrics  fixed  by  a 
key  or  a  set  screw  to  the  crank- 
shaft and  the  cut-off  is  constant 
regardless  of  the  load. 

Most  modern  engines  have  the 
point  of  cut-off  varied  to  suit  the 
load  while  allowing  full  pressure 
in  the  steam  chest.  On  a  ma- 
jority of  high-speed  engines  some 
form  of  shaft  governor  is  used. 


Compression 


Fig.  8. 


valve  to  make  it  steam-tight.  In 
large  engines  especially  of  the 
marine  type,  double-ported  valves 


Fig.  6. — Piston  Valve 


within  each  valve,  and  by  rotat- 
ing this  spindle  the  valves  vv 
may  be  made  to  separate,  or  to 
come  closer  together,  thus  vary- 

VoL.  XL— March  '29 


have  been  adopted.  (See  Fig. 
7.)  With  this  form  of  valve 
there  are  two  openings  to  each 
steam  port  instead  of  one,  and 


These  governors  usually  change 
the  valve  travel  and  at  the  same 
time  change  the  angle  of  ad- 
vance. On  heavy  load  the  valve 
travel  is  made  greater,  causing 
the  valve  to  uncover  the  steam 
port  a  greater  amount  and  at  the 
same  time  the  angle  of  advance 
is  decreased,  making  admission, 
cut-off,  release  and  compression 
later.  The  position  of  the  gov- 
ernor weight  arm,  the  eccentric- 
ity and  angle  of  advance  for  light 
and  heavy  loads  are  shown  in 
Figs.  9  and  10. 

If  cut-off  is  made  less  than  one- 
half  it  is  necessary  to  have  a 
valve  with  long  steam  laps  and  a 
long  travel.  The  resultant  size 
of  the  valve,  being  acted  upon 
its  back  by  the  pressure  in  the 
chest  will  cause  too  much  fric- 
tion.   Consequently  the  valve  is 


steam-engine 


419  B 


Steam-engl|ie 


made  partly  or  completely  bal- 
anced to  relieve  this  pressure. 
If   the  valve  is  not  balanced 


quantity  of  steam  which  is  to  a 
large  extent  non-effective.  To 
remedy  these  defects,  and  to  give 


/ncreased  angle  ofacfyance 


Fig.  9 


one-half  cut-off  is  about  the  short- 
est that  can  be  used. 

The  slide  valve  found  most 
often  with  shaft  governors  is  the 
balanced  double-ported  type, 
Fig.  11.  In  this  valve  steam  is 
admitted  to  the  steam  port 
through  the  port  in  the  valve  and 
at  the  edge  of  the  valve.  The 
exhaust  steam  in  the  usual  de- 
sign flows  by  the  exhaust  edge  of 
the  valve  and  not  through  the 
port. 

Since  the  eccentric  is  fastened 
to  the  flywheel  which  in  turn  is 
keyed  to  the  shaft  the  only  valve 
adjustment  ordinarily  possible 
with  the  shaft-governor  con- 
trolled valve  is  equalizing  the 
lead  by  adjustment  of  the  valve- 
rod  length. 

Corliss  Valve  Gear. — In  steam- 
engines  fitted  with  a  slide  valve 
the  two  ports  serve  a  double  pur- 
pose: they  conduct  the  exhaust 
steam  out  of  the  cylinder  as  well 
as  admit  the  fresh  boiler  steam. 
This  produces  an  alternate  cool- 
ing and  heating  of  the  ports,  and 


a  better  steam  distribution,  the 
Corliss  valve  gear  has  been  intro- 
duced, and  is  much  used  for  en- 
gines of  moderate  speed.  In  this 
system  each  end  of  the  cylinder  is 


Ptsssure  P/af& 


fitted  with  Corliss  valve  gear  is 
shown  in  Fig.  12.  The  valve  A 
is  a  portion  of  a  cylinder,  and  is 
made  to  oscillate  through  a  small 
angle,  on  a  cylindrical  face  in 
which  there  is  a  steam-port  lead- 
ing to  the  cylinder.  In  the  Cor- 
liss gear  the  steam-valves  open 
to  the  full  extent,  and  with  equal 
rapidity,  whether  the  cut-ofl  is 
to  be  early  or  late;  they  remain 
open  as  long  as  required  for  the 
admission  of  steam,  and  then 
close  almost  instantaneously.  A 
general  view  of  the  Corliss  gear  on 
a  large  engine  is  illustrated  in  Fig. 
13.  The  steam-valves  are  opened 
by  links  connected  with  a 
wristplate  which  is  operated 
from  an  eccentric  on  the  crank 
shaft.  The  sudden  closing  of  the 
steam-valves  is  effected  through 
a  'trip'  or  trigger  mechanism  con- 
nected with  the  governor,  which 
causes  a  catch  to  be  released 
when  the  moment  for  cutting 
off  the  supply  of  steam  to  the 


Fig.  11. 


provided  with  two  separate 
valves  and  ports  for  the  admis- 
sion and  discharge  of  the  steam. 
The  valves  are  placed  as  close  as 
possible  to  the  working  barrel  of 


^ -ear A/ Cutoff. 


cylinder  has  arrived,  and  the 
valve  instantly  flies  back  to  its 
normal  position  covering  the 
steam-port.  The  exhaust  valves 
are  opened  and  closed  through 


Throttle 

1 

Wrat 
Hate-, 

causes  a  loss  of  steam  due  to  con- 
densation; the  ports  are  also 
somewhat  long,  and  contain  a 


Fig.  12. 

the  cylinder;  consequently  the 
ports  are  very  short.  A  trans- 
verse section  through  a  cylinder 


links  connected  to  the  wristplate. 
The  steam-valves  are  connected 
by  suitable  linkwork  to  dash-pots 
Vol.  XI. — March  '29 


steam-engine 


420 


Steam-engine 


whose  function  is  to  return  the 
valves  quickly  and  noiselessly 
when  the  governor  releases  the 
trip-catch.  Each  dash-pot  is 
fitted  with  a  piston,  which  is 
moved  upwards  by  the  valve 


centric  controlled  by  a  shaft  gov- 
ernor. To  obtain  the  same  quick 
opening  and  closing  of  the  valves, 
each  designer  has  evolved  a  kine- 
matic system  of  levers;  some  of 
these,  notably  the  Armstrong, 


symmetrical  it  does  not  have  to 
leak  and  the  engine  can  have  the 
minimum  of  clearance.  It  also 
permits  higher  revolution  of  the 
engine,  giving  a  greater  output 
for  a  given  cylinder.    In  Fig.  14 


Fig.  13. — Allis-Chalmers  Horizontal  Corliss  Engine — Valve  Gear  Side 


gear  during  the  steam  admission; 
a  vacuum  is  formed  under  the 
piston,  which  is  forced  down  by 
atmospheric  pressure  the  instant 
that  the  trip-catch  is  released  by 
the  governor.  Sometimes  the 
piston  of  the  dash-pot  is  moved 
upwards  against  the  pressure  of 
a  spring  in  preference  to  depend- 
ing upon  a  vacuum. 

Non-Releasing  Corliss  Gear. 
— As  soon  as  engine-speeds 
above  150  r.p.m.  are  used,  the 
releasing  mechanism  of  the  Cor- 
liss engine  does  not  work  satis- 
factorily. To  meet  this  situa- 
tion several  designers  have  aban- 


doned the  detaching  gear  and 
have  connected  the  valve  lever 
to  the  wristplate.  The  wrist- 
plate  in  turn  is  driven  by  an  ec- 

VOL.  XI. — March  '29 


closely  approximates  the  action 
of  the  releasing  Corliss  gear. 
The  exhaust  valves  are  handled 
by  a  second  and  fixed  eccentric. 

Poppet  Valve  Engines. — 
While  the  Corliss  valve  was  quite 
suitable  as  long  as  steam  tem- 
peratures were  low,  this  long 
valve  tends  to  warp  and  leak 
under  high  temperatures  such  as 
are  employed  in  modern  plants. 
This  led  to  the  wide  adoption  of 
the  poppet  valve.  A  poppet 
valve  similar  to  those  used  in 
automobile  engines  was  used  on 
steam  engines  as  early  as  1800, 
This,  however,  was  unbalanced, 


having  but  a  single  disk.  The 
modern  poppet  valve  is  balanced 
by  the  adoption  of  two  seating 
disks.    As  this  valve  is  light  and 


is  a  cross  section  of  the  Nordberg 
poppet  four- valve  engine.  The 
economy  of  these  engines  is  al- 
most as  good  as  that  of  a  com- 
pound Corliss.  An  Erie  City 
Lintz  poppet-valve  engine  is 
shown  in  Fig.  15. 

Governors. — Engines  that  are 
required  to  run  at  a  steady  speed 
must  be  provided  with  a  gover- 
nor, whose  function  is  to  bring 
the  work  done  by  the  steam  in 
the  engine  cylinder  into  corre- 
spondence with  the  actual  work 
being  done  by  the  engine  itself  in 
driving  machinery. 

Even  if  the  load  on  the  engine 
be  constant,  variations  in  the 
steam  pressure  still  make  regu- 
lation necessary.  In  the  case  of 
the  steam-engine,  regulation  is 
effected  in  one  of  two  ways.  The 
older  method  is  that  first  intro- 
duced by  Watt,  and  consists  in 
varying  the  pressure  of  the  steam 
supplied  to  the  engine  by  open- 
ing or  closing  more  or  less  a  valve 
in  the  supply  pipe.  This  method 
of  regulation  is  known  as  'throt- 
tling,' and  the  regulating  valve 
as  the  'throttle  valve.'  It  is 
still  extensively  used,  especially 
for  small  engines.  The  other 
method  consists  in  varying  the 
volume  of  steam  supplied  to  the 
engine  by  altering  the  point  of 
cut-off.  The  second  method, 
being  the  more  efficient  of  the 
two,  is  chiefly  used  on  large  sta- 
tionary engines.  In  gas  and  oil 
engines,  regulation  is  sometimes 
effected  by  cutting  off  the  gas  or 
oil  supply,  thus  causing  the  en- 
gine to  miss  one  or  more  explo- 
sions whenever  the  speed  rises 
too  high.  Such  governors  are 
called  'hit-and-miss'  governors. 

Governors  are  usually  of  the 
centrifugal  type,  of  which  the 
pendulum  governor  of  Watt, 
shown  in  Fig.  16,  may  be  taken 


Fig.  14. 


steam-engine 


421 


Steam-engine 


as  the  simplest.  Two  heavy 
balls  are  fixed  at  the  ends  of  two 
links,  the  other  ends  of  which 
are  pivoted  to  a  vertical  spindle, 
driven  from  the  engine  shaft. 


Owing  to  centrifugal  force,  the 
balls  fly  outwards,  and  in  doing 
so  raise  a  sleeve,  which  slides  on 
the  spindle,  and  is  connected 
with  the  throttle  valve.  If  the 
speed  of  the  engine  rises  above 
its  normal,  the  balls  fly  farther 
out  and  the  sleeve  is  raised,  clos- 
ing the  throttle  valve  a  little,  and 


Fig.  16. — Watt's  Governor 


A,  As  commonly  used;  b,  original  form. 

reducing  the  pressure  of  the 
steam  supplied  to  the  engine. 
When  the  speed  falls,  the  balls 
move  inwards,  and  the  throttle 
valve  is  opened  a  little,  increasing 
the  pressure  of  steam  supplied 
to  the  engine.  In  the  figure  the 
arms  are  shown  jointed  to  the 


~7 

Fig. 

17. 

spindle;  but  they  are  sometimes 
pivoted  to  a  short  cross-bar  rigid- 
ly attached  to  the  spindle,  as 
shown  diagrammatically  in  Fig. 
17,  or  as  in  Fig.  18,  where  the 


arms  are  crossed,  the  spindle  be- 
ing slotted  out  to  allow  them  to 
pass  through. 

Fig.  19  shows  a  modification  of 
Watt's   governor,    the  original 


form  being  now  seldom  used.  It 
is  known  as  the  'loaded  Watt 
governor,'  or  the  'Porter  gover- 
nor,' after  its  inventor.  As  will 
be  seen  from  the  figure,  there  is 
a  large  central  weight  resting  on 
the  sleeve  and  sliding  with  it  on 
the  spindle.  Loading  a  governor 
in  this  manner  gives  it  more 
power  to  overcome  frictional  re- 
sistances than  an  unloaded  gov- 
ernor with  revolving  balls  of  the 
same  weight.  The  speed  of  rev- 
olution of  a  loaded  governor  is 
much  higher  than  that  of  an  un- 
loaded one.  In  some  similar 
forms  of  governor  the  central 


Fig.  18. 


weight  is  replaced  by  a  spring. 
Such  governors  are  often  spoken 
of  as  'spring  controlled.' 

In  any  governor  of  the  Watt, 
or  pendulum  type,  the  height  h 
(Figs.  17  and  18)  determines  the 
number  of  revolutions  required 
to  maintain  equilibrium.  Con- 
sequently a  governor  arranged  as 
shown  in  Fig.  16  can  be  made 
very  sensitive,  because  such  an 
arrangement  allows  the  balls  to 
move  a  considerable  distance  for 
a  slight  change  of  height  h. 
Very  sensitive  governors  are  de- 
sirable only  for  high-speed  en- 
gines, and  for  these  the  shaft 
governor  is  preferable  to  the 
pendulum  type. 

In  large  stationary  engines  the 
governor  often  controls  the 
steam-supply  by  operating  a  trip 
which  allows  the  admission  valve 


to  close.  This  is  the  case  in  the 
well  known  CorlivSS  gear,  in  which 
the  valve  is  closed  suddenly  by 
the  action  of  atmospheric  pres- 
sure on  a  piston  below  which  is  a 
partial  vacuum.  The  governor 
merely  determines  the  position 
of  the  trip  in  this  gear,  and  hence 
is  composed  of  light  parts  which 
are  easily  moved. 

Sensibility  and  Isochronism. — 
If  there  were  no  friction,  only 
one  position  of  the  governor  balls 
would  be  possible  for  any  partic- 
ular speed;  and  since  the  steam 
supply  depends  upon  the  posi- 
tion of  the  balls,  the  speed  of  the 
engine  must  vary  for  different 
loads.  When  the  variation  of 
speed  allowed  by  the  governor 
between  no  load  and  full  load  is 
small,  the  governor  is  said  to  be 
'sensitive.' 


Fig.  19. — Porter  Governor 


Apart  from  friction,  it  would 
be  possible  to  make  a  governor 
in  which  only  one  speed  was  pos- 
sible, the  slightest  variation  from 
the  given  speed  sending  the  balls 
into  the  extreme  up  or  down 
position.  Such  a  governor  would 
be  called  'isochronous.'  Friction 
prevents  the  attainment  of  iso- 
chronism, and  also  in  practice  a 
certain  amount  of  stability  is  nec- 
essary in  order  to  counteract  the 
tendency  to  oscillate  violently  up 
and  down  whenever  the  speed 
changes  from  the  normal. 

The  governor  shown  diagram- 
matically in  Fig.  17  may  be  made 
isochronous  for  small  displace- 
ments by  suitably  proportioning 
the  cross-bar  from  which  the 
arms  are  hung.  In  practice  it  is 
made  rather  shorter  than  this  in 
order  to  give  the  necessary  stabil- 
ity. This  arrangement  is  known 
as  Farcot's  governor,  from  its 
inventor. 

Hunting. — When  an  engine 
changes  its  speed  there  is  always 
Vol.  XI.— March  '29 


Fig.  15. — Erie  City  Lintz  Engine 


steam-engine 


421  A 


Steam-engine 


an  interval  of  'lag*  before  the 
governor  produces  its  effect,  due 
partly  to  the  governor  not  re- 
sponding instantly  to  the  change 
of  speed  of  the  engine,  and  partly 
to  the  response  of  the  governor 
not  producing  an  immediate 
effect  on  the  engine;  for  the 
steam  already  in  the  engine  will 
continue  to  do  its  work,  and  if 
cut-off  has  occurred,  it  is  not  till 
the  next  stroke  that  the  action  of 
the  governor  can  begin  to  take 
effect.  In  compound  engines  in 
particular,  the  steam,  after  pass- 
ing through  the  high-pressure 
cylinder,  passes  into  the  low- 
pressure  cylinder,  continuing  to 
do  work  for  almost  a  revolution 
before  the  action  of  the  governor 
can  take  full  effect.  The  result 
is  that  if  the  governor  be  too  sen- 
sitive, a  sudden  decrease  of  the 


load  on  the  engine  may  increase 
the  speed  considerably  before  the 
action  of  the  governor  makes  it- 
self felt;  and  in  consequence  the 
governor  moves  too  far,  and  re- 
duces the  steam  supply  below 
what  is  necessary  for  the  dimin- 
ished load.  This  causes  the 
speed  to  be  diminished  too  much, 
and  the  same  effect  is  produced 
in  the  opposite  direction.  The 
oscillation  which  thus  tends  to 
be  set  up  is  known  as  'hunting.' 

Shaft  Governors. — The  gover- 
nors of  high-speed  engines  are 
sometimes  fixed  directly  to  the 
crank  shaft  of  the  engine,  often 
within  the  fly-wheel,  the  arms 
of  which  serve  as  centres  for  the 
revolving  weights.  The  centrif- 
ugal force  of  the  revolving 
weights  is  resisted  by  springs. 
Governors  of  this  type  often 
regulate  by  varying  the  cut-off, 
by  altering  the  angle  of  advance 
and  the  throw  of  the  eccentric. 

The  latest  development  in 
shaft  governors  is  the  'inertia- 


governor,'  (Fig.  9).  In  this  device 
the  revolving  weights,  when  in 
equilibrium,  are  so  situated  that 
they  will  move  out  of  position  by 
their  own  inertia  if  the  speed  of 
the  engine  changes.  This  ar- 
rangement makes  a  governor 
which  responds  very  quickly 
even  for  a  slight  change  of  speed. 

Hydraulic  or  Pump  Governors. 
— In  this  type  of  governor  a 
small  pump  driven  from  the 
engine  pumps  water  into  a  small 
cylinder  with  a  piston  held  down 
by  a  spring,  the  piston  being  con- 
nected with  the  regulating  mech- 
anism. The  water  escapes  from 
the  vessel  by  an  orifice,  the  size 
of  which  is  so  regulated  that  at 
normal  speed  the  pressure  is  just 
sufficient  to  support  the  piston 
against  the  pressure  of  the 
spring.      If  the  speed  rises,  the 


pressure  in  the  cylinder  is  in- 
creased and  the  piston  is  raised, 
reducing  the  steam  supply. 

Marine  Governors. — Many 
forms  of  governing  apparatus 
have  been  devised  to  control 
marine  engines,  and  so  prevent 
their  racing  when  the  screw 
breaks  out  of  the  water  as  the 
vessel  pitches  in  a  heavy  sea. 
Some  of  these  governors  have  a 
pendulum  that  swings  in  a  fore- 
and-aft  plane,  cutting  off  the 
steam  as  the  stern  of  the  ship 
rises  and  admitting  full  pressure 
as  it  falls.  Others  depend  on  the 
pressure  of  the  water  on  a  dia- 
phragm at  the  stern  of  the  vessel. 
When  the  stern  rises  and  the 
pressure  becomes  small,  the 
steam  is  cut  off.  All  these  de- 
vices have  been  found  to  be  poor, 
however,  because  the  governing 
action  is  too  tardy,  occurring 
after  the  screw  has  broken  water, 
while  the  steam  should  be  shut 
off  before  that  happens.  As  such 
governors  are  needed  only  in 


stormy  weather,  they  are  fitted 
merely  as  a  precaution,  the  gov- 
erning in  a  storm  being  usually 
done  by  the  engineer  on  watch, 
who  shuts  off  and  turns  on  the 
steam  at  the  right  instant. 

Condensers. — The  effective 
driving  pressure  on  the  piston  of 
an  engine  at  any  instant  is  equal 
to  the  difference  between  the  for- 
ward and  the  back  pressure  act- 
ing on  the  opposite  faces  of  the 
piston.  In  a  non-condensing  en- 
gine the  exhaust  steam  is  dis- 
charged against  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  and  other  resist- 
ances due  to  the  friction  of  the 
steam  in  the  ports,  passages,  etc.; 
consequently  the  back  pressure  is 
usually  from  15  to  18  lbs.  per 
sq.  in.  (absolute).  By  condensing 
the  exhaust  steam  in  a  suitable 
condenser  fitted  with  an  air- 
pump  or  its  equivalent,  a  vacuum 
is  formed,  and  the  back  pressure 
reduced  to  3  or  4  lbs.  per  sq. 
in.  (absolute),  thus  very  ma- 
terially increasing  the  effective 
pressure  on  the  piston.  A  con- 
siderable economy  is  thereby  ef- 
fected in  the  workmg  of  a  steam- 
engine  by  using  a  condenser. 
See  Condenser. 

Compound  Engines. — The  eco- 
nomical working  of  an  engine  is 
greatly  augmented  by  using 
steam  at  a  high  initial  pressure 
and  expanding  it  to  the  lowest 
possible  practicable  terminal 
pressure;  in  a  condensing  engine 
the  terminal  pressure  is  usually 
about  10  lbs.  per  sq.  in.  (abso- 
lute), and  from  18  to  40  lbs.  per 
sq.  in.  in  a  non-condensing 
engine.  Unfortunately,  if  the  full 
expansion  of  the  steam  is  carried 
out  in  one  cylinder,  the  interior 
of  the  latter  is  subjected  to  a 
considerable  variation  in  tem- 
perature, and  in  consequence  a 
large  proportion  of  the  incoming 
steam  is  condensed  during  the 
admission  part  of  the  stroke 
without  doing  any  work.  The 
compound  engine  is  designed  to 
reduce  the  waste  of  steam  due  to 
cylinder  condensation  by  divid- 
ing the  total  expansion  into  two 
or  more  stages,  carried  out  in  two 
or  more  cylinders,  the  volume  of 
the  last  cylinder  being  several 
times  the  volume  of  the  first. 
The  variation  in  temperature  in 
any  one  cylinder  is  thus  brought 
within  limits  which  are  not  ex- 
cessive. The  number  of  cylin- 
ders and  their  relative  volume 
proportions  depend  upon  the  ini- 
tial pressure  of  the  steam  and  the 
total  range  of  expansion.  For  an 
engine  to  be  economical  as  re- 
gards steam  and  fuel  consump- 
tion, until  recently  it  has  been 
felt  that  the  compound  system 
must  be  adopted. 

In  a  compound  engine  the  total 
expansion  of  the  steam  usually  is 
carried  out  in  two  stages:  there 
will  be  one  'high-pressure'  cylin- 
der, into  which  the  steam  is  first 


Fig.  20. — Westinghouse  Compound  Engine 


Vol  XL— March  '29 


steam-engine 


421  B 


Steam-engine 


admitted,  and  one  or  two  'low- 
pressure'  cylinders.  The  second 
or  last  stage  in  the  expansion 
may  be  divided  equally  between 
two  low-pressure  cylinders,  when 
one  cylinder  would  be  inconveni- 
ently large.  In  triple-expansion 
engines  there  are  three  stages  of 
expansion,  and  the  cylinders  are 


York,  consists  of  a  pair  of  two- 
cylinder  compound  engines  con- 
nected to  each  end  of  a  crank- 
shaft supported  in  two  Dearings. 
Mounted  on  the  shaft  between 
the  bearings  is  the  armature  of  a 
7,500  kilowatt  alternating  gen- 
erator, which  takes  the  place  of 
a  fly-wheel.   Each  engine  of  the 


Fig.  21. 


termed  'high  pressure,'  'inter- 
mediate,' and  'low  pressure'  re- 
spectively. Occasionally  en- 
gmes  are  built  with  four-stage 
or  quadruple  expansion.  Marine 
engines  are  usually  of  the  triple- 
expansion  type,  with  three  cylin- 
ders and  three  cranks;  latterly 
with  large  engines  it  has  been  the 
practice  to  have  two  low-pressure 
cylinders,  and  the  power  dis- 
tributed among  four  cranks. 
The  compound  system,  on  ac- 
count of  two  or  more  cranks 
being  used,  conduces  to  smooth- 
ness of  running. 

Fig.  20  represents  the  Westing- 
house  compound  engine.  Like 
the  Willans  engine,  it  is  single 
acting.  Each  of  the  connecting 
rods  is  attached  at  its  upper  end 
to  a  wrist  pin  within  the  hollow 
or  'trunk'  piston.  A  single  pis- 
ton valve,  located  above  the  two 
cylinders  and  driven  by  an  ec- 
centric through  a  rock  shaft,  con- 
trols the  admission  of  steam  to 
both  cylinders.  In  the  position 
of  the  valve  and  cylinder  shown, 
steam  entering  at  the  left  of  the 
valve  chest  has  been  cut  off  from 
the  high-pressure  cylinder,  and 
the  expanded  steam  is  about  to  be 
discharged  through  the  two  ports 
from  the  high-  to  the  low-pressure 
cylinder.  This  engine  is  largely 
used  in  sizes  up  to  250  h.p.  For 
larger  sizes  double-acting  engines 
are  preferred.  The  engine  had 
such  a  high  steam  consumption 
that  it  is  no  longer  manufactured. 

A  form  of  compound  engine, 
built  by  the  Allis-Chalmers  Co. 
for  the  large  power  stations  of 
the   electric   railways   in  New 


pair  has  a  horizontal  high-pres- 
sure cylinder  and  a  vertical  low- 
pressure  cylinder,  of  42  and  88 
inches  diameter  respectively,  the 
stroke  being  60  inches.  The  con- 
necting rods  from  the  two  cylin- 
ders take  hold  of  a  single  crank 
pin,  18  inches  diameter  and  18 
inches  long,  the  bearings  of  each 
connecting  rod  being  9  inches 
long.  These  are  the  last  of  large 
engines  installed  in  American 
power  plants,  giving  way  to  the 
steam  turbine. 

Una  flow  Engines . — The 
modern  steam  engine  is  the 
unaflow  and  its  development  was 
due  to  the  necessity  facing  the 
builders  of  reciprocating  engines, 


its  introduction  in  1905  had  been 
rapid  both  by  reason  of  its  lower 
manufacturing  costs  and  its 
superior  steam  economy  compar- 
ed to  many  prevailing  types  of 
reciprocating  steam  engines. 

The  turbine's  superior  steam 
economy  became  an  actuality 
only  when  condensing  operation 
was  possible.  Even  here  its 
thermal  superiority  lay  almost 
entirely  in  the  fact  that  the  re- 
ciprocating steam  engine  had 
large  heat  losses  due  to  condensa- 
tion and  re-evaporation  of  part 
of  the  steam  supply.  This  re- 
quired more  steam  to  be  fed  to 
the  cylinder  to  deliver  a  horse- 
power than  was  needed  in  the 
case  of  the  turbine. 

It  was  apparent  to  all  that  if 
the  reciprocating  steam  engine 
was  to  hold  its  own,  these  losses 
must  be  eliminated.  This  had 
been  attempted  by  four-valve 
construction,  by  live-steam  jack- 
eting, by  compound  and  triple 
expansion  and  by  the  use  of 
superheat.  Each  had  an  in- 
fluence upon  the  economy,  but 
the  major  part  of  the  cylinder 
losses  still  remained.  At  this 
point,  when  engine  building  was 
at  low  ebb,  the  unaflow  steam 
engine  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States  and  Europe,  with  a 
consequent  though  gradual  re- 
vival of  the  industry  to  its 
present  state  of  activity. 

A  brief  outline  of  the  reasons 
why  the  unaflow  engine  was  able 
to  eliminate  the  losses  present  in 
other  engines  is  offered.  In  the 
usual  four-valve  engine,  for 
example  the  Corliss  shown  in 
Fig.  21,  the  live,  or  boiler,  steam 
enters  through  the  steam  valve 
and  exerts  a  pressure  against  the 
piston,  causing  the  latter  to  do 
work  on  the  crank.  At  some 
point  the  steam  valve  closes  and 
the  expansive  power  of  the  steam 
comes  into  play,  forcing  the  pis- 
ton to  the  end  of  its  stroke.  As 


Fig.  22. 


of  producing  an  engine  to  meet 
steam  turbine  competition. 

From  1910  to  1914  those  firms 
in  the  United  States  whose 
activities  were  centred  chiefly  in 
the  building  of  reciprocating 
steam  engines  faced  a  most  dis- 
turbing condition.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  steam  turbine  from 


the  volume  increases  the  pressure 
decreases,  and  since  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  steam  depends  on  its 
pressure,  the  former  falls  rapidly. 
When  the  exhaust  valve  opens, 
the  now  cool  steam  sweeps  back 
through  the  cylinder,  across  the 
cylinder  head  and  out  through 
the  exhaust.    The  cylinder  walls 

Vol.  XL— March  '29 


steam-engine 


422 


Steam-engine 


are  above  the  exhaust  tempera- 
ture, and  the  cyHnder  condensate 
re-evaporates  and  carries  out  a 
large  amount  of  heat.  When  the 
piston  again  reaches  the  left  end 
of  the  cylinder,  the  steam  valve 
opens,  boiler  steam  enters  and 
the  cycle  is  repeated.  The 
cylinder  walls  are  now  at  a  low 


some  10  per  cent,  of  its  return 
stroke  and  traps  a  cylinderful  of 
the  steam  at  the  exhaust  pres- 
sure. This  steam  is  compressed 
to  practically  boiler  pressure  by 
the  action  of  the  piston  on  the 
compression  stroke,  and  its  tem- 
perature is  raised  by  the  work  of 
compression  until  at  the  end  of 


Fig.  23. 


temperature,  and  much  of  the 
live  steam  immediately  con- 
denses. The  effect  is  such  that 
often  50  per  cent,  of  the  steam 
entering  is  condensed  immediate- 
ly and  does  little  work.  ^  It  is 
obvious  that  this  loss  In  the 
steam  engine,  not  being  present 
in  the  turbine,  where  the  flow  of 
steam  is  in  one  direction  from  the 
inlet  to  the  outlet,  put  the  former 
in  a  decidedly  bad  position. 

Although  others  had  already 
patented  an  engine  having  the 
same  general  feature  of  a  central 
exhaust  which  has  given  the 
engine  its  name,  to  Dr.  J. 
Stumpf  must  be  awarded  the 
chief  credit  for  the  commercial 
development  of  the  unaflow 
engine.  The  unaflow  differs 
from  other  steam  engines  in 
cylinder  construction.  In  the 
Stumpf  engine  steam  enters  at 
the  cyhnder  head  and  after  doing 
work  passes  out  through  a  row  of 
exhaust  ports  uncovered  by  the 
piston  at  the  end  of  its  stroke.  If 
the  engine  is  double-acting,  as  is 
usual,  the  cylinder  must  be  ap- 
proximately twice  as  long  as  the 
piston  stroke  and  the  piston 
must  be  as  long  as  its  stroke  less 
the  exhaust-port  width.  The 
row  of  exhaust  ports  is  then  in 
the  middle  of  the  cylinder,  as  in 
Fig.  22.  The  direction  of  the 
steam  flow  is  always  from  the 
head  toward  the  centre.  No 
heat  is  picked  up  from  the  hot 
cylinder  head  and  lost  through 
the  exhaust.  The  piston  covers 
the  ports  when  it  has  moved 

Vol.  XL— March  '29 


this  stroke  it  is  equal  to  that  of 
the  incoming  live  steam.  The 
head  is  kept  hot  by  the  live- 
steam  jacket,  and  little  heat  is 
either  lost  or  absorbed  from  the 
cylinder  walls  by  the  steam.  The 
loss  due  to  cylinder  condensation 
is  then  almost  entirely  eliminated. 
The  only  loss  of  any  consequence 
that  remains  is  due  to  the  expan- 
sion being  incomplete;  that  is, 
when  the  steam  is  released  at  the 
end  of  expansion  its  pressure  is 
above  that  of  the  exhaust  line. 
The  expansion  and  compression 


quired  by  other  steam  engines. 
The  adoption  of  the  unaflow 
engine  was  by  no  means  im- 
mediate upon  its  introduction 
into  the  United  States.  In  1913 
one  builder  engaged  in  its  manu- 
facture, being  followed  from 
year  to  year  by  others,  until  at 
the  present  time  thirteen  com- 
panies manufacture  this  engine, 
many  with  considerable  modi- 
fication of  the  original  valve-gear 
designs. 

Basically  the  unaflow  engine,  or 
rather  the  unadirectional,  steam 
engine,  was  the  creation  of  Jacob 
Perkins,  an  American  who  moved 
to  England  early  in  1812.  Here  he 
became  interested  in  high  pressure 
steam,  utilizing  pressures  up  to 
1200  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Since  high  pressures  such  as 
Jacob  Perkins  advocated  could 
not  be  employed  in  the  engines 
then  in  existence,  Perkins  dis- 
regarded all  the  traditions  of 
engine  building  to  produce  a 
machine  that  not  only  is  the 
direct  progenitor  of  the  modern 
unaflow  engine,  but  incorporates 
certain  ideas  as  to  the  condenser 
that  offer  attractions  even  though 
not  yet  adopted.  The  engine,  as 
patented  in  1827,  consisted  of  a 
single-acting  cylinder,  Fig.  23, 
in  which  the  piston  overran  the 
exhaust  ports.  This  design  was 
substantially  that  later  patented 
by  Todd  and,  with  the  addition 
of  steam  jacketing,  by  Stumpf. 
In  view  of  the  slow  speed  then 
employed,  it  is  probable  that 
Perkins  used  no  compression. 
He  actually  built  this  engine  and 
it  was  installed  to  put  out  dry 
docks  in  London,  Lack  of 
capital  and  the  competition  of 
James  Watt's  Company  pre- 
vented the  Perkins'  engine  from 
coming  into  general  use. 

The  unaflow  engine  lay  dor- 
mant until  L.  J.  Todd,  an  Eng- 


FiG.  24. 


lines  are  almost  true  adiabatic, 
showing  that  there  is  still  little 
heat  lost  to  the  cylinder  walls. 
By  the  elimination  of  the  cylinder 
condensation  losses  the  unaflow 
is  able  to  deliver  the  same 
amount  of  work  with  a  large 
saving  in  steam  over  that  re-^ 


lishman,  patented  a  double- 
acting  unaflow  engine  (Fig.  24). 
This  has  the  same  end  steam 
feed  and  central  exhaust  as  has 
the  modern  Stumpf  but  the  heads 
were  not  steam  jacketed.  Stumpf 
patented  the  combination  of  these 
three  features. 


S  team -engine 


423 


Steam-engine 


Typical    Unaflow    Engines. — 

A  typical  straight  unaflow  built 
by  The  Elliott  Co.,  makes  use  of 
the  Stumpf  standardized  cyl- 
inder design,  while  the  frame  is 


a  cam  c.  Motion  from  the  gover- 
nor-controlled eccentric  is  trans- 
mitted through  an  eccentric  rod, 
rocker  arm  and  reach  rod  A  to 
the  cam  rod  e.  The  rod  E  carries 


the  same  as  that  used  for  years 
on  the  four-valve  engine  of  this 
make,  being  of  the  sidecrank 
bored-guide  type.  The  frame  is 
set  on  a  sub-base  which  extends 
under  and  acts  as  a  support  for 
the  cylinder.  A  cross-section  of 
the  cylinder  is  shown  in  Fig.  25. 
The  barrel  is  a  single  casting 
with  flanges  at  each  end  to  which 
are  bolted  the  heads  and  is  pro- 
vided with  an  exhaust  belt 
around  the  centre.  The  belt  has 
its  outlet  at  the  bottom  and 
rests  on  a  split  distance  piece  on 
the  engine  sub-base. 

The  steam  valves  are  placed 
in  the  cylinder  heads,  which  are 
completely  steam-jacketed.  The 
details  of  the  steam  valve  are 
illustrated  in  Fig.  26.  The 
valve  is  turned  out  of  a  solid 
steel  forging,  and  to  compensate 
for  any  slight  variation  in  ex- 
pansion of  the  valve  and  cylinder 
head,  the  upper  lip  of  the  valve  is 
turned  very  thin,  which  makes  it 
somewhat  flexible.  The  lower  lip 
seals  on  a  casting  bolted  to  the 
cylinder  head,  while  the  upper 
lip  rests  on  a  seat  or  ledge 
machined  in  the  head  casting. 
The  stud  holding  the  lower  seat 
casting  is  extended  to  fit  into  the 
valve  body  and  in  this  way  serves 
as  a  guide  for  the  valve,  prevent- 
ing the  side  pressure  of  the  steam 
entering  the  cylinder  to  throw 
the  valve  off'  its  seat  when  clos- 
ing. The  valve  stem  passes 
through  a  guide  that  rests  in  a 
machine  recess  in  the  head.  The 
upper  end  of  the  valve  stem 
screws  into  the  crosshead  d, 
which  is  held  in  the  valve  bonnet. 
This  crosshead  is  provided  with 


a  hardened-steel  roller  b,  which, 
coming  in  contact  with  the  cam 
c,  lifts  the  cam,  crosshead  and 
valve.      Closing  of  the  valve 


occurs  when  the  cam  rod  re- 
verses its  travel  and  the  roller  b 
moves  under  the  thin  part  of  the 
cam  c. 

The  Nordberg  unaflow  engine 
design  follows  European  prac- 
tice in  the  use  of  a  lay  shaft 
upon  which  the  eccentrics  are 
placed  and  which  is  driven  by 
the  crank  shaft  through  bevel 
gears.  The  governor,  which  is  of 
the  centrifugal  type,  is  supported 
on  the  layshaft  and  being  con- 
nected to  the  steam  eccentrics  by 
a  sleeve  controls  the  engine 
speed  by  altering  the  eccentric 
travel  and  the  lift  of  the  steam 
valves  as  in  case  of  the  Nordberg 
poppet  valve  engine.   Fig.  14. 

In  Fig.  27  a  cross-section  of 
the  Skinner  unaflow  engine  with 
auxiliary  exhaust  valves  is  shown. 
The  steam  valve  (Fig.  28)  is  of 
the  double-beat  poppet  design. 
To  eliminate  leakage  resulting 
from  unequal  expansion  of  the 
valve  and  cylinder  head,  the 
top  portion  of  the  valve  is  sepa- 
rate from  the  valve  body  and  is 
held  down  by  spring  tension. 
Expansion  rings  prevent  steam 
leakage  between  the  two  parts  of 
the  valve.  Any  inequality  of 
expansion  of  the  valve  and  seats 
is  compensated  for  by  a  slight 
displacement  of  the  upper  part 
of  the  valve  with  respect  to  the 
valve  body.  The  Skinner  engine 


Fig.  26. 


Vol.  XI.— March  '29 


steam-engine 


424 


Steam-engine 


has  a  second  feature  of  merit,  an 
expanding  double-beat  poppet 
valve.  The  upper  part  of  this 
valve  is  not  rigidly  connected  to 
the  lower  part,  but  allows  an  ex- 
panding and  telescopic  action  and 
comes  in  contact  with  its  seat 
shortly  before  the  lower  part, 
with  the  result  that  both  seats 
make  steam-tight  contact  ir- 
respective of  the  difference  in 
expansion  of  the  cylinder  and 


extent  that  the  power  needed  can 
be  generated  on  a  bypass  prin- 
ciple, by  running  part  of  the 
steam  through  a  turbine  or 
engine  which  exhausts  into  the 
heating  system.  Power,  in  this 
case,  is  strictly  a  byproduct  and 
its  nominal  cost  is  a  function  of 
fixed  charges  only,  most  of  the 
heat  going  to  the  process. 

On  other  occasions,  however, 
power  demands  exceed  heating 


Fig.  27 


valve  metal.  A  plant  containing 
three  750  h.p.  Skinner  unafiow 
engines  is  shown  in  Fig.  29. 

Since  1927  there  has  been  a 
marked  tendency  toward  ver- 
tical designs,  using  a  multiplicity 
of  cylinders.  A  Chuse  six  cylin- 
der unit  is  shown  in  Fig.  30. 

Large  Unafiow  Engines. — 
The  unafiow  engine  has  been 
built  in  sizes  larger  than  has  any 
other  type.  There  has  been  a 
four-cylinder  Nordberg  unit  in- 
stalled in  a  steel  mill  that  has  a 
maximum  capacity  of  25,000 
H.p.    Others  of  the  same  make 


Fig.  28. — Skinner  Telescope 


in  steel  mills  range  up  to  14,000 
H.p.  in  two  cylinder  designs. 
Bleeder  or  Extraction  Engines. 

— In  most  industrial  plants 
heating  and  power  demands 
need  to  be  satisfied  simultane- 
ously, and  it  is  again  due  to  the 
peculiar  characteristics  of  steam 
that  it  can  be  used  to  fulfil  both 
these  requirements  satisfactorily. 
In  many  cases  heating  require- 
ments predominate  to  such  an 

Vol.  XL— March  '29 


requirements,  or  in  other  words 
only  part  of  the  steam  used  for 
the  generation  of  power  is  needed 
for  heating.  While  it  would  be 
feasible  to  generate  such  steam 
in  a  separate  boiler  at  heating 
pressure,  a  balance  sheet  will  dis- 
close the  fact  that  it  is  more 
economical  to  generate  all  the 
steam  at  as  high  pressure  as  is 
desirable  and  expand  it  down  to 
the  heating  pressure  in  a  turbine 
or  engine,  or  in  other  words, 
extract  the  prime  mOver  after  it 
has  performed  work  in  such 
machine.  If  the  heating  pressure 
is  higher  than  the  exhaust  pres- 
sure of  the  engine,  such  process  is 
termed  'bleeding.'  The  economic 
aspect  of  the  bleeding  process 
is  based  on  the  quality  of  water 
vapor  which  perhiits  of  obtaining 
high  pressure  with  but  little  more 
expense  of  heat  than  is  required 
for  low  pressure. 

It  follows  that  bleeding  is  re- 
stricted to  cases  where  power 
demands  predominate  over  heat- 
ing requirements.  Because  only 
the  amount  of  steam  admitted 
to  a  prime  mover  can  be  ex- 
tracted and  whenever  the  rate  of 
steam  flow  required  for  power 
generation  is  below  that  of  heat- 
ing demands,  makeup  steam  has 
to  be  admitted  through  a  reduc- 
ing valve. 

Two-stage,  or  compound,  en- 
gines, so  far,  have  mostly  been 
used  to  effect  bleeding,  because 
the  heating  line  can  be  connected 
to  the  receiver,  and  the  necessary 
control  is  limited  to  the  low- 
pressure  cylinder.  It  was  cus- 
tomary to  operate  the  engine 
condensing  and  select  a  receiver 


pressure  which  would  fit  the 
heating  requirements.  This  is  an 
arrangement  which  works  out 
very  well;  it  has,  however,  the 
drawback  that  during  periods  of 
high  heating  demands  the  engine 
cannot  carry  full  load,  because 
the  low-pressure  cylinder  runs 
practically  idle.  As  the  cylinder 
ratio  of  bleeder-type  engines, 
however,  is  small,  ratios  down  to 
1  to  1  having  been  used,  the  high- 
pressure  cylinder  is  capable  of 
delivering  a  good  deal  more  than 
half  the  rated  power  of  the 
machine.  Under  this  condition 
of  maximum  steam  flow  the  lubri- 
cation of  the  low-pressure  cylin- 
der becomes  a  matter  of  difficulty, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  maintain  a 
minimum  cut-off  in  this  cylinder 
of  5  to  6  per  cent,  to  insure  lubri- 
cation. This  steam,  being  ex- 
hausted into  the  condenser, 
entails  a  certain  loss. 

Control  of  the  low-pressure 
cylinder  can  be  eff^ected  in 
different  ways.  The  simplest 
method  is  to  interpose  a  throt- 
tling valve  in  the  steam  inlet  to 
the  low-pressure  cylinder  and  a 
similar  valve  in  the  heating  line. 
These  valves  can  be  controlled 
by  a  single  mechanism,  prefer- 
ably an  oil  relay,  and  are  con- 
nected so  that  as  one  opens  the 
other  closes.  The  low-pressure 
valve  gear  is,  in  this  case,  set  for 
a  fixed  cut-off.  As  this  method 
controls  by  throttling,  it  is 
subject  to  the  shortcoming  of  all 
throttling  devices.  It  has,  how- 
ever, some  practical  value  be- 
cause it  can  be  applied  to  existing 
engines.  A  better  way  consists 
in  providing  a  cut-off  control  for 
the  low-pressure  cylinder  which 
regulates  for  constant  receiver 
pressure.  This  can  take  the 
form  of  a  spring-loaded  piston 
moving  in  a  cylinder  which  is 
connected  to  the  heating  line;  or, 
as  is  necessary  with  valve  gears 
requiring  considerable  force,  com- 
prise a  pilot  valve  with  oil  relay 
and  follow  up  motion.  This 
mechanism  influences  the  low- 
pressure  cut-off  only,  the  high- 
pressure  cylinder  being  under 
control  of  a  speed  governor. 
Naturally,  during  periods  of 
fluctuation  in  heating  steam  or 
power  demands,  these  two  con- 
trols co-operate  to  maintain  the 
heating  pressure  and  engine 
speed  at  the  desired  values.  It  is 
also  practical  to  reverse  the 
method  of  control  and  influence 
the  low-pressure  cut-off  by  means 
of  a  speed  governor  and  have  the 
heating-pressure  regulator  act  on 
the  high-pressure  cut-off. 

Another  form  of  single-stage 
engine  employs  one  cylinder  end 
for  bleeding,  the  cut-off  of  which 
is  under  control  of  a  pressure 
regulator;  while  the  other  cylin- 
der end,  with  speed  governor 
control,  exhausts  into  a  condenser 
or  against  other  suitable  back 


steam-engine 


425 


Steam-engine 


Fig.  29. — Three  750  h.p.  Unaflows 


pressure.  The  speed  governor, 
naturally,  is  interlocked  with  the 
pressure  control  so  as  to  prevent 
overspeeding  in  case  the  load 
should  be  reduced  unduly. 

A  good  deal  of  thought  has 
been  given  to  the  problem  of  in- 
corporating bleeding  mechanism 
in  unaflow  engines.  Owing  to  the 
separation  of  the  two  cylinder 
ends  it  is  possible  to  bleed  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  steam  during  the 
expansion  stroke  by  means  of 
check  valves  located  a  certain 
distance  from  the  exhaust  ports.- 
The  amount  of  steam  so  bled  is 
dependent  upon  the  load  the 
engine  carries  and  at  light  loads 
is  small. 


Professor  Stumpf  showed  by 
theoretical  analysis  that  with  the 
bleeder  ports  located  at  a  point 
in  the  barrel  0.35  of  the  stroke 
from  the  stroke  end,  the  bleeder 
pressure  could  be  from  18  to  35 
lb.  gauge,  with  150  lb.  gauge  pres- 
sure. With  the  ports  located  at 
mid-stroke,  the  bleeder  pressure 
could  be  as  high  as  57  lb.  Fur- 
thermore, his  calculations  were 
based  on  higher  release  pressure 
and  atmospheric  exhaust.  For 
obvious  reasons  it  is  desirable  to 
run  the  engine  condensing  if 
possible.  This  method  appears 
practical  only  for  purposes  of 
feed  water  heating.  For  bleeding 
larger  quantities  of  steam  studies 


have  been  made  on  combinations 
of  auxiliary  exhaust  valves,  check 
valves  back  of  the  auxiliary  ex- 
haust valves  and  an  additional 
valve  in  the  central  exhaust.  This 
valve  opens  and  closes  for  every 
stroke  of  the  engine.  When  this 
valve  is  fully  opened  during  the 
period  of  central  exhaust,  the 
engine  operates  as  a  regular 
unaflow  engine.  If  this  valve  is 
maintained  closed  during  this 
period,  all  steam,  after  having 
expanded,  is  recompressed  in 
the  cylinder  up  to  bleeding  pres- 
sure and  is  ejected  through  th:? 
auxiliary  exhaust  and  the  check 
valves  into  the  bleeder  line. 
The  Skinner  Engine  Company 


Fig.  30. — Chuse  Six-cylinder  Unit 


Vol.  XL— March  '29 


steam-engine 


426 


Steam-engine 


made  some  studies  along  similar 
lines  for  use  on  its  unaflow 
engine,  bleeding  through  the 
auxiliary  exhaust  valves  and  with 
the  central  ports  exhausting  to 
the  condenser.  With  the  lower 
release  pressures  and  the  lower 
expansion  line  in  the  cylinder  it 
was  found  that  there  was  a  wide 
variation  in  the  amounts  of 
steam  that  could  be  bled  if  the 
bleeder  ports  were  fixed  in  their 
position  with  relation  to  the 
stroke,  and  if  the  load  on  the 
engine  varied  greatly.  The 
company  has  lately  devised  a 
method  of  shifting  the  bleeder 
ports  by  means  of  a  grid  valve  A 
with  successively  widening  ports 
registering  with  corresponding 
ports  B  throughout  the  length  of 
the  cylinder,  as  shown  in  Fig.  31. 


the  stern  of  a  boat  driven  by 
steam  power.  In  1763  William 
Henry,  of  Lancaster,  Pa.,  who 
while  in  England  in  1760  became 
acquainted  with  the  invention  of 
James  Watt,  built  a  steam  en- 
gine and  put  it  in  a  boat  fitted 
with  paddle  wheels,  and  tried  it 
in  the  Conestoga  River,  but  the 
boat  sank  and  was  lost.  In  1774 
Comte  d'Auxiron  and  Jouff'roy  in 
France  built  a  paddle-wheel 
steam  vessel,  but  it  sprang  a  leak 
and  foundered  at  the  wharf  be- 
fore completion.  In  1776  Jouf- 
froy  ran  a  boat  14  ft.  long  and 
6  ft.  wide  by  means  of  one  of 
Watt's  engines  and  a  chain  carry- 
ing 'duck-foot'  paddles.  In  1783 
Jouffroy  built  another  boat,  150 
ft.  long  and  16  ft.  wide,  with 
paddle  wheels  driven  by  two 


Fig.  31. 


The  grid  a  is  controlled  by  a 
back-pressure  diaphragm  and  is 
shifted  forward  or  backward 
lengthwise  with  the  stroke,  there- 
by creating  the  opening  near  the 
beginning  of  the  stroke  when  the 
load  on  the  engine  is  light  and 
near  the  end  of  the  stroke  when 
the  load  ,  on  the  engine  is  heavy. 

Marine  Engines. — In  1690 
Papin  proposed  to  use  his  piston- 
engine  to  drive  paddle-wheels  to 
propel  vessels;  and  in  1707  he 
applied  the  steam-engine,  which 
he  had  proposed  as  a  pumping 
engine,  to  driving  a  model  boat 
on  the  Fulda  at  Cassel. 

In  1736  Jonathan  Hulls  took 
out  an  Englivsh  patent  for  the  use 
of  a  steam-engine  for  ship-pro- 
pulsion, proposing  to  employ  his 
steamboat  in  towing.  In  1737  he 
published  a  well-written  pam- 
phlet, describing  this  apparatus. 

In  1752  Bernoulli  received  a 
prize  from  the  French  Academy 
of  Science  for  a  treatise  in  which 
he  suggested  screw  propellers  in 

Vol.  XI.— March  '29 


racks  and  a  ratchet  wheel.  The 
trial  appears  to  have  been  suc- 
cessful, but  Jouffroy  met  with 
no  encouragement  from  the 
French  Academy  or  the  French 
Government  and  gave  up  his  at- 
tempts. In  1786  John  Rumsey 
drove  a  boat  at  the  rate  of  four 
miles  an  hour  against  the  current 
of  the  Potomac  at  Shepherds- 
town,  W.  Va.,  in  the  presence  of 
General  Washington.  He  used 
the  method  of  'jet  propulsion,' 
in  which  a  steam  pump  forced  a 
stream  of  water  aft.  In  1787 
John  Fitch,  at  Philadelphia,  made 
a  successful  trial  of  a  steamboat 
which  had  paddles  worked  at  the 
sides.  In  a  second  boat,  60  ft. 
long  and  8  ft.  beam,  in  1788,  he 
used  paddles  at  the  stern.  This 
boat  made  a  number  of  excur- 
sions on  the  Delaware  River, 
making  three  or  four  miles  an 
hour.  Another  of  his  boats,  in 
1790,  made  seven  miles  an  hour 
and  was  placed  as  a  passenger 
boat  in  a  line  from  Philadelphia 


to  Trenton,  occasionally  running 
to  Wilmington.  In  1788  Wil- 
liam Symmington,  in  Scotland, 
successfully  ran  a  steam  vessel, 
25  ft.  long,  7  ft.  beam,  with 
paddle  wheels,  five  miles  an  hour. 
A  larger  vessel  in  1789  made 
seven  miles  an  hour.  Patrick  Mil- 
ler of  Dalswinton,  who  had  em- 
ployed Symmington  and  fur- 
nished the  money  for  the  experi- 
ment, to  the  amount,  it  is  said, 
of  over  £30,000,  dropped  the 
matter  just  when  it  was  on  the 
verge  of  success.  Several  years 
later  Lord  Dundas  furnished 
funds  to  Symmington  as  engi- 
neer, and  later  to  Henry  Bell,  to 
continue  experiments  on  steam- 
boats. In  1802  Symmington 
built  the  Charlotte  Dundas,  which 
was  successfully  tried  on  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  tow- 
ing two  vessels  of  70  tons  each 
and  making  over  three  miles  an 
hour.  Five  years  later,  in  August, 
1807,  Robert  Fulton  ran  his  first 
steamer,  the  Clermont,  from 
New  York  to  Albany,  150  miles, 
in  32  hours,  returning  in  30 
hours.  The  boat  was  133  ft. 
long,  18  ft.  wide,  and  9  ft.  deep, 
and  was  equipped  with  an  engine 
built  in  England  by  Watt.  The 
next  month  the  boat  began  a 
regular  passenger  service  be- 
tween New  York  and  Albany. 
Fulton,  therefore,  was  the  first 
to  make  steam  navigation  an 
every-day  commercial  success.  In 
1812  Henry  Bell  constructed  the 
Comet,  the  first  passenger  vessel 
built  in  Europe,  and  steam  navi- 
gation began  to  be  a  practical 
success  in  Great  Britain. 

In  1804  Col.  John  Stevens,  of 
Hoboken,  N.  J.,  built  a  small 
steamboat,  driven  by  twin  screws, 
and  later  built  a  paddle-wheel 
steamer,  using  the  engine  shown 
in  Fig.  31  A,  which  had  a  success- 
ful trial  in  1807,  just  too  late  to 
anticipate  Fulton,  who  had  been 
granted  a  monopoly  of  the  waters 
of  the  State  of  New  York.  The 
Phoenix  in  1808  was  taken  to 
Philadelphia  by  way  of  the  sea, 
and  thereafter  ran  on  the  Dela- 
ware River. 

The  introduction  of  the  screw 
propeller  in  the  U.  S.  S.  Prince- 
ton in  1840  made  important 
changes  in  marine  engines. 

In  1853  high-pressure  steam 
was  introduced  into  the  British 
navy;  but  it  was  not  till  1860  that 
the  Victoria  was  fitted  with  en- 
gines working  with  steam  pres- 
sure of  22  lbs.  With  the  object 
of  reducing  the  consumption  of 
coal,  the  Constance,  steam-frigate, 
was  in  1862  provided  with  six 
cylinders,  being  thus  the  earliest 
example  of  a  warship  with  a 
compound  engine.  The  arrange- 
ment, however,  was  not  very  suc- 
cessful, and  no  marked  improve- 
ment was  effected  until  1865, 
when  the  Pallas  was  launched 
for  the  British  navy,  with  two 


steam-engine 


427 


Steam-engine 


Fig.  31  a. — Stevens'  Early  Marine  Engine 


cylinders  instead  of  six,  one 
being  four  times  larger  than  the 
other.  The  steam  entered  the 
smaller  one  at  high  pressure,  in 
this  case  60  lbs.,  and  thence 
passed  into  the  larger  one,  which 
it  filled  by  expansion.  It  had 
surface  condensers,  and  was,  on 
the  whole,  economical  in  fuel. 
The  success  of  this  ship  caused 
the  general  adoption  of  com- 
pound engines  throughout  the 
fleet.  Between  1875  and  1880 
two  improvements  were  brought 
about  in  engine-making — viz.  hol- 
low compressed  steel  shafting 
which  greatly  increased  durabil- 
ity, and  at  the  same  time  reduced 
weight;  and  tandem  engines — i.e. 
the  placing  of  the  two  cylinders 
in  line  instead  of  side  by  side, 
thus  effecting  a  great  gain  in 
space.  The  inverted  cylinder  en- 
gine, so  called  from  the  manner 
in  which  the  cylinders  are  placed 
above  the  crank,  was  the  next 
improvement  in  naval  engines. 
In  1878  the  introduction  of  the 
triple-expansion  system  resulted 
in  an  increase  of  steam  pressure 
from  90  lbs.,  the  limit  of  the 
compound  type,  to  at  least  150 
lbs.,  with  at  the  same  time  an 
economy  of  fuel.  The  Rattle- 
snake, torpedo-boat  catcher,  of 
1886  (550  tons),  was  the  first 
ship  for  the  British  navy  to  be 
fitted  with  engines  of  the  triple- 
expansion  vertical  type.  A  fur- 
ther development  was  achieved 
in  the  cruisers  Blake  and  Blen- 
heim (9.000  tons)  of  1890-1.  In 
these  ships  there  are  four  sets  of 
verticle  triple-expansion  engines, 


working  in  pairs.  Some  modifi- 
cation of  this  inverted  vertical 
direct-acting  engine  had  much 


earlier  become  general  in  the 
mercantile  marine,  and  two, 
three,  and  four  cylinders  have 
long  been  common. 

Engines  for  ship  propulsion 
are  now  practically  all  of  the 
vertical  three  or  four  cylinder 
triple  -  expansion  type,  with 
three  or  four  cranks.  The  high- 
pressure,  and  sometimes  the  in- 
termediate, cylinder  is  fitted 
with  a  piston  valve,  while  the 
low-pressure  cylinder  is  usually 
provided  with  a  double-ported 
slide  valve.  The  direction  of 
motion  of  a  marine  engine  must 
be  capable  of  being  reversed,  and 
for  this  purpose  each  cylinder  is 
fitted  with  some  form  of  revers- 
ing gear.  In  the  Stephenson  gear 
or  Hnk  motion  (shown  diagram- 
matically  in  Fig.  32),  the  type 
usually  adopted,  there  are  two 
eccentrics,  E  Ei,  symmetrically 
placed  relatively  to  the  crank  c, 
and  keyed  to  the  shaft.  One  of 
these  makes  the  engine  run  for- 
ward and  the  other  makes  it  run 
backward.  Each  eccentric  is 
connected  by  a  rod  r  to  the 
opposite  ends  of  a  curved  slotted 
bar  or  link  L,  which  can  be  moved 
transversely  with  respect  to  a 
block  B  fitted  in  the  slot  or  on  the 
bar.  The  end  of  the  slide  valve 
rod  s  is  attached  to  the  above 
block,  and  by  moving  the  link  the 
slide  valve  may  be  brought  under 
the  influence  of  either  eccentric. 


Fig.  32. — Stephenson's  Link  Motion 
(For  explanation,  see  text.) 

Vol.  XL— March  '29 


steam-engine 


428 


Steam-engine 


The  movement  of  the  link  is  ef- 
fected through  suitable  levers  by 
a  handle  h  or  (in  large  engines)  by 
an  auxiliary  steam-engine.  In 
the  upper  figure  the  block  is  in 
the  middle  of  the  link  (mid- 
gear),  and  the  valve  is  equally 
acted  upon  by  both  eccentrics;  in 
this  position  the  engine  will  not 
run  in  either  direction.  In  the 
lower  figure  the  valve  is  under 
the  direct  influence  of  the  eccen- 
tric E,  and  is  in  the  full-gear 
position.  With  this  gear  it  is 
also  possible  to  vary  the  point 
at  which  the  steam  is  cut  off.  By 
placing  the  link  in  any  position 
between  mid-gear  and  full  back 
or  forward  gear,  the  travel  of 


forty-three  water-tube  boilers  of 
the  Belleville  type,  working  at  a 
pressure  of  300  lbs.  per  sq.  in. 

Diameter. 

High-pressure  cylinder  43  j  in. 

Intermediate  cylinder  71  in. 

Low-pressure  (two)  cylinder  81  j  in. 

Stroke  48  in 

All  the  cylinders  are  fitted  with 
separate  liners,  and  are  steam- 
jacketed.  The  high-pressure  cyl- 
inder is  fitted  with  one  piston 
valve,  the  intermediate  cylmder 
with  two  piston  valves,  and  the 
low-pressure  cylinders  are  fitted 
with  double-ported  slide  valves. 
There  are  four  main  surface 
condensers,  having  a  collective 


blades  of  manganese  bronze;  a 
conical  cap  is  fitted  over  each 
propeller  nut.  The  boilers  are 
made  up  as  follows: — Five. boilers 
having  ten  elements,  with  eight 
element  economizers;  twenty- 
eight  boilers  having  nine  ele- 
ments, with  seven  element  econo- 
mizers; and  ten  boilers  having 
eight  elements,  with  six  element 
economizers.  The  total  heating 
surface  is  71,970  sq.  ft.,  and  the 
total  grate  area  is  2,310  sq.  ft. 
The  boilers  are  arranged  in  four 
groups,  each  group  being  in  a 
separate  compartment.  The  up- 
takes of  each  group  of  boilers 
lead  into  a  separate  funnel,  mak- 
ing in  all  four  funnels.  Each 


Fig.  33. — Four-cylinder  Triple-expansion  Marine  Engines 


the  valve  is  reduced,  and  the 
steam  cut  off  at  an  earlier  point 
of  the  stroke.  All  marine  en- 
gines are  provided  with  surface 
condensers. 

In  many  of  the  best  designed 
marine  engines  vibration  is 
greatly  reduced  by  having  four 
cranks  arranged  at  certain  defi- 
nite angles  with  respect  to  one 
another  according  to  the  Yar- 
row-Schlick-Tweedle  system.  In 
twin-screw  steamers  there  is  an 
engine  for  driving  each  propeller 
shaft. 

An  illustration  is  given  in  Fig. 
33  of  one  of  two  sets  of  four- 
cylinder  triple-expansion  engines 
for  a  first-class  cruiser.  The  en- 
gines are  together  capable  of 
developing  30,000  i.h.p.  when 
running  at  120  revolutions  per 
minute,  steam  being  supplied  by 

Vol.  XL— March  '29 


cooling  surface  of  32,000  sq.  ft. 
Four  24-inch  centrifugal  circulat- 
ing pumps,  each  driven  by  inde- 
pendent engines,  are  provided 
for  the  main  condensers.  Two 
air-pumps  are  provided  for  each 
set  of  engines,  worked  by  levers 
from  the  main  engines  in  the 
usual  manner.  The  shafting  is 
of  forged  steel,  and  is  hollow,  the 
crank  and  thrust  shafts  having 
an  external  diameter  of  21  inches; 
and  the  tunnel  shafts  19  inches  in 
diameter,  each  with  an  11-inch 
hole.  The  propeller  shafts  are  21 
inches  in  diameter,  with  a  12-inch 
hole,  and  are  fitted  with  brass 
liners  where  they  pass  through 
the  stern  tube,  the  latter  being 
lined  with  strips  of  lignum  vitae. 
The  propellers  are  threc-bladed, 
and  about  19  ft.  in  diameter,  the 
bosses  being  of  gunmetal  and  the 


compartment  is  subdivided,  mak- 
ing in  all  eight  stokeholds.  There 
are  sixteen  stokehold  fans  driven 
by  independent  engines.  Four 
main  and  four  auxiliary  feed 
pumps  are  fitted  in  the  boiler 
rooms  for  feeding  the  boilers.  On 
a  thirty-hours'  coal-consumption 
trial  at  three-quarter  full  power, 
these  engines  developed  22,882 
I.H.P. ,  with  a  coal  consumption 
of  1.75  lbs.  per  i.h.p.  per  hour, 
the  mean  speed  of  the  vessel 
being    21.96    knots    per  hour. 

There  is  a  general  assumption 
that  the  marine  steam  engine 
has  given  way,  since  the  War,  to 
the  oil  engine,  but  the  facts  do 
not  bear  out  this  contention. 
If  it  is  asked  whether  to  any 
degree  motor  tonnage  has  taken 
the  place  of  steam  tonnage,  the 
answer  must  be  in  the  negative. 


steam-engine 


429 


Steam-engine 


for  what  has  actually  happened 
is  that  both  have  gained  at  the 
expense  of  sail  tonnage.  Of  the 
percentage  decrease  in  sailing 
vessels  since  the  beginning  of  the 
century,  two-thirds  has  been 
replaced  by  steam  and  only  one- 
third  by  motor  shipping.  It 
must  not  be  forgotten  that 
another  factor  has  been  intro- 
duced namely,  tanker  tonnage, 
which  now  accounts  for  10 
per  cent,  of  the  total  shipping 
afloat,  and  a  considerable  per- 
centage of  this  type  of  tonnage  is 
actually  motor  driven.  When 
this  century  opened,  75.60  per 
cent,  of  the  total  gross  tonnage  of 
the  world  was  steam  driven,  the 
balance  being  still  propelled  by 
sails.  Five  years  later  the  steam 
shipping  had  increased  to  83.24 
per  cent,  of  the  total,  entirely  at 
the  expense  of  the  decrease  in 
sail  and  in  1910  to  88.97  per  cent. 
In  1911  the  first  Diesel  engined 
overseas  freighter,  the  Selandia, 
appeared,  and  by  1914,  the  last 
pre-War  year,  steam  was  driving 
92.01  per  cent,  of  the  tonnage 
afloat  and  the  Diesel  0.48  per 
cent.;  the  amount  under  sail  was 
only  7.51  per  cent,  of  the  total  as 
compared  with  24.40  per  cent, 
when  the  century  opened.  In 
1920,  steam-driven  tonnage  had 
increased  to  92.38  per  cent,  of  the 
total  afloat,  motor-driven  to  1.67 
per  cent.,  and  the  tonnage  under 
sail  was  only  5.95  per  cent. 
Five  years  later,  in  1925,  the 
percentage  of  the  steam  pro- 
pelled tonnage  to  the  total  had 
decreased  very  slightly  to  92.30 
per  cent.,  sailing  tonnage  had 
decreased  to  3.50  per  cent,  and 
the  difference  has  been  made  up 
by  motor  ships  which  was  then 
4.20  per  cent,  of  the  total.  To- 
day (1929)  89.21  per  cent,  of  the 
world's  shipping  is  steam-driven, 
8.11  per  cent,  is  motor-driven,  and 
2.68  per  cent,  is  under  sail.  What 
has  happened  then  from  a  con- 
sideration of  these  figures  is  that 
since  1910,  when  the  Diesel  was 
first  realized  to  be  a  sea-going 
proposition,  the  loss  to  sail  of 
8.35  per  cent,  of  the  world's  total 
tonnage  has  been  made  good  by 
an  increase  of  8.24  per  cent.,  in 
motor  ships,  steam  taking  the 
difference  of  0.14  per  cent.  The 
steam  engine  therefore,  has  not 
lost  by  reason  of  the  advent  of 
the  Diesel  engine  except  in  so 
far  as  the  Diesel  has  taken  the 
percentage  of  sail  tonnage  which 
would  otherwise  have  been  re- 
placed by  steam.  With  the 
advent  of  high  steam  pressures 
the  turbine  shows  a  high  econ- 
omy. In  addition  the  unaflow 
engine  has  been  adapted  to 
marine  uses,  Fig.  34,  and  is 
suitable  for  vessels  under  10,000 
tons  dead  weight. 

Locomotive  Engines. — In  1829 
George  Stephenson's  'Rocket' 
won  the  prize  of  £500  for  the 


best  locomotive  engine  suitable 
for  passenger  traffic.  It  weighed, 
with  its  supply  of  water,  about  4  M 
tons,  and  its  greatest  speed  with 
a  small  load  on  a  level  track  was 
about  30  miles  an  hour. 

The  ordinary  locomotive  con- 
sists of  a  pair  of  direct-acting  en- 
gines fixed  to  a  rigid  frame,  on 
the  top  of  which  is  the  boiler. 
The  cyHnders  of  the  engines  are 


placed  either  inside  or  outside  the 
frame,  and  are  connected  in  the 
usual  way  to  two  cranks  on  a 
single  crank  shaft,  on  which  they 
are  at  right  angles  to  one  an- 
other. One  pair  of  driving 
wheels  of  the  engine  is  attached 
to  the  crank  shaft  and  the  other 
pairs  are  driven  from  the  first 
pair  by  means  of  side-rods.  The 
application  of  the  tractive  force 
of  the  locomotive  depends  upon 
the  turning  of  the  driving  wheels 
by  the  engines  acting  on  their 
cranks.      See  Locomotive. 

Various  Steam-engines. — In 
some  forms  of   portable  com- 


pound engine  the  engine  mechan- 
ism is  carried  on  the  top  of  the 
boiler,  which  is  of  locomotive 
type,  the  whole  being  mounted  on 
travelling  wheels,  so  that  it  can 
be  readily  transported  from 
place  to  place  as  required.  Semi- 
portable  engines  are  similar  to 
the  above,  except  that  they  are 
without  the  travelling  wheels. 
Compound  traction  engines  are 


used  for  driving  machinery  and 
for  hauling  on  roads.  They  are 
usually  fitted  with  link-motion 
reversing  gear  and  a  quick-speed 
throttling  governor.  The  driving 
wheels  are  connected  by  gearing 
to  the  engine  crank  shaft,  and 
two  speeds  are  provided.  Steam 
road  rollers  are  similar  in  gen- 
eral design  to  traction  engines, 
except  that  the  front  part  is  ex- 
tended somewhat,  and  a  heavy 
roller  substituted  for  the  two 
front  wheels.  The  boiler  for 
motor  omnibuses  and  cars  is  usu- 
ally in  the  form  of  a  tube  made 
into  a  coil  and  heated  with  a 


Fig.  34. — Unaflow  Marine  Engine 


Vol.  XI.— March  '30 


steam-gauge 


429  A 


Steamship  Lines 


paraffin  burner  of  special  con- 
struction. Ihe  feed  water  is 
forced  through  the  coil,  and  is 
practically  converted  into  steam 
instantaneously.  The  exhaust 
steam  is  condensed  in  a  suitable 
condenser.  Consult  Heck's  The 
Steam-engine;  J.  Perry's  Steam- 
engines;  W.  Ripper's  Steam-en- 
gine— Theory  and  Practice;  C. 
Hurst's  Valves  and  Valve  Gear- 
ing; W.  F.  Pettigrew's  A  Manual 
of  Locomotive  Engineering;  Mey- 
er's Modern  Locomotive  Construc- 
tion; A.  Jamieson's  Steam  and 
Steam-engines;  Lake's  The  World's 
Locomotives  (1905);  Stumpf's  The 
Unaflow  Engine  (1925);  Croft's 
The  Steam  Engine  (1926);  Morri- 
son's Valve  Setting  (1926);  Pe- 
trie's  Modern  trime  Movers 
(1925) ;  and  the  works  mentioned 
under  Locomotive. 

Steam-gauge.  See  Pressure 
Gauge. 

Steam-hammer.  See  Steam 
AND  Pneumatic  Hammers. 

Steam  Heating.  See  Heat- 
ing, section  Steam  Heating. 

Steaming.   See  Cookery. 

Steam  Navigation.  See 
Ship-building;  Shipping,  Mer- 
chant; Steam-engine,  section 
Marine  Engines. 

Steam-plough.  See  Imple- 
ments AND  Machinery,  Agri- 
cultural. 

Steam-pump.   See  Pumps. 

Steamship.  See  the  articles 
referred  to  under  Steam  Navi- 
gation. 

Steamship  Lines.  It  is  not 
within  the  scope  of  the  following 
article  to  do  more  than  briefly 
enumerate  the  various  trans- 
oceanic lines  between  the  United 
States  and  Europe,  and  to  indi- 
cate the  various  types  of  service 
furnished.  No  attempt  will  be 
made  to  deal  with  coastwise  lines 
to  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  Bermuda  or 
the  Southern  States  nor  will  the 
many  steamship  lines  plying  be- 
tween European,  Asian,  Austra- 
lian or  African  ports  be  included. 

Steamship  travel  in  the  last 
twenty-five  years,  and  particu- 
larly since  the  war,  has  known  an 
era  of  expansion  almost  without 
precedent.  During  this  time 
countries  and  places  hitherto  al- 
most unknown  have  been  brought 
to  a  point  of  accessibility  that  has 
been  amazing.  In  the  realm  of 
ocean  travel,  where  a  journey  of 
fifteen  to  twenty  days  from  Eu- 
rope to  the  United  States  was 
considered  fast,  today  the  usual 
crossing  of  six  or  seven  days  is 
commonplace. 

The  increase  in  speed  of  trans- 
atlantic vessels,  and  the  ingenu- 
ity of  marine  architects  in  plan- 
ning ships  combining  the  greatest 
comfort  with  the  utmost  luxury, 
has  been  a  tremendous  factor  to- 
wards making  desirable  and  pos- 
sible a  huge  yearly  exchange  of 
visitors    between    the  United 

Vol.  XL— March  '30 


States  and  Europe,  particularly 
on  the  part  of  Americans  visiting 
European  countries. 

The  United  States  Line  of 
vessels  to  Europe  is  headed  by 
the  S.S.  Leviathan,  formerly  the 
German  boat  Vaterland,  with  a 
gross  tonnage  of  59,957.  It 
makes  the  voyage  to  Southamp- 
ton in  five  and  a  half  days  and 
with  its  luxurious  appointments 
compares  favorably  with  the  best 
hotels  in  the  world. 

The  United  States  Line  fur- 
nishes other  accommodations 
with  its  smaller  so-called  cabin 
steamers  on  which  there  is  no 
distinction  of  classes  and  all 
passengers  have  the  use  of  the 
entire  ship.  These  cabin  steam- 
ers are  the  George  Washington, 
23,000  tons;  the  America,  21,000 
tons;  the  Republic,  18,000  tons; 
and  the  President  Harding  and 
the  President  Roosevelt,  each  14,- 
000  tons.  They  make  the  cross- 
ing in  from  seven  and  a  half  to 
eight  and  a  half  days. 

The  American  Merchant  Line 
has  a  fleet  of  five  small  steamers, 
of  cabin  class  and  about  9,000 
tonnage,  sailing  between  New 
York  and  London.  The  fleet 
comprises  the  American  Mer- 
chant, American  Trader,  Ameri- 
can Farmer,  American  Banker, 
and  American  Shipper.  They 
take  from  nine  to  ten  days  to 
make  the  journey  and  furnish  a 
very  popular  service  at  a  moder- 
ate price. 

The  White  Star  Line,  a  British- 
owned  company,  is  headed  by 
the  S.S.  Majestic,  formerly  the 
German  vessel  Bismarck,  of  56,- 
551  tons.  It  makes  the  crossing 
from  New  York  to  Cherbourg 
and  Southampton  in  five  and  a 
half  days.  The  Olympic  of  46,439 
tons  crosses  in  six  days  and  the 
Homeric,  34,356  tons,  in  seven 
days.  They  all  offer  excellent 
service  and  the  utmost  comfort 
and  luxury.  The  accommoda- 
tions are  of  three  classes,  first, 
second  and  third.  The  White 
Star  Line  also  operates  a  fleet  of 
cabin  steamers  from  New  York 
to  Liverpool,  calling  at  Cobh 
(Queenstown),  Belfast  and  Glas- 
gow. Some  of  them  sail  to  and 
from  Boston,  calling  at  New 
York.  These  cabin  steamers 
comprise  the  new  motor  ship, 
Brittanic,  26,000  tons,  the  Adri- 
atic, 24,000  tons,  the  Baltic,  23,- 
000  tons,  the  Cedric,  21,000  tons, 
the  Albertic,  18,940  tons,  and  the 
Doric,  16,500  tons.  They  make 
the  voyage  in  from  eight  and  a 
half  to  nine  days  and  offer  good 
service  and  all  comforts  and 
conveniences. 

Combined  with  the  White  Star 
Line  is  the  Atlantic  Transport 
Line,  which  offers  a  somewhat 
unique  service  from  New  York  to 
London  in  the  S.S.  Minnewaska 
and  the  S.S.  Minnetonka,  each 


21,000  tons,  which  carry  first- 
class  passengers  only.  They  take 
nine  days  for  the  passage.  The 
Atlantic  Transport  Line  also 
operates  two  steamships  for  tour- 
ist third  class  passengers  only, 
the  Minnekahda,  17,000  tons  and 
the  Minnesota,  11,000  tons.  This 
tourist  third  class  type  of  accom- 
modation is  of  quite  recent  origin 
and  has  proved  exceedingly  popu- 
lar, particularly  among  the  stu- 
dent and  professional  classes.  It 
offers  a  good,  comfortable  serv- 
ice, much  superior  to  the  ordinary 
third  class  service,  at  a  price 
lower  than  second  class  service. 

The  Red  Star  Line,  which  is  a 
subsidiary  of  the  White  Star 
Company,  operates  a  line  of 
steamers  between  New  York  and 
Antwerp,  calling  at  Plymouth 
and  Cherbourg.  Its  largest  and 
best  boat  is  the  Belgenland,  of 
27,200  tons,  which  carries  first, 
second,  tourist  third  and  third 
class  passengers.  The  remainder 
of  the  fleet  consists  of  the  cabin 
steamers  Lapland,  18,500  tons, 
Westernland,  16,500  tons,  and 
Pennland,  16,300  tons.  The 
Leyland  Line,  also  a  British- 
owned  company,  has  tourist  third 
class  steamers  of  12,000  tons  run- 
ning between  New  York,  Liver- 
pool and  London. 

The  Cunard  Steamship  Line,  a 
British  organization,  one  of  the 
oldest  and  best  known  of  the 
larger  lines,  has  for  its  leading 
vessel  the  Mauretania,  30,000 
tons,  one  of  the  fastest  of  the 
ocean  liners  and  until  1929  hold- 
ing the  record  of  a  crossing  in  less 
than  five  and  a  half  days.  The 
Cunarders  run  between  New 
York  and  Cherbourg,  touching  at 
Southampton,  the  usual  time 
being  six  days;  and  between  New 
York  and  Liverpool  in  an  average 
of  seven  and  a  half  days.  The 
Berengaria,  of  52,500  tons,  and 
the  Aquitania  of  45,600  tons,  are 
among  the  best  and  most  elabo- 
rately equipped  of  all  the  trans- 
atlantic liners  and  make  the  trip 
between  New  York  and  Cher- 
bourg in  six  days. 

Sailing  to  Liverpool  are  the 
Cunard  Line  steamers  Franconia. 
Laconia,  Samari'i,  Scythia  and 
Carinthia,  all  of  20,000  tons,  and 
all  taking  about  seven  and  a  half 
days  for  the  trip.  The  Cunard 
Line  also  operates  the  cabin 
steamers  Carmania,  Caronia, 
Lancastria,  Tuscania,  Aurania, 
Ascania,  Alaunia,  Antonia,  An- 
dania  and  Ausonia  between  New 
York  and  Boston  and  Liverpool 
and  London. 

For  the  service  direct  to  Scot- 
land the  Anchor  Line,  with 
steamers  of  from  16,500  to  17,250 
tons,  has  the  Transylvania,  Cam- 
eronia,  Caledonia,  and  California 
running  between  Glasgow  and 
New  York. 

Direct  to  France  service  by  the 


steamship  Lines 


429  B 


Steam-sliovel 


French  Line  is  headed  by  the 
palatial  steamship  He  de  France, 
43,000  tons.  This  vessel  was  one 
of  the  first  to  be  decorated  in  the 
modernistic  manner  and  is  a 
favorite  among  many  travellers. 
It  makes  the  trip  from  New  York 
to  Havre  in  six  days.  Other 
ships  of  the  French  Line  are  the 
Paris,  36,500  tons,  and  the 
France,  24,800  tons,  both  of 
which  take  from  six  and  a  half  to 
seven  days  for  the  passage. 
Cabin  steamers  of  the  French 
Line  are  the  De  Grasse,  the  Rou- 
sillon  and  the  Rochambeau  to 
Havre,  and  the  La  Bourdonnai  to 
Bordeaux. 

German  lines  comprise  the 
Hamburg  -  American  and  the 
North  German  Lloyd.  The 
Hamburg -American  Line  oper- 
ates eleven  fine  steamers  for  its 
European  service  between  New 
York  and  Hamburg,  calling  at 
Cherbourg  and  Southampton. 
The  Resolute  and  the  Reliance, 
sister  ships,  both  19,000  tons, 
have  first,  second,  and  third  class 
accommodations.  The  Albert 
Ballin,  Deutschland,  Hamburg, 
and  New  York,  all  of  20,000  tons, 
also  have  first,  second  and  third 
class  service.  Cabin  steamers  of 
the  Hamburg-American  line  are 
the  St.  Louis,  the  Cleveland,  the 
Thuringia,  the  Milwaukee  and 
the  Westphalia. 

The  North  German  Lloyd  Line 
at  the  present  writing  (1930) 
holds  the  record  for  speed,  made 
by  its  new  S.S.  Bremen,  49,000 
tons,  which  on  its  maiden  trip  in 
July,  1929,  made  the  crossing  in 
four  days,  seventeen  hours,  forty- 
two  minutes.  On  the  return  trip 
it  bettered  that  record  by  making 
the  passage  in  four  days,  fourteen 
hours  and  thirty  minutes.  The 
Bremen's  sister  ship  Europa  is 
now  building  and  is  expected  to 
equal  the  Bremen  in  speed,  but 
nothing  faster  can  probably  be 
looked  for  at  present.  The 
North  German  Lloyd  also  has  in 
its  European  service  the  Colum- 
bus, the  Berlin,  the  Stuttgart,  and 
the  Muenchen.  The  Muenchen, 
Berlin  and  Stuttgart  operate  as 
cabin  steamers  a  part  of  the  year. 
They  range  from  33,000  to  15,000 
tonnage,  and  occupy  from  nine  to 
ten  days  in  crossing. 

The  Holland- American  Line  has 
a  fleet  of  steamers  sailing  be- 
tween New  York  and  Rotterdam, 
calling  at  Boulogne,  Southamp- 
ton, and  Halifax.  The  largest 
and  newest  of  the  fleet  is  the 
Slatendam,  of  30,000  tons,  a 
splendid  example  of  marine  archi- 
tecture and  satisfactory  service. 
Supplementing  this  are  Va^Nieuw 
Amsterdam,  17,250  tons,  the 
Rotterdam,  24,000  tons,  theFo/ew- 
dam,  15,500  tons,  and  the  Veen- 
dam,  15,500  tons.  The  Ryndam  is 
operated  as  a  cabin  class  steamer. 

Running  to  Scandanavia  are 


the  Swedish-American  Line  from 
New  York  to  Gothenburg,  the 
Scandanavian  -  American  Line 
from  New  York  to  Copenhagen, 
and  the  Norwegian-American 
Line  from  New  York  to  Bergen. 
The  Scandinavian  American 
Line's  finest  boat  is  the  Frederick 
VIIL,  the  others  are  the  United 
States,  the  Hellig  Olav,  and  the 
Oscar  //.  All  are  cabin  steamers 
and  usually  call  at  Oslo  and  Hali- 
fax. The  Swedish-American  fleet 
comprises  the  cabin  steamer 
Drottningholm,  11,000  tons,  and 
the  motor  ships  Kungsholm, 
26,700  tons,  and  Gripsholm,  23,- 
600  tons,  having  first,  second  and 
third  class.  The  Norwegian- 
American  Line  has  the  cabin 
steamers  Slav  anger  fjord  and  Ber- 
gensfjord. 

To  Mediterranean  ports. 
Southern  France,  Italy  and 
Northern  Africa  two  Italian  lines, 
the  Navigazione  Generale  I  tali- 
ana  and  the  Lloyd  Sabaudo  fur- 
nish a  luxurious  service,  allowing 
the  traveller  from  New  York  to 
reach  his  destination  in  from  nine 
to  ten  days  and  to  avoid  a  ted- 
ious overland  journey.  The  Navi- 
gazione Generale  Italiana  is  head- 
ed by  the  splendid  motor  ship 
Augustus,  33,000  tons,  sailing  be- 
tween New  York  and  Genoa,  and 
calling  at  Naples  and  Palermo. 
Its  sister  ship  is  the  Roma,  32,000 
tons.  Both  carry  first,  second 
and  third  class  passengers.  The 
Lloyd  Sabaudo  Line  has  the  Conte 
Biancamano  and  the  Conte 
Grande,  offering  excellent  service 
between  Genoa  and  New  York. 
In  addition  to  these  lines  the 
Cosulich  Line,  with  the  motor 
ships  Saturnia  and  Vulcania,  of 
24,000  tons  each,  furnishes  the 
traveller  with  a  delightful  jour- 
ney from  Trieste  to  New  York. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  the  chief 
ports  for  transpacific  travel  are 
San  Francisco  and  Vancouver. 
From  San  Francisco  the  Dollar 
Line  (American)  maintains  a 
service  to  Honolulu,  Yokohama, 
Kobe,  Shanghai  and  Manila,  the 
voyage  to  the  last  named  port 
taking  from  twenty-seven  to 
thirty-five  days.  They  also  have 
a  Round-the- World  service  and 
their  boats  are  known  as  the 
'President'  boats,  being  named 
for  various  presidents  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway 
has  a  splendid  line  of  boats  sailing 
from  Vancouver  to  the  Orient, 
the  trip  to  Yokohama  being 
made  in  from  ten  to  eleven  days. 
The  fleet  consists  of  the  Empress 
of  Asia,  17,000  tons;  the  Empress 
of  Russia,  16,800  tons;  the  Em- 
press of  Canada,  21,500  tons,  and 
the  Empress  of  Australia,  21,800 
tons. 

Canadian  Ports  and  Steamship 
Service.  The  chief  Canadian 
ports  are  Montreal,  Quebec,  Hali- 


fax and  St.  John  for  the  East  and 
Vancouver  for  the  West.  The 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Com- 
pany operates  a  line  of  steamers 
from  Montreal  to  Liverpool  and 
Glasgow  touching  at  Quebec. 
The  fleet  comprises  the  Empress 
of  Scotland,  Empress  of  France, 
Monlroyal,  Montcalm,  Melita, 
Minnedosa,  Montnairn,  Duchess 
of  Richmond  and  Duchess  of  York. 
Their  tonnage  is  from  12,500  to 
25,000,  and  the  class  of  service 
varies  with  the  season.  The 
Cunard  line  has  several  of  its 
vessels  employed  in  the  Canadian 
service,  notably  the  Letitia,  An- 
sonia,  Alaunia,  and  Andania. 
The  Furness  Line  furnishes  a  serv- 
ice from  Liverpool  to  St.  John's, 
N.  F.,  and  Halifax  with  its  cabin 
class  steamers  Nova  Scotia  and 
Newfoundland,  of  7,000  tons. 
The  White  Star  steamers  Arabic, 
Calgaric,  Laurentic,  Megantic  and 
Doric  sail  to  Canadian  ports, 
while  the  Red  Star  Lapland  and 
Pennland  and  also  the  Scandina- 
vian-American and  the  Swedish- 
American  steamships  sometimes 
call  at  Halifax. 

Almost  all  of  the  larger  steam- 
ship companies  offer  special 
cruises  during  the  winter,  either 
around  the  world  or  to  Medi- 
terranean ports,  the  West  Indies, 
or  other  Southern  waters.  The 
length  of  time  and  the  places 
visited  are  suited  to  the  season  of 
year  and  the  prices  charged  vary 
with  the  type  of  accommodation 
offered. 

The  average  speed  of  most 
ocean  liners  is  from  fourteen  to 
sixteen  knots  an  hour  (a  knot  is 
about  6,080  feet)  but  some  at- 
tain a  speed  of  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  knots  an  hour.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  distinctive 
funnel  marks  of  some  of  the  lead- 
ing Atlantic  steamship  lines. 

Line  Funnel  Marks 

Anchor  Black 

Atlantic  Transport  Red;  black  top 

Canadian  Pacific     Light  buff 

Cunard  Red,  with  narrow  black 

hoops;  black  top 

Hamburg-American  Buff;  with  red,  white 
and  black  bands  at  top 

Holland-American  Buff;  two  green  bands, 
with  white  band  be- 
tween; buff  top 

Leyland  Pink;  black  top 

North  German 
Lloyd  Buff 

Red  Star  Black,    white  band; 

black  top 

United  States  Red,  white  and  blue 
bands 

White  Star  Buff;  black  top 

Steam-shovel,  a  machine  for 
excavating  earth  or  any  loose 
material.  It  is  essentially  a  loco- 
motive crane  used  for  operating 
a  mammoth  dipper  or  bucket. 
The  bucket  is  made  of  iron  or 
steel  and  is  carried  on  a  boom  so 
arranged  that  the  bucket  can  be 
swung  in  any  desired  direction 
and  can  be  run  in  or  out,  being 

Vol.  XL— March  '30 


steam-turbine 


430 


Stedman 


carried  at  the  end  of  a  strong 
beam  called  the  'dipper-handle.' 
Pointed  teeth  are  provided  at  the 
cutting  edge  of  the  bucket  to 
allow  it  to  dig  into  hard  material 
and  to  protect  the  edge  when  it 
is  used  for  digging  rock.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  bucket  is  hinged,  be- 
ing kept  closed  by  a  catch  which 
may  be  released  by  pulling  a  cord, 
thus  emptying  the  bucket.  The 
capacity  of  the  dipper  is  from 
one-half  to  five  cubic  yards,  the 
majority  of  the  sixty-three  shov- 
els used  on  the  Panama  Canal 
being  of  the  five-yard  size.  Such 
a  shovel  can  handle  from  four  to 
five  thousand  cubic  yards  of  rock 
or  ore  per  day,  and  has  made  the 
remarkable  performance  of  han- 
dling thirty-two  thousand  cubic 
yards  of  material  in  six  con- 
secutive days  of  ten  hours  each. 
These  shovels  are  usually  mount- 
ed on  cars  and  have  a  total 
weight  varying  from  twenty 
tons  to  about  one  hundred  tons. 
Brakes  are  provided  for  holding 
the  wheels  of  the  car  while  the 
machine  is  working  and  at  the 
front  end  there  are  spuds  for 
anchoring  the  car.  The  shovel  is 
placed  on  rails  at  the  place  where 
it  is  to  operate.  The  dipper  is 
then  swung  back,  pushed  down 
to  the  ground,  and  then  swept 
forward  and  upward.  As  it 
comes  up  full  it  is  swung  over  the 
car  or  spot  where  it  is  to  be 
dumped  and  the  dipper  emptied 
by  pulling  the  latch-string.  The 
shovel  carries  power  for  operating 
the  car  on  the  track,  and  hence  it 
can  run  forward  or  backward  and 
can  assist  in  placing  the  cars 
which  are  to  carry  off  the  exca- 
vated material.  See  Excava- 
tion and  Excavators. 

Steam-turbine.  See  Tur- 
bine, Steam. 

Steam  Yachts.   See  Yachts. 

Stearic  Acid,  C17H35COOH, 
an  acid  of  the  fatty  or  acetic 
acid  series  that  occurs  largely  in 
the  solid  fats  as  a  glycerol  ester. 
It  is  prepared  by  saponifying 
tallow  with  caustic  potash  solu- 
tion, setting  free  the  impure 
stearic  acid  from  the  resulting 
soap  by  the  action  of  a  dilute 
acid,  and  purifying  the  product 
by  recrystallization  from  alco- 
hol and  fractional  precipitation 
by  magnesium  acetate.  On  the 
commercial  scale  the  fats  are 
saponified  either  with  a  small 
quantity  of  lime  under  pressure, 
or  by  the  action  of  superheated 
steam  alone;  the  product,  which 
is  mixed  with  palmitic  acid,  is 
purified  by  pressure.  Stearic 
acid  when  pure  forms  pearly 
crystals,  which  melt  at  69°  c, 
and  are  slightly  vsoluble  in  cold 
alcohol.  The  commercial  prod- 
uct, under  the  name  of  'stearin,' 
is  largsly  used  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  candles,  being  mixed  with 
a  little  paraffin  wax  to  destroy 
its  crystalline  structure. 

Vol.  XL— March '30 


Stearin,  glycerol  tri-stearate, 
(Ci7H35COO)3C3H6.  is,  together 
with  glycerol  tri-palmitate,  the 
main  component  of  the  solid  fats. 
In  a  pure  state  it  forms  pearly 
crystals,  which  are  tasteless,  and 
insoluble  in  water,  but  dissolve  in 
ether  and  similar  solvents.  It 
is  decomposed  on  heating  under 
atmospheric  pressure,  but  can  be 
distilled  in  a  vacuum.  It  must 
not  be  confused  with  the  impure 
mixture  of  stearic  and  palmitic 
acids  used  for  making  candles 
also  known  as  'stearin.'  See 
Stearic  Acid. 

Stearns,  Alfred  Ernest 
(1871-  ),  American  educator 
and  academy  principal,  was  born 
in  Orange,  N.  J.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Phillips  Academy, 
Andover,  Mass.,  in  1890,  and 
from  Amherst  College  in  1894. 
After  his  graduation  he  taught  at 
the  Hill  School  for  Boys,  Potts- 
town,  Pa.  (1894-97)  and  later 
was  successively  registrar  (1900- 
02),  acting  principal  (1902-03) 
and  headmaster,  since  1903,  at 
Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  Mass. 
He  was  written  many  articles  on 
educational  lines  for  various  pub- 
lications. 

Stearns,  Frederic  Pike 
(1851-1919),  American  engineer, 
was  born  in  Calais,  Me.,  and 
after  receiving  an  elementary 
education  in  the  public  schools  of 
that  town,  became  connected 
with  the  engineering  department 
in  the  city  of  Boston.  After 
serving  in  various  capacities  on 
important  engineering  construc- 
tions, he  became  engineer  in 
charge  of  the  main  drainage 
works  in  Boston,  and  in  1886  was 
appointed  chief  engineer  of  the 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of 
Health,  for  which  he  made  valu- 
able reports  in  connection  with  a 
sewerage  system  for  the  Mystic 
and  Charles  River  valleys,  and  on 
the  water  supply  for  the  metro- 
politan district.  In  1895-1907  he 
was  chief  engineer  of  the  Metro- 
politan Water-Board,  and  was 
in  charge  of  the  important  works 
to  supply  the  water  to  Boston 
and  many  of  the  adjacent  cities 
and  towns.  In  1905-6  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Board  of  Engi- 
neers of  the  Panama  Canal  and 
later  was  consulting  engineer 
for  water  supply  in  various 
cities. 

Stearns,  William  Augustus 
(1805-76),  American  clergyman 
and  educator,  was  born  in  Bed- 
ford, Mass.  He  was  graduated 
(1827)  from  Harvard,  and  took 
his  divinity  course  at  Andover. 
He  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  church  at  Cam- 
bridgeport,  Mass.,  in  1831,  and 
in  1854  was  elected  president  of 
Amherst  College,  which  position 
he  held  until  his  death.  Among 
his  books  are  Infant  Church 
Membership  (1844),  Life  and 
Select  Discourses  of  Rev.  Samuel 


H.  Stearns  (1846),  and  Discourses 
and  Addresses  (1855). 

Steatite,  a  compact  variety  of 
talc,  is  a  hydrous  silicate  of  mag- 
nesia, found  massive.  It  is  gen- 
erally white,  reddish  white,  or 
yellow,  soft  and  greasy  to  the 
touch,  and  easily  cut,  but  broken 
with  difficulty.  Agalmatolite,  or 
figure  stone,  together  with  pyro- 
phyllite,  belongs  to  steatite.  It 
is  used  by  glaziers  for  marking 
plates  of  glass,  and  by  tailors  for 
marking  cloth.  It  is  also  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  porcelain. 
Briangon  chalk,  French  chalk, 
and  Venice  talc,  as  it  is  called, 
readily  absorbs  oil  or  grease,  and 
is  the  basis  of  rouge. 

Steatornis.    See  Guacharo. 

Stebbins,  George  Coles 
(1846-  ),  American  evangelis- 
tic singer,  was  born  in  East  Carl- 
ton, N.  Y.  He  studied  music  in 
Rochester,  Chicago  and  Boston 
and  in  1870  became  music  direct- 
or of  the  First  Baptist  Church, 
Chicago.  He  was  director  of 
music  in  Tremont  Temple,  Bos- 
ton, 1875-6,  and  in  1876  took  up 
evangelistic  work  under  D.  L. 
Moody.  He  is  the  author  of  The 
Northfield  Hymnal  (1901),  Gospel 
Hymns,  Male  Choruses  and  Sacred 
Songs  (1877-96),  and  the  editor 
of  Greatest  Hymns,  and  The  New 
Church  Hymnal  (1925-27). 

Stecchetti,  ste-ket'te,  Loren- 
zo, pseudonym  of  Olindo  Guer- 
rini  (1845-1916),  Italian  poet  and 
scholar,  was  born  at  Sant'  Al- 
berto, near  Ravenna,  and  be- 
came librarian  at  Bolonga.  His 
first  volume  of  poems,  Postuma 
Conzoniere  di  L.  Stecchetti  (1877), 
is  full  of  fine  poetry,  and  dis- 
tinguished by  perfection  of  man- 
ner, but  is  remarkable  for  its 
unveiled  sensuality.  He  defend- 
ed his  standpoint  in  Polemica 
(1878)  and  in  Nova  Polemica 
(1879;  9th  ed.  (1890).  Guerrini's 
complete  poetical  works  were 
issued  as  Le  Rime  (1903) .  He  has 
also  written  treatises  on  and 
supervised  editions  of  various 
Italian  authors  {e.g.  Vita  di 
Giulio  Croce,  1879). 

Stedman,  Edmund  Clar- 
ence (1833-1908),  American  poet 
and  critic,  was  born  in  Hartford 
Conn.  He  entered  Yale  College 
in  1849,  but  was  not  graduated. 
The  college,  however,  restored 
him  to  his  class  and  gave  him 
the  degree  of  m.a.  in  1871.  After 
editing  provincial  journals  in 
Norwich  and  Winsted,  Conn., 
in  1856,  he  went  to  New  York 
City,  where  in  1859  he  became  a 
reporter  on  the  Tribune,  in  which 
his  'How  Old  Brown  took  Har- 
per's Ferry'  and  other  ballads 
appeared.  In  1860  he  joined  the 
staff  of  the  New  York  World, 
acting  as  its  war  correspondent 
at  Washington  in  1861-2.  Ill 
health  compelled  him  to  re- 
sign, and  he  held  a  confiden- 
tial  position   in   the   office  of 


Steedman 


KFP 


431 


Steel 


Attorney-General  Bates  in  1864. 
Returning  to  New  York,  he 
bought  in  1869  a  seat  on  the 
New  York  Stock  Exchange,  and 
continued  actively  as  a  broker 
until  1900.  During  this  time  he 
wrote  much  poetry  of  a  high  or- 
der of  merit.  His  rank  as  a  bal- 
ladist  is  high,  and  many  of  his 
lyrics  are  of  rare  beauty.  After 
the  death  of  Holmes  he  occupied 
the  foremost  place  among  con- 
temporary American  poets.  His 
better-known  works,  however, 
include  his  literary  criticism, 
which  is  generally  appreciative 
and  scholarly,  and  his  very  valu- 
able compilations  and  antholo- 
gies, of  which  his  Victorian  and 
American  anthologies  are  espe- 
cially notable.  He  succeeded 
Lowell  in  1891  as  president  of 
the  American  Copyright  League, 
and  in  1904-1905  was  president 
of  the  American  Institute  of 
Arts  and  Letters.  Among  his 
best-known  works  are :  Poems, 
Lyric  and  Idyllic  (1860)  ;  The 
Battle  of  Bull  Run  (1861); 
Alice  in  Monmouth  : An  Idyl  of 
the  Great  War,  and  Other  Poems 
(1864)  ;  The  Blameless  Prince, 
and  Other  Poems  (1869);  Po- 
etical Works,  collective  edition 
(1873);  Victorian  Poets  (1875; 
with  supplement,  1887)  ;  Haw- 
thorne, and  Other  Poems  (1877) ; 
Lyrics  and  Idyls,  with  Other 
Poems  (1879)  ;  Edgar  Allan 
Poe  (1880)  ;  Poets  of  America 
(1885);  The  Star  Bearer,  a 
Christmas  Poem  (1888)  ;  The 
Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry 
(1892)  ;  Poems  Now  First  Col- 
lected (1897)  ;  Mater  Coronata, 
poem  (1901)  ;  Hymn  of  the  West 
(1904).  He  edited  Cameos  from 
the  Poems  of  W.  S.  Landor, 
with  T.  B.  Aldrich  (1874); 
Poems  of  Austin  Dobson 
(1880)  ;  Elizabeth  Stoddard's 
Novels  (1888-89)  ;  A  Library 
of  American  Literature,  with 
Ellen  Mackay  Hutchinson  (2 
vols.  1888-89);  The  Works  of 
Edgar  Allan  Poe,  with  George 
Edward  Woodberry  (10  vols. 
1895)  ;  A  Victorian  Anthology 
(1895)  ;  An  American  Anthol- 
ogy (1900)  ;  History  of  the  New 
York  Stock  Exchange  (3  vols. 
1904-6). 

Steed'man,  Charles  (1811- 
90),  American  naval  officer,  was 
born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.  He 
entered  the  Navy  as  a  midship- 
man in  1828,  became  a  lieuten- 
ant in  1841,  and  served  in  the 
Mexican  War,  commanding  the 
land  batteries  at  the  siege  of 
Vera  Cruz.  He  became  com- 
mander in  1855  and  commanded 
the  Dolphin  in  the  Paraguay  ex- 
pedition. He  remained  loyal  to 
the  Union  on  the  secession  of 
South  Carolina,  and  rendered 
distinguished  service  throughout 
the  Civil  War,  notably  as  com- 
mander of  the  Bienville  at  the 


capture  of  Port  Royal,  and  of 
the  Paul  Jones  at  the  capture  of 
Fort  McAlister.  He  was  made 
captain  in  1862,  commodore  in 
1866,  and  rear-admiral  in  1871, 
and  was  retired  in  1873. 

Steedman,  James  Barrett 
(1818-83),  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Northumberland 
county,  Pa.  He  removed  to 
Ohio  in  1837,  was  a  member  of 
the  legislature  in  1843,  printer 
to  Congress  in  1857-61,  and  in 
1861  was  appointed  colonel  of 
the  Fourth  Ohio  Volunteer  In- 
fantry. After  serving  in  West 
Virginia,  he  commanded  a  bri- 
gade and  then  a  division  in  the 
Army  of  the  Cumberland,  and 
especially  distinguished  himself 
at  Perryville  and  Chickamauga, 
After  the  fall  of  Atlanta  he  was 
detached  and  sent  to  the  aid  of 
Thomas  at  Nashville,  where  he 
commanded  a  provisional  divi- 
sion, and  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  battle  of  December  15  and 
16,  1864.  He  had  been  made 
major  general  of  volunteers 
April  24,  1864.  For  a  short 
time  after  the  war  he  acted  as 
provisional  governor  of  Georgia, 
was  afterwards  collector  of  in- 
ternal revenue  at  New  Orleans, 
and  in  1879-81  was  a  member  of 
the  Ohio  state  senate. 

Steel  is  the  name  given  to  the 
malleable  alloy  of  iron  and  a 
comparatively  small  proportion 
of  carbon,  generally  up  to  1.7 
per  cent.  Steel  also  generally 
contains  small  amounts  of  man- 
ganese, sulphur,  phosphorous, 
and  sometimes  silicon,  either  as 
impurities  or  as  added  elements. 
These  elements  have  definite  ef- 
fects on  properties  of  steel,  but 
the  effects  of  carbon  are  the  most 
important.  Steel  can  be  divided 
into  the  two  broad  types  of  car- 
bon steel  and  alloy  steel. 

Carbon  steel  is  defined  differ- 
ently by  the  theoretical  chemist 
and  the  practical  metallurgist ; 
however,  the  steel  of  commerce 
can  be  classed  as  carbon  steel 
when  no  minimum  content  is 
specified  or  guaranteed  for  alu- 
minum, boron,  chromium,  co- 
balt, columbium,  molybdenum, 
nickel,  titanium,  tungsten,  vana- 
dium, or  zirconium,  or  any  other 
element  added  to  obtain  desired 
alloying  effect ;  when  the  speci- 
fied or  guaranteed  minimum  for 
copper  does  not  exceed  0.40  per 
cent ;  or  when  the  maximum 
content  specified  or  guaranteed 
for  any  of  the  following  ele- 
ments does  not  exceed  the  per- 
centages ^  noted :  manganese, 
1.65;  silicon,  0.60;  copper, 
0.60. 

The  broad  group  of  steels 
known  as  alloy  steels  is  manu- 
factured by  adding  alloying  ele- 
ments to  steel  singly  or  in  com- 
binations. By  varying  the 
amounts  and  combinations  steels 


can  be  made  stronger,  tougher, 
harder,  more  resistant  to  corro- 
sion, more  resistant  to  heat,  and 
can  be  given  other  special  prop- 
erties. Steel  can  be  generally 
classed  as  alloy  steel  when  the 
maximum  of  the  range  given  for 
the  content  of  alloying  elements 
exceeds  one  or  more  of  the  fol- 
lowing limits:  manganese,  1.65 
per  cent;  silicon,  0.60  per  cent; 
copper,  0.60  per  cent ;  or  in 
which  a  definite  range  or  a  defi- 
nite minimum  quantity  of  any 
of  the  following  elements  is 
guaranteed :  aluminum,  boron, 
chromium,  cobalt,  columbium, 
molybdenum,  nickel,  titanium, 
tungsten,  vanadium,  or  zirconi- 
um, or  any  other  alloying  ele- 
ment added  to  obtain  a  desired 
alloying  effect. 

In  addition  to  classifying  steels 
as  carbon  steel  and  alloy  steel, 
even  further  subdivision  can  be 
made  according  to  the  types  of 
furnaces  used  in  melting  such  as 
Bessemer,  openhearth,  crucible, 
and  electric  steel.  Another 
method  of  sub-classification  is 
according  to  the  chemical  char- 
acteristics of  the  lining  of  the 
melting  furnace,  that  is,  'acid' 
steel  and  'basic'  steel. 

Bessemer  Process. — This 
process,  patented  in  1855  by  Sir 
Henry  Bessemer,  consists  essen- 
tially of  blowing  air  through 
molten  pig  iron  (see  Iron  :  Pig 
Iron).  The  oxygen  of  the  air 
combines  with  the  carbon,  man- 
ganese, and  silicon  of  the  pig 
iron,  thereby  generating  heat 
and  freeing  the  iron  from  the 
major  portion  of  its  impurities. 
The  converter  consists  of  a  pear- 
shaped  shell  of  steel  plate,  with 
its  top  cut  off  to  allow  molten  pig 
iron  to  be  charged  and  steel  dis- 
charged. It  is  lined  with  heat 
resistant  material  and  is  mount- 
ed on  shafts  called  trunnions  so 
that  the  vessel  can  be  turned 
through  an  angle  of  270°  or 
300°.  One  of  the  trunnions  is 
hollow  to  allow  the  air  to  be 
pumped  through  the  converter's 
double  bottom,  thereby  allowing 
air  to  pass  into  the  body  of  the 
converter  from  the  air  chamber 
through  small  holes,  of  which 
there  may  be  from  150  to  200. 
The  converter  is  charged  by  tilt- 
ing on  its  side  and  molten  pig 
iron  is  poured  into  its  mouth.  A 
blast  of  air  at  approximately  15— 
20  psi.  is  automatically  turned 
on  while  the  vessel  is  being  ro- 
tated to  the  vertical  position. 
When  this  air  blast  is  turned  on, 
a  shower  of  sparks  bursts  from 
the  mouth  of  the  converter.  The 
three  elements  to  be  removed 
from  the  pig  iron,  i.e.,  carbon, 
manganese,  and  silicon,  have  dif- 
ferent attractions  for  oxygen 
with  the  result  that  they  do  not 
burn  at  the  same  time.  Since 
silicon     and    manganese  have 


Steel 


KFP 


432 


Steel 


greater  attraction  to  oxygen 
than  carbon,  they  burn  first,  re- 
sulting in  a  short  flame,  accom- 
panied by  dense  clouds  of  red- 
dish-brown fumes.  After  this 
action  is  completed,  the  carbon 
starts  to  burn  to  form  carbon 
monoxide.  The  result  of  this  is 
a  white  flame  which  is  ciuite 
spectacular.  The  sudden  drop- 
ping of  the  large  white  flame 
indicates  the  removal  of  carbon 
and  at  this  point  the  air  is 
turned  off  and  manganese  in  the 
form  of  ferromanganese  or 
Spiegeleisen  is  added  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  result  in  the  proper 
amount  of  carbon  and  manga- 
nese in  the  end-product,  which  is 
steel.  Manganese  also  results  in 
a  more  solid  material  and  allows 
the  steel  to  be  rolled  and  forged 
without  crumbling.  The  steel  is 
then  run  into  a  ladle  and  cast 
into  ingot  molds. 

In  capacity,  converters  range 
from  five  to  twenty-five  tons  of 
molten  metal.  The  refractory 
lining  is  generally  acid  in  char- 
acter and  will  therefore  not  re- 
move phosphorous  which  is  in 
the  pig  iron.  The  basic  Besse- 
mer process,  having  a  lining 
which  is  a  mixture  of  magnesite 
and  dolomite,  will  allow  the  oxi- 
dation of  phosphorous.  There- 
fore, the  pig  iron  used  in  the 
basic  Bessemer  process  may  be 
higher  in  phosphorous  than 
that  used  in  the  acid  Bessemer 
process. 

Open-hearth  or  Siemens-Mar- 
tin Process. — The  fvirnace  used 
in  this  process  is  a  rectangular 
brick  enclosed  structure.  The 
hearth  which  carries  the  bath  of 
steel  is  exposed  to  the  flame, 
thereby  giving  this  process  the 
name  of  'open  hearth.'  This 
process  is  versatile  in  that  it  can 
be  either  basic  with  a  magnesite 
and  dolomite  hearth,  or  acid  with 
a  sand  hearth,  can  be  fired  by 
means  of  a  large  number  of 
fuels,  and  can  be  charged  with 
various  proportions  of  pig  iron, 
steel  scrap,  and  iron  ore.  The 
fuels  may  be  natural  or  artificial 
gas,  oil  or  tar,  or  two  or  more  of 
these  fuels  in  combination.  The 
fuel  enters  the  furnace  through 
one  of  the  ports  located  on  each 
end  of  the  furnace.  To  obtain 
sufficiently  high  temperatures 
in  the  furnace  to  melt  steel, 
previously  heated  air  is  blown 
through  the  port  along  with  the 
fuel.  Combustion  takes  place 
over  the  hearth,  and  the  hot 
waste  gases  pass  through  the 
ports  at  the  other  end  of  the 
furnace  and  enter  large  cham- 
bers containing  a  checker  board 
arrangement  of  fire  brick. 
These  hot  products  of  combus- 
tion heat  this  checker  work.  At 
the  same  time  the  fuel  and  air, 
which  are  to  form  the  flame,  are 
entering  through  the  other  end 


of  the  furnace,  and  the  air  and 
gas  are  heated  by  the  checker 
work  in  large  corresponding 
checker  chambers  previously 
heated  in  the  same  manner. 
When  cold  air  and  gas  or  air 
alone  cool  the  bricks  to  the  point 
where  they  no  longer  give  up 
sufficient  heat,  the  direction  and 
flow  of  gases  is  reversed  by 
valves  so  that  the  chamber 
which  had  been  heating  the  in- 
coming air  and  fuel,  now  be- 
comes reheated,  and  the^  brick 
work,  which  had  been  in  the 
process  of  being  heated  by  the 
waste  gases,  now  gives  up  heat 
to  the  air  and  fuel.  This  re- 
versal generally  takes  place  ev- 
ery 15  to  20  minutes.  Without 
this  system  of  preheating  air  be- 
fore combustion,  the  tempera- 
ture necessary  to  melt  steel 
would  be  practically  impossible 
to  obtain. 

In  working  this  process  the 
furnace  is  charged  with  iron  in 
some  form.  It  can  be  charged 
with  pig  iron  and  iron  ore,  or 
pig  iron  and  scrap  steel  and  iron 
ore,  pig  iron  and  scrap  steel,  or 
merely  scrap  steel  with  sorne 
carbonaceous  material.  The  pig 
iron  can  be  cold  or  molten,  the 
latter  being  conducive  to  greater 
efficiency.  The  amounts  of  var- 
ious materials  charged  are  dic- 
tated by  economy  and  experi- 
ence. In  the  process,  silicon, 
manganese,  and  carbon  are  oxi- 
dized and  may  be  practically  re- 
moved in  their  entirety  or  the 
oxidizing  action  can  be  stopped 
at  a  given  point  to  result  in  the 
desired  quantity  of  carbon.  Any 
of  these  elements  or  other  alloy- 
ing elements  can  be  added  in  the 
furnace  or  in  the  ladle  by  vari- 
ous means.  After  the  steel  is 
molten  and  properly  refined,  it 
is  tapped  through  the  rear  of  the 
furnace  into  a  ladle  and  poured 
into  ingot  molds  to  form  ingots. 
If  the  furnace  has  a  basic  lining, 
lime  is  used  as  the  basis  of  the 
basic  slag.  In  this  case  phos- 
phorous and  sulphur  may  be  re- 
duced to  comparatively  low  lim- 
its. If  the  lining  is  acid,  phos- 
phorous and  sulphur  can  not  be 
removed,  and  special  charges  are 
required  to  result  in  finished 
steels  containing  phosphorous 
and  sulphur  within  commercial 
limits. 

Open  hearth  furnaces  usually 
vary  from  30  to  250  tons,  and 
the  time  of  each  heat  of  steel 
varies  from  approximately  6  to 
14  hours  depending  on  varia- 
tions in  raw  materials,  process 
and  finished  product.  Many  of 
the  large  furnaces,  200  tons  and 
larger,  are  of  the  tilting  type. 
The  greater  percentage  of  the 
world's  steel  is  made  in  the  basic 
open  hearth  furnace  because  of 
its  economical  production  of 
high  quality  steels  from  compar- 


atively low  quality  raw  mate- 
rials. 

Duplex  Process  (Bessemer 
and  Open  Hearth). — It  is  possi- 
ble to  take  advantage  of  certain 
economies  by  combining  the  Bes- 
semer and  open  hearth  proc- 
esses. This  is  done  when  there 
is  sufficient  molten  pig  iron 
available  to  make  steel  without 
the  use  of  scrap.  The  molten  pig 
iron  is  first  charged  into  an  acid 
Bessemer  converter  and  blown 
until  the  required  analysis  is  ob- 
tained by  removing  silicon,  man- 
ganese, and  carbon.  The  mate- 
rial, which  is  now  steel,  is  then 
transferred  to  a  basic  open 
hearth  furnace  where  refining  is 
completed,  i.e.,  the  phosphorous 
and  sulphur  are  reduced  to  with- 
in specifications  and  the  carbon 
is  properly  adjusted.  This  proc- 
ess saves  time  and  fuel  by  keep- 
ing the  metal  molten  from  the 
time  it  is  pig  iron  until  it  is 
poured  into  ingot  molds  as  steel. 

Crucible  Process. — Crucible 
steel  is  made  by  melting  pure 
iron  together  with  charcoal,  fer- 
romanganese, and  special  alloy- 
ing metals  in  a  fire  clay  cruci- 
ble. This  crucible,  or  pot,  is 
heated  in  a  melting  furnace  of 
the  Siemens  regeneration  type. 
The  charge  in  each  pot  contains 
a  little  less  than  200  pounds  of 
steel,  and  each  furnace  usually 
has  a  capacity  of  30  pots.  The 
process  produces  a  high  grade 
steel  because  the  melting  opera- 
tion is  done  in  the  closed  pot, 
away  from  the  oxidizing  flame. 
The  crucible  furnace  has  now 
been  largely  replaced  by  the  elec- 
tric furnace  for  the  melting  of 
high  grade  steels. 

Electric  Furnace  Process. — 
The  melting  of  steel  by  the  use 
of  electricity  for  the  production 
of  heat  is  done  in  two  types  of 
furnaces.  One  type  is  known  as 
the  arc  furnace,  in  which  case 
the  steel  in  the  furnace  forms  a 
common  conductor  for  current 
flowing  between  electrodes.  The 
melting  is  caused  by  the  intense 
heat  of  the  arc  formed  between 
the  steel  and  the  electrodes.  The 
second  type  is  known  as  the  in- 
duction furnace.  The  operation 
of  this  furnace  depends  on  the 
high  frequency  current  passing 
through  a  primary  coil  and  the 
outside  of  the  furnace,  inducing 
a  much  heavier  secondary  cur- 
rent in  the  charge,  thus  heating 
the  charge  by  resistance. 

The  electric  arc  furnace  re- 
sembles a  huge  tea  kettle  in  ap- 
pearance, mounted  on  rockers  so 
that  the  furnace  can  be  tilted  to 
pour  off  molten  metal  and  slag. 
The  bottom  of  the  furnace  is 
lined  with  heat  resistant  material 
to  form  a  bowl-shaped  contain- 
er. The  production  of  heat  by 
electricity  is  advantageous  in 
that  oxygen  is  not  necessary  to 


steel  KFP  433  Steel 


support  combustion  as  it  is  in 
the  open  hearth  and  Bessemer 
processes.  In  this  manner  the 
atmosphere  within  the  electric 
furnace  may  be  regulated,  thus 
materially  reducing  the  amounts 
of  oxides  or  other  impurities  un- 
desirable in  high  quality  steels. 
The  electric  arc  furnace  can  be 
either  basic  or  acid.  In  the 
basic  process  raw  materials  high 
in  phosphorous  and  sulphur  can 
be  used  inasmuch  as  they  can 
be  oxidized  and  removed  from 
the  steel.  However,  the  phos- 
phorous will  be  returned  to  the 
steel  if  the  slag  is  made  reducing 
with  silicon  and  coke.  The  acid 
process  requires  careful  selec- 
tion of  raw  materials,  low  in 
phosphorous  and  sulphur,  be- 
cause these  elements  can  not  be 
removed  from  the  steel. 

The  steel  from  both  processes 
is  tapped  into  a  ladle  and  can  be 
poured  into  ingot  molds  or 
poured  into  sand  molds,  making 
steel  castings. 

The  induction  furnace  nor- 
mally yields  the  highest  grade 
steel  of  all  the  commercial  proc- 
esses used  today.  It  is  similar 
to  the  crucible  process  in  that 
it  is  fundamentally  a  remelting 
process  requiring  the  same  type 
of  charge.  It  is  used  extensive- 
ly in  the  making  of  stainless 
steel  and  special  tool  steels.  On 
account  of  the  absence  of  carbon 
pick-up  and  low  melting  loss,  it 
is  used  extensively  for  the  pro- 
duction of  low  carbon  stainless 
steel.  Because  of  its  flexibility 
in  operation  it  is  valuable  in  the 
production  of  small  alloy  steel 
castings  in  the  foundry. 

Duplex  Process  (Open  Hearth 
and  Electric  Arc). — For  eco- 
nomic reasons  a  duplexing  sys- 
tem has  been  developed  for  the 
production  of  the  electric  arc 
furnace  steels.  In  this  process 
steel  is  melted  and  refined  in  the 
basic  open  hearth  furnace.  Aft- 
er refining,  the  steel  is  tapped 
into  a  ladle  and  transferred  to 
an  arc  furnace.  A  reducing 
slag  is  developed  in  the  electric 
furnace  and  the  steel  is  further 
refined,  yielding  a  steel  of  high 
quality  without  the  time  and  ex- 
pense of  melting  in  the  electric 
furnace. 

Mechanical  Processing  of 
Steel. — After  steel  has  been 
made  by  any  of  the  above  dis- 
cussed processes  it  must  be  so- 
lidified before  it  becomes  useful. 
It  can  be  poured  into  a  sand 
mold,  where  it  will  solidify  into 
a  casting  which  is  close  to  the 
finished  form  and  size,  or  it  can 
be  poured  into  an  ingot  mold  to 
solidify  into  an  ingot  which  is 
later  forged  and  shaped  by  hot 
forging  or  hot  rolling.  The  ingot 
is  a  mass  of  steel  which  is  heated 
to  approximately  2200°  F.  for 
further  processing.    During  this 


rocessing  its  form  is  changed 
y  a  series  of  processes  to  such 
commercial  products  as  railroad 
rails,  structural  members,  plates, 
sheets,  and  bars.  These  hot 
rolled  products  are  the  beginning 
of  the  innumerable  items  into 
which  steel  is  finally  made. 

The  processing  in  the  steel 
mill  is  accomplished  on  rolling 
mills  or  by  the  forging  process. 
The  equipment  is  generally  huge 
in  size,  complicated  and  expen- 
sive. Equipment  such  as  this  in 
turn  produces  steel  products  in 
tremendous  quantities  as  well  as 
of  great  size. 

Properties  of  Steel. — Steel 
has  manifold  properties  which 
are  of  inestimable  value  for 
making  it  a  material  upon  which 
modern  society  has  built  its  daily 
life  and  economy.  The  raw  ma- 
terials from  which  steel  is  made 
are  generally  abundant  and  com- 
paratively cheap  and  its  manu- 
facturing processes  are  such  as 
to  allow  it  to  be  handled  in  large 
masses  on  a  continuous  or  semi- 
continuous  basis. 

As  a  structural  material,  steel 
has  a  tremendous  advantage  in 
that  it  has  a  high  modulus  of 
elasticity,  namely  30,000,000  psi. 
As  a  tool,  it  can  be  made  suffi- 
ciently hard  and  strong  to  fabri- 
cate other  steels  and  other  ma- 
terials. It  can  be  formed  when 
hot  or  cold  and  welded.  Steel 
has  the  peculiar  property  of  be- 
ing capable  of  having  its  hard- 
ness and  strength  either  in- 
creased or  decreased  by  varying 
cycles  of  heating  and  cooling. 
It  can  be  softened  by  slow  cool- 
ing from  red  heat.  This  is 
known  as  annealing.  In  this 
condition  it  can  be  machined  or 
formed  into  complex  parts.  Its 
strength  and  hardness  can  be  in- 
creased by  cooling  rapidly  from 
a  red  heat  in  liquids  such  as  wa- 
ter or  oil.  Generally  higher 
carbon  contents  result  in  greater 
hardness  and  strength.  By  the 
use  of  alloying  elements  the  sec- 
tions which  can  be  made  hard 
and  strong  are  increased,  and 
steels  can  be  given  other  spe- 
cial properties. 

Carbon  Steel. — Carbon  steel 
is  the  largest  tonnage  product  of 
the  world's  steel  industry  and  is 
used  in  cast,  forged  and  rolled 
sections.  When  used  as  a  struc- 
tural member,  definite  strength 
requirements  are  generally  nec- 
essary. These  requirements  usu- 
ally vary  from  approximately 
40,000  to  80,000  psi.  tensile 
strength.  High  quality  carbon 
steels  are  often  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  tools  where  special 
requirements  such  as  those  im- 
parted by  alloying  elements  are 
not  required.  The  use  of  carbon 
steel  is  widespread  throughout 
practically  every  phase  of  mod- 
ern life.    It  is  used  for  railroad 


rails,  structural  steels  for  build- 
ings, plates,  and  sheets.  It  is 
also  used  for  wire,  tin  plate,  and 
bars  of  many  types. 

Alloy  Steels. — The  broad  clas- 
sification known  as  alloy  steel 
can  be  divided  into  several 
groups  such  as  constructional  or 
machinery  steels,  tool  steels,  cor- 
rosion resistant  steels,  and  spe- 
cial purpose  steels.  The  general 
description  as  well  as  the  ele- 
ments used  to  make  alloy  steels 
are  mentioned  elsewhere.  Each 
alloying  element  imparts  some 
particular  property  to  steel 
when  used  alone  or  in  combina- 
tion with  other  alloying  ele- 
ments. Generally  they  are  used 
when  one  or  more  of  the  fol- 
lowing properties  are  required : 
high  hardness  and  high  strength 
with  toughness,  hardness  and 
strength  at  elevated  or  high  tem- 
peratures, strength  and  tough- 
ness at  low  temperatures,  corro- 
sion resistance,  special  electrical 
properties,  and  special  magnetic 
properties.  Modern  science  and 
metallurgy  have  made  known 
the  effects  of  the  various  alloy- 
ing elements  when  added  to  steel 
in  respect  to  the  above  proper- 
ties. 

Constructional  or  Machinery 
Steel. — Besides  carbon  and  man- 
ganese, constructional  or  ma- 
chinery steels  depend  largely  on 
chromium,  molybdenum,  nickel, 
and  vanadium  for  their  proper- 
ties. These  steels  are  generally 
used  in  a  quenched  and  tempered 
condition  to  develop  desired 
properties.  These  alloying  ele- 
ments increase  the  size  of  sec- 
tion which  can  be  treated  in  or- 
der to  yield  a  high  strength  ma- 
terial with  good  ductility  and 
toughness.  This  constructional 
steel  group  is  made  in  the  larg- 
est tonnage  of  all  the  alloy  steels 
and  is  used  for  the  making  of 
automobiles,  trucks,  airplanes, 
and  other  equipment  where  high 
strength  and  toughness  is  re- 
quired. 

Tool  Steels. — Tool  steels  are 
generally  made  in  the  electric 
furnace  because  of  quality  rea- 
sons and  because  some  of  the 
alloying  elements  such  as  tung- 
sten and  cobalt  have  high  melt- 
ing points  and  require  the  high 
temperatures  developed  in  these 
processes.  Tool  steels  vary 
from  those  containing  small 
amounts  of  alloying  elements  to 
the_  modern  high  speed  steels 
which  may  contain  5.50  per  cent 
molybdenum,  6.50  per  cent  tung- 
sten, 4  per  cent  chromium,  and 
1.75  per  cent  vanadium.  High 
speed  steel§  are  used  for  ma- 
chining where  the  cutting  edge 
becomes  red  hot.  The  variety 
of  tools  where  alloy  steel  is  nec- 
essary is  wide,  covering  such 
applications  as  machining,  hot 
and  cold  forming  metals,  crush- 


steel 


KFP 


ing  rocks  and  ore,  and  many 
others. 

Corrosion  Resistant  Steels. — 
These  steels  depend  largely  on 
chromium  in  the  amount  of  10- 
30  per  cent  for  their  resistance 
to  corrosion.  There  have  been 
many  types  of  corrosion  resist- 
ant steels  developed  for  particu- 
lar conditions  which  develop 
during  the  processing  of  foods, 
acids,  •  petroleum  products,  and 
innumerable  other  materials. 
One  of  the  most  common  types 
of  corrosion  resistant  steels  is 
one  containing  18  per  cent  chro- 
mium and  8  per  cent  nickel. 
This  steel  has,  beside  excellent 
corrosion  resistance,  the  added 
advantage  that  it  can  be  cold 
rolled  to  develop  high  strengths. 
The  uses  of  stainless  steel  are 
many  both  in  industry  and  in 
the  home. 

Special  Purpose  Steel. — This 
group  is  very  broad.  It  includes 
such  materials  as  a  steel  contain- 
ing 0.50  per  cent  molybdenum 
vi^hich  has  high  strength  at  ele- 
vated temperatures  and  is  used 
in  modern  power-house  con- 
struction. Another  type  of  steel 
is  used  at  temperatures  up  to  ap- 
proximately 1600°  F.,  making  it 
useful  in  the  manufacture  of  su- 
perchargers and  gas  turbines. 
One  steel  of  this  type  contains 

15  per  cent  chromium,  25  per 
cent  nickel,  4  per  cent  molyb- 
denum, 1  per  cent  silicon  and  2 
per  cent  columbium,  balance 
iron,  while  another  type  contains 

16  per  cent  chromium,  25  per 
cent  nickel,  6  per  cent  molybde- 
num, and  1.60  per  cent  silicon. 
Another  steel  containing  approx- 
imately 36  per  cent  nickel  has 
practically  zero  coefficient  of  ex- 
pansion when  heated,  making 
this  material  useful  where  size 
or  length  of  metal  must  not 
change  with  varying  tempera- 
ture. An  alloy  containing  3-4 
per  cent  silicon  has  high  mag- 
netic permeability  and  low  hys- 
teresis and  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  electric  transformers 
and  generators.  A  steel  con- 
taining 12-14  per  cent  manga- 
nese has  remarkable  character- 
istics in  that  it  has  high  resist- 
ance to  wear  under  such  condi- 
tions as  are  encountered  by  rail- 
way switches  and  frogs,  dipper 
teeth  and  jaws  for  rock  crush- 
ers. The  special  purpose  steels 
are  important  in  that  they  have 
the  peculiar  properties  required 
for  very  special  conditions.  The 
need  for  this  group  is  increasing 
and  naturally  results  in  a  greater 
production.  The  types  of  this 
group  are  likewise  increasing  as 
discoveries  of  our  modern  sci- 
ence unfold. 

See  Iron,  and  bibliography 
there  given ;  Steel  and  Iron 
Construction;  Rolling 
Mills  ;     Harveyized  Steel. 


Consult  Campbell's  Manufac- 
ture and  Properties  of  Iron  and 
Steel;  Harbord  and  Hall's  Met- 
allurgy of  Steel;  Stoughton's 
Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel. 

Steel,  Flora  Annie  (1847- 
1929),  English  novelist,  was 
born  in  Harrow.  She  married 
in  1867  and  went  to  India  where 
she  was  for  some  time  in- 
spectress  of  government-aided 
schools  in  the  Punjab,  and  mem- 
ber of  the  Educational  Commit- 
tee. Among  her  novels,  which 
mainly  deal  with  Hindu  or  Mo- 
hammedan life  and  character, 
are    Prom    the    Pive  Rivers 

(1893)  ,    The    Potter's  Thumb 

(1894)  ,  Tales  from  the  Punjab 
(1894),  Red  Rowans  (1895),  /w 
the  Tideway  (1896),  On  the 
Pace  of  the  Waters  (1896),  In 
the  Guardianship  of  God  (1903), 
King  Errant  (1912),  The  Mercy 
of  the  Lord  (1914),  Mistress  of 
Men  (1917),  The  Garden  of  Fi- 
delity (1929). 

Steel  and  Iron  Construc- 
tion.— Although  it  is  only  a  lit- 
tle over  a  century  since  iron  was 
first  employed  in  an  important 
way  as  a  constructional  material, 
its  rise  has  been  rapid,  and  dur- 
ing the  last  seventy  years  it  has 
completely  dominated  the  con- 
structive arts.  When  we  refer 
to  the  modern  era  of  civilization 
as  the  Iron  Age  or  Age  of  Steel, 
we  refer  just  as  much  to  the  phe- 
nomenally wide  utilization  of 
structural  steel  as  to  the  univer- 
sal reign  of  iron  and  steel  ma- 
chinery. But  while  the  use  of 
cast  and  wrought  iron  to  build 
machines  goes  back  half  a  dozen 
centuries,  structural  use  of  iron 
was  virtually  confined  to  a  few 
minor  elements — cramps,  an- 
chors, and  tie-rods  in  masonry ; 
nails,  bolts,  reinforcing  plates, 
etc.,  in  carpentry ;  occasional 
columns  of  cast  iron,  etc. — until 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Probably  the  first  im- 
portant case  where  iron  was  the 
chief  structural  material  was  a 
cast  iron  arch  bridge  built  at 
Colebrookdale,  England,  1779.  _ 

The  fifty  years  following  this 
event  saw  the  full  establishment 
of  both  cast  and  wrought  iron  in 
construction  work,  not,  however, 
as  a  result  of  the  discovery  that 
these  materials  could  be  so  used, 
but  because  of  developments  of 
industry  in  many  fields.  The 
rise  of  mining  and  manufactur- 
ing in  England,  and  the  exist- 
ence there  and  in  America  of  a 
remarkably  able  body  of  engi- 
neers, led  to  persistent  attempts 
to  use  cast  iron  for  buildings,  in 
order  to  secure  fireproof  factory 
structures  free  from  the  limita- 
tions of  all-masonry  buildings. 
The  invention  of  the  puddling 
process,  and  about  the  same  time 
the  art  of  rolling,  cheapened 
wrought  iron  greatly,  helped  out 


434    Steel  and  Iron  Construction 

by  the  stimulus  of  the  success- 
l  ful  production  of  steam  power 
and  the  consequent  building  of 
i  steam  engines,  pumps,  and 
working  machines  of  various 
kinds.  The  English  mining  in- 
;  dustries,  which  were  a  prime 
cause  of  this  development,  also 
brought  about  the  birth  of  steam 
railways  thirty  years  later,  cre- 
ating many  new  demands  for 
iron.  The  gradual  perfection  of 
truss  bridge  construction,  first  in 
wood  and  then  in  cast  iron,  fol- 
lowed later  by  wrought  iron  sup- 
plemented the  influence  of  plate 
iron  and  suspension  chain  bridge 
construction  in  a  way  that  soon 
made  iron  the  standard  mate- 
rial for  bridges.  The  principles 
learned  in  bridge  work  reacted 
on  the  adaptation  of  iron  to 
building  work,  as  did  also  the 
development  of  boiler  construc- 
tion and  of  the  gas  industry  with 
its  numerous  requirements  for 
cast-  and  wrought-iron  work. 
In  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  an  important  event  oc- 
curred, in  the  production  of  the 
rolled  I-beam,  which  has  since 
remained  a  prime  factor  in  build- 
ing. Soon  afterward  the  Besse- 
mer process  for  making  ingot 
metal  was  developed,  producing 
a  strong,  ductile,  forgeable  iron 
very  cheaply  and  on  a  large 
scale,  and  the  new  metal,  which 
took  the  old  name  'steel'  or  'soft 
steel,'  soon  crowded  puddled  iron 
into  the  background.  Then  the 
invention  of  the  regenerative 
open-hearth  furnace  created  the 
Siemens-Martin  process  of  steel 
making,  the  principle  one  today. 
Against  these  advances  in  pro- 
duction there  was  a  steady  devel- 
opment of  both  principles  and 
practice  of  structural  steel  utili- 
zation, continued  to  the  present 
time. 

The  reasons  why  mild  steel  is 
so  important  a  construction  ma- 
terial are:  (1)  Its  great  strength 
—20  times  that  of  wood,  10 
times  that  of  stone,  4  to  5  times 
that  of  cast  iron,  2  to  6  times 
that  of  bronzes  or  brasses ;  (2) 
the  fact  that  it  is  equally  strong 
in  tension  and  compression  (un- 
like cast  iron,  stone,  or  wood) 
and  has  no  weakening  'grain' 
like  wood;  (3)  its  toughness  and 
resistance  to  abuse ;  (4)  its 
cheapness,  steel  being  but  little 
more  costly  than  cast  iron,  pound 
for  pound,  and  much  cheaper 
than  the  bronzes,  and  (5)  its 
ease  of  working  and  its  ideal  ad- 
aptation to  use  in  beams  and  col- 
umns. In  many  uses  it  merely 
replaces  stone,  wood  or  cast  iron, 
with  very  great  advantage ;  m 
others  its  combination  of  quali- 
ties is  indispensable,  e.g.,  in  gas 
holders.  Because  of  its  quali- 
ties, steel  construction  enters  vi- 
tally into  every  part  of  indus- 
trial production.    Bridges,  build- 


steel  and  Iron  Construction  KFP 


435    Steel  and  Iron  Construction 


ing  frames,  furnaces,  cranes, 
and  handling  appliances  of  all 
kinds,  cars,  towers,  foundations, 
etc.,  all  depend  more  or  less  com- 
pletely on  structural  steel  work. 

Material, — Cast  iron  is  weak 
against  tensile  stresses,  very- 
brittle  and  therefore  unreliable, 
and  not  ductile  or  malleable.  It 
is  suited  only  for  simple  arches, 
columns  and  compression  blocks, 
where  it  was,  at  one  time,  used 
quite  extensively.  Today  it  is 
seldom  used  as  a  structural  ma- 
terial in  new  construction.  For 
general  structural  use  a  stronger, 
ductile,  elastic  and  non-fragile 
metal  was  needed,  and  iron  con- 
struction could  make  no  real  be- 
ginning until  wrought  iron  be- 
came available  in  quantity  and  at 
cheap  price,  and  in  the  form  of 
plates  and  rolled  shapes  instead 
of  only  in  square,  round  and  flat 
bars.  The  mild  steel,  or  struc- 
tural steel  of  today,  is  little  more 
than  an  improved  form  of 
wrought  iron. 

Wrought  iron  has  a  uniform 
tensile  strength  of  between  45,- 
000  and  55,000  lbs.  per  square 
inch,  a  crushing  resistance  of 
about  the  same  amount,  and 
such  a  degree  of  toughness  that 
a  square  bar  can  be  doubled  flat 
on  itself  and  again  straightened 
without  fracture.  Expressed  in 
terms  of  the  percentage  of 
stretch  which  will  be  found  in 
an  8-inch  measured  length  of  a 
tension  test  piece  after  fracture, 
the  ductility  is  about  30  per  cent. 
The  corresponding  qualities  of 
steel  depend  on  its  percentage  of 
carbon.  In  structural  steel  the 
carbon  is  always  kept  so  low  that 
heating  to  red  heat  and  then 
quenching  in  water  will  not  pro- 
duce any  perceptible  hardening 
(0.10  per  cent  to  0.25  per  cent 
c).  The  tensile  strength  varies 
from  60,000  to  72,000  lbs.  per 
square  inch,  depending  on  the 
precise  amount  of  carbon  con- 
tained ;  the  crushing  strength  is 
ordinarily  somewhat  higher  ;  the 
ductility  will  vary  from  22  per 
cent  to  over  30  per  cent.  It  is 
usually  required  to  resist  bend- 
ing 180°  over  a  diameter  equal 
to  its  thickness.  Steel  for  rivets 
has  a  tensile  strength  of  52,000 
to  62,000  lbs.  per  square  inch 
and  greater  ability  to  bear  cold 
or  hot  forging.  After  driving, 
the  strength  of  structural  rivet 
steel  is  fully  equal  to  that  of 
structural  steel.  In  recent  years 
the  distinction  between  mild  and 
medium  steel  has  largely  disap- 
peared, and  there  are  only  the 
grades  of  structural  and  rivet 
steel. 

'  Steel  of  extra  high  strength, 
permitting  lighter  parts  for  a 
given  duty,  is  somewhat  less 
ductile.  In  bridges  of  very  long 
span,  the  impact  effect  of  the 
traveling  load  has  so  little  influ- 


ence on  the  main  trusses  that  the 
lesser  ductility  is  unobjection- 
able, and  high-carbon  steel  some- 
times has  been  used  here  with 
considerable  saving  of  total 
weight  because  of  the  greater 
strength  of  the  metal  (Eads 
Bridge,  Forth  Bridge).  Nickel 
steel,  in  use  since  about  1909, 
has  much  higher  strength  than 
even  high  carbon  steel,  together 
with  remarkable  toughness. 
This  is  a  .45  carbon  steel  alloyed 
with  3  to  4  per  cent  nickel. 
Nickel  steel  has  a  strength  of 
90,000  to  115,000  lbs.  per  square 
inch,  and  a  minimum  yield  point 
of  55,000  lbs.  per  square  inch. 

Silicon  steel,  in  use  since  about 
1915,  containing  ^  to  1  ^  per 
cent  of  silicon,  has  a  strength  of 
80.000  to_9S,000  lbs.  per  square 
inch.  It  is  comparatively  cheap, 
the  cost  being  about  25  per  cent 
greater  than  ordinary  carbon 
steel  whereas  nickel  steel  gener- 
ally runs  about  twice  the  cost  of 
carbon  steel. 

More  recently,  manganese 
steel  with  a  percentage  of  man- 
ganese of  about  1  %  per  cent  has 
been  used  for  structural  pur- 
poses. It  has  a  minimum  yield 
point  strength  of  40,000  to  50,- 
000  lbs.  per  square  inch  and  is 
also  cheaper  than  nickel  steel. 
These  special  steels  have  come 
into  use  for  large  bridges  in 
which  the  weight  of  the  steel  is 
the  chief  part  of  the  total  load 
carried,  and  where,  therefore, 
the  stronger  metal  gives  a  dou- 
ble advantage  by  reducing  the 
load  which  it  must  itself  carry. 
In  buildings,  the  weight  of  steel 
is  a  relatively  small  item,  and 
therefore  the  higher  cost  of 
nickel  or  manganese  steel  for 
equal  strength  is  prohibitive  al- 
though silicon  steel  has  been 
used  at  times. 

Commercial  Forms,- — Steel 
for  structural  uses  is  chiefly  in 
the  form  of  plain  plates  and 
'shapes.'  Plates  are  ordinarily 
available  in  thicknesses  of 
inch  to  2  inches,  widths  from  6 
to  186  inches,  and  lengths  vary- 
ing from  80  feet  for  the  narrow- 
est to  21  feet  for  the  widest 
sizes.  The  more  important  forms 
of  steel  shapes  are  the  I,  H,  an- 
gle, the  channel  and  the  Tee,  all 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  Their  impor- 
tance is  about  in  the  order  of 
naming.  Angles,  which  are  used 
in  sizes  from  2-inch  to  9-inch 
length  of  leg,  are  the  means  for 
connecting  separate  pieces,  and 
by  being  attached  along  the 
edges,  etc.,  of  a  plate,  they  con- 
vert the  flexible  plate  into  a 
rigid  member  capable  of  resist- 
ing compression,  shear,  and 
bending  with  good  efficiency. 
Four  angles  and  two  plates  with 
lacing  bars  connecting  the  two 
segments  on  the  open  sides  will 
make  up  a  stiff  member,  a  form 


much  used  as  compression  mem- 
bers. A  long  plate  having  an- 
gles in  pairs  attached  along  ei- 
ther longitudinal  edge  (one  pair 
on  either  edge),  is  a  plate  girder, 
which  type  of  member  is  em- 
ployed as  a  beam  to  resist  bend- 
ing stresses  in  all  applications  of 
steel  work.  The  I-beam  is  simi- 
lar to  the  plate  girder  except 
that  it  is  an  integral  section,  pro- 
duced from  the  ingot  by  rolling, 
just  as  are  railway  track  rails. 
The  channel  is  in  effect  half  an 
I-beam.  Both  these  shapes  are 
highly  efficieht  as  beams  when 
set  with  web  vertical,  since  the 
large  area  of  section  in  the 
flanges  is  then  at  maximum  dis- 
tance from  the  neutral  plane  of 
bending.  Practically  all  bending 
duty  in  steelwork  is  met  by 
I-beams  and  channels,  except 
that  for  loads  beyond  the  ca- 
pacity of  commercial  sizes  of 
I-beams,  plate  girders  are  used, 
these  being  not  thus  limited  in 
depth  and  sectional  area.  The 
usual  sizes  of  I-beams  are  6  to 
36  inches  deep,  weighing  8^^  to 
300  lbs.  per  linear  foot,  while 
channels  are  6  to  18  inches  deep, 
8  to  58  lbs.  per  foot.  H-sections 
are  used  extensively  in  column 
construction.  When  the  load  on 
a  column  exceeds  the  capacity 
of  the  heaviest  rolled  H  section 
(weighing  426  lbs.  per  linear 
foot)  the  H  section  is  augmented 
by  cover  plates  fastened  in  pairs 
to  its  flanges.  Tees  are  used  in 
a  variety  of  ways,  as  for  stud- 
ding or  roof  purlins. 

In  addition  to  these  shapes, 
round,  square,  and  rectangular 
bars  are  sometimes  employed  as 
tension  members.  Round  and 
square  bars  are  thickened  at  the 
ends  by  forging  and  then  thread- 
ed to  receive  nuts,  clevises  or 
turnbuckles  by  means  of  which 
the  rods  can  be  stressed  in  ten- 
sion. Rectangular  bars  used  in 
tension  (eye-bars)  have  their 
ends  enlarged  by  forging,  or  by 
welding  on  auxiliary  material, 
so  that  these  ends  may  be  pierced 
with  holes  to  receive  pins,  with- 
out loss  of  strength  at  the  hole. 
Until  recent  years  eye-bars  were 
used  extensively  in  'pin-con- 
nected' bridge  trusses,  but  fully 
riveted  joints  have  now  replaced 
the  earlier  pin-connected  type. 
Eye-bars  have  been  made  as 
large  as  18  inches  wide  by  1  ^ 
to  2  inches  thick,  and  in  the 
largest  bridges  as  many  as  25 
such  bars  have  been  set  side  by 
side  to  form  a  single  tension 
member. 

Today  the  largest  forged  eye- 
bars  obtainable  are  6  inches 
wide  by  1^  thick.  Larger  bars 
can  be  fabricated  to  order  by 
welding. 

Steel  joists,  lighter  than  ordi- 
nary I-beams,  are  frequently 
spaced  two  feet  on  centers  or 


steel  and  Iron  Construction  KFP 


436   Steel  and  Iron  Construction 


closer  in  floor  and  roof  construc- 
tion with  lines  of  steel  bridging 
holding  them  securely  in  an  up- 
right position  and  distributing 
any  concentrated  loads  over  sev- 
eral adjacent  joists,  much  as 
wood  joists  are  framed  for  the 
same  purpose.  These  joists  are 
formed  from  bars,  small  shapes, 
strip  or  sheet  steel  by  welding 
or  expanding  in  a  number  of 
manufacturing  processes.  In 
effect  they  are  small  trusses  or 
light  solid  web  beams.  Build- 
ing construction  also  employs 
various  other  special  forms  man- 
ufactured from  sheet  and  strip 
steel  such  as  sheet  steel  roofing 
and  siding,  cellular  floors,  steel 
studs  and  metal  lath. 

Processes  of  Working, — 
The  toughness  and  malleability 
of  steel  make  it  possible  to  cut 
a  plate  or  shape  by  shearing  in- 
stead of  sawing  or  planing ;  to 
make  holes  by  punching  out  with 
a  hardened  steel  punch  under 
P^reat  pressure,  instead  of  drill- 
mg,  and  to  bend  it  by  either  cold 
or  hot  forging.  The  same  quali- 
ties also  make  joining  by  rivets 
possible. 

Supplementing  these  fabricat- 
ing techniques,  considerable  cut- 
ting of  structural  steel  is  done 
today  by  means  of  an  acetyline 
torch.  Were  it  not  for  the  sim- 
plicity of  these  processes  of  trim- 
ming, shaping,  and  joining, 
steelwork  would  be  very  much 
more  costly,  and  probably  would 
not  have  achieved  more  than  a 
fractional  part  of  its  present 
wide  application.  High  carbon 
steel,  being  more  susceptible  to 
injury  from  punching,  should 
have  its  rivet  holes  drilled  from 
the  solid.  The  holes  in  plates 
whose  thickness  exceeds  the 
rivet  diameter  are  always  drilled 
without  preliminary  punching, 
as  punching  is  unsatisfactory 
and  is  likely  to  break  the  punch. 

Joining. — Connection  by  riv- 
ets is  the  usual  practice  in  steel- 
work, but  there  are  two  other 
connections  in  common  use.  (1) 
Erection  joints  of  many  struc- 
tures of  the  lighter  class  are 
often  made  with  bolts  in  place 
of  rivets,  though  a  bolt  seat- 
ed in  the  irregularly  matched 
holes  of  a  group  of  steel  parts  is 
considered  to  be  only  as  ef- 
fective in  shear  as  a  rivet.  (2) 
Since  about  1925,  in  a  number 
of  building  operations,  welded 
instead  of  riveted  joints  have 
been  used.  A  metallic  rod  is 
melted  away  by  an  electric  arc 
and  deposited  between  the  two 
surfaces  to  be  connected,  the  two 
surfaces  being  fused  and  welded 
together  in  the  process.  This 
method  has  the  advantage  of  be- 
ing noiseless  as  compared  with 
riveted  connections. 

In  the  section  of  a  rivet  con- 
nection (Fig.  2)  the  heads  are 


roughly  hemispherical.  One  is 
formed  on  the  rivet  rod,  the  rod 
then  being  cut  to  the  exact 
length  for  passing  through  the 
assembled  pieces  and  making  the 
other  head.  The  rivet,  having 
been  heated  to  a  bright  red  be- 
fore insertion  in  the  hole,  is  held 
to  place  by  aid  of  a  heavy  weight 
or  ram  rested  against  the  first 
head,  and  the  other  end  is  upset 
with  a  hammer  and  formed  to 
shape  with  cup-like  die  ham- 
mered down  over  it.  In  the 
shop,  rivets  may  be  driven  by 
hydraulic  or  pneumatic  pressure 
riveters  instead  of  by  hammer- 
ing. Joints  made  in  the  field, 
during  erection,  are  riveted  by 
pneumatic  hammers,  which  de- 
liver rapid  blows  against  a  cup 
die  placed  on  the  head  of  the 
rivet. 

The  factors  affecting  the 
strength  of  rivets  and  the  design 
of  riveted  connections  can  not 
here  be  entered  upon.  The  ways 
of  joining  different  pieces  by 
rivets,  when  necessary,  with  the 
help  of  junction  pieces  of  plate 
called  gusset  plates,  may  be 
gathered  from  the  illustrations, 
for  example  the  building  shown 
in  Fig.  4.  Rivets  of  ^  and  ^ 
inch  diameter  are  most  used  in 
structural  work ;  ^  inch,  ^ 
inch,  1  inch,  1  %  inch  and  1  % 
inch  occasionally.  It  is  desir- 
able that  a  rivet  should  be  upset 
enough  to  fill  its  hole  snugly,  and 
that  its  head  be  formed  with 
enough  pressure  to  draw  the 
parts  strongly  together  as  the 
rivet  cools. 

Recently  equipment  has  been 
developed  for  driving  large  struc- 
tural rivets  cold.  Since  a  force 
varying  between  50  and  90  tons 
is  required  to  drive  cold  rivets 
of  H  inch  to  inch  diameter, 
the  driving  equipment  is  too 
bulky  to  take  into  the  field. 
Hence  the  use  of  cold  driven  riv- 
ets is  limited  to  shop  fabrication 
and,  even  here,  is  best  suited  to 
assembled  parts  requiring  a  rela- 
tively large  number  of  rivets  in 
a  single  assembly.  Cold-driving 
riverts  insure  gqod  filling  of  the 
holes,  a  desirable  feature  in  any 
riveted  work.  The  material,  from 
which  rivets  to  be  driven  cold 
are  made,  is  substantially  the 
same  as  that  for  hot-driven  riv- 
ets. The  head  of  a  cold-driven 
rivet,  which  is  formed  in  its 
manufacture,  before  assembly 
into  the  work  to  be  joined,  has 
the  same  shape  as  those  for  hot- 
driven  rivets.  The  head  formed 
in  driving  is  flat  or  slightly 
conical. 

A  number  of  processes  has 
been  developed  for  joining  steel 
parts  by  welding  but  by  far  the 
commonest  one  used  in  construc- 
tion is  the  metal-arc  process. 
Some  resistance  welding  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  assemblies 


made  of  relatively  thin  parts. 
Here  the  parts  to  be  joined  are 
held  in  a  machine  in  direct  con- 
tact with  one  another  until  an 
electric  current  has  raised  the 
temperature  of  the  metal  at  the 
point  of  contact  to  the  fusing 
point. 

Metal-arc  welding  may  be  per- 
formed by  automatic  equipment 
when  the  work  can  be  placed  in 
a  nearly  horizontal  position  and 
when  the  uninterrupted  length 
of  a  weld  is  sufficient  to  justify 
the  time  required  to  set  up  the 
equipment.  In  ship  construc- 
tion these  conditions  frequently 
exist  and  hence  automatic  weld- 
ing has  been  used  extensively  in 
this  kind  of  work.  In  building 
and  bridge  construction  most  of 
the  welding  is  done  by  hand. 
Since  the  introduction  of  the 
heavily  coated  electrode  around 
1930  welding  has  been  used 
much  more  extensively  in  con- 
struction than  was  the  case  with 
the  earlier  bare  wire  electrode. 
However,  even  now  more  of  the 
work  is  riveted  or  bolted  than  is 
joined  by  welding. 

General  Forms  of  Steel- 
work.— The  plate  girder  (Fig. 
6)  in  which  the  material  is 
adapted  for  resisting  pure  bend- 
ing strain,  and  the  truss,  in 
which  the  material  has  to  resist 
either  tension  only  or  compres- 
sion only,  are  the  type  forms  of 
all  structural  steelwork.  Many 
steel  members,  however,  must 
resist  combinations  of  bending 
and  tension  (or  compression)  ; 
for  instance,  the  columns  of  a 
steel-frame  building  not  only 
have  to  carry  a  large  vertical 
load,  but  through  a  stiff  connec- 
tion with  the  cross  beams  must 
resist  the  distorting  effect  of  the 
lateral  pressure  of  wind  (Fig.  7) 
and  similarly  the  cross  beams  of 
the  building  must  carry  the  floor 
loads  by  bending  resistance,  and 
in  addition  must  transfer  part  of 
the  wind  load  to  the  leeward  side 
by  compressive  resistance,  and 
must  still  have  a  residue  of  bend- 
ing resistance  to  co-act  with  the 
columns  in  resisting  lateral  dis- 
tortion of  the  structure  by  wind 
pressure.  Such  combined  action 
is  more  easily  provided  for,  how- 
ever, because  a  bending  member 
is  always  of  such  form  as  to  be 
able  to  resist  also  some  compres- 
sion or  tension,  while  columns 
and  tension  members  are  nearly 
always  stiff  enough  laterally  to 
have  some  degree  of  bending 
strength. 

Solid-web  Beams  and  Gird- 
ers.— The  plate  girder,  already 
referred  to,  is  illustrated  by  a 
typical  example  in  Fig.  6,  and 
in  Fig.  3  the  use  of  rolled  I- 
beams  for  similar  purpose  is  ex- 
emplified. The  latter  form  the 
floor  members  of  all  steel-frame 
tier  buildings  (office  buildings. 


STEEL  AND  IRON  CONSTRUCTION. 
Singer  Tower  and  City  Investing  Building,  New  York  City,  While  Both  were  in  Course  of  Erection. 


steel  and  Iron  Construction 


436 


Steel  and  Iron  Construction 


more  recent  variety  of  steel  has 
much  higher  strength  than  even 
high-carbon  steel,  together  with 
remarkable  toughness;  this  is 
nickel-steel,  which  is  ordinary 
steel  alloyed  with  3  to  4%  nickel. 
Nickel-steel  has  a  strength  of  80,- 
000  to  100,000  lbs.  per  sq.  in.,  and 
other  properties  ec^ual  to  those  of 
the  toughest  structural  steel.  It 
has  come  into  use  for  large  bridges 
in  which  the  weight  of  the  steel  is 
the  chief  part  of  the  total  load  car- 
ried, and  where,  therefore,  the 
stronger  metal  gives  a  double  ad- 
vantage by  reducing  the  load 
which  it  must  itself  carry.  In 
buildings,  the  .weight  of  steel  is 
a  very  small  item,  and  there- 
fore the  higher  cost  of  nickel- 
steel  for  equal  strength  is  pro- 
hibitive. 

Commercial  Forms. — Steel  for 
structural  uses  is  chiefly  in  the 
form  of  plain  plates  and  'shapes.' 
Plates  are  orclinarily  required  in 
thicknesses  of  ib  in.  to  1^  in., 
widths  from  6  to  120  in.  (or  more 
when  needed),  and  any  length. 
The  more  important  forms  of 
shape  steel  are  the  angle,  the  I, 
the  channel,  the  Z-bar,  and  the 
Tee,  all  shown  in  the  sketch.  Fig. 
1.  Their  importance  is  about 
in  the  order  of  naming.  Angles, 
which  are  used  in  sizes  from  2-in. 
to  8-in.  length  of  leg,  are  the 
means  for  connecting  separate 
pieces,  and  by  being  attached 
along  the  edges,  etc.,  of  a  plate, 
they  convert  the  flexible  plate  into 
a  rigid  member  capable  of  resist- 
ing both  compression  and  bend- 
ing with  good  eflficiency.  Four 
angles  and  four  plates  will  make 
up  a  stiff  tubular  member,  a 
form  much  used  in  columns.  A 
long  plate  having  two  angles  at- 
tached along  either  longitudinal 
edge  (one  on  eithej  face),  is  a 
plate  girder,  which  type  of  mem- 
ber is  employed  as  a  beam  to  re- 
sist bending  stresses  in  all  appli- 
cations of  steelwork.  The  I- 
beam  is  exactly  similar  to  the 
plate-girder  except  that  it  is  an 
integral  section,  produced  from 
the  ingot  by  rolling,  just  as  are 
railway  track  rails.  The  channel 
is  in  effect  half  an  I-beam.  Both 
these  shapes  are  highly  efficient 
as  beams  when  set  with  web  ver- 
tical, since  the  large  area  of  sec- 
tion in  the  flanges  is  then  at  maxi- 
mum distance  from  the  neutral 

Elane  of  bending.  Practically  all 
ending  duty  in  steelwork  is  met 
by  I-beams  and  channels,  except 
that  for  loads  beyond  the  capacity 
of  commercial  sizes  of  I-beams, 
plate-girders  are  used,  these  being 
not  thus  limited  in  depth  and  sec- 
tional area.  The  usual  sizes  of 
I-beams  are  7  to  24  in.  deep, 
weighing  10  to  100  lbs.  per  lin. 
ft.,  while  channels  are  6  to  15  in. 
deep,  8  to  45  lbs.  per  ft.  Z-bars 
make  an  excellent  form  of  col- 
umn, four  bars  being  arranged  in 


a  star  shape.  Tecs  are  used  in  a 
variety  of  ways,  as  for  studding  or 
roof-purlins. 

In  addition  to  these  shapes, 
round,  square,  and  rectangular 
bars  are  often  employed  as  tension 
members.  Round  and  square 
bars  are  bent  around  at  the  ends 
into  welded  loops  for  attachment. 
Rectangular  bars  require  the  loop 
to  be  formed  by  widening  the  end 
by  upsetting,  and  boring  a  hole 
for  tne  attachment  pin  in  the 
widened  part.  This  form  of  bar 
has  special  importance,  being  the 
well-known  eyebar  on  which  the 
whole  pin-connected  system  of 
bridge  building  depends.  Eye- 
bars  have  been  made  as  large  as 
18  in.  wide  by  H  to  2  in.  tnick, 
and  in  the  largest  oridges  as  many 
as  25  such  bars  have  been  set  side 
by  side  to  form  a  single  tension 
member. 

Steelwork  also  employs  various 
special  forms  of  plate  or  sheet 
steel,  such  as  corrugated  sheet, 
for  roofing  and  siding  of  mill 
buildings;  buckle-plates,  plate  steel 
formed  into  shallow  rectangular 
shield-like  panels  by  pressing, 
which  are  a  highly  efficient  under- 
lating  for  bridge  floors;  trough 
ooring,  which  is  plate  steel  cor- 
rugated with  deep  and  narrow 
waves  so  as  to  give  it  great  carry- 
ing capacity  as  a  floor-plate,  and 
numerous  like  products. 

Processes  of  Working. — The 
toughness  and  malleability  of  steel 
make  it  possible  to  cut  a  plate  or 
shape  by  shearing  instead  of  saw- 
ing or  planing;  to  make  holes  by 
punching  out  with  a  hardenea 
steel  punch  under  great  pressure, 
instead  of  drilling,  and  to  bend 
it  by  either  cold  or  hot  forging. 
The  same  qualities  also  make 
joining  by  rivets  possible,  whereas 
cast-iron  is  always  joinea  by  bolts 
and  never  by  rivets  because  the 
pressure  of  the  latter  would  crack 
the  brittle  metal.  Were  it  not  for 
the  simplicity  of  these  processes 
of  trimming  and  shaping,  steel- 
work would  be  very  much  more 
costly,  and  probably  would  not 
have  achieved  more  than  a  frac- 
tional part  of  its  wide  application. 
However,  shearing  and  punch- 
ing do  injure  the  adjacent  metal 
somewhat,  by  producing  local 
hardness  and  often  what  amounts 
to  the  _  formation  of  haircracks. 
The  injury,  extending  about  ^  in. 
away  from  the  tool,  may  be  made 
good  by  planing  off  the  face  of  the 
sheared  edge,  and  reaming  or 
broaching  out  the  punched  hole. 
In  ordinary  steelwork  this  is  not 
considered  necessary,  but  in  work 
of  the  highest  class  it  is  usually 
done.  Where  rivets  are  to  be  |-  in. 
in  diameter,  for  example,  the 
holes  may  be  punched  f  or  f  in., 
and,  after  assembly  of  the  parts, 
broached  out  to  |b  in.  diame- 
ter (subpunching  and  reaming). 
High-carbon   steel,    being  more 


susceptible  to  injury  from  punch- 
ing, should  have  its  rivet-holes 
drilled  from  the  solid.  The  holes 
in  plates  whose  thickness  exceeds 
the  rivet  diameter  are  always 
drilled  without  preliminary  punch- 
ing as  punching  is  unsatisfactory 
and  is  likely  to  break  the  punch. 

Joining. — Connection  by  rivets 
is  universal  in  steelwork,  but  there 
are  two  other  connections  used  in 
special  circumstances.  (1)  The 
erection  joints  of  many  structures 
of  the  lighter  class  are  often  made 
with  bolts  in  place  of  rivets, 
though  a  bolt  seated  in  the  irreg- 
ularly matched  holes  of  a  group  of 
steel  parts  is  only  ^  to  f  as  ehec- 
tive  as  a  rivet.  (2)  Connection  by 
a  single  large  bolt,  called  a  'pin,' 
is  much  practised  in  bridge  con- 
struction, because  erection  is 
cheaper  and  quicker  by  simply 
slipping  a  pin  into  place  than  by 
placing  and  heading  up  a  number 
of  rivets.  Pins  are  used  in  Amer- 
ica only,  and  pin-connected  con- 
struction is  often  called  the  Amer- 
ican type.  Pin  joints  are  also 
used  to  some  extent  in  roof-truss 
and  building  work.  In  light 
steelwork,  tension  bracing  rods 
are  often  joined  on  by  simply 
passing  them  through  a  hole  in 
the  plate  of  the  main  member  and 
screwing  a  nut  on  the  projecting 
end. 

In  the  section  of  a  rivet  connec- 
tion (Fig.  2)  the  heads  are  roughly 
hemispherical.  One  is  formed  on 
the  rivet-rod,  the  rod  then  being 
cut  to  the  exact  length  for  passing 
through  the  assembled  pieces  and 
making  the  other  head.  The  rivet 
having  been  heated  to  a  bright  red 
before  insertion  in  the  hole,  is 
held  to  place  by  aid  of  a  heavy 
weight  or  ram  rested  against  the 
first  head,  and  the  other  end  is 
upset  with  a  hammer  and  formed 
to  shape  with  cup-like  die  ham- 
mered down  over  it.  In  the  shop 
rivets  are  _  driven  _  by  hydraulic 
ressure_  riveters  instead  of  by 
ammering.  Joints  made  in  the 
field,  during  erection,  are  riveted 
either  by  hand,  as  described,  or  by 
pneumatic  hammers,  which  de- 
liver rapid  blows  against  a  cup 
die  placed  on  the  head  of  the 
rivet. 

The  factors  affecting  the 
strength  of  rivets  and  the  design 
of  riveted  connections  cannot  here 
be  entered  upon.  It  is  to  be 
noted,  however,  that  rivets  are  not 
to  be  placed  nearer  an  edge  than 
1^  diameters  or  spaced  nearer  to- 
gether than  3  diameters;  also  that 
to  hold  the  parts  smoothly  together 
without  curls  or  buckles,  they 
should  not  be  further  apart  than 
about  10  diameters  or  6  in.,  when 
fewer  would  suffice  for  strength. 
The  ways_  of  joining  different 
pieces  by  rivets,  when  necessary, 
with  the  help  of  junction  pieces 
of  plate  called  gusset-plates,  may 
be  gathered  from  the  illustrations, 


steel  and  Iron  Construction  KFP 


437   Steel  and  Iron  Construction 


warehouses,  etc..  as  distin- 
guished from  mill  buildings,  in 
which  the  framing  is  chiefly  in 
wall  and  roof).  The  connection 
of  an  I-beam  to  its  supports, 
usually  either  a  column  or  a 
main  girder,  is  in  ordinary  cases 
made  by  a  pair  of  connection  an- 
gles, as  illustrated  in  Fig.  3^  but 
this  connection  is  too  flexible  to 
resist  bending,  and  where  the 
beam  forms  part  of  a  wind-brac- 
ing system  it  must  be  differently 
attached,  preferably  by  a  con- 
nection as  shown  in  Fig.  7.  In 
many  cases  where  a  single  I- 
beam  is  insufficient,  two  or  more 
I-beams  side  by  side,  held  to- 
gether by  bolts  and  spacer  cast- 
ings, may  be  employed.  A  sin- 
gle channel  may  also  serve  ex- 
cellently as  a  beam,  though  it  is 
so  narrow  that  it  must  be  well 
braced  against  lateral  buckling. 
Two  channels  side  by  side, 
bound  together  either  by  latticing 
or  by  a  continuous  plate  on  top 
and  bottom  (the  plate  adding 
greatly  to  the  bending  resist- 
ance) make  an  efficient  beam, 
used  occasionally.  This  same 
form  of  assemblage  carried  out 
with  plate  girders  in  place  of 
the  channels,  gives  the  box  gird- 
er, a  very  substantial  form  of 
bending  member,,  used  where 
very  great  loads  have  to  be  car- 
ried. 

Cover  plates  are  sometimes 
added  to  the  top  and  bottom 
flanges  of  rolled  beams  to  in- 
crease their  strength  when  the 
required  increase  is  not  sufficient 
to  recommend  the  use  of  a  plate 
girder. 

The  detailed  analysis  of  plate 
girders  is  intricate,  but  the  prac- 
tical methods  of  proportioning 
are  sufficiently  close  to  give  safe 
and  economical  structures.  The 
upper  and  lower  flanges  must  re- 
sist compression  and  tension  in 
proportion  to  load,  span,  and 
depth  of  girder,  while  the  web 
plate  must  transfer  stress  be- 
tween flanges,  supports,  and 
load ;  stiffeners,  i.e.,  angles  riv- 
eted vertically  on  the  sides  of 
the  web  plate,  hold  it  against 
buckling  under  its  duty.  While 
they  are  economical,  plate  gird- 
ers necessarily  involve  excess  of 
material,  since,  owing  to  their 
nature,  some  parts  of  the  web  do 
little  work.  But  this  very  fact 
gives  the  structure  a  massive- 
ness  and  a  margin  of  strength 
that  are  of  considerable  value, 
and  plate  girders  are  therefore 
deservedly  popular  for  short- 
span  bridges  and  for  all  uses 
where_  rigidity  or  freedom  from 
vibration  is  sought.  Trusses  of 
equivalent  strength  are  lighter, 
but  have  less  solidity  and  are 
generally  considered  less  du- 
rable. 

Tension  Members, — Pieces 
having  to  resist  tension  only  are 


the  simplest  elementary  assem- 
blages in  steelwork,  as  no  ques- 
tions of  buckling  or  bending  re- 
sistance are  involved.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  group  all  the  parts 
symmetrically  about  the  line  of 
pull,  fasten  them  together  light- 
ly with  stitch-rivets,  and  provide 
end  connections  capable  of  car- 
rying the  stress  of  each  part  to 
the  joint-plate  or  other  attach- 
ment. The  latter  is  always  the 
chief  problem,  especially  in 
members  of  very  large  size. 

Eye-bars  are  illustrated  in 
Fig._  5.  The  simplest  riveted 
tension  members  are  those  made 
of  a  single  angle,  or  of  two  an- 
gles, either  stitched  together 
back  to  back,  or  spread  apart 
and  connected  by  diagonal  lattice 
so  as  to  give  greater  width,  and 
thereby  avoid  the  vibration  often 
seen  in  slender  members.  In 
roof  trusses  and  similar  light 
framework,  this  type  of  member 
is  extensively  used  because  of 
the  ease  of  making  connections 
and  because  the  two-angle  mem- 
ber is  just  as  well  suited  for 
compression  as  for  tension. 
Larger  tension  members  are 
made  of  four  angles  latticed  to- 
gether in  I-shape  or  square  box 
shape,  or  of  a  pair  of  plates  each 
stiffened  by  longitudinal  angles 
and  braced  together  by  latticing. 
For  extremely  large  tension 
parts,  still  other  combinations  of 
plates  and  angles  are  built  up. 
I-beams  and  channels  are  some- 
times conveniently  used  as  ten- 
sion members. 

Compression  Members  or 
struts  need  to  be  stiff  laterally 
in  order  to  resist  the  buckling  or 
bending-out  tendency,  which  the 


compression  load  produces,  and 
should  be  as  solid  and  substan- 
tial as  possible.  Many  combina- 
tions of  plates  and  shapes  have 
been  employed.  In  small  bridges 
struts  made  of  two  channels  set 
back  to  back,  a  short  distance 
apart,  and  held  together  by  lat- 
ticing, are  very  convenient,  and 
to  some  extent  this  form  is  used 
also  in  building  work.  The  com- 
pression (upper)  chords  of  ordi- 
nary bridges  are  frequently  U- 
shaped  assemblages  of  plates 
connected  by  longitudinal  an- 
gles, like  a  box  column  with  one 
side  open.  Very  large  compres- 
sion members  for  great  bridges 
become  special,  intricate  prob- 
lems of  design,  the  more  so  as 
knowledge  of  the  strength  of  col- 
umns is  not  nearly  so  definite  as 
that  relating  to  tension  members. 
It    is    recognized    that  the 


strongest  strut  from  a  given 
amount  of  material  is  one  having 
tubular  shape.  The  designers  of 
the  great  Eads  Bridge  and  the 
Forth  Bridge  (a  cantilever 
bridge  of  1,710  ft.  span  between 
piers)  therefore  adopted  tubular 
members,  built  up  of  curved 
plates  riveted  together  much 
like  a  double  boiler  shell.  On 
account  of  the  high  cost  of  fab- 
rication, however,  this  type  of 
section  has  not  been  used  for 
many  years. 

Bridges* — The  great  variety 
of  bridge  types  is  briefly  de- 
scribed in  the  article  Bridges. 
Structurally,  a  bridge  consists 
of  a  floor  of  beams  covered  with 
steel  plate  (Battledeck),  steel 
gratingj  concrete  or  wood,  which 
floor  is  held  up  by  rolled  beams, 
girders,  a  pair  of  trusses,  an 
arch  or  suspension  cables  (which 
in  turn  require  a  truss  to  stiffen 
the  structure).  Steel  arches 
represent  merely  a  special  ad- 
aptation of  truss  framework,  ex- 
cept that  they  may  be  made  with 
plate-girder  ribs  (Henry  Hud- 
son Bridge  over  Harlem  River, 
New  York,  800  foot  span). 
Steel  arches  are  suitable  for 
long  spans,  a  notable  example 
being  the  Kill  van  Kull  Bridge 
with  a  span  of  1,675  feet. 
Trusses  are  theoretically  any  de- 
sired side-to-side  arrangement  of 
triangles.  In  practice  the  edge 
members  are  distinguished  as 
chords,  the  inner  ones  as  web 
members.  In  simple  trusses  the 
upper  chord  is  in  compression, 
the  lower  chord  in  tension,  while 
the  web  members  are  alternate 
ties  and  struts.  When  the  web 
members  are  alternately  vertical 


and  diagonal,  and  the  diagonals 
slope  downward  toward  mid- 
span,  and  therefore  are  in  ten- 
sion, we  have  the  Pratt  truss. 

In  the  Warren  truss  the  diag- 
onals slope  downward  alternate- 
ly towards  the  end  and  center 
of  the  span.  They  are  designed 
to  carry  both  tension  and  com- 
pression as  the  case  may  arise. 
Vertical  members  are  generally 
also  added  although  sometimes 
these  are  omitted  altogether  in 
highway  bridges.  For  deck 
bridges  (floor  at  level  of  upper 
chord)  these  verticals  are  in 
compression  and  for  through 
bridges  (floor  at  level  of  lower 
chord)  they  are  in  tension.  All 
the  members  are  riveted  at  the 
joints  to  gusset  plates. 

In  steel  truss  bridges,  trans- 
verse girders  (floor  beams)  are 
riveted    between    the  opposite 


][  ]  [  XX 

Fig.  8. — Some  Common  Compression  Sections 


Ill 
II 
II 
II 

Rl 
II 
II 


11 
I 

lU 

ill 


liini  Ji 
lliiiiJi 
iiliiin 
iiiiiiJi 


-•III"*""" 

1  WS!!!!1 

IliE  [  ilil 
IIIU  III! 

I  H  "J  . «  i  I 
■        1 1 1 1 8  *  • 

lililllJ 

lllllil^  ,11111  i, 

iiii>ii''i:';ii'iii 

i.iji; 
»••!: 


i&  Ewing  Galloway.  iV.  x. 


Modern  Example  of  Steel  and  Iron  Construction 


Vol.  XI.— Page  438 


steel  and  Iron  Construction  KFP 


439  Steel  and  Iron  Construction 


posts  of  the  two  trusses  and 
carry  longitudinal  beams  (string- 
ers) on  which  rests  the  flooring 
material  (in  railway  bridges  the 
cross  ties).  The  trusses  by 
themselves  lack  lateral  stififness, 
and  have  to  be  braced  by  what 
are  in  effect  two  horizontal 
trusses,  one  in  the  plane  of  ei- 
ther chord  (lateral  systems). 
The  sideward  wind  pressure  is 
resisted  by  these  laterals  and 
transmitted  to  the  abutments  or 
piers  just  as  the  main  trusses 
transmit  the  effect  of  the  verti- 
cal loads.  For  further  lateral 
stiffening  each  post  is  rigidly 
bracketed  to  the  floor  beam  and 
(in  the  other  chord)  to  the  cross 
strut  of  the  lateral  system,  so  as 
to  form  a  four-sided  frame  stiff 
enough  to  be  able  to  resist  an- 
gular distortion. 

Stiff  rectangular  frames  of 
the  character  just  described  oc- 
cur very  often  in  steelwork. 
Since  nearly  all  steel  structures 
are  made  up  of  parts  standing  at 
right  angles  to  each  other  (for 
example,  in  a  tier  building,  the 
floor  beams  in  two  directions,  the 
columns  in  the  third),  bracing  is 
required,  and  this  is  supplied  by 
diagonal  members  where  these 
can  be  used,  otherwise  by  stiff 
bracketed  inter-connection  of  the 
parts  to  constitute  rigid  quadri- 
laterals. A  typical  instance  of 
this  occurs  in  every  through 
bridge  (one  in  which  the  trusses 
extend  above  the  floor  and  have 
an  overhead  system  of  lateral 
bracing)  at  the  ends,  where  the 
upper  lateral  system  terminates 
and  its  load  must  be  transmit- 
ted down  to  the  abutments  or 
piers  on  which  the  bridge  rests. 
Diagonals  can  not  be  used  in  the 
transverse  plane  of  the  end,  as 
they  would  obstruct  the  road- 
way. At  the  end  post  a  stiff 
truss  is  riveted  across  between 
the  main  vertical  trusses  in  the 
plane  of  the  two  end  posts 
(which  usually  are  inclined)  ; 
this  portal  bracing,  by  its  own 
resistance  to  bending  and  the 
bending  strength  of  the  end 
posts,  opposes  any  angular  dis- 
tortion of  the  end  face  of  the 
bridge,  and  thus  holds  the  trusses 
upright  and  carries  the  upper 
wind  load  down  to  the  abutment. 
From  this  detail,  the  rigid- 
quadrilateral  system  of  bracing 
is  often  called  the  portal-brace 
system.    See  Bridges. 

Tier  Buildings. — The  de- 
mand for  fireproof  building  con- 
struction (q.  V.)  led  to  the  use 
of  floor  framing  of  steel  beams 
resting,  in  the  first  place,  on  the 
masonry  walls  of  the  building 
(or  on  interior  cast-iron  col- 
umns) and  filled  in  with  brick 
or  concrete  floor  arches.  Later, 
as  buildings  grew  in  height,  it 
became  necessary  to  avoid  the 
immense  increase  of  weight  of 


the  walls,  required  to  carry  the 
floor  loads,  by  introducing  in 
them  steel  columns  to  support 
the  floors,  the  walls  then  carry- 
ing only  their  own  weight.  Still 
later  it  was  found  advantageous 
to  carry  the  walls  also  on  the 
columns,  by  carrying  each  story 
height  of  wall  on  a  steel  beam 
set  in  the  wall  at  the  floor  level, 
the  beam  being  attached  to  the 
columns.  This  arrangement  of 
parts  became  universal,  and  is 
indeed  the  essence  of  the  'sky- 
scraper.' 

The  modern  tier  building  thus 
consists  of  a  rectangular  assem- 
blage of  steel-beam  floor  fram- 
ing and  steel  columns,  and  floor- 
and-wall  filling  carried  on  the 
frame ;  as  it  is  exposed  to  con- 
siderable wind  pressures  it  must 
be  well  braced.  How  much 
bracing  effect  the  walls  contrib- 
ute is  not  clearly  established,  but 
it  is  customary  to  count  on  the 
walls  being  adequate  for  bracing 
in  all  buildings  less  than  150 
feet  high,  while  highef  buildings 
are  required  to  have  the  frame- 
work braced  strongly  enough  to 
resist  the  entire  lateral  load  in 
itself  (without  any  help  from 
the  walls).  Of  course  there 
need  not  be  bracing  between  all 
columns,  as  a  small  number  of 
braced  bents  will  brace  the  en- 
tire building.  It  was  common 
formerly  to  provide  bracing  of 
crossed  diagonals  from  founda- 
tion to  roof  in  a  certain  number 
of  bays,  where  the  bracing  could 
be  conveniently  concealed  in  par- 
titions. Modern  requirements 
in  office-building  architecture 
call  for  open  floor  areas,  in 
which  the  partitions  can  be 
shifted  around  to  suit  the  ten- 
ant, and  this  leaves  no  place  for 
interior  brace  diagonals ;  and 
there  is  no  place  in  the  walls,  be- 
cause these  are  so  fully  cut  up 
by  windows.  As  a  result  of  this 
chiefly,  the  portal-bracing  meth- 
od has  come  into  vogue,  and  is 
now  almost  always  used.  The 
rnain  .beams  of  the  floors  are 
riveted  to  the  columns  by  con- 
nections like  Fig.  7  instead  of  by 
the  simpler  ones  of  Fig.  3,  and 
sufficient  additional  metal  is  put 
into  the  beams  and  columns  to 
enable  them  to  resist  the  bending 
action  set  up  by  the  wind  pres- 
sure. Fig.  7  shows  a  beam-to- 
colurnn  connection  in  a  25-story 
building,  which  throughout  was 
braced  by  such  brackets,  using 
no  diagonal  ties. 

Special  problems  arise  in  very 
narrow  or  very  tall  buildings,  as 
illustrated  by  the  photograph  on 
page  439.  In  such  structures  it 
is  apt  to  be  necessary  to  incor- 
porate, in  a  few  of  the  bays,  a 
system  of  diagonal  bracing, 
knee-braces  or  brackets,  and  the 
over-turning  moment  of  the  wind 
sometimes  is  great  enough  to  re- 


quire the  columns  in  the  lower 
portion  to  be  enormously  heavy. 
Some  of  the  columns  in  the  Em- 
pire State  Building  in  New  York 
City  weigh  more  than  a  ton  per 
lineal  foot  in  their  lower  portion. 
The  design  in  such  structures 
is  no  different,  however,  in  its 
principles,  from  that  of  a  less 
extreme  building.  To  indicate 
the  magnitude  of  the  steel-frame 
building  field,  it  may  be  noted 
that  single  buildings  requiring 
5,000  to  10,000  tons  of  steel 
are  common  occurrences.  The 
1,250_  foot  high  Empire  State 
Building  required  approximately 
60,000  tons  in  its  frame. 

Shed-Type  Buildings, — 
Train  sheds,  exhibition  halls, 
very  large  hangars  and  similar 
structures  in  which  the  roof  is 
supported  entirely  from  the 
sides  without  the  assistance  of 
any  interior  columns,  are  usual- 
ly designed  as  three-hinged 
arches  of  roughly  parabolic  out- 
line, with  a  tie  rod  in  the  floor 
connecting  the  opposite  footings 
of  each  arch  to  take  the  thrust 
and  produce  a  series  of  self-con- 
tained frames.  To  facilitate  the 
erection  of  such  structures  and 
to  achieve  the  best  economy  these 
arches  are  usually  arranged  in 
pairs  with  a  complete  system  of 
bracing  to  make  each  pair  of 
arches  a.  completely  self-support- 
ing entity  capable  of  resisting  all 
horizontal  forces  that  may  be 
applied  in  any  direction.  In  the 
largest  of  such  structures,  af- 
fording a  clear  floor  space  ex- 
tending upward  of  300  feet  be- 
tween the  side  walls,  a  pair  of 
arches  may  be  spaced  25  to  30 
feet  apart  and  the  pairs  may  be 
spaced  50  to  60  feet  on  centers. 
On  such  structures  the  weight  of 
the  covering  deck  becomes  an 
important  proportion  of  the  load 
to  be  carried  on  the  frame  and 
is  kept  as  small  as  possible. 
Such  decks  are  usually  made  of 
sheet  steel,  troughed  or  cold- 
formed  with  ribs,  at  intervals,  to 
provide  enough  stiffness  so  that 
the  formed  sheets  will  span  6  to 
10  feet  between  supporting  pur- 
lins. Natural  lighting  is  pro- 
vided by  substituting  ribbed 
glass  for  the  sheet  steel  deck  or 
by  the  use  of  skylights.  The 
pressure  created  by  the  wind  on 
the  gable  ends  of  this  type  of 
building  requires  a  system  of 
framing  employing  wind  trusses 
to  span  the  great  distance  be- 
tween available  points  of  sup- 
port. As  an  alternate  solution 
the  ends  are  sometimes  framed 
with  radially  disposed  half- 
arches  which  provide  a  rounded 
end  to  the  building  having  sub- 
stantially the  same  contour  as 
that  of  a  cross  section  taken  else- 
where at  right  angles  to  the  prin- 
ciple axis  of  the  structure. 

Industrial   Buildings, — Be- 


steel  and  Iron  Construction  KFP 


439  A  Steel  and  Iron  Construction 


cause  they  usually  require  large 
clear  floor  spaces,  frequently  are 
required  to  carry  heavy  loads, 
and  often  must  undergo  substan- 
tial alterations  during  their  life- 
time to  accommodate  changes  in 
the  manufacturing  process  they 
house,  the  great  majority  of  in- 
dustrial buildings  are  framed 
with  structural  steel.  Unob- 
structed floor  bays  as  wide  as 
300  feet  have  been  constructed, 
although  bay  widths  ranging 
from  25  to  150  feet  are  far  more 
common  and  account  for  the 
greater  proportion  of  all  the 
available  industrial  floor  space. 
Recent  trends  in  manufacturing 
methods  have  developed  a  strong 
preference  for  one  story  build- 
ings with  all  operations  taking 
place  on  a  single  floor  at  or  near 
ground  level.  Such  buildings, 
covering  more  than  sixty  acres 
of  ground,  have  been  construct- 
ed with  bay  widths  ranging  from 
100  to  300  feet.  When  the  han- 
dling of  materials  in  process  of 
manufacture  can  be  done  by 
overhead  cranes,  monorails  and 
conveyors  not  only  are  interrup- 
tions to  operations  on  the  work- 
ing floor  avoided  but  floor  space 
which  would  otherwise  be  re- 
quired for  such  traffic  is  con- 
served for  actual  manufactur- 
ing. Thus  the  steel  frame  is 
often  called  upon  to  support 
heavy  moving  loads  as  well  as 
to  provide  a  shelter.  Figure  4 
shows  a  half  cross-section 
through  the  main  bay  of  a  typi- 
cal shed-type  industrial  build- 
ing where  provision  has  been 
made  for  two  overhead  cranes 
spanning  the  bay  and  traveling 
on  tracks  supported  on  crane 
beams  connected  to  the  column. 

The  roof  truss  in  this  sketch 
is  called  a  Fink  truss  and  is  the 
popular  type  where  it  is  desired 
to  give  a  two-way  roof  enough 
pitch  so  that  the  lapping  of  the 
roof  covering  will  insure  weath- 
er tightness  without  particular 
attention  to  the  sealing  of  every 
joint.  When  flat,  or  nearly  flat 
roofs,  are  used  Warren  or  Pratt 
trusses  are  generally  used  un- 
less the  spans  are  small  enough 
to  permit  the  use  of  rolled  beams. 
Depending  upon  special  condi- 
tions which  may  result  from  the 
manufacturing  processes  housed, 
roof  decks  spanning  between  the 
purlins  may  be  sheet  steel  as  de- 
scribed above  or  they  may  be  re- 
inforced stone  or  light-weight 
concrete,  precast  concrete  or 
gypsum,  woodj  corrugated  metal 
or  asbestos,  or  tile.  Side  walls 
are  generally  masonry,  pre- 
formed sheet  steel  panels  sepa- 
rated by  insulation  board,  cor- 
rugated asbestos  or  corrugated 
metal.  A  generous  amount  of 
steely  sash,  affording  natural 
lighting  and  ventilation,  is  char- 
acteristic of  industrial  buildings 


since  the  cost  is  not  out  of  line 
with  the  cost  of  the  wall  con- 
struction it  replaces.  In  some 
recent  cases,  however,  all  win- 
dows have  been  done  away  with 
in  order  to  maintain  a  uniform 
condition  of  illumination  and 
ventilation  mechanically  provid- 
ed for  and  controlled  from  with- 
in. 

Shipbuilding* — The  building 
of  ships  forms  a  most  important 
field  of  steel  construction.  For 
the  past  half  century  or  more 
practically  all  ships  have  been 
built  of  steel.  During  the  First 
World  War  shipbuilding  re- 
quired the  use  of  very  large  ton- 
nages of  steel  but  immediately 
thereafter  this  most  important 
arm  of  national  security  once 
more  became  almost  non-exist- 
ant.  In  the  face  of  the  impend- 
ing world  crisis  it  was  re-acti- 
vated again  in  1940  and  the  pro- 
duction of  the  ensuing  five  years 
far  outstripped  all  production 
records  of  the  earlier  war. 
Whereas  fhe  earlier  period  of 
activity  was  devoted  almost  en- 
tirely to  the  construction  of  riv- 
eted hulls,  welded  ships  formed 
the  great  bulk  of  the  program  in 
the  Second  World  War.  The 
structural  problem  involved  in 
the  design  of  a  ship's  hull  is  not 
as  readily  resolved  into  a  pre- 
cise mathematical  solution  as  is 
the  case  of  buildings  and  bridges 
where  the  magnitude  and  direc- 
tion of  the  loads  to  be  carried 
can  be  closely  predicted.  There- 
fore the  size  and  arrangement  of 
ship  frames  are  fixed  by  empiri- 
cal rules  laid  down  by  marine 
insurance  underwriters  and  oth- 
er interested  authorities. 

Tanks  and  Gas  Holders, — 
Elevated  water  supply  tanks  are 
now  nearly  always  built  of  steel. 
Towers  for  the  support  of  small- 
er tanks  usually  consist  of  four, 
eight  or  more  slightly  inclined 
columns  or  legs  braced  together 
by  horizontal  struts  and  diago- 
nal bracing.  When  much  larger 
storage  capacities  are  required 
they  are  obtained  by  increasing 
the  diameter  of  the  tanks  rather 
than  by  increasing  its  height 
which  would  result  in  greater 
fluctuations  in  the  water  pres- 
sure as  the  surface  level  rises 
and  falls.  Since  the  spans, 
across  which  the  bottom  plates 
can  be  economically  sagged  to 
carry  the  load  of  the  stored  wa- 
ter by  means  of  tension  in  the 
plates  is  limited,  the  supports 
for  large  diameter  tanks  usually 
include  more  than  columns  lo- 
cated around  the  edge  of  the 
tank ;  much  of  the  load  is  car- 
ried on  a  centrally  located  riser, 
or  column,  or  on  a  number  of 
columns  more  or  less  evenly 
spaced  over  the  area  of  the  tank 
bottom.  To  satisfy  with  a  min- 
imum of  bending  stresses  the 


loads  against  the  side  of  the  tank 
produced  by  the  water  stored, 
the  side  plates  are  curved,  or 
'dished'  to  form  a  smooth  un- 
broken surface  where  they  join 
the  roof  and  bottom  plates. 
Very  pleasing  architectural  lines 
are  achieved  in  these  modem 
designs. 

Tanks  built  on  concrete  foun- 
dations, at  or  near  the  ground 
level,  for  the  storage  of  liquids 
at  atmospheric  pressure  are  usu- 
ally cylindrical,  with  a  flat  bot- 
tom and  slightly  conical  roof. 
The  petroleum  industry  has  built 
vast  numbers  of  these  tanks  for 
the  storage  of  oil.  Gas  holders 
for  the  storage  of  coal  gas  are 
somewhat  similar  in  appearance 
yet  they  are  much  more  complex 
in  design.  Such  a  frame  con- 
sists of  a  circle  of  standards  con- 
nected by  horizontal  circular 
girders  and  a  full  set  of  diagonal 
bracing.  The  gas  holder  bell,  a 
sectional  steel  drum  often  150 
feet  in  diameter  by  100  feet 
high,  is  guided  against  the  stand- 
ards by  rollers,  and  transfers  to 
them  the  wind  pressure  coming 
against  it.  The  tank  in  which 
the  bottom  of  the  bell  is  im- 
mersed is  usually  made  of  steel 
plate,  being  merely  a  circular 
reservoir  15  to  30  feet  high. 

The  storage  of  liquids  and 
gases  at  pressures  considerably 
above  atmospheric  has  created 
the  need  for  spherical  tanks,  and 
tanks  somewhat  flatter  than  a 
true  sphere,  having  a  greater 
bulge  below  their  mid-height 
than  above  it  to  conform  as 
closely  as  possible  with  the  pres- 
sures involved. 

Other  Applications. — Ele- 
vated railways  and  highways  are 
substantially  bridges  or  via- 
ducts, and  the  use  of  steel  for 
their  construction  is  inevitable 
and  indeed  alone  makes  them 
commercially  possible.  Subway 
and  tunnel  construction  also  fre- 
quently employs  steel  framing. 
High  tension  transmission  pow- 
er lines  are  .generally  supported 
on  steel  towers  which,  in  order 
to  effect  the  best  economy,  are 
rather  intricately  framed  struc- 
tures. The  service  conditions 
for  which  these  towers  are  de- 
signed assumes  that  the  conduc- 
tors to  be  supported  may  become 
heavily  coated  with  ice ;  that 
they  may  be  subject  to  consider- 
able lateral  wind  pressure  ;  and 
that  all  of  the  lines  on  one  side 
of  the  tower  may  be  broken  in 
a  storm,  thereby  creating  a  very 
large  horizontal  load  due  to  the 
strain  from  the  unbroken  lines 
on  the  other  side  of  the  tower. 

Steel  also  enters  into  nearly 
every  other  field  of  construction. 
Pneumatic  foundation  caissons 
built  of  steel;  steel  sheet-piling; 
and  bearing  piles ;  large  water- 
pipes,  penstocks,  etc.,  of  stee/ 


(9  Ewina  Galloway,  Y. 

MODERN  EXAMPLE  OF  STEEL  AND  IRON  CONSTRUCTION 
Vol.  XI —Page  439  Vol.  XL— 030 


steel  and  Iron  Construction 


439  A 


Steel  and  Iron  Construction 


steel  columns  to  carry  the  floor 
loads,  the  walls  then  carrying 
only  their  own  weight.  Still  later 
it  was  found  advantageous  to  car- 
ry the  walls  also  on  the  columns, 
by  carrying  each  story  height  of 
wall  on  a  steel  beam  set  in  the 
wall  at  the  floor  level,  the  beam 
being  attached  to  the  columns. 
This  arrangement  of  parts  be- 
came universal,  and  is  indeed  the 
essence  of  the  'sky-scraper.' 

The  modern  tier  building  thus 
consists  of  a  rectangular  assem- 
blage of  steel-beam  floor  framing 
and  steel  columns,  and  floor-and- 
wall  filling  carried  by  the  beams; 
as  it  is  exposed  to  considerable 
wind  pressures  it  must  be  well 
braced.  How  much  bracing  ef- 
fect the  walls  contribute  is  not 
clearly  established,  but  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  count  on  the  walls 
being  adequate  for  bracing  in  all 
buildings  less  than  150  feet  high, 
while  higher  buildings  are  re- 
quired to  have  the  framework 
braced  strongly  enough  to  resist 
the  entire  lateral  load  in  itself 
(without  any  help  from  the  walls) . 
Of  course  there  need  not  be  brac- 
ing between  all  columns,  as  a 
small  number  of  braced  bents 
will  brace  the  entire  building.  It 
was  common  formerly  to  provide 
bracing  of  crossed  diagonals  from 
foundation  to  roof  in  a  certain 
number  of  bays,  where  the  brac- 
ing could  be  conveniently  con- 
cealed in  partitions.  Modern  re- 
quirements in  office-building  ar- 
chitecture call  for  open  floor 
areas,  in  which  the  partitions  can 
be  shifted  around  to  suit  the  ten- 
ant, and  this  leaves  no  place  for 
interior  brace  diagonals;  and 
there  is  no  place  in  the  walls,  be- 
cause these  are  so  fully  cut  up  by 
windows.  As  a  result  of  this 
chiefly,  the  portal-bracing  meth- 
od has  come  into  vogue,  and  is 
now  almost  always  used.  The 
main  beams  of  the  floors  are 
riveted  to  the  columns  by  connec- 
tions like  Fig.  7  instead  of  by  the 
simpler  ones  of  Fig.  3,  and  suf- 
ficient additional  metal  is  put  in- 
to the  beams  and  columns  to 
enable  them  to  resist  the  bending 
action  set  up  by  the  wind  pres- 
sure. Fig.  7  shows  a  beam-to- 
column  connection  in  a  25-story 
building,  which  throughout  was 
braced  by  such  brackets,  using  no 
diagonal  ties. 

Special  problems  arise  in  very 
narrow  or  very  tall  buildings,  as 
illustrated  by  the  photograph  on 
page  439.  In  such  structures  it 
is  apt  to  be  necessary  to  revert 
to  diagonal  bracing,  and  the  over- 
turning moment  of  the  wind 
sometimes  is  great  enough  to  re- 
quire the  columns  in  the  lower 
portion  to  be  enormously  heavy. 
The  design  of  such  structures  is 
no  different,  however,  in  its  prin- 
ciples, from  that  of  a  less  extreme 
building.  To  indicate  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  steel-frame  build- 
,ing  field,  it  may  be  noted  that 

Vol.  XL— 030 


many  single  buildings  have  re- 
quired as  much  as  5,000  tons  of 
steel,  while  at  the  present  time 
there  have  been  cases  of  15,000  to 
20,000  tons  of  steel  required  for  a 
single  building. 

Cast  iron  columns  are  no  longer 
used  in  buildings  of  more  than  6 
to  8  stories,  although  a  17-story 
hotel  with  cast  iron  columns  was 
built  as  late  as  1903.  The  serious 
defect  of  cast  iron  columns  for 
this  purpose  is  the  fact  that  the 
bolted  connections  of  the  beams 
are  unavoidably  somewh'at  loose, 
which  gives  the  entire  structure 
a  dangerous  instability.  A  12- 
story  building  with  cast  iron  col- 
umns collapsed  during  erection  in 
1904  in  New  York  City. 

Mill  and  Shed  Buildings  com- 
prise a  large  range  of  most  vari- 
ous types  of  structure,  including 
machine-shop  and  foundry  build- 
ings, train-sheds,  etc.  The  typi- 
cal mill  building  consists  of  a 
truss  roof  of  50-  to  120-foot  span 
supported  on  side  columns  spaced 
12  to  30  feet  apart,  with  a  longi- 
tudinal girder  20  to  40  feet  above 
the  floor,  along  the  inside  of  each 
line  of  columns,  to  carry  the  track 
of  a  travelling  bridge  crane.  Of- 
ten jib  cranes  are  attached  to  the 
columns,  trolley  hoists  travel  on 
tracks  hung  from  the  trusses,  etc., 
so  that  the  load-conditions  are 
quite  variable.  A  cross-section 
through  a  representative  mill 
building  (Fig.  4),  shows  the  gen- 
eral features.  The  type  of  roof- 
truss  there  shown,  called  Fink 
truss,  is  used  very  extensively  for 
steel-roof  framework.  Diagonal 
rod  bracing  in  the  roof  plane,  rod 
or  angle  bracing  in  the  lower 
chord,  to  hold  the  entire  building 
and  especially  the  crane-track  in 
line,  and  occasional  bays  of  brac- 
ing in  the  side  walls,  give  ample 
longitudinal  stiffness,  while  for 
lateral  rigidity  a  kneebrace  be- 
tween column  and  truss  is  usual- 
ly depended  on  (in  American 
practice) . 

Train  sheds,  exhibition  halls, 
etc.,  are  most  often  framed  with 
three-hinged  arch  trusses,  of 
roughly  parabolic  outline,  with 
a  tie  rod  in  the  floor  to  take  the 
thrust  of  each  arch  segment.  In 
structures  of  this  class  economy 
dictates  the  arranging  of  the 
trusses  in  pairs  of  12  to  20  feet 
width,  the  pairs  being  35  to  50 
feet  apart.  Each  pair  has  a  full 
system  of  bracing  and  is  called  a 
tower;  the  intermediate  parts  of 
the  roof  then  require  no  bracing, 
but  their  purlins  merely  rest  on 
the  adjacent  towers.  In  the 
gable  ends  of  such  shed  roofs,  a 
strong  horizontal  wind  truss  and 
trussed  vertical  studding  must  be 
used  to  hold  the  gable  wall  from 
being  crushed  in  by  the  wind. 
Mill  and  shed  buildings  are 
rarely  of  such  character  as  to  re- 
quire substantial  walls,  and  they 
are  often  covered  both  on  walls 
and  on  roof  with  plates  of  corru- 


gated sheet  steel,  spanning  5  to  6 
feet  between  purlins,  or  with 
wood  planking  covered  with  pre- 
pared asphalt-and-felt  roof  cov- 
Ciing,  or  the  like.  Concrete  slabs 
have  been  much  used  recently  as 
a  more  permanent  and  fireproof 
roofing,  a  weatherproof  covering 
being  laid  over  it.  Steel  sash  has 
introduced  a  very  simple  and 
light  wall  design  that  is  exten- 
sively used  in  mill  building  con- 
struction. 

Ships  form  a  most  important 
field  of  steel  construction,  and 
for  several  decades  past  practi- 
cally all  ships  have  been  built  of 
steel.  The  ship-framing  problem  is 
not  as  exact  as  that  of  the  bridge, 
as  the  forces  to  be  resisted  are  not 
so  well  known.  The  marine  in- 
surance interests,  therefore,  fix 
empirical  rules  for  ship  framing, 
which  largely  govern  the  arrange- 
ment and  proportioning  of  parts. 

Tank  Towers  and  Gas  Holders. — 
Towers  to  carry  elevated  tanks 
for  water  supply  are  now  nearly 
always  built  of  steel.  They  con- 
sist of  four,  eight,  or  more  in- 
clined columns  or  legs  braced 
together  by  horizontal  struts  and 
crossed  diagonal  bracing.  Gas 
holder  frames  are  more  complex. 
Such  a  frame  consists  of  a  circle 
of  standards  connected  by  hori- 
zontal circular  girders  and  a  full 
set  of  diagonal  bracing.  The  gas 
holder  bell,  a  sectional  steel  drum 
often  150  feet  in  diameter  by  100 
feet  high,  is  guided  against  the 
standards  by  rollers,  and  trans- 
fers to  them  the  wind  pressure 
coming  against  it.  The  tank  in 
which  the  bottom  of  the  bell  is 
immersed  is  nowadays  often 
made  of  steel  plate,  being  merely 
a  circular  reservoir  15  to  30  feet 
high. 

Other  Applications. —  Elevated 
railways  are  substantially  bridges 
or  viaducts,  and  the  use  of  steel 
for  their  construction  is  inevita- 
ble and  indeed  alone  makes  them 
commercially  possible.  Subway 
and  tunnel  construction  also  fre- 
quently employs  steel  framing; 
though  the  cast  iron  shell  for 
shield  -  driven  tunnels  is  still 
standard,  and  in  flat-roof  subways 
reinforced-concrete  construction 
is  the  most  modern.  Railway  cars 
of  steel  are  now  manufactured  on 
a  very  large  scale.  These  require 
so  many  forms  to  which  the  ordi- 
nary rolled  shapes  and  plates  do 
not  adapt  themselves  that  the  de- 
sired forms  are  pressed  out  of 
plate  steel,  being  then  assembled, 
by  riveting. 

Steel  also  enters  into  nearly 
every  other  field  of  construction, 
though  to  less  extent.  Pneumatic 
foundation  caissons  built  of  steel; 
steel  sheet-piling;  large  water- 
pipes,  tanks  and  stand-pipes,  etc., 
of  steel,  have  wide  use.  Steel 
mine-strutting  is  a  newer  devel- 
opment. The  strength,  elastici- 
ty, and  toughness  of  steel,  the 
rigidity  of  steel  framework,  its 


steel  and  Iron  Construction  KFP 


439  B    Steel  and  Iron  Construction 


have  wide  use.  Steel  mine- 
strutting  is  a  newer  develop- 
ment. The  strength,  elasticity 
and  toughness  of  steel,  the  ri- 
gidity of  steel  framework,  its 
permanency  under  suitable  con- 
ditions, and  its  superior  light- 
ness for  a  given  duty,  are  factors 
which  have  made  for  its  wide 
application  in  construction. 

Permissible  Stresses, — The 
guiding  principle  in  proportion- 
ing the  sizes  of  steel  structural 
parts  is  that  no  condition  of 
loading  may  do  permanent  in- 
jury to  any  part  of  the  structure. 
The  'elastic  limit'  of  steel,  up  to 
which  point  it  behaves  virtually 
with  perfect  elasticity,  is  at 
about  half  the  ultimate  strength, 
so  that  by  the  above  principle  it 
is  only  necessary  to  keep  the 
worst  combination  of  stresses  at 
the  weakest  point  down  to  about 
33,000  lbs.  per  square  inch,  after 
making  due  allowance  for  all  un- 
favorable circumstances.  There 
are  so  many  elements  of  uncer- 
tainty, however,  that  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  remain  within  certain 
maximum  values  of  stress,  de- 
.  pending  on  the  type  of  structure. 
For  example,  all  parts  which 
carry  heavy  moving  loads,  as 
the  floor  and  truss  members  of 
bridges,  are  made  heavier  by  a 
so-called  impact  allowance. 

The  engineering  principle  of 
providing  a  factor  of  safety 
against  the  unexpected  is  not 
peculiar  to  the  use  of  steel  in 
construction  ;  similar  safety  fac- 
tors are  required  in  the  propor- 
tioning of  structures  of  timber 
and  reinforced  concrete.  How- 
ever, the  significance  of  applying 
this  factor  to  the  elastic  limit  of 
steel  should  not  be  overlooked. 
Not  only  is  structural  steel  truly 
elastic  under  stresses  equal  to 
half  of  its  ultimate  strength  (a 
characteristic  found  in  no  other 
common  structural  material) 
but,  in  its  plastic  or  ductile 
range,  it  possesses  the  ability  to 
absorb  tremendous  amounts  of 
energy  loading  as  compared  with 
the  energy  absorption  represent- 
ed by  the  work  done  in  its  elas- 
tic range.  It  is  this  'toughness 
factor'  which  accounts  for  the 
remarkable  resistance  of  full- 
framed  structures  to  repeated 
bombing  attacks  in  wartime. 

In  building  work,  tensile 
stresses  of  20,000  lbs.  and  com- 
pressive stresses  ranging  upward 
to  20,000  lbs.  per  square  inch 
are  usually  permissible. 

Tension  in  a  member  tends  to 
hold  the  member  in  a  straight 
line,  as  for  example  a  piece  of 
string  will  lose  its  sag  when 
pulled  taut ;  compression  in  a 
member,  on  the  other  hand, 
tends  to  buckle  the  member  out 
of  a  straight  line  and  to  the  ex- 
tent that  such  buckling  actually 
takes  place,  the  ultimate  load  ca- 


pacity in  compression  is  reduced. 
Thus  the  strength  of  a  member 
in  compression  is  reduced  as  its 
length,  and  hence  its  slenderness 
ratio,  is  increased.  In  recogni- 
tion of  this  condition  the  stress 
permitted  in  compression  mem- 
bers, such  as  columns  and  com- 
pression elements  in  other  mem- 
bers when  no  lateral  support  is 
provided  other  than  the  stiffness 
of  the  member  itself,  such  as  the 
top  compression  flange  of  beams 
and  the  webs  of  plate  girders,  is 
reduced  by  formulas  which  re- 
late the  permitted  stress  to  the 
degree  of  slenderness  existing  in 
the  member  or  compression  ele- 
ments thereof.  In  building  col- 
umns the  permissible  stress  per 
square  inch,  f,  resulting  from 
direct  load  is  obtained  from 
the  formula  /=  17,000 -.485 

for  slenderness  ratios  of  _L  up 
r 

to  120,  and  by  the  formula 
/=  18.000 

18,000  for  ratios  above 
120  ;  L  being  the  imbraced  length 
of  the  column  and  r  the  radius 
of  gyration  of  its  cross-section 
(.3  to  .4  of  its  least  width),  both 
taken  in  inches.  The  bending 
stress  in  beams  and  girders  is 
usually  limited  to  20,000  lbs.  per 
square  inch  and,  where  the  com- 
pression flange  is  unbraced  lat- 
erally this  stress  is  reduced  pro- 
gressively depending  upon  the 
unbraced  length,  the  depth  of  the 
beam  and  the  area  of  the  com- 
pression flange. 

Custom  and  established  stand- 
ards have  resulted  in  slightly 
lower  stresses  being  used  in 
bridges.  Tension  and  bending 
stresses  are  limited  to  18,000 
lbs.  per  square  inch  and  col- 
umn   compression   to    15,000  — 


2.    In  bridge  design  an 


impact  factor  is  added  to  the  ac- 
tual weight  of  the  moving  traffic 
to  provide  for  the  effect  of  vi- 
bration, the  hammer  blow  re- 
sulting from  track  or  pavement 
irregularities,  and  the  rapid  ap- 
plication of  the  loading  due  to 
the  speed  of  the  moving  traffic. 
This  added  impact  factor  varies 
from  100  per  cent  in  the  case  of 
individual  transverse  members 
on  railroad  bridges  to  20  per 
cent  for  the  main  carrying  mem- 
bers of  a  125  foot  span  highway 
bridge  or  approximately  20  per 
cent  for  similar  members  of  a 
300  foot  span  railroad  bridge. 

Rivets  are  proportioned  for  a 
shearing  stress  not  over  three- 
fourths  the  allowed  tensile  value 
of  the  connected  parts.  If  no 
friction  existed  between  the  con- 
tact surfaces  held  together  with 
rivets,  the  stress  in  one  connect- 


ed part  would  be  transferred  to 
the  next  adjacent  ply  first  in  the 
bearing  of  the  edge  of  the  rivet 
hole  against  the  shank  of  the 
rivet,  then  in  shear  over  the 
transverse  cross-section  of  the 
rivet  and  finally  by  the  bearing 
of  the  rivet  against  the  edge  of 
the  rivet  hole  in  the  second  part. 
The  clamping  effect  resulting 
from  the  shrinkage  in  the  cool- 
ing rivet  or  from  the  tightening 
of  the  nut  on  a  bolt,  however, 
produces  very  great  friction 
which,  in  turn,  reduces  very  ma- 
terially the  actual  bearing  stress 
of  rivets  and  bolts  against  the 
sides  of  the  holes  in  the  parts 
they  join.  Therefore,  bearing 
stresses  are  permitted  here  much 
higher  than  would  otherwise  be 
justified.  These  values,  resulting 
from  an  analysis  of  considerable 
experimental  work  on  actual 
joint  specimens  range  up  to 
twice  the  tensile  and  bending 
stress  permitted  in  the  joined 
parts. 

The  earlier  widespread  mis- 
conception that  the  shrinkage  of 
rivets  in  cooling  set  up  internal 
tensile  stresses  which  left  little 
capacity  available  to  care  for  ad- 
ditional tensile  stress  resulting 
from  externally  applied  loads, 
disproven  both  experimentally 
and  by  observation  of  actual 
service  conditions,  has  persisted 
until  quite  recently.  ^  Since  the 
total  tensile  stress  intensity  is 
not  the  sum  of  the  internal  and 
external  stresses,  but  approxi- 
mately equal  to  the  larger  of  the 
two,  tensile  stresses  from  ex- 
ternal loading  up  to  20,000  lbs. 
per  square  inch  are  now  permit- 
ted in  rivets  and  bolts  in  build- 
ing construction. 

Rusting  is  an  eternal  enemy 
of  exposed  steel  and  therefore 
painting  assumes  high  impor- 
tance. Steel  is  not  usually 
painted  in  the  rolling-mill,  but 
after  the  individual  parts  are 
punched  and  assembled  in  the 
shop  they  get  one  coat  of  paint. 
In  bridge  construction,  immedi- 
ately after  erection,  the  finished 
structure  is  painted  with  two 
coats  thoroughly  applied.  There- 
after it  must  be  repainted  peri- 
odically. The  specifications  for 
repainting  require  that  all  old, 
loose  paint  and  rust  be  scraped 
or  wirebrushed  off.  The  paints 
used  are  usually  of  the  linseed 
oil  class,  being  mixtures  of  vari- 
ous pigment  powders  with  lin- 
seed oil,  turpentine,  and  the  like. 
The  resulting  hardened  paint 
film  is  not  highly  durable.  In 
the  worst  places,  as  where  a 
bridge  crosses  a  railway  track, 
with  exposure  to  the  cutting  ac- 
tion of  the  exhaust  and  to  the 
corrosive  action  of  the  steam 
condensation  charged  with  sul- 
phur acids,  concrete  covering 
has  come  into  some  favor.  Blast 


Steele 


KFP 


440 


Steeplechasing 


plates  of  wrought  iron  have  also 
been  used  to  shield  the  steel  di- 
rectly over  railroad  tracks. 

Deterioration  of  steel  in  serv- 
ice from  continued  repetition  of 
stress  was  at  one  time  seriously- 
feared.  Experience  has  brought 
no  such  efifect  to  light,  however, 
and  several  careful  tests  of  old 
bridges  have  given  strong  evi- 
dence that  it  does  not  occur  at 
all.  It  may  be  taken  as  certain 
that  the  life  of  a  steel  structure 
is  limited  only  by  the  corrosive 
action  of  the  elements,  and  that 
when  steel  is  kept  fully  protect- 
ed against  this  corrosion  it  is 
imperishable.  For  iron  and  steel 
bridges,  see  Bridge.    See  Steel. 

Bibliography* — Consult 
Johnson,  Bryan,  and  Turneaure, 
Modern  Framed  Structures  (3 
vols.)  ;  Kidder,  Architects'  and 
Builders'  Pocket  Book;  Ketch- 
um.  Steel  Mill  Buildings ;  Mar- 
burg, Framed  Structures  and 
Girders;  Engineering  News- 
Record. 

Steele,  Joel  Dorman  (1836- 
86),  American  educator,  was 
born  in  Lima,  N.  Y.  In  1862-6 
he  was  principal  of  the  Newark 
(N.  J.)  High  School,  and  from 
the  latter  year  to  1872  was  prin- 
cipal of  the  Elmira  (N.  Y.) 
Academy.  His  teaching  was 
distinguished  for  original  meth- 
ods, and^  won  for  him  a  high 
reputation.  He  wrote  the 
Barnes*  Brief  Histories,  which 
included  ancient,  medieval,  and 
American  histories. 

Steele,  Sir  Richard  (1672- 
1729),  English  essayist  and  play- 
wright, was  born  in  Dublin. 
After  studying  at  Oxford,  in 
1695  he  received  a  commission 
in  the  Coldstream  Guards,  and 
subsequently  became  a  captain  in 
Lord  Lucas'  Fusiliers.  In  1706 
he  became  a  gentleman-in-wait- 
ing to  Queen  Anne's  consort, 
Prince  George  of  Denmark ;  and 
in  the  following  year  was  ap- 
pointed editor  of  the  London 
Gazette.  On  the  death  of  Prince 
George,  however,  he  lost  these 
privileges  but  in  1710  he  became 
commissioner  of  stamps.  As 
'Isaac  Bickerstaff' — a  pseudonym 
appropriated  from  Swift — on 
April  12,  1709,  he  issued  the  first 
number  of  the  famous  Tatler, 
which  appeared  thrice  weekly 
till  Jan.  2,  1711.  This  was  suc- 
ceeded in  March,  1711,  by  the 
even  more  famous  Spectator, 
which  appeared  daily  till  Dec.  6, 
1712.  Steele's  imaginary  club 
in  the  initial  number  includes 
the  first  sketch  of  Sir  Roger  de 
Coverley,  and  of  the  total  555 
papers  in  the  periodical,  236  are 
his.  Both  in  the  Tatler  and  the 
Spectator,  as  well  as  in  the 
Guardian  (March  7  to  Oct.  1, 
1713),  he  was  powerfully  sup- 
ported by  Addison  (q.  v.). 

In   the   Guardian   Steele  di- 


verged into  politics,  and  in  1713 
he  published  a  pamphlet  entitled 
The  Importance  of  Dunkirk, 
Consider'd,  which  provoked 
Swift's  slashing  retaliation.  The 
Importance  of  the  'Guardian' 
Consider'd.  In  the  same  year 
Steele  became  m.p.  for  Stock- 
bridge,  resigning  his  post  as 
commissioner  of  stamps.  The 
Guardian  was  now  dropped  for 
the  frankly  political  English- 
man, which  ran  to  fifty-seven 
numbers  (1714). 

Through  his  sponsorship  for 
William  Moore's  work.  The 
Crisis  (1714),  with  reference  to 
the  Hanoverian  succession, 
Steele  not  only  prompted  Swift's 
brilliant  Public  Spirit  of  the 
Whigs,  but  compassed  his  own 
expulsion  from  the  House  of 
Commons  (March,  1714),  but 
the  death  of  Queen  Anne  pres- 
ently restored  his  fortunes,  with 
those  of  his  party.  He  wrote 
Mr.  Steele's  Apology  for  Him- 
self and  His  Writings,  and  be- 
came deputy-lieutenant  for  Mid- 
dlesex and  surveyor  of  the  royal 
stables  at  Hampton  Court. 
Meanwhile  the  curious  Ladies' 
Library  (frequently  mentioned 
in  the  Spectator) ,  The  Lover, 
and  The  Reader,  represented  his 
zeal  as  projector  of  periodicals. 
In  1715  he  became  patentee  of 
Drury  Lane  Theatre,  was  elect- 
ed M.p.  for  Boroughbridge, 
Yorkshire,  and  was  knighted  by 
George  I.  Through  his  political 
paper,  the  Plebeian,  Steele  in 
1719  stirred  the  opposition  of 
Addison,  who  assailed  him  in  the 
Old  Whig.  In  1722  Steele  pro- 
duced in  Drury  Lane  The  Con- 
scious Lovers,  his  most  success- 
ful comedy.  He  died  in  Car- 
marthen, Wales,  and  was  buried 
in  St.  Peter's  Church. 

Steele's  political  pamphlets 
were  honest  but  not  effectively 
convincing.  His  fame  rests  al- 
most wholly  upon  his  perform- 
ances as  an  essayist.  He  holds  a 
distinguished  place  in  letters  as 
pioneer  of  the  modern  English 
essay. 

Consult  Austin  Dobson's 
Memoir  in  the  'English  Wor- 
thies Series,'  and  Biography  by 
Aitken.  See  Correspondence  of 
Richard  Steele,  edited  by  Rae 
Blanchard  (1942). 

Steel  Engraving.  See  En- 
graving. 

Steell,  Sir  John  (1804-91), 
Scottish  sculptor,  was  born  in 
Aberdeen.  When  very  young  he 
removed  with  his  family  to  Edin- 
burgh and  became  apprenticed 
as  a  wood-carver.  At  the  close 
of  his  apprenticeship  he  studied 
sculpture  in  Rome,  and  on  his 
return  to  Edinburgh  modeled 
the  group  of  Alexander  Taming 
Bucephalus.  Most  of  his  work 
is  in  Edinburgh — e.g.,  the  statue 
of  Scott  in  Scott's  monument, 


the  statue  of  Queen  Victoria  in 
the  Royal  Institution,  the  statue 
of  Wellington  before  the  Regis- 
ter House,  and  the  Albert  Me- 
morial. 

Steel'ton,  borough,  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Dauphin  County,  on 
the  Susquehanna  River,  and  on 
the  Pennsylvania,  the  Reading 
Company  and  the  Steelton  and 
Highspire  railroads,  3  miles 
southeast  of  Harrisburg.  It  is 
chiefly  important  as  a  center  of 
steel  manufacture.  It  is  situated 
in  a  fine  agricultural  district. 
It  was  settled  in  1865,  and  in- 
corporated in  1880.  Pop.  (1930) 
13,285;  (1940)  13,115. 

Steelyard.    See  Balance. 

Steen,  stan,  Jan  (1626-70), 
Dutch  genre  painter,  was  born 
in  Leyden.  The  son  of  a  Leyden 
brewer,  he  studied  under  Knup- 
fer  in  Utrecht,  Adrian  von  Os- 
tade,  and  Van  Goyen  in  the 
Hague,  where  he  lived  from 
1649  to  1654.  Later  he  lived  in 
Delft,  where  he  was  a  brewer,  in 
Haarlem,  and  in  Leyden  where 
he  conducted  a  tavern.  As  tav- 
ern-keeper he  had  opportunities 
of  studying  life  and  types  and 
gratifying  intemperate  habits. 
His  best  work,  which  is  in  Hol- 
land and_  England,  is  character- 
ized by  its  dramatic  and  intel- 
lectual quality  and  his  genial, 
tolerant  expression  of  life, 
touched  with  Hogarthian  satire. 
Among  his  pictures  are  Feast  of 
St.  Nicholas,  Doctor's  Visit, 
The  Rustic  Wedding,  The  Mu- 
sic Master. 

Steenkerke,  stan'kerkc,  or 
Steenkerken,  village,  Belgium, 
province  of  Hainault  is  famous 
as  the  scene  of  defeat  on  Aug.  3, 
1692,  of  William  of  Orange  in 
command  of  the  Dutch  and  Eng- 
lish, by  the  French  under  Mar- 
shal Luxembourg. 

Steeplechasing,  originally  a 
trial  of  speed  and  jumping  pow- 
ers between  two  or  more  horses 
between  one  church  steeple  and 
another ;  later  a  horserace  run 
across  the  open  country,  over 
hedges,  ditches,  walls,  and  what- 
ever other  obstacles  lie  in  the 
way. 

There  would  appear  to  have 
been  no  regularly  organized 
steeplechasing  imtil  Thomas 
Coleman  of  St.  Albans  arranged 
the  first  regular  meeting  on 
March  1,  1831.  St.  Albans 
steeplechases  have  long  since 
died  out  of  the  calendar ;  but 
since  1839  at  Liverpool,  or  rath- 
er Aintree,  a  suburb  of  that  city, 
the  Grand  National  has  been  run 
about  the  last  week  in  March, 
and  is  still  the  great  English 
cross-country  race  of  the  year. 
Since  1866,  steeplechasing  has 
been  greatly  reformed.  The 
Grand  National,  a  race  some- 
times worth  more  than  £11,- 
000  to  the  owner  of  the  win- 


steel  and  Iron  Construction 


439 


Steel  and  Iron  Construction 


set  back  to  back,  a  short  distance 
apart,  and  held  together  by  lat- 
ticing, are  very  convenient,  and 
to  some  extent  this  form  is  used 
also  in  building  work.  The  com- 
pression (upper)  chords  of  ordi- 
nary bridges  are  frequently  U- 
shaped  assemblages  of  plates 
connected  by  longitudinal  angles, 
like  a  box  column  with  one  side 
open.  Very  large  compression 
members  for  great  bridges  become 
special,  intricate  problems  of  de- 
sign, the  more  so  as  knowledge  of 
the  strength  of  columns  is  not 
nearly  so  definite  as  that  relating 
to  tension  members.  This  latter 
fact  was  indirectly  responsible 
for  the  collapse  of  the  ^  Quebec 
Bridge,  in  which  certain  com- 
pression members  buckled  at  a 
much  lower  load  than  they  were 
designed  to  carry. 

It  is  recognized  that  the  strong- 
est strut  is  one  having  tubular 
shape.  The  designers  of  the 
great  Eads  Bridge  and  the  Forth 
Bridge  (a  cantilever  bridge  of 
1,710  ft.  span  between  piers,  the 
greatest  in  the  world),  therefore 
adopted  tubular,  members,  built 
up  of  curved  plates  riveted  to- 
gether much  like  a  double  boiler 
shell.  In  smaller  proportions  the 
same  effect  is  secured  by  forming 
a  column  of  rolled  sector  strips, 
suitably  flanged  for  bolting  to- 
gether; four  or  six  plates  to  the 
full  circle  are  used.  It  is  even 
more  difficult  to  make  connec- 
tions with  such  a  column  than  with 
a  box  column,  on  which  account 
it  is  now  little  used. 

Bridges. — The  great  variety  of 
types  of  bridge  is  briefly  de- 
scribed in  the  article  Bridges, 
which  see.  Structurally,  a  bridge 
consists  of  a  floor  of  beams  cov- 
ered with  steel  plate,  concrete,  or 
wood,  which  floor  is  held  up  by  a 
pair  of  trusses,  an  arch,  or  sus- 
pension cables  (which  in  turn  re- 
quire a  truss  to  stiffen  the  struc- 
ture). Steel  arches  represent 
merely  a  special  adaptation  of 
truss  framework,  except  that  they 
may  be  made  with  plate-girder 
ribs  (Washington  Bridge  over  Har- 
lem K.,  New  York,  500-ft.  span). 
Trusses  are  theoretically  any  de- 
sired side-to-side  arrangement  of 
triangles,  but  in  practice  the  edge 
members  are  distinguished  as 
chords,  the  inner  ones  as  web- 
members.  In  simple  trusses  the 
upper  chord  is  in  compression,  the 
lower  chord  in  tension,  while  the 
web-members  are  alternate  ties 
and  struts.  When  the  web-mem- 
bers are  alternately  vertical  and 
diagonal,  and  the  diagonals  slope 
downward  toward  mid-span,  and 
therefore  are  in  tension,  we  have 
the  Pratt  truss, the  most  widely  used 
of  all  truss  types.  Taking  a  Pratt 
as  typical  of  all  steel  truss  bridges, 
we  find  that  between  the  opposite 
posts  of  the  two  trusses  are  riveted 
transverse   girders  (floor-beams). 


which  in  turn  carry  Icrgitudinal 
beams  (stringers)  on  which  rests 
the  flooring  material  (in  railway 
bridges  •  the  cross-ties).  The 
trusses  by  themselves  lack  lateral 
stiffness,  however,  and  require 
to  be  braced  by  what  are  in  effect 
two  horizontal  trusses,  one  in  the 
plane  of  either  chord  (lateral  sys- 
tems). The  sideward  wind  pres- 
sure is  resisted  by  these  laterals 
and  transmitted  to  the  abutments 
just  as  the  main  trusses  transmit 
the  effect  of  the  vertical  loads. 
For  further  lateral  stiffening  each 
post  is  rigidly  bracketed  to  the 
floor-beam  and  (in  the  other  chord) 
to  the  cross-strut  of  the  lateral 
system,  so  as  to  form  a  four-sided 
frame  stiff  enough  to  be  able  to 
resist  angular  distortion. 

Stiff  rectangular  frames  of  the 
character  just  described  occur 
very  often  in  steelwork;  they  have 
the  same  effect  (but  obviously  by 
different  action)  as  a  square  frame 
with  pin  ioints,  but  containing 
crossed  diagonal  ties.  Since 
nearly  all  steel  structures  are  made 
up  of  parts  standing  at  right  an- 
gles to  each  other  (for  example, 
in  a  tier  building,  the  floor-beams 
in  two  directions,  the  columns  in 
the  third),  bracing  is  required,  and 


this  is  supplied  by  diagonal  mem- 
bers where  these  can  be  used, 
otherwise  by  stiff  bracketed  inter- 
connection of  the  parts  to  consti- 
tute rigid  quadrilaterals.  _A  typi- 
cal instance  of  this  occurs  in  every 
through  bridge  (one  in  which  the 
trusses  extend  above  the  floor  and 
have  an  overhead  system  of  lateral 
bracing)  at  the  ends,  where  the 
upper  lateral  system  terminates 
and  its  load  must  be  transmitted 
down  to  the  abutments  on  which 
the  bridge  rests.  Diagonals  can- 
not be  used  in  the  transverse  plane 
of  the  end,  as  they  would  obstruct 
the  roadway.  At  the  end  post  a 
stiff  girder  is  riveted  across  from 
truss  to  truss,  in  the  plane  of  the 
two  end  posts  (which  usually  are 
inclined);  this  portal  bracing,  by 
its  own  resistance  to  bending  and 
the  bending  strength  of  the  'end 
posts,  opposes  any  angular  dis- 
tortion of  the  end  face  of  the 
bridge,  and  thus  holds  the  trusses 
upright  and  carries  the  upper 
wind  load  down  to  the  abutment. 
From  this  detail,  the  rigid-ciuad- 
rilateral  system  of  bracing  is  often 
called  the  portal-brace  system. 

Tire  Buildings. — The  demand 
for  fireproof  building  construction 
(q.v.)  led  to  the  use  of  floor-fram- 
ing of  steel  beams  resting  on  the 


masonry  walls  of  the  building  (or 
on  interior  cast-iron  columns]  and 
filled  in  with  brick  or  concrete 
floor  arches.  The  features  of  such 
framing  are  self-evident.  Later, 
as  buildings  grew  in  height,  it  be- 
came necessary  to  avoid  tne  im- 
mense increase  of  weight  of  the 
walls  by  introducing  in  them  steel 
columns  to  carry  the  floor  loads, 
the  walls  then  carrying  only  their 
own  weight.  Still  later  it  was 
found  advantageous  to  carry  the 
walls  also  on  the  columns,  hy 
carrying  each  story  height  of  wall 
on  a  steel  beam  set  in  the  wall  at 
the  floor  level,  the  beam  being 
attached  to  the  columns.  This 
arrangement  of  parts  became  uni- 
versal, and  is  indeed  the  essence 
of  the  'skyscraper.' 

The  modern  tier-building  thus 
consists  of  a  rectangular  assem- 
blage of  steel  beam  floor-framing 
and  steel  columns,  and  floor  and 
wall  filling  carried  by  the  beams; 
as  it  is  exposed  to  considerable 
wind  pressures  it  must  be  well 
braced.  How  much  bracing  ef- 
fect the  walls  contribute  is  not 
clearly  established,  but  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  count  on  the  walls  being 
adequate  for  bracing  in  all  build- 
ings less  than  150  ft.  high,  while 


higher  buildings  are  required  to 
have  the  framework  braced  strong- 
ly enough  to  resist  the  entire 
lateral  load  in  itself  (without  any 
help  from  the  walls).  Of  course 
there  need  not  be  bracing  between 
all  columns,  as  a  small  number 
of  braced  bents  will  brace  the 
entire  building.  It  was  common 
formerly  _  to  provide  bracing  of 
crossed  diagonals  from  foundation 
to  roof  in  a  certain  numl)cr  of 
bays,  where  the  bracing  could  be 
conveniently  concealed  in  parti 
tions.  Modern  requirements  ir. 
office-building  architecture  cab 
for"  open  floor  areas,  in  which 
the  partitions  can  be  shifted 
around  to  suit  the  tenant,  and  this 
leaves  no  place  for  interior  brnce 
diagonals;  and  there  is  no  place 
in  the  walls,  because  these  are  so 
fully  cut  up  by  windows.  As  a  re- 
sult of  this  chiefly,  the  portal- 
bracing  method  has  come  into 
vogue,  and  is  now  almost  always 
used.  The  main  beams  of  the 
floors  are  riveted  to  the  columns 
by  connections  like  Fig.  7  instead 
of  by  the  simpler  ones  of  Fig.  3, 
and  sufficient  additional  metal 
is  put  into  the  beams  and  columns 
to  enable  them  to  resist  the  bend- 
ing action  set  up  by  the  wind 
pressure.    Fig.  7  shows  a  beam- 


Fig.  9. — Some  Common  Column  Sections. 


steel  and  Iron  Construction 


439A 


Steel  and  Iron  Construction 


to-column  connection  in  a  25- 
story  building,  which  throughout 
was  braced  by  such  brackets,  us- 
ing no  diagonal  ties. 

Special  problems  arise  in  very 
narrow  or  very  tall  buildings,  as 
illustrated  by  the  photograph 
on  page  435.  In  such  structures 
it  is  apt  to  be  necessary  to  re- 
vert to  diagonal  bracing,  and  the 
overturning  moment  of  the  wind 
sometimes  is  great  _  enough  to 
require  the  columns  in  the  lower 
portion  to  be  enormously  heavy. 
The-  design  of  such  structures^  is 
no  different,  however,  in  its  prin- 
ciples, from  that  of  a  less  extreme 
building.  To  indicate  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  steel-frame  build- 
ing field,  it  may  be  noted  that 
several  single  buildings  have  re- 
quired as  much  as  5,000  tons  of 
steel,  while  in  one  case  a  pair  of 
22-story  buildings  consumed  as 
much  as  11,000  tons. 

Cast-iron  columns  are  no  longer 
used  in  buildings  of  more  than  6 
to  8  stories,  although  a  17-story 
hotel  with  cast-iron  columns  was 
built  as  late  as  1903.  The  serious 
defect  of  cast-iron  columns  for 
this  purpose  is  the  fact  that  the 
bolted  connections  of  the  beams 
are  unavoidably  somewhat  loose, 
which  gives  the  entire  structure  a 
dangerous  instability.  A  12-story 
building  with  cast-ircn  columns 
collapsed  during  erection  in  1904 
in  New  York  City. 

Mill  and  Shed  Buildings  com- 
prise a  large  range  of  most  various 
types  of  structure,  including  ma- 
chnie-shop  and  foundry  buildings, 
train-sheds,  etc.  The  typical  mill 
building  consists  of  a  truss  roof 
of  50  to  120  ft.  span  supported  on 
side  columns  spaced  12  to  30  ft. 
apart,  with  a  longitudinal  girder 
20  to  40  ft.  above  the  lioor,  along 
the  inside  of  each  line  of  columns, 
to  carry  the  track  of  a  travelling 
bridge  crane.  Often  jib-cranes 
are  attached  to  the  columns, 
trolley  hoists  travel  on  tracks 
hung  from  the  trusses,  etc.,  so 
that  the  load-conditions  are  quite 
various.  A  cross-section  through 
a  representative  mill  building  (Fig. 
9),  shows  the  general  features. 
The  type  of  roof-truss  there 
shown,  called  Fink  truss,  is  used 
for  steel-roof  framework  very  ex- 
tensively. Diagonal  rod  bracing 
in  the  roof  plane,  rod  or  angle 
bracing  in  the  lower  chord,  to  hold 
the  entire  building  and  especially 
the  crane-track  in  line,  and  occa- 
sional bays  of  bracing  in  the  side 
walls,  give  ample  longitudinal 
stiffness,  while  for  lateral  rigidity 
a  kneebrace  between  column  and 
truss  is  usually  depended  on  (in 
American  practice). 

Train-sheds,  exhibition  halls, 
etc.,  are  most  often  framed  with 
three-hinged^  ^  arch  trusses,  of 
roughly  semicircular  outline,  with 
a  tie-rod  in  the  floor  to  take  the 
thrust  of  each  arch.    In  struc- 


tures of  this  class  economy  dic- 
tates the  arranging  of  the  trusses 
in  pairs  of  12  to  20  ft.  width,  the 

Sairs  being  35  to  50  ft.  apart, 
ach  pair  has  a  full  system  of 
bracing  and  is  called  a  tower;  the 
intermediate  parts  of  the  roof  then 
requin  no  bracing,  but  their  pur- 
lins merely  rest  on  the  adjacent 
towers.  In  the  gable  ends  of  such 
shed  roofs,  a  strong  horizontal 
wind  truss  and  trussed  vertical 
studding  must  be  used  to  hold  the 
gable  wall  from  being  crushed  in 
by  the  wind. 

Mill  and  shed  buildings  are 
rarely  of  such  character  as  to 
require  substantial  walls,  and 
they  are  often  covered  both  on 
walls  and  on  roof  with  plates  of 
corrugated  sheet  steel,  spanning  5 
to  6  ft.  between  purlins,  or  with 
wood  planking  covered  with  pre- 


Fig.  10.— Hall  Section  of  Battle- 
ship "Rhode  Island." 


pared  asphalt-and-felt  roof  cov- 
ering, or  the  like.  Concrete  slabs 
have  been  much  used  recently  as 
a  more  permanent  and  fireproof 
roofing,  a  weatherproof  covering 
being  laid  over  it. 

Ships  form  a  most  important 
field  of  steel  construction,^  and 
for  several  decades  past  practif  ally 
all  ships  have  been  built  of  steel. 
For  some  details  of  the  fram- 
ing see  Fig.  10  above  and  also 
the  article  Shipbuilding.  The 
problem  of  ship  framing  is  not  as 
exact  as  that  of  the  bridge,  as 
the  forces  to  be  resisted  are  not 
so  v^ell  known.  The  marine  in- 
surance interests,  therefore,  _  fix 
empirical  rules  for  ship  framing, 
which  largely  govern  the  arrange- 
ment and  proportioning  of  parts. 
Looking  at  the  section,  the  frames 
are  curved  plate-girders,  covered 
with  inner  and  outer  plating  on 
the  bottom — the  double  bottom, 
which  has  done  so  much  to  in- 
crease the  safety  of  vessels,  is  a 
result  of  steel  construction.  The 
longitudinal  members  act  as 
beams,   the   plating   braces  the 


structure  longitudinally,  the  trans- 
verse beams  tie  the  upper  ends  of 
the  frames  togetner,  and  the  bot- 
tom plating  and  deck  act  as  the 
flanges  of  a  girder  when  the  ship 
is  subjected  to  longitudinal  bend^ 
ing  bv  riding  on  waves.  Riveted 
and  kneebraced  connections  are 
used  throughout. 

Tank  Towers  and  Gas-holders. 
— Towers  to  carry  elevated  tanks 
for  water-supply  are  now  always 
built  of  steel.  They  consist  of 
four,  eight,  or  more  inclined  col- 
umns or  legs  braced  together  by 
horizontal  struts  and  crossed 
diagonal  bracing.  Gas-holder 
frames  are  more  complex.  Such 
a  frame  consists  of  a  circle  of 
standards  connected  by  horizon- 
tal circular  girders  ancl  a  full  set 
of  diagonal  bracing.  The  gas- 
holder bell,  a  sectional  steel  drum 
often  150  ft.  in  diameter  by  100 
ft.  high  is  guided  against  the 
standards  by  rollers,  and  transfers 
to  them  the  wind  pressure  coming 
against  it.  The  tank  in  which 
the  bottom  of  the  bell  is  immersed 
is  nowadays  often  made  of  steel 
jjlate,  being  merely  a  circular  res- 
ervoir 15  to  30  ft.  high. 

Other  Applications. — Elevated 
railways  are  substantially  bridges 
or  viaducts,  and  the  use  of  steel 
for  their  construction  is  inevitable 
and  indeed  alone  makes  them 
commercially  possible.  Subway 
and  tunnel  construction  also  em- 
ploys steel  framing  frequently; 
though  the  cast-iron  shell  for 
shield-driven  tunnels  is  still  stand- 
ard, and  in  flat-roof  subways 
reinforced-concrete  construction  is 
the  most  modern.  Railway  cars 
of  steel  are  now  manufactured  on 
a  very  large  scale.  These  require 
so  many  forms  to  which  the  ordi- 
nary rolled  shapes  and  plates  do 
not  adapt  themselves,  that  the 
desired  forms  are  pressed  out  of 
plate  steel,  being  then  assembled, 
of  course,  by  riveting. 

Steel  enters  also  into  nearly 
every  other  field  of  construction, 
though  to  less  extent.  Pneumatic 
foundation  caissons  built  of  steel; 
steel  sheet-piling;  large  water- 
pipes,  tanks  and  stand-pipes,  etc., 
of  steel,  have  wide  use.  Steel 
mine-strutting  is  a  newer  develop- 
ment. The  strength,  elasticity, 
and  toughness  of  steel,  the  rigidity 
of  steel  framework,  its  perma- 
nency under  suitable  conditions, 
and  its  superior  lightness  for  a 
given  duty,  which  qualities  have 
brought  it  into  use  in  place  of 
wood  and  masonry  in  such  a  mul- 
titude of  applications,  also  ensure 
its  long-continued  supremacy  in 
construction. 

Permissible  Stresses. — The  guid- 
ing principle  in  proportioning  the 
sizes  of  steel  structural  parts  is 
that  no  condition  of  loading  may 
do  permanent  injury  to  any  part 
of  the  structure.  The  'elastic 
limit'  of  steel,  up  to  which  point 


steel  and  Iron  Construction 

it  behaves  virtually  with  perfect 
elasticity,  is  at  a&out  half  the  ulti- 
mate strength,  so  that  by  the  above 
principle  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  worst  combination  of  stresses 
at  the  weakest  point  down  to 
about  25,000  to  35,000  lbs.  per 
sq.  in.,  after  making  due  allow- 
ance for  deterioration  and  all  un- 
favorable circumstances.  There 
are  so  many  elements  ol  uncer- 
tainty, however,  that  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  remain  within  certain 
maximum  values  of  stress,  de- 

S ending  on  the  type  of  structure. 
.11  parts  which  carry  heavj'  mov- 
ing loads,  as  the  floor  members  of 
bridges,  are  made  heavier  by  a  so- 
called  impact  allowance. 

In  building  work,  tensile  stresses 
from  18,000  to  20,000  lbs.,  and 
compressive  stresses  of  15,000  to 
18,000  lbs.  pel  sq.  in.,  are  consid- 
ered permissible.  In  columns,  the 
slight  bending  action  of  the  ver- 
tical load  is  allowed  for  by  using 
a  reduced  permissible  stress  per 
sq.  in.  for  the  direct  load;  a  much 
used  formula  is  p=  17,000— 70 
L/r,  L  being  the  length  of  the  col- 
umn, and  r  the  radius  of  gyration 
of  its  cross-section  (0.3  to  0.4  of 
its  least  width),  both  taken  in 
inches.  The  bending  stresses  in 
beams  are  usually  limited  to  16,- 
000  lbs.  per  sq.  in.,  though  18,000 
is  sometimes  allowed.  Plate- 
girder  flanges  are  dimensioned 
for  15,000  to  20,000  lbs.  per  sq. 
in.  In  all  cases  of  tensile  stress, 
net  section  only  is  counted,  i.e., 
rivet-holes  are  deducted. 

In  bridges,  the  stresses  usually 
considered  permissible  are  small- 
er: 15,000  Ids.  in  tension,  15,000 
— 50  L/r  for  columns,  18,000  to 
20,000  lbs.  per  sq.  in.  for  members 
taking  wind  stresses  only.  The 
floor  members  of  railway  bridges 
are  given  an  increase  of  section 
for  impact  of  100%  ordinarily, 
and  truss  members  or  girders  are 
increased  by  an  amount  varying 
(roughly)  from  100%  in  spans  less 
than  .50  ft.  to  10%  at  500  ft.  span. 

In  mill  buildings,  cranes,  and 
all  other  kinds  of  steel  struc- 
tures, the  stresses  allowed  are 
graded  between  tlie  above  limits, 
according  to  the  a.nount  of  load- 
impact  and  vibration  that  will 
occur  in  the  structure.  The  ob- 
ject ordinarily  is  to  have  a  factor 
of  safety  of  2  between  the  greatest 
calculable  stresses  and  the  elastic 
limit  of  the  material. 

Rivets  are  proportioned  for  a 
.shearing  stress  not  over  two- 
thirds  the  allowed  tensile  value 
of  plate.  The  cru.shing  press- 
ure of  the  rivet  against  the 
side  of  the  rivet-hole  is  custom- 
arily permitted  to  be  twice  as 
great,  per  sq.  in.  of  diametral  pro- 
lection,  as  tne  shearing  stress  al- 
lowed per  square  incn  of  rivet 
section.  It  is  specially  to  be 
noted  that  rivets  are_  never  _  re- 
quired to  resist  endwise  tension, 


4«9B 

whenever  it  is  possible  to  avoid 
it;  mainly  because  the  shrinkage 
of  the  rivet  in  cooling  has  already 
generated  a  large  initial  tension, 
and  further  tension  may  result  in 
splitting  the  rivet  head  off. 

Expansion  or  Contraction  un- 
der changes  of  temperature  ap- 
pears in  all  steel  structures,  and 
where  it  may  lead  to  harm  it  must 
be  provided  for  by  expansion 
joints.  Thus,  in  a  long  viaduct, 
the  steel-work  will  expand  about 
1  in.  in  120  ft.  (for  100°  F.  change 
between  winter  and  summer), 
whereas  the  abutments  and  piers 
are  fixed  in  position  and  cannot 
yield  to  the  expansion.  There- 
fore one  end  of  every  span  (or  of 
every  second  span)  is  left  without 
firm  connection,  so  that  it  can  slide 
on  its  shoe-plate.  In  longer 
bridge  spans,  150  ft.  and  over, 
rollers  are  usually  placed  under 
one  shoe,  while  tne  other  end  is 
bolted  down  to  the  masonry.  In 
tall  buildings  the  expansion  is  free 
to  go  on  in  upward  direction,  and 
since  stone  and  concrete  expand 
in  about  the  same  ratio  as  steel, 
their  relative  positions  remain 
unchanged.  Long  mill  buildings, 
u  iless  the  heating  of  the  interior 
keeps  them  at  fairly  constant  tem- 
perature, should  nave  expansion 
joints.  Since  every  expansion 
joint  is  virtually  a  complete  sep- 
aration in  the  structure  as  concerns 
Strength,  each  section  between 
expansion  joints  must  have  full 
bracing  of  its  own. 

Rusting  is  an  eternal  enemy  of 
all  exposed  steel,  and  therefore 
painting  assumes  high  impor- 
tance. Steel  is  not  usually  paint- 
ed in  the  rolling-mill,  but  after  the 
individual  parts  are  punched  and 
assembled  in  the  shop  they  get 
one  coat  of  paint.  In  bridge  con- 
struction, the  finished  structure  is 
painted  immediately  after  erec- 
tion with  two  coats  thoroughly 
applied.  Thereafter  it  must  be 
repainted  every  two  or  three  years. 
The^  strictest  requirements  for 
repainting  demand  that  all  the  old 
paint  be  scraped  or  wirebrushed 
off,  but  this  is  so  tedious  that  it  is 
rarely  done.  The  paints  used 
are  nearly  all  of  the  linseed-oil 
class,  being  mixtures  of  various 
pigment  powders  with  linseed  oil, 
turpentine,  etc.  The  resulting 
hardened  paint  film  is  not  highly 
durable.  In  the  worst  places, 
as  where  a  bridge  crosses  a  rail- 
way track,  with  exposure  to  the 
cutting  action  of  the  exhaust  and 
to  the  corrosive  action  of  the 
steam  condensation  charged  with 
sulphur  acids,  concrete  covering 
has  come  into  favor,  as  it  seems 
able  to  protect  the  steel  perfectly. 

Deterioration  of  steel  in  service 
from  continued  repetition  of  stress 
was  at  one  time  seriously  feared. 
Experience  has  brought  no  such 
effect  to  light,  however,  and  sev- 
eral careful  tests  of  old  bridges 


Steele 

have  given  strong  evidence  that  it 
does  not  occur.  It  may  be  taken 
as  certain  that  the  life  of  a  steel 
structure  is  limited  only  by  the 
corrosive  action  of  the  elements, 
and  that  when  steel  is  kept  fully 
protected  against  this  corrosion  it 
IS  imperishable.  For  iron  and 
steel  bridges,  see  Bridge.  See 
Birkmire,  Architectural  Iron  and 
Steel  (1897);  Skeleton  Construction 
in  Buildings  (1893);  Compound 
Riveted  Girders  (1893);  Planning 
and  Construction  of  High  Office 
Buildings  (1906);  Freitag,  Fire- 
proofing  of  Steel  Buildings  (1899); 
Notes  on  Building  Construction, 
vol.  iii.  (5th  ed.  1902);  Wray's 
Instruction  in  Construction  (1891); 
Baker's  Beams,  Columns,  and 
Arches  (1892);  Rankine's  Civil 
Engineering  (1900);  and  articles 
on  bridges  and  buildings  in 
Engineering  News. 

Steele,  Joel  Dorman  (1836- 
86),  American  educator,  born  at 
Lima,  N.  Y.  He  graduated  at 
Genesee  College  in  1858,  and 
taught  school  until  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War,  when  he  enlisted, 
serving  through  the  Peninsula 
campaign.  He  was  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  Seven  Pines,  and  was 
discharged,  with  the  rank  of  cap- 
tain. In  1862-66  he  was  principal 
of  the  Newark  (N.  J.)  High  School, 
and  from  the  latter  year  to  1872 
was  principal  of  the  Elmira  (N.Y.) 
Academy.  His  teaching  was  dis- 
tinguished for  original  meth- 
ods, and  won  for  him  a  high  repu- 
tation. In  1872  he  gave  up  active 
work  as  a  teacher,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  writing  of  text- 
books. His  Fourteen  Weeks  in 
Chemistry  (1867)  was  followed  by 
similar  works  on  physics,  astron- 
omy, geology,  zoology,  botany, 
and  physiology.  He  wrote  also, 
with  the  collaboration  of  his  wife, 
the  books  known  as  Barnes^  Brief 
Histories.  They  included  ancient, 
mediteval,  and  American  histo- 
ries, and  became  widely  popular. 
He  bequeathed  to.  Syracuse  Uni- 
versity $50,000,  which  was  used 
to  found  a  chair  of  theistic  science. 
He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Geological 
Society  of  London,  and  received 
the  degree  of  ph.d.  from  the 
regents  of  the  University  of  New 
York. 

Steele,  Sir  Richard  (1672- 
1729),  English  essayist  and  play- 
wright, was  born  in  Dublin. 
In  1695  he  got  a  commission 
in  the  Coldstream  Guards,  and 
subsequently  became  a  captain 
in  Lord  Lucas's  Fusiliers.  In 
1706  he  became  a  gentleman-in- 
waiting  to  Queen  Anne's  consort, 
Prince  George  of  Denmark,  and 
in  1707  he  was  appointed  edi- 
tor of  the  London  Gazette.  As 
'Isaac  Bickerstaff' — a  pseudonym 
appropriated  from  Swift  —  he 
issued,  on  April  12,  1709,  the  first 
number  of  the  Taller,  which 
appeared  thrice  weekly  till  Jan.  2, 


Steele 

1711.  In  1710  Steele  became 
commissioner  of  stamps.  In 
March,  1711,  appeared  the  first 
number  of  the  Spectator,  which 
appeared  daily  till  Dec.  6,  1712. 
Steele's  imaginary  club  in  the 
initial  number  includes  the  first 
sketch  of  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley, 
and  of  the  total  555  papers  in 
the  periodical,  236  are  his.  Both 
in  the  Tatler  and  the  Spectator^ 
as  well  as  in  the  Guardian  (March 
7  to  Get.  1,  1713),  he  was  power- 
fully supported  by  Addison  (q.v.). 
In  his  character  sketches,  social 
delineations,  and  critical  discus- 
sions, Steele  evinces  quick  obser- 


Sir  Richard  Steele. 


vation,  literary  insight,  and  easy 
and  virile  grip  of  his  theme;  and 
if  his  form  is  sometimes  loose  even 
to  crudeness,  his  treatment  is  at 
any  rate  invariably  fresh  and  en- 
joyable. In  the  Guardian  Steele 
diverged  into  politics,  and  in  1713 
he  published  a  pamphlet  entitled 
The  Importance  of  Dunkirk  Con- 
sidered, which  provoked  Swift's 
slashing  retaliation,  The  Impor- 
tance of  the  'Guardian'  Con- 
sidered. In  the  same  year  Steele 
became  m.p.  for  Stockbridge,  re- 
signing his  post  as  commissioner 
of  stamps.  The  Guardian  was 
now  dropped  for  the  frankly 
political  Englishman,  which  ran 
to  fifty-seven  numbers  (1714). 
No.  26  gives  the  account  of 
Alexander  Selkirk  which  prob- 
ably suggested  Robinson  Crusoe. 
Through  his  sponsorship  for  Wil- 
liam Moore's  work,  The  Crisis 
(1714),  with  reference  to  the  Hano- 
verian succession,  Steele  not  only 
prompted  Swift's  brilliant  Public 
Spirit  of  the  Whigs,  but  com- 
passed his  own  expulsion  from 
the  House  of  Commons  (March, 
1714).  The  death  of  Queen  Anne 
presently  restored  his  fortunes, 
with  those  of  his  party.  He  wrote 
Mr.  Steele's  Apology  for  Himself 
and  His  Writings,  and  he  became 
deputy-lieutenant  for  Middlesex 


440 

and  surveyor  of  the  royal  stables 
at  Hampton  Court.  Meanwhile 
the  curious  Ladies'  Library  (fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  Spec- 
tator), The  Lover,  and  The  Reader, 
represented  his  zeal  as  projector 
of  periodicals.  In  1795  he  became 
patentee  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre, 
was  elected  m.p.  for  Borough- 
bridge,  Yorkshire,  and  received 
knighthood  at  the  hands  of  George 
I.  Through  his  political  paper, 
the  Plebeian,  Steele  in  1719  stirred 
the  opposition  of  Addison,  who 
assailed  him  in  the  Old  Whig. 
In  1722  Steele  produced  in  Drury 
Lane  The  Conscious  Lovers,  his 
most  successful  comedy.  Genial, 
impulsive,  _  improvident,  Steele 
holds  a  distinguished  place  in 
letters  as  pioneer  of  the  modern 
English  essay.  Austin  Dob- 
son  prepared  an  excellent  Mono- 
graph for  the  English  Worthies 
Series  (1886);  and  G.  A.  Aitken 
produced  an  exhaustive  Biog- 
raphy in  1889,  and  edited  Steele's 
Plays  in  1894. 

Steel  Engraving.  See  En- 
graving. 

Steell,  Sir  John  (1804-91), 
Scottish  sculptor,  was  born  at 
Aberdeen  and  apprenticed  in 
Edinburgh  as  a  wood-carver. 
Having  studied  sculpture  in 
Rome,  on  his  return  he  modelled 
the  group  of  Alexander  Taming 
Bucephalus.  Most  of  his  work  is 
in  Edinburgh — e.g.  the  statue  of 
Scott  in  Scott's  monument,  the 
statue  of  Queen  Victoria  on  the 
Royal  Institution,  the  statue  of 
Wellington  before  the  Register 
House,  and  the  Albert  Memorial. 
There  are  colossal  statues,  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott  and  Robert  Burns, 
by  him  in  Central  Park,  New 
York. 

Steel  Shapes.  See  Rolling 
Mills;  Steel  and  Iron  Con- 
struction. 

Steelton,  bor,,  Dauphin  co.. 
Pa.,  on  the  Susquehanna  R.,  3  m. 
below  Harrisburg,  and  on  the 
main  hne  of  the  Pa.  R.  R.  It  is 
chiefly  important  as  a  manufac- 
turing centre,  making  steel  rails, 
bridges,  flour,  beer,  ice,  concrete 
stone,  coke,  etc.  The  capital  in- 
vested in  1906  by  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Steel  Co.  alone  was  over 
$5,000,000.  The  census  of  man- 
ufactures in  1905  returned  18 
industrial  establishments,  with 
$19,642,853  capital,  and  products 
valued  at  $15,745,628.  The  capi- 
tal invested  here  was  more  than 
tripled  in  the  five  years  preceding, 
Steelton  is  situated  in  a  fine  agri- 
cultural district.  Limestone  de- 
posits occur  in  the  vicinity.  It 
was  settled  in  1865,  and  incor- 
porated in  1880,  Pop.  (1900) 
12,086;   (1910)  14,246, 

Steelyard.   See  Balance, 

Steen,  Jan  (1626-79),  Dutch 
painter,  called  the  Moli^re  of 
painting,  for  his  dramatic  and 
intellectual  qualities.    His  genial, 


Steeplechasing 

tolerant  expression  of  life  is 
touched  with  Hogarthian  satire; 
his  best  work  is  masterly  in 
technique  and  harmonious  color- 
ing. The  son  of  a  Leyden  brewer, 
he  studied  under  Knupfer,  Adrian 
von  Ostade,  and  Van  Goyen.  As 
tavern-keeper  he  had  opportuni- 
ties of  studying  life  and  gratify- 
ing intemperate  habits.  His  best 
work  is  in  Holland  and  England. 

Steen,  Johannes  Vilhelm 
Christian  (1827-1906),  Norwe- 
gian statesman;  tutor  at  the  Latin 
school  at  Bergen  (1850),  rector 
at  Stavanger  (1866),  In  1854  he 
founded  the  Radical  paper  Ber- 
gensposten;  in  1859  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Storthing,  and 
eventually  succeeded  Sverdrup 
as  Radical  leader.  In  March,  1891, 
Steen  was  entrusted  with  the  for- 
mation of  a  new  ministry,  but  re- 
signed in  1893.  His  policy  was 
antagonistic  to  Sweden.  He  was 
again  premier  from  1898  to  1902, 

Steeplechasing,  originally  a 
trial  of  speed  and  jumping  pow- 
ers between  two  or  more  horses 
between  one  church  steeple  and 
another.  During  the  reign  of 
James  i.  in  England  there  was 
some  sort  of  steeplechasing  at 
Newmarket,  but  details  are  want- 
ing. There  is  a  record  of  an 
Irish  steeplechase  match  in  1752, 
and  to  Ireland  is  due  the  popu- 
larity of  the  sport.  Forty  years 
later  the  first  steeplechase,  with 
more  than  two  starters,  was  run 
in  Leicestershire,  over  a  course 
from  Barkby  Holt  to  Billesdon 
Coplow  and  back,  a  distance  of 
about  eight  miles.  In  the  same 
year  (1792)  a  steeplechase  match 
took  place,  also  in  Leicestershire, 
for  1,000  guineas,  between  a 
horse  belonging  to  Loraine 
Hardy  and  the  best  hunter  that 
the  Hon.  Mr,  Willoughby  (after- 
wards Lord  Middleton)  could 
procure.  The  course  was  from 
Melton  Mowbray  to  Dalby  Wood, 
a  distance  of  at  least  nine  miles. 

There  would  appear  to  have 
been  no  regularly  organized 
steeplechasing  until  Thomas  Cole- 
man of  St.  Albans  arranged  the 
first  regular  meeting  on  March  1, 
1831.  St.  Albans  steeplechases 
have  long  since  died  out  of  the 
calendar; but  since  1839  at  Liver- 
pool, or  rather  Aintree,  a  suburb 
of  that  city,  the  Grand  National 
has  been  run  about  the  last  week 
in  March,  and  is  still  the  great 
English  cross-country  race  of  the 
year.  The  old  type  of  steeple- 
chase horse  {i.e.  the  improved 
hunter)  is  almost  a  creature  of 
the  past,  and  the  cast-off  from 
flat-racing  have  taken  his  place. 
Since  the  British  National  Hunt 
Committee  took  the  sport  in 
hand  in  1866,  steeplechasing  has, 
however,  been  greatly  reformed. 
The  Grand  National,  a  race 
worth  annually  something  like 
£2,000  to  the  owner  of  the  win- 


steer 


KR 


441 


Steffens 


ner  is  now  the  principal  English 
event.  In  Ireland,  however,  there 
is  quite  as  much  interest  and  ex- 
citement in  a  leaping-race  as 
ever.  The  nature  of  the  soil 
permits  chasing  nearly  all  the 
year  round,  and  a  large  majority 
of  the  best  jumpers  are  still  bred 
in  that  country.  In  America  the 
steeplechases  are  generally  run 
at  the  regular  race  meetings; 
one  contest  each  racing  day  on 
the  regular  track  and  in  the  in- 
field. 

Steer,  P.  Wilson  (1860- 
1942),  English  impressionist, 
landscape,  and  figure  painter, 
was  bom  in  Birkenhead.  He  re- 
ceived his  training  from  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  and 
from  his  teacher,  Cabanel,  and 
was  strongly  influenced  by  the 
work  of  the  French  artists 
Manet,  Pizzarro,  and  Cezanne. 
Harmony  of  color  and  fine  sun- 
light effects  are  characteristic  of 
his  work.  His  Richmond  Castle, 
Yorkshire  is  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum,  N.  Y. 

Steering  is  the  operation  of 
directing  the  course  of  a  vessel. 
The  actual  movement  of  the 
vessel  is  effected  by  the  rudder, 
which,  if  put  to  port,  causes  the 
stern  of  the  ship  to  move  to  star- 
board— and  vice  versa.  A  rudder 
of  ordinary  type  is  a  broad,  flat 
structure  of  wood  or  iron,  pivoted 
at  its  forward  edge  and  supported 
by  pintles  and  gudgeons  from 
the  rudder-post  or  stern-post. 
Balanced  rudders  are  pivoted 
about  one-third  the  distance 
from  the  forward  edge  and  sup- 
ported by  a  collar  at  the  top  and 
a  skeg  at  the  bottom.  The  rudder 
is  turned  by  the  tiller,  a  horizon- 
tal bar  or  lever  having  one  end 
secured  to  the  rudder- head.  In 
large  vessels  the  tiller  is  operated 
by  some  form  of  steering  mechan- 
ism. In  sailing-ships  and  small 
steamers  this  may  consist  of  a 
tackle  on  each  side  of  the  tiller, 
the  two  ropes  going  to  a  steering 
wheel  around  the  axle  or  barrel 
of  which  they  are  wound  in 
opposite  directions.  In  large 
steamers  the  steering  gear  is 
actuated  by  a  steam,  electric,  or 
hydraulic  motor. 

The  terms  used  in  steering  are 
chiefly  derived  from  the  days  of 
hand  tillers.  Then  port  the  helm 
meant  that  the  tiller  was  pushed 
over  toward  the  port  side,  caus- 
ing the  rudder  to  move  to  star- 
board. Starboard  the  helm  was  the 
reverse  of  this.  These  and  other 
terms  which  follow  are  still  in  use 
and  imply  movements  of  a  tiller, 
though  the  actual  tiller  may  not 
exist.  Helm  amidships  means 
that  the  tiller  is  placed  fore-and- 
aft.  Hard-a-port  and  hard-a- 
starboard  mean  that  the  tiller  is  as 
far  a-port  or  a-starboard  as  it  can 
go.  To  right  the  helm  is  to  put  it 
amidships  after  it  has  been  in 


some  other  position.  To  shift 
the  helm  is  to  put  it  from  one  side 
to  the  other.  The  helm  is  a-lee 
or  a-weather  accordingly  as  the 
tiller  (real  or  imaginary)  is  drawn 
to  the  lee  or  weather  side.  To 
ease  the  helm  is  to  bring  the  tiller 
nearer  amidships.  See  Naviga- 
tion; Seamanship,  Practical. 

Stee'vens,  George  (1736- 
1800),  English  Shakespearean 
scholar,  was  born  in  Poplar,  Lon- 
don. His  first  publication  was  a 
reprint  from  the  original  quartos 
of  Twenty  of  the  Plays  of  Shake- 
speare (1766).  He  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Dr.  Johnson,  and 
the  two  collaborated  in  an  edi- 
tion of  Shakespeare  s  Works,  with 
annotations  (1773),  almost  en- 
tirely by  Steevens.  His  life  was 
embittered  by  his  satiric  habit  of 
speech. 

Steevens,  George  Warring- 
ton (1869-1900),  English  jour- 
nalist, was  on  the  staff  of  the 
Pall  Mall  Gazette  from  1893  to 
1896.  He  was  sent  by  the  Daily 
Mail  as  a  special  correspondent 
to  the  United  States  in  1897, 
and  subsequently  to  Thessaly. 
Egypt,  the  Sudan,  India,  Ger- 
many, Rennes  (the  scene  of  the 
Dreyfus  trial),  and  South  Africa. 
The  vivid  letters  which  he  wrote 
were  published  as  The  Land  of 
the  Dollar  (1897),  With  the  Con- 
quering Turk  (1897),  Egypt  in 
1898  (1898),  With  Kitchener 
to  Khartoum  (1898),  In  India 
(1899),  The  Tragedy  of  Dreyfus 
(1899),  and  From  Capetown  to 
Lady  smith  ( 1 900) .  He  wrote  also 
Naval  Policy  (1896)  and  Mono- 
logues of  the  Dead  (1896).  He 
died  of  typhoid  fever  during  the 
investment  of  Ladysmith. 

Stefan's  Law,  a  rule  connect- 
ing radiation  with  temperature, 
empirically  deduced  by  J.  Stefan 
of  Vienna  in  1879.  It  defines  the 
gain  of  emissive  intensity  to  be 
proportional  to  the  fourth  power 
of  the  absolute  temperature  of 
the  hot  body,  assumed  to  be  a 
perfect  radiator.  This  law,  sup- 
plied with  a  theoretical  basis  by 
Boltzmann  and  Planck,  has 
proved  serviceable  in  researches 
into  the  solar  temperature. 

Stefansson,  sta 'fans-son, 
Vilhjalmur  (1879-  ),  Arctic  ex- 
plorer, was  born  in  Arnes,  Mani- 
toba, Canada.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  the  University  of  Iowa 
in  1903  and  pursued  graduate 
study  in  Harvard  University.  In 
1905  he  was  a  member  of  an 
archaeological  expedition  to  Ice- 
land under  the  auspices  of  the 
Peabody  Museum  of  Harvard; 
and  in  1906-7,  a  member  of  an 
expedition  to  the  Eskimo  of  the 
Mackenzie  Delta  sent  out  by 
Harvard  and  Toronto  universi- 
ties. In  these  and  other  later  ex- 
peditions he  made  several  addi- 
tions to  the  map  of  Canada,  in- 
cluding the  Horton  River.  In 


1914,  with  two  companions,  he 
made  a  600-mile  sled  journey 
from  Martin  Point,  Alaska,  to  a 
point  northwest  of  Banks  Island. 
The  following  year  he  explored 
this  latter  territory,  discovering 
new  land  north  of  Prince  Patrick 
Island.  In  1916  he  found  new 
islands  west  of  Heiberg  Island, 
and  the  next  year  made  a  line  of 
soundings  100  miles  northwest 
of  Cape  Isachsen.  He  wrote  Life 
with  Eskimo  (1913),  and  Friendly 
Arctic  (1920);  Northward  Course 
of  Empire  (1922);  Standardiza- 
tion of  Error  (1927);  Three  Voy- 
ages of  Martin  Frobisher  (1938); 
Iceland:  First  American  Repub- 
lic (1939);  Greenland  (1942);  The 
Arctic  in  Fact  and  Fable  (1945); 
Not  by  Bread  Alone  (1946). 

Steffens,  stef'enz,  Henrik 
(1773-184.5),  German  philoso- 
pher, naturalist,  and  poet,  was 
born  in  Stavanger,  Norway.  He 
became  a  disciple  of  Schelling, 
and  taught  at  Copenhagen  (1802- 
4),  Halle,  Breslau  (1811-31), 
and  Berlin  (1831-45).  His  lec- 
tures in  Copenhagen  mark  the 
beginning  of  the  romantic  move- 
ment in  Denmark.  His  chief 
works  are  Anthropologie  (1824), 
Von  der  falschen  Theologie  und 
dem  wahren  Glauben  (1824),  and 
Nachgelassene  Schriften  (1846). 
Consult  Peterson's  Henrik  Steff- 
ens, and  Steffens'  own  autobiog- 
raphy. Was  ich  erlebte  (1840-45), 
his  best  work,  translated  in  Eng- 
lish by  Gage,  as  The  Story  of  my 
Career  at  Freiburg  and  Jena 
(1863),  and  republished  as  Ger- 
man University  Life  (1874). 

Steffens  (Joseph)  Lincoln 
(1866-1936),  American  writer, 
was  born  in  San  Francisco.  He 
was  graduated  (1889)  from  the 
University  of  California,  taking 
post-graduate  courses  in  philos- 
ophy at  Berlin,  Heidelberg, 
Leipzig,  and  the  Sorbonne,  Paris. 
He  was  financial  and  police  re- 
porter and  assistant  city  editor 
on  the  New  York  Evening  Post, 
and  subsequently  city  editor  of 
the  New  York  Commercial  Ad- 
vertiser. He  gave  several  years  to 
the  study  of  corrupt  political 
machines,  and  wrote  a  number  of 
stories  dealing  with  police  cor- 
ruption and  politics.  From  1902 
to  1906  he  was  managing  editor 
of  McClure's  Magazine,  and  asso- 
ciate editor  of  the  American  and 
Everybody's  Magazines  (1906- 
11).  He  served  on  Carranza's 
committee  to  draw  up  a  new 
Mexican  constitution,  and  when 
the  Russian  Revolution  occurred 
went  to  Petrograd  (1917);  in 
1919  he  accompanied  the  Bullitt 
mission  from  the  Peace  Confer- 
ence at  Paris  to  Moscow.  He 
wrote  The  Shame  of  Our  Cities 
(1904);  The  Struggle  for  Self- 
Government  (1906);  Upbuilders 
(1909);  The  Least  of  These  (1910) 
and  his  autobiography  (1931). 


stein 


KR 


442 


Stella 


Stein,  stin,  Charlotte  von 
(1742-1827),  friend  and  corre- 
spondent of  Goethe,  was  born  in 
Weimar.  Three  series  of  Goethe's 
letters  to  Frau  von  Stein  were 
published  in  1848-51,  1883-5, 
and  1886.  Her  letters  to  Goethe, 
long  supposed  to  be  destroyed, 
have  been  recovered  in  part. 

Stein,  Heinrich  Friedrich 
Karl,  Baron  von  (1757-1831), 
Prussian  statesman,  was  born  in 
Nassau.  He  entered  the  Prussian 
public  service  in  1780,  and  by 
1796  was  president  of  the  West- 
phalian  Chambers.  In  1804  he 
was  called  to  administer  the  de- 
partment of  trade  and  manufac- 
tures, where  he  introduced  va- 
rious reforms;  but  King  Frederick 
William  iii  disapproved  of  his  re- 
forming zeal,  and  Stein  resigned 
(1807).  He  was,  however,  re- 
called a  year  later  and  given  a 
free  hand  to  carry  out  his  plans. 
He  abolished  some  of  the  more 
glaring  survivals  of  feudalism, 
promoted  freedom  of  trade,  and 
encouraged  military  reform.  His 
energy  and  foresight  alarmed 
Napoleon,  who  obtained  his  dis- 
missal in  1808.  He  went  in  1812 
to  St.  Petersburg,  and  devoted 
himself  to  consolidating  the 
league  against  Napoleon.  After 
the  Congress  of  Vienna,  Stein 
withdrew  to  his  estates  and 
founded  the  society  which  has 
published  the  Monumenta  Ger- 
manice  Historica.  His  political 
doctrines  appear  in  his  PolUisches 
Testament  and  in  his  'Tracts.' 
Consult  Seeley's  Life  and  Times 
of  Stein  (3  vols.),  and  Max  Leh- 
mann's  Freiherr  vom  Stein. 

Stein,  LoRENZ  (1815-90), 
German  economist  and  writer  on 
politics,  was  born  in  Eckernforde 
in  Schleswig.  He  was  professor  at 
Kiel  (1846-52)  and  at  Vienna 
(1855-85),  and  wrote  on  French 
social  and  political  history,  his 
other  noted  works  being  System 
der  Staatswissenschaft  (1852-7), 
Lehrbuch  der  N ationaldkonomie 
(1887),  Verwaltungslehre  (1865- 
84),  and  Die  Frau  auf  dem  Gebiet 
der  National  okonomie  (1875). 

Stein'bok  {Nanotragus  cam- 
pestris),  a  small  species  of  ante- 
lope found  in  South  and  East 
Africa.  It  stands  less  than  two 
feet  high  and  is  reddish  brown  in 
color;  the  horns  of  the  male  rarely 
exceed  four  inches.  To  the  same 
genus  belong  a  number  of  other 
African  species,  notably  N.  pyg- 
maeus,  the  royal  antelope,  which 
stands  only  one  foot  high  at  the 
shoulder,  and  is  the  smallest  liv- 
ing ruminant. 

Steinen,  stin'en,  Karl  von 
DEN  (1855-1929),  German  trav- 
eler and  ethnologist,  was  born 
in  Miilheim-an-der-Ruhr.  He 
made  a  voyage  round  the  world 
(1879-81);  was  naturalist  of  the 
German  expedition  to  South 
Georgia  (1882),  and  in  1881 -5  ex- 
plored the  province  of  Matto 


Grossc  in  Brazil,  making  the  first 
modern  descent  of  the  river 
Xingu,  a  most  important  piece  of 
exploration.  In  1897-8  he  ex- 
plored the  Marquesas  Islands, 
and  in  1900  was  appointed  as- 
sistant-director of  the  royal 
museums  in  Berlin. 

Steinitz,  shtln'itz,  William 
(1837-1900),  German  chess-play- 
er, was  born  in  Prague,  and 
joined  the  staff  of  the  Constitu- 
tionelle  Oesterreichische  Zeitung. 
He  devoted  his  leisure  hours  to 
chess,  in  which  he  subsequently 
beat  every  great  player  (except 
Morphy  and  Staunton,  whom  he 
never  met)  until  1894,  when  in  a 
match  played  at  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Montreal,  he 
lost  the  championship  to  Em- 
anuel Lasker,  who  also  won  the 
return  match  in  1896.  Steinitz 
edited  the  International  Chess 
Magazine  from  1885  to  1891,  and 
published  works  on  Chess. 

Steinmetz,  Charles  Prote- 
us (1865-1923),  American  elec- 
trical engineer,  was  born  in  Bres- 
lau,  Germany,  and  was  educated 
at  the  universities  of  Breslau  and 
Berlin  and  at  the  Polytechnic 
Institute  in  Zurich,  specializing 
in  mathematics,  chemistry,  and 
electrical  engineering.  Forced  to 
flee  from  Germany  because  of 
his  socialist  convictions,  he  went 
first  to  Austria  and  Switzerland 
and  then,  in  1889,  to  the  United 
States,  where  he  eventually  be- 
came the  chief  consulting  en- 
gineer and  head  of  the  consulting 
engineering  department  of  the 
General  Electric  Company,  in 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.  He  took  an 
active  interest  in  economics  and 
politics  and  though  he  remained 
a  Socialist,  with  advancing  years 
his  views  became  greatly  modi- 
fied. In  1912  he  was  president  of 
the  Board  of  Education  of  Sche- 
nectady and  from  1916  to  his 
death  was  president  of  the  Com- 
mon Council.  Steinmetz'  prac- 
tical inventions  cover  the  whole 
field  of  electrical  appliances; 
among  the  most  important  are 
the  induction  regulator,  the 
method  of  phase  transformation 
as  from  two  phase  to  three  phase, 
and  the  metallic  electrode  arc 
lamp.  He  had  marvellous  insight 
into  scientific  phenomena  and 
remarkable  ability  to  explain  in 
simple  language  the  most  ab- 
struse problems.  His  works  in- 
clude Theory  and  Calculation  of 
Alternating-Current  Phenomena 
(1897);  Theoretical  Elements  of 
Electrical  Engineering  (1902); 
General  Lectures  on  Electrical  En- 
gineer i^ig  (1908);  Engineering 
Mathematics  (1911);  Electric  Dis- 
charges, Waves  and  Impulses 
(1911);  America  and  the  New 
Epoch  (1916);  Four  Lectures  on 
Relativity  and  Space  (1923). 

Steinmetz,  stln'mets,  Karl 
Friedrich  von  (1796-1877), 
Prussian  general,  was  born  in 


Eisenach.  He  entered  Paris  with 
the  allied  armies  in  1815;  was  in 
command  of  the  Prussian  army 
which  gained  victories  over  the 
Austrians  at  Nachod,  Skalitz, 
and  other  places  (1866),  and  was 
at  the  head  of  the  First  Army 
which  invaded  France,  contribut- 
ing to  the  great  victory  near 
Metz  (1870).  In  the  same  year 
he  was  deprived  of  his  command 
as  the  result  of  his  failure  at 
Gravelotte,  and  became  gover- 
nor-general of  Posen  and  Silesia. 

Steinway,  stin'wa,  Heinrich 
Engelhard  (1797-1871),  Ger- 
man-American piano  maker,  was 
born  (Steinweg)  at  Wolfshagen, 
Brunswick.  He  served  in  the 
army  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick, 
and  after  studying  cabinet-mak- 
ing engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  pianos  at  Seesen,  close  by  the 
Harz  mountains.  In  1850  he 
emigrated  to  New  York  City, 
and  three  years  afterwards,  with 
three  of  his  sons,  established  the 
well-known  house  of  Steinway  & 
Sons.  His  son,  William  Stein- 
way (1836-96),  having  organized 
the  firm  with  his  father  and  his 
brothers, became  its  head  in  1889. 
He  was  interested  in  philanthrop- 
ic matters.  In  1890  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  New  York  city 
rapid  transit  commissioners. 

Stejneger,  ste'ne-ger,  Leon- 
hard  (1851-1943),  American  na- 
turalist, was  born  in  Bergen, 
Norway.  He  was  graduated 
from  the  Royal  University, 
Christiania,  in  1875,  and  in  1882- 
3  undertook  for  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  a  natural  history  ex- 
pedition to  the  Commander  Is- 
lands and  Kamchatka.  In  1884- 
9  he  was  assistant  curator  in  the 
ornithological  department  of  the 
U.  S.  National  Museum,  in  1889 
became  curator  of  reptiles  in  the 
institution,  and  after  1911,  head 
curator  of  biology.  He  visited 
the  Commander  Islands  in  1895 
on  behalf  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Com- 
mission, and  in  1896-7  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  International  Seal 
Commission  to  study  the  habits 
of  the  fur  seal.  He  was  elected 
to  the  National  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences and  in  1923  received  the 
Walker  Grand  Prize  for  his  work 
in  herpetology.  His  publications 
include:  Results  of  Ornithological 
Excursions  in  the  Commander  Is- 
lands and  Kamtchatka  (1885) ;  Re- 
port of  the  Rookeries  of  the  Com- 
mander Islands  (1897);  The  Asi- 
atic Fur  Seal  Islands  (1898); 
The  Relations  of  Norway  and 
Sweden  (1900);  The  Herpetology 
of  Porto  Rico  (1904);  The  Her- 
petology of  Japan  and  Adjacent 
Territory  (1907);  The  Origin  of 
the  So-Called  Atlantic  Animals 
and  Plants  of  Western  Norway 
(1907);  and  two  works  in  Nor- 
wegian dealing  with  the  orni- 
thology and  zoology  of  Norway. 

Stella.  See  Sidney,  Philip; 
Swift,  Jonathan. 


Stellarla 


443 


^tephanotid 


Stellaria,  Stitchgrass, 
Stitchwort,  or  Starwort,  a 
former  genus  of  herbaceous  plants 
belonging  to  the  order  Caryophyl- 
laceas,  and  now  included  in  the 
genus  Alsine.  Their  flowers  have 
five  distinct  sepals,  five  petals 
deeply  two-cleft,  ten  stamens  in- 
serted into  a  ring  beneath  the 
capsule,  and  three  styles.  The 
greater  stitchwort  {S.  holostea)  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  flowers 


Greater  Stitchwort  {Stellaria 
holostea). 

1,  Androecium  and  pistil ;  2,  dehiscent 
fruit. 

of  Europe;  it  has  long  stems, 
and  its  flowers  are  satiny  white. 
The  lesser  stitchvi/-ort  {S.  gra- 
minea),  which  blooms  later,  is 
much  smaller  and  less  conspicu- 
ous. S.  media,  the  chickweed,  is 
a  very  common  annual  weed, 
bearing  its  small  white  flowers 
nearly  the  year  through.  A 
yellow  -  Icaved"^  variety  of  the 
lesser  stitchwort  (^S".  graminea 
aurea)  is  sometimes  grown  in 
gardens. 

Stellenbosch,  cap.  of  dir,t.  of 
same  name,  Cape  Colony,  British 
S.  Africa,  21  m.  by  rail  E.  of 
Cape  Town;  centre  of  a  wine  dis- 
trict, and  scat  of  Victoria  Uni- 
versity College.  Pop.  (1904)  of 
dist.  22,209;  of  tn.  7,573. 

Stellerine,  or  Steller's  Sea- 
cow.   See  Rhytina. 

Stelvio  Pass  (9,055  ff.)  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  highest  carriage-road 
in  the  Alps,  constructed  (1820-5) 
by  the  Austrian  government,  at 
a  cost  of  some  3,000,000  florins. 


it  leads  from  the  Adige  valley, 
above  Meran,  over  to  Bormio  m 
the  Adda  valley,  and  is  a  favorite 
trip  for  tourists. 

Stem,  the  ascending  axis  of  a 
plant,  contrasted  with  the  root 
or  descending  axis,  bearing  leaves 
and  flowers,  and  in  its  highest  de- 
velopment putting  forth  branches 
freely.  Its  ordinary  functions  are 
the  elevation  of  the  leaves,  that 
they  may  be  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  sun  and  air,  and  the  trans- 
mission to  them  of  the  nutritive 
matters  absorbed  by  the  roots 
from  the  soil.  In  a  transverse 
section  of  a  young  dicotyledonous 
tree  the  central  pith,  with  the 
medullary  rays  diverging  there- 
from, the  surrounding  wood- 
layers,  the  cambium  between  the 
wood  and  the  bark,  and  between 
the  bundles  (the  interfascicular 
cambium)  and  the  bast  or  phloem 
may  be  distinguished.  Stems  may 
be  herbaceous,  as  in  most  annuals, 
or  woody,  as  in  shrubs  and  trees. 
The  former  may  be  erect  (the  tech- 
nical name  for  which  is  'caulis'); 
procumbent,  or  lying  along  the 
ground;  creeping — that  is,  pro- 
cumbent and  sending  off  adven- 
titious roots  from  the  nodes; 
climbing,  or  clinging  by  tendrils, 
or  twinging  round  a  support  in  a 
spiral  coil.  Stems  may  also  grow 
beneath  the  surface,  of  which  the 
rhizome  of  Solomon's  seal,  the 
corm  of  the  crocus,  the  bulb  of 
the  hyacinth,  and  the  stem- tuber 
of  the  potato  are  well-known  ex- 
amples.   See  Wood. 

Stenbock,  Magnus,  Count 
VON  (16G4-1717),  Swedish  general, 
was  born  in  Stockholm;  accom- 
panied Charles  xii.  in  his  ear- 
lier campaigns,  and  contributed 
largely  to  the  victory  of  Narva  and 
the  subjection  of  Poland.  In 
1710  he  gained  a  brilliant  victory 
over  Frederick  iv.  of  Denmark  at 
Helsingborg,  and  in  1712  defeated 
the  Danes  at  Gadebusch,  for 
which  exploit  he  obtained  his 
marshal's  baton.  In  1713  he 
burned  Altona,  but  was  sur- 
rounded by  the  combined  Rus- 
sians, Danes,  and  Saxons  at 
Tonning,  and  compelled  to  sur- 
render with  12,000  men.  He  died 
in  a  Danish  dungeon.  See  his 
Memoires  (1745),  and  Life,  in 
Swedish,  by  Lilliestrale  (1890). 

Stencilling,  the  art  of  cutting 
out,  from  sheets  of  metal,  card- 
board, or  paper,  spaces,  as  of  or- 
naments or  lettering,  which  are 
then  laid  upon  a  surface  and 
painted  through.  It  was  com- 
mon among  the  Egyptians  and 
Romans.  The  design  is  first 
drawn  on  metal  or  cardboard, 
which  must  be  all  in  one  piece 
and  in  one  color,  so  as  to  enable 
a  broad  or  spreading  brush  to 

gass  at  one  sweep  over  the  whole, 
tencilling  is  unsurpassed  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  bold  and  effec- 
tive ornament  in  antique  style  on 


walls  and  ceilings.  It  is  carried  out 
in  Italy  at  the  present  day  with  so 
much  care  and  refinement  as  to 
resemble  careful  hand-painting. 
It  is  extensively  used  to  decorate 
furniture  and  the  spaces  between 
windows,  also  in  gardens  to  imi- 
tate foliage.  A  beautiful  variety 
of  stencil  work  is  known  as  'theo- 
rems' and  'Grecian  painting.' 
This  consists  of  painting  flowers, 
fruit,  etc.,  on  a  damp  surface  by 
stencil.  As  the  colors  shrink  and 
dry  in  different  tones,  the  peculiar 
blending  seen  in  nature  is  imi- 
tated. 

Stendal,  tn.,  Prussia,  prov. 
Saxony,  33  m.  by  rail  n.n.e.  of 
Magdeburg.  Its  cathedral  dates 
from  1188.  Birthplace  of  Winck- 
elmann.    Pop.  (1905)  23,278. 

Stendhal.  See  Beyle,  Marie 
Henri. 

Stennis,  par.,  Orkney.  See 
Maes  -  How  and  Circles  of 
Stones. 

Steno,  NicoLAUS  (Dan.  Niels 
Stenson)  (1638-86),  Danish 
physiologist  and  prelate,  was 
born  in  Copenhagen.  In  1657 
he  discovered  the  salivary  canal 
called  ductus  Stenonianus,  and 
shortly  afterward  the  salivary 
gland.  He  was  the  first  to  dem- 
onstrate that  the  heart  is  a  mus- 
cle. Subsequently  he  lectured  at 
Paris,  and  at  Florence  went  over 
(1667)  to  Catholicism.  Ten  years 
later  he  was  appointed  vicar- 
apostolic  for  Scandinavia,  and 
led  the  life  of  a  saintly  ascetic. 
He  also  wrote  with  great  shrewd- 
ness on  geology  and  crystallog- 
raphy. His  chief  works  were 
De  Musculis  et  Glandulis  Obser- 
vationum  Specimen  (1G64)  and  De 
Solido  intra  Solidum  naturaliter 
Contento  (1669). 

Stenography.  See  Short- 
hand. 

Stenson's  Duct,  the  duct  lead- 
ing from  the  parotid  gland  to  the 
inside  of  the  cheek,  where  it  dis- 
charges the  parotid  saliva. 

Stentor,  a  herald  of  the  Greeks 
at  Troy,  said  by  Homer  to  be 
able  to  shout  as  loud  as  fifty 
ordinary  men  together;  hence 
proverbial  for  any  one  with  a  loud 
voice. 

Stephan,  Heinrich  von  (1831- 
97),  German  statesman,  born  at 
Stolp,  Pomerania.  He  reorgan- 
ized the  postal  service  in  Schles- 
wig-Holstein  (1864);  became  post- 
master-general of  the  North 
German  Confederation  (1870)  and 
of  the  newly  founded  empire 
(1871),  and  secretary  of  state  for 
the  post-office  department  (1878). 
He  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the 
International  Postal  Union  (1874). 
He  wrote  Geschichte  der  Preus- 
sischen  Post  (1859),  and  Das 
heutige  Aegypten  (1872).  See 
Knickeberg's  Heinrich  von  Ste- 
phan (1897). 

Stephanotis,  a  genus  of  tropi- 
cal twining  shrubs,  belonging  to 


TYPES  AND  STRUCTURE  OF  STEMS. 

Creeping  stem  (moneywort).  2.  Climbing  stem  ri)assioii  flowci  ).  Procumbent  stem  (hop  trefoil).  4.  Dicotyledo- 
nous stem,  cross  section  (mai)lo).  5.  Part  of  same,  I  ruin  pit  h  t(M •pi<lcrinis.  C.  L< >nKitudinal  section  of  same.  7.  Monoco- 
tyledoMous  stem,  cross  section  (palm).  8.  Vascular  hniidlr  l  iom  the  s.-iiiic,  cidss  s<'(^tion.  9.  Lonjfitudinal  section  of  same 
stem.  10.  ?:rect  stem  (loosestrife).  11.  Twining  stem  (bindweed).  VZ.  Khizome  (Solomon's  seal).  13,  Bulb  (hyacinth). 
14.  C'orm  (cj-ocus).    16.  Stem  tuber  (potato). 


Stephanus 

the  order  Asclepiadaceae.  The 
species  usually  grown  under  glass 
for  its  fragrant  white  flowers  is 
S.  floribunda,  the  clustered  wax 
flower,  a  native  of  Madagascar. 

Stephanus,  a  family  of  French 
printers.    See  Stephens. 

Stephen,  the  name  of  nine 
popes,  of  whom  the  most  im- 
portant were: — (1.)  Stephen  i.  (d. 
257),  succeeded  Lucius  as  bishop 
of  Rome  (254),  and  carried  on  a 
vigorous  controversy  with  Cy- 
prian on  the  baptism  of  heretics. 
(  •.)  Stephen  m.,  sometimes  called 
Stephen  ll.  (752-757),  solicited  the 
aid  of  Pepin,  king  of  the  Franks, 
against  the  attacks  of  Astolphus, 
kmg  of  the  Longobards. 

Stephen,  king  of  England 
(?  1097-1 154),  the  son  of  Stephen, 
Count  of  Blois,  and  of  the  Con- 
queror's daughter  Adela.  On 
Henry  l.'s  death  (1135)  Stephen 
took  advantage  of  his  personal 
popularity  to  claim  the  throne, 
as  against  his  cousin  Matilda, 
and  was  duly  crowned.  But  by 
his  acts  he  quickly  alienated 
the  sympathy  of  the  people,  and 
brought  in  Flemish  mercenaries. 
David  of  Scotland  invaded  the 
north  on  behalf  of  his  niece  Ma- 
tilda, but  -was  disastrously  de- 
feated at  Northallerton  (1138). 
Stephen  made  enemies  of  the 
church  and  the  most  powerful 
of  the  nobles.  In  1141  he  was  a 
prisoner  in  Matilda's  hands,  and 
was  granted  his  liberty  in  ex- 
change for  that  of  Robert,  Duke 
of  G  loucester.  From  1142  Stephen 
had  it  all  his  own  way;  but  Ma- 
tilda's son  Henry  came  oyer  from 
France  in  1152  to  assert  his  rights. 
Stephen  was  glad  to  make  peace 
on  the  basis  of  acknowledging 
Henry  as  heir  to  the  throne. 

Stephen,  James  (1758-1832), 
English  master  of  chancery  and 
abolitionist,  was  born  at  Poole, 
and  went  out  to  St.  Kitts  in  the 
West  Indies,  where  he  practised 
law,  there  being  at  that  time 
considerable  legal  business  arising 
from  trade  regulations  between 
the  West  Indies  and  the  U.  S. 
There  he  was  inspired  with  a 
horror  for  slavery,  which  led  him 
to  become  the  friend  and  co- 
worker of  Wilberforce.  He  re- 
turned to  England  and  engaged 
in  practice  before  the  prize  court, 
entered  Parliament  as  member 
for  Tralee,  was  under-secretary 
for  the  colonies,  and  became  mas- 
ter of  the  Court  of  Chancery.  He 
was  the  author  of  various  pam- 
phlets— e.g.  War  in  Disguise 
(1805),  and  of  an  exhaustive  and 
eloquent  treatise,  The  Slavery  of 
the  British,  West  Indies  (1830). 
See  Henry  Adams's  History  of 
the  United  States,  vol.  iii.  (1891). 

Stephen,  Sir  James  (1789- 
1859),  English  politician,  born  at 
Lambeth,  London;  called  to  the 
bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  (1811),  but 
in  183G  became  under-secretary 


for  the  colonies.  From  183G  to 
1847  he  'literally  ruled  the  colo- 
nial empire,'  and  his  autocratic 
methofls  won  him  the  nickname  of 
King  Stephen.  In  1849,  after  he 
resigned  from  the  Colonial  Office, 
he  was  appointed  rcgius  professor 
of  modern  history  at  Cambridge, 
and  published  Essays  in  Eccle- 
siastical History  (1849)  and  Lec- 
tures on  the  History  of  France 
(1851).  See  'Life' prefixed  to  5th 
ed.  of  Essays. 

Stephen,  SiR  James  Fitz- 
JAMES  (1829-94),  EngHsh  judge, 
was  the  son  of  Sir  James  Stephen, 
and  was  born  at  Kensington,  Lon- 
don. He  was  called  to  the  bar 
at  the  Inner  Temple  (1854),  and, 
after  acting  as  recorder  at  New- 
ark-on-Trent  (1859-69),  became 
legal  member  of  the  Viceroy's 
Council  (1869-72),  and  judge  of 
the  High  Court  of  Justice  in 
India  (1879-91),  being  created  a 
baronet  on  his  retirement.  He 
published  Liberty,  Equality,  and 
Fraternity  (1873),  Digest  of  the 
Law  of  Evidence  (1876),  widely 
used  in  the  U.  S.;  History  of  the 
Criminal  Law  of  England  (1883), 
and  Horce  SabhaticcB  (1892).  See 
L.  Stephen's  Life  (1895). 

Stephen,  James  Kenneth 
(1859-92),  better  known  as  'J.  K. 
S.,'  English  writer,  was  the 
second  son  of  Sir  James  Fitz- 
james  Stephen.  In  1891  he  pub- 
lished Lapsus  Calami,  and  Quo, 
Musa,  Tendis  ?,  two  little  volumes 
of  brilliant  society  verse  and  par- 
ody, worthy  of  Calverley  at  his 
best.  He  was  tutor  to  the  Duke 
of  Clarence  (1883). 

Stephen,  Sir  Leslie  (1832- 
1904),  English  man  of  letters, 
born  at  Kensington,  London.  He 
edited  Cornhill  Magazine  from 
1871  to  1882,  and  was  editor  of 
vols,  i.-xxi.,  joint  editor  with 
Sidney  Lee  of  vols,  xxii.-xxvi.,  of 
the  Dictionary  of  National  Biog- 
raphy, to  which  he  contributed 
many  excellent  biographies.  His 
book.  Hours  in  a  Library  (1874- 
79),  is  a  work  of  great  value.  The 
possessor  of  a  clear,  crisp  style, 
Stephen  had  a  wide  knowledge 
of  books  and  a  fine  critical  taste, 
which  give  to  his  deliverances 
weight  and  authority.  His  most 
satisfactory  work  in  this  depart- 
ment is  English  Thought  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century  (1876).  In 
1900  an  important  continuation 
of  this  work  appeared  as  The 
English  U tilitartans .  This  book 
is  a  critical  history  of  the  pro- 
gressive and  reactionary  ideas 
of  the  19th  century,  in  so  far  as 
they  bear  directly  on  ethical,  po- 
litical, and  economic  problems. 
To  add  to  the  value  of  the  work, 
the  speculative  elements  are  set 
in  a  charming  series  of  biograph- 
ical frameworks,  thereby  blending 
in  a  masterly  fashion  the  per- 
sonal and  the  intellectual,  the 
concrete  and  the  abstract.  Closely 


Stephens 

connected  with  the  latter  work 
is  his  Science  of  Ethics  (1882),  in 
which  the  utilitarian  system  of 
ethics  is  set  forth  and  improved 
in  the  light  of  the  evolutionary 
theory  of  man  as  expounded  by 
Spencer  and  Darwin.  Among  his 
important  writings  are  Studies  of 
a  Biographer  (1898),  a  Life  of  Sir 
James  Stephen  (1895),  ol  Professor 
Fawcett  (1885)-  and  Lives  of 
Johnson,  Pope,  Swift,  and  Hobbes, 
in  English  Men  of  Letters.  He 
was  knighted  in  1902.  In  1904 
appeared  his  English  Literature 
and  Society  in  the  I8th  Century. 

Stephen,  St.   See  Deacon. 

Stephen,  St.,  king  of  Hun- 
gary ( P969-1038),  originally  called 
Vaik,  was  born  at  Gran,  was  con- 
verted (995)  to  the  Christian  faith, 
and  crowned  first  king  of  Hun- 
gary (1000).  During  his  reigs 
Christianity  was  firmly  estab 
lished  in  his  dominion. 

Stephen  Bathori.  See  Bathori 

Stephens,  called  also  Estienne 
and  Etienne,  a  family  of  French 
printers  and  publishers,  the 
founder  being  Henri  (c.  1460- 
1520),  who  set  up  (1501)  his  press 
close  to  the  University  of  Paris, 
and  printed  about  120  works,  the 
first  being  the  Ethics  of  Aris- 
totle. He  left  three  sons,  Fran- 
fois  (1502-50);  Charles  (1504- 
64),  who  published  an  edition 
of  Cicero  (1555);  and  Robert 
(1503-59),  who  was  king's  printer 
to  Francis  l.  (1539),  but  migrated 
to  Geneva  (1551),  where  he  be- 
came a  convert  to  Calvinism.  His 
great  works  were  a  French  Bible 
revised  by  Calvin  (1553),  a  Greek 
Testament  (1546),  a  Hebrew  Bible 
in  8  vols.  (1539-44),  a  Latin  Bible 
in  folio  (1528),  and  a.  Concordance 
(1555).  His  son  Henri  (1528- 
98)  was  a  printer  in  Paris  and 
Geneva,  devoting  his  fortune  to 
the  purchase  of  Greek  manu- 
scripts in  order  to  restore  the 
texts.  Among  his  publications 
were  Anacreon  (1554),  Diction- 
naire  du  Medecin  (1564),  and 
Thesaurus  Gracce  Linguae  (1572). 
His  son  Paul  (1566-1627)  com- 
pleted his  father  s  _  unfinished 
works,  especially  editions  of  the 
Greek  classics,  but  was  banished 
from  Geneva  for  conspiracy 
(1602).  The  last  great  printer 
of  the  family  was  Antoine  (1592- 
1674),  who  became  French  king's 
printer  in  1623.  See  Renouard's 
Annates  de  I'lmprimerie  des  Es- 
tienne  (1843). 

Stephens,  Alexander  Hamil- 
ton (1812-83),  American  states- 
man, and  vice-president  of  the 
Confederate  States,  was  born 
near  Crawfordville,  Ga.,  February 
11,  1812.  He  attended  in  his 
boyhood  such  schools  as  the 
neighborhood  afforded,  and 
through  the  assistance  of  a  Pres- 
byterian society  he  was  able  to 
study  and  to  graduate  at  Frank- 
lin College  (the  state  university) 


« 


iStephens 

in  1832  at  the  age  of  twenty  years. 
In  1834  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  His  county  sent  him  in 
183G  to  the  state  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, where  he  served  until 
1841,  when  he  positively  declined 
re-election.  The  next  year,  how- 
ever, he  was  elected  state  senator, 
and  in  1843  entered  the  national 


House  of  Re]3resentatives.  Here 
he  served  with  credit  to  him- 
self and  profit  to  his  state  until 
1859,  when  he  refused  re-elec- 
tion. He  had  been  an  earnest 
advocate  of  the  Compromise 
of  18.50,  and  he  had  partici- 
pated in  what  he  thought  was 
a  settlement  of  the  Kansas 
troubles.  In  1860  he  led  the 
electoral  ticket  of  Stephen  A. 
Douglas  in  Georgia.  He  regarded 
the  election  of  Lincoln  on  a  sec- 
tional platform  as  a  menace  to 


446 

the  Union,  for  the  preservation  of 
which  he  earnestly  labored. 
Although  believing  in  the  right  of 
a  state  to  withdraw  from  the 
Union  he  did  not  think  such  action 
wise  or  expedient.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Georgia  conven- 
tion of  1861,  and  tried  to  prevent 
secession. 


Chosen  by  the  convention  as  a 
delegate  to  the  Provisional  Con- 
gress which  had  been  appointed 
to  assemble  at  Montgomery,  Ala., 
he  was  by  that  body  unanimously 
chosen  Vice-President  of  the 
Confederate  States.  Being  com- 
missioned to  treat  with  Virginia, 
he  succeeded  in  winning  over  that 
indispensable  state  to  the  Con- 
federate cause  before  the  formal 
ratification  by  its  people  of  the 
ordinance  of  secession.  Although 
he  favored  a  vigorous  prosecution 


Stephens 

of  the  war,  he  was  always  among 
the  foremost  in  favor  of  making 
attempts  to  end  the  fierce  struggle 
by  negotiation,  without  ever  in 
the  least  degree  wavering  in  his 
loyalty  to  the  Confederacy. 

On  February  3,  1865,  Mr. 
Stephens  with  Messrs.  Campbell 
and  Hunter  as  his  associates  met 
President  Lincoln  and  Mr.  Sew- 
ard at  Fortress  Monroe  in  a  final 
effort  to  end  the  war  by  negotia- 
tion. The  conference  failed  to 
accomplish  any  good,  and  Mr. 
Stephens,  seeing  nothing  more 
that  he  could  do,  returned  home 
and  remained  in  retirement  until 
his  arrest  on  May  11,  1865.  Con- 
fined for  five  months  at  Fort 
Warren,  he  endured  his  imprison- 
ment without  yielding  his  con- 
victions, and  in  October,  1865, 
was  released  on  parole.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 1866,  the  Georgia  legisla- 
ture, after  compliance  with  the 
terms  proposed  by  President  John- 
son, elected  Mr.  Stephens  United 
States  senator,  but  Congress,  re- 
fusing to  recognize  President 
Johnson's  reconstruction  policy, 
denied  his  right  to  a  seat.  Later, 
when  the  reconstruction  era  was 
ended,  he  was  elected  to  the  Na- 
tional House  of  Representatives  of 
the  43d  Congress  (1873)  to  fill  the 
vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of 
A.  R.  Wright,  and  served  with 
great  ability  until  1882,  when  he 
was  elected  governor  of  Georgia. 
During  his  term  as  governor,  he 
died  at  Savannah,  March  4,  1883. 
He  was  the  author  of  A  Constitu- 
tional View  of  the  War  Between 
the  States  (1868-70),  School  His- 
tory of  the  United  States  (1872), 
and  a  larger  illustrated  History  of 
the  United  States  (1883). 

See  Cleveland's  Alexander  H . 
Stephens,  in  Public  and  Private, 
with  Letters  and  Speeches  (1866), 
and  Johnston  and  Browne's  Life  of 
Alexander  H.  Stephens  (1878-83). 

Stephens,  Charles  Asbury 
(1847),  American  author,  was  born 
at  Norway  Lake,  Me.,  and  gradu- 
ated (1869)  at  Bowdoin.  He  after- 
wards took  the  course  in  medicine 
at  Boston  University,  receiving 
his  degree  in  1887.  Mr._  Stephens 
began  writing  boys'  stories  for  the 
Youths'  Companion  in  1870;  and 
was  still  so  occupied  in  1906. 
Among  his  books  are:  Camping 
Out  (1872),  The  Knockabout  Cltib 
series  (3  vols.  1882-4),  and  several 
biological  volumes  published  at 
'The  Laboratory,'  Norway  Lake. 

Stephens,  George  (1813-95), 
English  archaeologist,  was  born 
in  Liverpool.  Philology  early  en- 
grossed his  interest,  and  in  his 
dialectical  researches  he  formed 
the  theory  that  English  was  a 
Scandinavian,  not  a  Germanic, 
language.  Iri  1834  he  took  up 
his  residence  in  Stockholm,  where 
he  taught  English;  and  in  1851 
he  became  lector,  and  later  pro- 
fessor, of  English  in  the  umver- 


George  Stephenson. 

(From  the  portrait  by  H.  W.  Pickersgill,  R.A.,  in  National  Portrait  Gallery.) 


Stephens 


447 


Stereo-Chemistry 


sity  at  Copenhagen.  His  most 
important  work  is  The  Old  North- 
ern Runic  Monuments  of  Scan- 
dinavia and  England  (3  vols. 
1866-84).  He  was  much  more 
successful  and  trustworthy  as  a 
collector  than  as  an  interpreter 
of  such  inscriptions. 

Stephens,  HeiJry  Morse 
(1857),  British  and  American  his- 
torian and  educator,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh.   He  graduated  at  Balliol 
^  College,   Oxford,   in   1880,  was 
<^  staff  lecturer  to  the  Oxford  Uni- 
versity  Extension  System  in  1890- 
94,  and  Cambridge  lecturer  on 
-  Indian  history  in  1892-94.  He 
^  came  to  America  in  1894,  and  was 
professor   of    modern  European 
and  English  history  at  Cornell 
^from  1894  to  1902.    In  1902  he 
^  accepted  an  appointment  as  pro- 
fessor of  history  and  director  of 
university  extension  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  California.    Among  his 
best  known  works  are:  History  of 
the  French   Revolution   (2  vols. 
1886,  1892),  The  Story  of  Por- 
tugal (1891),  and  Modern  Euro- 
pean History  (1899). 

Stephens,  James  (1824-1901), 
Irish  agitator  and  Fenian  'head 
centre,'  born  at  Kilkenny,  where 
he  was  brought  up  as  an  engineer. 
He  acted  as  Smith  O'Brien's 
lieutenant  (1848),  and  started  the 
Fenian  organization  (1853).  In 
1864  he  was  seized  and  lodged  in 
Richmond  prison,  from  which  he 
escaped  to  the  U.  S.,  where  he 
endeavored  to  unite  the  members 
of  the  branch  there,  but  was 
deposed  by  the  Fenians  in  1867. 
He  organized  (1867)  the  attempt  to 
seize  Chester  Castle,  the  rescue  of 
Fenian  prisoners  in  Manchester, 
and  the  Clerkenwell  explosion. 

Stephens,  John  Lloyd  (1805- 
52),  American  archaeologist,  born 
in  Shrewsbury,  N.  J.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Columbia  University  in 
1827,  practised  law  in  New  York 
in  1825-34,  and  in  1834-6  visited 
Palestine  and  Egypt.  In  1839  he 
was  appointed  U.  S.  special  agent 
to  Central  America,  and  in  con- 
junction with  Frederick  Cather- 
wood,  an  English  painter,  studied 
many  of  the  Indian  ruins  in  that 
region.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
presidents  of  the  Panama  Railroad 
Company,  and  after  his  death  a 
monument  was  erected  to  his 
memory  on  the  highest  point  on 
the  Panama  railroad  route.  He 
was  author  of  Incidents  of  Travel 
in  Egypt,  Arabia  and  the  Holy 
Land  (2  vols.  1837),  Incidents  of 
Travel  in  Greece,  Turkey,  Russia, 
and  Poland  (2  vols.  1838);  Inci- 
dents of  Travel  in  Central  A  mcrica 
(2  vols.  1841);  and  Incidents  of 
Travel  in  Yucatan  (2  vols.  1843). 

Stephens,  William  (1671- 
1753),  English  colonial  official, 
born  at  Bowcombe,  Isle  of  Wight. 
He  graduated  at  King's  College, 
Cambridge  in  1684,  and  was 
called  to  the   bar.    Coming  to 


America,  he  settled  in  Ga.  in 
1737,  was  secretary  to  the  trustees, 
and  when  Ga.  was  divided  in 
1741  he  became  president  of  the 
northern  county,  and,  upon  Ogle- 
thorpe's departure  for  Europe  in 
1743,  president  of  the  colony.  He 
resigned  in  1751.  He  published 
Journal  of  the  Proceeding  in 
Georgia  (1742). 

Stephenson,  George  (1781- 
1848),  English  engineer,  the  in- 
ventor of  the  locomotive,  was 
born  at  Wylam,  near  Newcastle. 
In  1812  he  became  engine- wright 
at  Killingworth  colliery,  and  there 
in  1814  ran  the  first  locomotive, 
which  he  subsequently  greatly 
improved  by  the  'steam-blast.' 
The  invention  of  a  colliery  safety 
lamp  brought  him  fame  (1815)  and 
a  public  testimonial  of  £1,000. 
When  the  project  of  a  railway  be- 
tween Liverpool  and  Manchester 
took  form,  Stephenson  was  ap- 
pointed engineer,  and  triumphed 
over  great  obstacles  to  the  com- 
pletion of  the  line  in  1829;  and  in 
the  battle  of  the  locomotives  his 
'Rocket'  was  easily  victor,  devel- 
oping a  speed  of  thirty-two  miles 
an  hour.  See  Smiles's  Lives  of  the 
Engineers  (new  ed.  1904),  and  his 
Life  of  George  Stephenson  (5th  ed. 
1858). 

Stephenson,  Isaac  (1829), 
coAmerican  legislator,  born  near 
r^Fredericton,  N.  B.  He  received 
_  a  common  school  education,  set- 
^  tied  in  Maine  in  1840,  and  in  Wis- 


Robert  Stephenson. 
(After  a  photograph  by  Nageli.) 

consin  in  1841.  He  has  spent  his 
life  in  lumbering,  farming,  and 
banking  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Wis.  legislature  in  1866  and  1868, 
of  Congress  in  1883-89  and  was 
elected  U.  S.  Senator  (Rep.)  for 
the  unexpired  term  of  1907-9. 


Stephenson,  Robert  (1803- 
59),  English  engineer,  only  son  of 
George  Stephenson,  was  born 
near  Newcastle,  and  became  man- 
ager of  his  father's  locomotive 
works  at  Newcastle.  In  1833  he 
became  sole  engineer  of  the  Lon- 
don and  Birmingham  line  (com- 
pleted 1838),  the  first  railway  into 
London.  He  was  thenceforth  en- 
gaged in  railway  work  all  over 
the  world;  and  his  bridges  at 
Newcastle,  at  Montreal  (1859), 
and  over  the  Menai  Strait  (1854) 
ranked  as  rnodern  wonders  of  the 
world.  See  Smiles's  Lives  of  the 
Ejigineers  (new  ed.  1904),  and 
Jeafferson's  Life  of  R.  Stephen- 
son (1864). 

Stepney.    See  London. 

Stepniak,  Sergius  (1852-95), 
the  name  by  which  Sergei  Mik- 
hailovitch  Kravchinsky,  Russian 
journalist  and  author,  was  known 
in  England,  was  born  at  Gad- 
iatch  in  the  province  of  Cherni- 
gov. He  became  engaged  in  a 
secret  propaganda  among  the 
peasants,  and  joined  the  chief 
revolutionary  organization.  In 
1880  he  was  compelled  to  flee. 
He  then  devoted  himself  to  writ- 
ing and  to  lecturing,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  the  U.  S.  He  was  a 
prominent  worker  for  the  Eng- 
lish Society  of  Friends  of  Russian 
Freedom,  founded  in  1890  by  Dr. 
Spence  Watson,  and  was  for  many 
years  president  of  the  Russian 
Free  Press  Fund,  formed  to  sup- 
ply literature  forbidden  within  the 
boundaries  of  Russia.  His  works 
include  Underground  Russia 
(1882);  Russia  under  the  Tsars 

(1885)  ;  The  Russian  Storm  Cloud 

(1886)  ;  The  Russian  Peasantry 
(1888);  Career  of  a  Nihilist,  a 
novel  (1889);  Nihilism  as  It  Is 

(1894)  ;  Kitig  Stork  and  King 
Log — A  Study  of  Modern  Russia 

(1895)  ;  and'Tyramticide  in  Russia. 
Steppes,   a  _vast_  territory  of 

European  Russia,  situated  in  the 
southern  provinces  of  Astrakhan, 
Don  Cossacks  Territory,  Ekater- 
inoslav,  Kherson,  Orenburg,  and 
Taurida.  It  includes  the  region 
of  flat,  grass-clad  plain  lying  south 
of  the  agricultural  zone,  and  suit- 
able for  pastoral  life. 

Stercorarius,  a  genus  of  skuas, 
including  three  or  four  spe- 
cies. Of  these  the  pomatorhine 
skua  (S.  pomatorhinus)  and  the 
long-tailed  skua  {S.  parasiticus) 
are  visitors  to  Britain,  while  the 
Arctic  skua  {S.  crepidatus),  with 
its  variety,  Richardson's  skua, 
nests  in  Scotland. 

Stere,  the  unit  of  cubic  meas- 
urement in  the  metric  system, 
otherwise  called  the  kilolitre.  Its 
value  in  Anglo-Saxon  measure- 
ment is  35.316  cub.  ft.  It  is 
equivalent  to  a  cubic  meter. 

Stereo-Chemistry,  the  science 
dealing  with  the  special  relations 
of  the  atoms  in  the  molecule.  It 
was  originated  independently  by 


Slereo-Comparalor 


448 


Sterling 


Le  Bel  and  Van't  Hoff  in  1874  to 
explain  the  existence  of  certain 
isomeric  compounds,  the  differ- 
ences between  which  could  not 
be  expressed  by  formulae  written 
on  a  plane,  and  it  has  been  al- 
most exclusively  worked  out  for 
compounds  of  carbon.  In  their 
case  it  is  assurned  that  the 
'affinities,'  or  points  at  which 
other  atoms  can  be  attached,  are 
situated  at  the  angles  of  a  regu- 
lar tetrahedron,  it  then  follows 
that,  if  a  different  atom  or  group 
is  attached  at  each  of  these 
points,  two  different  compounds 
can  be  represented  according  to 
the  order  in  which  the  groups  are 
arranged,  one  arrangement  being 
the  mirror  image  of  the  other. 
Thus,  from  the  chemical  be- 
havior of  lactic  acid,  four  dif- 
ferent groups — viz.  H,  CH3,  OH, 
and  COOH — are  united  to  the 
CH3  OH 

\/ 
same    carbon   atom,  C 

H^  cboH; 
and  it  is  found  that  two  varieties 
of  this  compound  exist ,  one  of 
which  rotates  polarized  light  to 
the  left,  and  the  other  to  the 
right.  Similar  results  are  ob- 
tained with  all  other  compounds 
in  which  the  carbon  atom  is  asym- 
metric, or  attached  to  four  differ- 
ent groups;  while  with  those  that 
contain  two  such  atoms,  such  as 
tartaric  acid,  three  varieties  are 
possible,  and  are  found  to  exist— 
viz.  a  dextro-rotatory  variety,  in 
which  both  sets  of  groups  tend  to 
twist  polarized  light  to  the  right; 
a  levo-form,  which  rotates  to  the 
left;  and  an  inactive  or  meso- 
form,  in  which  the  rotation  to 
the  right,  set  up  by  one  asym- 
metric atom^  is  neutralized  by 
that  of  the  other  to  the  left.  In 
a  similar  manner  the  differences 
between  certain  unsaturated  com- 
pounds, such  as  fumaric  and 
maleic  acids,  can  be  explained. 
See  Van't  Hoff's  Chemistry  in 
Space  (trans.  Marsh,  1891). 

Stereo-Comparator,  an  in- 
strument for  examining  celestial 
photographs,  brought  into  use  by 
Dr.  Max  Wolf  in   1901.  Two 

Elates  of  the  same  sky  region, 
ut  taken  at  different  epochs,  are 
viewed,  as  in  a  stereoscope,  with 
the  left  and  the  right  eye  respect- 
ively. If  the  objects  depicted 
have  in  the  interim  undergone 
change  of  any  kind,  the  binocular 
combination  of  their  images  is 
disturbed,  and  a  slight  physical 
shock  betrays  the  discrepancy. 
A  large  number  of  variables  and 
asteroids  have  thus  ])ccn  detected 
by  their  fading  or  displacements 
between  the  dates  of  comparison. 

Stereoscope,  a  binocular  in- 
strument constructed  to  view 
stereoscopic  pictures  produced  by 
photography .     Each  eye  sees  a 


separate  image  or  slightly  differ- 
ent picture  of  the  object,  which, 
when  viewed  through  the  two 
half-lenses  of  a  stereoscope,  are 
blended  into  one,  and,  apart  al- 
together from  perspective  or  light 
and  shade,  stand  out  in  bold 
relief,  and  the  appearance  of  dis- 
tance or  other  background  is 
thrown  back  as  in  reality.  Wheat- 
stone  invented  the  first  form  of 
stereoscope  in  1838.  This  was 
improvecl  upon  (1843-44)  by  Sir 
David  Brewster,  who  discarded 
the  mirrors  of  the  former  investi- 
gator, and  cut  a  double  convex 
lens  in  two,  used  the  two  half- 
lenses,  which  he  placed. with  their 
thin  outward  edges  facing  inward 
to  the  centre,  thus  forming  sides 
of  a  concave  lens.  The  whole  he 
placed  in  a  box,  with  reflecting 
hood  and  transparent  back.  The 

f)rinciple  still  remains,  but  the 
orm  was  greatly  modified  in  the 
stereoscope  brought  out  in  the 
United  States  by  OHver  Wendell 
Holmes. 

In  stereoscopic  photography  the 
two  lenses  of  the  camera  are 
placed  in  similar  position  and  at 
nearly  the  same  angle  of  conver- 
gence as  that  of  the  eyes.  In 
printing  stereo  views  from  the 
glass  negative,  the  prints  must 
be  cut  separate  and  transposed, 
the  right  hand  one  to  the  left, 
and  the  left  to  the  right,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  image  is  in- 
verted by  the  lens  in  the  camera. 
Stereo  transparencies  when  viewed 
with  transmitted  light  arc  superior 
to  prints  on  paper  viewed  with 
light  reflected. 

Many  devices  have  been  used  to 
obtain  the  stereoscopic  effecl  from 
a  single  picture.  Most  of  these 
involve  the  superposition  of  the 
two  pictures  and  tne  use  of  some 
device  by  the  observer  to  enable 
each  eye  to  see  the  proper  one,  and 
that  alone.  In  a  lantern  picture 
the  two  may  be  projected  with 
light  polarized  in  mutually  per- 
pendicular planes,  and  the  ob- 
server may  wear  crystal  glasses 
whose  axes  are  so  arranged  that 
each  eye  sees  only  its  own  picture. 
Such  a  device  is  called  the  'ana- 
lyticon.'  _  Or  the  two  may  be 
printed  in  complementary  colors 
and  the  glasses  may  be  of  corre- 
sponding tints.  In  a  process  sug- 
gested in  1908  by  Lippmann,  but 
not  yet  perfected,  no  observing 
device  would  be  necessary.  The 
object  is  photographed  with  a 
plate  coated  with  minute  globules 
of  collodion  each  of  virlaich  is 
backed  with  a  sensitized  film.  A 

Eicture  is  formed  on  each,  and 
ippmann  shows,  by  the  laws  of 
optics  that  while  an  eye  sees  in 
each  glo])ule  only  a  part  of  its  pic- 
ture, these  parts,  juxtaposed  as  in 
a  mosaic,  build  up  the  whole  scene 
in  such  a  way  that  it  appears  tc 
the  eye  as  the  actual  object 
would  if  viewed  from  the  same 


point.  If  the  eye  moves,  the  pic- 
ture changes,  as  the  actual  view 
would  change;  and  if  both  eyes 
are  used  each  sees  its  own  picture, 
as  in  the  reality.  Hence  the 
same  stereoscopic  effect  is  seen  as 
if  the  actual  object  were  viewed 
in  binocular  vision. 

Stereotyping.   See  Printing. 

Sterility,  or  want  of  repro- 
ductive power,  may  be  total  or 
partial.  Darwin  found  that  in 
many  plants  and  animals  very 
slight  changes  in  the  environment 

Eroduce  sterility.  Large  num- 
ers  of  cultivated  plants  rarely 
or  never  seed,  and  numerous  cap- 
tive animals  do  not  breed,  even 
if  kept  in  an  almost  free  condi- 
tion in  their  native  country.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  domestic  ani- 
mals are  often  more  prolific  than 
those  in  a  state  of  nature.  Hy- 
bridism leads  to  sterility,  either 
absolute  or  limited,  and  close  in- 
terbreeding seems  to  impair  the 
vigor  and  fertility  of  the  off- 
spring, so  that  in  successive  gen- 
erations an  advancing  degree  of 
sterility  is  produced.  In  the  hu- 
man female  sterility  may  be  due  to 
conditions  of  age,  as  the  reproduc- 
tive period  lies  between  puberty 
and  tne  menopause;  or  it  may  de- 
pend upon  disturbance  of  nutri- 
tion, such  as  results  from  wasting 
and  other  diseases,  while  tempera- 
ture and  climate  also  influence  the 
reproductive  functions.  Absence, 
defective  development,  malfor- 
mation, displacement,  or  disease 
of  any  one  of  the  reproductive 
organs  may  be  the  cause  of  steril- 
ity, as  may  also  tumors  or  disease 
of  neighboring  parts.  Cases  due 
to  absence  or  to  imperfect  develop- 
ment of  important  organs  are 
hopeless,  as  also  are  many  of 
those  which  result  from  morbid 
changes  in  the  pelvic  organs.  But 
childlessness  does  not  necessarily 
imply  sterility.  A  woman  may  be 
childless  by  her  first  husband  and 
bear  children  to  her  second.  A 
male  may  be  sterile  independ- 
ently of  impotence. 

Sterling,  a  word  applied  to  the 
'legal  tender'  of  Great  Britain. 
The  derivation  of  this  word  is 
uncertain,  but  it  is  said  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  Eastcrlings  or 
Hanse  merchants.  In  silver  man- 
ufactures, sterling  indicates  a 
standard  fineness  of  the  metal. 

Sterling.  (1.)  Tn.,  Whiteside 
CO.,  111.,  on  Rock  R.,  110  m.  w.  of 
Chicago,  on  the  Chi.  and  N.-W. 
and  the  Chi.,  Burl,  and  Quin. 
R.  Rs.  Abundant  water  power 
afforded  by  the  river  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  paper,  wire, 
machinery,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, hardware,  flour,  etc.  It 
has  a  large  public  librarv-  Pop. 

910)  7,467.  (3.)  City,  Rice  co., 
Kan.,  200  m.  w.s.w.  of  Kansas 
City,  on  the  A.,  T.  and  S.  Fe  and 
the  Mo.  Pac.  R.  Rs.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Cooper  College  (Presb.). 


sterling 


KFN 


449 


Stesichorus 


has  large  salt  works,  and  is  a 
shipping  point  for  grain  and 
fruit.  It  was  settled  in  1871 
and  incorporated  in  1877.  Pep. 
(1930)  1,868;  (1940)  2,215. 

SterEing,  city,  Colorado, 
county  seat  of  Logan  County,  on 
the  South  Platte  River,  and  on 
the  Chicago,  Burlington  and 
Quincy,  and  the  Union  Pacific 
railroads ;  120  miles  n.e.  of 
Denver.  Pop.  (1930)  7,195; 
(1940)  7,411. 

Sterling",  Antoinette  (1850- 
1904),  American  contralto  singer, 
was  born  in  Sterlingville,  N.  Y. 
She  studied  under  Abella  in  New 
York  and  under  Mme.  Marchesi 
and  Garcia  in  Europe.  After  her 
return  to  America  in  1871  she 
sang  for  a  while  in  Henry  Ward 
Beecher's  church  in  Brooklyn, 
and  also  in  concert.  In  1873  she 
settled  in  London,  where  her  rich, 
deep  voice  and  her  artistic  taste 
made  her  popular  as  an  oratorio 
and  ballad  singer.  Sullivan  com- 
posed for  her  some  of  his  best- 
known  songs,  such  as  'The  Lost 
Chord,'  and  Barnby  wrote  for 
her  'When  the  Tide  Comes  In.' 
In  1875  she  married  John  Mac- 
Kinlay. 

Sterling,  John  (1806-44), 
Scottish  author,  was  born  at 
Kames  Castle  in  the  Island  of 
Bute.  His  life  was  one  long 
struggle  for  health.  He  spent 
most  of  his  winters  abroad,  and 
wrote  much  for  the  Athcnmim  in 
its  early  days,  for  Blackzvood  and 
the  Westminster.  He  owes  his 
reputation  largely  to  his  genius 
for  friendship.  (larlyle,  whom  he 
met  in  1835,  wrote  his  biography 
(1851).  Consult  also  Julius 
Hare's  edition  of  Sterling's  Es- 
says and  Tales  (1848). 

Sterlitamak,  styer-lye-ta- 
mak',  town  and  river  port,  Rus- 
sian S.  F.  S.  R.  ;  73  miles  south 
of  Ufa  .town.  It  has  tanneries, 
brick  works,  and  manufactures  of 
leather,  soap,  and  fur  garments. 
Pop.  16,000. 

Stern,  Daniel.    See  Agoult. 

Sternberg,  shtern'berc/i,  town, 
Czecho-Slovakia,  in  Moravia,  9 
miles  north  of  Olmiitz.  It  is  the 
center  of  the  cotton  and  linen 
industries  of  Moravia,  and  man- 
ufactures sugar,  liqueurs,  and 
bricks.  Flax  and  tobacco  are 
grown  in  the  vicinity.  Pop. 
15,000. 

Sternberg,  Constantin 
(1852-1924),  Russian- American 
pianist  and  composer,  was  born 
in  St.  Petersburg  (Leningrad). 
He  studied  under  Moscheles, 
Reinecke,  Richter,  Hauftmann, 
Kullak,  and  Dorn,  and  attended 
some  of  Liszt's  classes.  In  1869 
he  was  an  assistant  conductor 
at  the  British  Theatre  in  Leipzig, 
and  in  1871  conductor  of  the 
opera  in  Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 
After  serving  for  several  years  as 
director  of  the  musical  academy 


in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  he 
visited  the  United  States  in  1880 
and  played  in  concert.  He  taught 
in  New  York  for  a  time,  spent 
four  years  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  and 
in  1890  settled  in  Philadelphia, 
where  he  established  the  Stern- 
berg School  of  Music.  His  com- 
positions, more  than  one  hundred 
in  number,  are  all  for  the  piano. 

Sternberg,  sturn'burg,  George 
Miller  (1838-1915),  American 
bacteriologist,  was  born  in  Hart- 
wick,  Otsego  county,  N.  Y.  He 
graduated  from  the  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New 
York,  in  1860,  was  appointed 
assistant  surgeon  in  the  U.  S. 
army  in  1861,  and  was  assigned 
to  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  In 
1862  he  was  assistant  medical 
director  of  the  department  of  the 
Gulf,  and  in  1864-6  was  surgeon 
in  charge  of  the  U.  S.  General 
Hospital,  Cleveland,  Ohio.  He 
was  attending  surgeon  at  head- 
quarters. Department  of  the 
Columbia,  in  1876,  and  in  that 
year  was  brevetted  lieutenant- 
colonel.  After  serving  as  sur- 
geon at  Fort  Walla  Walla,  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Havana 
Yellow  Fever  Commission  in 
1879.  In  1887-9  he  investi- 
gated, in  Brazil,  Mexico,  and 
Cuba,  the  etiology  and  prevention 
of  yellow  fever  by  inoculation, 
and  in  1893  received  commissions 
as  brigadier-general  and  surgeon- 
general,  U.  S.  army.  He  com- 
manded the  U.  S.  army  medical 
department  in  the  war  with  Spain 
in  1898,  and  retired  from  active 
duties  in  1902.  He  made  many 
valuable  bacteriological  discov- 
eries, the  most  important  of 
which  related  to  the  specific  in- 
fluence of  the  white  blood  cor- 
puscles upon  injurious  bacteria. 
He  was  author  of  Photo  Micro- 
graphs, and  How  to  Make  Them 
(1883);  Malaria  and  Malarial 
Diseases  (1884)  ;  Manual  of 
Bacteriology  (1893)  ;  Textbook 
of  Bacteriology  (1895)  ;  /m- 
munity,  Protective  Inoculations, 
and  Serum  Therapy  (1897)  ;  In- 
fection and  Immunity  (1903). 

Sterne,  Laurence  (1713-68), 
English  novelist  and  humorist, 
was  born  in  Clonmel,  Ireland. 
Having  entered  holy  orders,  he 
obtained  the  living  of  Sutton, 
near  York,  to  which  was  after- 
ward added  that  of  Stillington 
and  a  prebendary's  stall  at  York 
Minster.  In  1759  he  wrote  the 
first  two  volumes  of  the  work 
which  was  destined  to  make  him 
famous.  The  Life  and  Opinions 
of  Tristram  Shandy,  and  this  at 
once  leaped  into  popularity.  The 
Sermons  of  Yorick  still  further 
enhanced  Sterne's  reputation, 
and  when  he  visited  London  in 
March,  1760,  he  found  himself  a 
popular  idol.  In  the  same  year 
he  was  presented  to  the  living  of 
Coxwood.    The  third  and  fourth 


volumes  of  Tristram.  Shandy  ap- 
peared in  December,  followed  by 
the  fifth  and  sixth  volumes  in 
1762,  and  by  the  seventh  and 
eighth  volumes  in  1765,  along 
with  two  more  volumes  of  Ser- 
mons. The  ninth  volume,  pub- 
lished in  1767,  concluded  this 
great  novel,  which  contains  some 
of  the  most  piquant  and  incisive 
character  studies  in  our  language. 
Sterne  then  visited  Italy,  and  ob- 
tained materials  for  what  he  in- 
tended to  be  another  long  work, 
A  Sentimental  Journey  through 
France  and  Italy  (1768). 

Sterne  is  one  of  the  greatest  of 
English  humorists,  the  true  secret 
of  his  power  being  the  subtle 
blending  of  laughter  and  pathos. 
In  some  things  he  resembles  Ra- 
belais ;  in  others  he  anticipated 
Jean  Paul  (Richter).  The 
standard  edition  of  his  Works  is 
that  of  1780,  in  10  volumes  (new 
1903). 

Consult  Life  by  Percy  Fitz- 
gerald (new  ed.  1905),  H.  D. 
Traill,  Sterne,  in  'English  Men 
of  Letters' ;  W.  L.  Cross,  Life 
and  Times  of  Laurence  Sterne 
(1909). 

Stern'hold,  Thomas  (d.  1549), 
joint  versifier  of  the  Psalms  with 
John  Hopkins  (d.  1570),  was 
born  at  Southampton.  In  1538 
he  appears  as  one  of  Cromwell's 
friends  and  dependents.  In  his 
version  he  adopted  the  simple 
ballad  meter,  now  known  as  com- 
mon meter.  Editions  of  the 
Psalms  were  published  in  1549, 
1551,  and  1562  (complete). 

Ster'rett,  John  Robert  Sit- 
LiNGTON  (1851-1914),  Ameri- 
can archaeologist,  was  born  in 
Rockbridge  Baths,  Va.  He 
studied  at  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia and  at  foreign  universities, 
receiving  his  ph.d.  from  Munich 
in  1880.  He  was  professor  of 
Greek  in  Miami  University  from 
1886  to  1891,  in  the  University 
of  Texas  from  1888  to  1892,  in 
Amherst  from  1892  to  1901,  and 
after  1901  in  Cornell.  His  writ- 
ings include  Inscriptions  of  Assos 
(1885)  ;  Inscriptions  of  Tralles 
(1885)  ;  An  Epigraphical  Jour- 
ney in  Asia  Minor  ( 1888)  ;  Leaf- 
lets from  the  Notebook  of  a  Trav- 
elling Archcrologist  (1889)  ;  The 
Torch-Race  (1902)  ;  A  Call  of 
Contemporary  Society  for  Re- 
search in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria 
(1911). 

Sterry,  Joseph  Ashby-.  See 
Ashby-Sterry. 

Stesichorus,  ste-sik'6-rus  (c. 
630-550  B.C.),  of  Himera  in  Si- 
cily, lyric  poet  of  ancient  Greece. 
Legend  told  that  he  was  struck 
blind  for  writing  an  attack  on 
Helen,  but.  recovered  his  sight 
after  he  had  published  a  recan- 
tation. His  works  were  lyrical 
romances,  and  aided  the  develop- 
ment of  tragedy  from  choric 
songs.    His  dialect  was  Dorian. 


stethoscope 


KFN 


450 


Stevens 


Only  fragments  are  extant,  for 
which  see  Bergk's  Poetcs  Lyrici 
Grcrci. 

Steth'oscope,  a  medical  in- 
strument for  conveying  to  the 
physician's  ear  the  sounds  within 
the  chest  wall.  Immediate  aus- 
cultation was  described  by  Hip- 
pocrates ;  but  it  occurred  to 
Laennec  that  the  respiratory  and 
other  sounds  might  be  carried  by 
an  instrument  interposed  between 
the  patient  and  the  listener.  He 
experimented  first  with  a  roll  of 
paper,  and  later  introduced  a 
hollow  wooden  cylinder  with  a 
bell-shaped  chest  piece  and  a  flat- 
tened disc  for  the  ear. 


Courtesy  Becton,  Dickinson  &  Co. 


Stethoscopi 


It  was  the  binaural  stethoscope, 
invented  by  Dr.  Camman  of  New 
York,  that  became  the  common 
type  used  today.  It  is  composed 
of  a  sound-perceiving  device 
from  which  branch  two  tubes 
which  lead  to  nubbed  ear  pieces. 
This  instrument,  used  for  listen- 
ing to  internal  body  sounds,  aids 
in  the  diagnosis  of  internal  dis- 
orders. 

Stetson  University,  a  Baptist 
coeducational  institution  of  learn- 
ing, fully  accredited,  consisting 
of  a  College  of  Liberal  Arts,  a 
College  of  Law,  a  School  of 
Music,  and  a  School  of  Business. 
Chartered  in  1887  as  Deland  Uni- 
versity, the  name  was  changed  in 
1889  to  Stetson  University.  The 
College  of  Law  is  a  member  of 
the  Association  of  American  Law 
Schools  and  is  on  the  approved 


list  of  the  American  Bar  Asso- 
ciation. 

Stettin,  city,  Prussia,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Pomerania,  on 
both  banks  of  the  Oder  ;  30  miles 
from  the  Baltic.  Notable  fea- 
tures are  the  castle,  begun  in 
1503,  formerly  the  seat  of  the 
Dukes  of  Pomerania  and  now  oc- 
cupied by  the  courts  of  justice; 
the  Church  of  St.  James  dating 
from  the  13th  century;  the 
Church  of  St.  Peter,  and  St. 
Paul's,  dating  from  the  15th  cen- 
tury and  several  fine  statues,  no- 
tably those  of  Frederick  the 
Great  and  William  i.  Stettin  is 
an  important  manufacturing  and 
commercial  town,  and  a  ship- 
building center.  In  1898  a  free 
harbor  was  opened  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Oder.  Manufactures 
are  cement,  clothing,  machinery, 
sugar,  chemicals,  porcelain,  and 
paper.    (Pop.  1939)  268,915. 

Steuben,  stii'bcn  ;  Gcr.  shtoi'- 
hcn,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von. 
Baron  Steuben  (1730-94),  Ger- 
man-American soldier,  was  born 
in  Magdeburg,  Prussia.  He  ac- 
companied his  father,  who  was  an 
officer  of  engineers,  to  the  siege 
of  Prague  in  1744  and  in  1747 
entered  the  Prussian  army  as  a 
cadet.  He  served  throughout  the 
Seven  Years'  War  and  toward  its 
close  in  1762  was  appointed  aide 
to  Frederick  the  Great.  Visiting 
Paris  in  1777,  he  was  persuaded 
to  go  to  America  and  offer  his 
sword  to  the  patriot  forces.  He 
joined  the  army  at  Valley  Forge 
early  in  1778  and  in  May  was 
appointed  major-general  and  in- 
spector-general of  the  army.  He 
rendered  conspicuous  service  in 
drilling  and  reorganizing  the 
army,  teaching  the  men  the  use 
of  the  bayonet,  and  organizing 
an  efficient  staff,  the  want  of 
vvhich  had  been  much  felt,  par- 
ticularly at  Long  Island  and 
Brandywine.  He  served  with 
distinction  at  Monmouth,  was  a 
member  of  the  Andre  court  mar- 
tial, commanded  for  a  short  time 
in  Virginia  in  1780,  and  was  ac- 
tive at  the  siege  of  Yorktown. 
After  the  war  he  retired  to  a 
tract  of  16,000  acres  given  him 
by  the  State  of  New  York  near 
the  present  Steubenville  in  Onei- 
da county  and  lived  there  during 
the  rest  of  his  life.  His  Regula- 
tions for  the  Order  and  Discipline 
of  the  Troops  of  the  United 
States  (1780)  was  used  for  many 
years. 

Steubenville,  stu'ben-vil,  city, 
Ohio,  county  seat  of  Jefferson 
county,  on  the  Ohio  River,  and 
on  the  Pennsylvania,  Wheeling 
and  Lake  Erie  railroads ;  23 
miles  north  of  Wheeling,  West 
Virginia.  It  is  a  commercial  and 
manufacturing  center,  with  iron 
and  steel  and  glass  works,  and 
coal-mining  interests  The  place 
was  settled  in  1797  and  incor- 


porated in  1852.  Pop.  (1930) 
35,422;  (1940)  37,586. 

Stevens,  Abel  (1815-97), 
American  Methodist  Episcopal 
clergyman  and  historian,  was 
born  in  Philadelphia.  He  en- 
tered the  New  England  Confer- 
ence in  1834,  filled  pastorates  in 
Boston  and  Providence,  and  in 
New  York  City  and  vicinity,  and 
afterwards  was  pastor  of  the 
Union  Church  at  Geneva,  Swit- 
zerland. From  1840  to  1860  he 
held  various  editorships  of  Meth- 
odist journals,  and  from  1860  to 
1874  was  associate  editor  of  The 
Methodist.  His  historical  writ- 
ings include  Memorials  of  the  In- 
troduction of  Methodism  into 
New  England  (1847-52),  His- 
tory of  the  Religious  Movement 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  called 
Methodism  (1858-61),  History 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  United  States  of 
Am^erica  (1864-7),  The  Centen- 
ary   of    American  Methodism 

(1865)  ,  The  Women  of  Method- 
ism:   Hs     Three  Foundresses 

(1866)  ,  A  Compendious  History 
of  American  Methodism  (1867), 
and  Supplementary  History 
(1899).  Other  works  were  Ma- 
dame de  Sta'el  (1881)  and  Chris- 
tian Work  and  Consolation 
(1885). 

Stevens,  Alfred  George 
(1818-75),  English  sculptor,  was 
born  in  Blandford  in  Dorset. 
He  went  to  Italy  in  1833,  acted 
as  assistant  to  Thorwaldsen  in 
Rome  (1841),  and  on  his  return 
to  England  (1842),  became  a 
teacher  of  design  in  London 
(1845)  and  designer  for  various 
establishments.  He  is  especially 
notable  for  his  excellent  designs 
for  a  wide  variety  of  articles  of 
everyday  use.  His  great  Well- 
ington  Monument  in  St.  Paul's, 
unfinished  at  his  death,  entitles 
him  to  rank  as  one  of  the  fore- 
most of  modern  sculptors.  A 
fine  mantlepiece  in  Dorchester 
House,  Park  Lane,  London,  is 
also  his  work. 

Stevens,  Benjamin  Franklin 
(1833-1902),  American  bibliog- 
rapher, great-grandson  of  Phin- 
neas  Stevens  (q.  v.),  was  born  in 
Barnet,  Vt.,  and  studied  at  Mid- 
dlebury  _  College.  In  1860  he 
joined  his  brother  Henry's  book- 
selling business  in  London,  and 
some  years  afterwards  took  charge 
of  the  Chiswick  press.  He  after- 
wards became,  and  was  until  his 
death,  U.  S.  despatch  agent  in 
London,  where  he  acted  also  as 
purchasing  agent  for  many  Amer- 
ican libraries.  His  most  impor- 
tant work  was  the  indexing  and 
reproduction  in  facsimile  of  doc- 
uments and  manuscripts  relating 
to  American  history  in  European 
archives.  After  years  of  study  he 
published  American  Manuscripts 
in  European  Archives  (1887), 
Facsimiles    of   Manuscripts  in 


SteveiL^ 


KFN 


4Si 


Stevens 


European  Archives  Relating  to 
America,  1773-83  (25  vols.  1889- 
98),  Introduction  to  the  Calendar 
of  American  Papers  in  the  Earl  of 
Dartmouth's  Collection  (1895). 

Stevens,  Durham  White 
(1852-1908),  American  diplomat, 
was  born  in  Washington,  D.  C. 
He  was  educated  at  Oberlin 
College  and  at  the  Columbian 
Law  School,  and  in  1873-83  was 
secretary  ot  the  U.  S.  legation 
at  Tokyo,  Japan.  He  then  be- 
came counsellor  of  the  Japanese 
legation  in  Washington;  was  em- 
ployed in  the  Japanese  Foreign 
Office  in  1884-87,  chiefly  on  the 
revision  of  treaties  with  foreign 
powers;  was  sent  by  Japan  to 
Korea  to  settle  difficulties  be- 
tween Japan  and  China;  and, 
after  further  service  at  the 
Japanese  legation  in  Washington, 
returned  to  Japan.  In  1904  he  be- 
came diplomatic  adviser  to  the 
Korean  Government.  While  on 
his  way  to  Washington  on  official 
business  he  was  murdered  in  San 
Francisco,  by  a  native  Korean. 

Stevens,  Ebenezer  (1751- 
1823),  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Boston.  He  took  part  in 
the  Boston  'tea  party'  in  1773; 
and  later  was  in  command  of  the 
American  artillery  at  Fort  Ticon- 
deroga,  the  first  battle  of  Sara- 
toga, and  the  siege  at  Yorktown. 
After  the  war  he  settled  in  New 
York  City  where  he  became 
prominent  as  a  merchant. 

Stevens,  Edward  (1745-1820), 
American  soldier,  was  born  in 
Culpeper  County,  Va.  He  served 
in  the  battle  of  Great  Bridge  in 
1775;  commanded  a  regiment  at 
Brandy  wine  and  Germantown; 
participated  in  the  battle  of 
Camden  in  1780;  and  assisted  in 
the  capture  of  Cornwallis  at 
Yorktown. 

Stevens,  Edwin  Augustus 
(1795-1868),  American  capital- 
ist, was  born  in  Hoboken,  N.  J. 
He  succeeded  to  the  railroad  and 
shipping  interests  of  his  father 
John  Stevens  (q.v.)  and  in  1830 
became  treasurer,  and  later 
(1854),  president  of  the  Camden 
and  Amboy  Railroad  Company. 
He  invented  the  vStevens  plough 
and  a  system  of  forced  draught 
for  marine  boilers.  He  also  gave 
much  attention  to  armor  tests 
and  altered  and  equipped  the 
Naugatuck  for  use  in  the  Civil 
War.  He  bequeathed  $650,000 
to  found  the  Stevens  Institute  of 
Technology  (q.v.). 

Stevens,  George  Barker 
(1854-1906),  American  clergy- 
man, was  born  in  Spencer,  N.  Y. 
He  was  graduated  (1877)  from 
the  University  of  Rochester,  and 
in  divinity  from  Yale  in  1880. 
He  was  pastor  of  Congregational 
and  Presbyterian  churches  in 
Buffalo  and  Watertown,  N.  Y., 
until  1885,  and  was  professor  of 
New  Testament  criticism  and  in- 
terpretation at  Yale  from  1886 


to  1895,  and  of  systematic 
theology  from  1895  until  his 
death.  His  works  include  The 
Pauline  Theology  (1892),  The 
Johannine  Theology  (1894), 
Doctrine  and  Life  (1895),  The 
Theology  of  the  New  Testament 
(1899),  The  Teaching  of  Jesus 
(1901),  The  Christian  Doctrine 
of  Salvation  (1905). 

Stevens,  Henry  (1819-86), 
American  bibliographer,  brother 
of  B.  F.  Stevens  (q.v.),  was  the 
son  of  Henry  Stevens,  an  an- 
tiquary of  Barnet,  Vt.,  where  the 
younger  Henry  was  born.  He 
studied  at  Middlebury  College, 
taught,  and  was  a  government 
clerk  at  Washington  before 
entering  Yale,  where  he  was 
graduated  in  1843.  He  then 
studied  law  at  Harvard.  He 
went  to  London  in  1845,  in  search 
of  Americana,  becoming  pur- 
chasing agent  there  for  many 
American  collectors  and  libraries, 
and  from  the  time  of  his  arrival 
until  his  death  was  agent  of  the 
British  Museum  for  the  acquire- 
ment of  North  and  South  Amer- 
ican books.  His  collection  of  doc- 
uments relating  to  Benjamin 
Franklin  was  bought  by  the 
United  States  government.  His 
many  bibliographical  and  other 
works  include  Catalogue  of  Amer- 
ican Books  in  the  Library  of  the 
British  Museum  (1857),  Biblio- 
theca  Americana  (1861),  Who 
Spoils  our  New  English  Books 
(1885),  and  Recollections  of  James 
Lenox  (1886). 

Stevens,  Isaac  Ingalls  (1818- 
62),  American  soldier,  was  born 
in  North  Andover,  Mass.  He 
was  graduated  from  West  Point 
in  1839,  as  second  lieutenant  of 
engineers,  served  throughout  the 
Mexican  War,  and  having  been 
appointed  governor  of  Washing- 
ton Territory,  resigned  from  the 
army  in  1852.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  was  appoint- 
ed colonel  and  shortly  thereafter 
brigadier  general  of  volunteers, 
becoming  major  general  in  1862. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
operations  in  Virginia  during  the 
first  year  of  the  war  and  while 
commanding  a  division  of  Burn- 
side's  corps  was  killed  at  Chan- 
tilly,  Sept.  1,  1862. 

Stevens,  John  (1749-1838), 
American  inventor,  was  born  in 
New  York  City.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  King's  College  (now 
Columbia  University)  in  1768,  in 
1771  was  admitted  to  the  New 
York  bar,  and  in  1776-79  was 
treasurer  of  the  State  of  New 
Jersey,  and  a  colonel  of  one  of 
the  infantry  regiments  of  that 
State.  In  1790  he  was  active  in 
demanding  the  enactment  of  a 
patent  law,  and  succeeded  in 
securing  the  establishment  of  the 
American  patent  system.  He 
secured  several  patents  for  his 
own  inventions  relating  to  steam 
engines,  and  in  association  with 


Nicholas  I.  Roosevelt  and  Robert 
R.  Livingston  placed  a  steam- 
boat on  the  Hudson  River.  The 
boat  did  not  meet  the  speed 
requirements,  and  in  1801  he 
became  associated  with  Robert 
Fulton  in  steamboat  building, 
and  secured  a  monopoly  of  steam 
propulsion  on  the  Hudson.  In 
1807  he  built  the  Phoenix,  a 
paddle-wheel  steamboat,  which 
he  successfully  ran  on  the  Dela- 
ware River  for  several  years. 
He  early  recognized  the  efficiency 
of  the  four-threaded  screw  for 
steamship  propulsion,  and  built 
a  successful  boat  propelled  by 
turn  screws;  but  other  considera- 
tions led  to  the  general  use  of 
stern-wheel  and  side-wheel 
steamboats  for  many  years.  In 
1811  he  established  a  steam  ferry 
between  Hoboken  and  New 
York  City,  which  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  first  of  its  kind. 
In  1815  he  obtained  a  charter 
for  the  first  American  railroad  to 
run  between  the  Delaware  and 
Raritan  Rivers,  and  in  1824  one 
for  the  first  part  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad  system. 

Stevens,  John  Austin  (1795- 
1874),  American  banker,  was 
born  in  New  York  City.  He  was 
graduated  from  Yale  University 
in  1813,  and  was  for  many  years 
secretary  of  the  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce of  New  York  City.  He 
was  also  active  in  many  financial 
undertakings. 

Stevens,  John  Austin  (1827- 
1910),  American  author,  was 
born  in  New  York  City.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  1846  and  from  1862  to 
1868  acted  as  secretary  to  the 
New  York  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce. In  1877  he  established 
the  Magazine  of  American  His- 
tory of  which  he  was  editor  until 
1883.  His  published  works  in- 
clude Colonial  Records  of  the 
New  York  Chamber  of  Commerce 
(1867)  ;  Life  of  Albert  Gallatin 
(1884)  ;  New  York  City  in  the 
Nineteenth  Century  (1901). 

Stevens,  John  Frank  (1853- 
1943),  American  civil  engineer, 
was  born  in  West  Gardiner,  Me. 
He  was  engaged  in  railroad 
engineering  and  management  for 
many  years  and  in  1905  became 
chief  engineer  of  the  Panama 
Canal.  He  was  chairman  of  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  dur- 
ing a  part  of  1907,  but  resigned 
to  become  vice-president  in 
charge  of  operation  of  the  New 
York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford 
Railroad.  In  1917-18  he  was 
head  of  the  American  Railway 
Commission  to  Russia,  and  in 
1919-23  president  of  the  Inter- 
Allied  Technical  Board  having 
supervision  over  the  Siberian 
railways. 

Stevens,  John  Leavitt  (1820- 
95),  American  journalist  and 
diplomat,  was  born  in  Mt. 
Vernon,  Me.     He  studied  for 


Stevens 


KFN 


452 


Stevens  Institute 


the  ministry  but  was  forced  by 
ill  health  to  abandon  that  pro- 
fession and  for  many  years  he 
edited  the  Kennebec  Journal. 
He  was  minister  to  Paraguay 
and  Uruguay  in  1870-73,  minis- 
ter to  Sweden  and  Norway  in 
1877-83,  and  minister  to  Hawaii 
in  1889-93.  When  the  Hawaiian 
monarchy  was  overthrown  by 
revolution  in  1893,  Stevens  de- 
clared an  American  protectorate 
over  the  islands,  but  his  act  was 
disavowed  and  he  was  recalled, 
but  was  later  exonerated  by  the 
Senate  of  any  wrong  doing. 

Stevens,  Phi NEAs  (1707-56), 
American  soldier,  was  born  in 
Sudbury,  Mass.  When  sixteen 
years  of  age  he  and  three  younger 
brothers  were  ambushed  by  the 
Indians,  who  killed  two  of  his 
brothers,  took  him  prisoner,  and 
were  about  to  kill  the  third 
brother,  a  child  of  four  years, 
when  Phineas  by  signs  made  the 
Indians  understand  that  if  they 
would  spare  the  child  he  would 
carry  him  on  his  shoulders,  which 
he  did — all  the  way  to  Canada. 
Both  were  afterwards  redeemed, 
and  in  King  George's  War,  while 
in  command  of  the  border  post 
known  as  Fort  No.  4,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  repelling  several  at- 
tacks made  by  the  French  and 
Indians.  In  1749  and  again  in 
1752  he  made  trips  to  Canada  to 
effect  an  exchange  of  prisoners. 

Stevens,  Robert  Livingston 
(1787-1856),  American  inven- 
tor, son  of  John  Stevens  (q.  v.), 
was  born  in  Hoboken,  N.  J.  At 
the  age  of  seventeen  he  entered 
his  father's  shipbuilding  yards 
and  in  1808  navigated  the  Phce- 
nix,  the  first  American  steamer 
to  enter  the  ocean,  on  her  trip 
from  New  York  to  Philadelphia. 
After  the  death  of  Fulton  he 
became  the  foremost  American 
shipbuilder,  and  was  instrumen- 
tal in  making  great  improvements 
in  the  marine  engine  and  naval 
architecture.  In  1830  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Camden 
and  Amboy  Railroad,  and  was 
sent  to  England  to  buy  rails. 
While  on  the  voyage  he  invented 
the  Stevens  rail,  which  is  now 
known  as  the  T-rail.  The  latter 
part  of  his  life  was  devoted  to 
the  improvement  of  locomotives 
and  armor  plate. 

Stevens,  Thaddeus  (1792- 
1868),  American  statesman,  was 
born  in  Danville,  Vermont.  His 
parents  were  poor,  and  Stevens 
was  sickly  and  lame,  but,  aided 
by  his  mother,  he  succeeded  in 
preparing  himself  to  enter  Dart- 
mouth College,  from  which  he 
was  graduated  in  1814.  He  be- 
gan the  study  of  law  in  Vermont, 
but  in  order  to  get  a  better 
location  he  removed  to  York, 
Pa.,  where  he  taught  school 
while  preparing  himself  for  the 
legal  profession.    He  was  admit- 


ted to  the  bar  in  Maryland  in 
1816,  and  at  once  returned  to 
Pennsylvania  and  began  to 
practise  in  Gettysburg. 

He  entered  politics  in  1828  as 
a  National  Republican,  a  sup- 
porter of  John  Quincy  Adams, 
and  later  was  a  prominent  anti- 
Masonic  leader,  finally  becoming 
a  Whig.  In  1833  he  was  elected 
to  the  Pennsylvania  legislature 
and  was  re-elected  six  times 
before  1842.  In  the  legislature 
he  won  local  fame  as  a  supporter 
of  the  state  free  school  system, 
just  then  being  established  against 
great  opposition.  Living  near 
the  border  between  the  free  and 
slave  states,  Stevens  saw  and 
heard  much  of  escaping  slaves 
and  became  an  ardent  anti-slav- 
ery advocate  and  friend  of  the 
blacks.  He  freely  gave  his  serv- 
ices to  defend  fugitive  slaves  and 
sometimes  gave  the  money  to 
redeem  them.  In  1836  he  was  a 
member  of  the  state  constitu- 
tional convention  and  was  prom- 
inent chiefly  as  an  advocate  of 
Negro  suffrage,  refusing  to  sign 
the  constitution  because  it  lim- 
ited the  franchise  to  whites.  In 
1838  he  was  state  canal  commis- 
sioner and  successfully  managed 
the  internal  improvements  of  the 
state.  From  the  beginning  he 
was  an  intense  partisan  in  poli- 
tics, and  in  1838  he  led  a  Whig 
and  anti-Masonic  revolt  in  the 
legislature  against  the  Demo- 
cratic majority  and  set  up  a 
rival  body.  Later  the  Whigs 
returned  to  the  Democratic  or- 
ganization, and  Stevens  was  ex- 
pelled, but  was  immediately  re- 
elected by  his  constituents. 

Having  lost  heavily  in  manu- 
facturing investments,  he  retired 
from  politics  in  1842,  went  to 
Lancaster,  Pa.,  for  a  more 
lucrative  law  practice,  and  in  a 
few  years  had  paid  a  debt  of 
nearly  $200,000.  He  then  forced 
the  Whig  'machine'  to  nominate 
him  to  Congress,  in  which  he 
served  from  1849  to  1853,  and  to 
which  he  was  returned  in  1858  as 
a  Republican,  serving  until  his 
death  in  1868.  He  opposed  the 
South  in  all  things,  made  bitter 
speeches  against  slavery,  op- 
posed the  Compromise  of  1850, 
and  all  the  attempts  made  in 
1860  and  1861  to  bring  about  a 
reconciliation  between  North  and 
South.  During  the  War  and 
Reconstruction  he  was  leader  of 
the  Radical  Republicans :  and 
he  was  among  the  first  to  demand 
the  abolition  of  slavery,  the 
arming  of  the  slaves,  the  con- 
fiscation of  property  in  the  South, 
and  the  Thirteenth  and  Four- 
teenth Amendments  to  the  Con- 
stitution. 

It  was  in  connection  with  the 
Reconstruction  that  Stevens  be- 
came best  known.  During  the 
War  he  strongly  opposed  Presi- 


dent Lincoln's  plan  of  restoring 
the  Southern  States  to  the 
Union,  and  after  the  War  he 
was  leader  in  rejecting  and  over- 
throwing the  work  of  President 
Johnson.  To  the  last  he  advo- 
cated the  most  stringent  meas- 
ures against  the  South.  To  a 
considerable  extent  he  shaped 
the  report  of  the  Joint  Committee 
on  Reconstruction,  which  out- 
lined the  plan  by  which  Congress 
finally  reconstructed  the  South- 
ern States,  and  the  Recon- 
struction Acts  of  1867  were 
mainly  his  work. 

Stevens  had  few  friends ;  his 
sympathy  was  reserved  for  the 
weak  and  oppressed  ;  as  long  as 
he  lived  he  hated  the  Southern 
whites,  because  he  believed  that 
they  ill-treated  Negroes  as  slaves 
and  freemen ;  in  debate  no  one 
could  stand  before  his  savage 
denunciation  and  ridicule  and  he 
was  unsparing  of  the  members  of 
his  own  party  who  opposed  his 
views. 

Stevens,  Walter  Le  Conte 
( 1 847-1 927 ) ,  American  physicist, 
was  born  in  Gordon  County,  Ga. 
He  was  graduated  from  the 
University  of  South  Carolina  in 
1868,  and  later  studied  in 
Strassburg,  Zurich  and  Berlin. 
In  1870-72  he  was  professor  of 
chemistry  in  Oglethorpe  College, 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  and  in  1873-76  was 
professor  of  physical  science  in 
Chatham  Academy,  Savannah, 
Ga.  He  then  removed  to  New 
York,  in  1879-82  became  pro- 
fessor of  physics  in  the  Cooper 
Union  Institute,  in  1882-90  was 
professor  of  mathematics  and 
physics  in  the  Packer  Collegiate 
Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and 
in  1892-98  was  professor  of 
physics  in  the  Rensselaer  Poly- 
technic Institute,  in  the  latter 
year  becoming  professor  of  phys- 
ics in  the  Washington  and  Lee 
University,  Lexington,  Va.  In 
1922  he  became  professor  emeri- 
tus. 

Stevens  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, a  non-sectarian  college 
of  engineering  in  Hoboken,  New 
Jersey,  founded  in  1870  by  Ed- 
win A.  Stevens,  who  bequeathed 
for  it  land  and  sums  of  money 
aggregating  $650,000.  The  pres- 
idents of  the  college  have  been 
Henry  Morton  (1870-1902); 
Alexander  Crombie  Humphreys 
(1902-27)  ;  and  Harvey  Nathan- 
iel Davis  (1928-  ).  Only  one 
degree,  that  of  mechanical  engi- 
neering, is  conferred  in  course. 
Students  are  trained  in  the  fun- 
damental studies  essential  to  the 
efficient  practice  of  the  engineer- 
ing profession  in  the  mechanical, 
electrical,  civil,  and  chemical 
branches.  The  Institute  grounds 
cover  nearly  30  acres,  including 
Castle  Point,  formerly  a  part  of 
the  Stevens  family  estate.  The 
former  home  of  the  family  is  used 


Stevenson 


KFN 


453 


Stevenson 


as  a  student  social  center  and 
dormitory.  Other  buildings  are 
the  Administration  Building, 
Recitation  Hall,  Carnegie  Labo- 
ratory of  Engineering,  Walker 
Gymnasium,  Morton  Laboratory 
of  Chemistry,  Library,  and  three 
dormitories,  Palmer,  Jacobus,  and 
Bernegan.  Special  facilities  for 
research  include  three  towing 
tanks  for  testing  ship  and  yacht 
hulls.  The  college  has  developed 
an  engineering  camp  of  340  acres 
at  Johnsonburg,  N.  J. 

Stevenson,  Adlai  Ewing 
(1835-1914),  American  public 
official,  was  born  in  Christian 
County,  Ky.  He  attended  Centre 
College,  removed  to  Bloorning- 
ton.  III.,  and  was  there  admitted 
to  the  bar.  He  was  a  Democratic 
member  of  Congress  in  1875-77 
and  1879-81,  and  first  assistant 
postmaster-general  in  1885—89. 
He  was  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States  during  Cleveland's 
second  term  (1893-97).  In  1897 
he  was  a  member  of  the  commis- 
sion to  Europe  in  the  interest  of 
international  bimetallism. 

Stevenson,  John  James 
(1841-1924),  American  geologist, 
was  born  in  New  York  City. 
He  was  graduated  from  New 
York  University  in  1863,  in 
1869-71  was  professor  of  chem- 
istry and  natural  history  in 
West  Virginia  University,  and  in 
1871  became  professor  of  geology 
at  his  alma  mater,  subsequently 
occuping  the  chairs  of  chem- 
istry, physics,  and  biology,  re- 
tiring as  professor  emeritus  in 
1909.  In  1871-74  he  was  at- 
tached to  the  Ohio  State  Geo- 
logical Survey,  and  in  1873-80 
was  geologist  on  the  U.  S.  Geo- 
graphical Survey  west  of  the 
100th  meridian.  In  1875-82  he 
was  geologist  in  charge  of  the 
southwestern  districts'  second 
geological  survey  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  classified  the  upper 
coal  measures  of  the  northern 
Appalachian  area,  and  the  Lara- 
mie coal  series  of  New  Mexico. 
His  publications  include  The  Coal 
Measures  of  Pennsylvania  (4 
vols.  1876-82)  ;  The  Geology  of 
New  Mexico  (1882),  and  many 
geological  monographs. 

Stevenson,  Robert  (1772- 
1850),  Scottish  civil  engineer, 
was  born  in  Glasgow.  He  was 
educated  in  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity and  succeeded  his  step- 
father as  inspector  of  lighthouses 
in  1796.  He  constructed  more 
than  twenty  lighthouses  on  the 
Scottish  coasts,  of  which  the  Bell 
Rock  was  the  most  remarkable. 
He  also  made  many  improve- 
ments in  the  system  of  lighting, 
bringing  the  catoptric  or  reflect- 
ing system  to  perfection,  advo- 
cating the  adoption  of  the  diop- 
tric or  refracting  system,  and  in- 
venting the  intermittent  and 
flashing  lights.    In  1814  he  was 


accompanied  on  one  of  his  voy- 
ages of  inspection  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott. 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis 
Balfour  (1850-94),  Scottish 
novelist  and  poet,  only  son  of 
Thomas  Stevenson,  was  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Nov.  13,  1850.  On 
the  mother's  side  he  was  a  cadet 
of  the  Balfours  of  Pilrig ;  hence 
the   name   of   his   hero,  David 


the  same  year  he  was  at  Men- 
tone,  and  wrote  the  essay 
Ordered  South,  which  proved  his 
eminent  gifts  in  literature.  For 
some  seven  years  at  least  he  had 
been  studying  and  practising  the 
art  of  expression,  imitating  now 
one  famous  style,  now  another, 
so  that,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
three,  his  own  style  was  the 
dainty,  vivacious,  energetic  one 


Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 


Balfour,  in  Kidnapped  and  Cat- 
riona.  His  remoter  paternal 
ancestors  were  farmers  in  the 
Covenanting  west ;  his  nearer 
forefathers  were  eminent  engi- 
neers and  builders  of  lighthouses. 
He  was  educated  largely  by  pri- 
vate tutors  but  entered  Edin- 
burgh University  with  the  in- 
tention of  following  his  father's 
profession  of  engineer,  but  he 
soon  gave  it  up  as  unsuitable  and 
began  to  devote  himself  to  liter- 
ary pursuits.  In  1866,  the 
Covenanter  coming  out  in  him, 
he  wrote  The  Pentland  Rising; 
and  in  1871  he  edited  and  con- 
tributed to  the  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity Magazine.  In  1873  he 
met  his  lifelong  friend,  Sidney 
Colvin,  and  so  came  into  touch 
with  the  literary  world  to  which 
he  was  strongly  attracted.  In 


with  which  his  readers  are  famil- 
iar— a  thing  alive  to  the  finger- 
tips, full  of  unexpected  and 
delightful  turns  and  cadences. 

Meanwhile  (1876-9)  Steven- 
son produced  a  charming  series 
of  essays  and  short  stories  in 
the  Cornhill  Magazine  and  else- 
where, and  chronicled  two  senti- 
mental journeys  in  An  Inland 
Voyage  and  Through  the  Ce- 
vennes  with  a  Donkey.  During  a 
holiday  in  the  forest  of  Fontaine- 
bleau  he  met  Mrs.  Osbourne,  an 
American  lady,  followed  her  to 
the  United  States  (1879),  where 
he  spent  two  years  in  California, 
and  married  her  in  1880.  During 
this  time  he  wrote  a  first  draft  of 
Prince  Otto,  and  an  account  of 
his  journey  from  New  York  to 
San  Francisco,  in  The  Amateur 
Emigrant  and  Across  the  Plains, 


Stevenson 


KFN 


454 


Stewart 


published  respectively  in  1894 
and  1892.  He  tells  the  story  of 
his  stay  in  California  at  this 
time  in  The  Silverado  Squatters 
p883).  He  returned  to  Europe 
in  1880,  where,  partly  to  amuse 
his  stepson,  he  began  Treasure 
Island  (1882),  which  was  a  great 
success.  This  was  followed  by 
The  Black  Arrow  (1888,  dearer 
to  boys  than  to  men),  and  by  Kid- 
napped (1886),  Catriona  (1893,  a 
sequel),  and  The  Master  of  Bal- 
lantrae  (1889),  all  historical  ro- 
mances of  adventure. 

By  this  time  Stevenson  had 
proved  his  mastery  in  many 
fields,  one  of  which  he  invented. 
This  was  shown  in  the  brilliant 
fantasies  of  Oriental  adventure  in 
modern  life,  The  New  Arabian 
Nights  (1882).  Prince  Otto 
(1885)  was  a  highly  elaborated 
romance  of  a  fancied  German 
princely  court  which  cost  the  au- 
thor many  pangs  :  it  is  full  of  pas- 
sages of  surprising  beauty,  but  it 
is  the  most  precieux  of  his  writ- 
ings. His  essays  continued  to 
enjoy  the  highest  favor  and  his 
Child's  Garden  of  Verses  (1885) 
is  full  of  delightful  survivals  of 
his  imaginative  infancy.  Apart 
from  all  these  varieties  was  the 
gruesome  allegory.  Dr.  Jekvll  and 
Mr.  Hyde  (1886),  revealed  to 
him  in  a  dreain.  Despite  these 
and  other  writings  Stevenson 
remained  poor,  for  at  first  he 
was  not  'popular.'  And  again, 
'he  was  not  always  wholly 
serious.'  He  had  too  much  of 
irony  and  of  humor  to  reach  the 
vast  reading  public. 

In  1887,  his  health  failing,  he 
went  again  to  the  United  States 
where  he  spent  the  winter  in  the 
village  of  Saranac  Lake,  in  the 
Adirondacks,  writing  in  the 
meantime  for  Scrihncr's  Maga- 
zine. In  June,  1888,  he  sailed 
with  his  family  from  San  Fran- 
cisco for  a  voyage  in  the  southern 
Pacific.  At  this  time,  he  was 
forced  to  be  writing  hard  for  a 
livelihood  ;  when  unable  to  speak 
or  to  hold  the  pen,  he  dictated 
fiction  with  his  fingers  by  the 
dumb  alphabet.  In  Samoa,  where 
he  built  a  house  (Vailima)  and 
settled,  he  was  known  as  Tusitala 
('the  Tale-teller').  There  he  re- 
covered his  health  (1890-4)  ;  but 
continued  to  work  and  to  play  at 
high  pressure.  Vailima  was  his 
Abbotsford  or  Monte  Cristo  :  he 
kept  open  house  and  open  purse. 
With  Lloyd  Osbourne,  his  step- 
son, he  wrote  The  Ebb  Tide 
(1894),  a  gloomy  thing;  the 
amusing  but  perplexing  and  ill- 
constructed  Wrecker  (1892)  ; 
and  all  but  the  last  chapters  of 
St.  Ives,  published  with  a  finish 
by  Mr.  Quiller-Couch  (1897). 
Lastly  he  settled  on  Weir  of  Her- 
miston  (1896),  in  which  he  found 
his  powers  more  mature  and  vig- 
orous than  ever. 


He  died  suddenly,  Dec.  3, 
1894,  stricken  down  in  a  mo- 
ment, by  the  rupture  of  a  blood 
vessel  in  the  brain,  and  was 
buried  at  the  summit  of  Mount 
Vaea,  near  Vailima. 

Stevenson  as  a  man  is  fully 
revealed  in  his  books :  they  are 
filled  with  his  invincible  and 
blithe  stoicism,  his  courage,  his 
high  intellectual  spirits,  his 
boundless  charity,  his  com- 
bination of  the  wisdom  of  the 
sage  with  the  hallucinatory 
fancy  of  the  child,  and  the  chival- 
rous loyalty  and  adventurous 
heart  of  the  boy.  They  who 
would  know  him  most  familiarly 
must  read  his  Letters  to  his 
Family  and  Friends,  edited 
(1894-9)  by  Sidney  Colvin.  Ste- 
venson's 'appeal'  is  to  the  very 
same  passions  and  emotions  as 
those  which  move  the  audiences 
of  Homer.  His  heart  is  with  man 
as  a  being  that  toils,  loves,  and 
fights  in  the  open  air — the  hunt- 
er, the  sailor,  the  warrior.  To 
place  his  work  beside  Scott's  is 
the  act  of  'a  devout  imagination.' 
He  has  not  Scott's  limitless  power 
of  dramatic  creation,  any  more 
than  Scott  had  or  tried  to  culti- 
vate Stevenson's  matchless  ver- 
bal felicity.  Neither  novelist 
dealt  much  with  the  passion  of 
love.  Only  in  Weir  of  Herniis- 
ton  does  Stevenson  really  give  his 
strength  to  varied  studies  of  this 
master  passion,  succeeding  in  an 
almost  unexampled  degree.  He 
undoubtedly  could  draw  women 
— Barbara  Grant,  the  two  Kir- 
sties,  and  Catriona  herself ;  but 
he  as  certainly  was  more  at  home 
with  men.  He  once  matched 
himself  against  Scott  in  a  story 
of  the  supernatural :  'Thrawn 
Janet'  is  his  'Wandering  Willie's 
Tale.'  The  atmosphere  of  terror 
is  wonderfully  produced ;  the 
manner  of  telling  is  beyond  all 
praise.  But  humor  and  poetry 
are  conspicuous  by  their  absence. 
Somehow,  somewhere,  there  was 
in  the  genius  of  Stevenson  a 
melancholy  note.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  his  works  is  the  Edin- 
burgh edition  (27  vols.)  edited  by 
Sidney  Colvin  (1894-98).  Books 
about  Stevenson  are  legion ; 
among  them  may  be  mentioned 
Balfour,  Life;  Osbourne  and 
Strong,  Memories  of  Vailima; 
Baildon,  R.  L.  Stevenson  ;  A  Life 
Study;  Watts,  R.  L.  S.;  Swin- 
nerton,  R.  L.  Stevenson,  A  Criti- 
cal Study ;  Hamilton,  On  the 
Trail  of  Stevenson  (1915)  ;  Steu- 
art,  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  (2 
vols.  1924). 

Stevenson,  Sara  (Yorke) 
(1847-1921),  American  archaeol- 
ogist, was  born  in  Paris,  France, 
and  educated  in  private  sem- 
inaries in  that  city.  In  1870, 
while  a  resident  of  Philadelphia, 
she  began  the  study  of  archaeol- 
ogy.    In    1893   she  was  vice- 


president  of  the  jury  for  eth- 
nology at  the  World's  Columbian 
Exposition,  and  in  1894  became 
secretary  of  the  department  of 
archaeology  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  In  1897  she 
carried  out  special  archaeological 
investigations  in  Rome,  on  be- 
half of  the  University,  and  in 
1898  did  similar  work  in  the 
Nile  Valley  for  the  American  Ex- 
ploration Society.  She  wrote 
Maximilian  in  Mexico  (1899),  and 
various  articles  on  archaeology. 

Stevenson,  Thomas  (1818- 
87),  Scottish  engineer  and  mete- 
orologist, was  born  in  Edinburgh, 
the  youngest  son  of  Robert  Ste- 
venson, and  father  of  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson  (qq.  v.).  His 
first  scientific  paper  (1842)  was 
in  connection  with  meteorology, 
for  the  advance  of  which  he  and 
the  instruments  he  invented 
were  largely  responsible.  He 
constructed  his  first  lighthouse 
in  1843,  and  in  1853,  with  his 
brother,  was  appointed  engi- 
neer to  the  Board  of  Northern 
Lighthouses.  His  chief  work  was 
in  the  improvement  of  the  means 
of  lighthouse  illumination,  and 
in  1859  he  published  Lighthouse 
Illumination,  which  in  the  second 
edition  (1871)  became  Light- 
house Construction  and  Illumina- 
tion. Consult  R.  L.  Stevenson, 
Memoirs  and  Portraits  (1887). 

Stevenson,  William  (d. 
1575),  probably  the  author  of  the 
English  comedy  Gammer  Gur- 
ton's  Needle,  was  born  at  Hun- 
wick,  Durham,  and  was  a  fellow 
of  Christ's  College,  Cambridge, 
1551-54  and  1559-61.  Dr.  John 
Bridges,  dean  of  Salisbury,  re- 
puted author,  was  possibly  a  col- 
laborator. 

Stevens  Point,  city,  Wiscon- 
sin, county  seat  of  Portage  coun- 
ty, on  the  Wisconsin  River  and 
on  the  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  and 
Sault  Ste.  Marie,  and  the  Green 
Bay  and  Western  railroads;  100 
miles  north  of  Madison.  It  is  a 
manufacturing  center,  producing 
lumber,  wall  and  writing  papers, 
newspaper,  furniture,  flour, 
starch,  fishing  tackle,  foundry 
and  machine-shop  products.  The 
Central  State  Teachers  College 
is  situated  here,  and  there  is  a 
municipal  library.  The  place  was 
settled  in  1860,  incorporated  in 
1879,  and  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1904.  Pop.  (1930)  13,623; 
(1940)  15,777. 

Steward,  Lord  High,  in 
England,  the  head  of  the  ancient 
court  called  the  Board  of  Green 
Cloth.  With  a  few  exceptions  he 
has  the  selection  of  all  the  officers 
and  servants  of  the  household. 

Stewart,  Steuart,  or  Stuart, 
a  Scottish  family  tracing  its  de- 
scent from  a  Norman  baron, 
Flaald,  whose  grandson  Walter 
(d.  1177)  was  appointed  steward 
of  David  i.    From  sons  of  Sir 


Stewart 


KFN 


John  (killed  at  Falkirk  in  1298), 

nephew  of  Walter  (d.  1246),  were 
descended  the  Stewarts,  Earls 
of  Angus;  the  Stewarts  or  Stu- 
arts, Earls  and  Dukes  of  Len- 
nox; the  Stewarts,  Earls  of  Gal- 
loway; the  Stewarts  of  Lorn  and 
Innermeath,  and  the  Stewarts  of 
Allanton,  Coltness,  and  Grand- 
tuUy.  The  Stewarts  of  Lorn  and 
Innermeath  were  ancestors  of  the 
Earls  of  AthoU,  and  the  later 
Earls  of  Buchan  are  an  offshoot 
of  the  same  branch,  though  they 
have  also  ties  of  relationship  with, 
the  direct  royal  line.  From  a 
natural  son  of  James,  first  Earl  of 
Buchan,  were  descended  the  Earls 
of  Traquair.  The  first  Stewart 
of  the  royal  line  of  Great  Brit- 
ain was  Robert,  son  of  Walter, 
sixth  high  steward,  by  Marjory, 
daughter  of  Robert  the  Bruce, 
who  succeeded  in  1371  to  the 
Scottish  throne  as  Robert  ll. 
From  a  natural  son  of  Robert  ll. 
are  descended  the  Steuarts  of 
Dalguise,  Perthshire,  and  the 
Stewarts,  Marquises  of  Bute; 
and  a  natural  son  of  Robert  iii. 
is  paternal  ancestor  of  the  Shaw 
Stewarts  of  Blackball  and  Green- 
ock, Renfrewshire.  From  natu- 
ral sons  of  the  fourth  son  of 
Robert  ii.  (Alexander,  known  as 
the  'Wolf  of  Badenoch')  are  de- 
scended the  Stewarts  of  Atholl, 
who,  with  the  Stewarts  of  Appin, 
descended  from  a  natural  son  of 
the  last  Lord  Lorn,  are  regarded 
as  constituting  the  Highland  clan 
of  the  Stewarts. 

The  direct  legitimate  male  line 
of  the  elder  branch  of  the  royal 
Stewarts  terminated  _  with  the 
death  of  James  v.  His  daughter 
Mary,  who  succeeded  him  on  the 
Scottish  throne,  claimed  that  of 
England  against  Elizabeth,  on 
account  of  descent  from  Mar- 
garet Tudor,  queen  of  James  iv.; 
and  Mary's  son,  James  vi.,  in 
ascending  the  English  throne,  be- 
came the  progenitor  of  the  royal 
line  of  Great  Britain.  By  his 
father,  Lord  Darnley,  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Lennox,  James  vi.  was 
also  descended  from  a  branch  of 
the  Stewart  line,  which  claimed 
against  the  Hamiltons,  Earls  of 
Arran  (descended  from  the  Prin- 
cess Mary,  daughter  of  James  ii.), 
to  be  next  heirs  after  James 
himself  to  the  Scottish  throne, 
on  account  of  an  asserted  illegiti- 
mate link  in  the  Hamilton  de- 
scent. After  the  flight  of  James 
VII.  of  Scotland  and  ii.  of  Eng- 
land to  France  in  December,1688, 
the  elder  male  line  descended 
from  James  vi.  and  i.  was  per- 
manently debarred  from  the 
throne,  William  of  Orange  (son 
of  Mary,  eldest  daughter  of 
Charles  i.)  and  his  wife  Mary 
(eldest  daughter  of  James  vii. 
and  II.)  succeeding  in  1689.  On 
the  death  of  William  (1702), 
Anne,  younger  daughter  of  James 


vn.  and  n.,  was  called  to  the 
throne  of  Scotland  and  England 
without  opposition.  On  her  death 
(1714)  she  was  succeeded  by 
George,  son  of  Sophia,  daughter 
of  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Jarnes 
VI.  and  I.,  and  wife  of  Frederick 
v..  Count  Palatine  of  the  Rhine. 
The  last  male  representative  of 
the  senior  Stewart  royal  line, 
descended  from  James  vi.  and 
I.,  was  Henry,  Cardinal  York, 
younger  brother  of  Charles 
Edward,  the  'young  Chevalier,' 
and  son  of  James,  incorrectly 
termed  the  'Pretender;'  and 
with  the  death  of  Henry  termi- 
nated also  the  male  line  of  the 
original  Earls  of  Lennox,  de- 
scended from  Sir  John  Stewart 
of  Derneley.  But  for  the  Act  of 
Settlement  of  1701,  the  heirs  to 
the  throne  after  the  death  of 
Cardinal  York  would  have  been 
the  Sardinian  line,  descended 
from  Henrietta  Maria,  youngest 
daughter  of  Charles  i.,and  Philip, 
Duke  of  Orleans,  son  of  King 
Louis  XIII  of  France,  later  rep- 
resented by  Rupert,  son  of  Prince 
Louis  of  Bavaria  and  Maria 
Theresa,  archduchess  of  Austria. 
(See  Lennox.)  See  histories 
of  the  Stewarts,  by  Crauford 
(1710),  Duncan  Stewart  (1739), 
and  A.  Stewart  (1798-9)  ;  Stew- 
art, Stewarts  of  Appin  (1880), 
P.  M.  Thornton,  Stuart  Dynasty 
(1891),  Skelton,  The  Royal 
House  of  Stuart  (1890). 

Stewart,  Alexander  Peter 
(1824-1908).  Amer.  soldier,  born 
at  Rogersville,  Tenn.  He  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1842,  and 
was  assistant  professor  of  mathe- 
matics there  m  1842-45,  and  of 
mental  and  moral  philosophy  in 
Cumberland  and  ^fashville  Uni- 
versities in  1845-60.  After  the 
secession  of  Tenn.  he  drilled 
troops  and  constructed  batteries 
at  Randolph  on  the  Mississippi, 
and  was  the  first  to  occupy 
Island  No.  10  and  New  Madrid, 
Mo.  For  his  services  at  the  battle 
of  Belmont  he  was  promoted 
brigadier-general  and  given  com- 
mand of  a  brigade  of  Tenn. 
troops  under  Gen.  Leonidas  Polk. 
At  Shiloh,  Perryville,  Murfrees- 
boro,  Hoover's  Gap,  Chicka- 
mauga,  and  Missionary  Ridge, 
Stewart  and  his  command  were 
conspicuous,  and  he  was  pro- 
moted to  major-general  in  June, 
1863.    During  the  Atlanta  cam- 

gaign  of  1864  he  defeated 
[ooker's  corps  at  New  Hope 
Church  (May  26),  and  on  June 
23  was  promoted,  to  lieutenant- 
general  and  placed  in  command 
of  the  corps  of  Gen.  Leonidas 
Polk,  who  had  been  killed  at 
Pine  Mountain.  He  continued 
to  serve  with  distinction  in  the 
Atlanta  and  Tennessee  cam- 
paigns and  in  the  final  campaign 
in  the  Carolinas.    He  was  ap- 


455  Stewart 

pointed  commissioner  of  Chick- 
amauga  National  Park  in  1890. 

Stewart,  Alexander  Turkey 
(1803-76),  American  merchant, 
was  born  at  Lisburn,  near  Bel- 
fast, Ireland,  and  was  of  Scottish 
descent.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
farmer,  and  studied  for  the  min- 
istry at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
but  was  advised  to  emigrate  to 
America,  and  came  to  New  York 
city  jn  1823.  _  He  engaged  in 
teaching,  but  inheriting  a  small 
legacy  from  his  father,  procured 
a  supply  of  Belfast  white  goods  in 
Ireland,  and  began  a  drapery 
business  in  Broadway,  New  York 
city.  This  developed  rapidly, 
and  he  erected  in  1848  a  large 
marble  store  at  Broadway  and 
Chambers  Street,  which  became  a 
show  place,  and  which,  after  the 
erection  of  the  great  iron  building 
at  Broadway  and  10th  Street  in 
1862,  was  used  for  the  wholesale 
branch  of  the  business.  The 
latter  embraced  branch  liouses 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and 
many  factories.  In  March,  1869, 
he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
treasury  by  President  Grant,  but 
his  confirmation  was  prevented  by 
the  law  which  renders  mercantile 
importers  ineligible  to  the  office. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  Stewart 
was  completing  the  erection,  at  a 
cost  of  more  than  $1,000,000,  of 
the  large  building  in  Fourth 
Avenue  between  32d  and  33d 
streets,  intended  as  a  home  for 
working  girls  (now  the  Park 
Avenue  Hotel).  Stewart's  body 
was  stolen  from  St.  Mark's  church- 
yard. New  York,  a  few  days  after 
its  burial  there,  but  was  recov- 
ered and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  reburied  in  the  Cathedral 
of  the  Incarnation,  an  edifice 
built  from  funds  given  by  him, 
at  Garden  City,  L.  I. 

Stewart,  Alvan  (1790-1849), 
American  abolitionist,  born  at 
South  Granville,  N.  Y.  He 
attended  Burhngton  College; 
taught  school;  was  for  a  time  a 
prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the  British 
in  the  War  of  1812;  studied  law, 
and  practised  at  Cherry  Valley 
and  Utica.  In  1835  he  called  an 
abolition  convention  at  Utica, 
which  was  dispersed  by  a  mob. 
From  this  time  most  of  his  atten- 
tion was  devoted  to  advancing 
the  anti-slavery  cause;  he  was 
at  one  time  the  abolitionist  can- 
didate for  governor,  and  made 
many  speeches  in  behalf  of  aboli- 
tion. A  collection  of  these 
speeches,  with  a  short  memoir, 
was  published  in  1860  by  his  son- 
in-law,  Luther  R.  Marsh. 

Stewart,  Balfour  (1828-87), 
Scottish  physicist  and  meteorol- 
ogist, was  born  in  Edinburgh. 
He  became  director  of  the  Kew 
Observatory  in  1859,  and  in  1870 
professor  of  physics  at  Owens 
College,  Manchester.  His  first 
important  work  was  on  'Radi- 


Ste^eart 


KFN 


h56 


Stieler 


ant  Heat'  in  Trans.  Royal  Soc 
Edin.  (1858),  and  from  1859  he 
devoted  himself  particularly  to 
meteorology,  especially  to  the 
phenomena  of  terrestrial  magnet- 
ism. He  was  also  one  of  the 
workers  towards  the  discovery  of 
spectrum  analysis.  He  published 
successful  text-books  on  Heat 
and  General  Physics,  but  his  two 
best  works  were  the  Conservation 
of  Energy  (1872),  and,  in  collabo- 
ration with  Professor  Tait  The 
Unseen  Universe  (1875). 

Stewart,  Charles  (1778-1869), 
American  naval  officer,  born  in 
Philadelphia.  He  rose  from 
cabin  boy  to  captain  in  the  mer- 
chant service  before  he  was  of 
age,  and  in  1798  received  a  com- 
mission as  lieutenant  in  the  newly 
organized  navy.  After  serving 
two  years  on  the  United  States, 
he  was  given  command  of  the 
Experiment,  and  with  her  took 
several  French  prizes.  He  served 
in  the  Mediterranean  squadron 
during  the  war  with  Tripoli,  and 
in  1806  was  made  captain.  Dur- 
ing the  last  two  years  of  the  War 
of  1812  he  commanded  the 
Constitution,  and  on  February  20, 
1815,  captured  the  British  sloops 
of  war  Cyane  and  Levant,  of 
thirty-three  and  twenty-one  guns 
respectively,  the  Constitution 
carrying  forty-four.  The  Levant 
was  retaken  by  a  British  sciuadron 
March  11th.  Stewart  had  many 
years  of  active  service  and  became 
a  rear-admiral  in  1862. 

Stewart,  David.  See  Rothe- 
say, Duke  of. 

Stewart,  Sir  Donald  Mar- 
tin (1824-1900),  British  field- 
marshal,  was  born  near  Forres, 
and  entered  the  Bengal  army 
(1840).  He  took  part  in  the  sieges 
of  Delhi  and  Lucknow  and  in  the 
Rohilkhand  campaign,  and  com- 
manded the  Bengal  brigade  i.i 
the  Abyssinian  War  (1867-;8)  and 
the  Kandahar  column  in  the 
Afghan  campaign  (18/8),  subse- 
quently effecting  his  famous 
march  from  Kandahar  to  Kabul 
(1880).  He  was  commander-in- 
chief  in  India  (1880-5),  and  was 
created  a  field-marshal  in  1894. 
See  Life  by  Elsmie  (1903). 

Stewart,  Dugald  (1753-1828), 
Scottish  philosopher,  _was  born 
at  Edinburgh.  For  a  time  (1772- 
85)  he  acted  as  colleague  to  his 
father,  the  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Edinburgh,  but  in  1785 
was  transferred  to  the  more  con- 
genial chair  of  moral  philosophy, 
which  he  held  till  1820.  As  a 
lecturer  he  made  for  himself  a 
brilliant  reputation,  and  by  his 
writings  did  much  to  popularize 
and  diffuse  the  philosophy  which 
he  had  learned  from  Reid  at  Glas- 
gow. But  he  was  not  himself  an 
original  thinker,  and  his  best  work 
was  done  in  the  field  of  psychologi- 
cal observation.  His  chief  writ- 
ings are  Elements  of  the  Philos- 


ophy of  the  Human  Mind  (3  vols. 
1792-1827);  Outlines  of  Moral 
Philosophy  (1793);  Philosophical 
Essays  (1810);  The  Philosophy  of 
the  Active  and  Moral  Powers  (2 
vols.  1828).  There  is  a  collected 
edition  of  his  Works  by  Sir  Wil- 
liam Hamilton  (1854-8). 

Stewart,  Sir  Herbert  (1843- 
85),  British  general,  was  born  in 
Hampshire,  and  after  service  in 
India  served  on  Wolseley's  staff 
in  the  Zulu  War.  He  took  part 
in  the  Boer  War,  and  shared  in 
the  disaster  at  Majuba  Hill. 
Then  he  served  in  the  Egyptian 
campaign  against  Arabi  Pasha, 
and  m  1884  commanded  the  desert 
column  for  Khartum,  and  fought 
the  engagement  at  Abu  Klea,  but 
was  mortally  wounded  at  Metam- 
mah. 

Stewart,  Sir  John.  See  Len- 
nox. 

Stewart,  Robert.    See  Cas- 

TLEREAGH. 

Stewart,  Sir  Thomas  Grain- 
ger (1837-1900),  Scottish  physi- 
cian, was  born  irn  Edinburgh.  He 
became  pathologist  to  the  Edin- 
burgh Royal  Infirmary  (1862),  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  the 
practice  of  physics  in  the  univer- 
sity (1876),  and  physician  to 
Queen  Victoria  (1882).  His  Prac- 
tical Treatise  on  Bright's  Dis- 
ease (1869)  is  still  the  leading 
authority  on  the  subject  He 
was  knighted  in  1894. 

Stewart  Island,  New  Zealand^ 
separated  from  South  Island  by 
Foveaux  Strait,  has  an  area  of 
665  sq.  m.,  is  mountainous  (3,200 
ft.)  and  forest-clad,  and  a  tourist 
resort  in  summer;  has  two  good 
harbors,  and  oyster-fishing.  Pop. 
272. 

Stewing.    See  Cookery. 

Steyn,  Martinus  Theunis 
(1857-1916),  South  African 
statesman,  ex-president  of  the 
Orange  Free  State,  was  born  at 
Winburg,  Orange  River  Colony. 
He  practised  at  the  Bloemfontein 
bar  from  1882  until  1889,  when 
he  was  appointed  state  attorney, 
then  second  puisne  judge.  In 
1893  he  became  first  puisne  judge, 
and  this  position  he  held  till 
1896,  when  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Orange  Free  State. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Boer  War 
(1899)  he  threw  in  his  lot  with 
the  Transvaal.  For  more  than  a 
year  he  was  pursued  by  the  col- 
umns of  the  British  army.  He 
was  one  of  the  Boer  representa- 
tives in  the  peace  conference 
(1902)  and  thereafter  removed  to 
London,  where  he  practised  law. 

Steyr,  town,  Upper  Austria,  at 
influx  of  Steyr  into  the  Enns,  90 
miles  w.s.w.  of  Vienna.  There 
are  an  old  castle  (10th  century) 
and  a  Gothic  church  (1443). 
Steyr  has  iron  industries.  Pop. 
(1934)  20,477. 


Stickleback  (Gasterosfeus),  a 
genus  of  small  bony  fish,  consti- 
tuting a  special  family  (the  Gas- 
terosteidfe).  They  inhabit  the 
streams  of  the  northerly  parts  of 
both  Europe  and  America.  The 
popular  name  is  given  on  a,ccount 
of  the  presence  of  spines  in  front 
of  the  dorsal  fin,  while  the  scien- 
tific name  refers  to  the  large  scutes 
arranged  along  the  sides  of  the 
body,  which  take  the  place  of 
scales.  Apart  from  these  two  char- 
acteristics, the  sticklebacks  may 
be  distinguished  by  the  elongate 
compressed  body,  the  oblique 
mouth-cleft,  anci  the  reduction 
of  the  pelvic  fins.  The  various 
species  are  distinguished  by  the 
number  of  their  spines,  which  are 


Sticklebacks. 

i.  Gasterosteus  pungitius.    2.  G.  spinvr 
losus.  3.  G.  ac%ileatus. 


respectively  three,  four,  or  nine  in 
number.  The  first  (G.  aculeatus) 
is  the  commonest,  and  frequently 
descends  also  to  the  sea,  where  it 
is  found  in  brackish  pools  near 
high-water  mark.  The  marine 
form  {G.  spinachia)  has  fifteen 
spines,  and  differs  from  the  other 
forms  in  the  great  elongation  of 
the  slender  body  and  of  the  snout. 
All  the  species  of  stickleback  are 
voracious,  devouring  large  quan- 
tities of  the  fry  of  other  fish.  They 
are  also  actively  pugnacious,  the 
males  fighting  fiercely  with  one 
another.  Nest-building  is  prac- 
tised both  by  the  sea  stickleback 
and  by  many  of  the  fresh-water 
species.  The  nest  is  constructed 
by  the  male,  and  is  made  of  weeds, 
woven  together  by  a  silken  thread 
into  a  pear-shaped  structure.  The 
male  then  conducts  a  female  to 
the  nest  and  induces  her  to  deposit 
her  eggs  in  it,  fertilizing  these  as 
they  are  laid.    The  female  subse- 

?[uently  leaves  the  eggs  to  their 
ate;  out  the  male  watches  over 
them  with  much  care.  The  eggs 
hatch  in  from  three  weeks  to  a 
month. 

Stieler,  Adolf  (1775  -  1836), 
German  cartographer,  born  and 
resident  at  Gotha,  where  he  was 


KFN 


Stiff-  neck 

employed  (1797-1836)  in  the  serv- 
ice of  the  government.  He  edited 
an  Atlas  (1817-23),  which  ran 
through  a  large  number  of  edi- 
tions {e.g.  1904-5),  and  compiled 
a  huge  map  of  Germany  in  twenty- 
five  sheets.  He  wrote  Geograph- 
ische  Uebersicht  der  .  Sachsen- 
Erneslinischen,Schwarzburpschen, 
Reussischen  und  der  anliegenden 
Lande  (1826). 

Stiff-neck,  a  popular  name  lor 
muscular  torticollis  or  acute  wry 
neck,  due  to  muscular  rheuma- 
tism of  the  cervical  muscles.  The 
condition  is  commonest  in  young 
subjects,  and  is  apt  to  recur.  In 
the  treatment  rest  and  warmth 
are  essential.  The  neck  should 
be  covered  with  cotton  and  flan- 
nel bandages,  and  the  arm  of 
the  affected  side  should  be  sup- 
ported in  a  sling.  Hot  fomen- 
tations, belladonna  plaster,  and 
local  applications  of  opium  re- 
lieve the  pain.  Hot  baths  are 
useful,  and  purgatives  should  be 
given,  as  well  as  alkaline  mix- 
tures, and  sometimes  quinine. 
To  ward  off  a  recurrence,  warm 
flannel  clothing  should  be  worn 
next  the  skin,  and  cod-liver  oil 
should  be  taken  internally. 

Stigand  {d.  1072),  English  prel- 
ate, archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
was  several  times  appointed  to 
and  deposed  from  the  bishopric 
of  Elmham;  but  he  seems  to  have 
obtained  full  possession  in  1044, 
and  in  1047  oecame  bishop  of 
Winchester.  In  1052  he  was 
appointed  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury; but  the  pope  refused  to 
accept  him.  In  1058  he  received 
however,  a  pall  from  Benedict  x.: 
but  as  this  pope  was  declared 
uncanonical  and  was  deposed, 
Stigand's  position  was  only  made 
worse,  and  in  _  1071,  when  the 
papal  legates  visited  England  at 
William's  request,  Stigand  was 
condemned  for  usurpation  of  the 
see,  for  receiving  his  pall  from 
a  schismatic  pope,  and  for  hold- 
ing on  to  the  see  of  Winchester. 

Stigma,  that  part  of  the  pistil 
of  a  flower  whose  function  it  is 
to  receive  the  pollen.  The  sur- 
face of  the  stigma  is  usually 
sticky  from  a  secretion  yielded 
by  the  cells  which  terminate  it. 
In  the  case  _  of  wind-fertilized 
flowers  the  stigma  is  often  cov- 
ered with  long  hairs  to  collect 
the  pollen  grains. 

Stigmaria,  rootlets  of  the 
fossil  genera  Sigillaria  and  Lepi- 
dodendron  of  the  Carboniferous 
system.  Some  are  from  30  to  40  ft. 
in  length,  while  their  width  varies 
from_  two  feet  down  to  less  than 
an  inch.  Some  authorities  are 
inclined  to  regard  Stigmaria  as 
underground  stems  or  rhizomes; 
but  the  majority  consider  that 
they  are  typical  roots,  compar- 
able in  some  measure  to  the  rhi- 
zophores  of  certain  living  Sela- 
ginellas,  which  are  not  very  dis- 


tantly  related   to   them.  They 

were   apparently    adapted    to  a 


6 


A 


ShgmaHa, 

A,  stigmaria ficoides ;  3,  bark  of  Sigillaria 
Davreuxii, 

moist  habitat,  and  to  soils  richly 
charged  with  humus. 

Stigmatization,  the  marks_  ot 
the  wounds  of  Jesus  Christ  which 
are  said  to  have  appeared  upon 
the  bodies  of  certain  individuals. 
Probably  the  words  of  St.  Paul 
are  not  to  be  taken  literally,  T 
bear  in  my  body  the  marks  of  the 
Lord  Jesus'  (Gal.  6:17).  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi,  in  1224,  thought 
that  he  saw  a  shining  seraph 
between  whose  glowing  wings 
hung  the  Crucified,  approach  him 
from  heaven.  The  agony  of 
rapture  left  him  with  the  sense 
that  upon  his  own  hands  and 
feet  were  the  marks  of  the  nails. 
These  marks  were  seen  by  many, 
so  it  is  said,  including  Pope  Alex- 
ander _iv.  It  is  said  that  St. 
Catherine  of  Siena  under-  ent  a 
somewhat  similar  experience.  St. 
Veronica  Giuliani  (canonized 
1831)  received  the  stigma  of  the 
crown  of  thorns,  and  afterward 
those  of  the  nails,  about  1694. 
Anna  Emmerich  (1774-1824),  at 
Diilmen  in  Westphalia;  Maria  von 
Mori  (1839),  Louise  Lateau  (1866), 
Mrs._  Girling,  'motner'  of  the 
English  Shakers  (1864),  and  many 
others  are  said  to  have  received 
the  stigmata.  Apart  from  the 
question  whether  such  markings 
ought  to  be  regarded,  as  in  the 
Church  of  Rome,  as  a  sign  of 
God's  peculiar  favor,  modern 
study  of  the  possible  effects  of 
mental  action  upon  the  body  pre- 
cludes wholesale  denial  of  the 
facts  recorded. 

Stikine  River,  rising  in  the 
N.W.  part  of  British  Columbia, 
flows  in  a  generally  s.w.  direc- 
tion through  a  course  of  about 
500  m.,  emptying  on  the  Alaskan 
coast.  It  flows  through  a  deep 
and  rugged  gorge,  and  is  navigable 
for  150  m, 

Stilbite,  a  zeolite  consisting  of 
hydrated  silicate  of  calcium  and 
aluminium,  usually  forms  diver- 
gent bundles  of  white  prisms  (sp. 
gr.  2.2,  h.  —  3^-),  with  a  fine  pearly 
lustre  on  certam  faces,  and  some- 
times red  in  color.  It  is  found 
in  cavities  of  the  igneous  rocks 


457  Still 

of  the  basalt  or  audesite  type, 

especiallv  the  qmvedaloidal  vari- 
eties. The  mineral  is  found  m. 
the  Connecticut  valley  trap,  ai: 
Bergen  Hill,  N.  J.,  and  m  the 
Lake  Superior  district. 

Stiles,  Henry  Reed  (1832- 
1909).  American  physician,  born 
in  New  York.    He  graduated  m.d. 
at  New  York  University  in  1855 
in    1856-61    practised  medicine 

n  several  Illinois  and  New  York 
cities,  and  in  1865-68  devoted  his 
time  to  Hterary  work.  In  1868- 
70  he  was  an  assistant  in  the 

bureau  of  vital  statistics  of  the 
MetropoHtan  Board  of  Health, 
New  York  and  he  was  medical 
in.Hpectof  t"  the  Koard  ol  Hf-altli 
in  1870-73.  In  1873-77  ne  was 
medical  superintendent  of  the 
state  Homoeopathic  Asylum  for 
the  Insane  at  Middletown  N,  Y, 
and  in  1877-81  held  a  simila,. 
position  in  the  Dundee  Hoinoeo 
pathic  dispensary.  Dundee  Scot 
land.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Long  Island  Historical 
Society  in  1861,  and  Us  librarian 
in  1861-65.  He  published:  His- 
tories and  Genealogies  of  Anciem 
Windsor^^  Conn.  (1859),  Bundling 
in  America  (1861),  History  of  the 
City  of  Brooklyn,  N,  F.  (3  vols. 
1869-70),  History  of  Kings 
County  and  City  of  Brooklyn. 
N.  Y.  (1884),  A  Handbook  of 
Genealogy  (1899),  and  History 
and  Genealogies  of  Ancient  Weth- 
ersfield.  Conn.  (1903). 

Stilicho,  Flavius  (359-408), 
Roman  minister  and  general  un- 
der the  emperors  Theodosius  and 
Honorius.  He  was  of  Vandal 
origin,  and  having  risen  to  be 
master  of  the  horse  (384),  he 
conducted  an  embassy  to  Persia; 
was  made  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army,  and  married  to  the 
emperor's  niece  Serena.  Later 
Theodosius  entrusted  the  educa 
tion  of  his  son  Honorius  to  him 
and  Serena,  and  in  394  appointed 
Stilicho  governor  at  Rome.  For 
several  years  Stilicho  was  en- 
gaged in  war  with  Alaric,  king 
of  the  Goths,  whom  he  defeated 
in  two  great  battles  in  402  and 
403.  He  then  aimed  at  making 
himself  master  of  the  empire;  in 
405,  however,  he  had  to  put  down 
Radagaisus,  who  invaded  Italy 
with  a  mixed  horde  of  Germanic 
tribes.  But  his  soldiers  turning 
against  him,  he  fled  to  Ravenna. 
where  he  was  murdered. 
Still.  See  Distillation. 

_  Still,  John  (1543-1608),  Eng- 
lish prelate,  author  of  what,  until 
the  discovery  of  Royster  Doyster., 
was  considered  the  earliest  Eng- 
lish comedy.  Gammer  Gurton''s 
Needle  (1575).  Still  was  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Cambridge  in 
1570,  and  was  master  of  St.  John's 
College,  and  afterward  of  Trin- 
ity College.  In  1592  he  became 
bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells.  For 
comments  as  to  the  authorship 


Stilibirth 


KFN 


458 


Stimson 


of  the  comedy,  see  Modern  Lan- 
guage Notes  for  June,  1892. 
Stillbirth  and  Stillborn.  The 

term  'stillborn'  may  be  applied 
to  children  who  are  born  dead, 
or  who  do  not  breathe  at  birth. 
The  most  frequent  causes  of  still- 
birth are  protraction  of  the  labor 
or  immaturity  of  the  foetus.  If 
the  child  be  suffering  merely 
from  apnoea,  efforts  should  be  di- 
rected toward  the  establishment 
of  the  respiratory  function.  See 
Abortion. 

Stilling,  JoHANN  Heinrich 
(1740-1817),  or  Johann  Hein- 
rich Jung,  called  Jung  Stilling, 
German  Pietist,  born  at  Grund 
in  Hesse-Nassau,  was  studying 
medicine  at  Strassburg  when  he 
became  acquainted  with  Goethe, 
on  whose  advice  he  wrote  his 
autobiography,  Lebensgeschichte 
(1777-1804;  new  ed.  1899). 
He  practised  as  a  physician  at 
Elberfeld,  and  was  appointed  a 
professor  at  Kaiserslautern 
(1778),  at  Marburg  (1787),  and 
at  Heidelberg  (1804).  He  was 
a  specialist  in  eye  diseases,  and 
a  leader  of  the  Pietists.  A  com- 
plete edition  of  his  works  was 
published  in  12  vols.  (1843-4). 

Stillingfleet,  Edward  (1635- 
99),  English  prelate,  was  born  at 
Cranborne  in  Dorsetshire,  and 
appointed  rector  of  Sutton  in 
Bedfordshire  (1657),  where  he 
wrote  his  Irenicum,  a  treatise  on 
church  government,  which  he  re- 
garded as  a  matter  left  open  by 
the  apostles.  Under  the  influ- 
ence of  Hobbes  his  theory  was 
broadly  latitudinarian,  though 
he  himself  departed  from  it  in 
later  years.  The  Socinians  and 
the  Roman  Catholics  were  the 
especial  objects  of  his  attacks. 
In  1662  appeared  his  Origines 
Sacrce,  in  1664  his  Rational  Ac- 
count of  the  Grounds  of  the 
Protestant  Religion,  in  1685  his 
Origines  Britannicce,  and  in  1689 
his  Ecclesiastical  Cases.  He  be- 
came rector  of  St.  Andrew's, 
Holborn  (1665)  ;  canon  residen- 
tiary (1670)  and  dean  (1678) 
of  St.  Paul's ;  and  bishop  of 
Worcester  (1689).  See  Life  by 
Godwin,  prefixed  to  his  Collected 
Works  (1710). 

Stillman,  Samuel  (1738- 
1807),  American  clergyman,  was 
born  in  Philadelphia.  He  pre- 
pared privately  for  the  Baptist 
ministry.  He  was  ordained  in 
1759,  and  after  holding  minor 
pastorates,  was  pastor  of  the 
First  Baptist  Church  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  from  1765  until  his  death. 
He  gained  considerable  reputation 
as  a  preacher,  and  was  a  strong 
advocate  of  the  American  cause 
in  the  Revolution.  Dr.  Stillman 
was  an  original  incorporator  of 
Brown  University  (then  Rhode 
Island  College),  in  1764.  Among 
his  principal  sermons  are  A  Ser- 
mon on  the  Repeal  of  the  Stamp 


Act  (1766)  and  A  Sermon  Oc- 
casioned by  the  Death  of  George 
Washington  (1799). 

Stillman,  William  James 
(1828-1901),  American  landscape 
painter  and  journalist,  born  in 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Union  College ;  studied 
painting  under  Frederick  Church, 
and  in  1849  went  to  London, 
where  he  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Turner  and  Ruskin. 
Kossuth  commissioned  him  in 
1852  to  recover  the  crown  jewels 
of  Hungary  which  he  (Kossuth) 
had  hidden.  His  attempt  failed. 
He  returned  to  the  U.  S.  and 
practised  painting  in  New  York 
city  until  1861,  when  he  was 
made  U.  S.  consul  at  Rome,  and 
afterwards  (1869)  in  Crete. 
After  1880  he  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  journalism  as  corre- 
spondent of  the  London  Times, 
and  of  the  New  York  Evening 
Post,  for  which  latter  newspaper 
he  was  for  several  years  art 
critic.  He  was  a  friend  of  Low- 
ell, Longfellow,  Holmes,  and 
Agassiz.  His  books  are :  The 
Acropolis  of  Athens  (1870),  The 
Cretan  Insurrection  (1874), 
Herzegovina  and  the  late  Up- 
rising (1877),  Turkish  Rule  and 
Turkish  Warfare  (1877),  On  the 
Track  of  Ulysses  (1888),  The 
Old  Rome  and  the  New  (1897), 
Francesco  Crispi  (1899),  Auto- 
biography of  a  Journalist  (1901). 

Stillwater,  city,  Minnesota, 
county  seat  of  Washington  coun- 
ty, on  the  St.  Croix  Lake,  and  on 
the  Northern  Pacific,  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern,  and  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul 
railroads;  15  miles  n.e.  by  e.  of 
St.  Paul.  It  is  a  summer  resort. 
It  has  important  industries,  in- 
cluding the  manufacture  of  shoes, 
lumber,  clothing,  paper  boxes, 
wooden  boxes,  boats,  engines, 
etc.  Considerable  grain  is 
shipped.  The  city  has  a  Carnegie 
Library.  Other  features  of  in- 
terest are  a  state  prison,  the  Fairy 
Falls,  near  by,  and  the  bridge 
crossing  the  lake.  The  place  was 
settled  in  1843  and  incorporated 
in  1854.  Pop.  (1930)  7,173; 
(1940)  7,013. 

Stillwater,  town.  New  York, 
Saratoga  county,  on  the  Hudson 
River;  15  miles  n.  of  Troy. 
Here  were  fought  two  battles  of 
the  Revolution,  Sept.  19  and  Oct. 
7,  1777.  See  Saratoga,  Battles 
OF.  Pop.  (1930)  3,942;  (1940) 
3,709. 

Stillwater,  city,  Oklahoma, 
county  seat  of  Payne  county,  on 
the  Stillwater  Creek,  and  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe 
Railroad ;  26  miles  n.e.  of  Gu- 
thrie. It  is  the  seat  of  an  agri- 
cultural and  mechanical  college. 
The  leading  industries  are  oil 
and  agricultural  products.  Pop. 
(1930)  7,016;  (1940)  10,097. 

Stilt  (Himantopus),  a  genus 


of  extremely  long-legged  wading 
birds  related  to  the  avocets.  The 
first  toe  is  absent,  and  the  other 
three  are  only  slightly  webbed. 
The  bill  is  elongated,  and  is 
slightly  curved  up  at  the  tip, 


while  the  slitlike  nostrils  are 
placed  at  its  base.  The  six  or 
seven  species  have  all  some  black 
in  their  plumage,  this  being  usu- 
ally set  off  by  a  white  undersur- 
face.  The  birds  haunt  marshes 
and  are  favorite  objects  of  sport 
during  the  spring  and  fall,  when 
migrating  to  or  from  their  north- 
ern breeding-places. 

Stilts,  poles  with  stirrup-like 
or  cleat  projections  for  the  feet 
placed  at  some  distance  from  the 
bottom,  and  used  for  walking 
over  rough  ground.  They  are 
now  mainly  a  means  of  diversion, 
especially  among  boys.  In  an- 
cient days  they  are  said  to  have 
been  employed  in  the  scaling  of 
castles  and  high  walls.  In  the 
marshy  tracts  of  the  French 
Landes  the  shepherds  in  former 
times  spent  the  day  on  stilts.  In 
the  upper  parts  of  the  Tweed  and 
the  Clyde  in  Scotland  they  are 
resorted  to  for  crossing  dry- 
shod  from  one  bank  to  another. 
Tournaments  have  been  held  with 
the  rival  parties  mounted  on 
stilts.  In  the  Fen  districts  of 
England  they  were  formerly  a 
good  deal  in  use.  At  the  New 
Year  in  the  Chinese  town  of 
Newchwang  it  is  customary  for 
a  section  of  the  community  to 
walk  and  hop  along  the  streets  on 
stilts,  dressed  in  gala  attire. 

Stimson,  Frederic  Jesup 
(1855-1943),  American  lawyer 
and  author,  born  at  Dedham, 
Mass.  He  wrote  several  nov- 
els under  the  pen-name  'J-  S. 
of  Dale.'  His  works  include 
Rollo's  Journey  to  Cambridge 
(1879),  Guerndale  (1882),  The 
Crime  of  Henry  Vane  (1884)  ; 
American  Statute  Law  (1886)  ; 
Labor  in  Its  Relation  to 
Law  (1894)  ;  Uniform  State 
Legislation  (1896)  ;  Pirate  Gold 
(1896);  King  Nodnctt  (1896); 
J  e  thro  Bacon  of  S  andzvich 
(1901);  Law  of  Constitutions, 
State  and  Federal  (1907); 
Popular    Law-Making    (1910)  ; 


Stimson 


KFN 


459 


Sting  Ray 


American  Constitution  as  It  Pro- 
tects Private  Rights  (1923). 

Stimson,  Henry  Lewis 
(1867-  ),  American  lawyer 
and  public  official,  was  born  in 
New  York  City.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Yale  (1888)  and  from 
the  Harvard  Law  School  (1890), 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1891.  In  1911-1913  he  was  Sec- 
retary of  War  in  the  cabinet  of 
President  Taft.  In  1927  at  the 
request  of  President  Coolidge  he 
went  as  special  commissioner  to 
Nicaragua,  where  he  was  instru- 
mental in  restoring  a  degree  of 
order  and  good  government,  and 
in  December,  1927,  he  was  made 
Governor  General  of  the  Philip- 
pines, a  position  he  relinquished 
to  become  Secretary  of  State  in 
President  Hoover's  cabinet.  His 
notable  services  as  chairman  of 


and  exercise  are  agencies  emi- 
nently deserving  the  name.  A 
stimulant  adds  nothing  to  the 
resources  of  the  body,  differing 
in  this  from  a  food ;  it  merely 
makes  it  easier  to  make  use  of 
the  energy  already  represented 
in  the  tissues.  Hence  it  is  com- 
mon to  find  stimulation  followed 
by  depression. 

Stimulants  may  have  their 
chief  effect  upon  the  nervous 
system,  and  through  it  exert  a 
far-reaching  influence  on  the 
body ;  or  they  may  be  more  or 
less  specific,  singling  out  certain 
organs  in  their  action.  Strych- 
nine is  of  the  first  class,  and  is 
perhaps  the  best  illustration  of 
a  true  stimulant.  Among  those 
of  more  localized  effect  may  be 
mentioned  caffeine,  influencing 
particularly  the  heart  and  the 


is  felt  if  the  tentacles  be  touched 
by  the  more  sensitive  tongue. 
Stinging-cells  are  also  found  in 
some  Turbellaria  and  in  some 
nudibranch  gasteropods. 

In  bees,  wasps,  and  related  in- 
sects the  sting  is  a  modified  ovi- 
positor. In  spiders  the  sting  is 
lodged  in  the  first  pair  of  append- 
ages. In  the  scorpion  the  telson, 
or  last  piece  of  the  body,  forms 
the  sting. 

Stinging  Cells,  or  Cnido- 
BLASTS,  are  the  organs  by  means 
of  which  coelenterates  paralyze 
their  prey  or  protect  themselves 
from  their  enemies.  In  the  Hy- 
dra (q.v.),  for  example,  each 
cnidoblast  is  a  rounded  cell,  con- 
taining protoplasm  and  nucleus, 
in  addition  to  an  oval  bag  filled 
with  fluid.  The  bag  is  the  thread- 
capsule   (nematocyst),  and  con- 


Marine  Studios  Photo 


the  American  delegations  to  the 
London  Naval  Conference  of 
1930-31  and  the  1932  disarma- 
ment conferences  did  much  to 
insure  such  temporary  success  as 
those  conferences  met  with.  He 
was  active  in  initiating  the  policy 
of  nonrecognition  of  conquests 
by  violence,  which  contravened 
the  provisions  of  the  Pact  of 
Paris  and  applied  this  policy  spe- 
cifically in  the  case  of  the  Jap- 
anese conquest  of  Manchukuo. 
After  his  retirement  to  his  law 
practice  upon  the  inauguration 
of  a  Democratic  administration 
in  1933,  he  continued  to  defend 
a  policy  of  collective  security,  im- 
plemented, when  necessary,  by 
an  arms  embargo,  against  the 
policy  of  appeasement  then  prac- 
ticed by  the  European  democra- 
cies. He  was  appointed  Secretary 
of  War  in  the  F.  D.  Roosevelt 
cabinet  in  June,  1940. 

Stimulants,  agents  which  in- 
crease the  activity  or  the  work- 
ing capacity  of  living  organs. 
The  term  should  not  be  restricted 
to  drugs.    Fresh  air,  cold  baths, 


LEOPARD  RAY 

kidneys  ;  adrenalin,  causing  con- 
striction of  the  small  blood  ves- 
sels ;  bitters  and  common  condi- 
ments, which  increase  the  flow  of 
the  digestive  juices. 

The  place  of  alcohol  is  ques- 
tionable. For  its  stimulant  qual- 
ities, see  Alcohol,  Action  and 
Uses  of.  See  also  Caffeine  ; 
Strychnine. 

Stimulus.  See  Nervous  Sys- 
tem ;  Plants. 

Sting-fish.  See  Weever. 

Stinging  Animals,  animals 
which,  in  attacking  their  prey  or 
protecting  themselves  from  their 
enemies,  aim  to  introduce  a 
poison  into  the  blood  or  body- 
fluid  of  the  organism  attacked. 
There  must,  therefore,  be  two 
elements  in  the  sting — a  poison- 
gland  and  an  organ  for  piercing 
the  superficial  tissues.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Ctenophora,  all 
the  Coelenterata  possess  stinging- 
cells  of  the  type  described  below, 
but  relatively  few  of  them  are 
capable  of  stinging  man.  Few 
anemones  can  sting  the  fingers, 
but  a  distinct  stinging  sensation 


tains  a  long,  hollow  thread 
which  lies  in  the  fluid.  The  cell 
has  a  little  trigger  (cnidocil) 
projecting  from  its  free  end.  If 
the  trigger  be  touched  the  cell 
contracts,  and  as  the  flvtid  in  the 
thread-capsule  is  incompressible, 
the  first  result  is  that  the  thread 
is  shot  out ;  if  the  pressure  be 
continued,  the  whole  capsule  may 
be  also  pressed  out.  The  fluid 
in  the  bag  is  poisonous,  and  as 
the  thread  before  expulsion  is 
bathed  in  this  fluid,  when  it  pene- 
trates the  skin  it  carries  with  it 
some  of  the  poison.  The  cnido- 
blasts  of  coelenterates  are  usually 
arranged  in  clusters  or  batteries, 
such  batteries,  for  instance,  form- 
ing the  blue  beads  seen  at  the 
base  of  the  tentacles  in  the  com- 
mon smooth  sea-anemone  (Ac- 
ti n ia  m esc m bryanthcmmn) . 

Sting  Kay,  the  name  given 
to  the  members  of  the  elasmo- 
branch  fish  family  Trygonidae, 
most  of  which  bear  on  the  tail  a 
strong  serrated  spine,  capable  of 
inflicting  a  dangerous  wound. 
It  may  reach  a  length  of  eight  or 


Stinkwood 


KFN 


460 


Stlth 


nine  inches,  and  is  renewed  from 
time  to  time  like  the  poison-fangs 
of  a  snake.  The  wounds  which 
it  inflicts  are  painful,  and  in- 
flame rapidly.  There  is  no  defi- 
nite poison  gland  connected  with 
the  spine.  The  pectoral  fins  are 
continued  round  the  head  region 
without  interruption,  and  unite 
at  the  extremity  of  the  snout. 
The  tail  is  long  and  slender,  A 
considerable  number  of  species  of 
sting  ray  exist,  the  majority 
belonging  to  the  genus  Trygon, 
one  species  of  which  {T.  pasti- 
naca)  extends  throughout  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  As 
a  rule,  however,  the  sting  rays 
are  confined  to  warm  seas.  See 
Batfish;  Devil-Fish;  Ray. 

Stinkwoodj  the  wood  of  the 
South  African  trees  Ocotea  bul- 
lala,  belonging  to  the  order  Lau- 
raceae,  and  Celtis  kraussiana,  be- 
longing to  the  order  Ulmaceae. 
The  former  is  golden  brown  in 
color,  often  mottled  and  irides- 
cent; it  is  very  tough,  strong,  and 
durable.  It  is  now  rare,  but  is 
valuable  for  building  wagons  and 
for  making  gun-stocks.  The  lat- 
ter is  a  beautifully  veined,  green- 
ish wood,  heavy  and  close- 
grained,  but  liable  to  warp.  See 
Oreodaphne. 

Stint,  a  name  applied  to  some 
species  of  sandpiper.  The  Little 
Stint  {Tringa  minuta)  occurs  in 
Great  Britain  as  a  migrant.  It 
reaches  a  length  of  only  6  inches, 
and  is  like  a  miniature  dunlin, 
save  that  there  is  no  black  upon 
the  breast.  The  American  vStint 
(T.  minutilla),  a  still  smaller 
species,  is  of  darker  color.  See 
Sandpiper. 

Stipa.    See  Feather  Grass. 

Stipend,  Clerical,  a  general 
term  indicating  the  provision 
made  for  the  support  of  the 
clergy.  Such  provisions  include 
voluntary  contributions,  endow- 
ments, tithes,  state  aid,  and  pay- 
ments pursuant  to  contract.  Di- 
rect state  aid,  which  developed 
after  the  Reformation,  is  the  re- 
sult, in  certain  Roman  Catholic 
countries,  of  the  sequestration  of 
church  land.  Such  support  pre- 
vails in  Spain,  Austria,  Portugal, 
and  some  republics  of  Central 
and  South  America.  Formerly 
it  also  obtained  in  Fiance,  but  in 
1905  the  Concordat  (q.v.)  was 
abrogated.  After  the  revolution 
in  Portugal,  the  government  an- 
nounced, in  1911.  its  continuance 
of  the  stipends  enjoyed  by  the 
clergy.  State  aid  also  prevails 
in  certain  non-Catholic  countries. 

In  the  United  States  there  is 
no  state  aid  of  the  church.  In 
the  Protestant  denominations 
stipends  are  usually  contractual, 
and  the  funds  for  the  payment  of 
ministers'  salaries  are  derived 
from  contributions,  pew  rents, 
and,  in  some  cases,  endowments. 

Stipules  of  a  plant  are  ap- 
pendages, usually  in  pairs,  situ- 


ated at  the  base  of  the  petiole  or 
leaf-stalk.  If  they  are  attached 
along  each  side  of  the  leaf-stalk, 
as  in  the  rose,  they  are  said  to  be 
adrMe.  If  they  form  a  kind  of 
sheath  enclosing  the  stem,  they 
are  called  an  ochrea.  If  they 
resemble  leaflets  in  appearance, 
they  are  said  to  be  foliaceous. 
Sometimes  they  are  modified  into 
thorns  or  spines.    See  Leaf. 

Stires,  Ernest  Milmore 
(1866-  ),  American  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  born  in  Norfolk, 
Va.  He  was  graduated  from  the 
Universitj^  of  Virginia  (1888)  and 
from  the  Episcopal  Theological 
Seminary  of  Virginia  (1891),  be- 
ing ordained  priest  the  following 
year.  He  was  rector  of  churches 
in  Virginia  and  Georgia  in  1892- 
3,  and  of  Grace  Church,  Chicago, 
from  1893  to  1901,  when  he  be- 
came rector  of  St.  Thomas' 
Church,  New  York  City.  In 
1925  he  was  chosen  Bishop  Co- 
adjutor of  the  diocese  of  Long 
Island,  and  upon  the  death  of 
Bishop  Burgess  he  became  Bish- 
op of  Long  Island.  He  is  the 
author  of  The  High  Call  (1917); 
The  Price  of  Peace  (1919). 

Stirling,  river  port  and  capital 
of  county  of  same  name,  Scot- 
land, on  the  River  Forth;  36 
miles  northwest  of  Edinburgh. 
It  occupies  the  vslope  of  a  basaltic 
knob,  whose  steep  western  ex- 
tremity is  crowned  by  the  ancient 
castle,  the  scene  of  royal  births 
and  royal  deaths,  and  the  murder 
of  William  Douglas  by  James  ii. 
in  1452.  As  the  'key  to  the  High- 
lands,' Stirling  Castle  was  fre- 
quently attacked,  particularly  in 
the  reigns  of  Edward  i.,  Edward 
II.,  and  Edward  iii.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  General  Monck  in  1651, 
and  was  unsuccessfully  besieged 
by  the  Jacobites  in  1745.  The 
town  has  manufactures  of  leath- 
er, carpets,  furniture,  oils,  and 
rubber  goods.  Pop.  (1931)  22,- 
593. 

Stirling,  James  Hutchison 
(1820-1909),  Scottish  philosophi- 
cal writer,  was  born  in  Glasgow. 
His  reputation  was  made  by  a 
work  on  The  Secret  of  Hege, 
(1865),  which  marks  the  begin- 
ning of  the  serious  study  and  in- 
fluence of  German  idealism  in 
Britain.  Another  important 
work  on  German  philosophy  was 
his  Textbook  to  Kant  (1881)  com- 
prising a  translation  and  repro- 
duction of  the  Critique  of  Pure 
Reason,  with  a  commentary  and 
biographical  sketch.  Among  his 
other  writings  are  a  pamphlet. 
As  Regards  ^Protoplasm  (1869); 
two  works,  What  Is  Thought? 
(1900)  and  The  Categories  (1903), 
and  an  annotated  translation  of 
Schwegler's  History  of  Philoso- 
phy. 

Stirling,  Lord,  American  sol- 
dier. See  Alexander,  Wil- 
liam. 

Stirling,  William  Alexan- 


der, Earl  of  (1567-1640),  Scot- 
tish poet,  was  born  in  Menstrie. 
He  began  his  poetical  career  with 
a  vSeries  of  four  'Monarchicke' 
tragedies — Darius  (1603),  Croesus 
(1604),  The  Alexandroean  Trag- 
edy (1605),  and  Julius  Ccesar 
(1607) — in  direct  imitation  of  the 
Greek  drama.  Doomsday  ap- 
peared in  1614  and  1637.  He 
was  one  of  the  group  of  Scottish 
poets  (led  by  Drummond  of 
Hawthornden)  who  abandoned 
their  own  vernacular  and  mod- 
elled their  style  on  their  English 
Elizabethan  contemporaries.  He 
was  made  secretary  of  state  for 
Scotland  in  1626,  and  was  cre- 
ated Earl  of  Stirling  and  Vis- 
count of  Canada  (1633)  and 
Earl  of  Do  van  (1639). 

Stirling-Maxwell.  See  Max- 
well. 

Stirlingshire,  midland  coun- 
ty, Scotland,  covers  an  area  of 
451  square  miles.  The  eastern 
portion  is  undulating  and  highly 
cultivated,  the  carses  of  Stirling 
and  Falkirk  occupying  some 
36,000  acres  of  the  finest  agri- 
cultural land  in  Scotland.  Oats 
are  the  staple  crop.  The  western 
portion  is  generally  considered  a 
part  of  the  Highlands.  Ben  Lo- 
mond reaches  3, 192  feet.  Nearly 
half  of  Loch  Lomond  belongs  to 
the  county.  Coal-mining  is  the 
chief  industry.  Ironstone  is  also 
mined,  and  iron-founding  car- 
ried on.  Woollen  manufacturers, 
calico-printing,  and  bleaching 
are  also  important.  Stirling 
(q.v.)  is  the  capital.  The  battles 
of  Stirling  Bridge  (1297),  Fal- 
kirk (1298),  Bannockburn  (1314), 
Kilsyth  (1645),  and  the  second 
battle  of  Falkirk  (1746)  were  all 
fought  within  its  borders.  An- 
toninus' Wall  is  among  its  antiq- 
uities.   Pop.  (1940  est.)  175,400. 

Stitch,  a  sharp  thoracic  pain, 
which  renders  breathing  difficult 
and  distressing.  It  may  be  asso- 
ciated with  pleurisy  where  there 
is  no  effusion,  or  with  a  stretching 
of  the  not  uncommon  adhesions 
between  two  pleural  surfaces,  or 
simply  with  local  spasms  of  the 
respiratory  muscles,  perhaps  even 
with  a  slight  twisting  of  part  of 
the  intestine.  When  produced 
by  running  it  seems  to  depend  on 
fatigue  spasm  or  localized  cramp 
of  muscular  fibres. 

Stitch.  See  Knitting;  Dress- 
making; Sewing-machine. 

Stitch  wort.    See  Stellaria. 

Stith,  William  (1689-1755), 
American  historian,  was  born  in 
Virginia.  He  studied  theology, 
and  was  ordained  a  minister  of 
the  Anglican  Church.  He  was 
for  several  years  master  of  the 
grammar  school  of  William  and 
Mary  College;  and  during  1752-5 
was  president  of  that  college.  He 
is  chiefly  remembered  for  having 
written  an  unfinished  History 
of  Virginia  from  the  First  Settle- 
ment to  the  Dissolution  of  th^ 


stiver 


KSE 


461 


Stock 


London  Company  (1747;  new  ed. 
1866).  He  also  published  The 
Nature  and  Extent  of  Christ's  Re- 
dempiion  (1753). 

Sti'ver  (Dutch,  stuiver),  two 
small  coins  at  one  time  current 
in  Holland  and  the  Dutch  colo- 
nies— a  silver  coin,  the  twentieth 
part  of  a  gulden;  and  a  copper 
coin,  current  only  in  the  Dutch 
colonies.  The  word  is  now  used 
for  any  coin  of  little  value. 

Stjernhjelm,  styern'yelm, 
Georg  (1598-1672) ,  Swedish  poet 
and  scholar.  He  served  as  assist- 
ant judge  in  Livonia  till  1642, 
when  he  went  to  Sweden  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  forming  of  a  code 
of  laws,  and  was  made  keeper  of 
the  public  records.  From  1648 
to  1656  he  was  vice-president  of 
the  supreme  court  at  Dorpat. 
His  ready  wit,  learning,  and  ver- 
satility made  him  a  favorite  with 
Queen  Christina,  and  he  was  for 
a  time  one  of  the  chief  ornaments 
of  her  brilliant  court.  He  is 
called  the  'father  of  Swedish  let- 
ters,' being  the  first  poet  to  cul- 
tivate his  mother  tongue.  His 
chief  works  are  the  didactic  poem 
Hercules  (1653),  and  the  wedding 
poem,  Brollopsbesvdrs  Ihugkom- 
melse. 

Stoa,  in  Greek  architecture,  a 
covered  colonnade  around  a  mar- 
ket place  or  dwelling,  or  sur- 
rounding a  temple;  later,  an  in- 
dependent structure  in  a  street 
or  square.  The  most  celebrated 
example  was  the  Stoa  Poikile  in 
the  market  place  of  Athens, 
which  was  decorated  with  battle 
scenes  by  Polygnotus.  Here  Zeno 
and  his  successors  taught,  hence 
the  name  Stoicism  (q.  v.). 

Stoat,  the  British  name  for  a 
European   weasel    (Mustela  er- 


Stoat. 


minea),  which  in  its  winter  dress 
is  known  as  ermine.  See  Ermine; 
Weasel. 

Stobaeus,  sto-be'us,  Johannes, 
a  Greek  writer  who  lived  after  500 
A.D.,  and  who  formed  a  valuable 
collection  of  extracts  from  Greek 
literature.  The  Eclogues  contain 
extracts  on  physics,  dialectics, 
and  ethics;  and  the  Anthologium 
subjects  of  a  moral,  political,  and 
economic  character,  with  practi- 
cal maxims  for  conduct. 

Stock,  or  Gillyflower  (Mat- 
thiola),  a  familiar  garden  plant  of 
about  thirty  species,  belonging  to 
the  Cruciferae,  and  cultivated  es' 
pecially  in  Europe.  The  pods  are 
nearly  cylindrical,  stigmas  large 
and  spreading,  seeds  winged,  and 
the  flowers  vary  in  color  from 


white  to  red.  Many  double  varie- 
ties are  grown.  Important  spe- 
cies are  the  hoary-leaved  M.  in- 
cana  of  Southern  Europe;  M. 
fenestralis,  with  smooth  leaves; 
and  M.  sinuata,  indigenous  to  the 
coast  of  Wales.  Hoary-leaved 
varieties  are  rated  as  biennials  or 
perennials;  smooth-leaved  species 
as  annuals.  Annual  or  'ten-weeks' 
stock  should  be  sown  between 
February  and  May.  Brompton 
and  Queen  stocks,  planted  in 
May  and  protected  during  the 
following  winter,  blossom  in  the 
second  spring. 

Stock  and  Stockholder. 
The  world  of  business  discovered 
and  used  the  'share'  or  stock 
method,  in  principle,  in  ancient 
times,  the  shared  ownership 
method  not  being  uncommon,  al- 
though the  share-tokens  were 
cuneiform  baked  clay,  skin,  papy- 
rus or  even  cruder  ones,  instead 
of  the  elaborately  engraved  stock 
certificates  of  modern  times. 
The  Roman  Collegium  was  the 
more  definite  forerunner  of  the 
corporation,  and  trading  com- 
pany shares  were  held  by  num- 
bers of  people. 

It  was  not  however  until  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies that  the  joint-stock  trad- 
ing company  was  developed  to 
proportions  in  any  way  resem- 
bling modern  corporations.  The 
incentive  was  the  organization 
of  great  overseas  trading  con- 
cerns in  Holland,  England, 
France  and  Spain,  to  exploit  the 
wealth  of  the  Orient  and 
America.  The  same  abuses  and 
evils  of  over-capitalization,  spec- 
ulation, promotion,  panic  and 
crash  in  stock  values  occurred 
then  as  in  modern  times. 

Stock  is  the  common  phrase 
employed  for  a  paper  certificate 
of  ownership  of  a  fractional 
share  of  an  enterprise  ;  meaning 
in  law  either  a  share  in  the  nomi- 
nal capital  invested  in  a  corpora- 
tion, or  in  general  terms  an  in- 
terest in  ownership.  The  term 
capital  stock  refers  to  the  plan 
of  incorporation  as  regards  its 
share-structure.  A  wide  variety 
of  such  corporation  share-struc- 
tures are  possible,  subject  to  the 
differing  specific  laws  of  incor- 
poration of  various  States  in  the 
United  States  or  the  laws  of 
nations.  'Capital'  of  a  corpora- 
tion is  of  course  distinct  from 
its  'capital  stock,'  which  is  nomi- 
nal or  even  of  'no  par  value,' 
whereas  'capital'  in  the  legal 
sense  represents  net  asset  value. 
The  total  'par  value'  of  the  share- 
structure  of  a  corporation  repre- 
sents its  capital  stock.  This  may 
be  fixed  at  $100,000,  being  made 
up  of  $40,000  preferred  and 
$60,000  common ;  sold  for  cash 


or  value  received  in  whole  or  in 
part ;  and  this  represents  the 
'authorized'  capitalization  as 
specified  in  the  charter  granted. 
In  England  the  American  terms 
'common'  and  'preferred'  stocks 
correspond  to  'ordinary'  and 
'preference.'  The  usual  'par 
value'  of  common  or  preferred 
stock  is  $100.00,  although  there 
are  many  stocks,  especially  in  the 
mining  fields,  which  have  a  par 
value  of  $25.00  or  ten  dollars,  or 
even  one  dollar  or  less.  An  in- 
creasingly widely  used  unit  is 
'no  par  value'  common  shares 
which  instead  of  using  nominal 
value,  look  to  real  value  estab- 
lished by  sale,  or  by  computation 
of  'book  value.' 

Shares  of  stock  are  presumed 
to  represent  tangible  value,  thus 
the  balance  sheets  or  account 
books  of  a  company  show  at  any 
time  the  share  equity  of  the 
stock  ('book  value'). 

Shares  of  many  types  have 
been  developed,  such  as  first, 
second  or  third  preferred  stocks, 
(which  have  preference  in  divi- 
dends over  common  stocks)  or 
common  stocks  A,  B  and  C,  each 
with  precedence  over  the  other. 
The  preferred  stock  may  be 
cumulative  in  interest,  or  non- 
cumulative  ;  may  be  convertible 
into  common  stock ;  and  both 
common  or  preferred  classes  may 
or  may  not  have  voting  power. 
Shares  of  stock  are  transferable 
and  negotiable,  when  endorsed 
by  the  person  to  whom  officially 
issued.  Large  corporations  ap- 
point banks  as  registrars  and 
transfer  agents  to  keep  records 
up-to-date ;  each  checking  the 
other. 

'Treasury  stock'  refers  to  such 
corporation  stock  which  has  not 
yet  been  sold  or  issued.  The 
widely  used  term  'watered  stock' 
originated  in  the  practice  of  a 
notorious  Wall  Street  promoter 
of  the  seventies  (Daniel  Drew) 
who  had  also  been  a  cattle  dealer, 
noted  for  giving  salt  to  his  cattle 
to  induce  them  to  drink  a  great 
deal  of  water  just  before  being 
weighed.  'Watering  stock'  is, 
technically,  'write-up,'  or  over- 
capitalization;  diluting  the  asset 
value  as  represented  by  a  single 
share.  The  clamor  in  1934-5, 
for  instance,  following  the  In- 
sull  crash,  for  squeezing  the 
'water'  out  of  public  utilities 
stocks,  resulted  in  voluntary  of- 
fers of  reduction  of  32%  in  one 
large  group  of  utilities. 

Preferred  stock  usually  ap- 
peals to  the  investor  looking  for 
the  specific  rate  of  dividend  re 
turn  fixed  in  the  charter  of  in- 
corporation ;  while  common  stock 
usually  appeals  to  the  'investor- 
speculator'  who  foregoes  divi- 


stock 


KSE 


462 


Stock  Exchange 


dends  in  formative  periods  in 
order  to  share  in  the  unlimited 
returns  possible  later,  either  in 
the  form  of  cash  or  additional 
stock.  'Stock  dividends'  are  of- 
ten issued  in  place  of  cash  divi- 
dends ;  disbursing  either  Treas- 
ury stock  or  new  issues,  if  assets 
and  prospects  warrant  it.  When 
preferred  stock  is  'cumulative,' 
the  unpaid  dividends  must  first 
be  paid  before  dividends  on  com- 
mon stock  are  allowable. 

Voting  of  shares  is  done  by- 
attendance  at  annual  stock- 
holders meetings,  and  by  'proxy' 
(signed  forms  giving  others  the 
right  to  vote  stock).  In  practice 
the  great  volume  of  proxies  are 
sent  in  to  the  officers  to_  vote  as 
they  choose,  although  since  the 
1929  depression  greatly  increased 
stockholder  attendance  at  annual 
meetings,  and  movements  for 
greater  stockholder  protection 
have  come  about.  There  existed 
in  1935  a  total  of  1500  'stock- 
holders' protective  committees.' 
The  stockholder  has  become  more 
vocal  and  interested.  The  rights 
of  a  stockholder  are  fixed  by  cor- 
poration law. 

He  may  participate  in  elections 
or  vote  on  broad  policy  questions 
or  changes  in  the  charter,  protest 
against  bad  management,  unwar- 
ranted executive  salaries,  etc. 
Stocks  are  legal  personal  prop- 
erty, arid  in  some  States  the  pur- 
chaser of  a  stolen  or  lost  certifi- 
cate endorsed  does  not  legally 
acquire  title.  Stockholders  in 
most  States  are  liable  for  cor- 
poration debts,  up  to  amount  re- 
maining unpaid  to  the  corpora- 
tion upon  their  shares  of  stock. 

The  United  States  since  the 
World  War  witnessed  a  huge 
rise  in  number  of  stockholders. 
Whereas  the  stockholder  class 
had  been  around  300,000  to  500,- 
000  for  decades,  it  rose  to  10,- 
000,000,  and  even  as  high  as 
15,000,000.  This  included  about 
2,000,000  employe-stockholders, 
who  had  purchased  stock  on  in- 
stallment or  profit-sharing  plans. 

The  speculator  is  a  stock- 
holder to  a  very  large  extent 
without  being  recorded  as  such ; 
dealing  through  brokers  on  'Mar- 
gin' without  actually  having  the 
stock  in  his  possession ;  the 
broker  using  'borrowed  Street 
Stock.'  Short  sellers  likewise 
sell  stock  which  they  never  see 
or  own  except  on  'margin.' 

Dividends  on  such  stock  are 
credited  to  speculators'  accounts 
in  the  period  of  speculative 
ownership. 

The  corporation  laws  of  vari- 
ous states  have  varying  degrees 
of  strictness,  those  of  Delaware 
being  the  least  strict,  and  those 
of  New  York  and  Massachusetts 
being  among  those  most  strict ; 
the  latter  state  requiring  corpora- 
tions doing  business  there  to  file 


financial  data.  'Blue  sky'  laws 
(as  to  sale  of  stock)  differ  widely 
in  States,  and  the  Better  Business 
Bureaus  in  various  cities  are 
constantly  working  to  drive  out 
misleading  stock  selling,  which 
in  earlier  decades  reached  a  na- 
tional estimated  annual  total  of 
$3,000,000,000.  After  the  de- 
pression this  receded  to  about 
half  a  billion,  and  the  national 
regulation  of  securities  selling 
(1933)  has  still  more  carefully 
restricted  stock  selling  repre- 
sentations. The  regulation  of 
manipulation  of  stocks  by  hold- 
ing companies  is  another  step 
forward,  together  with  publicity 
for  stockholdings  of  corporation 
officers. 

Bibliography, — E.  S.  Mead, 
Corporation  Finance  (1930)  ; 
S.  S.  Huebner,  The  Stock  Mar- 
ket (1932)  ;  J.  George  Frederick, 
Common  Stocks  and  the  Average 
Man  (1932)  ;  F.  D.  Bond, 
Stock  Movements  and  Specula- 
tion (1931);  I.  M.  Wormser, 
Frankenstein,  Inc.  (1931)  ;  J.  H. 
Sears,  The  Nezv  Place  of  the 
Stockholder  (1929). 

Stockade,  in  fortification,  a 
line  of  heavy  timbers  set  upright 
in  the  earth,  and  close  together, 
with  loopholes  for  the  fire  of  the 
defenders ;  hence  the  enclosure 
itself. 

Stockbridge,  town,  Berkshire 
county,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven,  and 
Hartford  Railroad;  15  miles 
southwest  of  Pittsfield.  It  is 
beautifully  situated  among  the 
Berkshire  Hills,  and  is  a  favorite 
summer  resort.  Features  of  in- 
terest are  the  Edwards  Monu- 
ment, erected  by  his  descendants  ; 
the  Bell  Tower,  Town  Hall,  Li- 
brary, Williams  Academy,  Me- 
morial Bridge,  Ice  Glen  Park, 
and  Indian  Burial  Ground.  In 
the  vicinity  is  Lake  Mahkeenac, 
near  which  are  the  remains  of  the 
house  in  which  Hawthorne  wrote 
The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables. 
From  1750  to  1758  Stockbridge 
was  the  home  of  Jonathan  Ed- 
wards, who  wrote  here  his  trea- 
tise on  the  'Freedom  of  the  Will.' 
The  place  was  first  called  Housa- 
tonic,  after  the  tribe  of  converted 
Indians  of  that  name  who  estab- 
lished themselves  here  in  1736. 
After  the  Revolution  they  re- 
moved several  times,  finally  to 
the  reservation  near  Fort  Leaven- 
worth. The  town  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1739.  Pop.  (1900)  2,- 
081  ;  (1910)  1,933  ;  (1930)  1,762. 

Stock  Broker.  See  Stock 
Exchange. 

Stock  Exchange,  a  recog- 
nized private  central  organiza- 
tion of  professional  traders  (but 
now  increasingly  under  public 
regulation)  for  the  buying  and 
selling  of  selected  corporation 
bonds  and  stock  shares,  as  de- 
sired by  professional  traders  and 


their  clients,  the  investing  and 
speculating  public.  The  Stock 
Exchange  is  a  natural  outgrowth 
of  earlier  forms  of  exchanges, 
such  as  the  Burses  or  Bourses 
of  the  Middle  Ages  (deriving 
their  name  from  Medieval  Latin 
Burse,  meaning  purse).  To  this 
day  the  Paris,  Berlin  and  some 
other  Stock  Exchanges,  includ- 
ing one  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  are 
known  as  'Bourse.'  The  special 
technique  of  the  Stock  Exchange 
is  the  direct  outgrowth  of  the 
devices  of  the  shares  and  bonded 
indebtedness  certificates  in  fi- 
nance, which  permit  actual  own- 
ership, in  fractional  units,  to  be 
represented  by  paper  ownership 
certificates,  and  also  actual  in- 
struments of  indebtedness  in  the 
shape  of  bonds  (debt  certifi- 
cates). 

The  specific  task  of  a  Stock 
Exchange  is  to  serve  as  a  quick 
and  ready  market-place  for  those 
who  wish  to  buy  or  sell  (and  also 
speculate)  in  the  corporation 
shares  and  bonds  of  such  com- 
panies whose  stocks  and  bonds 
are  'listed'  on  such  exchanges ; 
the  requirements  for  listing  vary- 
ing in  different  countries  and 
on  different  types  of  Stock  Ex- 
changes. 

There  are  only  four  Stock  Ex- 
changes of  major  importance  in 
the  world,  these  being  (in  the 
order  of  importance)  in  New 
York,  London,  Paris,  Berlin. 
There  are  other  minor  Stock  Ex- 
changes in  America  in  Philadel- 
phia, Boston,  Chicago,  Pittsburg, 
Cleveland,  Detroit,  Cincinnati, 
New  Orleans,  Baltimore,  St. 
Louis,  Salt  Lake  City,  Denver, 
Buffalo,  San  Francisco,  Los 
Angeles.  In  other  countries  they 
are  in  Amsterdam,  Antwerp, 
Brussels  (in  each  of  these  cities 
very  old),  and  in  Toronto, 
Vienna,  Milan,  Tokyo,  Prague, 
Stockholm  and  Zurich.  At  one 
time  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  had 
an  exchange.  Mining  stocks  in 
many  instances  are  dealt  in  at 
special  exchanges,  as  in  Boston, 
Salt  Lake  City,  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  U.  S.  A. ;  Toronto  and  Mon- 
treal, Canada,  London,  England, 
and  in  Africa  and  South  America. 

'Curb'  or  secondary  exchanges 
exist  in  New  York,  Chicago, 
San  Francisco,  Montreal  and 
Toronto,  Canada  ;  the  New  York 
Curb  evolving  from  a  street  mar- 
ket, conducted  with  sign  lan- 
guage from  neighboring  win- 
dows. 

The  Securities  and  Exchange 
Commission  set  up  in  1934  in 
the  United  States,  placing  for 
the  first  time  all  exchanges  un- 
der public  regulation,  resulted 
swiftly  in  closing  a  number  of 
exchanges  (New  York  Mining, 
Boston  Curb,  California  Stock 
Exchange  and  Hartford,  Conn., 
Stock  Exchange).    It  also  re- 


stock  Exchange      .  KSE 


463 


Stock  Exchange 


suited  in  the  cessation  of  the 
Stock  Exchange  activities  of  the 
New  York  Produce  Exchange. 

Not  all  sales  of  stocks  or  bonds 
are,  of  course,  made  through 
Stock  Exchanges.  Transactions 
in  various  securities,  from  Treas- 
ury notes  and  bank  stocks  to  spe- 
cial securities  of  various  kinds, 
are  called  sales  in  'over-the- 
counter'  securities,  through  vari- 
ous individual  investment  houses. 
The  New  York  Stock  Exchange 
handles  only  20%  of  total  bond 
sales. 

More  specifically,  the  primary 
function  of  a  Stock  Exchange 
is  to  establish  currently  an  au- 
thoritative, actual  price  for  the 
stocks  and  bonds  listed,  based 
upon  the  quotation  at  which  the 
most  recent  sale  was  made. 
Without  such  a  central  exchange 
the  value  of  shares  would  be  in 
constant  doubt.  Such  a  central 
exchange  thus  sets  up  a  presump- 
tion that  the  last  sale  was  made 
in  the  light  of  the  most  complete 
information  available  at  the 
moment,  and  represents  a  meet- 
ing point  of  'bid'  and  'asked' 
prices  in  a  transaction  which  is 
then  regarded  as  establishing  the 
most  reliable  possible  current 
valuation. 

The  secondary  function  of  a 
Stock  Exchange  is  to  facilitate 
buying  and  selling  in  both  time 
and  space.  It  sets  up  a  central 
market-place,  to  be  recognized  as 
authoritative  ;  and  it  sets  up  elab- 
orate machinery  for  rapidity  of 
buying,  selling  and  reporting  of 
prices.  As  perfected  today  an 
owner  or  buyer  of  securities  may 
be  on  a  steamer  riding  the  high 
seas,  thousands  of  miles  from 
land,  or  at  some  distant  town  or 
village — perhaps  a  trading  post 
in  the  wilds  of  Canada — and  yet 
he  is  able,  through  use  of  tele- 
phone, radio,  or  telegraph  to  buy 
or  sell  stock  on  one  of  the  great 
exchanges  within  a  matter  of 
minutes  after  his  decision. 
Problems  of  time  and  space  are 
thus  reduced  to  a  minimum  in 
stock  or  bond  transactions  ;  mod- 
ern devices  having  been  mar- 
shalled as  never  before  to  make 
it  easy  to  transfer  stock  or  bond 
ownership  ;  the  fast  or  'express' 
ticker,  the  ticker  which  visual- 
izes the  quotation  to  a  roomful 
of  people  the  instant  it  comes 
over  the  wire  (as  compared  with 
the  chalking  up  of  quotations  on 
a  blackboard  by  the  old  'board 
boy'  method),  the  telephone, 
typewriter,  direct  wires,  radio 
broadcast  of  stock  prices  and 
other  high-speed  devices,  in  and 
out  of  the  Stock  Exchange.  On 
the  very  beach  sands  of  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  in  tropical  Florida 
brokers  are  able  to  show  their 
clients,  lolling  in  the  sun  in 
bathing  suits,  the  quotations  of 
the  New  York  Stock  Exchange 


within  a  few  minutes  after  the 
transactions  are  made  in  New 
York  or  London.  Railway  trains 
moving  a  mile  a  minute  on  land  ; 
steamships  moving  28  knots  an 
hour  on  the  ocean  ;  airplanes  fly- 
ing 200  miles  an  hour  5000  feet 
up  in  the  clouds  can  present  to 
passengers  the  price  of  the  last 
sale  of  U.  S.  Steel  shares  in  New 
York  a  few  minutes  before. 

The  third  primary  function  of 
the  Stock  Exchange  is  to  pro- 
vide a  daily  index  to  the  business 
feeling,  the  financial  expectation 
and  the  general  outlook  which  is 
current  both  in  the  particular  in- 
dustry and  in  the  commercial 
world  at  large.  The  Stock  Ex- 
changes of  the  world  have  always 
been  extremely  sensitive  barome- 
ters— so  sensitive  indeed  as  to 
register  not  only  the  substantial 
reasoning  of  groups  of  business 
men,  but  also  to  register  their 
fears,  hopes  and  nervousnesses 
(in  the  small  as  well  as  the 
large).  A  prominent  financier's 
scowl  or  bad  digestion  may  get 
itself  reflected  in  stock  prices 
through  some  excited  interpreta- 
tion placed  upon  it.  This  sensi- 
tivity has  been  so  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  new  swift  methods 
of  inter-communication,  by  the 
great  development  of  multiple- 
edition  newspapers,  and  by  the 
widespread  participation  of  the 
public  in  buying  and  selling  of 
securities,  that  the  Stock  Ex- 
change has  actually  lost  some  of 
its  one-time  forecasting  accuracy. 

At  one  time  it  was  accepted  as 
a  truism  that  the  Stock  Exchange 
fairly  accurately  forecasted  fi- 
nancial conditions  by  about  six 
months  ahead.  This  is  no  longer 
the  case  because  the  mechanism 
(acting  something  like  a  compass 
in  too  great  proximity  to  a  mag- 
netic pole)  is  the  prey  of  too 
many  conflicting  cross-currents. 
The  Stock  Exchange  is  still 
valuable  as  a  barometer,  but  no 
longer  may  it  be  regarded  as  an 
infallible  long-range  forecaster. 
Its  actions  are  now  more  nearly 
concurrent  with  events.  The 
complexity  of  modern  economic 
conditions  has  also  helped 
greatly  to  destroy  its  forecasting 
value ;  and  the  revelations  of 
congressional  investigations  in 
1933  in  the  United  States  indi- 
cated a  high  degree  of  artificial 
manipulation. 

The  1929-1935  depression  also 
demonstrated  the  dangerous  de- 
gree with  which  mass  psychology 
interferes  with  any  scientifi- 
cally accurate  trend  in  the 
fluctuations  of  security  prices. 
Even  the  orthodox  conception  of 
the  place  of  short  selling  in  mak- 
ing security  prices  was  shattered, 
since  the  traditional  'cushioning' 
effect  of  short  sales  upon  falling 
prices  was_ notably  absent;  short 
selling  being  most  enormously 


active  mainly  during  a  deep  de- 
cline— not,  as  the  theory  called 
for,  during  a  tall  rise.  At  the 
1929  peak  when  a  number  of 
short  sellers  would  have  been  a 
boon,  and  would  have  forecasted 
and  'cushioned'  the  ghastly  drop 
in  values,  they  were  notoriously 
not  in  evidence.  In  addition, 
practically  all  financial  statisti- 
cians of  the  period  failed  to  prog- 
nosticate the  very  near  cata- 
clysm. 

'Mass  psychology,'  it  has  be- 
come clear,  creates  tidal  waves 
of  both  buying  and  selling,  but 
both  at  wrong  times  for  balance. 
Thus  the  Stock  Exchange,  it  is 
now  clear,  reflects  merely  the 
mood  of  the  moment,  and  per- 
haps a  consensus  for  as  much  as 
a  very  few  months  ahead — but 
is  far  from  infallible  even  in  this. 

Nevertheless,  the  close  tech- 
nical attention  paid  to  commer- 
cial information  by  the  brokers 
and  their  statisticians,  and  the 
intense  profit-interest  which 
traders  have  in  the  market  and 
its  underlying  conditions,  makes 
the  Stock  Exchange  centers  the 
world's  primary  business  capi- 
tals, studied  closely  by  all  inter- 
ested in  economic  and  financial 
activities. 

The  fourth  primary  function 
of  the  Stock  Exchange  is  to  pro- 
vide capital  for  the  solvent, 
active  and  proved  enterprises  of 
fair  size,  of  the  nation.  It  does 
this  first  by  means  of  its  selec- 
tion methods,  admitting  to  list- 
ing the  stocks  or  bonds  of  such 
corporations  as  are  sound,  and 
requiring  financial  data  concern- 
ing their  operations.  It  does 
this,  second,  by  introducing  such 
listed  stocks  and  bonds  to  the 
large  body  of  investors  and  spec- 
ulators whom  its  traders  serve. 
It  does  this,  third,  by  making  it 
possible  to  sell  the  securities  on 
short  notice  at  any  time,  thus 
giving  them  the  favorable  posi- 
tion of  being  quickly  liquidatable, 
and  also  eligible  for  borrowing 
upon  at  banks  at  a  good  ratio. 
Such  advantages  are  not  enjoyed 
by  most  securities  not  listed  on 
Stock  Exchanges.  Such  machin- 
ery makes  it  possible  for  'fixed' 
capital  to  be  changed  quickly  into 
'liquid'  capital  by  individual  in- 
vestors or  traders,  and  for  shifts 
in  ownership  to  take  place  with- 
out disturbing  the  fixed  capital 
at  its  work.  The  owner  of  a 
share  of  General  Electric  stock 
who  suddenly  wants  money  in- 
stead of  stock,  need  not  ask  the 
General  Electric  Company  to 
take  the  capital  out  of  active  use 
and  return  it,  but  through  the 
medium  of  the  Stock  Exchange 
finds  quickly  another  person 
who,  conversely,  prefers  the 
stock  to  cash. 

To  such  an  extent  had  Stock 
Exchanges  (prior  to  1929)  be- 


stock  Exchange 


KSE 


463  A  Stock  Exchange 


come  suppliers  of  capital  to  en- 
terprise that  many  corporations, 
with  their  stocks  listed,  no 
longer  needed  the  intermediary 
services  of  investment  bankers. 
They  had  merely  to  announce 
new  issues  of  stock,  and  they 
were  promptly  taken  by  inves- 
tors, trading  through  Stock  Ex- 
changes. Thus  between  1921— 
1929  a  vast  unprecedented  pyra- 
mid of  nearly  20  billions  of  dol- 
lars worth  of  new  security  issues 
were  sold  and  traded  (much  of 
it  unsoundly  manipulated). 

The  1929-1935  depression 
demonstrated  the  need  for  more 
public-spirited  control  of  the  flow 
of  capital  and  credit ;  in  fact,  in 
the  United  States  the  Stock  Ex- 
change function  of  providing 
capital  broke  down  altogether  be- 
cause of  destruction  of  public 
confidence.  A  new  period  then 
began,  first  with  the  government 
instead  of  the  Stock  Exchanges 
(in  the  emergency)  supplying 
and  controlling  most  of  the  capi- 
tal and  credit ;  and,  second,  set- 
ting up  a  Federal  regulatory  body 
to  safeguard  the  investor,  all  new 
capital  issues  being  most  care- 
fully regulated,  and  Stock  Ex- 
change trading  broadly  reformed 
to  eliminate  manipulative  evils. 
The  Stock  Exchange  in  princi- 
ple now  is  not  a  private  but  a 
public  service  organization,  tied 
in  with  the  generally  more  cen- 
tralized controls  of  flow  of  capi- 
tal and  credit.  Such  new  cen- 
tralized controls  in  the  public 
interest  are  expected  to  stem  the 
ruinous  tidal  waves  of  attempted 
liquidation  of  fixed  capital,  or 
vice  versa  stem  the  opposite 
mood  of  inflated  valuation  and 
over-capitalization,  neither  of 
which  the  Stock  Exchanges  have 
ever  been  able  to  accomplish 
alone. 

The  fifth  primary  function  of 
the  Stock  Exchange  is  to  pro- 
vide machinery  for  legitimate, 
useful  speculation,  this  being  an 
economic  balancing  function  as 
well  as  a  special  profession  for 
private  profit.  Under  the  new 
safeguards  such  legitimate  spec- 
ulation by  professionals,  using 
analysis  and  study  of  conditions, 
is  expected  to  resume  its  useful 
place.  The  oscillations  between 
the  opposites  of  hope  and  fear, 
according  to  individual  tempera- 
ment, investigation  and  fore- 
sight, form  useful  balance  wheels 
when  allowed  to  operate  with- 
out the  fomentation  of  mass 
psychology  on  false  premises. 
They  checkmate  each  other.  The 
sound  speculator,  by  buying  when 
others  are  selling,  or  vice  versa, 
makes  it  possible  to  buy  or  sell 
when  others  are  in  the  opposite 
mood,  and  this  is  essential  to 
maintaining  a  market.  By  deal- 
ing in  'futures,'  by  selling  short, 
by  having  confidence  when  others 


lack  it,  or  being  suspicious  when 
others  are  trusting,  a  basis  is  pro- 
vided for  negotiation,  and  trans- 
actions which  set  genuine  valu- 
ations. 

The  positions  of  'investor'  and 
'speculator'  are  interchangeable, 
of  course,  for  the  ordinary  in- 
vestor, even  though  he  start  with 
the  investment  idea,  may  end  up 
in  speculation,  or  vice  versa. 
The  professional  speculator  is 
not  in  this  category  ;  speculation 
is  his  constant  occupation  and 
intention,  and  he  trains  for  it. 
The  term  'stock  gambler'  is 
not  technically  applicable  to  the 
professional  speculator ;  the 
'stock  gambler'  being  in  actual 
practice  usually  a  different  type, 
often  much  more  daring  and 
chance-taking  type,  comparable 
to  'gamblers'  of  other  types  ;  and 
often  (prior  to  1932)  in  New 
York  being  a  stock  manipulator, 
perhaps  one  of  a  'pool'  group 
with  inside  connections  of  a  type 
now  taboo.  For  an  extended 
treatment  of  speculation,  and  its 
'gambling'  perversions,  see  the 
article  on  Speculation. 

Traders  in  shares  of  corpora- 
tions, forerunners  of  the  stock 
brokers  of  to-day,  first  made  a 
place  for  themselves  at  London 
nearly  two  hundred  years  ago. 
It  is  related  that  at  the  time  of 
the  South  Sea  Bubble,  in  1720 
(see  South  Sea  Scheme),  Lon- 
don brokers  'carried  on  their 
operations  at  Garraway's  coffee 
hovise  in  'Change  Alley,  and  at 
other  temporary  meeting  places,' 
out  of  which  grew  the  London 
Stock  Exchange,  the  records  of 
which,  however,  do  not  go  back 
of  1798.  The  Paris  Bourse  was 
formed  in  1724,  that  in  Vienna 
by  imperial  decree  in  1761,  and 
the  New  York  Stock  Exchange 
in  1792. 

The  London  Stock  Exchange 
has  always  been  distinguished 
for  the  wide  international  range 
of  its  listed  securities,  London 
being  the  acknowledged  'finan- 
cial capital'  of  the  world.  This 
title,  yielded  to  New  York  for 
a  time  after  the  World  War,  has 
again  gone  back  to  London  as  a 
result  of  the  1929-1935  depres- 
sion, which  was  followed  by  a 
greatly  decreased  interest  in 
America  in  foreign  securities. 
The  New  York  Stock  Exchange 
has,  however,  steadily  expanded 
its  listings  of  foreign  securities, 
especially  bonds  ;  nearly  200  be- 
ing traded  in  in  1935.  Only  a 
few  stocks  are  listed,  however. 
Only  at  the  Paris  Bourse  and  the 
New  York  Stock  Exchange  are 
memberships,  'seats,'  bought  and 
sold  for  large  sums. 

At  Paris  a  seat  of  an  'agent 
de  change'  is  worth  $400,000, 
and  membership  is  limited  to 
seventy,  without  the  privilege 
of  speculating  except  for  clients, 


and  then  only  in  securities  listed 
there.  As  at  New  York  also, 
a  member  of  the  Paris  Bourse 
must  be  elected  a  member,  in 
addition  to  buying  his  seat,  and 
the  election  confirmed  by  the 
Minister  of  Finance.  He  must 
then  deposit  250,000  francs  with 
the  government  as  security  in 
case  of  default,  on  which  he 
receives  three  per  cent  interest. 
The  principal  trading  at  the 
Paris  Bourse  is  in  French  public 
and_  corporation  securities,  in 
niining  shares,  in  Russian,  Turk- 
ish, Spanish,  Egyptian,  and  other 
government  obligations,  with  the 
interest  in  Government  issues 
predominant.  A  few  American 
securities  are  listed,  but  the 
formalities  are  many  and  the 
expense  great.  The  outside  Paris 
speculative  system,  called  the 
Coulisse,  has  an  extensive  mem- 
bership, and  few  of  the  more  re- 
strictive conditions  are  attached 
to  it,  although  large  dealings  in 
rentes  (French  government 
bonds)  are  permitted.  At  Paris, 
as  at  other  Continental  bourses, 
much  attention  is  paid  to  lottery, 
loan,  and  mortgage  company 
shares,  of  which  there  are  no 
prototypes  listed  at  New  York. 

The  London  Stock  Exchange 
has  been  in  its  present  quarters 
since  1802.  It  numbers  nearly 
6,000  members,  the  only  requi- 
sites being  that  the  applicant  for 
membership  be  a  British  subject 
and  vouched  for  by  three  mem- 
bers who  bind  themselves,  each, 
for  $2,500  to  indemnify  his  stock 
exchange  creditors,  if  necessary. 
The  entire  membership  has  to  be 
re-elected  annually,  both  brokers 
and  jobbers,  the  first  class  deal- 
ing exclusively  for  others  and 
the  second  group  for  themselves 
— the  latter  corresponding  to 
what  at  New  York  are  termed 
floor  or  room  traders,  and  also 
somewhat  to  the  'specialist.' 
The  stock  ticker,  or  exchange 
and  telegraph  news  service,  in 
the  interest  of  brokers  and  the 
public,  at  London  is  poorer  than 
at  New  York,  and  at  Paris  none 
exists.  At  Vienna  this  conserva- 
tism is  increased,  and  the  daily 
papers  do  not  print  the  close  of 
the  stock  market  until  the  next 
day.  But  the  London  stock 
market  is  the  mart  of  the  world, 
more  than  9,000  securities  of  al- 
most every  kind  and  from  every 
clime  being  listed  and  traded  in 
there,  as  compared  with  less  than 
1,600  in  New  York. 

At  Vienna,  the  stock  exchange, 
like  the  Bourse  at  Paris  and  Ber- 
lin, is  limited  as  to  trading  mem- 
bership, there  being  only  forty 
licensed  brokers  or  'Sensale,'  who 
are  elected  from  among  the  ex- 
change membership  at  large.  The 
position  cannot  be  purchased, 
and  security  is  given  not  to  trade 
except  for  a  customer. 


stock  Exchange 


KSE 


463  B 


Stock  Exchange 


At  Berlin,  exchange  methods 
are  framed  somewhat  after  those 
at  Paris,  dealings  being  largely 
in  foreign  bonds,  American  se- 
curities, and  in  recent  years  in 
great  numbers  of  shares  of  in- 
dustrial companies  of  small  capi- 
talization. Provincial  stock  ex- 
changes in  the  United  Kingdom 
and  those  at  other  cities  than 
New  York  in  the  United  States 
are  conducted  on  much  the  same 
lines  as  those  at_  the  British  and 
American  financial  centres. 

At  the  London  Stock  Exchange 


of  his  'option'  that  the  quota- 
tion will  go  still  higher  than  that 
at  which  he  can  have  it  by  call- 
ing it  and  paying  for  it.  The 
'put'  option  is  the  reverse,  and 
is  based  on  the  payment  of  a 
stipulated  sum  for  the  'privilege' 
of  delivering  ('putting')  to  the 
principal  a  certain  stock  at  a 
certain  price  below  the  market 
at  the  moment,  within  a  speci- 
fied time,  the  purchaser  being 
therefore  a  hear,  a  believer  that 
prices  are  to  decline  lower  than 
his  'put'  price,  to  enable  him  to 


The  New  York  Stock  Exchange,  Broad  Street  Facade. 


business  transacted  is  grouped 
under  these  heads  :  first,  invest- 
ments ;  second,  speculative  pur- 
chases and  sales  of  shares,  on 
margins,  or  'covers,'  as  called 
abroad,  having  to  do  with  en- 
hancement of  price  of  the  prop- 
erty, and  handled  in  much  the 
same  way  as  at  New  York ; 
third,  speculation  on  the  rise  and 
fall  of  the  quotation  of  shares, 
in  which  there  is  no  expectation 
of  actual  delivery  and  payment 
for  the  purchase;  and,  fourth, 
'option'  dealing,  or  trading  in 
-what  in  the  United  States  are 
denominated  'put'  and  'call,'  and 
'straddle'  contracts,  or  'privileges.' 
The  purchaser  of  a  'call'  may 
demand  the  delivery  of  a  certain 
stock  at  a  given  price  (above  the 
market)  to  a  given  date.  He  is 
therefore  a  bull,  a  believer  in 
higher  prices,  and  risks  the  cost 


buy  in  the  shares  for  less  than 
the  seller  of  the  'put'  has  con- 
tracted to  take  them.  What  the 
English  call  a  'double  option'  is 
referred  to  at  New  York  as  a 
'straddle,'  a  combination  of  both 
a  'put'  and  a  'call.'  'Puts'  and 
'calls'  are  frowned  upon  by  the 
New  York  Stock  Exchange. 

Clients  of  brokers  at  the  Lon- 
don Stock  Exchange  who  do 
not  settle  their  accounts  prior 
to  the  close  of  the  fortnight 
which  precedes  'settlement  day,' 
must  arrange  to  carry  over  their 
holdings  into  another  account 
for  another  fortnight's  run,  the 
cost  of  which,  based  on  the  bank 
rate  and  the  supply  and  demand 
of  stock  involved,  is  called  a 
'contango.'  The  corresponding 
cost  to  the  bear  who  desires  to 
defer  delivering  the  stock  he  has 
sold  'short'  {i.e.,  before  possess- 


ing himself  of  it)  is  known  as 
'backwardation.'  'Settlement 
day'  occurs  near  the  middle  and 
end  of  each  month,  four  days 
being  so  occupied.  Deliveries 
of  'bearer'  shares  are  made  the 
day  following  settlement  day ; 
those  by  transfer  are  extended 
for  ten  days.  Settlements  in  con- 
sols occur  once  a  month.  Deal- 
ings in  'Americans'  (as  corporate 
and  other  securities  from  the 
United  States  listed  at  London 
are  called)  are  continued,  after 
the  close  at  London,  in  Shorters' 
Court,  adjoining  the  Exchange. 
Arbitrage  dealings  between  Lon- 
don and  New  York  concerns 
form  no  small  part  of  a  day's 
trading,  the  business  being  that 
of  buying  and  selling  by  cable 
between  the  two  markets  accord- 
ing as  the  quotation  at  one  cen- 
tre gets  materially  away  from 
a  parity  with  that  at  the  other, 
the  effect  of  which  is  to  keep 
prices  at  both  markets  close  to- 
gether. 

New  York  Stock  Exchange, 

— The  New  York  Exchange  is  a 
voluntary  association  of  1,100 
members,  instead  of  a  stock 
company  like  that  of  London.  It 
is  not  incorporated,  and  has  a 
written  constitution.  A  presi- 
dent, a  secretary,  and  a  govern- 
ing committee  of  forty  members, 
with  absolute  power,  are  the 
chief  functionaries.  It  is  housed 
in  an  imposing  structure,  not 
one  hundred  yards  from  where 
twenty-four  brokers  met  under 
a  Cottonwood  tree  opposite  No. 
60  Wall  Street  on  May  17,  1792, 
and  signed  an  agreement  as  to 
the  rates  of  commission  to  be 
charged.  The  association  so 
formed  met  irregularly  at  the 
Tontine  Coffee  House,  Wall  and 
Water  Streets,  but  it  was  not 
until  1817  that  a  stock  exchange 
along  present  lines  was  developed, 
and  in  1827  it  located  at  Mer- 
chants' Exchange,  on  Wall  Street, 
on  the  site  of  the  old  custom 
house.  Thence,  in  1854,  after 
having  moved  to  No.  43  Wall 
Street  and  back  again,  it  found 
a  place  at  William  and  Wall 
Streets  ;  in  1856  at  Lord's  Court, 
at  William  and  Beaver  Streets  ; 
and  in  1865  at  its  present  site, 
fronting  on  Broad,  New,  and 
Wall  Streets.  In  1869  it  ab- 
sorbed its  would-be  rival,  the 
'Open  Board  of  Brokers,'  and 
after  the  demise  of  the  'Gold 
Board,'  in  1879,  bought  the  lat- 
ter's  premises  and  enlarged  its 
own  structure. 

As  the  New  York  Stock  Ex- 
change memberships  or  'seats' 
are  bought  and  sold  (but  only 
by  and  to  approved  persons),  the 
price  such  seats  bring  are  al- 
ways of  general  interest,  reflect- 
ing the  current  degree  of  profit 
in  professional  brokerage.  In 
1871  a  seat  was  worth  but  $2000, 


stock  Exchange 


KSE 


464  Stock  Exchange 


whereas  at  the  peak  of  trading 
in  1929  'seats'  were  worth  $625,- 
000.  Even  New  York  Curb  Ex- 
change seats  were  at  a  high  of 
$254,000.  The  last  sale  in  1934 
however  was  at  $100,000  for  a 
New  York  Stock  Exchange  seat, 
and  $20,000  for  a  Curb  seat.  In 

1933  seats  had  ranged  from  $90,- 
000  to  $250,000;  in  1934  from 
$70,000  to  $190,000.  Measured 
by  seat  price  the  decline  in 
profitableness  of  seats  between 
1929  and  1935  was  525%;  the 

1934  seat  price  being  only  16% 
of  1929.  Seat  prices  had  risen 
to  $22,500  by  1890;  attained 
a  peak  of  $94,000  in  1910,  de- 
clined to  $53,000  in  1913,  reached 
another  peak,  $115,000  in  1920, 
declined  to  $100,000  in  the  years 
1921-25,  and  then  rose  rapidly 
io  its  1929  peak. 

These  prices  bore  direct  rela- 
tion to  the  transactions  in  shares, 
which  dropped  from  an  average 
daily  turnover  of  about  4,000,000 
shares  in  1929,  to  about  1,000,- 
000  in  1934.  The  annual  vol- 
ume of  share  transactions  in  ten 
one-year  periods  was  as  follows  : 

1890    71,826,885 

1900    138,312,266 

1905  (peak)    263,040,993 

1910    163,882,956 

1916  (peak)    232,842,807 

1919  (peak)    312,875,250 

1920    223,931,349 

1929  (peak)    1,124,990,980 

1930    810,626,276 

1934  (low)    323,871,840 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  stock 
sales  declined  in  1934  compared 
with  1929  to  the  extent  of  24% 
(less  than  half  the  rate  of  decline 
of 'seat' valuations).  Share  sales 
dropped  to  almost  the  level  of 
1919  (which  was  a  high  peak). 
Nevertheless  the  volume  was  still 
in  1934  almost  five  times  as 
great  as  in  1890  ;  more  than  twice 
as  large  as  in  1900,  and  one  half 
more  than  in  the  1905  boom  peak. 

The  grand  combined  total  vol- 
ume of  share  sales  in  1929,  the 
famous  boom  year,  on  the  New 
York  Stock  Exchange,  the  New 
York  Curb  Exchange,  the  share 
sales  on  the  New  York  Produce 
Exchange,  plus  the  estimated 
minor  exchange  sales  in  the. 
United  States,  reached  the  giant 
figure  of  1,659,158,377.  This 
was  equal  to  14  shares  for  every 
man,  woman  and  child  in  Amer- 
ica ;  but  as  it  is  conceded  that 
about  4,000,000  were  buying  and 
selling  shares  in  that  year,  the 
total  figure  works  out  to  415 
shares  per  trader.  This  total 
does  not  include  various  other 
sales  of  stock,  nor  does  it  include 
the  sales  of  dubious  or  worth- 
less stock,  known  to  have  totaled 
almost  a  billion  dollars  in  1929. 
(Even  in  1932  the  New  York 
Bureau  of  Securities  enjoined 
818  persons  from  stock  sales  and 


estimated  at  23  millions  the 
year's  loss  in  worthless  stock). 

Stock  offerings  rose  from  a 
total  of  half  a  billion  in  1920 
to  $1,111,933,288  in  1927,  soared 
to  the  huge  peak  of  $3,025,126,- 
707  in  1929,  sank  to  the  abysmal 
low  of  $7,022,000  in  1932,  and  in 
1934  rose  to  only  $10,141,000— 
to  less  than  one-three-hundredth 
of  the  1929  total — despite  an  ab- 
normally low  rate  for  money. 

The  sales  of  bonds  on  the  New 
York  Stock  Exchange  (although 
but  a  fifth  of  the  total)  are  of 
course  also  huge,  having  risen 
from  a  total  dollar  volume  of 
$409,325,120  in  1890  to  $1,018,- 
090,420  in  1905  ;  not  again  reach- 
ing a  billion  dollars  until  1916, 
when  it  went  to  $1,161,625,250; 
then  passing  two  billion  dollars 
in  1918  and  reaching  about  3 
billions  in  1920,  and  four  billions 
in  1922;  then  dropping  to  half 
in  1923  and  in  1929  reaching 
$3,020,316,700.  The  1934  vol- 
ume of  bond  sales  was  $3,729,- 
460,500;  a  volume  greater  than 
in  1929;  thus  illustrating  once 
again  an  old  financial  axiom  that 
bonds  and  stocks  are  always  in 
reverse  order  of  sale  volume. 

The  technical  operations  of  the 
New  York  Stock  Exchange  are 
a  marvel  of  efficiency  and  speed, 
and  the  standards  of  all  major 
exchanges  are  further  marvels 
of  meticulous  trading  honor. 
The  vast  volume  of  transactions 
on  such  exchanges  is  made  purely 
on  standards  of  character  trust- 
worthiness and  personal  faith 
and  confidence,  being  by  word-of- 
mouth  entirely.  Around  the 
various  'trading  posts'  on  the 
floor  of  the  Exchange,  the  floor 
members  gather  and  shout  their 
buying  and  selling  orders,  and 
such  a  verbal  authority  is  suffi- 
cient for  the  completion  of  a 
million-dollar  transaction.  Tele- 
graph and  telephone  authoriza- 
tion from  clients  to  buy  or  sell 
are  also  honored  for  large  trans- 
actions. Each  seat  is  responsible 
financially  for  the  commitments 
of  its  floor  member,  and  there  is 
very  little  friction  or  error.  The 
discipline  over  members  and 
traders  is  extraordinarily  strict. 

Any  or  all  may  trade  for  them- 
selves or  for  clients.  While 
there  is  no  hard  and  fast  separa- 
tion of  functions,  as  in  London, 
brokers  usually  choose  a  special 
activity.  'Commission  brokers' 
act  for  customers  not  rnembers 
of  the  Exchange,  charging  the 
uniform  rate  of  ^  of  1  per  cent 
on  the  number  of  shares  bought 
or  sold.  'Specialists'  pay  atten- 
tion to  particular  stocks,  charg- 
ing other  brokers  1-50  of  1  per 
cent  commission  for  executing 
orders.  'Two-dollar  brokers'  are 
those  who  execute  orders  in  any 
stock  for  other  brokers  at  1-50 
of  1  per  cent.     'Floor  traders' 


speculate  on  their  own  account. 
'Money  brokers'  make  loans  to 
stock  and  bond  brokers  on  be- 
half of  the  banks. 

The  Exchange's  clearing  house 
was  put  into  operation  on  the 
date  of  its  hundredth  anniver- 
sary, by  which  mutual  debits  and 
credits  in  leading  active  shares 
are  offset  one  against  the  other, 
just  as  foreign  stock  exchanges 
employ  the  system,  and  as  do 
banks  at  more  than  one  hundred 
cities  throughout  the  country  and 
at  all  European  centres.  More 
than  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the 
stocks  and  bonds  traded  in  are 
delivered  and  paid  for  before 
quarter  past  two  of  the  day  fol- 
lowing the  transaction — in  con- 
trast to  the  London  'fortnightly 
account'  and  'settling  day.' 

On  the  Exchange  floor  are 
posts  bearing  the  names  of  some 
of  the  more  active  shares,  and  in 
the  groups  of  members  about 
each  may  be  found  dealers  in  the 
same.  The  Exchange's  rules  are 
very  strict  against  'matching 
orders'  or  varying  the  rate  of 
commission  prescribed.  A  for- 
mal call  of  the  bond  list  is  no 
longer  made  daily,  trading  in 
bonds  being  continuous  in  a  por- 
tion of  the  floor  set  apart  for 
that  purpose.  Quotations  on  the 
stock  tickers,  found  in  brokers' 
offices,  in  banks,  and  elsewhere 
in  almost  all  large  cities  of  the 
United  States,  are  furnished  by 
attendants  to  telegraph  operators 
stationed  on  the  floor  of  the  Ex- 
change ;  and  a  few  seconds  later 
these  may  be  read  simultane- 
ously by  the  man  around  the 
corner  and  by  the  occupants  of 
offices  at  Boston,  Chicago,  San 
Francisco,  and  elsewhere. 

Epochal  changes  came  upon 
the  New  York  Stock  Exchange 
and  all  other  United  States  ex- 
changes in  1934  as  a  result  of 
legislation  arising  from  public 
indignation  at  stock  speculation 
abuses.  The  National  Securities 
Exchange  Act  was  passed  in 
June,  1934,  after  revelations  be- 
fore the  Banking  and  Currency 
Committee,  and  after  the  New 
York  Stock  Exchange  had  al- 
ready made  some  reform  con- 
cessions, restricting  'pools'  and 
'specialists.'  The  Exchange  Act 
of  1934  provided  for  registration 
and  regulation  of  all  stock  ex- 
changes and  over-the-counter 
markets,  and  their  control 
through  a  Securities  and  Ex- 
change Commission,  'to  prevent 
frauds  in  the  sale  of  securities.' 
This  Act  not  only  regulates  ex- 
changes but  also  requires  the 
filing  of  certain  specific  informa- 
tion as  to  financial  set-up  and 
status  concerning  new  issues  of 
securities  to  be  sold.  It  specifi- 
cally makes  it  a  criminal  offense 
for  sellers  of  securities  to  claim 
that  such  government  registra- 


stock  Exchange 


KSE 


465 


Stock  Exchange 


tion  constitutes  government  'ap- 
proval.' It  also  imposes  severe 
liability  upon  directors  and  cor- 
porate officers  for  violations  of 
the  Act,  if  a  statement  'contains 
an  untrue  statement  of  a  material 
fact  or  omits  to  state  a  material 
fact  required  to  be  stated  therein 
or  necessary  to  make  the  state- 
ments therein  not  misleading.' 

The  New  York  Stock  Ex- 
change itself  made  a  number  of 
revisions  of  its  rules,  under  the 
lash  of  depression  criticism  and 
threat  of  regulation.  First  was 
the  improvement  of  accounting 
methods  of  listed  corporations — 
more  adequate  income  accounts 
and  balance  sheets.  Many  cor- 
porations listed  had  always  re- 
fused to  give  but  a  very  mini- 
mum of  information.  The  Ex- 
change in  1934  gave  an  ultima- 
tum to  several  large  listed  cor- 
porations and  won  its  point.  The 
next  reform  was  a  requirement 
of  independent  audits  from  listed 
corporations.  This  ended  the 
ability  of  corporations  to  arrange 
their  figures  so  as  to  hide  or 
misrepresent  their  data._  The 
Exchange  cooperated  with  the 
American  Institute  of  Account- 
ing in  the  development  of  broad 
principles  of  accounting  suitable 
as  regulations.  Corporations 
seeking  to  list  securities  issued 
for  cash  must  now  show  the  net 
proceeds  of  the  securities  of- 
fered. Another  rule  adopted  in 
December,  1933,  was  full  pub- 
licity on  all  options  granted  by 
the  corporations  on  their  own 
securities. 

Among  the  rules  adopted  af- 
fecting Exchange  members  was 
one  for  minimum  margins  for 
speculative  accounts  of  custom- 
ers. Members  were  required  to 
make  weekly  reports  on  all  pool, 
option  and  joint  accounts,  and 
these  were  made  subject  to  Ex- 
change approval.  Contracts  for 
six  months'  employment  and 
minimum  salaries  were  adopted 
for  Exchange  member  custom- 
er's men ;  together  with  a  pro- 
hibition of  speculative  accounts 
for  such  employes.  In  November 
1933  the  Stock  Exchange  went 
under  N  R  A  code  rule,  setting 
up  maximum  working  hours, 
overtime  pay,  etc. 

A  'committee  of  elders,'  seven 
in  number,  was  also  set  up ;  now 
also  called  'the  president's  cabi- 
net.' Following  the  passage  of 
the  Act  a  'Council  of  ten  outside 
advisers'  was  also  set  up  (five 
men  affiliated  with  member  firms 
and  five  of  no  previous  stock 
market  experience)  to  provide 
critical  advice  from  outside  the 
Exchange  membership.  Another 
innovation  was  a  weekly  press 
conference.  The  new  Securities 
and  Exchange  Commission's  first 
act  was  to  require  the  Exchange 
to  publish  (for  the  first  time  in 


its  history)  a  financial  statement 
of  its  status.  It  revealed  assets 
of  $43,846,054.  Hearings  also 
began  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  re- 
vised regulations  on  specialists, 
floor  traders,  short  selling  and 
odd-lot  trading. 

The  new  Commission's  perma- 
nent rules  for  registration  of 
securities  on  exchanges  substan- 
tially duplicate  existing  rules  of 
the  New  York  Stock  Exchange 
except  that  they  do  not  require 
corporations  to  be  as  large  or 
their  stocks  so  widely  held ;  the 
New  York  Stock  Exchange  pre- 
ferring that  listed  companies 
have  at  least  4  or  5  million  dol- 
lars of  assets,  and  annual  earn- 
ings of  at  least  $750,000.  Stand- 
ardized annual  reports  from  cor- 
porations is  the  goal  set  up  by 
the  Commission.  The  corpora- 
tion balance  sheet  must  be  sup- 
ported by  six  schedules  covering 
investments  in  securities  and  af- 
filiates ;  property,  plant  and 
equipment ;  reserves  for  depreci- 
ation, depletion  and  amortiza- 
tion ;  intangible  assets ;  reserve 
for  depreciation  and/or  amorti- 
zation of  intangible  assets,  and 
reserves. 

The  registration  regulations 
of  the  Commission  do  not  apply 
to  corporations  whose  securities 
are  traded  in  only  on  the  'over- 
the-counter'  market.  During 
1935  the  Commission  expected  to 
work  out  special  regulations  for 
securities  on  this  market. 

The  number  of  member  firms 
in  the  New  York  Stock  Ex- 
change was  616  in  1934.  These 
member  firms  operate  many 
branch  offices,  some  in  New 
York,  others  throughout  the  na- 
tion and  abroad.  There  were  706 
of  these  in  1925,  then  a  high  peak 
of  1487  was  reached  in  1930. 
By  1935  a  total  of_  385  of  these 
were  dropped.  Simultaneously 
an  increase  in  non-members  cor- 
respondents' offices  took  place — 
3811  of  these  being  in  operation 
in  1935  throughout  the  world. 
Direct  telephone  quotation  serv- 
ice from  the  floor  of  the  Ex- 
change is  enormous.  In  1929 
the  number  of  such  quotations 
furnished  by  phone  numbered 
7,600,000,  but  it  climbed  steadily 
until  in  1934  the  number  was 
16,500,000. 

The  language  of  the  New  York 
Stock  Exchange  has  become  fa- 
miliar not  only  throughout  the 
metropolitan  financial  district, 
but  more  or  less  so  to  men  of 
affairs  at  the  larger  centres 
throughout  the  country.  Thus, 
the  stock  market  is  'weak'  or 
'strong'  as  demand  is  falling  off 
or  insistent.  It  is  'feverish' 
when  it  is  very  irregularly  ac- 
tive ;  and  when  demand  for  any 
stock  or  stocks  is  sufficient 
greatly  to  advance  the  price,  that 
is  described  as  a   'boom.'  A 


'lamb'  is  an  inexperienced  client 
of  a  stock  broker.  'Margins'  are 
the  amounts  (usually  ten  per  cent 
of  the  price  of  a  security)  de- 
posited by  speculators  or  invest- 
ors with  brokers  when  dealing 
in  the  market.  'Bulls'  are  those 
who  regard  market  conditions  as 
promising  higher  prices,  and 
'bears'  the  converse  of  that. 
Bulls  are  'long'  of  the  market 
when  they  buy  shares  in  antici- 
pation of  a  rise  ;  and  bears  are 
'short'  when  they  sell  stocks 
(usually  before  possessing  the 
same)  in  expectation  of  a  decline 
in  prices.  They  then  borrow  the 
stocks  of  which  they  are  short 
to  make  a  delivery,  and  when 
the  prices  go  below  the  figure  at 
which  they  sold  short,  they 
'cover'  by  purchasing  the  same 
and  returning  the  security  bor- 
rowed. When  stocks  do  not  de- 
cline as  'shorts'  expected,  but,  by 
the  action  of  the  bulls  or  for 
other  reasons,  rise  instead,  a 
'bear  panic'  is  said  to  be  the  re- 
sult of  the  bears  having  to  'climb 
to  cover'  at  as  small  a  loss  as 
possible.  When  a  sharp  decline 
hits  bull  commitments,  a  liquida- 
tion or  'shake-out'  often  de- 
scribes the  consequences  to  bull 
holdings.  A  'slump,'  'reaction,' 
'rally,'  and  'recovery'  in  prices 
require  no  special  explanation  of 
their  meanings.  Brokers  make 
'time  loans'  (thirty,  sixty  and 
ninety  days)  from  the  banks  to 
pay  for  securities  bought  on  mar- 
gin, and  also  negotiate  'call'  or 
'demand'  loans,  which  the  bank 
may  call  in  at  any  time. 

The  government  regulation  of 
the  New  York  Stock  Exchange 
is  the  climax  of  fifty  years  of 
agitation  and  antagonism  toward 
'Wall  Street'  on  the  part  of  many 
people  who  were  convinced  of 
the  predatory  and  harmful  effects 
of  stock  speculation.  The  first 
official  investigation  was  started 
in  1908  by  Governor  Hughes 
(later  Chief  Justice  of  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court).  In  1909  the 
committee  appointed  by  him  re- 
ported, and  the  net  result  was 
such  reforms  as  the  forced  ac- 
ceptance of  every  100-share  unit; 
the  abolition  of  the  'unlisted  de- 
partment' ;  speculation  for  their 
own  account  by  'specialists' ;  the 
acceptance  of  speculative  ac- 
counts from  bank  clerks ;  and 
the  urgence  of  margins  over  20%. 
In  1913  the  Pujo  Congressional 
investigation  reported  on  certain 
exchange  practices,  and  in  1914 
the  Senate  Banking  _  and  Cur- 
rency Committee  again  urged  a 
20%  minimum  margin.  In  1932 
the  Senate  Banking  and  Cur- 
rency Committee  undertook,  un- 
der the  direction  of  Ferdinand 
Pecora,  of  New  York,  a  most 
searching  investigation  which 
disclosed  many  abuses  of  the  ex- 
change machinery  and  reprehen- 


stock  Fish 


KSE 


466 


Stockton 


sible  manipulations.  Out  of  this 
background  the  public  demand 
for  government  regulation  grew. 

Stock  Exchanges  all  over  the 
world  are  thrown  into  confusion 
sufficient  to  demand  closing  by- 
two  major  human  calamities — 
war  and  'panic'  On  the  famous 
'Black  Friday'  of  1873  leading 
stocks  in  New  York  fell  $30  and 
$40  a  day,  and  the  New  York 
Stock  Exchange  was  closed  'to 
save  the  Street  from  utter  ruin' 
(N.  Y.  Tribune).  On  the  occa- 
sion of  the  critical  peaks  of  other 
severe  panics  short  periods  of 
closing  have  happened,  as  during 
the  'bank  holiday'  declared  by 
President  Roosevelt  in  1933, 
which  included  exchanges  and 
banks  as  well.  In  August  1914, 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War,  virtually  all  the  stock  ex- 
changes of  the  world  closed  until 
December  1914 — the  New  York 
Stock  Exchange  then  opening 
with  a  system  of  fixed  minimum 
prices,  changed  frequently. 

Bibliography^ — O.  G.  Vil- 
lard.  Early  History  of  Wall 
Street ;  Van  Antwerp,  The  Stock 
Exchange  from  Within  (1914)  ; 
Hearings  and  Report  of  Piijo 
Committee,  Congress  (1913) 
Hearings  of  Banking  and  Cur- 
rency Committee  (1914  and 
1932-33)  ;  J.  George  Frederick, 
Cammon  Stocks  and  the  Average 
Man  (1930),  and  The  Real  Truth 
About  Short  Selling  (1932)  ; 
I.  F.  Wheeler,  The  Stock  Ex- 
change (London  1913)  ;  William 
Hamilton  Whyte,  The  Stock  Ex- 
change (1924)  ;  Henry  G.  Steb- 
bins  Noble,  The  Stock  Ex- 
change :  Its  Economic  Function 
(1933)  ;  J.  Edward  Meeter,  The 
Work  of  the  Stock  Exchange 
(1933);  S.  S.  Pratt,  The  Work 
of  Wall  Street  (1932);  Charles 
A.  Dice,  The  Stock  Market. 

J.  George  Frederick. 

Stock  Fish,  gadoid  fish,  such 
as  cod,  ling,  hake,  haddock,  and 
torsk,  which  are  cured  by  split- 
ting and  drying  till  hard,  with- 
out the  use  of  salt.  This  is  ex- 
tensively carried  out  in  Norway 
and  Greenland. 

Stockholder.    See  Stock. 

Stockholm,  stok'holm,  city, 
the  capital  of  Sweden,  stands  on 
several  islands  and  the  adjacent 
mainland,  between  an  arm  of  the 
Baltic  and  Lake  Malar,  in  a 
situation  that  is  accounted  one 
of  the  most  picturesque  in  Eu- 
rope. It  is  often  called  the 
'Venice  of  the  North,'  and  is 
composed  of  a  central  portion 
(Staden)  ;  Sodermalm,  the  south- 
ern suburb;  Norrmalm,  the 
northern  suburb ;  Kungsholm,  to 
the  west  of  Norrmalm ;  Oster- 
malm,  containing  the  barracks  ; 
and  Skeppsholm,  the  arsenal  and 
headquarters  of  the  Swedish 
navy,  with  shipbuilding  yards 
and   naval    stores.  Handsome 


bridges  connect  the  central  is- 
lands with  the  northern  and 
southern  districts. 

The  chief  public  buildings  and 
monuments  include  the  old 
Church  of  St.  Nicholas  (1264), 
in  which  the  Swedish  sovereigns 
are  crowned ;  the  Franciscan 
Church  (Riddarholms  Kyrka), 
the  Westminster  Abbey  of  Swe- 
den, in  which  all  the  later 
sovereigns  of  Sweden  have  been 
buried;  the  Parliament  House; 
the  Riddarhus,  or  house  of  the 
nobility ;  the  Opera  House ;  the 
Royal  Palace,  built  by  the  Tes- 
sins  in  1697-1753,  and  restored 
in  1901,  a  vast  square  in  the 
noblest  neo-Italian  style ;  the 
Palace  of  the  Governor-General ; 
the  Crown  Prince's  Palace 
(1783-93);  the  Academy  of 
Sciences ;  the  Observatory  (lat. 
59°  20'  33"  N.,  long.  18°  3' 
30"  E.)  ;  the  National  Museum 
(1866)  ;  the  Royal  Library;  the 
Town  Hall  (1922)  ;  concert  hall ; 
law  courts  ;  and  the  Royal  Dra- 
matic Theatre.  The  city  is  re- 
markable for  its  many  beautiful 
promenades  and  delightful  views, 
especially  the  Djurgarden,  with 
its  museum  illustrative  of  the 
national  life,  and  the  Scandi- 
navian Northern  Museum. 
There  are  botanical  gardens  and 
a  conservatory  of  music.  Stock- 
holm is  the  seat  of  the  State 
faculty  of  medicine  founded  in 
1815;  a  State  university  (1878) 
with  faculties  of  philosophy,  law, 
philology,  and  natural  sciences  ; 
an  academy  of  commerce,  and 
several  other  learned  societies. 
The  Bank  of  Sweden  is  located 
here.  In  the  environs  are  beau- 
tiful royal  chateaux  in  pictur- 
esque parks  —  e.g.,  Haga,  Ul- 
riksdal,  and  Drottningholm. 

The  industries  of  Stockholm 
are  varied.  Important  are  the 
iron  and  steel  industries,  ship- 
building, breweries,  silk  weav- 
ing, and  manufactures  of  to- 
bacco, chemicals,  porcelain,  and 
leather.  In  1925  the  Hammar- 
by  channel  was  completed  for 
vessels  up  to  3,500  tons. 

Stockholm  dates  its  origin 
from  1187  and  1255.  In  1389  it 
was  besieged  and  taken  by  Mar- 
garet of  Denmark.  In  1471,  al- 
most under  its  walls,  the  ad- 
ministrator Sten  Sture  gained  a 
brilliant  victory  over  the  Danes. 
Christian  ii  of  Denriiark  took 
the  town  in  1520,  and  in  Novem- 
ber of  the  same  year  massacred 
hundreds  of  Swedish  magnates 
and  burgesses  there  in  order  to 
crush  the  national  resistance. 
Pop.  (Est.  1933)  519,711. 

Stockmar,  shtok'mar.  Chris- 
tian Friedrich,  Baron  von 
(1787-1863),  German  diplomat 
and  physician,  was  born  in  Co- 
burg.  He  was  appointed  (1816) 
physician  to  Prince  Leopold  of 
Coburg,  subsequently  holding  the 


positions  of  his  secretary,  keeper 
of  the  privy  purse,  and  controller 
of  the  household.  He  also  took 
part  in  the  negotiations  which 
led  to  Leopold's  marriage  with 
the  Princess  Charlotte,  and  to 
the  elevation  of  Leopold  to  the 
throne  of  Belgium  (1831),  and 
was  one  of  those  who  arranged 
the  marriage  of  Queen  Victoria 
to  Prince  Albert  (1840). 

Stocks.  See  Stock  ;  Stock 
Exchange. 

Stocks,  an  appliance  made  of 
wood,  and  consisting  of  an  upper 
and  a  lower  section,  attached  to 
each  other  by  a  hinge  at  one  end. 
In  former  times  it  was  much  used 
in  England  as  a  means  of  punish- 
ing vagrants,  beggars,  and  dis- 
orderly persons  ;  in  the  American 
colonies  scolds  were  frequently 
put  in  the  stocks.  The  feet  were 
placed  through  holes  cut  at  the 
junction  of  the  two  sections,  and 
the  delinquent  was  left  to  sit 
there  for  a  period  exposed  to  the 
ridicule,  and  sometimes  the  mis- 
siles, of  the  parish  loafers.  The 
stocks  seem  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  England  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  iii. 

Stocks'bridge,  town,  West 
Riding,  Yorkshire,  England;  9 
miles  northwest  of  Sheffield.  It 
has  steel  works  and  coal  mines. 

Stock'ton,  city,  California, 
county  seat  of  San  Joaquin 
county,  at  the  head  of  navigation 
on  a  branch  of  the  San  Joaquin 
River,  with  daily  steamer  con- 
nection to  San  Francisco.  It  is 
on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe,  the  Western  Pacific, 
and  the  Southern  Pacific  Rail- 
roads ;  66  miles  east  of  San 
Francisco. 

Stockton  is  an  important 
manufacturing  city,  producing 
agricultural  implements  and  ma- 
chinery, paper,  and  canned  goods. 
The  surrounding  country  is  a 
rich  agricultural  and  dairy  farm 
region.  The  world  record  for 
potato  production — 64,707  pounds 
from  an  acre — was  made  here 
and  excellent  records  in  growing 
celery,  asparagus,  sugar  beets, 
corn  and  grain.  The  city  is  the 
distributing  centre  for  the  mines 
of  the  famous  Mother  Lode  Dis- 
trict.   Nearby  are  2  airports. 

The  port  is  an  inland  harbor 
since  1933  when  the  88-mile  deep 
channel  to  the  Golden  Gate  was 
completed,  up  which  90  per  cent 
of  the  boats  entering  San  Fran- 
cisco harbor  may  pass.  It  was 
deepened  to  32  feet  in  1934  and 
port  facilities  were  extended. 

Stockton  was  founded  in  1843 
by  Captain  Charles  M.  Weber, 
to  whom  the  Mexican  govern- 
ment sold  a  grant  of  land.  It 
received  its  name  in  honor  of 
Robert  Field  Stockton,  who  took 
California  in  the  name  of  the 
U.  S.  Government.  Pop.  (1920) 
40,296;   (1930)  47,963. 


Stockton 

Stockton,  Francip  Richard 
(1834  -  1902),  American  author, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia  and 
graduated  (1852)  at  the  Central 
high  school  of  that  city.  He 
became  a  wood  -  engraver  and 
draughtsman,  and  followed  those 
occupations  for  several  years. 
His  first  published  stories  were 
accepted  by  John  R.  Thompson 
for  the  Southern  Literary  Messen- 
ger, and  during  the  Civil  War  he 
was  a  contributor  to  Vanity  Fair 
and  other  New  York  comic  week- 
Hes,  following  this  work  by  chil- 
dren's stories  for  the  Riverside 
Magazine.  Some  of  these  were 
published  as  The  Ting-a-Ling 
Stories  (1870)  and  show  at  that 
period  the  nimble,  elf-like  fancy 
of  this  humorist,  whose  qualities, 
developing  late,  were  all  the  richer 
for  the  delay.  Mr.  Stockton  gave 
up  engraving  and  designing  work 
and  joined  the  staff  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Post,  soon  removing  to 
New  York  city  and  taking  a  posi- 
tion with  Hearth  and  Home. 
His  contributions  to  Scribner's 
Monthly  and  earlier  work  led  to 
an  invitation  from  its  management 
to  become  assistant  editor  of  the 
newly  _  established  St.  Nicholas 
magazine  for  children  in  1873, 
from  which  editorship  he  retired 
in  1882  to  devote  himself  alto- 
gether to  original  writing.  Mean- 
while his  Rudder  Grange  (1879), 
first  contributed  as  a  series  of 
sketches  of  rural  life  to  Scribner's 
Monthly,  with  a  literary  servant 
girl,  Pomona,  as  the  chief  comic 
character,  established  his  reputa- 
tion as  a  humorous  writer  of  the 
first  class.  He  probably  never 
exceeded  the  natural  humor  of 
this  book.  Stockton  was  a  keen 
observer  of  the  feminine  tempera- 
ment, and  in  none  of  his  books 
is  this  more  clearly  shown  than 
in  The  House  of  Martha  (1891). 
His  story,  'The  Lady  or  the 
Tiger?'  published  in  the  Century 
for  Nov.,  1882,  created  a  wide 
discussion  as  to  its  probable 
denouement,  which  was  left 
to  the  reader's  decision.  His 
works  of  fiction  include  The  Late 
Mrs.  Null  (1886),  The  Casting 
Away  of  Mrs.  Leeks  and  Mrs. 
Aleshine  (1886),  The  Hundredth 
Man  (1887),  The  Great  War  Syn- 
dicate (1889),  The  Merry  Chanter 
(1890),  The  Squirrel  Inn  (1891), 
The  Adventures  of  Captain  Horn 
(1895),  The  Great  Stone  of  Sardis 

(1897)  ,    The    Girl    at  Cobhurst 

(1898)  ,  A  Bicycle  of  Cathay  (1900), 
and  a  number  of  volumes  of  short 
stories  and  stories  for  children. 
The  Captain's  Toll-Gate  (1903) 
appeared  posthumously  with  a 
'Memorial  Sketch'  (q.v.)  by  Mrs. 
Stockton.  In  1900-4  appeared 
the  'Shenandoah  Edition'  of  kii 
Novels  and  Stories,  in  23  vol- 
umes. Mr.  Stockton,  a  few  years 
before  his  death,  bought  'Clay- 
mont,'  an  old  place  in  Jefferson 


467 

CO.,  W.  Va.  He  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

Stockton,  Richard  (1730-81), 
American  politician,  signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence, 
born  in  Mercer  co.,  N.  J.  He 
studied  at  the  College  of  New 
Jersey  (now  Princeton  University) 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1754.  He  was  a  judge  of  the  N.  J. 
Supreme  Court  in  1774-81  and  a 
member  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress in  1776-77. 

Stockton,  Robert  Field 
(1795-1866),  American  naval  offi- 
cer, born  in  Princeton,  N.  J.  In 

1811  he  entered  the  navy  as  a 
midshipman;    served  in  War  of 

1812  and  in  the  war  against  the 
Algerine  pirates;  in  1821,  _  as 
agent  of  the  American  Coloniza- 
tion Society,  obtained  the  cession 
of  what  was  afterward  Liberia; 
and  during  the  next  few  years 
saw  active  service  against  the 
slavers  and  against  the  West 
Indian  pirates.  He  played  a 
leading  part  in  the  construction  of 
the  Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal; 
was  promoted  captain  in  1838; 
and  in  1844  was  m  command  of 
the  Princeton  when  a  gun  called 
the  'Peacemaker'  exploded  and 
killed  two  cabinet  officers  and 
other  persons.  In  1845  he  was 
sent  to  take  command  of  the 
naval  forces  in  the  Pacific,  and 
assisted  ,Gen.  Fremont  in  the 
conquest  of  California.  In  recog- 
nition of  his  services  the  town  of 
Stockton  was  named  after  him. 
In  1850  he  resigned  from  the 
navy,  and  during  1851-53  was  a 
member  of  the  United  States 
Senate.  His  chief  service  as  a 
legislator  was  the  introduction  of 
a  bill  which  abolished  flogging 
in  the  navy.  Consult  Life  and 
Speeches  of  Robert  Field  Stockton 
(1856). 

Stockton -on -Tecs,  munic 
and  pari.  bor.  and  port,  Durham, 
England,  5  m.  from  head  of  Tees 
es':uary.  The  public  buildings 
include  town  hall,  exchange  hall, 
freemasons'  hall,  free  public  li- 
brary, and  hospitals.  An  iron 
bridge  (1887)  connects  with  S. 
Stockton  (Yorks).  Ropner  Park 
was  opened  in  1893.  The  exten- 
sive industries  include  blast  fur- 
naces, rolling-mills,  construction 
of  marine  engines,  bridge-build- 
ing, railway  material,  shipbuild- 
ing, and  glass-bottle  works.  The 
Tees  navigation  has  been  greatly 
improved,  and  vessels  drawing 
twenty  feet  can  reach  the  town. 
The  Stockton  and  Darlington 
Ry.,  opened  1825,  was  the  first 
constructed  in  the  United  King- 
dom. A  castle  was  built  here  soon 
after  the  Conquest;  it  was  taken 
bv  the  Parliamentarians  in  1644. 
Pop  (1911)  munic.  bor.,  52,- 
158  ;   pari,   bor.,  76,619. 

Stoddard,  Charles  Augustus 
(1833),  American  clergyman  and 
author,   was    born    in  Boston, 


Stoddard 

and  graduated  (1854)  at  Wil- 
liams, and  at  the  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1859,  mean- 
while taking  courses  of  study  in 
Scotland.  He  was  pastor  of  the 
Washington  Heights  Presbyterian 
church,  New  York,  from  1859  to 
1883.  Dr.  Stoddard  joined  the 
staff  of  The  Observer  as  associate 
editor  with  Dr.  S.  I.  Prime  in 
1869.  He  became  a  proprietor  in 
1873,  and  on  the  death  of  Dr. 
Prime  in  1885  succeeded  to  the 
editorship,  retiring  in  1902.  His 
books  include  Across  Russia  from 
the  Baltic  to  the  Danube  (1891), 
Spanish  Cities  (1892),  Beyond  the 
Rockies  (1894),  and  Cruising 
Among  the  Caribbees  (1895). 

Stoddard,  Charles  Warren  -  Ji  v  a  o  a 
(1843),  American  traveller,  teacher, 
and  author,  born  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  and  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  California.  As  a  trav- 
elling correspondent  for  the  San 
Francisco  Chronicle  he  spent 
seven  years  in  visiting  almost 
every  part  of  the  globe.  In  1885 
he  became  professor  of  English 
literature  at  Notre  Dame  College, 
Ind.,  and  in  1889  he  went  to  the 
Catholic  University  at  Washing- 
ton in  the  same  capacity.  His 
books  are:  Poems  (1867);  South 
Sea  Idyls  (1873);  Marshallah,  a 
Flight  into  Egypt  (1881);  The 
Lepers  of  Molokai  (1885);  Lazy 
Letters  from  Low  Latitudes  {1894:); 
The  Wonder  Worker  of  Padua 
(1896);  A  Cruise  under  the  Cres- 
cent from  Suez  to  San  Marco  (1898); 
Over  the  Rocky  Mountains  to 
Alaska  (1899);  In  the  Footprints 
of  the  Padres  (1902);  Exits  and 
Entrances  (1903);  Father  Da- 
mien,  a  Sketch  (1903);  The 
Island  of  Tranquil  Delights  (1904). 

Stoddard,  Elizabeth  Drew 
Barstow  (1823-1902),  American 
noveHst  and  poet,  was  born  at 
Mattapoisett,  Mass.,  and  was 
the  daughter  of  Wilson  Barstow 
of  that  place.  She  studied  at  the 
Wheaton  Female  Seminary,  at 
Norton,  Mass.,  and  at  other 
schools,  but  obtained  her  educa- 
tion mainly  by  reading  the  English 
classics.  Some  years  after  her 
marriage  to  Richard  Henry  Stod- 
dard (q.v.)  in  1851,  she  began  to 
contribute  poems  to  the  periodi- 
cals, and  she  published  three 
realistic  novels  of  New  England 
life— r/ie  Morgesons  (1862),  Two 
Men  (1865),  and  Temple  House 
(1867) — of  which  a  new  edition, 
with  an  introduction  by  Edmund 
Clarence  Stedman,  was  issued  in 
1888.  Her  Poems  were  collected 
and  published  in  1895.  See  Mr. 
Stoddard's  Recollections  (1903). 

Stoddard,  Lorimer  (1864- 
1901),  American  dramatist  and 
actor,  son  of  Richard  Henrv  and 
Elizabeth  (Barstow)  Stoddard, 
was  born  in  New  York  city,  and, 
brought  up  in  an  atmosphere  of 
books,  letters,  and  art,  early  de- 
veloped an  ambition  to  write  for 


Stoddard 


468 


Stoicism 


the  stage.  To  fit  himself  for  this 
pursuit  he  became  an  actor,  took 
small  parts  at  the  N.  Y.  Lyceum 
Theatre,  and  made  his  first  im- 
portant appearance  as  Trelawney, 
the  young  English  nobleman,  in 
the  original  production  of  The 
Henrietta,  in  1887.  Others  of  his 
parts  were  Monte  Jones  in  The 
Governor  of  Kentucky,  189G,  and 
Adolph  Klcinbacher  in  the  melo- 
drama New  York,  1897.  Mr. 
Stoddard  wrote  several  'curtain 
lifters'  before  his  play.  Napoleon, 

groduced  in  New  York  city  by 
.ichard  Mansfield  in  1895.  It 
was  followed  by  his  dramatization 
of  Tess  o}  the  d' Urbervillcs  (1897), 
produced  by  Mrs.  Minnie  Mad- 
dern  Fiske,  and  In  the  Palace  of 
the  Kin^  (1900),  with  Viola  Allen 
as  leading  lady.  Minor  plays" 
were  The  Interlopers  and  The 
Question. 

Stoddard,  Richard  Henry 
(1825-1903),  American  author  and 
journalist,  was  born  at  Hingham, 
Mass.,  and  was  the  son  of  a  sea- 
captain  of  that  place.  At  ten 
years  of  age  he  was  taken  to  New 
York  city  by  his  mother  and  her 
second  husband,  and  there  at- 
tended the  public  schools.  From 
his  eighteenth  year  he  worked  for 
several  years  in  an  iron  foundry 
on  the  east  side,  meanwhile 
studying  the  best  writers,  and 
beginning  the  composition  of 
verse,  his  first  effort  in  which 
appeared  in  The  Rover,  a  periodi- 
cal edited  by  Seba  Smith.  The 
following  year  he  published  his 
first  volume  of  poems,  Footprints. 
His  second  volume.  Poems  (1852), 
brought  him  much  commenda- 
tion; and  in  1853,  by  Hawthorne's 
aid,  he  obtained  a  position  in  the 
N.  Y.  custom  house  which  he 
held  until  1870.  His  third  vol- 
ume. Songs  of  Summer,  a  notable 
addition  to  the  body  of  American 
verse,  appeared  in  1857,  The 
King's  Bell,  a' narrative  poem,  in 
1863,  and  his  noble  Abraham 
Lincoln:  a  Horatian  Ode,  in  1865. 
They  were  followed  by  The  Book  (j) 
of  the  East  (1867),  Poems  (1880),  - 
and  The  Lion's  Cub,  with  Other  ri 
Verse  (1890).  From  1860  to  1870 
Mr.  Stoddard  was  literary  editor 
of  the  N.  Y.  World.  During 
1872-3  he  edited  The  Aldine,  a 
N.  Y.  art  and  literary  journal,  and 
he  was  literary  editor  of  the  N.  Y. 
Mail  and  Mail  and  Express  from 
1880  until  his  death.  His  works 
in  prose  include:  Lj/e  of  Alexander 
Humboldt  (I860),  Life  of  Wash- 
ington Irving  (1886),  Under  the 
Evening  Lamp  (1892),  and  the 
posthumous  Recollections,  Personal 
and  Literary,  edited  by  Ripley 
Hitchcock  (1903).  Among  the 
numerous  works  edited  by  Mr. 
Stoddard  are  Melodies  and  Mad- 
rigals, mostly  from  the  Old  Eng- 
lish Poets  (1865),  The  Late  Eng- 
lish Poets  (1865),  and  English 
Verse,  with  W.  J.  Linton  (5  vols. 


1883).  The  year  before  his  death 
he  presentecl  the  choicest  of  his 
books,  manuscripts,  and  letters, 
including  a  noteworthv  collection 
of  British  poetry,  to  tne  Authors' 
Club  of  New  York.  See  his 
Recollections  (1903)  and  Stedman's 
Poets  of  America  (1885). 

Stoddard,   William  Osborn 
(1835),  American  journalist  andfN, 
author,  born  at  Homer,  N.  Y.  l^j 
He  graduated  at  the  University  (\i 
of  Rochester  in   1857,  and  en- (K 
gaged    in    newspaper    work  in^ 
Chicago,  but  entered  the  army^'^ 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,(\/ 
giving  up  active  service  in  1801  • 
to  become   private  secretary  toy 
President   Lincoln.    In  addition^ 
to  his  many  books  for  boys  he 
has   written:    Life   of  Abraham^ 
Lincoln  (1884);  Lives  of  the  Presi- 
dents   (10   vols.    1888-89);  TheX, 
White  House  in  War  Time  (1890); 
Table  ^  Talk   of   Lincoln   (1892) ;>> 
Running    the    Cuban  Blockade 
(1899);  Lincoln  at  Work  (1899); 
Ahead  of  the  Army  (1902);  The 
Boy  Lincoln  (1905). 

Stoddart,  James  Henry  (1827- 
1907),  Anglo-Amer.  actor,  was 
born  at  Barnsley,  England,  played 
in  travelling  companies  in  Great 
Britain  for  several  years,  and 
coming  to  the  U.  S.  in  1854  took 
character  parts  in  the  elder  Wal- 
lack's  company,  and  supported 
Laura  Kean  and  Dion  Bouci- 
cault  until  1867.  He  then  acted 
with  Lester  Wallack's  company 
until  1874,  and  from  1876  to  1896 
was  a  member  of  A.  M.  Palmer's 
companv.  See  his  Recollections 
of  a  Player  (1902). 

Stoddert,  Benjamin  (1751- 
1813),  American  soldier,  born  in 
Charles  co.,  Md.;  was  secretary  to 
the  Board  of  War  in  1779-81;  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  the  navy  by 
Adams  in  1798,  and  served  dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  Presi- 
dent's term. 

Stoessel,  Anatole  Mikhailo- 
VITCH  (1848),  Russian  military 
officer;  was  graduated  at  the  Pav- 
lofl  Military  Academy  in  1806; 
served  through  the  Russo-Turkish 
war  of  1877;  was  promoted  to 
lieutenant-general  and  placed  in 
command  of  Port  Arthur  in  1899 
(see  Russo-Japanese  War).  Af- 
ter the  war  an  official  commission 
decided  that  the  surrender  of  the 
post  was  justifiable  (1905),  yet 
Stoessel  was  placed  on  trial  (1907), 
found  guilty,  condemned  to  death, 
but  recommended  to  ten  years 
imprisonment  in  a  fortress  and 
to  oe  dismissed  the  service  (1908). 
The  Czar  confirmed  these  findings, 
and  in  1 909  Stoessel  applied  for  par- 
don or  a  commutation  of  sentence. 

Stoicism,  Athenian  school  of 
philosophy,  founded  after  the 
death  of  Aristotle,  derives  its  name 
from  the  stoa  or  porch  in  which  its 
founder,  Zeno  of  Citium  in  Cyprus 
(fl.  c.  300  B.C.),  taught.  His  suc- 
cessors  were    Clcanthes,  whose 


hymn  to  Zeus  is  quoted  in  St. 
Paul's  speech  at  Athens,  and 
Chrysippus  (280-207  B.C.).  The 
latter's  work  in  developing  and 
expounding  the  doctrine  of  the 
school  was  so  important  that  he 
was  regarded  as  a  second  founder, 
A  more  eclectic  and  moderate 
phase  of  Stoic  teaching  was  initia- 
ated  by  Panajtius  of  Rhodes  (fi.  c. 
140  B.C.),  one  of  whose  writings 
formed  the  basis  of  Cicero's  treat- 
ise De  Offlciis.  Of  all  the  Greek 
schools  Stoicism  was  that  which 
was  most  congenial  to  the  Roman 
temper,  and  in  its  latest  period 
some  of  its  most  famous  names 
were  those  of  Romans,  such  a^ 
Seneca  (3-65  A.D.),  and  the  em- 
peror Marcus  Aurelius  (121-180). 
Epictetus,  another  famovis  Stoic, 
comes  intermediate  between  these 
in  date. 

Like  the  rival  system  of  Epi- 
curus, Stoicism  was  essentially  a 
practical  philosophy;  but  it  had 
Its  metapnysics  as  well  as  its 
ethics.  This  metaphysics  was  a 
pantheistic  materialism.  All  real- 
ity is  material,  the  Stoics  held,  but 
within  it  are  to  be  distinguished 
matter  proper,  which  is  passive, 
and  the  animating  or  active  prin- 
ciple, God  or  reason,  which, 
though  so  termed,  is  conceived  as 
simply  a  finer  kind  of  material 
entity,  an  all-pervading  breath  or 
fire,  such  as  Heraclitus  supposed 
the  cosmic  principle  to  be.  With 
this  divine  principle  the  soul  of 
man  is  akin,  or  rather  is  identified, 
as  a  part  with  the  whole  to  which 
it  belongs.  In  this  metaphysical 
view  two  important  ethicaL  con- 
sequences are  involved.  First, 
the  maxim  of  'living  according 
to  nature'  or  'reason'  comes  to 
mean  living  in  conformity  with 
the  divine  order  of  the  universe. 
And  the  importance  of  this  posi- 
tive guidance  is  seen  in  the  great 

Eart  which  Stoicism  played  in 
uilding  up  that  conception  of  a 
law  of  nature  by  which  Roman 
jurisprudence  was  so  powerfully 
affected.  (See  Maine's  Ancient 
Law,  ch.  iii.)  And  second,  the 
doctrine  that  all  that  happens  is 
according  to  the  divine  order,  and 
therefore  for  the  best,  involves 
a  thoroughgoing  optimism.  The 
real  source  of  the  Stoic  ethics, 
however,  is  not  any  metaphysical 
theory,  but  the  practical  ideal 
already  proclaimed  in  Cynicism 
— the  ideal  of  the  wise  man  after 
the  pattern  of  Socrates,  who  per- 
ceives that  the  true  good  of  man 
lies  not  in  outward  objects,  but 
in  the  state  of  thje  soul  itself,  in 
that  knowledge  or  wisdom  by 
which  he  is  delivered  from  the 
passions  and  desires  that  perturb 
the  life  of  the  ordinary  man.  At 
first,  indeed.  Stoicism  had  a  good 
deal  of  the  Cynic  harshness  of 
view.  The  wise  man  was  separated 
by  an  absolute  gulf  from  the  un- 
wise, and  all  external  things  were 


Stoke-on-Trent 


KR 


469 


Stomach 


utterly  indifferent  to  the  wise 
man.  But  the  more  rigid  dual- 
isms of  early  Stoicism  were  grad- 
ually relaxed  by  the  introduction 
of  new  distinctions.  By  means 
of  such  distinctions  the  life  of 
Stoic  virtue  was  able  to  adapt 
itself  tolerably  well  to  the  neces- 
sities of  its  environment.  And  so 
far,  indeed,  was  such  accommo- 
dation carried  that  in  later  Stoic- 
cism  a  reaction  set  in  towards  a 
more  cynical  ideal.  Stoicism  of 
the  latest  or  Roman  period  was 
characterized  by  its  strongly 
practical  and  religious  tendency, 
as  in  the  Discourses  and  Encheiri- 
dion  of  Epictetus,  and  the 
Thoughts  or  Meditations  of  Mar- 
cus Aurelius.  On  Stoicism  gen- 
erallv,  see  Capes'  Stoicism  (1880) 
and  Zeller's  Stoics  (trans.  1892). 

Stoke  -  on  -  Trent,  city  of, 
England,  Staffordshire,  17  m.  N. 
of  Stafford,  and  on  the  Trent 
and  Mersey  Canal.  It  is  famous 
as  the  chief  center  of  the  porce- 
lain and  earthenware  manu- 
facture, with  which  the  names  of 
Wedgwood,  Minton,  and  Cope- 
land  are  associated.  The  Minton 
memorial  building  contains  free 
library  and  museum,  and  schools 
of  science  and  art,  and  in  the 
church  is  a  monum.ent  to  Wedg- 
wood (d.  1793).  The  N.  Stafford- 
shire Ry.  has  offices  here.  Pop. 
1946,  est.  269,890. 

Stoke  Poges,  village,  Buck- 
inghamshire, England,  2  m.  N.  of 
Slough  station  (G.W.R.).  The 
ancient  church  of  St.  Giles  con- 
tains a  canopied  tomb  and  14th 
and  15th  century  brasses.  On 
the  s.  is  the  Hastings  Chapel. 
The  poet  Gray  is  interred  in  the 
churchyard,  believed  to  have 
been  the  scene  of  his  Elegy.  Pop. 
3,175. 

Stokes,  Anson  Phelps  (1838- 
1913),  American  banker,  born  in 
New  York  city,  began  business 
life  with  the  metal  firm  of  Phelps, 
Dodge  &  Co.,  and  afterwards 
organized  the  banking-house  of 
Phelps,  Stokes  &  Co.  He  be- 
came prominent  in  free-trade  and 
civil-service  reform  movements, 
was  the  first  president  of  the  Re- 
form Club,  and  in  1900  was 
president  of  the  National  Asso- 
ciation of  Anti-Imperialist  Clubs. 
He  wrote  Cruising  in  the  West  In- 
dies (1902)  and  Cruising  in  the 
Caribbean  with  a  Camera  (1903). 

Stokes,  Sir  George  Gabriel 
(1819-1903),  Irish  physicist,  was 
born  at  Skreen,  Co.  Sligo.  In 
1837  he  entered  at  Pembroke 
College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1841 
graduated  as  senior  wrangler  and 
Smith's  prizeman,  and  was  elec- 
ted a  fellow  of  his  college.  Stokes 
devoted  himself  to  the  mathe- 
matical investigation  of  physical 
problems,  primarily  in  hydro- 
dynamics. In  1849  he  published 
his  researches  on  the  dynamical 
theory  of  diffraction,  and  was 
shortly  afterward  appointed  Lu- 
casian  professor  of  mathematics. 


His  subsequent  labors  were 
chiefly  in  the  field  of  optics, 
his  most  important  investiga- 
tion being  on  fluorescence,  and 
the  fact  that  the  refrangibility  f)f 
light  is  in  general  reduced  by  the 
dispersion  caused  by  fluorescent 
substances  is  known  as  Stokes' 
law.  He  became  secretary  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1854.  He  pub- 
lished researches  on  double  re- 
fraction, the  effect  of  wind  on 
the  propagation  of  sound,  along 
with  investigations  in  pure 
mathematics.  Stokes  was  m.p. 
for  Cambridge  University,  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
master  of  Pembroke  College.  See 
his  collected  Mathematical  and 
Physical  Papers  (1880-1905). 

Stokes,  Whitley  (1830-1909) 
Anglo-Indian  official  and  Irish 
philologist,  born  in  Dublin;  was  a 
barrister  of  the  Inner  Temple 
(1855),  and  went  to  India  (1862), 
where  he  was  law  member  of  the 
council  of  the  governor-general 
(1877-82).  His  books  include 
Irish  Glasses  (1860),  Goidelica 
(2d  ed.  1872),  The  Tripartite  Life 
of  St.  Patrick  (1887),  The  Gaelic 
Marco  Polo  (1898),  The  Eulogy 
of  St.  Columbo  (1899),  and  Da 
Derga's  Hostel  (1901). 

Stolberg,  Christian,  Count 
Zu  (1748-1821),  German  poet 
and  critic,  born  at  Hamburg; 
early  adopted  the  views  of  Bur- 
ger and  Voss  with  regard  to 
poetic  style  and  expression,  thus 
enrolling  himself  in  the  Gottin- 
gen  school  of  critics.  As  a  poet 
he  was  sweet  rather  than  strong, 
and  as  a  critic  appreciative  rather 
than  analytically  critical.  His 
chief  works  were  Gedichte  (1779); 
Gedichte  aus  dem  Griechischen 
(1782);  Shauspiele  mit  Choren 
(1787);  V  aterldndische  Gedichte 
(1810);  also  a  capital  translation 
of  Sophocles  in  verse  (1787). 

Stolberg,  Friedrich  Leo- 
pold, Count  Zu  (1750-1819), 
German  poet  and  translator, 
born  at  Bramstedt  (Holstein), 
was  a  member  of  the  Gottingen 
school  of  poets.  Many  of  his 
poems,  especially  after  his  con- 
version to  Roman  Catholicism, 
were  strongly  tinged  with  re- 
ligion. His  chief  works  were 
Geschichte  der  Religion  Jesus 
Christi  (15  vols.  1807-18);  Ge- 
dichte (1780):  a  poetic  romance. 
Die  Insel  (1788);  and  excellent 
translations,  both  in  prose  and 
verse,  of  Plato,  Aeschylus,  and 
Homer.  The  best  edition  of  his 
Werke  is  that  by  Janssen  (1878; 
3d  ed.  1882). 

Stole,  a  strip  of  silken  material 
worn  over  both  shoulders  by 
priests  and  bishops,  but  over  the 
left  shoulder  only  by  deacons,  in 
their  ministrations.  Symbolically 
it  represents  the  yoke  of  Christ. 
The  color  of  the  stole  may  be 
changed  in  harmony  with  the 
church's  seasons. 

Stolen  Goods.  A  thief  can 
not  give  good  title  to  the  stolen 


property,  and  if  the  owner  can 
take  back  the  property  without 
committing  a  breach  of  the  peace 
he  is  entitled  to  do  so.  but  other- 
wise he  must  resort  to  the  law. 
An  innocent  purchaser  is  not  pro- 
tected, and  only  has  a  right  of 
action  against  his  vendor  or  the 
thief  for  the  purchase  price, 
which  of  course  may  be  worth- 
less. An  exception  is  made  with 
regard  to  negotiable  paper  pay- 
able to  bearer  before  maturity, 
but  this  is  under  the  peculiar 
rules  of  negotiable  instruments. 
See  Receiving  Stolen  Goods. 

Stolp,  town,  Germany,  Prus- 
sia, province  Pomerania,  on  the 
Stolpe,  65  m.  w.  of  Danzig; 
manufactured  amber  goods, linen, 
and  alcohol.  Its  port  is  Stolp- 
miinde,  12  m.  distant.  Pop. 
45,307. 

Stolypin,  Peter  Arkazhe- 
vich  (1863-1911),  Russian  states- 
man, graduated  at  the  University 
of  St.  Petersburg  in  1884,  served 
for  two  years  in  the  Ministry  of 
the  Interior  and  for  the  same 
period  in  the  Ministry  of  Agricul- 
ture, and  in  1899  was  made  Mar- 
shal of  the  Provincial  Nobility. 
He  was  Vice-Governor  of  Grodno 
in  1902,  and  Governor  of  Sara- 
toff  in  1903,  when  he  became 
Minister  of  the  Interior.  Upon 
the  resignation  of  Goremykin  in 
1906  he  was  appointed  Premier. 

Stomach,  in  man  the  most  di- 
lated part  of  the  alimentary  canal 
is  situated  in  the  upper  and  left 
part  of  the  abdominal  cavity, 
below  the  liver  and  diaphragm. 
Its  form  is  irregularly  conical 
and  its  capacity  in  the  adult 
is  about  five  pints.  It  has  two 
openings — (1)  an  oesophageal, 
communicating  with  the  gullet, 
known  as  the  cardia,  and  (2)  the 
pyloric  orifice,  opening  into  the 
duodenum,  and  guarded  by  the 
pyloric  valve.  These  two  orifices 
are  supplied  with  sphincter  mus- 
cles. The  organ  is  held  in  posi- 
tion by  the  omenta,  which,  how- 
ever, permit  of  comparatively 
free  movements  and  of  expan- 
sion. The  wall  of  the  stomach 
consists  of  four  coats — a  serous, 
muscular,  cellular,  and  mucous 
coat.  The  mucous  coat  of  the 
stomach  is  thick,  with  a  smooth, 
velvety  surface,  pinkish  in  youth . 
but  gray  or  straw-colored  while 
at  rest  in  the  adult,  but  red  dur- 
ing gastric  digestion.  Microscop- 
ically mucous  membrane  pre- 
sents a  honeycomb  appearance, 
being  covered  with  small  shallow 
depressions  or  alveoli.  The  mu- 
cous membrane  is  covered  by  a 
single  layer  of  narrow  cylindrical 
epithelial  cells,  which  secrete 
mucus.  Numerous  glands  of  two 
distinct  varieties  are  placed  ver- 
tically like  rows  of  test  tubes  em- 
bedded in  the  mucous  membrane, 
and  open  by  ducts  at  the  bottom 
of  the  alveoli:  (1)  The  glands  at 
the  cardiac  end  of  the  stomach 
are  variously  known  as  peptic, 


stomach 


KR 


470 


Stomach 


cardiac,  or  fundus  glands. 
(2)  The  pyloric  glands  occur  only 
in  the  region  of  the  pylorus,  and 
have  longer  ducts  and  more 
patent  lumina  than  have  the 
fundus  glands. 

The  function  of  the  stomach 
includes  the  mechanical  and 
chemical   digestion   of  ingested 


food,  which  is  thus  prepared  for 
absorption  in  the  intestine,  and 
propelled  into  the  latter  by  peris- 
taltic muscular  contractions. 
Carbohydrates  and  fats  are  ex- 
posed to  glandular  secretions  of 
hydrochloric  acid  and  enzymes. 
The  ingestion  of  food  stimulates 
the  gastric  glands  to  secretion. 
But  the  same  result  may  be  pro- 


duced by  other  stimuli — for  ex- 
ample, mere  mechanical  irrita- 
tion by  stones  or  other  indigest- 
ible substances,  the  application 
of  heat,  and  nervous  stimulation, 
such  as  may  be  caused  by  the 
sight,  smell,  or  thought  of  food; 
drugs  have  also  an  influence 
upon  the  gastric  glands.  Alcohol 


in  moderation  increases,  in  excess 
arrests,  the  flow.  Dilute  alkalis 
given  before  food,  saliva,  and 
ether  all  stimulate  the  secretion, 
while  tannic  acid  and  other 
astringents  diminish  it.  The  gas- 
tric juice  is  a  clear,  colorless 
fluid  with  a  strongly  acid  re- 
action, sour  taste,  and  character- 
istic odor.     It  consists  mainly 


of  water,  but  its  chief  digestive 
constitutents  are  hydrochloric 
acid  and  pepsin.  (See  Digestion.) 

The  commoner  diseases  of  the 
stomach  are  gastritis,  ulceration, 
dilatation,  and  cancer.  All  these 
may  lead  to  the  group  of  symp- 
toms known  as  dyspepsia.  (See 
Dyspepsia.)  Acute  catarrhal  gas- 
tritis, caused  by  injudicious  diet, 
is  the  most  fertile  cause  of  infant- 
ile mortality.  In  adults  acute 
gastric  catarrh  frequently  follows 
alcoholic  excess,  but  maybe  a  re- 
sult of  acute  infection,  food  poi- 
soning or  severe  chilling.  Vom- 
iting may  be  persistent,  but  the 
pain  is  not,  as  a  rule,  severe. 
Chronic  catarrh  is  associated 
more  with  the  torpid  type  of 
dyspepsia,  and  is  often  accom- 
panied by  dilatation  of  the 
stomach,  great  emaciation,  and 
nervous  depression.  It  is  fre- 
quently due  to  chronic  alco- 
holism, and  may  be  merely  part 
of  a  general  venous  congestion 
caused  by  portal  obstruction  of 
a  cirrhosed  liver.  Gastric  ulcer 
may  develop  from  chronic  irri- 
tation of  the  mucosa  by  food, 
from  injuries  caused  by  foreign 
bodies,  food  balls,  hair  balls,  etc., 
from  disturbances  of  the  auto- 
nomic nervous  system  resulting 
in  ischemic  areas  which  undergo 
digestion  by  the  gastric  juice. 
Other  possible  causes  of  gastric 
ulcer  include  alcoholic  irritation, 
changes  due  to  excessive  use  of 
tobacco,  or  of  condiments,  sys- 
temic changes  caused  by  exten- 
sive superficial  burns  or  affec- 
tions of  the  central  nervous  sys- 
tem. Recently  the  importance 
of  neurologic  and  psychic  distur- 
bances as  causes  of  gastric  ulcer 
has  been  stressed.  If  the  ulcer 
causes  rupture  of  a  large  blood 
vessel,  severe  or  fatal  hemorrhage 
may  ensue.  The  ulcer  itself  may 
rupture.  Perforating  ulcers  are 
generally  rapidly  fatal,  as  the 
contents  of  the  stomach  escape 
into  the  peritoneal  cavity  and 
set  up  general  peritonitis.  Should 
the  ulcer  not  penetate  the  whole 
thickness  of  the  stomach  wall, 
however,  spontaneous  healing  is 
possible,  especially  if  the  diet  be 
carefully  regulated. 

Dilatation  of  the  stomach  is 
generally  secondary  to  chronic 
gastritis,  nervous  disturbance,  or 
obstruction  at  the  pylorus.  The 
thinned  and  atrophied  stomach 
is  distended  by  fluid  and  gas, 
and  the  patient  suflers  from  eruc- 
tations. In  spite  of  frequent 
vomiting  the  stomach  is  never 
thoroughly  emptied,  and  the 
nutrition  of  the  patient  suffers 
to  a  marked  degree.  Acute  dila- 
tation of  the  stomach  may  occur 
during  operations  under  general 
anesthesia,  in  acute  infections  or 
following  injury  to  the  central 
nervous  system. 

Cancer  of  the  stomach  is  the 


The  Stomach. 

A.  Stomach  (human),  b.  Same,  anterior  wall  removed,  c.  Portion  of  stomach,  pylorus 
and  duodenum,  d.  Section  through  coats  of  stomach,  e.  Fundus  of  a  cardiac  gland. 
F.  Epithelium  from  surface  of  stomach,  g.  Arteries  and  veins  of  mucous  membrane.  1, 
Oesophagus;  2,  duodenum;  3,  pylorus;  4,  cardia;  5.  lesser  curvature;  6,  greater  curvature; 
7,  anterior  surface;  8,  pyloric  valve;  9,  mucous  membrane,  with  rugae;  10,  inner  surface  of 
gastric  mucous  membrane;  11,  mucous  membrane  of  duodenum;  with  villi;  12,  pyloric  gastric 
glands;  13,  circular  or  deep  muscular  fibers;  14,  longitudinal  or  external  muscular  fibers;  15 
serous  covering:  16,  intestinal  glands;  17,  mucous  membrane;  18,  muscularis  mucosae;  19, 
submucous  coat;  20,  circular  muscular  layer;  21,  longitudinal  muscular  layer;  22,  serous  coat; 
23,  orifice  of  gland;  24,  fundus  of  gland. 


stomach 


KR 


471 


Stone 


most  frequent  type  of  cancer  in 
the  male  and  comes  next  in  fre- 
quency to  cancer  of  the  uterus  in 
the  female,  and  represents,  tnere- 
fore,  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
death  in  the  present  era.  Gastric 
carcinoma  may  be  present  for 
a  long  time  without  causing  any 
symptoms  or  only  mild  symp- 
toms of  ordinary  dyspepsia  and 
malaise.  Cancer  about  the  car- 
diac end  of  the  stomach  often 
produces  the  symptoms  of  acute 
gastritis;  about  the  pylorus  it  is 
associated  with  aggravated 
torpid  dyspepsia,  with  great  dila- 
tation, and  often  with  consider- 
able pain.  In  cancer  there  is 
rarely  so  much  haemorrhage  as 
in  gastric  ulcer,  and  there  is  but 
little  tendency  to  perforation, 
except  in  the  case  of  colloid  car- 
cinoma. The  tumor  as  it  in- 
creases in  size  can  often  be  felt 
on  palpation  through  the  wasted 
abdominal  walls.  It  may  pro- 
duce obstruction  at  the  pylorus 
by  the  formation  of  a  hard  scirr- 
hous ring,  or  by  the  projection 
inwards  of  fungoid  growths.  Sar- 
coma and  benign  tumors  of  the 
stomach  are  exceedingly  rare. 

Diseases  of  the  stomach  may 
frequently  present  symptoms 
suggesting  gallbladder  disease, 
duodenal  ulcer  or  cirrhosis  of  the 
liver.  X-rays  and  gastroscopic 
examination  are  of  great  value  in 
differential  diagnosis.  Persons 
suffering  from  dyspepsia  or  other 
gastric  disturbances  of  unknown 
cause  should  report  for  examina- 
tion, since  early  diagnosis  of 
cancer  may  lead  to  earlier  treat- 
ment and  thus  save  many  lives. 
Tuberculosis  and  syphilis  of  the 
stomach  are  rare,  but  must  be 
considered  in  the  differential 
diagnosis  from  cancer. 

In  acute  conditions  of  the 
stomach  food  should  be  withheld 
for  a  time,  or  given  only  in  small 
quantities — e.g.  iced  milk  and 
beef  juice  in  minute  doses,  with 
subnitrate  of  bismuth  or  other 
sedative.  Counter-irritation 
over  the  stomach  is  useful,  and 
rest  is  a  valuable  adjuvant.  In 
acute  gastritis  arising  from  alco- 
holic excess,  rest  and  sedatives, 
combined  with  a  purge  and  fol- 
lowed by  light  diet,  usually 
effect  speedy' cure.  In  all  cases 
alcohol  should  be  stopped.  The 
bowels  must  be  kept  open  by 
enemata  if  necessary,  and  tonics 
should  be  given.  When  dilata- 
tion of  the  stomach  leads  to  fer- 
mentation of  the  food,  washing 
out  the  contents  by  means  of  a 
stomach  tube  is  of  great  value. 
After  the  operation  a  little  fluid 
food  should  be  introduced  before 
the  tube  is  removed. 

The  treatment  for  gastric  ulcer 
is  a  matter  of  some  debate.  The 
Sippy  treatment,  which  has  met 
with  considerable  success,  con- 
sists   of    dietetic    and  medical 


measures  to  neutralize  all  free 
hydrochloric  acid  during  the  time 
that  the  food  and  its  accompany- 
ing secretion  are  present  in  the 
stomach.  Surgical  measures  are 
indicated  in  perforated  ulcer  and 
in  some  other  cases.  The  treat- 
ment of  cancer  is  also  surgical, 
medical  measures  in  such  cases 
being  only  palliative.  In  so- 
called  'nervous  dyspepsia,'  efforts 
must  be  made  to  build  up  the 
nervous  system.  An  abundance 
of  nutritious  food  without  an  at- 
tempt at  too  rigorous  a  diet  is 
indicated. 

In  many  of  the  lower  animals 
the  stomach  is  simple,  as  in  man, 
but  in  some  rodents  it  is  bifid, 
while  in  ruminants  it  consists  of 
four  cavities.  Certain  plants, 
such  as  sundew  or  drosera,  se- 
crete digestive  fluids,  and  the 
leaves  of  pitcher  plants  are  modi- 
fied into  stomach-like  organs  in 
which  insects  are  digested. 

Stomach  Pump,  in  medical 
practice,  is  a  pump  or  syringe 
used  to  empty  the  stomach,  or 
to  introduce  liquids  into  it.  The 
pump  has  two  apertures  near  the 
end  instead  of  one,  which  con- 
stitute a  sucking  and  a  forcing 
passage,  either  of  which  can  be 
connected  with  a  flexible  tube 
passed  into  the  stomach. 


Stomata 


1.  Open,  in  damp  weather.    2.  Closed,  in 
dry  weather. 

Sto'mata,  openings  in  the 
the  outer  coat  or  epidermis  of  the 
green  parts  of  plants,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  allowing  an  interchange 
of  air  and  moisture  between  the 
plant  and  the  atmosphere  out- 
side. They  are  each  bounded  by 
two  'guard-cells,'  joined  at  each 
end.  Usually  the  majority  of 
stomata  exist  on  the  under  sur- 
face of  leaves,  but  in  the  case  of 
floating  leaves  they  are  found  on 
the  upper  surface. 

Stomati'tis,  inflammation  of 
the  mouth.  Various  forms  of 
this  condition  are  met  with, 
including  simple  catarrhal  stoma- 
titis, a  common  acute  infection  in 
children  and  adults,  character- 


ized by  fetid  breath  and  severe 
pain;  ulcerative  stomatitis,  often 
accompanied  by  severe  constitu- 
tional symptoms;  mercurial  sto- 
matitis, due  to  mercurial  poison- 
ing; ulcer o-memhraneous  stoma- 
titis, or  trench  mouth;  mycotic 
stomatitis,  or  thrush  (q.  v.) ;  and 
noma,  or  cancrum  oris  (q.  v.). 

Stone.  See  Calculus;  Gall- 
stones; Lithotomy;  Urinary 
Calculus. 

Stone,  a  British  weight, 
equivalent  to  14  lbs. 

Stone,  Amasa  (1818-83), 
American  engineer  and  capitalist, 
was  born  in  Charlton,  Mass.  In 
1839  he  joined  Howe,  the  pat- 
entee of  an  improved  truss  bridge, 
in  building  a  bridge  over  the 
Connecticut  river  at  Springfield, 
Mass.  In  1841  he  formed  a  con- 
struction company  to  undertake 
railroad  work  and  bought  Howe's 
patent  rights.  He  introduced 
many  improvements  in  bridge- 
building,  and,  with  the  view  of 
enlarging  the  scope  of  his  opera- 
tions in  1846,  formed  another 
company,  which  secured  the  con- 
tract for  building  the  Cleveland, 
Columbus  and  Cincinnati  Rail- 
road. He  bequeathed  a  large 
part  of  his  fortune  to  build  and 
equip  Adelbert  College  in  Cleve- 
land, Ohio. 

Stone,  Artificial.  Many  ma- 
terials have  been  proposed  to 
replace  natural  stone,  on  the 
ground  that  they  are  equally 
durable,  while  they  possess  the 
advantage  of  being  easily  mould- 
ed to  any  desired  shape.  Of  these, 
concrete  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant. Ransome's  stone  is 
made  by  moulding  a  mixture  of 
sand,  chalk,  and  sodium  silicate, 
and  immersing  the  blocks  in  a 
solution  of  calcium  chloride;  the 
calcium  silicate  thus  formed 
binds  the  mass  firmly  together. 
Victoria  stone,  used  for  paving, 
is  made  by  soaking  slabs  made  of 
powdered  granite  and  Portland 
cement  in  sodium  silicate  solu- 
tion. Other  artificial  stones  are 
constructed  with  greater  or  less 
success,  but  cement  is  usually  an 
essential  constituent. 

Stone,  Charles  Pomeroy 
(1825-87),  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Greenfield,  Mass.  He 
was  graduated  from  West  Point 
in  1845,  served  meritoriously  in 
the  Mexican  War,  and  during 
1857-60  was  employed  by  the 
Mexican  government  in  making 
surveys  and  explorations  in 
Sonora  and  Lower  California.  In 
1861  he  commanded  the  Rock- 
ville  expedition;  participated  in 
General  Patterson's  operations  in 
the  Shenandoah  valley,  and  was 
responsible  for  bringing  on  the 
disastrous  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff. 
In  February  1862,  he  was  ar- 
rested and  was  confined  in  Fort 
Lafayette  until  August,  when  he 
was  released,  no  charges  having 


stone 


KR 


472 


Stone  Age 


been  brought  against  him.  He 
later  participated  in  the  siege  of 
Port  Hudson;  was  chief  of  staff  to 
General  Banks  on  the  Red  River 
expedition,  and  resigned  from 
the  army  on  Sept.  13,  1864.  Dur- 
ing 1870-83  he  served  in  the 
Egyptian  army,  and  was  much 
of  that  time  chief  of  staff.  Later 
he  had  charge  of  the  construction 
of  the  pedestal  for  the  statue  of 
Liberty  in  New  York  Harbor. 

Stone,  Ellen  Maria  (1846- 
1927),  American  missionary,  was 
born  in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  and 
educated  as  a  teacher.  After 
several  years'  experience  on 
the  editorial  staff  of  the  Boston 
Congregationalist,  she  began  mis- 
sionary work  at  Samokov,  Bul- 
garia, in  1878,  afterward  settling 
at  Salonica,  Macedonia.  In  1901 
she  was  captured,  with  the  wife 
of  an  Albanian  Protestant 
preacher,  by  Macedonian  brig- 
ands, and  was  released  after  six 
months  upon  the  payment  of  a 
ransom  of  $65,000,  most  of  it 
raised  by  public  subscription  in 
the  United  States. 

Stone,  Harlan  Fiske  (1872- 
1946),  American  public  official 
and  jurist,  was  born  in  Chester- 
field, N.  H.  He  was  graduated  at 
Amherst  in  1894,  and  after  teach- 
ing chemistry  and  physics  in  the 
high  school  at  Newburyport, 
Mass.,  attended  Columbia  Law 
School.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1898,  and  became  a  part- 
ner in  the  law  firm  of  Satterlee, 
Canfield  and  Stone.  In  1903  he 
was  made  adjunct  professor  of 
law  at  Columbia  Law  School,  and 
in  1910  became  Kent  professor 
and  dean.  He  was  appointed 
U.  S.  Attorney  General  in  1924 
and  an  associate  justice  of  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in  1925. 
He  was  appointed  Chief  Justice 
of  the  United  States  in  1941. 

Stone,  Lucy  (1818-93),  Amer- 
ican pioneer  woman  suffragist, 
was  born  in  West  Brookfield, 
Mass.  After  teaching  in  district 
schools,  she'went  to  Oberlin,  then 
the  only  college  in  the  United 
States  to  admit  women,  and  was 
graduated  in  1847.  In  the  same 
year  she  gave  her  first  women's 
rights  lecture  from  her  brothers' 
pulpit  in  Gardner,  Mass.  In 
1853  she  married  Henry  G. 
Blackwell,  a  strong  advocate  of 
the  cause  she  championed,  and 
with  him  she  worked  and  lec- 
tured for  many  years  in  behalf 
of  equal  rights.  In  1869,  with 
other  prominent  persons,  includ- 
ing Garrison,  Mary  Livermore 
and  Julia  Ward  Howe,  she 
organized  the  American  Woman 
Suffrage  Association,  and  for 
twenty  years  was  chairman  of 
the  executive  committee.  From 
1872  until  her  death  she  was 
editor-in-chief  of  the  Woman's 
Journal. 

Stone,  Melville  Elijah 
(1848-1929),  American  journal- 


ist, was  born  in  Hudson,  111. 
Removing  to  Chicago  in  1860,  he 
became  a  reporter  on  the  Chicago 
Tribune  in  1864.  He  subse- 
quently engaged  in  business  for 
a  few  years  (1869-71),  but  re- 
turned to  journalism,  and  in 
1875  established  the  Chicago 
Daily  News,  and  in  1881  the 
Chicago  Morning  News,  which 
subsequently  became  the  Chi- 
cago Record.  His  health  having 
failed,  he  spent  three  years  in 
Europe,  but  returned  to  Chicago 
in  1891,  and  organized  the  Globe 
National  Bank,  of  which  he  was 
president  until  1898.  He  was 
general  manager  of  the  Asso- 
ciated Press  from  1893  to  1921. 
when  he  became  counselor  of 
that  organization.  Consult  his 
Fifty  Years  a   Journalist  (1921). 

Stone,  Samuel  (1602-63), 
American  clergyman,  was  born  in 
Hertford,  England.  He  studied 
in  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge; 
emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in 
1633;  and  in  1636  removed  with 
Thomas  Hooker  and  others  to 
the  Connecticut  valley,  where 
they  founded  the  town  of  Hart- 
ford. There  he  preached  until 
his  death.  He  published  A  Con- 
gregational Church  is  a  Catholic 
Visible  Church  (1652).  and  left 
other  religious  works  in  manu- 
script. 

Stone,  Thomas  (1743-87),  a 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, was  born  in  Charles 
county,  Md.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1764,  was  a  member 
of  the  Continental  Congress  in 
1775-7  and  1783-4  and  president 
pro  tern,  in  1784. 

Stone,  William  Leete  (1792- 
1844  ,  American  journalist  and 
author,  was  born  in  New  Paltz, 
N.  Y.  In  1821  he  became  editor 
and  part  owner  of  the  New  York 
Commercial  Advertiser,  retaining 
the  connection  until  his  death. 
He  initiated  in  1838  a  movement 
for  the  collection  of  papers  and 
documents  relating  to  the  history 
of  the  state  of  New  York.  He 
published:  Tales  and  Sketches, 
aboriginal  and  Revolutionary 
(1834),  Maria  Monk  and  the 
Nunnery  of  the  Hotel  Dieu  (1836), 
Life  of  Joseph  Brant  (1838), Lf/e 
of  Red  Jacket  (1840),  and  Uncas 
and  Miantonomeh  (1842).  His 
son,  William  Leete  Stone 
(1835-1908),  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  historical  works. 

Stone  Age,  the  term  applied 
by  European  archaeologists  to 
that  earliest  period  of  man's 
existence  which  is  chiefly  charac- 
terized by  his  use  of  tools,  imple- 
ments, and  weapons  of  stone, 
bone,  and  horn.  The  Stone  Age 
is  divisible  into  two  periods — the 
Palaeolithic  and  the  Neolithic 
terms  first  used  by  Sir  John  Lub- 
bock (Lord  Avebury) — a  classi- 
fication clearly  enough  repre- 
sented throughout  the  European 
continent,   but  scarcely  applic- 


able to  America  (see  American 
Archaeology). 

1.  Palaeolithic,  or  Early  Stone 
Age. — This  division  is  itself  sub- 
divisible into  the  period  (1)  of  the 
river  gravels,  and  (2)  of  the 
caves  the  fauna  and  imple- 
ments of  which  are  not  always 
identical. 

(1.)  Cores  and  nuclei  (livres- 
de-beurre)  of  flint  are  among  the 
earliest  remnants  of  tool  making. 
The  tools  made  from  them  are 
formed  by  chipping  only,  and 
are  not  ground  or  polished;  and 
the  materials,  besides  flint,  are 
chert  and  quartzite.  The  dis- 
covery of  implements  of  this 
earliest  period  was  made  in  1847, 
by  Boucher  de  Perthes  of  Abbe- 
ville. Subsequently,  similar  dis- 
coveries were  made  at  Chelles 
(Seine-et-Marne),  St.  Acheul,  in 
Paris,  in  C6tes-du-Nord,  in  Poi- 
tou,  and  indeed  over  the  greater 
part  of  France.  In  association 
with  many  of  these  implements 
the  remains  of  three  extinct 
specios  of  elephant  were  ob- 
tained. Implements  of  this 
period  have  also  been  reported 
from  Belgium,  Italy,  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, and  Greece.  They  vary  in 
shape  from  broad  thick  ovals  to 
long,  broad-based,  and  atten- 
uated forms,  and  in  size  from  two 
and  a  half  inches  in  length  to 
massive  pointed  tools  ten  and 
eleven  inches  in  length. 

(2.)  It  is  in  France,  again,  that 
the  earliest  systematized  results 
of  the  investigation  of  caverns 
were  brought  before  archaeolo- 
gists, the  relics  being  chiefly  ob- 
tained in  Dordogne.  Schmerling 
also,  early  in  the  19th  century, 
discovered  in  Belgium  human 
bones,  worked  flints,  and  bone 
implements  in  association  with 
the  remains  of  extinct  animals. 
The  earliest  of  the  cave  imple- 
ments (Le  Moustier)  are  ovate- 
lanceolate  in  form,  large  sub- 
triangular  flakes  worked  at  the 
edge,  and  rough  sling-stones; 
and  there  is  an  almost  entire 
absence  of  implements  of  bone. 
Next  (Solutreen)  come  lance- 
heads  and  daggers,  arrow-heads 
of  two  forms,  knife-like  flakes, 
scrapers  and  borers — ^all  of  flint. 
In  bone  or  reindeer-horn,  these 
early  people  made  lance-heads,  a 
very  few  of  which  are  engraved 
with  figures  of  animals.  Thirdly 
(La  Madelaine),  well-shaped 
flint  flakes,  scrapers,  pebbles 
used  as  mortars  and  rounded 
hammerstones,  are  all  fairly 
abundant;  a  few  flint  saws  have 
been  found;  while  in  bone  and 
horn  there  are  dart-heads,  har- 
poon-heads, and  small  perforated 
needles.  The  art  of  the  period  is 
marked  by  the  frequency  of  in- 
cised figures  of  animals  (very 
rarely  of  the  human  figure)  done 
upon  stone,  bone.  horn,  and 
ivory,  and  by  ornaments  formed 
of  pierced  bones  and  teeth.  Fish- 


I  PAL/EOLITMIC 


MEOLITMIC 


IMPLEMENTS  OF  THE  STONE  AGE. 

P«liRolithle:-1.  Earliest  form  of  flint  implement.  2-4.  Typical  Pahwolithic  flint  implements.  5.  Flint  spear-head. 
6.  Flint  arrow-head.  7.  Bone  enf^raved  with  fl^fure  of  deer.  8-10.  Implements  of  horn  and  bone.  Neolltlilp;— 11  Implement 
chipped  only.  1^.  Implement  with  working  edjfe  ground.  13.  Implement  ground  and  polished,  .14.  Hone.  15.  Gouge. 
16, 17.  Polished  axe-hends.  18.  Hand-hammer.  19.  Axe-hammer.  20.  Spear-head.  21.  Saddle  (luern.  22.  Saw.  23.  Arrow- 
head.   (Drawn  from  examples  in  Britiak  Museum.) 


stone-chat 


474 


iStoneheng^ 


bones  and  bird-bones  are  abun- 
dant. In  Great  Britain,  objects 
of  human  manufacture  have  been 
found  in  association  with  more 
than  twenty  extinct  species,  in- 
cluding the  lemming  (Mus  leni- 
nius),  the  hyaena  (H.  crociitd),  the 
sabre-toothed  tiger  (Machairodus 
latidens),  the  cave  lion  (Felis 
leo),  the  Irish  elk,  the  mammoth 
{E.  primigenius) ,  and  the  hippo- 
potamus. Nevertheless,  as  Sir 
John  Evans  insists,  '  the  occupa- 
tion of  caves  by  man  is  not  con- 
fined to  any  definite  period,  and 
even  in  the  case  of  the  discovery 
of  objects  of  human  workmanship 
in  direct  association  with  the 
remains  of  the  Pleistocene  extinct 
mammals,  their  contemporaneity 
cannot  be  proved  without  careful 
observation  of  the  circumstances 
under  which  they  occur,  even  if 
then.' 

2.  Neolithic  or  Later  Stone 
Age. — The  principal  larger  imple- 
ments characterizing  this  period 
are  axe-heads,  of  an  endless  vari- 
ety of  form  and  size,  but  in  nearly 
every  instance  polished  and  ground 
to  a  perfect  cutting  edge;  chisels, 
of  polished  flint  and  other  very 
hard  stones;  axe-hammers,  of  a 
great  variety  of  sizes  and  shapes, 
perforated  for  a  wooden  shaft; 
hammer-stones,  plain  and  with 
cup-shaped  depressions  ;  circu- 
larly chipped  thick  discs  of  quartz- 
itic  stones,  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  the  shores  of  the 
Moray  Firth  in  Scotland;  saddle- 
querns  and  hand-mills;  grinding 
and  whet  stones.  Smaller  im- 
plements are  spear-heads,  arrow- 
heads, fabricators,  knives,  and 
scrapers,  made  of  flint  and  chert, 
obsidian,  quartzites,  and  other 
hard  materials.  Saws  of  flint 
occur  in  great  abundance  on  the 
sands  of  Glenluce  (Scotland) ;  and 
quite  recently  a  minute  type  of 
flint  implement,  less  than  one 
inch  in  length  and  frequently  not 
one-twelfth  in  breadth,  exqui- 
sitely worked  all  round  the  edges, 
has  been  noticed,  principally  by 
the  Rev.  Reginald  A.  Gatty  in 
Yorkshire  and  by  other  collec- 
tors in  France,  Egypt,  Belgium, 
India,  and  in  Scotland.  Beauti- 
fully trimmed  curved  daggers  of 
flint  are  a  feature  in  the  Neo- 
lithic relics  of  Denmark.  Orna- 
ments of  jet  or  lignite,  such  as 
buttons  and  rings  bearing  deco- 
ration, necklaces,  armlets,  pend- 
ants, and  beads  show  that  early 
man  displayed  a  taste  for  dress 
and  personal  adornment.  See 
Sir  J.  Evans's  Ancient  Stone  Im- 
plements oj  Great  Britain  (1897); 
Lord  Avebury's  [Lubbock]  Pre- 
historic Times  (ed.  1900);  Daw- 
kins's  Early  Man  in  Britain 
(1880). 

Stone-chat  {Pratincola  rubi- 
cola),  one  of  the  smaller  European 
passerine  birds.  It  reaches  a 
length  of  about  five  inches,  and  has 


the  head  and  throat  black,  the 
back'black  with  brown  markings, 
the  breast  rufous,  the  sides  of  the 
neck  white,  and  a  distinct  white 


Stone-chat. 


patch  on  the  wing.  The  nest  is 
placed  among  herbage  on  the 
ground,  and  the  eggs  number  from 
five  to  six.  The  food  consists 
chiefly  of  worms,  insect  larvae, 
and  beetles,  with  some  seeds. 

Stone  Circles,  as  understood 
by  modern  archaeologists,  means 
a  circular  area  enclosed  by  free- 
standing, pillar-like  stones.  But 
the  terrn  has  been  applied  (1)  to 
rnany  different  and  more  or  less 
circular  arrangements  of  stones, 
whether  the  stones  were  merely 
contiguous  (as  in  the  boundary 
of  a  cairn)  or  formed  the  ruined 
portion  of  a  wall,  such  as  that 
of  a  broch;  and  (2)  to  numerous 
arrangements  of  small  stones  in 
India,  France,  and  Ireland.  There 
is  now,  howjever,  no  doubt  that  the 
stone  circle  properly  so  called  has 
its  archaeological  home  in  Great 
Britain,  and  further,  that  in  Scot- 
land we  find  the  area  of  its  fullest 
development.  See  Circles  of 
Stone. 

Stone-crop,  the  popular  name 
for  plants  of  the  genus  Sedum, 
order  Crassulaceae.    See  Sedum. 

Stone-fly,  a  name  given  by 
British  anglers  to  the  species  of 
the  genus  Perla,  which  are  neu- 
ropterous  insects  belonging  to  the 
family  Perlidae.^  A  common  spe- 
cies is  P.  marginata,  a  yellowish- 
brown  insect,  somewhat  mothlike 
in  flight,  and  of  sluggish  habits. 
It  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of  water, 
in  which  the  eggs  are  deposited, 
and  where  the  young  pass  the 
whole  of  their  larval  life.  Species 
of  stone-fly  are  found  in  America, 
but  are  not  used  as  bait. 

Stone-fruit.    See  Fruit. 

Stoneham,  tn.,  Middlesex  co., 
Mass.,  10  m.  n.  by  w.  of  Boston, 
on  the  Bost.  and  Me.  R.  R.  It  is 
largely  a  residential  place.  It  has 
manufactures  of  boots  and  shoes, 
automobiles,  boxes,  chemicals, 
drugs  and  medicines,  shoe  stock, 
cutting  dies,  etc.  It  has  a  public 
library.  Stoneham  adjoins  Mid- 
dlesex Falls  Reservation,  a  large 


state  park.  The  town  was 
settled  about  1670  as  a  part  of 
Charlestown,  and  called  Cfharlesr 
town  End.  In  1725  it  was  sepa- 
rately incorporated  and  took  the 
name  it  now  bears.  Pop.  (1910) 
7.090. 

Stonehenge.  This  unique  meg- 
alithic  structure  has  been  the 
subject,  for  a  period  of  seven 
hundred  years,  of  the  wildest 
theories.  The  earliest  yet  dis- 
covered notice  of  it  is  by  Henry 
of  Huntingdon  (d.  1154).  The 
theories  regarding  its  origin  in- 
clude the  following:  That  here 
was  the  burial-place  of  Boadi- 
cea;  that  it  was  the  Giants' 
Dance  removed  by  Merlin  from 
Ireland  and  rebuilt  on  Salisbury 
Plain;  Dr.  Charlton,  physician 
to  Charles  ii.,  deemed  it  Danish; 
Inigo  Jones,  who  made  a  plan  of 
it  for  James  i.,  set  it  down  as 
Roman;  Johrf  Aubrey,  the  origi- 
nator of  the  Druidic  theory,  made 
plans  in  1G6G,  and  of  course 
claimed  it  as  a  Druid  temple; 
Stukeley  in  1740  started  the  the- 
ory that  it  was  part  of  a  vast 
ophite  monument;  and  other  the- 
ories were  propounded  by  Andrew 
Borde  (1542),  John  Hardyng 
(1543),  Leland  (1552),  John  Speed 
(1627),  John  Stow  (1631),  and 
Thomas  Fuller  (1656).  The  old- 
est known  drawing  of  it  occurs 
in  a  MS.  of  the  Scala  Mundi  {c. 
1340)  in  the  college  of  Corpus 
Christi  at  Cambridge. 

Stonehenge  consists  of  a  triply 
concentric  group  of  stones  ar- 
ranged nearly  in  a  circle,  and 
within  the  circumference  of  a 
deep  trench,  the  diameter  of 
which  is  333  ft.  The  outermost 
circle  of  megaliths  has  a  diameter 
of  100  ft.,  the  middle  of  75  ft., 
and  the  innermost  of  40  ft.  The 
outermost  circle  consisted  (when 
complete)  of  probably  thirty  great 
upright  stones,  each  about  12  ft. 
high,  6  ft.  broad,  and  over  3  ft. 
thick.  Every  couple  was  covered 
by  a  great  oblong  block,  fastened 
on  mortise-and-tenon  principle, 
these  stones  being  10  ft.  long. 
In  the  middle  circle  the  stones, 
only  seven  of  which  now  remain, 
are  of  diabase,  a  mineral  of  a  very 
different  composition  from  the 
sarsens  of  the  outer  ring.  The 
innermost  circle  is  composed  of 
diabase,  and,  like  the  middle 
circle,  of  much  smaller  blocks. 
There  may  have  been  twenty-two, 
and  opinions  differ  as  to  whether 
they  are  of  the  same  date  as  the 
rest  of  the  structure.  The  out- 
standing feature  of  Stonehenge, 
however,  is  the  presence,  between 
these  two  inner  circles  of  com- 
paratively small  stones,  of  a 
horseshoe-shaped  group  of  sar- 
sen  stones  of  transcendent  magni- 
tude. One  couple  with  its  lintel 
occupies  a  space  on  the  south- 
west (the  middle  of  the  'horse- 
shoe'   curve),    and    four  others 


stone  Indians 


475 


Stone  ftivef 


complete  the  arrangement.  Two 
of  the  uprights  of  these  great  tri- 
Hthons  stand  over  22  ft.  above 
ground,  and  the  other  three  are 
IG  ft.  and  over.  The  lintels  meas- 
ure about  15  ft.  In  front  of  the 
southwest  trilithon,  and  well  in- 
side the  circle,  lies  a  vast  stone 
18  ft.  long  and  over  4  ft.  wide, 
called  'the  altar.'  On  the  north- 
east is  a  great  stone  called  'the 
Friar's  Heel,'  standing  outside  of 
the  circle.  Partial  excavation 
conducted  in  1901  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  a  few  flint  imple- 
ments, stone  hammers,  and  a  sort 
of  pounder- chisel,  v/hich  seems  to 
have  been  the  tool  used  in  'dress- 
ing' the  stones.  No  pottery  was 
discovered  by  which  alone  it 
would  be  possible  to  assign  the 
date  either  to  the  new  Stone  Age 
or  the  Bronze  Age.  It  may  be 
mentioned,  however,  that  experts 
in  astronomy,  founding  on  the 
assumption  that  Stonehenge  was 


of  captain.  Ordered  by  Gen. 
Twiggs  to  surrender  his  post  to 
the  Confederates,  he  refused  to 
do  so,  and  managed  to  bring 
his  command  in  safety  to 
New  York.  He  was  appointed 
major  in  the  regular  army  and 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
and  given  command  of  the  cavalry 
of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
which  he  led  in  the  Peninsula 
campaign.  He  took,  command 
of  Kearny's  division  after  the 
latter's  death  at  Chantilly,  and 
commanded  the  Third  Corps  at 
Fredericksburg.  He  had  been 
made  major-general  of  volunteers 
on  Nov.  29,  1862.  He  again 
commanded  the  cavalry  during 
the  Chancellorsville  campaign, 
conducting  a  raid  upon  Lee's 
line  of  supplies,  commanded  the 
Twenty-third  Corps  in  Jan.-April, 
1864,  and  commanded  a  cavalry 
division  in  the  Atlanta  campaign. 
He  was  captured  on  July  31,  1864, 


enough,  both  generals  decided 
upon  the  same  plan  of  battle- 
namely,  to  overwhelm  the  righ/ 
wing  of  the  opposing  army — but 
the  Confederates  were  the  lirst  to 
attempt  the  execution  of  their 
plan.  Early  on  the  morning  of 
Dec.  31  General  McCook,  who 
commanded  the  Union  right,  was 
attacked  with  great  vigor  by 
General  Hardee.  Before  noon 
his  division  had  been  driven  from 
its  position  with  heavy  loss,  and 
it  was  only  through  the  heroic 
^  stand  of  General  Thomas,  who 
'commanded  the  Union  centre,  the 
splendid  fighting  qualities  of  Gen- 
eral Philip  Sheridan,  who  here 
first  brought  himself  into  prom- 
inence, and  Rosecrans's  skill  in 
rearranging  his  lines,  that  a  total 
defeat  was  averted.  As  it  was, 
the  advantage  was  decidedly  with 
the  Confederates,  who  captured 
28  guns  and  many  prisoners. 
New  Year's  Day  was  almost  de- 


a  sun-temple,  have  arrived  at  the 
date  1680  B.C. — a  date  pretty 
closely  corresponding  with  the 
period  of  the  Bronze  Age  in  Brit- 
ain. See  Sir  H.  James's  Stone- 
henge and  its  Barrows  (1867); 
Long,  in  Wiltshire  Magazine  for 
1876;  Archceologia,  vol.  Iviii.  pt. 
1 ;  and  Flinders  Petrie's  Stone- 
henge (1881). 

Stone  Indians,  or  Stonies, 
a  division  of  the  Assiniboines 
now  residing  in  a  small  reserva- 
tion in  Alberta.  The  name  was 
often  given  to  the  whole  Assini- 
boine  group.  See  Assiniboine. 
Also  Franklin's  Narrative  of  a 
Journey  to  the  Shores  of  the 
Polar  Sea.  etc.  (London,  1823); 
Maximillion's  Travels  in  the  In- 
terior of  North  America  (Lon- 
don, 1843). 

Stoneman,  George  (1822-94), 
American  soldier,  born  at  Busti, 
N.  Y.  _  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1846,  served  on  the 
Pacific  coast  until  1857.  and  in 
1861  was  in  commana  at  Ft. 
Brown,,  Tex.,    with    the  rank 


Stonehenge. 
(Photo  by  Valentine.) 

while  attempting  a  raid  on 
Andersonville.  Released  in  Oc- 
tober, he  was  active  in  East 
Tenn.,  N.  C,  and  Va.  until  the 
close  of  the  war.  He  became  a 
colonel  in  the  regular  army  in 
1866  and  retired  in  1871.  In 
1883-87  he  was  governor  of  Cal. 

Stone  River,  a  small  river  of 
Tennessee,  rising  near  the  centre 
of  the  state,  flowing  northward, 
and  emptying  into  the  Cumber- 
land river  a  few  miles  above 
Nashville.  On  its  west  fork  was 
fought  the  battle  of  Stone  River, 
or  of  Murfreesboro,  Dec.  31,  1862, 
and  Jan.  2,  1863. 

Stone  River,  Battle  of, 
sometimes  known  as  the  battle 
of  Murfreesboro,  a  battle  of  the 
Civil  War,  fought  Dec.  31,  1862, 
and  Jan.  2,  1863,  near  Murfrees- 
boro, on  the  west  fork  of  Stone 
river,  in  Tennessee.  The  Federal 
army  of  about  41,000  men  was 
commanded  by  General  Rose- 
crans,  and  that  of  the  Confeder- 
ates, numbering  about  35,000 
men,  by  General  Bragg.  Strangely 


void  of  fighting,  but  on  the  after- 
noon of  Jan.  2  General  Breckin- 
ridge, in  an  attack  upon  a  Union 
position  on  a  hill  near  the  river, 
brought  his  men  in  range  of  the 
Union  batteries  on  the  other  side 
of  the  river,  with  the  result  that 
about  2,000  Confederates  fell  in 
twenty  minutes.  By  nightfall  the 
Union  army  had  advanced  to  a 
point  from  whence  shells  could 
be  thrown  into  the  Confederate 
quarters  in  Murfreesboro,  and 
Bragg  therefore  withdrew  his 
army  during  the  night  of  the  3d. 
The  battle  had  been  one  of  the 
most  murderous  of  the  war,  the 
Union  loss  being  about  13,000, 
and  that  of  the  Confederates 
about  11,000.  Though  tactically 
a  draw,  strategically  the  battle 
was  a  Union  victory.  It  opened 
Central  Tennessee  to  them,  and 
coming  as  it  did  after  the  disas- 
ter of  Fredericksburg  (q.v.),  it 
did  much  to  reanimate  the  North. 
See  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the 
Civil  War  (1887-88);  Cist,  The 
Army  of  the  Cumberland  (1882); 


stones 


476 


Stoppage  In  Transitu 


Ropes,  Story  of  the  Civil  War 
(1894-98);  Van  Home,  History 
of  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland 
(1875);  and  Official^  Records 
(vol.  xx„  parts  i.  and  ii.). 

Stones,  Precious.  See  Gems 
AND  Precious  Stones. 

Stoneware,  a  crude  kind  of 
porcelain,  of  which  the  materials, 
mainly  flint  and  feldspar,  are  of 
coarser  quality,  and  have  not  been 
so  strongly  heated  and  nearly 
fused  in  the  process  of  manufac- 
ture. Stoneware  is  unlike  porce- 
lain in  being  opaque,  and  differs 
from  earthenware  in  not  being 
porous.  It  is,  however,  usually 
glazed  by  throwing  salt  into  the 
furnace,  the  sodium  of  the  salt 
forming  a  kind  of  glass  with  the 
silica  of  the  ware.    See  Pottery. 

S  onework.   See  Masonry. 

Stonington,  tn.,  New  London 
CO.,  Conn.,  11  m.  E.  by  s.  of  New 
London,  on  Long  I.  Sound,  and 
on  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  H.  R.  R. 
The  harbor  is  deep  and  commo- 
dious, and  a  thriving  coast  trade 
and  fishing  industry  are  carried 
on.  There  are  railroad  shops, 
thread  mills,  and  manufactories 
of  printing  presses,  silk,  cotton, 
woollen  goods,  and  velvets,  silk 
machinery,  boilers,  fertilizers,  and 
iron  products.  Whaling  and  seal- 
ing were  formerly  extensively  car- 
ried on  from  this  place.  Settled  in 
1649  by  William  Cheesebrough,  a 
member  of  Plymouth  Colony,  this 
town  was  originally  a  part  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. It  was  named  South- 
ertown  in  1658,  and  in  1662  came 
into  the  possession  of  Connecti- 
cut. In  1665  it  was  called  Mystic, 
and  in  1666  received  the  name  it 
now  bears.  The  British  bom- 
barded Stonington  in  1775  and 
again  in  1814,  but  both  attacks 
were  unsuccessful.  Pop.  (1910) 
9,154. 

Stony  Creek,  vil.,  Wentworth 
CO.,  Ont.,  Canada,  5  m.  e.s.e.  of 
Hamilton,  on  the  Gr.  Trunk  and 
the  Tor.,  Ham.  and  Buf.  R.  Rs. 
In  1813,  a  battle  was  fought  here 
between  American  and  British 
forces  in  which  the  former  were 
defeated.   Pop.  about  650. 

Stonyhurst,  Roman  Catholic 
college,  Lancashire,  England, 
5  m.  N.w.  of  Whalley  station 
(L.  &  Y.  Ry.).  The  buildings  are 
chiefly  modern,  added  to  an 
Elizabethan  mansion.  The  li- 
brary (30,000  vols.)  contains  some 
rare  treasures,  including  an  uncial 
Latin  MS.  (7th  century)  of  St. 
John's  Gospel,  found  in  the  tomb 
of  St.  Cuthbert;  an  illuminated 
MS.  of  Froissart's  Chronicles,  vol, 
i.  (the  companion  volume  is  in 
the  British  Museum);  a  Prayer 
Book  which  belonged  to  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots;  a  large  number 
of  illuminated  MSS.  of  the  14th 
and  15th  centuries;  and  a  large 
collection  of  historical  MSS.  re- 
lating to  Catholic  affairs  in  the 
IGth,  17th,  and  18th  centuries. 


In  the  ornamental  grounds  is  an 
astronomical  observatory.  There 
are  about  300  students. 

Stonypoint,  tn.,  Rockland  co., 
N.  Y.,  35  m.  N.  of  New  York  city, 
on  the  w.  bank  of  the  Hudson  R., 
and  on  the  N.  Y.,  Ont.  and  W. 
and  the  W.  Shore  R.  Rs.  The 
storming  of  the  British  post  here 
by  Gen.  Wayne  in  1779  was  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  exploits  of  the 
Revolutionary  War  (see  below). 
The  scene  of  the  fighting  is  now 
occupied  by  a  state  park.  Pop. 
(191U)  3,(;51. 

Sf ony  Points  Storming  of.  In 
the  beginning  of  1779  Gen.  Wash- 
ington held  the  Highlands  of  the 
Hudson  around  West  Point,  and 
the  remainder  of  the  Continental 
armv  was  in  supporting  distance. 
With  the  hope  of  compelling 
Washington  to  offer  battle,  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  on  May  31,  forced 
the  small  garrison  of  Stony  Point, 
on  the  w.  bank  of  the  river, 
35  miles  above  New  York,  to 
evacuate  the  post,  and  the  next 
day  captured  the  garrison  at 
Verplanck's  Point  on  the  fi.  bank 
of  the  river,  thus  gaining  pos- 
session King's  Ferry.  Wash- 
ington refused  to  hazard  a  battle 
and  did  not  oppose  Wm.  Tryon 
(q.v.)  in  his  invasion  of  Connec- 
ticut. Early  in  June,  Clinton 
vdthdrc^  the  main  body  of  his 
forces  down  the  river,  but  left  a 
strong  garrison  at  Stony  Point. 
Washington  determined  to  sur- 
prise the  fort  and  ordered  Gen. 
Wayne,  with  the  corps  of  Light 
Infantry,  the  picked  troops  of  the 
Continental  army,  to  make  a  night 
attack.  The  corps,  1,350  strong, 
wa|s  inspected  five  miles  below 
West  Point  on  July  15,  and 
marched  13  miles  south  and  west 
directly  behind  the  Point,  which 
was  cut  off  from  the  mainland  by  a 
marsh.  The  troops  started  at 
11:30  P.M.  in  two  columns,  the 
right  led  by  Wayne  himself,  the 
left,  by  Col.  Richard  Butler,  to 
which  was  attached  a  smaller 
force  under  Maj.  Hardy  Murfree, 
who  was  to  make  a  feint  in  front. 
All  the  troops  except  Murfree's 
were  forbidden  under  penalty  of 
death  to  load  or  fire  their 
guns,  but  were  to  depend  upon 
the  bayonet.  While  crossing  the 
marsh  Wayne's  column  was  dis- 
covered and  fired  upon.  Maj, 
Murfree  opened  a  noisy  fire  in 
the  front  or  western  side,  and 
Lieut.-Col.  Johnston,  the  com- 
mander of  the  post,  with  about 
half  the  force,  hastened  to  the 
outer  redoubts  to  repel  the  at- 
tack. Meanwhile  both  the  right 
and  left  columns  overcame  the 
British  resistance  within  30  min- 
utes and  entered  the  works  from 
the  north  and  the  south  at  one 
o'clock.  The  fifteen  captured 
cannon  were  at  once  turned  on 
Verplanck's,  l)Ut,  owing  to  a  mis- 
understanding, the  troops  to  in- 


vest that  post  did  not  move  until 
too  late.  The  British  loss  was 
63  killed  and  543  prisoners  were 
taken.  On  the  American  side 
15  were  killed  and  83  were 
wounded.  As  the  post  was  un- 
able to  withstand  a  siege,  it  was 
abandoned  on  July  18,  and  im- 
mediately reoccupied  by  the 
British.  Though  of  little  direct 
practical  advantage,  the  capture 
increased  American  confidence, 
and  hindered  the  dispatch  of 
raiding  parties.  See  Johnston, 
Stony  Point  (1900);  Stille,  Wayne 
(1903). 

Stool  of  Repentance,  a  seat 
or  pew  in  the  parish  churches 
of  Scotland,  in  which  those  sen- 
tenced to  expiate  such  sins  as 
immorality,  lying,  evil-speaking, 
drunkenness,  and  the  like  had  to 
appear  and  remain  during  serv- 
ice. The  offender  was  clothed 
in  a  long  robe  of  sacking,  or  was 
wrapped  in  a  white  sheet,  and 
thus  apparelled  was  required  to 
stand,  for  minor  offences,  one 
or  two  Sundays,  but  for  major 
ones  several  days.  In  earlier 
times  it  was  customary  to  add  a 
public  rebuke  from  the  pulpit;  but 
this  fell  into  desuetude,  though 
the  'stool'  was  kept  up  till  the 
early  part  of  the  19th  century, 
and  the  rebuke  was  given  within 
the  privacy  of  the  session  until 
very  recent  days. 

Stoppage  in  Transitu.  In  law, 
this  phrase  denotes  the  exer- 
cise of  the  right  of  a  seller  of 
goods  to  retain  or  retake  posses- 
sion of  them  after  they  have  been 
shipped,  but  before  an  actual  or 
constructive  delivery  has  been 
made  to  the  buyer,  and  hold  them 
until  he  receives  payment  of  the 
entire  purchase  price,  where  the 
buyer  is  insolvent.  It  is  imma- 
terial whether  the  buyer  was  in- 
solvent at  the  time  of  the  sale,  if 
this  fact  was  unknown  to  the 
seller,  or  became  so  after  the 
goods  were  shipped.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  the  buyer  be  judi- 
cially declared  insolvent  or  adju- 
dicated a  bankrupt,  if  in  fact  he  is 
unable  to  meet  his  obligations  as 
they  fall  due.  However,  the  seller 
takes  the  risk,  and  may  become 
liable  in  damages  if  he  is  mistaken. 
The  right  is  not  lost  because,  credit 
for  a  certain  period  was  given,  nor 
by  receiving  the  debtor's  promis- 
sory note,  unless  it  was  taken  as 
actual  payment,  and  it  may  be 
enforced  to  secure  a  balance  of 
the  purchase  price  where  part  has 
been  paid.  The  goods  are  con- 
sidered in  transit  until  they  reach 
the  destination  named  in  the  con- 
tract of  sale,  and  come  into  the 
actual  or  constructive  control  of 
the  buyer.  Thus,  goods  may  have 
arrived  at  a  railroad  freight  house, 
and  still  be  subject  to  the  order  of 
the  seller,  but  if  not,  and  the  rail- 
road company  holds  them  subject 
to  the  buyer's  orders,  there  is  a 


storage  Batteries 


477 


Storm 


constructive  delivery.  An  assign- 
ment or  transfer  of  the  bill  of 
lading  to  an  innocent  purchaser 
or  pledgee  by  the  buyer  extin- 
guishes the  right.  The  fact  that 
title  has  passed  to  the  buyer  does 
not  affect  the  right,  and  while  the 
goods  are  in  transit  the  seller  has  a 
superior  claim  over  attaching  cred- 
itors of  the  buyer.  The  right  may 
be  exercised  by  taking  possession 
of  the  goods  in  a  peaceable  man- 
ner, or  by  notice  to  the  carrier  and 
debtor  of  the  exercise  of  the  right; 
or  by  attachment.  A  carrier 
always  has  a  prior  hen  for  freight, 
but  after  this  is  satisfied  must  de- 
liver the  goods  to  the  seller.  See 
Sales;  consult,  Mechem,  Sales. 

Storage  Batteries.    See  Ac- 
cumulators. 

Storax.  A  balsamic  substance 
obtained  from  Liquidamhar  orien- 
talis  and  used  in  medicine.  It 
was  formerly  obtained  from 
Styrax  officinalis,  as  benzoin  is 
taken  from  Styrax  benzoin.  This 
genus,  Styra.x,  also  furnishes  sev- 
eral ornamental  shrubs  for  culti- 
vation, having  white  flowers, 
often  fragrant  and  in  pendulous 
racemes.  S.  americana  is  found  in 
the  Southern  states. 

Storer,  Bellamy  (1847), 
American  diplomat,  born  in 
Cincinnati.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  .1867,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  18C9,  practised  in 
Cincinnati,  and  served  in  Con- 
gress (1891-5).  In  1897  he  was 
appointed  U.  S.  minister  to 
Belgium,  and  in  1899  minister 
to  Spain.  In  1902  he  was  ap- 
pointed ambassador  to  Austria- 
Hungary,  but  resigned  in  March, 
1906,  at  the  request  of  President 
Roosevelt.  The  publication  in 
December,  1906,  of  the  correspon- 
dence, both  personal  and  official, 
between  the  President  and  himself 
gave  rise  to  much  comment  in  the 
press,  and  was  followed  by  a 
public  reply  from  the  President 
with  further  cjuotations  from  the 
correspondence.  From  this  it  ap- 
peared that  his  resignation  was 
requested  on  the  ground  that  he 
had  not  answered  a  communica- 
tion from  the  Prfcsident  relating  to 
the  alleged  interference  of  Mrs. 
Storcr  in  ecclesiastical  matters  at 
Rome.  Mr.  Storer  contended  that 
the  course  taken  by  Mrs.  Storcr 
and  himself  had  been  authorized 
by  the  President.  This  the  latter 
emphatically  denied.  ^1*^^  iVOi'.|z,,/f 

Storer,  David  Humphreys 
(1804 -91\  American  physician, 
born  in  Portland,  Me.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Bowdoin  College  in  1822. 
studied  medicineat  Harvard  anci 
graduated  at  the  Harvard  Medical 
School  in  182.5.  Pie  began  the  . 
practice  of  medicine  in  Boston, 
and  in  18.37  founded  the  Tre- 
mont  Street  Medical  School  in 
that  city.  In  18.38-54  he  was 
director  and  lecturer  on  the  dis- 
eases of  women  and  children  in 


that  institution.  In  1837  he  was 
appointed  director  of  the  depart- 
ment of  ichthyology  and  herpct- 
ology  of  the  Mass.  State  Geologi- 
cal Survey,  and  in  1849-58,  he 
served  as  attending  physician  to 
the  Massachusetts  General  Hos- 
pital. In  1855-64  he  was  dean  of 
the  Harvard  Medical  School,  and 
in  1854-68,  was  professor  of 
obstetrics  and  medical  jurispru- 
dence in  that  school.  For  manv 
years  he  was  associated  with 
Professor  Louis  Agassiz  in  bio- 
logical researches.  He  was  author 
of:  Report  on  the  Ichthyology  and 
Herpetology  of  Massachusetts 
(1839);  Synopsis  of  the  Fishes  of 
North  America  (1846);  and  His- 
tory of  the  Fishes  of  Massachu- 
setts (1853-67). 

Stores,  Co-operative.  See 
Co-operation. 

Storey,  Moorefield  (1845), 
American  lawyer,  born  at  Rox- 
bury,  Mass.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1866,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1869.  He 
was  private  secretary  to  Senator 
Sumner  in  1867-69,  and  in  1873- 
79  edited  the  American  Law 
Review.  He  obtained  a  promi- 
nent place  in  his  profession  in 
Boston,  and  became  active  in 
various  reform  movements  and 
as  an  Anti-Imperialist.  He  pub- 
lished a  Life  of  .Charles  Sumner 
(1900). 

Storlt,  or  White  Stork  {Ci- 
conia  alba),  a  large  bird  which  is 
distributed  over  the  greater  part 
of  Europe,  although  it  is  only  an 
occasional  visitor  to  the  British 


Stork. 


Isles.  It  also  extends  into  Asia, 
and  winters  in  Africa.  On  parts 
of  the  Continent,  especially  in 
Germany  and  Holland,  the  stork 
is  protected  and  encouraged  to 


breed.  In  France,  where  it  ia 
much  f)ersecuted,  it  is  rare,  as  it 
is  also  in  Italy.  Particular  storks 
return  in  April  to  the  nesting- 
place  of  the  previous  season,  the 
nest  often  being  constructed  on 
the  top  of  a  cart-wheel,  placed 
on  the  roof  of  a  building.  The 
food  consists  of  frogs,  reptiles, 
small  fish,  small  mammals,  young 
birds,  worms,  and  insects.  Dur- 
ing the  breeding  season  the  birds 
keep  up  a  curious  clatter  with 
their  bills.  They  are  the  sub- 
ject of  many  myths  and  legends 
among  the  Germans.  The  white 
stork  has  a  length  of  over  forty 
inches.  The  plumage  is  white, 
except  for  the  wing-coverts  and 
quills,  which  are  black.  The 
beak,  legs,  and  feet  are  red, 
the  claws  being  brown.  ^  The 
black  stork  (C  nigra),  which  is 
black  above  and  white  below,  is 
an  occasional  visitor  to  Britain. 
Storks,  in  the  wide  sense,  are 
members  of  the  family  Ciconiidae, 
and  are  characterized  by  the  long 
neck  and  long,  stout  beak,  which 
is  usually  straight,  and  has  nos- 
trils which  are  mere  perforations 
of  the  horny  sheath.  The  legs 
are  long,  the  tibia  being  partly 
bare;  the  toes  are  short,  the 
three  front  ones  being  partially 
webbed,  while  the  wings  are  large 
and  fairly  long.  In  addition  to 
the  storks  proper,  the  family  in- 
cludes the  adjutant,  jabiru,  wood- 
ibis,  and  so  on. 

Storm,  an  unusual  atmospheric 
disturbance,  generally  manifested 
by  high  winds,  rain,  snow,  etc. 
In  the  teachnical  nautical  sense, 
a  storm  is  a  wind  of  force  11 
on  the  Beauf9rt  scale — i.e.  a 
wind  under  which  a  man-of-war 
of  the  old  type  could  carry  only 
storm  stay  sails.  Storms  are 
either  general  or  local.  The  lat- 
ter, often  of  great  violence,  are 
of  brief  duration  and  limited 
extent.  (See  Thunderstorms; 
Tornadoes.)  General  storms  may 
endure  for  several  days,  cover 
an  area  whose  diameter  exceeds 
a  thousand  miles,  and  sweep  in 
their  course  across-  a  continent. 
The  centre  of  the  storm  is  an 
area  of  low  atmospheric  pressure, 
toward  and  around  which  the 
winds  blow;  in  the  southern 
hemisphere  in  a  direction  agree- 
ing with  that  of  the  hands  of  a 
watch,  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere in  the  opposite,  or  'anti- 
clockwise '  direction.  The  direc- 
tion in  both  cases  is  the  result 
of  the  earth's  rotation,  whereby 
the  winds,  in  common  with  all 
other  objects  moving  freely  on 
the  earth's  surface,  are  deflected 
to  the  right  of  their  course  in 
the  northern  hemisphere,  to  the 
left  in  the  southern. 

As  regards  the  cause  of  storms 
we  cannot  speak  with  certainty. 
A  theory  once  generally  held 
ascribed  their  origin  to  the  rising 


storm 

of  locally  over  -  heated  air,  the 
winds  forced  from  all  sides  to- 
ward the  resulting  area  of  lower 
pressure  being  deflected  into  a 
spiral  course  in  consequence  of 
the  earth's  rotation,  as  explained 
above.  Rain  or  snow  is  formed 
by  the  condensation  of  vapor  as 
the  ascending  air  is  cooled  by  its 
own  expansion.  The  latent  heat 
set  free  by  this  condensation  as- 
sists in  maintaining  differences 
of  temperature  that  lengthen  the 
life  of  the  storm  and  increase  its 
energy. 

Careful  and  extended  observa- 
tions show  that  this  theory  is  not 
always  sufficient  to  account  for  the 
phenomena  observed,  and  it  has 
been  suggested  that  the  great  at- 
mospheric whirls  that  form  our 
storms  may  be  due  to  the  flowing 
together  of  currents  of  air  com- 
ing from  opposite  directions  and 
having  decided  differences  of 
temperature.  According  to  this 
view,  rain  and  snow  arise  less 
from  the  cooling  of  ascending  air 
currents  than  from  the  cooling 
of  warm  currents  by  mixture  with 
cold  ones.  It  is  possible  that  both 
of  these  theories  may  apply,  in 
differing  degrees  under  differing 
conditions,  and  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  the  first  theory 
offers  a  better  explanation  of 
tropical  hurricanes  than  of  the 
storms  of  more  northern  regions. 

The  progressive  movement  of 
storms,  which  must  not  be  con- 
fused with  the  movement  of  the 
winds  around  the  storm  centre, 
is,  in  temperate  latitudes,  from 
west  to  east.  Most  storms  of  the 
United  States  make  their  appear- 
ance near  the  northwestern 
boundary  line,  or  on  the  north 
Pacific  coast,  and  their  usual  path 
lies  in  the  northern  tier  of  states, 
crossing  the  Great  Lakes  to  New 
England  and  the  St.  Lawrence 
valley.  A  respectable  minority, 
however,  make  a  decided  loop 
toward  the  southeast,  sometirnes 
approaching  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
before  they  turn  again  eastward 
and  move  finally  northeast  through 
the  Atlantic  states.  Storms  de- 
veloping in  more  southern  or 
eastern  sections  either  pursue  a 
northeast  course  to  New  Eng- 
land, or  else  pass  by  a  more 
southern  and  roundabout  route 
to  the  same  general  destination. 
It  must  not  be  inferred  from  the 
foregoing  that  all  storms,  what- 
ever their  place  of  origin,  pass 
through  New  England.  Some  die 
out  in  the  interior  of  the  con- 
tinent, an  occurrence  more  com- 
mon in  summer  than  in  winter. 
Individual  cases  may  depart 
widely  from  the  general  or  aver- 
age tracks  traced  above.  A 
somewhat  numerous  class  of  ex- 
ceptions is  that  of  storms  that 
reach  our  Atlantic  coast  in  more 
southern  latitudes,  and  pass  from 
the  field  of  observation  without 


478 

turning  toward  the  north.  But 
only  a  very  small  proportion  of 
our  land  storms  ever  move  to- 
ward the  westj  and  this  retro- 
gression is  never  for  any  con- 
siderable distance.  Their  prac- 
tically universal  eastward  march 
is  a  part  of  the  general  eastward 
drift  of  the  whole  atmosphere  in 
these  latitudes.  Both  the  direc- 
tion and  velocity  of  storm  move- 
ments are  apparently  modified  by 
the  areas  of  high  pressure.  A 
*  high  '  to  the  north  of  a  low  area, 
for  example,  may  deflect  the 
storm  to  the  right,  that  isj  to  the 
south,  of  its  usual  course.  Storms 
are  most  frequent,  most  violent, 
and  most  rapid  in  the  winter 
months.  Their  average  velocity 
for  the  whole  year  is  not  far 
from  26  miles  per  hour,  which 
would  suffice  to  carry  them  across 
the  continent  in  about  four  days. 
The  highest  temperature  in  a 
storm  area  is  generally  found 
somewhat  in  advance  of  the  cen- 
tre, and  rain  or  snow  fall  most 
copiously  to  the  east  and  south- 
east of  the  centre.  Clearing  and 
colder  weather  may  be  expected 
to  follow  the  passing  of  the  storm 
centre. 

One  important  class  of  storrns, 
the  West  Indian  hurricanes,  dif- 
fers in  some  characteristics  from 
those  just  described.  They  are 
most  common  in  August,  Septem- 
ber^  and  October,  and  are  of  very 
rare  occurrence  from  December 
to  June.  They  move  toward  the 
northwest  as  they  approach  the 
United  States,  recurve  toward 
the  northeast  in  the  latitude  of 
Florida,  sometimes  east  _  and 
sometimes  west  of  this  peninsu- 
lar, and  pass  through  the  Atlantic 
states,  where  they  form  some  of 
the  most  violent  of  our  coast 
storms. 

It  is  upon  the  movements  and 
other  characteristics  of  these 
storm  areas,  and  of  the  areas  of 
high  pressure,  that  the  forecasts 
of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  are 
in  great  part  based.  (See 
Weather  Forecasts.) 

One  of  the  most  remarkable 
storms  in  the  United  States  oc- 
curred on  January  11,  1888,  in 
Montana,  the  Dakotas,  and  neigh- 
boring sections,  where  the  loss  of 
life  was  probably  not  less  than 
100.  A  heavy  snow  was  drifted 
by  winds  of  from  30  to  50  miles 
per  hour.  The  sudden  fall  in 
temperature  was  unprecedented; 
at  one  place  50°  in  5  hours:  at 
another  18°  in  3  minutes.  Simi- 
lar storms  occurred  in  the  East- 
ern states  in  March  of  the  same 
year,  and  in  France  and  England 
on  Jan.  18,  1881. 

Devastation  is  greatest  in  the 
coast  hurricanes  where  the  force 
of  the  storm  wave  supplements 
the  force  of  the  wind.  A  storm 
from  the  Gulf  destroyed  the 
greater  part  of  Indianola,  Tex., 


Storm 

on  Sept.  15,  1875,  and  the  ill-fated 
town  was  entirely  destroyed  in 
1886.  This  disaster  appears  insig- 
nificant when  compared  with  the 
Galveston  hurricane  of  Septem- 
ber 9,  1900,  in  which  the  wind 
attained  an  extreme  velocity  ex- 
ceeding 100  miles  per  hour;  3,000 
houses  were  in  ruins  and  more 
than  SjOOO  persons  perished.  In 
September,  1906,  a  furious  hur- 
ricane destroyed  lives  and  prop- 
erty at  New  Orleans,  Mobile, 
Pensacola,  and  other  points  on 
the  Gulf  coast.  The  Lincolnshire 
coast  of  England  was  swept  in 
the  16th  century  by  a  storm 
wave  that  claimed  thousands  of 
victims,  and  the  West  Indies  have 
been  scourged  by  hurricanes 
equally  fatal. 

But  for  the  most  appalling  dis- 
asters we  must  look  to  the  low- 
lying  and  thickly  populated  coasts 
of  the  Orient.  Forty-five  thou- 
sand lives  snuffed  out  in  a  single 
day  by  a  storm  wave  16  feet  high 
on  the  delta  of  the  Ganges;  100,- 
000  more  on  Oct.  31,  1876;  these 
are  two  instances  of  the  worst 
work  of  the  elements. 

See  F.  H.  Bigelow's  Storms, 
Storm  Tracks,  and  Weather  Fore- 
casting, U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 
Bulletm  20  (1897);  J.  Hann's 
Lehrbuch  der  Meteorologie  (1906); 
W.  Ferrel's  Popular  Treatise  on 
the  Winds  (1898);  Bigelow's  Popu- 
lar Account  of  the  Counter-current 
Theory  of  Storms,  in  Proceed- 
ings of  the  third  convention  of 
Weather  Bureau  Officials,  at 
Peoria,  111.  (1904);  W.  M.  Davis's 
Elementary  Meteorology  (1899); 
Waldo's  Elementary  Meteorol- 
ogy; also  many  papers  on  storms, 
cyclones,  and  hurricanes  in  the 
Monthly  Weather  Review. 

Storm,  GuSTAV  (1845-1903), 
Norwegian  philologist:  won  in 
1872  the  gold  medal  ot  the  Dan- 
ish Academy  of  Sciences  by  his 
treatise  on  Snorri  Sturlason's 
history,  and  was  appointed  (1877) 
professor  of  history  at  Christiania 
University.  He  edited  the  works 
of  P.  A.  Munch  (1872-86),  Monu- 
m,enta  Historica  Norvegica  Q880), 
and,  with  modern  translation, 
Snorre  Sturlassdns  Kongesagaer 
(1896),  and  wrote  Kritiske  Bid- 
rag  til  Vikingetidens  Histoire 
(1878),  and  Studier  over  Vinlands- 
rejserne  (1888). 

Storm,  Theodor  Waldsen 
(1817-88),  German  novelist  and 
poet,  born  at  Husum,  Schleswig; 
spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life 
as  a  judge  in  his  native  province 
and  in  Prussia.  His  works,  which 
were  immensely  popular  in  their 
day,  include  Gedichte  (1852),  and 
short  stories  published  in  book 
form  under  such  titles  as  Im- 
mensee  (1852),  Zerstreute  Kapitel 
(1873),  Aquis  Suhmersus  (1877), 
Psyche  (1877),  Cars  ten  Curator 
1878),  Hans  und  Heinz  Kirch 
1883),  John  Riew  (X886),  Der 


.storm  King 

Schimmelreiter  (1888).  Lives  of 
Storm  have  been  written  by 
Schutze  (1887)  and  Wehl  (1888). 

Storm  King,  a  mountain,  part 
of  the  highlands  of  the  Hudson, 
about  2  m.  N.w.  by  N.  of  West 
Point,  on  the  w.  shore  of  the 
Hudson  R.  It  was  called  Botter- 
berg  (Butter  Mountain)  by  the 
Dutch.  The  town  of  Cornwall  is 
situated  at  its  base.  Its  height  is 
1,530  ft. 

Storm  Lake,  city,  la.,  co.  seat 
of  Buena  Vista  co.,  64  m.  e.n.e.  of 
Sioux  City,  on  Storm  L.,  and  on 
the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.,  the  111. 
Cent.,  and  the  Minn,  and  St.  L. 
R.  Rs.  Buena  Vista  College 
(Presb.j  is  situated  here.  Flour, 
brick,  tile,  butter  tubs  and  cement 
products  are  manufactured  as 
well  as  large  quantities  of  beet- 
sugar.  Corn,  oats,  wheat,  flax, 
etc.,  are  grown  in  the  region. 
Dairying  and  the  breeding  and 
raising  of  live-stock  are  also  indus- 
tries of  the  district.  The  city  has 
a  Carnegie  Library  and  a  general 
sanatorium.  Chautauqua,  Elm, 
West  Parks,  and  the  region  about 
Storm  Lake  are  of  special  scenic 
interest.  The  water-works  are 
owned  and  operated  by  the 
municipalitv.  It  was  first  settled 
in  1870  and  incorporated  in  1873. 
Pop.    (1910)  2,428. 

Storm  Warnings.  See 
Weather  Forecast. 

Stornoway,   bur.    of  barony, 

Eolice  bur.,  and  seapt.,  isl,  of 
,ewis,  Ross-shire,  Scotland,  180 
m.  N.w.  of  Oban-  is  the  chief  town 
in  the  Western  Isles,  and  has  the 
Nicolson  Institute,  a  castle,  and 
is  a  herring-fishing  station.  See 
William  Bldick's  Princess  of  Thule. 
Pop.  (1911)  3,806  (about  10,_ 
000  in  the  fishing  season). 

S.torrs,  Richard  Salter 
(1821-1900),  American  divine, 
was  born  at  Braintree,  Mass., 
and  graduated  (1839)  at  Amherst. 
He,  studied  law  with  Rufus 
Choate,  but  abandoned  the  idea 
of  practice,  entered  Andovcr 
Theological  Seminary,  and  gradu- 
ated in  1845.  He  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Harvard  Congrega- 
tional Church  in  BrookHnc, 
Mass.,  in  1845,  and  in  1846 
accepted  a  call  to  the  Church  of 
the  Pilgrims,  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
where  he  was  pastor,  and  pastor 
emeritus  until  his  death.  Dr. 
Storrs  was  a  founder  of  the 
Independent  in  1848,  and  an 
editor  until  1861.  He  gained 
reputation  as  an  orator,  and  was 
in  demand  on  public  occasions. 
His  writings  include:  An  Oration 
Commemorative  of  President  Lin- 
coln (1869),  The  Conditions  of 
Success  in  Preaching  without 
Notes  (1875),  John  Wyckliffe  and 
the  First  English  Bible  (1880), 
Manliness  in  the  Scholar  (1883), 
The  Divine  Origin  of  Christianity 
Indicated  by  its  Historical  Effects 
(1884),  Forty  Years  of  Pastoral 


479 

Life  (1886),  The  Puritan  Spirit 
(1890),  Bernard  of  Clairvaux 
(1892),  and  Orations  and  Ad- 
dresses (1901).  See  E.  A.  Parks's 
Memorial  Address  (1900). 

Storthing,  the  Norwegian  Par- 
liament, consisting  of  representa- 
tives elected  triennially  and  hold- 
ing annual  sessions.  It  is  divided 
into  an  upper  house  (Lagthing) 
and  a  lower  house  (Odelsthing), 
one-fourth  of  the  members  being 
chosen  to  sit  in  the  former  and 
the  remainder  in  the  latter. 

Story,  Emma  Fames.  See 
Eames. 

Story,  Joseph  (1779-1845), 
American  jurist,  born  at  Marble- 
head,  Mass.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1798,  and  began  to 
practise  law  at  Salem  in  1801. 
After  an  attempt  at  light  literature 
which  was  not  a  success,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  his  profession  and 
to  politics,  soon  taking  a  high 
rank  at  the  bar  and  in  1805  being 
sent  to  the  legislature  as  a  Repub- 
lican. He  was  soon  recognized  as 
a  leader  of  his  party  in  the  state, 
and  in  1808  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress to  fill  a  vacancy,  serving 
until  1809.  He  took  a  strong 
position  against  the  embargo, 
which  caused  a  split  in  the  Repub- 
lican majority  and  resulted  in  its 
repeal,  earning  from  Jefferson 
thereby  the  name  of  'pseudo- 
Republican.'  In  1811  he  was 
speaker  of  the  Mass.  House  of 
Representatives,  and  afterwards 
in  that  year  was  appointed  by 
Madison  associate  justice  of  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  In  his  long 
term  of  thirty-four  years  on  the 
bench  of  that  court  he  assisted  in 
the  development  of  American  con- 
stitutional law  and  in  fixing  the 
status  of  American  adrniralty,  pat- 
ent, and  equity  jurisprudence. 
Originally  a  Republican,  he  soon 
fell  under  the  sway  of  Marshall's 
genius,  and  his  opinions,  particu- 
larly in  'Martin  vs.  Hunter's  Les- 
see' and  in  the  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege case,  laid  down  doctrines  not 
to  be  distinguished  from  those 
of  Federalist  judges.  Besides  his 
active  work  on  the  bench  he  was 
from  1829  Dane  professor  of  law 
at  Harvard  and  acquired  a  great 
reputation  as  a  teacher.  He  pub- 
lisned  Commentaries  on  the  Law 
of  Bailments  (1832);  Commentaries 
on  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  (1833);  Conflict  of  Laws 
(1834);  Commentaries  on  Equity 
Jurisprudence  (1835-36),  besides 
lesser  works.  See  W.  W.  Story's 
Life  and  Letters  of  Joseph  Story 
(1851). 

Story,    Robert  Herbert 
(^(1835),  Scottish  theologian,  born 
o  at  Rosneath,  Argyllshire.    He  was 
^  appointed   minister   of   St.  An- 
^drew's  Church,  Montreal  (1859), 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  charge 
of  Rosneath    (1860),     and  was 
elected  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history   in    Glasgow  University 


Storj* 

(1886)  ,  and  principal  (1898).  He 
has  been  one  of  the  royal  chai>- 
lains  since  1886,  and  in  1894 
moderator  of  the  assembly. 
Among  his  writings  are  Robert 
Story  of  Rosneath  (1862),  Christ 
the  Consoler  (1868),  Robert  Lee 
(1868),  William  Car  stares  (1870), 
Creed  and  Conduct  (1872),  Health 
Haunts  of  the  Riviera  (1880),  and 
The  Apostolic  Ministry  in  the 
Scottish  Church  (1897). 

Story,  William  Wetmore 
(1819-95),  American  sculptor  and 
poet,  son  of  Joseph  Story  (q.v.), 
was  born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  and 
graduated  (1838)  at  Harvard,  and 
at  the  law  school  in  1840.  He 
continued  his  legal  studies  under 
his  father,  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  was  busy  at  his  profession  until 
1845,  when  he  was  interrupted  by 
illness.  During  this  period  he 
prepared  several  volumes  of  re- 
ports and  treatises,  including  a 
Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Contracts 
not  under  Seal  (1844).  He  also 
had  contributed  verse  and  prose 
to  the  periodicals,  and  had  begun 
modelling  in  clay  when,  after  the 
death  of  his  father,  he  was  com- 
missioned by  the  Mass.  bar  to 
execute  a  statue  of  the  latter.  He 
went  to  Rome  in  1848,  opened  a 
studio  there,  and  finished  the 
statue,  now  in  Mt.  Auburn  Ceme- 
tery, Cambridge,  Mass.  Mr. 
Story  took  up  his  perrnanent  resi- 
dence in  Rome,  devoting  himself 
altogether  to  sculpture  and  liter- 
ary work.  Meanwhile  he  had 
collected  his  verse  as  Poems  (1847), 
and  he  completed  the  Life  and 
Letters  of  Joseph  Story,  his  father 
(1851).  His  sculptures  Cleopatra 
and  the  Libyan  Sibyl  were  shown 
at  the  London  exhibition  of  1862. 
A  replica  of  the  latter  is  in  the 
N.  Y.  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art.  They  display,  like  all  his 
work,  the  classical  tendencies  of 
his  period,  of  which,  like  Hiram 
Powers,  who  worked  in  Florence, 
he  was  a  pioneer  in  sculpture. 
They  were  followed  by  Delilah 
(1866),  Jerusalem  in  her  Desola- 
tion (1870),  Semiramis  (1873),  and 
other  similar  sculptures,  which 
hardly  equalled  in  artistic  merit 
the  best  of  his  portrait  statues. 
These  latter  include  his  chief 
effort,  the  statue  of  George  Pea- 
body  (1369)  in  the  'City'  of  Lon- 
don, the  Edward  Everett  in  the 
Boston  Public  Garden,  Professor 
Henry  at  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, Washington,  D.  C,  and 
the  Francis  Scott  Key  Monument 

(1887)  in  Golden  Gate  Park,  San 
Francisco,  besides  portrait  busts 
of  other  leading  men.  Mr.  Story 
was  U.  S.  commissioner  on  fine 
arts  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
1879,  and  was  decorated  by 
various  countries.  His  activity  as 
an  author  was  constantly  main- 
tained, his  writings  including: 
Roba  di  Roma  (1862),  Graffiti 
d' Italia  (1869),  The  Roman  Law- 


Stothard 

yer  in  Jerusalem  (1870),  Nero:  An 
Historical  Play  (1875),  Castle  St. 
Angelo  (1877),  Vallombrosa  (1881), 
He  and  She;  or,  A  Poet's  Portfolio 
(1884),  Fiammetta  (1885),  Conver- 
sations in  a  Studio  (1890),  and 
Excursions  in  Art  and  Letters 
(1891).  As  an  author  he  will  be 
remembered  for  liis  poems  Cleo- 
patra and  Praxiteles  and  Phryne, 
and  for  his  outgivings  on  art.  He 
died  at  Vallombrosa,  Italy.  See 
Henry  James's  William  Wetmore 
Story  and  his  Friends  (1903)  and 
Taft's  American  Sculpture  (1903). 
— His  son,  Julian  Story,  took  his 
A.M.  degree  at  Oxford  in  1879,  and 
studied  painting  under  Duveneck, 
Lefebvre,  and  Boulanger  in  Paris. 
He  became  known  as  a  portrait 
painter,  and  received  medals  at 
Paris  and  Berlin  exhibitions.  He 
married  Emma  Eames,  the  singer, 
in  1891. 

Stothard  ,  Thomas  (1755- 
1834),  English  painter  and  il- 
lustrator, was  born  in  London. 
His  first  work  as  an  illustrator 
appeared  in  Bell's  Poets  and  in 
the  Novelist's  Magazine.  The 
number  of  his  designs  for  illus- 
trations was  enormous  —  Mrs. 
Bray  puts  it  at  10,000,  and  of 
these  3,000  were  engraved.  The 
designs  for  Clarissa  Harlowe  and 
Tristram  Shandy  are  perhaps 
his  finest  work.  Shakespeare, 
Pilgrim's  Progress,  Robinson 
Crusoe,  and  Rogers's  Italy  con- 
tain his  most  mature  designs. 
His  paintings,  though  pure  in 
color  and  skilful  in  composition, 
lack  originality;  but  his  Canter- 
bury Pilgrims  (1806)  has  always 
been  very  popular.  He  was  made 
an  R.A.  in  1794,  and  librarian  to 
the  Academy  in  1812.  See  Mrs, 
Bray's  Life  of  Thomas  Stothard 
(1851). 

Stoughton.  (1.)  Tn.,  Norfolk 
CO.,  Mass.,  17  m.  s.  by  w.  of  Bos- 
ton, on  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  H. 
R.  R.  It  manufactures  boots  and 
shoes,  rubber  goods,  woollen 
varus,  wire,  cardigan  jackets, 
boxes,  etc.  There  are  a  public 
library  and  a  town  hall.  The  mu- 
nicipality owns  and  operates  the 
water-works  and  electric-lighting 
plant.  Settled  as  a  part  of  Dor- 
chester, Stoughton  was  incor- 
porated as  a  separate  town  in 
1726  and  received  its  present 
name  in  honor  of  Governor 
WiUiam  Stoughton.  Pop.  (1910) 
6.316.  (3.)  City,  Dane  co..  Wis., 
67  m.  w.  by  s.  of  Milwaukee  on 
the  Yahara  R.,  a  branch  of  the 
Rock  R.,  and  on  the  Chi.,  Mil. 
and  St.  P.  R.  R.  It  manufactures 
wagons  and  carriages,  cement, 
ploughs,  flour  and  feed,  sod  irons, 
and  shoes.  The  region  raises 
tobacco,  live-stock,  and  general 
farm  produce.  There  are  a  pub- 
lic Hbrary  and  city  hospital.  The 
city  owns  and  operates  the  water- 
works and  electric-lighting  plant. 
The   first   settlement   here  was 


480 

made  in  1847  and  Stoughton  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1868. 
Pop.  (1910)  4,761. 

Stoughton,  Israel  (? — c.  1645), 
American  colonist,  born  in  Eng- 
land. He  emigrated  to  Mass. 
early  in  1630,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  Dorchester.  During 
the  Antinomian  troubles  he  pub- 
lished a  pamphlet  which  so  dis- 
pleased the  general  court  that  he 
was  declared  incapable  of  holding 
office  for  three  years,  but  this  sen- 
tence was  remitted  in  1636.  He 
commanded  the  Mass.  contingent 
in  the  Pequot  War,  was  several 
times  an  assistant  and  was  a  cap- 
tain in  the  Ancient  and  Honorable 
Artillery  Company.  He  served  in 
the  Parliamentary  army  as  a 
lieutenant-colonel,  and  died  at 
Lincoln  late  in  1644,  or  early  in 
1645. 

Stoughton,  John  (1807-97), 
English  ecclesiastical  historian, 
was  an  independent  minister.  He 
was  ordained  in  1833,  and  after 
ten  years'  service  at  Windsor  was 
called  to  Hornton  Street  Church, 
Kensington,  which  he  occupied 
till  1872,  when  he  was  elected  to 
the  chair  of  historical  theology 
at  New  College.  He  visited  the 
U.  S.  in  1873.  and  attended  the 
Evangelical  Alliance  conferences 
held  in  New  York  in  October  of 
that  year.  His  chief  works  were 
Church  and  State  Two  Hundred 
Years  Ago  (1862);  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  England  (1867-70); 
Religion  in  England  under  Queen 
Anne  and  the  Georges  (1878); 
Religion  in  England,  1800-1880 
(1884).  He  also  wrote  W.  Penn, 
the  Founder  of  Pennsylvania 
(1882).  See  his  Recollections  of  a 
Long  Life  (1894). 

Stoughton,  William  (c.  1630- 
1701),  colonial  governor  of  Mass., 
son  of  Israel  Stoughton.  He  was 
born  probably  in  England  about 
1630;  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1650,  and  was  ordained  a  minister, 
but  soon  withdrew  to  civil  life. 
He  graduated  M. A.  at  New  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  in  1653,  and  was  a 
fellow  until  the  restoration,  when 
he  was  ejected  and  returned  to 
New  England.  He  was  an 
assistant  during  1671  -86,  and 
belonged  to  the  moderate  party 
which  favored  conciliating  the 
king  by  making  concessions.  He 
was  one  of  the  federal  commis- 
sioners during  1673-77  and  1680- 
86;  in  1677  was  chosen  one  of  two 
agents  to  represent  the  colony  in 
England,  and  from  1692  until  his 
death,  in  1701,  was  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  colony.  In  the 
year  of  his  appointment  to  the 
last -mentioned  office  he  presided 
over  the  special  court  which  tried 
the  Salem  witches.  He  published 
an  election  sermon  entitled  New 
England's  True  Interest  Not  to 
Lie,  and  A  Narrative  of  the  Pro- 
ceedings of  Andros  (1691). 

Stour,  riv.,  England,  rises  in 


Stowe 

Cambridgeshire,  flows  generally 
s.  to  the  border  of  Esisex,  where 
it  turns  e.,  separating  that  county 
from  Suffolk.  It  is  navigable  to 
Sudbury.    Length  about  50  m. 

Stourbridge,  tn.,  Worcester- 
shire, England,  on  border  of 
Staffordshire,  5  m.  s.  of  Dudley, 
and  on  the  Stour.  The  Church 
of  St.  Mary  dates  from  the  14th 
century.  (5lass  manufacture  was 
established  by  French  and  Hun- 
garian refugees  about  the  middle 
of  the  15th  century.  Other  in- 
dustries include  iron  and  chain 
works,  and  the  manufacture  of 
parchment,  skin  rugs,  and  fire- 
clay goods.    Pop.  (1911)  17,316. 

Stourbridge  Fair.     See  Fair. 

Stout,  an  alcoholic  beverage 
largely  used  in  Great  Britain  ahd 
brewed  from  a  grist  of  ordinary 
and  burned  malt,  or  these  with  the 
addition  of  caramel  and  malt 
substitutes.  The  many  different 
grades  are  obtained  by  varying 
the  grist,  hops,  and  temperatures 
of  mashing  and  sparging.  As 
with  ale  and  beer,  the  chief  con- 
stituents of  the  finished  product 
are  carbohydrates,  alcohol,  water, 
organic  acids,  and  soluble  nitro- 
genous compounds.  The  alcohol 
varies  from  4  to  7.5  per  cent.,  the 
extract  from  5  to  8.5  per  cent.,  and 
the  acidity  from  0.30  to  1.29  per 
cent.    See  Brewing. 

Stove.  See  Heating. 
.  Stow,  John  (r' 1525- 1605),  Eng- 
lish chronicler  and  antiquary, 
was  born  in  London.  He  was  a 
tailor  till  near  his  death.  His 
chief  works  are  Summarie  of 
Englishe  Chronicles  (1565),  An- 
nates of  England  (1573),  and  the 
Survey  of  London  (1598).  Sev- 
eral editions  of  each,  bringing 
the  histories  up  to  date,  were 
issued  during  his  lifetime.  See 
Life  by  Strype  prefixed  to  his 
Works  (1720). 

Stowe,  Calvin  Ellis  (I802- 
86), American  clergyman  and 
educator,  was  born  at  Natick, 
Mass.,  and  graduated  (1824)  at 
Bowdoin,  and  at  Andover  Tneo- 
logical  Seminary  in  1828.  After  a 
brief  editorship  of  the  Boston 
Recorder,  he  was  professor  of 
Greek  at  Dartmouth  from  1830  to 
183z,,  and  professor  of  sacred  liter- 
ature at  Lane  Theological  Semi- 
nary from  1832  to  1850.  From 
1852  to  1864  he  was  professor  of 
the  same  subject  at  Andover,  then 
resigning  on  account  of  ill  health 
and  removing  to  Hartford,  Conn. 
In  1836  he  took  for  his  second 
wife  Harriet  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  Lyman  Beecher,  then  president 
of  Lane.  He  published  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Criticism  and  Interpre- 
tation of  the  Bible  (1835),  Report  on 
Elementary  Education  in  Europe. 
for  the  state  of  Ohio  (1837),  and 
The  Origin  and  History  of  the 
Books  of  the  Bible  (1867),  besides 
several  translations. 

Stowe,    Harriet  Elizabeth 


Stowe 


481 


Strachey 


Beecher  (1811-96),  American 
author,  was  born  in  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  the  third  daughter  of 
Dr.  Lyman  Beecher  (q.v.).  Her 
mother  died  when  sfie  was  four 
years  old,  and  she  was  cared  for 
by  her  elder  sister  Catherine,  and 
by  her  grandmother  at  Guilford, 
where,  and  at  the  Litchfield 
Academy,  she  received  her  early 
education.  She  became  a  great 
reader,  and  wrote  an  essay  on 
'Immortality'  at  the  age  of 
twelve.  Like  the  other  children 
of  Dr.  Beecher,  she  was  inspired 
by  his  masterful  personality  and 
mental  ability  and  also  imbibed 
his  passionate  interest  in  the 
cause  of  anti-slavery.  In  1824 
she  went  to  Hartford,  and  after  a 
year's  study  at  her  sister  Cather- 
ine's school  became  a  pupil- 
teacher  therein,  remaining  in  this 
capacity  until  she  accompanied 
her  father,  who  had  been  made 
president  of  Lane  Theological 
Seminary  in  1832,  to  Cincinnati, 
O.  With  her  sister  Catherine  she 
there  taught  school,  and  she  pre- 
pared a  school  geography  which 
was  published  in  Cincinnati.  In 

1833  she  won  a  prize  of  $50  of- 
fered by  a  Western  magazine  for 
the  best  story  submitted;  and  in 

1834  her  A  New  England  Sketch 
was  published,  in  paper,  at 
Lowell,  Mass. 

In  1836  she  was  married  to 
Prof.  Calvin  E.  Stowe  of  Lane 
Seminary  and  family  cares  en- 
grossed her  attention  for  the 
succeeding  years,  though  she  con- 
tributed several  stories  to  the 
magazines,  which  were  collected 
as  The  Mayflower;  or.  Sketches 
of  Scenes  and  Characters  among 
the  Descendants  of  the  Pilgrims 
(1843).  Her  husband  accepted  a 
professorship  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1850,  and  the  family  removed 
to  Brunswick,  Me.,  in  that  year. 
It  was  here  that,  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  a  sister-in-law,  she  em- 
bodied her  observations  of  slav- 
ery, made  while  a  resident  of 
Cincinnati,  in  her  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin;  or,  Life  among  the  Lowly, 
first  published  as  a  serial  in  Dr. 
Gamaliel  Brady's  The  National 
Era  at  Washington  in  1851-2.  It 
appeared  in  book  form  in  1852, 
and  an  amazing  sale  began,  said 
to  have  reached  300,000  copies  in 
the  first  year.  Four  months 
after  publication,  Mrs.  Stowe 
received  her  first  check  of 
$10,000.  The  book  was  issued  in 
twelve  different  editions  in  Eng- 
land during  the  first  year,  not 
being  protected  by  copyright. 
Translations  into  at  least  nine- 
teen languages  are  known.  A 
great  controversy  ensued  as  to 
the  truthfulness  of  the  repre- 
sentations made  in  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,  and  Mrs.  Stowe  prepared 
and  issued  A  Key  to  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin  (1853),  containing  all  the 
facts  and  documents  on  which 
the    story   was   founded,  par- 


ticularly in  the  case  of  'Uncle 
Tom'  himself,  whose  prototype 
was  Josiah  Herndon,  a  negro 
slave  known  personally  to  Mrs. 
Stowe  in  her  Cincinnati  days. 
In  1853  she  also  published  A 
Peep  into  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin, 
for  Children.  The  first  book  was 
dramatized  in  different  versions, 
and  has  been  produced  number- 
less times  even  down  to  the 
present  day. 

In  1852  her  husband  became 
professor  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  and  thefamily  remained 
there  until  his  retirement  in  1864, 
after  which  they  lived  at  Hart- 
ford, Conn.  Mrs.  Stowe  visited 
Europe  in  1853,  1856,  and  1859, 
and  received  many  attentions 
there.  With  her  brother  Charles 
she  published  Sunny  Memories  of 
Foreign  Lands  (1854),  and  her 
novel  Agnes  of  Sorrento  (1862) 
was  the  fruit  of  her  sojourn  in 
Italy  in  1859.  Meanwhile  her 
Dred:  a  Tale  of  the  Great  Dismal 
Swamp  (1856)  appeared,  and  was 
found  to  be  a  somewhat  milder 
presentation  of  slavery  condi- 
tions than  its  predecessor.  It 
was  followed  by  The  Minister's 
Wooing  (1859),  The  Pearl  of 
Orr's  Island:  a  Story  of  the  Coast 
of  Maine  (1862),  Religious  Poems 
(1867),  Old-Town  Folks  (1869), 
Pink  and  White  Tyranny  (1871), 
Sam  Lawson's  Fireside  Stories 
(1871),  My  Wife  and  I  (1872), 
We  and  Our  Neighbors  (1875), 
Poganuc  People  (1878),  and  A 
Dog's  Mission  (1881).  Palmetto 
Leaves  (1873)  is  based  on  the 
author's  Florida  experiences, 
where  the  family  long  had  a 
winter  home  at  Mandarin.  In 
1869  Mrs.  Stowe  published  in  the 
Atlantic  Monthly  and  Macmil- 
lan's  Magazine  an  article  on 
'The  True  Story  of  Lady  Byron's 
Life,'  which  was  followed  by  her 
book.  Lady  Byron  Vindicated:  a 
History  of  the  Byron  Controversy, 
which  occasioned  much  comment. 
She  wrote  many  stories  for 
children,  and  was  a  staff  con- 
tributor to  Our  Young  Folks, 
where  her  Queer  Little  People, 
creature  stories  (1867),  and 
Little  Pussy  Willow  (1870)  first 
appeared.  She  was  also  a  staff 
editor  of  Hearth  and  Home  from 
1868.  Her  last  years  were  passed 
in  great  retirement  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  where  she  died  July  1, 
1896.  Consult  Life  by  her  son, 
Charles  E.  Stowe;  Mrs.  Annie 
Field's  Life  and  Letters. 

Stowell,  Lord.  See  Scott, 
William. 

Strabismus,  stra-biz'mus,  or 
Squint,  an  ocular  defect  pro- 
duced by  deviation  of  the  visual 
axis  of  one  or  other  eye  from  the 
normal  direction  for  conjugate 
or  binocular  vision.  Convergent 
strabismus  is  almost  always  as- 
sociated with  hypermetropia;  di- 
vergent with  myopia,  though  oc- 
casionally the  converse  is  the 


case.  In  paralytic  squints  the 
affected  eye  cannot  follow  the 
moving  finger,  but  lags  behind 
its  fellow  or  remains  fixed.  Para- 
lytic squint  is  often  associated 
with  ptosis,  and  with  double 
vision  and  ocular  vertigo.  To 
prevent  squint,  errors  of  re- 
fraction in  children  should  be 
corrected  by  appropriate  glasses, 
and  all  strain  of  the  eyes  should 
be  prevented.  When  strabismus 
already  exists,  operation  and  ad- 
justment of  the  muscles  may  be 
necessary.  To  relieve  ocular  ver- 
tigo and  double  vision  the  false 
image  may  be  eliminated  by  plac- 
ing an  opaque  glass  over  the  de- 
fective eye.  Prismatic  glasses  of 
suitable  strength  are  also  useful 
in  some  cases.  Operative  inter- 
ference in  paralytic  strabismus 
should  be  resorted  to  only  after 
a  prolonged  trial  of  constitutional 
and  local  measures  has  failed. 
See  Myopia  and  Vision. 

Strabo,  stra'bo  (c.  63  B.C.-20 
A.D.),  ancient  Greek  geographer, 
was  a  native  of  Amasia  in  Pontus, 
Asia  Minor.  He  visited  all  the 
countries  between  Armenia  on 
the  east,  Italy  on  the  west,  the 
Euxine  on  the  north,  and  Ethi- 
opia on  the  south.  His  Geog- 
raphy, extant  in  17  books,  in- 
cludes a  good  deal  of  history,  but 
shows  an  excessive  reliance  on 
Homer,  and  an  inadequate  use  of 
mathematics  and  astronomy. 

Strachan,  stron,  John  (1778- 
1867),  Canadian  ecclesiastic,  was 
born  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland.  He 
was  educated  at  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  and  St.  Andrew's 
University,  and  in  1799  emi- 
grated to  Canada,  where  he 
founded  a  school  for  boys  at 
Kingston.  He  became  a  clergy- 
man of  the  Church  of  England  in 
1803,  and  a  year  afterward  re- 
ceived a  mission  appointment  at 
Cornwall,  which  he  resigned  in 
1812  to  accept  the  rectorship  of 
York  (Toronto).  In  1818  he  was 
nominated  to  the  Legislative 
Council,  and  for  twenty  years 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Conservative  party.  The  ambi- 
tions of  his  Hfe  were  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land as  the  state  church  of 
Canada,  and  the  introduction  of 
an  ecclesiastical  form  of  govern- 
ment. His  activities  met  with 
strenuous  opposition  on  the  part 
of  the  Liberals,  and  were  re- 
sponsible in  great  part  for  the 
popular  rebellion  of  William 
Lyon  Mackenzie  in  1837.  He 
was  appointed  archdeacon  of 
York  in  1835  and  bishop  of 
Toronto  in  1839.  His  chief 
monument  is  Trinity  College, 
which  he  founded  when  the 
denominational  character  of 
King's  College  was  changed. 

Strachey,  John  St.  Loe 
(1860-1927),  British  journalist, 
was  born  in  Somersetshire.  He 
was  educated  at  Balliol  College, 


Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Strachey 


482 


Stralsund 


Oxford  University,  and  wis 
called  to  the  bar,  but  became  a 
journalist  in  preference.  He 
contributed  articles  to  the  Satur- 
day Review  and  the  Economist 
and  after  serving  as  assistant 
editor,  in  1897  became  editor  and 
proprietor  of  the  Spectator,  a 
position  he  held  until  1925.  His 
pubUshed  works  include  The 
Problems  and  Perils  of  Socialism 
(1908);  The  Practical  Wisdom  of 
the  Bible  (1908);  A  New  Way  of 
Life  (1909);  American  Soundings 
(1926). 

Strachey,  Lytton  (1880-<V3^, 
British  author,  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
After  contributing  to  various 
reviews  he  published  Eminent 
Victorians  (1918),  which  at 
once  attracted  wide  attention. 
His  reputation  for  sympathetic 
and  vivid  portraiture  was  further 
enhanced  by  his  Queen  Victoria 
(1921).  Other  works  include 
Books  and  Characters  (1922)  and 
Elizabeth  and  Essex  (1928). 

Strachey,  stra'chi,  Sir  Rich- 
ard (1817-1908),  British  general, 
was  born  in  Sutton  Court, 
Somersetshire.  He  served  in  the 
Sutlej  campaign  (1845-6),  was 
secretary  to  the  government  of 
the  Central  Provinces  (1857-8), 
employed  in  the  public  works  de- 
partment (1858-65),  inspector 
general  of  irrigation  (1867-71), 
and  member  of  the  Council  of 
India  (1875-89).  He  wrote 
The  Finances  and  Public  Works 
of  India  (in  conjunction  with  his 
brother.  Sir  John  Strachey, 
1882),  and  Lectures  on  Geography 
(1888). 

Strachey,  William,  American 
colonist,  concerning  whose  early 
and  later  career  little  is  known. 
In  1609  he  was  wrecked  with  Sir 
Thomas  Gates  on  the  Bermudas, 
and  after  his  arrival  at  James- 
town in  1610  was  appointed 
secretary  and  recorder  of  the 
colony,  but  returned  to  England 
at  the  close  of  1611.  He  wrote  an 
account  of  the  shipwreck  which 
was  published  in  Purchas'  Pil- 
grimes  in  1625;  edited  the  code  of 
laws  drawn  up  by  Gates  and 
Dale,  and  wrote  a  Historie  of 
Travaile  into  Virginia  Britannia, 
which  was  first  published  in  1849 
by  the  Hakluyt  Society. 

Stradella,  str-.-dd'a,  Ales- 
SANDRO  (c.  1645-c.  1681),  Italian 
composer,  whose  career  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  controversy, 
but  about  whorti  little  is  known, 
beyond  the  fact  that  he  belonged 
to  the  Venetian  school  and 
ranked  high  among  his  con- 
temporaries. The  greater  num- 
ber of  his  compositions,  con- 
sisting of  oratorios,  operas,  can- 
tatas, and  madrigals,  are  still 
in  manuscript,  and  the  celebrated 
air,  Pietd,  Signore!  for  some  time 
attributed  to  him,  is  now  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the  work  of 
another  composer. 


Stradivari,  stra-de-va're,  An- 
tonio (1644-1737),  the  most 
famous  representative  of  the 
Cremonese  school  of  violin- 
making,  was  born  in  Cremona. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Nicholas 
Amati,  and  his  instruments, 
especially  those  of  the  grand 
period  (1700  to  about  1725),  are 
still  unrivalled,  whether  as  re- 
gards tone-producing  qualities, 
elegance  of  form,  or  beauty  of 
workmanship.  He  probably 
made  as  many  as  2,000  but  com- 
paratively few  are  now  in  ex- 
istence. (See  Violin.)  Consult 
Hill's  Antonio  Stradivari:  His 
Life  and  Work. 

Strafford,    Thomas  Went- 

WORTH,    FIRST    EaRL    OF  (1593- 

1641),  British  statesman,  was 
born  in  London,  He  entered 
Parliament  as  member  for  York- 
shire in  1614  and  1621,  and  set 
himself  against  the  pretensions  of 
King  Charles  and  against  the  ad- 
ministration of  Buckingham. 
Having  in  1627  refused  to  pay 
his  quota  of  a  forced  loan,  he  was 
imprisoned  for  a  short  time.  In 
Charles'  third  Parliament  Went- 
worth  at  first  stood  out  as  what 
may  be  termed  the  leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons;  but  when 
the  king  refused  to  listen  to  the 
remonstrances  of  the  Commons, 
Wentworth  abdicated  his  leader- 
ship, and  had  no  hand  in  drawing 
up  the  Petition  of  Right.  Late 
in  that  year  he  made  what  has 
been  termed  his  apostasy,  being 
created  Baron  Wentworth,  and 
appointed  president  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  the  North.  His  position 
was  that,  having  to  choose  be- 
tween prerogative  and  the  rights 
of  the  subject,  he  chose  preroga- 
tive; and  it  is  as  the  instrument  of 
absolutism  that  he  is  known. 

In  1633  he  was  appointed 
lord-deputy  of  Ireland  (lord-lieu- 
tenant, 1640),  and  in  Ireland  be- 
gan to  apply  the  system  which  in 
his  letters  to  Laud  he  calls  'thor- 
ough.' He  reformed  abuses  of 
administration,  and  endeavored 
to  settle  Connaught  as  Ulster 
had  been  settled.  When  the  king 
was  in  trouble  over  ship-money 
in  England,  and  over  Laud's  ser- 
vice-book in  Scotland,  Went- 
worth urged  resistance  to  popular 
demand.  In  1640  he  was  created 
Baron  Raby  and  Earl  of  Straf- 
ford. He  then  advocated  the  use 
of  the  Irish  army  against  the 
Scots,  but  as  his  enemies  de- 
clared, against  English  liberties. 
When  the  Long  Parliament  met 
in  jl640,  its  first  work  was  to  in- 
vestigate the  grievances  of  Went- 
worth's  Irish  enemies,  and  under 
the  leadership  of  Pym  it  was  de- 
termined to  impeach  him  of  high 
treason.  Strafford  struggled  hard 
for  his  life,  but  Charles,  on  May 
10,  1641,  reluctantly  gave  his 
consent  to  the  bill  of  attainder 
and  Strafford  was  executed  on 
Tower  Hill. 


Strahlegg  Pass,  shtra'leg,  an 
Alpine  glacier  pass  (10,995  feet) 
in  Bernese  Oberland,  leading 
from  Grindelwald  to  the  Grimsel 
hospice  at  the  northern  foot  of 
Grimsel  Pass. 

Straight  College,  a  co-educa- 
tional school  for  negroes,  at  New 
Orleans,  founded  by  Seymour 
Straight  and  incorporated  in 
1869.  A  great  majority  of  the 
students  are  in  elementary  grades 
and  receive  industrial  training. 
There  are  about  3,000  volumes 
in  the  library.  The  school 
receives  its  support  chiefly  from 
the  American  Missionary  Associ- 
ation. 

Strain,  Isaac  G.  (1821-57), 
American  naval  officer  and  ex- 
plorer, was  born  in  Roxbury,  Pa. 
He  entered  the  navy  as  midship- 
man in  1837,  and  nearly  all  his  ser- 
vice in  the  navy  was  in  explora- 
tion, commanding  expeditions 
into  Brazil  in  1845,  to  Lower 
California  in  1848,  across  South 
America  in  1849,  and  for  a  survey 
of  the  Isthmus  of  .Panama  in 
1854.  In  1856,  in  command  of 
the  Arctic,  he  sought  a  route 
across  the  Atlantic  for  a  cable. 
He  died  in  Panama.  He  pub- 
lished an  account  of  his  journey 
across  South  America,  entitled 
The  Cordillera  and  Pampa  (1853). 

Strain  and  Stress.  See  Elas- 
ticity; Moments;  Compression; 
Torsion;  and  Steel  and  Iron 
Construction. 

Straits  Settlements,  a  Brit- 
ish Crown  colony  in  and  ofif  the 
Malay  peninsula  in  Southeastern 
Asia,  including  Singapore,  Mal- 
acca, the  Bindings,  Penant, 
Province  Wellesley  and  Labuan 
in  Malaya,  and  Christmas  Island, 
the  Cocos-Keeling  Islands,  and 
the  islands  of  St.  Paul  and 
Amsterdam  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 
The  native  Malay  protected 
states  of  Perak,  Selangor,  Negri 
Sembilan  and  Pahang,  and  Bru- 
nei, North  Borneo  and  Sarawak 
are  within  the  sphere  of  influence 
of  the  government  of  the  Straits 
Settlements.  The  total  area, 
excluding  the  islands  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  is  about  1,542 
square  miles.  Up  to  the  year 
1867  these  settlements  formed 
part  of  the  government  of  India. 
The  principal  exports  are  tin, 
rubber,  spices,  sago,  tapioca, 
copra,  rice  and  pineapples.  Im- 
ports comprise  cotton,  coal,  tin 
ore,  tobacco  and  petroleum.  In 
1926  the  exports  were  valued  at 
about  £143,000,000  and  the  im- 
ports at  £160,000,000.  The 
government  of  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments consists  of  a  governor,  an 
executive  council  of  nine  mem- 
bers, and  a  legislative  council  of 
thirteen  official,  and  thirteen  un- 
official members.  The  capital  is 
Singapore.  Pop.  (1921)  883,- 
769. 

Stralsund,  shtral'zunt,  seaport 
town,  in  the  province  of  Pome- 


Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


stramonium 


KR 


483 


Strasbourg: 


rania,  Prussia,  on  the  strait 
which  separates  the  island  of 
Rugen  from  the  mainland;  86 
miles  northwest  of  Stettin.  Fea- 
tures of  interest  are  the  town  hall 
dating  from  the  14th  century, 
the  high  school  from  1560,  the 
arsenal  and  several  handsome 
churches.  The  chief  manufac- 
tures are  playing  cards,  machin- 
ery, electric  lamps,  sugar,  and 
starch.  The  city  is  notable  for 
its  successful  resistance  to  the 
siege  by  Wallenstein  in  1628.  It 
ceased  to  be  a  fortress  in  1873. 
Pop.  43.635. 

Stramo'nium,  a  name  given 
in  medicine  to  the  seeds  and 
leaves  of  Datura  stramonium, 
which  contains  an  alkaloid  da- 
turine.  This  substance  has  an 
action  almost  exactly  like  that  of 


sion  of  the  windpipe,  whereby 
respiration  is  rendered  impos- 
sible; and  (2)  to  the  constriction 
of  any  part  of  the  body  whereby 
the  local  blood  supply  is  cut  off, 
and  whereby  in  a  tubular  organ 
such  as  the  bowel  the  passage  of 
contents  is  obstructed.  Strangu- 
lation of  the  neck  and  air  pas- 
sages may  be  effected  by  a  liga- 
ture or  by  manual  pressure,  the 
term  'throttling'  being  some- 
times applied  to  the  latter 
method.  Death  results  from 
asphyxia.  Strangulation  has  also 
medico-legal  significance  since 
it  is  a  common  method  of  suicide 
and  murder.  The  bowel  is  the 
organ  which  is  most  frequently 
the  subject  of  Endogenous 
strangulation.  A  loop  of  her- 
niated intestine  is  constricted  at 


he  held  until  1923.  Later  he  was 
in  charge  of  various  operatic  or- 
ganizations in  the  United  States. 
His  published  works  include  Der 
General,  an  operetta,  and  cham- 
ber music. 

Straparola,  stra-pa-ro'la,  Gi- 
ovanni Francesco  (c.  1495-c. 
1557),  Italian  novelist,  was  born 
in  Caravaggio  (Cremona),  but 
lived  much  at  Venice.  His 
PiacevoU  Notti  {Facetious  Nights) 
(1550)  is  remarkable  as  the  first 
modern  European  collection  of 
tales  based  largely  on  folk-lore. 
The  narrative,  however  fantastic 
the  theme,  is  remarkably  con- 
vincing. The  best  edition  is  that 
of  Rua  (1899  et  seq.);  Eng.  trans. 
(1894)  by  W.  G.  Waters. 

Strasbourg,  fortified  city, 
France,  the  chief  town  of  the 


Courtesy  Mason  Warner 


SURFACE  MINING  OF  TIN  IN  THE  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS 


atropine.  Stramonium  is  exten- 
sively used  in  connection  with 
spasmodic  asthma,  the  extract 
being  given  internally,  and  the 
leaves  smoked  in  the  form  of 
cigarettes. 

Strand,  The,  a  business 
thoroughfare  of  London,  Eng- 
land, extending  from  Charing 
Cross  to  Fleet  Street. 

Strange,  Sir  Robert  (1721- 
92),  Scottish  engraver,  was  born 
in  Kirkwall,  Orkney  Islands. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  Richard 
Cooper,  the  engraver,  and  after 
spending  several  years  in  Paris 
and  Italy,  returned  to  London 
in  17.50.  Among  his  chief  produc- 
tions are  Magdalen  and  Cleo- 
patra after  Guido,  the  Apollo 
and  Marsyas  of  Sacchi,  Vandyck's 
Charles  I,  and  Titian's  Venus  of 
the  Florence  Tribune. 

Strangula'tion,  a  term  ap- 
plied in  merlicine  to  two  condi- 
tions— (1)  to  forcible  compres- 


the  ring  through  which  it  passes. 
So  long  as  the  constriction  lasts 
the  patient's  life  is  in  grave  dan- 
ger. Frequently  vomiting  is  the 
first  symptom,  and  if  the  strangu- 
lation remains  unrelieved,  the 
vomiting  usually  becomes  ster- 
coraceous.  The  only  treatment 
consists  in  the  liberation,  by  sur- 
gical operation  if  necessary,  of 
the  bowel  from  the  constricting 
ring  before  gangrenous  changes 
have  set  in. 

Stransky,  stran'ski,  Josef 
(1872-1936),  Bohemian  orches- 
tral conductor,  was  born  in 
Hupolec.  He  studied  medicine  in 
Prague  and  Leipzig  and  later 
took  up  music  under  Jadasohn 
and  Dvorak.  From  1898  to  1903 
he  was  conductor  at  the  German 
Opera  House  in  Prague,  from 
1903  to  1910  conducted  in  Ham- 
burg, and  in  1911  followed 
Mahler  as  conductor  of  the  New 
York   Philharmonic,  a  position 


department  Bas-Rhin,  is  situated 
on  the  111  river;  70  miles  east  of 
Nancy.  It  is  a  well  built  pros- 
perous city  with  fine  buildings, 
chief  among  which  is  the  cathe- 
dral, one  of  the  finest  Gothic 
edifices  in  France  with  beautiful 
stained  glass,  a  famous  astro- 
nomical clock,  and  many  fine 
statues  and  frescoes.  Other 
features  of  interest  are  the 
Frauenhaus,  now  used  as  a 
museum,  the  Chateau  or  Palais 
de  Rohan,  the  Protestant  church 
of  St.  Thomas,  and  the  Uni- 
versity founded  in  1566,  sup- 
pressed in  1790  and  reopened  in 
1872.  The  Church  of  Saint- 
Etienne,  built  in  1172  and  the 
oldest  church  edifice  in  Stras- 
bourg, was  destroyed  by  bomb- 
ing in  the  Second  World  War. 
The  leading  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  leather,  surgical 
instruments  and  machinery.  It 
is  famous  for  pates  de  foie  gras. 


Strasburger 


KR 


483A  Strategy  and  Tactics 


Strasbourg  was  fortified  by  the 
Romans  and  was  saved  from  the 
Alemanni  by  Julian  in  357.  It 
remained  normally  a  part  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire  until  1648, 
but  was  seized  and  annexed  by 
Louis  XIV  in  1681.  It  surren- 
dered to  the  Prussians  in  1870 
and  the  following  year  was  joined 
to  Germany,  remaining  the  seat 
of  government  of  Alsace-Lor- 
raine until  1918.  when  it  was  re- 
stored to  France.  It  is  the  birth- 
place of  Kleber,  Kel.ermann, 
Dore  and  Karl  Wurtz.  Pop. 
(1946)  174,164. 

Strasburger,  shtras'bobr-g^r, 
Eduard  (1844-1912),  German 
botanist,  was  born  in  Warsaw, 


Strategy  is  the  use  of  military 
operations — the  marches,  the 
camps  or  bivouacs,  the  recon- 
naissance, the  battle,  the  pur- 
suit— to  gain  the  end  of  the  war. 
The  operations  may  be  offensive 
or  defensive.  Strategy  also  in- 
cludes national  preparedness  for 
war,  preparation  for  battle,  and 
even  threat  of  battle. 

Tactics  is  the  actual  conduct  of 
operations.  Tactical  success  is 
necessary  to  successful  strategy, 
but  no  great  result  is  gained  by 
winning  a  battle  unless  it  comes 
as  the  final  act  of  well  planned 
strategical  operations.  That  is, 
the  battle  must  have  con- 
tributed something  in  some  way 


sake  of  killing  a  larger  number  of 
Union  soldiers.  Thus,  from  the 
viewpoint  of  the  Confederacy, 
Antietam  was  an  unnecessary 
battle  and  falls  under  the  cate- 
gory of  combats  that  should  have 
been  avoided.  It  has  sometimes 
happened  in  war  that  by  a  lucky 
battle  a  general  has  extricated 
himself  from  a  bad  strategical 
position.  But,  as  a  rule,  false 
strategy,  followed  by  tactical 
defeat,  has  always  meant  crush- 
ing disaster  to  the  defeated  side. 

Should  the  demands  of  strat- 
egy conflict  with  those  of  tactics 
on  the  battlefield,  tactics  takes 
precedence,  since  the  first  con- 
sideration is  the  defeat  of  the 


©  Ewing  Galloway,  N.  Y. 

Poland.  He  was  educated  at 
Bonn  and  Jena,  in  which  latter 
place  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  botany  in  1869,  and  at  the 
former  in  1881.  He  devoted  his 
scientific  research  mainly  to  the 
investigation  of  cell  formation 
and  fructification.  Among  his 
principal  works  are  Ueber  Zell- 
hildung  und  Zelllheilung  (1875), 
Studien  iiber  Protoplasma  (1876), 
Ueher  den  Bau  und  das  Wach- 
stum  der  Zellhdute  (1882),  Ueber 
den  Befruchtungsforgang  bei  den 
Phanerogamen  (1884),  Das  Bo- 
tanische  Praktikum  (1884),  and 
Streifziige  an  der  Riviera  (1895). 

Strategy  and  Tactics,  sub- 
jects so  interdependent  that  a 
discussion  of  one  can  not  be  com- 
pleted without  a  reference  to  the 
other. 


Strasbourg  and  its  Cathedral 

toward  winning  the  war.  Isolated 
combats  that  have  no  bearing  on 
the  situation  are  to  be  avoided. 
General  Robert  E.  Lee,  great 
strategist  that  he  was,  is  criti- 
cized for  having  fought  the  battle 
of  Antietam.  He  had  captured 
Harper's  Ferry,  invaded  Mary- 
land, and  had  taken  prisoners 
and  supplies.  With  the  prestige 
of  these  achievements,  he  could 
have  withdrawn  into  Virginia, 
his  army  undefeated,  without  in 
any  sense  lowering  the  morale  of 
the  army  or  the  people.  By 
accepting  battle,  he  could  not 
hope  to  do  more  than  defeat 
McClellan,  that  is,  stop  him.  In 
no  sense  could  he  have  hoped  for 
decisive  results,  and  at  that  time 
he  could  ill  afford  to  have  his  men 
killed  off  in  battle  merely  for  the 


hostile  forces.  Tactical  consider- 
ations, likewise,  govern  in  the 
selection  of  the  direction  of  at- 
tack in  battle.  Strategical  rea- 
sons for  striking  in  any  direction 
are  always  subordinated  to  the 
attainment  of  tactical  success. 
Strategy,  by  directing  the  armies 
and  their  concentration  at  the 
battlefield,  provides  tactics  with 
the  tools  for  fighting  and  creates 
the  highest  possible  probability 
of  victory — then  it  appropriates 
the  fruits  of  each  victory  and 
makes  them  the  basis  for  further 
plans.  The  aim  of  strategy,  once 
war  has  been  declared,  is  to 
crush  the  enemy  and  destroy  his 
will  to  resist.  This  requires  all 
the  mental,  moral,  and  physical 
power  of  a  nation,  efficiently 
organized  for  its  tasks.    In  pur- 


strategy  and  Tactics 


483  B 


Strategy  and  Tactics 


suit  of  this  aim  the  force  em- 
ployed is  hmited  only  by  what  is 
necessary  to  accomplish  the  de- 
sired result — or  by  the  resources 
of  the  combatant. 

The  primary  reason  why  any 
means  whatever  of  producing 
disability,  death,  and  destruc- 
tion, is  not  employed  in  war, 
aside  from  the  humanitarian 
view  of  the  age,  is  that  it  is  not 
expedient  to  do  so.  Unfavorable 
results  may  come  from  retalia- 
tion by  the  opponent,  adverse 
action  of  neutral  states  may  re- 
sult from  the  effect  of  outraged 
international  public  opinion,  or 
the  bad  effect  of  such  an  action 
may  continue  even  after  the  war 
is  ended.  Experience  shows  that 
the  employment  of  force  to  the 
complete  destruction  of  an  ad- 
versary is  seldom  necessary. 
When  one  combatant  has  suf- 
ficiently impressed  the  other 
with  his  power  to  inflict  death, 
wounds,  and  destruction,  the 
will  of  the  latter  to  resist  breaks 
down  and  the  former's  aim  of 
war  is  accomplished. 

Wars  are  either  wars  of  ag- 
gression or  wars  of  defense.  If 
one  listens  to  the  belligerents,  all 
wars  are  defensive.  The  Central 
Powers  and  the  Allies,  in  the 
Great  War,  both  claimed  that 
they  were  fighting  defensive  war. 
One  nation  or  group  of  nations 
must  be  the  aggressor,  but  that 
does  not  mean  that  the  aggressor 
nation  is  necessarily  fighting  an 
aggressive  war,  as  the  term  is 
commonly  accepted.  It  may  be 
using  offensive  methods  of  fight- 
ing to  maintain  its  national  in- 
tegrity or  its  national  rights.  To 
many  persons  defense  means 
only  territorial  defense  or  the 
employment  of  armies  to  prevent 
invasion  of  their  own  country, 
but  in  defense  of  its  policies 
many  a  country  has  gone  to  all 
quarters  of  the  globe. 

Military  strategy  deals  with 
war  or  the  preparation  for  war. 
It  has  to  do  with  planning  for 
and  reaping  the  results  of 
battles,  or  threats  of  battle, 
brought  about  by  the  various 
combinations,  movements,  and 
use  of  all  of  the  armed  forces, 
land,  sea,  and  air,  of  a  power,  or 
of  all  of  the  forces  in  a  theatre  or 
in  theatres  of  operations. 

Strategical  operations  on  the 
sea  are  conducted  on  a  much 
larger  geographical  scale  than 
those  on  land.  Naval  bases  may 
be  the  whole  seacoast  lines  of  a 
country,  with  lines  of  communi- 
cation to  objectives  hundreds  of 
miles  away.  Fleet  movements  are 
made  at  the  rate  of  hundreds  of 
miles  in  a  day.  Naval  trains  may 
be  equally  as  mobile  as  the 
combat  units.  But,  as  bases  are 
necessary  to  supply  land  forces, 
so  are  bases  necessary  for  the 
sea  forces.  Ships  cannot  be  kept 


at  sea  indefinitely;  they  must 
have  safe  harbors  into  which  they 
can  go  for  refueling  and  refitting. 
Thus  the  coast  defense  systems 
that  protect  the  harbors  become 
integral  parts  of  the  scheme  for 
the  operation  of  a  naval  force. 
The  sea,  with  its  trade  routes,  is 
simply  a  system  of  highways. 
These  highways  cross  at  certain 
points,  converge  at  others,  and 
pass  through  defiles  such  as 
straits  and  canals.  The  ocean 
has  fewer  obstacles  than  the 
land;  but  those  that  it  has  are 
truly  impassable,  for  ships  can- 
not force  their  way  over  or 
through  them,  but  must  pass 
around  them.  It  is  truly  said 
that  'infantry  can  go  anywhere, 
even  on  the  ocean  by  transport, 
but  modern  battleships  cannot 
be  dragged  over  dry  land.' 

There  is  a  great  similarity  in 
the  characteristics  of  sea  and  air 
forces.  Fogs  and  storms  are 
the  enemies  of  both,  although 
not  to  the  same  extent.  Ships 
can  and  do  keep  at  sea  during 
storms  and  fogs,  and  naval 
forces  at  times  take  advantage 
of  fog  to  gain  surprise;  but  air- 
craft cannot  operate  in  fog  and 
storm.  Neither  sea  nor  air 
forces  can  operate  continuously, 
but  must  return  to  bases  for 
supplies.  Neither  is  capable  of 
sustained  action.  Neither  can 
use  positions  and  terrain  to  gain 
an  advantage,  because  such  use 
does  not  increase  their  fire  power. 
The  airplane  can  destroy  a 
bridge,  the  ship  can  destroy  a 
fortification;  but  neither  can 
hold  a  position.  No  one  ship  and 
no  one  airplane  can  be  designed 
to  have  the  highest  speed,  the 
heaviest  armament,  the  thickest 
armor,  and  the  longest  radius  of 
action.  Strategy  takes  account 
of  all  these  factors.  It  is  the  same 
for  sea  and  air  forces  as  it  is  for 
land  forces.  The  difference 
comes  in  tactics,  that  is,  in 
methods  of  execution. 

Strategy  takes  into  considera- 
tion tactics,  logistics,  material 
assets,  the  theatre  of  war,  the 
psychology  of  the  people,  and 
the  national  policies,  from  the 
viewpoint  of  both  its  own 
country  and  of  the  enemy.  It  is 
the  purpose  of  strategy  to  attain 
the  national  or  political  object 
through  the  complete,  partial,  or 
threatened  achievement  of  the 
military  aim,  under  the  existing 
political,  economic,  and  military 
conditions.  From  strategy  one 
learns  to  prepare  plans  for  war, 
to  select  points  of  departures  or 
bases,  to  indicate  the  general 
direction  of  movements  or  lines 
of  operations,  and  to  carry  on 
offensive  or  defensive  war.  There 
is  no  such  thing  as  a  strategy  of 
small  forces,  except  (1)  that  the 
operations  of  these  forces  must 
fit  into  the  plan  for  the  larger 


operations  of  the  whole  force  in 
a  given  theatre  of  operations,  and 
(2)  when  the  small  forces  are  the 
only  forces  in  a  given  theatre  of 
operations.  Under  the  first  case, 
a  commander  of  a  small  force 
may  be  required  to  make  a 
strategical  decision  when  the  un- 
expected has  upset  or  made  im- 
possible the  execution  of  the 
assigned  mission.  Then,  he  must 
make  a  decision  as  to  the  use  of 
his  force  which  will  fit  into 
the  general  plan  of  the  whole. 
In  the  Franco-Prussian  War, 
1870,  Von  Alvensleben,  with  the 
X  Corps,  to  the  left  of  and 
slightly  in  advance  of  the  Ger- 
man army,  found  himself  in  the 
presence  of  Bazaine's  army  at 
Vionville.  He  made  a  decision  to 
attack.  This  decision  was  stra- 
tegical; it  fitted  in  with  Molt- 
ke's  strategical  plan  of  oper- 
ation which  had  as  its  object  to 
bring  the  French  army  to  bay 
and  defeat  it.  Although  Von 
Alvensleben  ran  the  risk  of  a 
tactical  defeat  of  his  small  force, 
he  held  the  French  as  Moltke's 
plan  contemplated.  The  second 
case  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
operations  in  German  East  Africa 
during  the  Great  War.  At  the 
beginning.  Von  Lettow  Vorbeck's 
5,000  Germans  were  the  only 
troops  in  that  theatre  of  opera- 
tions. In  this  situation,  Von 
Lettow  Vorbeck  had  a  strategical 
problem — not  of  the  same  magni- 
tude to  be  sure,  but  he  had  a 
strategical  problem — just  as  did 
Von  Moltke  in  Europe. 

Strategy  decides  when  and  for 
what  object  battle  is  to  be  joined, 
provides  the  necessary  means, 
gives  a  direction  to  its  forces, 
and  provides  for  reaping  the 
proper  result  of  each  operation. 
Strategy  looks  beyond  but  does 
not  definitely  plan  beyond  that 
point  where  dispositions  must  be 
taken  to  meet  the  action  of  the 
opposing  forces.  No  plan  of 
operation  can,  with  any  safety, 
include  more  than  that  collision 
with  the  enemy  which  results  in 
an  action,  the  conduct  of  which 
will  depend  upon  local  conditions 
too  various  to  foresee.  Strategy, 
however,  remains  at  all  times 
with  the  forces  to  perfect  those 
parts  of  the  plan  which  could  not 
be  arranged  beforehand  and  to 
make  the  modifications  in  the 
general  plan  which  constantly 
become  necessary  in  war.  Tactics 
takes  care  of  the  method,  con- 
ducts the  marches,  and  fights  the 
battles. 

The  fundamental  factors  that 
require  consideration  in  the  solu- 
tion of  any  strategical  or  tactical 
problem  are:  security,  the  ob- 
jective, the  offensive  movement 
or  logistics,  superiority,  economy 
of  force,  surprise,  simplicity,  and 
cooperation. 

Security.  Strategical  security 
Vol.  XI.— Oct.  '28 


strategy  and  Tactics 


484 


Strategy  and  Tactics 


has  much  more  in  its  conception 
than  the  mere  idea  of  protection 
as  that  term  is  commonly  under- 
stood. It  includes  the  conception, 
initiation,  and  maintenance  of 
all  those  measures  necessary  for 
the  preservation  of  the  nation 
and  to  secure  for  its  citizens  life, 
liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happi- 
ness. 

Security  must  be  considered 
under  two  headings:  first,  na- 
tional security,  and  second, 
security  for  military  operations. 
National  security  is  attained  by 
adequate  preparedness  for  war 
and  for  each  military  operation. 
It  implies  that  the  nation  is  pro- 
tected against  a  hostile  invasion 
of  its  territory  from  without,  and 
against  insurrection,  civil  war, 
and  rebellion  from  within.  It 
also  means  that  the  nation  has 
attained  that  freedom  of  action 
necessary  for  the  maintenance  of 
its  national  policies  and  the 
furtherance  of  its  aims  and 
aspirations. 

Strategical  security  for  mil- 
itary operations  is  attained  by 
the  use  of  reconnoitering  and 
covering  forces,  natural  and 
artificial  obstacles,  fortifications, 
secrecy,  rapidity  of  movement, 
occupation  of  controlling  posi- 
tions, provision  for  suitable  lines 
of  communications,  with  an 
efficient  supply  system  and  an 
effective  intelligence  system.  The 
nature  and  suitability  of  the 
security  required  varies  through 
wide  limits,  and  the  measures 
necessary  for  each  case  can  be 
determined  only  by  a  considera- 
tion of  the  circumstances  of  that 
particular  situation.  Strategical 
security  for  military  operations 
must,  in  general,  be  arranged 
to  facilitate  and  protect  con- 
centrations, secure  bases  of  oper- 
ations, insure  supply  and  com- 
munication with  bases,  protect 
the  flanks  of  theatres  of  opera- 
tions and  the  fronts  and  flanks  of 
the  armies  in  the  advance. 

Concentrations.  Strategy  pro- 
vides the  necessary  means  to 
facilitate  the  rapid  concentration 
of  its  armies  in  the  decisive  areas. 
The  importance  of  railways, 
motor  highways,  and  river  and 
ocean  transportation  is  readily 
apparent.  An  army  of  today  of 
about  300,000  men,  complete 
with  all  arms  of  the  service  and 
necessary  animals,  motor  and 
wagon  transportation,  marching 
on  a  single  road  makes  a  column 
about  600  miles  long.  To  move 
this  force  by  rail  would  require 
more  than  1,200  railroad  trains, 
and  to  supply  it  would  take  in  the 
neighborhood  of  thirty  trains 
daily.  In  1914  Germany  had 
seventeen  railway  lines  to  the 
Russian  frontier,  with  a  total  ca- 
pacity of  500  trains  daily.  On  the 
other  hand  the  Russians  had  only 
five  lines  to  the  German  frontier. 


The  Austrians  had  eight  lines  to 
the  Russian  frontier,  on  which 
they  could  handle  260  trains  per 
day.  Russia  had  only  four  lines  to 
the  Austrian  frontier.  This  rail- 
way system  gave  the  Central 
Powers  an  enormous  advantage. 
But  railroads  are  valueless  with- 
out adequate  terminal  facilities. 
The  lack  of  railroad  terminal  fa- 
cilities at  Tampa,  Florida,  in  1898 
caused  almost  hopeless  conges- 
tion with  much  confusion  and 
delay. 

Bases  of  operation,  supply  and 
communications.  A  base  of 
operations,  to  be  secure,  re- 
quires free  and  numerous  com- 
munications with  the  operating 
army  and  all  depots,  and  points 
of  storage  and  supply.  It  should 
be  well  served  by  roads,  railroads, 
rivers,  or  by  sea.  In  addition,  one 
or  both  flanks  should  be  pro- 
tected by  troops,  suitably  dis- 
posed, resting  on  neutral  states, 
impassable  barriers,  or  fortifica- 
tions. Alexander  the  Great  pro- 
vided for  his  security  when  he 
assured  to  himself  the  Palestine 
and  north  Egyptian  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  as  a  base  of 
operations  before  he  started  into 
the  interior  of  Persia. 

Security  of  the  flanks  may  be 
obtained  by  resting  on  natural 
or  artificial  barriers,  rivers, 
mountains,  a  line  of  fortresses, 
neutral  countries,  or  by  military 
forces  suitably  disposed.  At  the 
first  battle  of  the  Marne.  Mar- 
shal Joffre  gained  security  for 
his  right  flank  on  the  neutral 
state  of  Switzerland  and  for  his 
left  flank  on  the  fortified  city  of 
Paris. 

Security  of  a  strategic  front, 
such  as  a  river  line,  a  range  of 
mountains,  a  border  line,  or  a 
battle  front  such  as  the  Western 
Front  in  the  World  War,  may  be 
assured  at  times  by  means  of  a 
manoeuvre  mass  known  as  a 
strategic  reserve.  When  this 
means  is  employed,  the  front  it- 
self is  observed  or  held  with  a 
minimum  number  of  troops,  and 
the  maximum  force  is  held  out 
as  the  strategic  reserve.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  forces  that  observe  or 
hold  the  front  is  two-fold — to  fur- 
nish information  of  the  offensive 
action  of  the  enemy  at  any  point 
or  points,  and  to  hold  the  enemy 
so  as  to  gain  the  necessary  time 
for  the  reserve  to  reach  the 
threatened  area.  The  power  of 
resistance  of  these  holding  forces 
must  be  sufficient  to  stop  any- 
thing less  than  a  real  attack. 
Otherwise,  units  of  the  enemy 
will  exercise  an  attraction  for  the 
reserve  which  will  defeat  its  pur- 
pose. It  is  essential  that  the  re- 
serve be  able  to  reach,  without 
delay,  the  point  at  which  the  de- 
cision will  or  is  expected  to  be 
made.  This  requires  a  location 
from  which  all  parts  of  the  front 


can  be  reached,  and  it  requires 
also  every  facility  in  means  ot 
transportation.  Security  of  the 
front  of  an  army,  in  an  advance, 
is  taken  care  of  by  tactical 
methods  (advance  guards,  the 
airplane,  the  cavalry,  and  the 
like)  and  intelligence  agencies. 
Security  is  also  assured  by  the 
organization  and  composition  of 
the  columns,  and  the  mutual  pro- 
tection that  they  afford  one  an- 
other. The  composition  of  the 
columns  must  be  such  that  each 
is  a  complete  whole,  capable  of 
acting  in  battle  precisely  like 
the  great  whole,  except  in  one 
respect,  which  is  that  the  dura- 
tion of  the  battle  must  be  shorter. 
Rapid  means  of  communication 
and  movement  assure  mutual 
protection  for  the  columns. 
Therefore,  with  the  composition 
of  each  as  just  indicated,  it  is  not 
necessary  that  the  columns 
should  be  so  close  to  each  other 
that  they  may  unite  before  the 
beginning  of  a  battle. 

The  Objective.  Success  or 
failure  in  war,  or  any  operation 
of  war,  is  dependent  upon  the 
selection  of  and  adherence  to  a 
proper  objective,  or  objectives, 
for  the  attainment  of  which  the 
means  available  are  to  be  util- 
ized. The  objectives  must  be 
such  that  their  attainment  will 
accomplish  the  national  purpose 
or  aim.  They  constitute  a  guide 
for  the  interpretation  of  orders, 
for  the  formulation  of  decisions, 
and  for  the  employment  of  the 
means  available.  A  nation  has  a 
purpose  or  an  aim  in  view  when 
it  enters  upon  a  war.  This  pur- 
pose or  aim,  usually  called  the 
national  objective,  depends  upon 
the  political,  military,  and  eco- 
nomic conditions  that  exist  at 
the  time,  all  of  which  vary  in 
force  and  effect  in  every  instance. 
The  national  objective  has  its 
origin  in  the  cause  of  the  war. 
The  national  objective  of  the 
United  States  in  1917  was  to 
force  an  unquahfied  recognition 
by  Germany  of  the  United  States' 
policies  of  the  freedom  of  the  seas 
and  the  Monroe  doctrine. 

The  military  forces  of  a  nation, 
and  each  element  thereof,  have 
their  objectives.  These  are  the 
military  objectives.  As  the  ob- 
jective of  all  military  forces  must 
contribute  to  the  attainment  of 
the  national  objective,  so  must 
the  objective  of  each  element  of  a 
military  force  be  at  all  times  con- 
tributory to  the  attainment  of  the 
objective  of  the  force  of  which  it 
forms  a  part.  The  ideal  is  to  refer 
the  whole  operation  of  war  to  one 
single  aim  and  then  attain  this 
aim  by  one  great  effort — for  it  is 
the  desire  of  every  nation  at  war 
to  reach  a  victorious  peace  as 
quickly  as  possible.  The  demands 
of  modern  civilization  are  so  great 
that  the  costs  of  a  long  war, 


Vol.  XL— Oct.  '28 


strategy  and  Tactics 


485 


Strategy  and  Tactics 


even  though  it  might  be  success- 
ful, are  so  high  as  to  constitute  a 
mortgage  on  a  nation's  prosperity 
for  generations  after.  Definite 
objectives,  and  their  early  attain- 
ment, are  therefore  all  important. 

Peace  usually  follows  a  com- 
plete overthrow  or  destruction 
of  the  principal  army  of  one  of 
the  belligerents,  or  peace  may  be 
the  result  of  the  moral  effect  of  a 
disaster  to  a  part  of  the  armed 
forces.  As  objectives,  there  are: 
first,  the  hostile  forces;  second, 
important  strategical  points  in 
the  theatre  of  operations,  as  in- 
dicated by  the  position  of  the 
hostile  armies — these  points  may 
be  of  either  material  or  moral  ad- 
vantage; third,  large  railway 
centres,  fortified  places,  points 
of  junction  on  lines  of  communi- 
cation, resources,  and,  finally,  the 
capital. 

Important  strategical  points, 
such  as  fortified  positions,  for- 
tresses, or  protected  camps,  may 
be  objectives  for  secondary  col- 
umns, but  are  seldom  the  objec- 
tive for  the  main  force.  A  geo- 
graphical point  alone  is  never  a 
suitable  objective  for  military 
operations.  It  may  be,  and  many 
times  is,  an  objective  of  a  march, 
selected  because  in  that  direction 
the  enemy  will  be  encountered. 
Napoleon,  in  1806,  marched  on 
Berlin,  for  he  knew  that  in  that 
direction  he  would  meet  the 
enemy.  Moltke  marched  on 
Paris  in  1870  for  the  same  reason. 
In  the  Civil  War,  Grant  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  of  the  Fed- 
eral commanders  to  appreciate 
the  true  objective  in  the  East  as 
Lee's  army,  and  not  Richmond. 

The  Offensive.  The  offen- 
sive is  the  normal  expression  of 
the  art  of  waging  war,  and  by  it 
alone  can  one  impose  one's  will 
on  the  enemy.  The  defensive 
only  defers  the  decision.  It  there- 
fore follows  that  positive  action 
is  necessary  to  gain  the  initiative 
and  secure  positive  success.  Tem- 
porizing, waiting,  and  a  defensive 
attitude,  being  negative  meas- 
ures, cannot  gain  these  ends.  The 
effort  that  has  a  positive  object 
calls  into  existence  the  act  of  de- 
struction; the  effort  that  has  a 
negative  object  only  awaits  it. 
The  strategical  offensive  consists 
of  the  employment  of  aggressive 
military  effort  for  the  direct  ob- 
ject of  the  war.  It  is  not  confined 
to  one  single  act,  as  war  does  not 
consist  of  a  single  instantaneous 
blow,  and  it  is  not  a  homoge- 
neous whole,  but  is  constantly 
mixed  up  with  the  defensive. 
The  strategical  offensive  is,  there- 
fore, a  perpetual  alternation  and 
combination  of  tactical  attack 
and  defense. 

Movement.  If  military  his- 
tory teaches  anything,  it  is  that 
mobility  in  military  operations 
is  a  requisite  to  success.  Other 


conditions  being  anywhere  near 
equal,  mobility  will  be  the  ulti- 
mate deciding  factor.  An  army 
has  a  decided  advantage  if  every 
day  it  outmarches  its  opponent. 
That  will  upset  the  opponent's 
plans  and  destroy  his  morale. 
Movement  implies  securing  free- 
dom of  action  and  the  speedy  ad- 
vance of  superior  forces  along  the 
decisive  direction  at  the  decisive 
moment — a  rapid  and  sustained 
advance  that  overruns  all  opposi- 
tion by  its  very  momentum. 
Jackson's  swift  movements  in  the 
Shenandoah  Valley  kept  the 
Union  commanders  constantly 
in  the  dark.  Napoleon's  march 
to  Jena  in  1806  is  a  model.  It  is 
true  that  he  made  mistakes  at 
that  time,  and  bad  ones;  on  Oc- 
tober 10,  he  thought  that  Hohen- 
ioe  was  about  to  attack  him,  that 
the  Prussians  were  concentrating 
on  Gera  and,  on  the  13th,  he  mis- 
took Hohenloe's  army  for  the  en- 
tire Prussian  force.  Nevertheless, 
his  plans  based  on  these  incor- 
rect estimates  were  successful 
because  of  the  correct  direction 
that  he  had  given  his  force  at  the 
beginning  of  the  operation  and 
of  the  rapidity  of  his  movements, 
which  left  his  opponents  no  time 
to  profit  by  his  mistakes.  In  the 
Franco-German  War  of  1870, 
Moltke  made  an  estimate  of  the 
situation  every  day  and  was 
wrong  almost  every  time,  but  he 
had  given  his  armies  the  proper 
direction  at  the  outset  and  they 
moved  from  one  success  to  an- 
other. 

Rapidity  of  movement  in  de- 
fensive operations  is  just  as  im- 
portant, if  not  more  so,  as  the  of- 
fensive. The  degree  of  strategic 
mobility  depends  upon  the  organ- 
ization, armament,  equipment, 
training,  and  discipline  of  the 
forces,  the  system  of  supply  of 
the  forces  in  the  field,  the  avail- 
able means  of  transportation 
(rail,  motor,  or  water),  the  nature 
of  the  terrain  of  the  theatre  of 
operations,  and  climatic  condi- 
tions. The  railroads  of  France, 
during  the  period  of  the  World 
War,  moved,  as  organizations, 
some  65,000,000  men.  The  rail- 
roads also  evacuated  some  3,600,- 
000  men  from  the  front;  in  addi- 
tion, millions  of  men  returning 
to  the  front  from  leave,  hospitals 
and  elsewhere,  were  moved  by 
rail.  With  the  300,000  trainloads 
of  supplies  moved,  there  was  a 
grand  total  of  1,130,000  trains 
devoted  to  the  movement  of 
troops  and  their  supplies.  The 
preparation  of  organization  ta- 
bles, the  prescribing  of  armament 
and  equipment,  the  determina- 
tion of  and  preparation  for  main- 
taining standards  of  training  and 
discipline,  the  development  of 
systems  of  supply  and  means  of 
transportation,  and  study  of  pos- 
sible theatres  of  operations  are 


thus  seen  to  be  strategic  peace- 
time functions. 

«•  Superiority.  Superiority  at 
the  proper  time  and  place  is  es- 
sential to  success  in  war.  Supe- 
riority embraces  much  more  than 
numbers.  Numbers  alone,  un- 
less overwhelming,  cannot  be 
accepted  as  the  true  measure  of 
superiority.  Superiority,  today, 
means  superior  combat  power  at 
the  decisive  place,  on  land,  on 
sea,  or  in  the  air,  and  at  the  de- 
cisive time.  Superiority  need  not 
be  applied  at  one  point  only.  It 
may  result  from  a  skilfully  con- 
ducted operation  which  is  ap- 
parently a  dispersion.  By  such  an 
application  of  superiority  did 
Hannibal  defeat  the  Romans  at 
Cannae  in  216  b.  c.  The  supe- 
iority  may  be  in  numbers,  in  or- 
ganization, in  armament,  in 
training,  in  morale,  in  mobility, 
in  the  skilful  use  of  terrain,  or  it 
may  exist  solely  in  the  genius 
and  energy  of  a  commander.  It 
may  also  be  brought  about  by 
surprise.  It  may  exist  in  any  one 
or  any  combination  of  these  fac- 
tors. The  organization  of  the 
army,  that  is  the  strength  of  its 
component  infantry,  cavalry, 
artillery,  air  force,  and  so  on,  and 
their  relation  to  one  another,  has 
a  very  definite  bearing  on  the 
army's  combat  power.  A  defi- 
ciency in  any  one  can  hardly  be 
made  up  by  another.  Again,  the 
organization  of  the  armed  forces 
is  influenced  by  the  special  con- 
ditions of  the  theatre  of  opera- 
tions. This,  in  turn,  has  an  effect 
on  its  combat  power.  In  the  open 
country  of  Syria  in  1918,  a  large 
proportion  of  cavalry  was  nec- 
essary. On  the  other  hand,  be- 
cause of  mountainous  country  in 
the  Balkan  Peninsula,  the  pro- 
portion of  cavalry  with  the  Salo- 
niki  expedition  in  1918  was  very 
small. 

In  the  organization  of  the  na- 
tion's forces,  the  deficiencies  on 
land  cannot  be  made  good  on  the 
sea  or  in  the  air,  or  vice  versa. 
In  the  Gallipoli  operation  in  1915, 
the  Anglo-French  fieet  failed  to 
neutralize  the  action  of  the 
Turkish  army  and,  subsequently, 
the  attack  of  the  Anglo-French 
army  failed  because  it  was  not  of 
sufficient  strength  and  the  fleet 
could  not  make  good  the  defi- 
ciency. Napoleon,  in  1805,  failed 
to  cross  the  British  channel  be- 
cause of  his  lack  of  control  of  that 
channel,  which  he  could  have 
secured  only  through  a  sufficient 
naval  force.  He  did  not  have  this 
naval  force  and  was  unable  to 
make  good  his  deficiency  in  a 
navy  by  the  use  of  his  army. 
Again,  the  loss  of  his  siege  train, 
captured  in  1799  by  the  British, 
caused  Napoleon  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Acre.  The  deficiency  in 
this  arm  could  not  be  made  up 
by  another.     The  armament  or 


Vol.  XI.— Oct.  '28 


strategy  and  Tactics 


486 


Strategy  and  Tactics 


equipment  of  the  forces  is  often 
a  deciding  factor.  Tanks  gained 
the  superiority  in  Cambrai  in  1917. 
The  breech-loading  rifle  made 
the  Prussians  superior  to  the 
Austrians  in  1866.  The  super- 
iority of  Stuart's  cavalry  in  the 
Civil  War  was  due  in  great  part 
to  its  mounts.  When  the  quality 
of  these  mounts  began  to  fall  off 
and  that  of  the  Federal  cavalry's 
horses  began  to  improve,  the 
Confederate  superiority  began 
to  decrease.  The  heavy  artillery 
in  1914  had  much  to  do  with  the 
initial  success  of  the  German 
army. 

In  the  last  analysis,  superiority 
means  superior  combat  power. 
This  combat  power  is  made  up 
of  a  number  of  factors.  Superior 
numbers  is  the  factor  first  sought. 
The  next  object  is  to  supplement 
numerical  strength  and  attain 
superiority  by  greater  efficiency 
in  the  other  factors  that  go  to 
make  up  that  combat  power. 
Mahansays:  'The  art  of  war  con- 
sists in  converting  inequality  or 
inferiority  into  superiority  at  a 
given  point.' 

Economy  of  Force.  Conser- 
vation of  personnel,  of  material, 
and  of  supplies  of  all  kinds  is  nec- 
essary elsewhere  in  order  that 
superiority  may  be  secured  at 
the  decisive  time  and  place. 
Nationally,  a  security  system 
which  bases  its  defense  on  a 
large  standing  army  is  wasteful 
in  manpower  and  national  re- 
sources and  is  thus  contrary  to 
the  idea  of  economy  of  force. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  riational 
unpreparedness  system  gives  no 
assurance  of  security  against 
wastage  in  war.  In  a  military 
sense,  economy  of  force  requires 
that  the  maximum  advantage 
be  taken  of  obstacles  and  fire 
power  in  order  to  defend  every- 
where except  at  the  point 
selected  to  launch  the  attack. 
In  this  way  economy  of  force  is 
used  to  attain  superiority  at  the 
point  at  which  it  is  needed.  In 
June  1862,  General  Robert  E. 
Lee,  in  front  of  Richmond,  with 
a  smaller  force  behind  earth 
works  south  of  Chickahominy, 
held  a  superior  force  of  McClel- 
lan's  army  while  he,  Lee,  con- 
centrated a  force  superior  to  the 
part  of  McClellan's  force  that 
was  north  of  that  stream.  This 
is  a  correct  application  of  econ- 
omy of  force,  and  Maurice  says, 
'Lee  was  the  first  to  perceive  the 
possibilities  which  improvement 
in  arms,  combined  with  entrench- 
ments, afforded.'  The  object  of 
strategical  defensive  operations 
is  to  attain  superiority  and  to 
avoid  a  decisive  engagement  un- 
til favorable  conditions  promise 
a  reasonable  chance  of  success. 
These  favorable  conditions  may 
be  (1)  aid  from  other  govern- 
ments, (2)  equalization  of  forces 

Vol.  XL— Oct.  '28 


due  to  losses  by  the  enemy,  (3) 
a  more  advantageous  position, 
or  (4)  the  arrival  of  forces  not 
ready  at  the  beginning  of  the 
operations. 

Another  object  of  strategical 
defensive  operations,  when  it  is 
not  possible  to  bring  about  the 
successful  termination  of  the  war 
in  the  field,  is  to  secure  more 
favorable  peace  terms.  An  army 
in  being  is  always  a  force  to  be 
reckoned  with  and,  even  after 
having  suffered  defeat  on  the 
battlefield,  it  is  a  powerful  factor 
at  the  peace  table.  The  mere 
existence  of  the  Russian  armies 
after  Mukden,  in  1905,  brought 
about  a  partial  defeat  of  the 
Japanese  at  the  peace  table.  A 
contemplated  offensive  return 
blow,  or  a  contemplated  advan- 
tage to  be  gained,  is  always  an 
essential  element  ot  a  strategical 
defensive  operation.  Economy  of 
force  is  a  factor  toward  the  at- 
tainment of  all  these  ends. 

Surprise.  Secrecy  of  prep- 
aration for  military  operations 
and  concealment  of  true  inten- 
tions in  their  execution  consti- 
tute a  powerful  factor  in  the 
probabilities  of  success.  Men 
surprised  are  men  confused  and 
unbalanced,  and  therefore  more 
liable  to  error.  Surprise  may  take 
the  form  of  strategems  of  all 
kinds,  of  time,  of  force,  of  di- 
rection, of  fire  superiority,  of 
flexibility,  of  movement,  of 
kinds  of  weapons,  and,  in  short, 
of  any  element  that  serves  to 
confuse  the  enemy  and  place 
him  at  a  disadvantage.  A  maxim 
of  Stonewall  Jackson  was  to 
'always  mislead,  mystify  and  so 
surprise  the  enemy.'  Surprise, 
like  mobility,  must  be  prepared 
for  in  advance.  In  order  to  insure 
the  full  benefit  of  an  operation 
that  depends  on  surprise,  ar- 
rangements must  be  complete 
to  take  full  advantage  of  the 
surprise  effect  and  to  push  the 
operation  through  to  a  success- 
ful termination  before  the  enemy 
can  recover  from  the  shock  of  the 
surprise.  The  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  aircraft  has  intro- 
duced an  agency  of  great  power 
for  gaining  surprise,  and  also  for 
preventing  it.  This  development 
is  still  in  process,  and  the  mobil- 
ity, radius  of  action,  and  tactical 
powers  of  the  airplane  are  all  be- 
ing steadily  increased.  The  ulti- 
mate effect  of  this  development 
cannot  of  course  be  foreseen,  but 
in  all  problems  in  strategy  this 
highly  mobile  and  powerful  force 
is  a  potent  factor  never  to  be  lost 
sight  of. 

Simplicity  and  cooperation. 
vSimple  and  direct  plans,  orders 
and  operations  are  alone  prac- 
ticable in  war.  Only  when  all  the 
component  parts  of  a  force,  per- 
sonnel, and  material  function  as 
a  team,  are  maximum  results 


attained.  Simplicity  has  to  do 
with  the  basic  idea  or  plan,  while 
cooperation  deals  with  execution 
of  that  idea  or  plan.  The  move- 
ments of  troops  that  are  cooper- 
ating in  the  execution  of  a  given 
plan  may  be  extremely  simple, 
but  this  simplicity  is  the  result  of 
the  simplicity  of  the  plan.  The 
greater  the  simplicity  in  plan, 
organization,  and  the  system  of 
command,  the  more  nearly  pos- 
sible it  is  to  secure  perfection 
of  cooperation  in  execution. 
Simplicity  requires  one  to  avoid 
the  complex,  the  complicated, 
and  the  intricate,  and  plan  to 
proceed  in  the  most  direct  and 
natural  manner  for  the  attain- 
ment of  the  objective  in  view. 
Nationally,  simplicity  demands: 
(1)  that  a  nation  have  a  definite 
national  defense  policy;  (2)  that 
mobilization  and  concentration 
plans  be  prepared  in  time  of 
peace;  (3)  that  the  nation's 
armed  forces  be  so  organized  that 
they  can  pass  from  a  peace  to 
a  war  footing  in  the  shortest  pos- 
sible time,  with  a  minimum  of 
confusion  and  the  least  distur- 
bance to  the  body  politic.  Coop- 
eration requires  that  the  compo- 
nent of  the  civil  government  and 
the  armed  forces,  the  army  and 
the  navy,  as  well  as  these  agencies 
themselves  work  harmoniously 
with  and  in  support  of  one  an- 
other. The  best  is  the  enemy  of 
the  good.  Simplicity  demands 
that  there  be  no  hesitating,  halt- 
ing search  for  the  ideal  or  the 
best.  There  is  no  best,  and  he 
who  throws  aside  a  good  plan  to 
search  for  the  best  is  doomed  to 
failure. 

Strategical  terms.  Strategical 
operations  are  operations  that 
are  conceived  from  the  point  of 
view  of  all  the  forces  in  a  theatre 
or  theatres  of  operations.  Strat- 
egy gives  to  its  forces  their  mis- 
sion; tactics  fights  the  battles. 
For  instance,  let  us  assume  that 
we  have  a  theatre  of  operations 
with  three  armies,  that  the  plan 
is  for  a  strategical  penetration, 
that  the  armies  on  the  flanks  are 
given  defensive  missions,  and 
that  the  centre  one  is  given  an  of- 
fensive mission;  all  matters  of 
strategy.  The  armies  on  the 
flanks  may  attack,  they  may  de- 
fend, or  one  may  defend  and  the 
other  attack;  all  matters  of 
tactics. 

Strategic  positions  are  those 
positions  the  occupation  of  which 
has  a  direct  bearing  on  the  ac- 
tions of  all  forces  in  a  theatre  of 
operations.  They  usually  cover  a 
much  greater  front  than  that  on 
which  the  tactical  battle  is 
fought.  Strategy  guards  a  whole 
river  line  or  a  frontier.  Tactics 
fights  the  battle  at  only  one  or  a 
few  points.  Mahan.  pointing 
out  the  relation  of  Heligoland  to 
the  whole  scheme  of  the  German 


strategy  and  Tactics 


487 


Strategy  and  Tactics 


coast  defense,  says:  'This  is 
strategic,  while  arrangements  for 
the  defense  of  the  island,  for 
instance,  the  defending  batteries, 
are  local,  limited,  and  tactical.' 
During  the  World  War  (1914- 
1918) ;  Alliedstrategy  guarded  the 
long  line  from  Switzerland  to  the 
sea.  As  a  part  of  that  strategical 
scheme  many  tactical  battles 
were  fought. 

Marches  and  camps,  bivouacs, 
or  cantonments,  all  have  their 
places  in  the  domain  of  strategy. 
Cantonments  and  camps  are 
planned  with  reference  to  the 
possible  use  of  the  troops.  Tac- 
tics assembles  the  troops  and 
conducts  the  battle.  If  a  plan  of 
operations  causes  troops  to  march 
on  a  certain  side  of  a  river,  that 
is  strategy  because  a  definite  de- 
cision has  been  made  that  the 
enemy  will  be  met  on  that  side, 
or  that  there  he  will  be  avoided. 
The  conduct  of  the  march  itself, 
the  security  measures,  the  order 
of  march,  the  actions  when  the 
enemy  is  met,  belong  to  tactics. 
In  retreating,  strategy  considers 
the  object,  the  direction  of  the 
retreat,  the  effect,  and  the  cul- 
minating point,  or  the  point  at 
which  to  pass  to  the  offensive. 
Tactics  takes  care  of  the  method, 
the  covering  forces,  the  order  of 
march,  and  the  like. 

A  strategical  envelopment  is  a 
movement  initiated  with  a  view 
to  a  simultaneous  attack  in  front 
and  on  one  or  both  flanks  of  the 
main  forces  of  the  enemy  in  a 
given  theatre  of  operations.  Tac- 
tics conducts  the  march  and 
fights  the  battle.  In  a  strategical 
envelopment  each  of  the  forces, 
i.  e.,  the  force  designated  for  the 
attack  on  the  flank,  or  against 
the  enemy's  communications, 
and  the  force  making  the  attack 
ih  hont,  usually  has  its  own  sep- 
arate line  of  operation,  and,  in 
effect,  its  own  line  of  commu- 
nications. 

When  a  strategical  envelop- 
ment not  only  envelops  the 
enemy's  flank,  but  reaches  so  far 
to  his  rear  that  his  communica- 
tions are  threatened  and  he  is 
forced  into  such  a  position  that 
defeat  would  cut  him  off  from 
his  base,  then  the  envelopment 
has  become  a  strategical  turning 
movement.  In  1800,  Napoleon 
concentrated  an  army  at  Geneva 
and  Lausanne,  then  crossed  the 
Alps  into  Italy  and  placed  him- 
self between  the  Austrian  forces 
under  Melas  and  their  home 
country.  The  turning  movement 
culminated  in  a  crushing  defeat 
of  the  Austrians  at  Marengo. 

One  of  the  best  illustrations  of 
a  strategical  envelopment  cul- 
minating in  a  tactical  envelop- 
ment is  that  of  the  Japanese 
forces  in  Manchuria,  in  1904, 
during  their  advance  on  Liao 
Yang.    The  Russian  garrison  at 


Port  Arthur  was  besieged  by  the 
Japanese  Third  Army.  The  Rus- 
sian main  forces  were  being  con- 
centrated at  Liao  Yang.  The 
Japanese  First  Army  was  based 
on  Antung  on  the  Yalu,  the 
Fourth  on  Takusan,  the  Second 
on  Dalny.  The  lines  of  operation 
(line  of  advance)  of  these  armies 
converged  on  Liao  Yang.  Each 
of  these  armies,  during  the  ad- 
vance, fought  several  battles 
independently  of  the  others. 
Here,  tactics  fought  numerous 
battles,  each  a  separate  and  dis- 
tinct tactical  act,  but  all  con- 
tained in  one  strategical  whole. 
Each  tactical  act  added  its  force 
to  the  sum  total  required  to 
bring  the  strategical  manoeuvre 
to  a  successful  culmination  in 
the  final  tactical  envelopment 
of  the  enemy's  main  forces. 
Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  strategi- 
cal operation  unlike  the  tactical 
is  not  confined  to  one  act. 

A  strategical  penetration  is  a 
breaking  through  or  piercing  of 
the  enemy's  strategic  front.  This 
has  been  accomplished,  though 
rarely,  by  the  threat  of  battle. 
In  1812,  at  the  opening  of  the 
war  with  Napoleon,  the  Russian 
forces  were  divided  into  three 
armies  covering  a  front  of  some 
500  miles.  Napoleon  divided  his 
forces  into  three  grand  masses. 
The  principal  one,  the  centre, 
under  Napoleon  himself,  was  to 
attack  the  first  Russian  army  and 
pierce  the  Russian  front.  The 
King  of  Westphalia's  army  on 
the  right  was  to  act  against  the 
Russian  left,  and  MacDonald 
on  the  French  left  was  to  attack 
towards  Riga.  On  June  24,  Na- 
poleon's penetrating  mass  crossed 
the  Niemen  in  the  vicinity  of 
Kovno.  The  Russians  did  not 
resist,  but  fell  back,  and  on  June 
28  Napoleon  entered  Vilna,  some 
50  miles  from  Kovno.  The  Rus- 
sian front  had  been  pierced 
strategically  without  battle.  The 
threat  of  battle  had  been  de- 
cisive. A  modern  attempt  at  a 
strategical  penetration,  and  one 
in  which  the  strategical  front  was 
a  continuous  tactical  battle  line, 
was  the  German  attempt  of  March 
21,  1918,  to  break  through  to- 
wards Amiens  and  separate  the 
French  and  British  armies.  But 
here  tactics  failed — and  strategy 
has  no  use  for  tactical  fail- 
ures at  the  decisive  point.  An- 
other illustration  of  a  strategical 
penetration  is  that  of  D'Esperey 
in  the  Balkans  in  1918.  On  Sep- 
tember 15  he  started  his  attack, 
penetrated  the  line  of  the  Central 
Powers,  and  by  September  29 
had  captured  Uskub,  folded 
back  the  dislocated  wings,  caused 
the  surrender  of  the  German 
Eleventh  Army,  and  forced  Bul- 
garia to  sue  for  peace. 

In  each  of  these  operations 
strategy    planned    the  whole. 


made  the  means  available,  in- 
dicated objectives  or  lines  of 
operations,  and  took  unto  it- 
self the  results  of  each. 

The  theatre  of  war  comprises 
the  entire  area  of  land  and  sea 
which  is  involved  in  the  opera- 
tions of  war.  It  is  divided  into 
two  areas — the  theatre  of  opera- 
tions and  the  zone  of  the  inte- 
rior. A  theatre  of  operations  is 
a  portion  of  the  theatre  of  war 
which  is  designated  as  an  area  for 
active  military  operations  with 
a  definite  objective.  It  comprises 
all  the  territory  that  it  is  desired 
to  defend,  and  all  that  which  is 
necessary  for  the  establishments 
pertaining  to  the  forces  in  the 
theatre  of  operations.  It  may  be 
in  friendly  or  in  hostile  territory. 
More  than  one  theatre  of  opera- 
tions may  be  designated  when 
it  is  decided  to  carry  on  separate 
operations  at  great  distances 
one  from  another.  Then  each 
has  its  own  line  of  communica- 
tion and  its  own  mission.  In  the 
original  designation  of  theatres 
of  operations  the  question  will 
always  arise  as  to  the  extent  of 
the  theatre  and  whether  one  or 
more  should  be  designated.  This 
is  one  instance  in  which  a  rule 
can  be  applied — the  theatre 
should  include  all  that  area  in 
which  any  one  operation  is  likely 
to  have  a  direct  and  immediate 
effect  upon  other  operations. 
Here  transportation  facilities 
from  one  part  of  the  theatre  to 
another,  and  geographical  bar- 
riers— oceans,  lakes,  mountain 
ranges,  and  deserts — have  a  de- 
ciding influence  as  they  limit  the 
rapidity  with  which  troops  can 
be  moved. 

A  strategic  front  is  a  line  that 
divides  the  theatre  of  operations 
into  two  parts  and  separates 
the  areas  controlled  by  the  two 
hostile  forces  in  that  theatre. 
This  line  can  be  described  as  the 
line  along  which  a  force  exercises 
strategic  control.  It  may  be 
occupied  in  force,  either  wholly 
or  in  part.  In  the  latter  event 
control  is  provided  by  forces 
suitably  disposed.  Before  the 
Great  War,  notwithstanding  a 
few  prophets  to  the  contrary,  a 
strategic  front  as  a  continuous 
tactical  battle  line  was  a  rare 
conception.  Yet,  during  that 
war,  the  Central  Powers  were 
encircled  on  land  by  a  practically 
continuous  battle  line.  The  lat- 
eral boundaries  of  a  theatre  of 
operations  are  determined,  in 
large  measure,  by  the  size  of  the 
force,  the  objective  assigned,  and 
the  kind  of  opposition  expected. 
Sufficient  breadth  must  be  pro- 
vided to  assure  room  for  ma- 
noeuvre, security  of  flanks,  and 
facilities  for  communication. 

Strategy  is  vitally  interested 
in  the  selection  of  the  theatre  of 
operations,  which  follows  logically 

Vol.  XL— Oct.  '28 


strategy  and  Tactics 


488 


Strategy  and  Tactics 


from  the  object  of  the  war  as  laid 
down  by  poUcy.  The  national 
aim  or  poUcy  of  the  Japanese 
in  1904  was  the  expulsion  of  the 
Russians  from  Manchuria,  the 
occupation  of  the  Liao  Yang 
Peninsula,  and  a  free  hand  in 
Korea.  Japan's  policy  did  not 
contemplate  a  vital  blow  at 
Russia's  resources.  Had  this 
been  the  poHcy,  it  would  have 
obliged  her  to  carry  the  war  into 
Europe  and  make  Russia  in 
Europe  the  theatre  of  operations. 
Manifestly,  such  an  effort  would 
have  been  beyond  her  power,  the 
gain  to  be  expected  would  not 
have  been  worth  the  cost  of  the 
war,  and  the  project  would  have 
been  given,  up.  As  it  was,  Japan 
elected  to  use  her  military  forces 
in  Manchuria,  which  at  the 
outset  gave  her  a  tremendous 
advantage  over  Russia  in  the 
distance  over  which  each  had  to 
transport  troops. 

Frederick  the  Great's  opera- 
tions in  the  Seven  Year's  War 
are  an  excellent  example  of  the 
influence  of  policy  on  the  selec- 
tion of  the  theatre  of  operations. 
At  the  outbreak  of  war,  Fred- 
erick was  practically  surrounded 
by  his  enemies,  Austria,  Russia, 
France,  and  Germany.  It  was 
natural  that  these  enemies  should 
have  sought  to  strike  at  the 
heart  of  the  Prussian  monarchy. 
Frederick's  aim  was  the  defense 
of  his  territory,  and  he  was  con- 
tent to  stand  guard  over  it. 
He  attacked,  in  succession,  each 
of  his  enemies  as  it  came 
within  dangerously  close  dis- 
tance; but  he  never  went  far 
afield  in  search  of  an  enemy,  for 
the  distance,  the  time  and  space 
factor,  rendered  this  enemy  for 
the  time  being  harmless.  Had 
Frederick  not  confined  him- 
self strictly  within  the  limits  that 
his  policy  had  laid  down,  he 
would  surely  have  perished  under 
the  blows  of  his  numerous 
enemies.  It  was  this  moderation 
of  his  strategy  that  enabled  him 
to  avoid  destruction.  An  exten- 
sion of  his  theatre  of  operations 
might  well  have  ruined  him,  in 
spite  of  the  repeated  mistakes 
of  his  adversaries.  It  can  thus 
be  readily  appreciated  that  the 
determination  of  the  theatre 
of  operation  is  a  problem  of  the 
first  importance,  one  in  which  a 
wrong  solution  may  involve  fail- 
ure or  even  disaster. 

MoHlizalion  as  applied  to  the 
military  forces  is  the  passage 
from  a  peace  to  a  war  footing. 
It  includes  all  the  processes  re- 
quired to  convert  trained,  partly 
trained,  or  untrained  individuals 
into  units  organized  and  pre- 
pared for  military  employment. 
Specifically,  these  processes  in- 
clude procuring,  classifying, 
equipping,  and  assigning  individ- 
uals; organizing,  equipping,  sup- 


plying and  training  units;  and  the 
movements  incidental  to  assem- 
bling individuals  into  units.  The 
navy  mobilizes  ships  and  sta- 
tions, not  men.  The  term  mobil- 
ization in  the  navy  means  the 
act  of  making  the  ships  and  sta- 
tions ready  logistically  for  war 
service,  that  is,  making  the  ships 
ready  to  sail  and  the  shore 
stations  ready  to  operate.  Mo- 
bilization of  industry  for  mili- 
tary purposes  during  a  national 
emergency,  is  the  operation  of 
adjusting  peace-time  energy  and 
industry  to  meet  the  essential 
requirements  of  military  effort, 
with  a  minimum  disturbance  of 
normal  conditions.  It  involves 
readjusting  and  perfecting  in- 
dustrial organization,  stimulat- 
ing production,  eliminating  unes- 
sential activities,  and  diverting 
essential  resources  from  com- 
mercial   to    military  purposes. 

Strategical  concentration  is  the 
procCvSS  by  which  an  army  is 
brought  into  the  theatre  of  op- 
erations. It  is  effected  by  march- 
ing, by  sea,  by  rail,  by  water,  or 
by  a  combination  of  these  means. 
A  base  of  operation  is  the  area  in 
which  armies  and  their  material 
necessities  are  concentrated  pre- 
paratory to  the  initiation  of 
action  against  the  enemy's 
forces.  A  base  of  operation  may 
be  a  strip  of  one's  own  country, 
or  it  may  be  a  portion  of  the 
enemy's  territory.  The  term 
base,  as  used  here,  should  not  be 
confused  with  the  source  of  sup- 
ply. In  the  Great  War  the 
American  Expeditionary  Force 
had  its  bases  in  France,  while  its 
principal  source  of  supply  was 
the  United  States,  although 
much  came  from  other  sources. 
The  Japanese  actions  in  1904, 
on  the  Yalu,  at  Takusan,  and  at 
Dalny,  had  as  their  primary 
object  the  establishment  of  a 
base  of  operations  on  the  Asiatic 
continent.  A  change  of  base 
during  military  operations  is 
considered  a  difficult  and  dan- 
gerous undertaking.  In  1862 
during  his  Peninsular  Campaign, 
McClellan  skilfully  and  suc- 
cessfully changed  his  base  from 
White  House  on  the  Pamunkey 
to  the  James.  It  may  be  nec- 
essary to  cut  loose  from  a  base 
for  a  few  days,  in  which  event 
victory  in  battle  will  restore  free- 
dom of  action  and  open  up  all 
communications  that  have  been 
abandoned.  The  dependence 
on  a  base  increases  in  intensity 
and  extent  with  the  size  of  the 
force.  A  line  of  operation,  or 
direction,  is  the  general  line 
along  which  a  force  moves  from 
its  base  of  operation  toward  its 
objective. 

The  old  writers  on  strategy 
dealt  much  in  so-called  geomet- 
rical strategy.  Lines  of  opera- 
tions were  considered  with  ref- 


erence to  the  angles  that  they 
made  with  each  other.  The  effect 
of  the  operation,  for  instance,  of 
cutting  a  line  of  communication, 
was  considered  from  the  view- 
point of  the  angle  with  which  the 
line  of  operation  intercepted  the 
line  of  communication.  The  fal- 
lacy of  such  a  conception,  which 
neglected  the  actualities  of  the 
situation,  can  be  well  illustrated 
if  one  takes  an  outline  map  of  the 
Balkans,  and  draws  a  line  north 
from  Saloniki.  This  line  will  cut 
the  Bagdad  Railway,  the  Central 
Powers'  line  of  communication 
with  Turkey,  near  Sofia.  j_This 
is  a  comparatively  short  distance 
to  a  most  sensitive  point  and, 
from  the  viewpoint  of  the  geomet- 
rical strategist,  the  problem  for 
the  Allies  in  the  Great  War 
should  have  been  simple.  But 
the  terrain  and  the  logistics 
(transportation,  supply,  etc.) 
are  such  that  the  limit  to  the 
size  of  an  army  which  could 
operate  from  Saloniki  is  very 
soon  reached. 

The  relation  of  the  front  of  the 
combined  concentration  areas, 
the  base  of  operation,  with  ref- 
erence to  the  enemy,  that  is,  the 
shape,  gives  certain  advantages 
or  disadvantages.  If  this  front 
faces  the  enemy  on  two  sides,  the 
situation,  other  conditions  being 
equal,  is  favorable  for  a  strategic 
envelopment  or  strategic  turning 
movement.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  opposite  condition  prevails, 
operations  will  of  necessity  be 
conducted  on  divergent  lines. 
The  armies  of  Germany  in  1914 
were  well  placed  on  the  west  for 
a  strategic  envelopment  of  the 
French.  On  the  Eastern  Front, 
due  to  the  Polish  salient,  Austria 
and  Germany  could  operate  on 
lines  that  converged  on  the  Rus- 
sian theatre  of  operations,  while 
Russia's  forces  were  of  necessity 
compelled  to  operate  on  diver- 
gent lines. 

An  operation.  In  the  course 
of  all  wars  there  will  be  certain 
groups  of  movements,  engage- 
ments, marches,  and  actions  that 
bear  a  closer  relation  to  each 
other  than  to  any  previous  or 
subsequent  occurrences.  These 
events  will  be  carried  out  for  the 
purpose  of  reaching  a  certain 
goal,  capturing  a  certain  point, 
or  defeating  a  certain  force  of 
the  enemy.  After  the  attain- 
ment of  this  goal  or  object,  there 
will  follow  a  cessation  of  move- 
ment until  rest  can  be  obtained, 
reinforcements  brought  up,  and 
ammunition  resupplied;  then,  in 
conformity  with  the  old  plan,  or 
new  plan,  or  modifications  of  the 
old,  there  will  be  another  effort 
for  the  attainment  of  another  ob- 
ject. Such  a  group  of  events  is 
called  an  operation. 

A  campaign.  Certain  opera- 
tions may  bear  a  closer  relation 


Vol.  XL— Oct.  '28 


strategy  and  Tactics 


489 


Strategy  and  Tactics 


to  one  another  than  they  do  to 
others.  They  are  fought  under 
similar  conditions,  against  the 
same  hostile  army,  or  they  dif- 
fer from  the  others  in  time  or 
place,  or  by  a  change  in  forces, 
or  by  a  change  in  the  manner  of 
carrying  on  the  war.  Such  a 
group  of  operations  becomes 
known  as  a  campaign.  In  the 
Russo-Japanese  War,  there  were 
the  operations  along  the  Yalu, 
the  operations  around  Port 
Arthur,  the  operations  around 
Liao  Yang,  and  so  on.  All  of 
these  operations  made  up  the 
Manchurian  campaign  of  the 
Russo-Japanese  War.  In  the 
Civil  War  there  were  McClellan's 
operations  on  the  Warwick  River 
line,  and  his  operations  around 
Richmond  in  1862,  the  whole 
being  known  as  the  Peninsular 
Campaign. 

Tactics.  There  is  a  clear  and 
definite  distinction  between  tac- 
tics and  strategy.  Tactics  is 
method  or  execution.  Tactics 
undergoes  constant  revision  as 
the  tools  with  which  it  works 
change  almost  from  day  to  day. 
Military  men  are  constantly  try- 
ing to  determine  the  most  effec- 
tive manner  in  which  to  use,  on 
both  the  defensive  and  the  offen- 
sive, the  ever  changing  products 
of  the  industrial  and  the  military 
worlds.  Thus  tactics  changes, 
and  the  manner  in  which  the 
armed  forces  are  conducted  to 
the  battlefield,  and  the  manner 
in  which  the  battle  is  fought, 
are  changing  continually;  but 
strategy  makes  the  same  use  of 
the  battle  today  as  it  did  yester- 
day and  will  tomorrow.  The 
high-powered  rifle  forced  troops 
into  a  skirmish  line;  the  machine 
gun  caused  a  wider  dispersion  in 
both  interval  and  depth;  gas 
brought  about  the  development 
of  a  gas  mask;  the  heavily  in- 
trenched and  wired  positions  in 
the  Great  War  were  the  raison 
d'Ure  of  the  tank,  which  in  time 
led  to  the  development  of  the 
armor-piercing  bullet.  The 
changes  in  the  means  available, 
or  the  weapons — steam  for  the 
navy,  the  submarine,  gas,  the 
airplane — all  have  increased  the 
complexity  of  tactics,  but  they 
have  not  changed  strategy. 

After  thousands  of  years, 
Jonathan's  plan  for  the  attack 
on  the  Philistines  (Samuel  I, 
Chapters  xiii  and  xiv)  at 
Mickmash  in  Palestine,  was  re- 
peated with  success  by  the  British 
in  1918.  The  strategy,  the  plan 
basically,  was  exactly  the  same 
in  each  case.  The  weapons  were 
different,  and,  hence,  the  tactics, 
the  methods  of  execution,  were 
necessarily  different.  Moses' 
instructions  for  the  strategic  re- 
connaissance of  Canaan  in  prepa- 
ration tor  an  invasion  of  that 
country  (4th  Book  of  Moses, 


called  Numbers,  Chapter  xiii, 
Verses  17-19):  'Get  you  up  this 
way  southward,  and  go  up  into 
the  mountain  and  see  the  land, 
what  it  is;  and  the  people  that 
dwelleth  therein,  whether  they 
be  strong  or  few  or  many;  and 
what  the  land  is  that  they  dwell 
in,  whether  it  be  good  or  bad; 
and  what  cities  they  be  that  they 
dwell  in  and  whether  in  tents  or 
in  strongholds;  and  what  the  land 
is,  whether  it  be  fat  or  lean, 
whether  there  be  wood  therein, 
or  not,'  are  to  the  point.  Al- 
though the  language  is  not  of 
our  time,  they  are  sound  and 
would  serve  basically  as  a  model 
for  all  time.  However,  today  the 
method  of  making  the  recon- 
naisance  and  sending  back  re- 
ports would  be  different.  The 
point  is  that,  strategically, 
Moses,  in  the  preparation  of  his 
plan  for  the  invasion  of  Canaan, 
caused  a  reconnaissance  to  be 
made  of  that  country.  That  was 
sound  strategy  then,  is  today,  and 
forever  will  be. 

Today  men  kill  one  another  at 
greater  distances  and  in  more 
ways  than  formerly,  but  killing 
is  a  constant  factor  in  all  battles. 
The  difference  in  war  between 
the  present  and  times  gone  by 
is  in  its  methods  and  weapons 
(tactics),  but  these  alterations 
in  methods  make  no  difference 
in  the  strategy.  Death,  wounds, 
suffering,  and  privation  remain 
the  same  whatever  the  weapons 
employed,  and  their  reaction  on 
man  is  the  same  now  as  in  the 
wars  of  the  ancients.  The  builder 
of  houses  is  very  much  con- 
cerned with  the  manner  in  which 
the  carpenter,  the  plumber,  the 
stone  mason,  the  brick  mason, 
the  electrician,  the  tinner,  and 
the  plasterer  execute  their  tasks, 
and  in  the  material  that  they  use, 
because  upon  the  efficiency  with 
which  each  of  these  tasks  is  ac- 
complished depends  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  completed  house.  The 
builder  is  the  strategist.  The 
completed  house  is  the  strate- 
gical whole.  The  artisans  are  the 
tacticians,  they  must  know 
methods  and  have  the  skill  to 
execute. 

The  military  strategist  is  con- 
cerned with  the  manner  in  which 
details  are  executed,  because 
upon  the  efficiency  of  the  ex- 
ecution of  these  details  depends 
the  smoothness  and  rapidity  with 
which  the  whole  strategical  task 
is  accomplished.  Strategy  takes 
the  land,  sea,  and  air  forces  and 
their  component  parts  and  fits 
them  together  in  order  that  their 
characteristics  may  supplement 
one  another  and  make  a  rounded 
whole.  Strategy  uses  the  opera- 
tions of  war  to  gain  its  ends; 
tactics  uses  its  tools  and  weapons 
to  carry  to  a  successful  conclusion 
each  of  the  separate  operations. 


For  the  land  forces,  the  tools 
are  the  infantry,  the  cavalry, 
the  artillery,  the  air  corps,  the 
signal  corps,  the  engineers,  and 
the  so  -  called  non  -  combatant 
branches.  The  principal  weapons 
are  the  rifle,  the  bayonet,  the 
machine  gun,  the  automatic  and 
the  machine  rifle,  the  tank,  artil- 
lery of  all  kinds,  the  airplane, 
the  pistol,  the  saber,  the  bomb, 
the  grenade,  the  mine,  gas, 
smoke,  and  a  long  list  of  acces- 
sory devices.  For  the  sea  forces 
the  tools  are  the  battleship,  the 
battle  cruiser,  the  cruiser,  the 
destroyer,  the  submarine,  the 
airplane,  the  mine  layer,  the 
mine  sweeper,  and  the  attendant 
ships.  The  principal  weapons 
are  the  gun,  the  torpedo,  the 
mine,  the  bomb,  gas,  smoke  and 
their  accessories. 

On  land  all  other  branches  are 
utilized  to  assist  the  infantry  in 
overpowering  the  enemy.  The 
infantry's  tactical  problem  is  to 
close  with  the  enemy,  keeping 
its  losses  at  a  minimum  while 
inflicting  the  maximum  loss  on 
the  enemy.  This  requires  move- 
ment to  reach  the  enemy,  dis- 
persion to  avoid  loss,  and  fire 
power  to  inflict  loss  on  the  enemy. 
These  are  conflicting  factors 
which  must  be  adjusted,  for  it 
is  manifest  that  accuracy  or 
volume  of  fire  cannot  be  delivered 
by  men  in  movement,  and  that 
dispersion  reduces  the  number 
of  rifles  that  can  be  brought  into 
action.  The  difference,  tactically, 
between  land  and  sea  forces  is 
in  the  surfaces  over  which  they 
move.  At  sea  there  is  no  waiting 
on  the  defensive,  utilizing  the 
terrain  as  an  aid  to  strengthen 
the  position.  At  sea  the  battle- 
ship is  the  infantry  of  the  armed 
force.  The  weapons  carried  by 
all  other  types  are  used  to  sup- 
port the  heavy  gun  mounted  on 
capital  ships.  The  ship's  prob- 
lem, like  that  of  the  infantry,  is 
to  close  with  the  enemy,  avoid 
loss  and  inflict  loss. 


In  the  above  figure  it  is  really 
apparent  that  ship  A  has  ship  B 
at  a  decided  disadvantage  both 
as  to  the  number  of  guns  which 

Vol.  XL— Oct.  '28 


strategy  and  Tactics 


490 


Strategy  and  Tactics 


can  be  brought  to  bear  and  as 
to  the  result  to  be  expected  from 
a  hit.  A  hit  on  B  rakes  the  ship 
fore  and  aft  and  is  hkely  to  do 
much  more  damage  than  a  hit 
from  B  on  A.  Hence  the  essence 
of  naval  tactics  is  manoeuvering 
for  a  position  within  effective 
range  from  which  a  destructive 
fire  may  be  brought  to  bear  on 
the  enemy. 

Tactical  operations.  In  the 
presence  of  the  enemy  or  where 
the  enemy  is  likely  to  be  en- 
countered, a  military  force  al- 
ways protects  itself  by  security 
attachments.  These  detachments 
are  of  suitable  size,  so  disposed 
as  to  prevent  surprise,  provide 
for  the  uninterrupted  rest  or  the 
uninterrupted  movement  of  the 
main  force,  and  insure  time  for 
taking  up  the  necessary  battle 
formation,  i.  e.  deployment.  At 
rest,  security  detachments  are 
called  outposts;  on  the  march 
they  are  called  advance,  flank,  or 
rear  guards.  In  campaign, 
marches  consume  more  time  and 
make  greater  demands  on  phys- 
ical endurance  than  all  other 
military  activities  combined.  The 
tactical  order  for  a  march  pre- 
scribes the  object  of  the  march, 
the  destination,  the  distribution 
of  troops,  and  the  order  of  march 
of  the  main  body,  special  security 
measures,  the  initial  or  starting 
point,  the  hour  at  which  the 
leading  element  starts  from  or 
clears  the  initial  point. 

In  future  wars  most  marching 
in  the  presence  of  the  enemy  will 
be  at  night,  as  in  no  other  way 
can  hostile  airplane  observation 
be  avoided  and  secrecy  of  move- 
ment secured.  Night  marching 
however  is  nothing  new  and 
practically  all  marches  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  during 
Grant's  campaign  in  1864-1865 
were  made  at  night. 

Tactically  a  force  engages  in 
battle  either  in  attack  or  de- 
fense, in  coordinated  attacks, 
attacks  in  meeting  engagements, 
surprise  attacks,  deployed  de- 
fense, position  defense,  or  zone 
defense.  A  coordinated  attack 
is  one  usually  on  a  large  scale, 
for  which  the  details  are  pre- 
sented by  the  commander  of  the 
whole;  in  it  coordination  and 
adherence  to  the  plan  are  vital. 
A  meeting  engagement  is  the 
collision  between  two  hostile 
forces  neither  of  which  is  de- 
ployed for  action.  A  surprise 
attack  consists  of  ambuscades 
or  other  sudden  blows  made 
against  a  hostile  force  which  is 
caught  unawares  in  march  or 
other  formation  unsuitable  for 
meeting  the  surprise  blow.  The 
deployed  defense  is  employed  in 
situations  in  which  it  is  necessary 
to  pass  to  the  defensive  quickly 
and  with  relatively  little  organ- 
ization of  the  ground  in  order 

Vol.  XL— Oct.  '26 


to  oppose  impending  offensive 
action  on  the  part  of  the  enemy. 
The  position  defense  is  a  form  of 
defense  in  which  the  tactical 
dispositions  are  strengthened  by 
the  use  of  one  well  organized 
position  (with  a  thorough  system 
of  trenches)  on  which  the  primary 
defense  is  conducted.  The  zone 
defense  is  a  form  of  defense 
which  provides  for  defensive 
combat  in  considerable  depth. 
It  consists  essentially  of  a  battle 
position  covered  by  an  outpost 
area.  On  the  defensive,  troops 
are  deployed  in  a  series  of  more 
or  less  parallel  lines,  distributed 
in  depth  in  such  a  way  that  a 
penetration  of  one  line  by  the 
attacker  does  not  break  through 
the  entire  position.  The  defense 
of  the  Allies  in  the  Champagne 
area  in  front  of  Rheims  against 
the  German  attack  of  July  15, 
1918,  is  an  ideal  illustration  of  a 
zone  defense. 

Attacks  are  classified  as  to 
form  as  frontal,  an  envelopment, 
a  double  envelopment,  and  a 
penetration.  In  a  frontal  attack, 
the  poorest  form,  equal  pressure 
is  applied  all  along  the  enemy's 
front.  A  tactical  envelopment 
overlaps  or  approaches  from  the 
front  and  an  oblique  or  a  flank 
direction  the  enemy's  forces  on 
or  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  battlefield.  But  the  attack 
of  even  the  enveloping  troops 
becomes  frontal  in  the  last 
stages,  when  the  enemy  has  had 
time  to  make  adjustments  to 
meet  it.  Among  the  advantages 
of  the  envelopment  are  that  it 
brings  a  converging  fire  upon  the 
enemy  and  forces  him  to  face 
in  two  directions.  A  double  en- 
velopment contemplates  strik- 
ing, simultaneously,  both  of  the 
enemy's  flanks,  while  containing 
the  hostile  front.  Such  an  attack 
by  a  small  force  generally  is 
undesirable  because  it  creates 
too  great  a  dispersion  and  offers 
a  chance  for  the  defender  to 
break  the  assailant's  centre. 
Hannibal's  attack  at  Cannae,  is 
an  illustration  of  a  double  en- 
velopment. Lee  attempted  a 
double  envelopment  at  Gettys- 
burg on  July  2,  1863. 

The  penetration  contemplates 
piercing  the  enemy's  tactical 
battle  front.  An  illustration  of 
a  double  penetration  is  that  of 
the  American  First  Army  in  the 
Meuse-Argonne  September  26, 
1918;  while  the  attack  by  the 
same  Army  on  November  1, 
1918  was  a  single  penetration. 

The  following  outline  of  the 
conduct  af  an  attack  from  a 
march  formation  against  a  posi- 
tion is  in  general  illustrative  of 
the  tactical  attack.  Preliminary 
reconnaissance  is  thoroughly  or- 
ganized and  involves  the  com- 
bined use  of  aircraft,  cavalry, 
infantry,  and  the  special  means 


at  the  disposition  of  the  artillery 
and  the  signal  corps.  The  object 
of  this  reconnaissance  is  to  de- 
termine the  location  of  the 
enemy's  flanks  and  the  depth  of 
his  position,  the  nature  of  the 
defensive  works,  the  location  and 
strength  of  security  attach- 
ments, reserves,  observation 
posts,  and  artillery.  Observation 
airplanes,  under  protection  of 
strong  pursuit  aviation,  begin 
reconnaissance  while  the  troops 
are  still  in  column  of  march,  and 
continue  it  throughout  the  devel- 
opment of  the  forces,  the  ap- 
proach to  and  the  attack  of  the 
position.  By  direct  observation 
they  determine  the  distribution 
of  the  enemy's  forces.  By  means 
of  aerial  photographs  the  main 
line  of  resistance  is  located  as 
accurately  as  possible. 

Cavalry  obtains  early  con- 
tact with  the  enemy's  covering 
forces,  drives  them  in  to  the  ex- 
tent its  strength  permits,  and 
then  concentrates  its  efforts  upon 
locating  the  enemy's  flanks. 
The  enemy  will  attempt  to  de- 
ceive the  attacker  as  to  his 
strength  and  the  location  of  his 
main  forces.  He  will  have  organ- 
ized covering  detachments.  The 
line  of  these  covering  forces  must 
be  penetrated  by  the  advance 
guard,  which  is  strongly  sup- 
ported by  artillery,  and  which 
must  continue  to  press  forward 
until  it  is  stopped  by  superior 
strength,  either  in  the  outpost 
area  or  in  the  battle  position. 
During  the  advance  guard  oper- 
ation, the  main  attacking  force 
is  moving  into  positions  that  are 
well  out  of  range  of  the  enemy's 
artillery  fire.  From  these  positions 
it  later  launches  the  main  attack. 
When  the  enemy's  covering  at- 
tachments and  outposts  are  able 
to  hold  their  positions  against 
the  operation  of  the  advance 
guards,  and  successfully  to  mask 
the  battle  position  of  their  main 
body,  a  reconnaissance  in  force 
may  be  necessary.  This  recon- 
naissance is  made  by  strong  de- 
tachments at  critical  points  along 
the  front  of  attack.  These  re- 
connaissance detachments  locate 
points  on  the  main  line  of  resis- 
tance and  secure  information  that 
serves  as  a  basis  for  further 
operations. 

When  the  advance  guards  are 
finally  in  contact  with  the  main 
defending  force  and  are  covering 
the  approach  of  the  main  body, 
vigorous  air  and  ground  recon- 
naissance is  continued  to  dis- 
cover weak  points  in  the  enemy's 
position,  obstacles  to  ready  pro- 
gress, covered  (protected)  routes 
into  the  enemy's  position  for  use 
of  infantry,  artillery,  and  tanks. 
Reconnaissance  also  locates  fa- 
vorable advanced  positions  for 
artillery  and  favorable  obser- 
vation posts.  The  infantry  units 


strategy  and  Tactics 


KR 


491 


Strath 


that  are  to  make  up  the  main  at- 
tacking force  are  held  back  be- 
yond effective  artillery  range 
while  the  advance  guards  are 
driving  in  the  enemy's  covering 
forces.  The  approach  to  assem- 
bly positions  is  made  over  routes 
selected  after  thorough  recon- 
naissance, and  under  all  possible 
cover.  Attacks  are  usually 
launched  at  daybreak,  but  there 
have  been  many  instances  of  at- 
tacks being  launched  at  other 
hours  of  the  day.  The  time  to 
launch  the  attack  is  a  question 
which  can  be  decided  only  for 
each  particular  situation  and 
after  consideration  of  numerous 
circumstances. 

Artillery  positions  are  so  se- 
lected that  the  artillery  will  be 
able  to  assist  and  cover  the  in- 
fantry in  their  approach  to 
assembly  positions,  and  so  that 
it  may  place  effective  fire  upon 
its  objectives.  The  most  im- 
portant artillery  objectives  are 
normally  the  enemy's  infantry, 
artillery,  and  observation  posts. 
All  available  artillery  is  used  in 
supporting  the  attack.  A  re- 
serve is  almost  always  held  out. 
After  the  attack  is  once  launched 
the  only  way  in  which  a  com- 
mander can  influence  the  attack 
is  by  the  use  of  his  reserve.  The 
reserve  may  be  used  to  protect 
the  flanks,  to  meet  a  counter 
attack,  to  pursue  the  defeated 
enemy,  to  hold  captured  posi- 
tions, or,  in  the  event  of  repulse, 
to  cover  a  retirement.  The  main 
purpose  of  the  reserve  in  the 
attack,  however,  is  to  push  home 
the  attack  and  secure  the  de- 
cision. The  question  of  when 
and  how  to  use  reserve  is  a  dif- 
ficult one.  While,  ordinarily, 
the  commander  with  the  last 
formed  reserve  will  win  the  bat- 
tle, this  must  not  lead  him  to 
overlook  the  big  opportunity  and 
hold  out  the  bulk  of  his  reserve 
too  long.  When  an  attack  is  made 
in  daylight,  the  approach  must 
be  covered  by  strong  fire  pro- 
tection, smoke,  fog,  or  any  com- 
bination of  these. 

To  sum  up,  strategy  decides 
whether  war  shall  be  offensive  or 
defensive;  and  in  this  the  object 
of  the  war  is  the  determining 
factor.  Strategy,  however,  is 
careful  to  take  into  consideration 
all  the  means  available  and  to 
consider  the  war  problem  in  its 
entirety — by  land,  by  sea,  and 
by  air.  Tactics,  as  strategy's 
tool,  executes  its  tasks. 

The  subjects  of  strategy  and 
tactics  are  not  difficult  to  under- 
stand in  the  abstract;  nor  is  it 
difficult,  when  studying  a  war, 
to  recognize  strategical  or  tac- 
tical errors  and  faults.  The  his- 
torian makes  everything  appear 
quite  simple,  clear,  and  easy. 
Rarely  is  it  pointed  out  that  the 
causes  or  reasons  given  for  the 


outcome  of  an  operation  are  only 
the  outstanding  ones.  History 
can  not  properly  say  that  any 
particular  thing  is  the  sole  reason 
for  failure  or  for  success;  for 
in  every  situation  there  may  have 
been  many  contributing  causes, 
a  slight  change  in  any  one  of 
which  might  have  changed  the 
outcome.  Historians  can  never 
know  all  of  the  facts,  they  can 
never  know  all  of  the  reasons 
that  prompted  leaders  to  act, 
because  leaders  and  their  subor- 
dinates can  not  record  all  of  the 
incidents,  all  of  the  fears,  and  all 
of  the  motives.  This,  however, 
must  not  keep  one  from  forming 
conclusions  on  the  facts  as  one 
sees  them,  always  admitting  that 
there  may  be  many  other  facts 
which,  if  known,  would  change 
the  picture.  History  then  re- 
mains as  the  principal  source  of 
all  strategical  and  tactical  knowl- 
edge. From  it  we  learn  what 
measures  have  failed,  what  have 
succeeded,  and  why,  and  how, 
and  so  deduce  our  doctrines  and 
methods  of  strategy  and  tactics. 

Consult  Clausewitz,  On  War; 
Cordonnier,  The  Japanese  in 
Manchuria;  Bird,  The  Direction 
of  War;  U.  S.  Army,  Training 
Regulations;  Myer,  Strategy;  Ma- 
han.  Naval  Strategy;  Robinson, 
The  Fundamentals  of  Military 
Strategy  (1928). 

Stratford,  city,  Canada,  On- 
tario, county  seat  of  Perth 
County,  on  the  Avon  River,  and 
the  Canadian  National  Railway; 
88  miles  southwest  of  Toronto. 
It  has  foundry  and  machine 
shops,  plastics  factory,  shoe  fac- 
tories, and  railroad  repair  shops, 
and  manufactures  of  brass  goods, 
woolen  goods,  etc.  Pop.  (1941) 
16,923. 

Stratford,  town,  Connecticut, 
Fairfield  county,  on  the  Hou- 
satonic  River,  and  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  Rail- 
road; 3  miles  northeast  of  Bridge- 
port. It  is  bounded  on  the  south 
by  Long  Island  Sound.  Pop. 
(1930)  19,212;  (1940)  22,580. 

Stratford,  registration  dis- 
trict, England,  in  Essex,  on  the 
Lea;  4  miles  northeast  of  St. 
Paul's,  London,  included  in  the 
borough  of  West  Ham.  The 
Great  Eastern  Railway  has  large 
shops  here,  and  chemicals,  can- 
dles, paint,  and  varnish  are  man- 
ufactured.    Pop.  68,130. 

Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  Sir 
Stratford  Canning,  Viscount 
(1786-1880),  British  diplomat, 
was  born  in  London.  In  1810  he 
was  appointed  Minister  Pleni- 
potentiary to  Turkey  and  to  his 
astuteness  is  attributable  the 
Treaty  of  Bucharest  (1812), 
whereby  Russia  and  Turkey,  to 
Napoleon's  chagrin,  suddenly 
made  peace,  leaving  the  Czar  free 
to  hurl  all  his  men  against  the 
French  in  their  disastrous  retreat 


from  Russia.  He  was  selected  as 
minister  to  Switzerland,  to  help 
in  formulnting  the  Swiss  consti- 
tution. That  completed,  he  was 
sent  to  Vienna  as  British  com- 
missioner during  the  Peace  Con- 
gress in  1815.  He  was  next 
minister  to  the  United  States 
(1819-23),  when  he  did  much  to 
settle  international  difficulties  re- 
sulting from  the  War  of  1812, 
During  the  Greek  struggle  for 
independence  he  was  sent  to 
Constantinople,  and  worked  on 
behalf  of  the  new  Hellenic  king- 
dom. After  being  stationed  at 
Madrid,  he  sat  in  the  House  of 
Commons  (1835-41).  Then  from 
1842  to  1858  came  his  tenure  of 
the  ambassadorship  at  Constan- 
tinople, during  which  he  vir- 
tually shaped  the  policy  of 
Europe.  The  title  he  won  then 
of  'The  Great  Elchi' — i.e.,  am- 
bassador par  excellence — was  ap- 
plied to  him  for  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  On  the  termination  of 
the  Crimean  War  he  retired.  His 
political  articles  were  issued  as 
The  Eastern  Question  (1881). 
Consult  Life,  by  Stanley  Lane- 
Poole. 

Stratford  -  on  -  Avon,  town, 
England,  in  Warwickshire,  on 
the  River  Avon;  8  miles  south- 
west of  Warwick.  It  is  famous  as 
the  birthplace  of  Shakespeare 
whose  house  where  the  poet  was 
born  on  April  23,  1564,  in  Henley 
Street,  is  national  property,  hav- 
ing been  bought  in  1847.  There 
are  also  a  Shakespeare  museum, 
the  'Stratford  portrait,'  and  King 
Edward  vi's  grammar  school, 
where  Shakespeare  was  educated. 
The  'New  Place'  was  purchased 
by  Shakespeare  in  1597,  and  here 
he  died  on  April  23,  1616.  It  was 
wantonly  razed  in  1759  by  a 
vicar  of  Stratford,  who  also 
felled  the  poet's  mulberry.  Its 
site  was  acquired  as  national 
property  in  1861.  There  is  also 
the  beautiful  cruciform  church 
(1332-1.500),  containing  Anne 
Hathaway 's  grave,  and  the 
American  stained-glass  window 
of  the  'Seven  Ages.'  The  red 
brick  Shakespeare  Memorial 
Theatre,  seating  800  spectators, 
was  built  in  1877-9.  In  the 
neighborhood  is  Shottery,  with 
Anne  Hathaway's  cottage.  A 
memorial  fountain  was  pre- 
sented by  G.  W.  Childs  of  the 
United  States.  Harvard  House 
was  the  birthplace  of  the  mother 
of  John  Harvard,  founder  of  Har- 
vard University.  The  town  is  an 
important  agricultural  center, 
but  its  chief  prosperity  depends 
on  the  30,000  or  so  pilgrims  who 
visit  it  yearly.  Pop.  11,616. 
Consult  Washington  Irving, 
Stratford  -  upon  -  Avon;  Ward, 
Shakespeare's  Town  and  Times. 

Strath,  in  Scotland,  the  name 
given  to  a  long  and  wide  valley, 
often    with    a    river  running 


Strathaven 


KR 


492 


Stratton 


through  it — e.g..  Strathspey  (val- 
ley of  the  Spey). 

Strathaven,  strath-a'veri, 
town,  Scotland,  in  South  Lan- 
arkshire, near  the  Avon;  16  miles 
by  rail  southeast  of  Glasgow.  It 
has  ruins  of  a  fifteenth  century 
castle.  Silk,  cotton,  and  hosiery 
are  manufactured,  and  there  is  a 
trade  in  cattle  and  cheese.  Pop. 
about  4.100. 

Strathclyde,  strath-klid',  a 
seventh  century  British  king- 
dom in  the  western  part,  com- 
prising the  country  between 
Clyde  and  Solway,  and  having 
the  fortress  town  of  Alclyde  or 
Dumbarton  for  its  capital.  In 
1124  it  was  permanently  united 
to  the  Scottish  kingdom  under 
David  I. 

Strathcona  and  Mount 
Royal,  Donald  Alexander 
Smith,  Lord  (1820-  1914),  Cana- 
dian statesman,  was  born  in 
Forres,  Scotland.  At  eighteen 
years  of  age  he  received  a  clerk- 
ship in  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany in  Canada;  and  in  1868  he 
was  promoted  to  be  chief  execu- 
tive officer  in  Canada.  In  1869 
the  transfer  of  territorial  rights 
to  the  Dominion  of  Canada  by 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
and  the  sale  of  Rupert's  Land, 
caused  Riel's  Rebellion.  Smith 
was  sent  by  the  government  to 
investigate,  and  by  his  tact,  dis- 
cretion, and  firmness  undermined 
the  power  of  Riel,  and  prevented 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities.  He 
entered  political  life,  and  became 
interested  in  railroad  building. 
Through  his  efforts,  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way was  carried  to  a  successful 
issue  in  1885. 

He  was  created  k.c.m.g.  in 
1886,  and  in  1897  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Lord  Strathcona 
and  Mount  Royal.  He  received 
the  degree  of  ll.d  from  Cam- 
bridge University  in  1887,  and 
from  Yale  in  1892.  He  was 
Canadian  High  Commissioner  in 
Great  Britain  from  1896  until  his 
death,  and  was  lord  chancellor 
of  Aberdeen  University  after 
1903. 

During  the  Boer  War  (1899- 
1902)  Lord  Strathcona  equipped, 
and  transported  to  South  Africa, 
a  force  of  six  hundred  men 
('Strathcona's  Horse'),  drawn 
from  the  Northwest  Territories 
of  Canada.  He  and  his  cousin. 
Lord  Mountstephen,  set  apart 
$1,000,000  for  the  erection  of  a 
free  hospital  in  Montreal  in 
commemoration  of  Queen  Vic- 
toria's jubilee  (1887),  and  subse- 
quently gave  $800,000  addi- 
tional. In  1902  King  Edward's 
Hospital  Fund  for  London  re- 
ceived from  them  an  endowment 
fund  producing  $80,000  per  an- 
num. Lord  Strathcona  also  made 
generous  gifts  to  various  educa- 
tional institutions.  At  his  death 
he  left  a  large  fortune,  $1,735,000 


of  which,  by  the  terms  of  his 
will,  was  devoted  to  educational 
purposes.  Of  this,  $500,000  was 
bequeathed  to  Yale  University. 

Strathfieldsaye,  strath-feld'- 
sa,  estate,  Hants  and  Berks, 
England;  7  miles  northeast  of 
Basingstoke.  It  was  presented 
by  Parliament  to  the  first  Duke 
of  Wellington  in  1817. 

Strath  more,  ('the  great  val- 
ley'), plain  (100  miles  by  5  to 
10  miles),  central  Scotland, 
stretching  between  the  Gram- 
pians on  the  north  and  the  Len- 
nox, Ochil,  and  Sidlaw  hills  on 
the  south. 

Strathmore  and  King- 
horne,  Earl  of  (1855-1944), 
father  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  con- 
sort of  George  vi  of  England, 
succeeded  his  father  in  1904.  He 
became  lieutenant  in  the  Second 
Life  Guards  in  1882  and  was 
Lord  Lieutenant  of  Forfarshire 
(1904-36).  He  owned  24,700 
acres,  including  his  famous  Scot- 
tish seat,  Glamis  Castle,  Angus. 

Strathnairn,  Hugh  Henry 
Rose,  Baron  (1801-85),  British 
soldier,  was  born  in  Berlin.  He 
was  sent  in  1840  to  cooperate 
with  the  Turks  in  expelling  Me- 
hemet  Ali  from  Syria,  and  then 
spent  seven  years  in  Syria  as 
consul-general.  Both  in  the 
Crimea  and  in  the  Indian  mu- 
tiny he  rendered  good  service. 
In  the  latter  he  won  successively 
the  battles  of  Baroda,  Madan- 
pur  Pass,  Betwa,  Jhansi,  Kunch, 
Kalpi,  Morar,  and  Gwalior.  On 
the  death  of  Lord  Clyde  he  be- 
came commander  in  chief  of  the 
Indian  army.  From  1865  to  1870 
he  was  in  Ireland  during  the 
Fenian  trouble.  He  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  in  1866,  and  made 
field  marshal  in  1877. 

Strathroy,  town,  Canada, 
Ontario,  in  Middlesex  County, 
on  the  Sydenham  River,  and  the 
Canadian  National  Railway;  20 
miles  southwest  of  London.  It 
has  a  packing  factory,  planing 
and  flour  mills,  textile  and 
woolen  mills,  and  furniture 
works.  The  Collegiate  Institute 
and  Middlesex  County  House  of 
Refuge  are  located  here.  Pop. 
(1941)  2,969. 

Strathpeffer,  town,  Scotland, 
in  Ross  and  Cromarty  County; 
5  miles  west  of  Dingwall.  It  is 
famous  for  its  several  sulphurous 
springs,  which  are  said  to  be 
highly  beneficial  in  gout,  rheuma- 
tism, skin  diseases  and  affections 
of  the  liver  and  kidneys.  The 
pump  room  and  the  pavilion  are 
situated  in  the  center  of  the 
town.    Pop.  about  500. 

Strathspey,  a  Scoctish  dance, 
said  to  have  originated  in  the 
strath  or  valley  of  the  Spey 
about  the  beginning  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  Its  music  con- 
sists largely  of  dotted  quavers 
and  semiquavers,  but  the  latter 
frequently  prefix  the  former,  in 


performance  producing  the  effect 
known  as  the  'Scottish  snap.' 
A  strathspey  is  always  followed 
by  a  quicker  movement,  termed 
a  reel. 

Strati  flca'tion,  the  deposi- 
tion of  sediments  in  parallel  beds 
or  layers  by  any  agency  or  proc- 
ess generally  by  water,  some- 
times by  wind.  The  evidences  of 
stratification  in  a  rock  are,  in 
general,  the  existence  of  contin- 
uous divisional  planes  of  great 
extent.  In  most  mountain  chains 
all  the  rocks  have  a  similar  dip, 
and  those  which  are  equally  in- 
clined in  the  same  direction  are 
known  as  isoclinal  strata.  See 
Stratum. 

Stratigraphy,  stra-tig'ra-fi, 
or  Stratigraphical  Geology, 
is  the  branch  of  geology  having  to 
do  with  the  kinds,  thicknesses, 
relations,  age,  and  interpretation 
of  strata  or  rock  of  any  kind. 
Two  principles  are  of  universal 
application  in  this  branch  of 
geological  science — that  strata 
are  found  normally  in  the  order 
of  their  original  deposition  from 
bottom  to  top  from  the  oldest  to 
the  youngest,  and  that  life  forms 
represented  by  fossil  content 
show  a  progression  from  simple 
to  more  and  more  complex  types 
from  the  earliest  to  most  recent 
times.  See  Geology. 

Stratiotes,  strat-i-6'tez,  a  ge- 
nus of  aquatic  herbs  belonging 
to  the  order  Hydrocharidaceae. 
The  one  species  is  the  European 
water  soldier,  5.  aloides.  It  has 
prickly  leaves,  not  unlike  those 
of  the  aloe,  and  bears  in  summer 
a  flower  stalk,  surmounted  by  a 
sheath  containing  several  beauti- 
ful white  flowers. 

Strato,  stra'to,  or  Straton, 
Greek  philosopher,  a  native  of 
Lampsacus,  was  tutor  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt,  and 
head  of  the  Peripatetic  school  at 
Athens  from  288  to  270  B.C.  He 
was  famous  for  his  study  of 
natural  science,  and  hence  called 
himself  Physicus. 

Stratosphere,  or  Isothermal 
Layer,  that  region  of  the  upper 
atmosphere  where  the  tempera- 
ture ceases  to  fall  with  increasing 
height  above  the  earth's  sur- 
face, and  either  remains  constant 
or  slightly  increases.  The  aver- 
age height  near  the  Equator  is 
at  least  9  miles,  and  diminishes 
toward  the  Poles.  Little  is 
known  regarding  the  thickness  of 
this  region,  for  sounding  balloons 
rarely  attain  the  upper  limit,  but 
the  knowledge  hitherto  obtained 
indicates  that  after  the  upper 
limit  is  passed  temperature  again 
diminishes  fairly  rapidly.  The 
mean  temperature  of  the  strato- 
sphere is  —  47°  c,  with  variations 
at  25°  above  and  below  this 
value. 

Stratton,  Charles  Sherwood 
(1838-83),  American  dwarf,  was 


M  1942 


Stratum  KFK  493  Strauss 


born  in  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  the 
child  of  normal  parents.  He 
was  first  exhibited  in  1842,  in 
New  York  City,  by  P.  T.  Bar- 
num,  the  showman,  who  named 
him  'Tom  Thumb,'  to  which 
Queen  Victoria  subsequently 
prefixed  the  title  'General.' 
When  first  exhibited  he  was  two 
feet  in  height  and  weighed  six- 
teen pounds.  He  visited  Europe 
in  1844,  1857,  and  after  his 
marriage  with  Mercy  Lavinia 
Bump  Warren  (q.  v.)  in  1862. 

Stra'tum,  in  geology,  a  mass 
of  sedimentary  rock  of  great 
horizontal  extent,  of  fairly  uni- 
form mineral  composition 
throughout,  which  was  deposited 
more  or  less  continuously  on  the 
bottom  of  former  seas  or  lakes, 
or  sometimes  on  the  surface  of 
flat  plains  or  deserts.  A  stratum 
may  be  made  up  of  one  or  more 
beds  or  layers.  The  stratified 
rocks  are  mostly  sandstones, 
shales,  and  limestones  ;  other  ex- 
amples are  coals,  ironstones, 
cherts,  conglomerates.  See  Ge- 
ology ;  Contorted  Strata. 

Stratus.    See  Cloud. 

Straubing,  town  in  Bavaria, 
Germany,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Danube,  25  miles  southeast 
of  Ratisbon  (Regensburg) . 

Straus,  strous,  Isidor  (1845- 
1912),  the  eldest  of  three  broth- 
ers famous  in  American  Jewry. 
All  were  born  in  Rhenish  Ba- 
varia; in  1854  the  family  emi- 
grated to  America.  With  his 
sons  Isidor  and  Nathan  (q.  v.), 
Lazarus  Straus  founded  a  pot- 
tery and  glassware  importing 
firm  in  New  York  City.  In  1888 
the  two  brothers  became  mem- 
bers of  the  great  department 
store  of  R.  H.  Macy  &  Co.,  New 
York,  and  in  1892  connected 
with  Abraham  and  Straus, 
Brooklyn.  Isidor  served  in  Con- 
gress 1893-95,  and  declined  the 
office  of  Postmaster-General  of- 
fered him  by  President  Cleve- 
land. Both  Straus  and  his  wife 
were  lost  in  the  wreck  of  the 
Titanic. 

Straus,  Nathan  (1848- 
1931),  American  merchant  and 
philanthropist,  brother  of  Isidor 
(see  above).  He  was  graduated 
from  Packard's  Business  Col- 
lege, New  York  City,  and  joined 
his  father  and  brother  in  import- 
ing pottery  and  glassware. 
From  1888  he  was  partner  in  the 
firm  of  R.  H.  Macy  &  Co.,  New 
York  City,  and  from  1892  to 
1914  in  Abraham  &  Straus  of 
Brooklyn.  Great  as  his  success 
in  business  undoubtedly  was,  it 
was  by  his  many-sided  philan- 
thropic benefactions  that  he 
earned  a  world-wide  reputation. 
He  gave  vast  sums  of  money  to 
alleviate  suffering,  to  promote 
health  measures  for  the  poor.  A 
powerful  supporter  of  Zionism 
and  Jewish  charities,  his  gener- 


osity embraced  all  creeds.  He 
originated  and  maintained  a  sys- 
tem of  distributing  pasteurized 
milk  among  the  poor,  and  in 
times  of  distress  provided  food 
and  shelter  for  thousands.  His 
munificence  extended  far — to 
Palestine,  South  America,  the 
Philippines,  Cuba,  Germany, 
England  and  Ireland.  His  wife, 
nee  Lina  Gutherz,  was  associ- 
ated with  all  his  humane  enter- 
prises for  52  years ;  she  pre- 
deceased him  by  seven  months, 
leaving  two  sons  and  a  daughter. 

Straus,  Oscar  Solomon 
(1850-1926),  American  mer- 
chant and  diplomat,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  also  born  in 
Germany.  He  studied  law  at 
Columbia  and  practised  until 
1881,  when  he  entered  into  busi- 
ness. He  attracted  attention  as 
an  authority  on  international  law 
and  American  history  by  his 
contributions  to  periodicals  and 
published,  in  1886,  Origin  of  the 
Republican  Form  of  Govern- 
ment in  the  United  States.  He 
served  as  U.  S.  Minister  to  Tur- 
key 1887-1889,  again  from  1897 
to  1900,  and  as  Ambassador 
1909-1910.  In  1902  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  Roosevelt 
to  fill  the  vacancy  on  the  Perma- 
nent Board  of  Arbitration  at 
The  Hague,  and  in  1906  he  suc- 
ceeded Victor  H.  Metcalfe  as 
U.  S.  Secretary  of  Commerce 
and  Labor.  From  1915  to  1918 
he  was  chairman  of  the  New 
York  Public  Service  Commis- 
sion (first  district).  He  wrote 
Roger  Williams;  Reform  in 
the  Consular  Service;  United 
States  Doctrine  of  Citizenship 
and  Expatriation ;  Our  Diplo- 
macy:  a  Survey ;  The  American 
Spirit. 

Strauss,  shtrous,  David 
Friedrich  (1808-74),  German 
theologian,  was  a  pupil  of  Baur 
and  of  Schleiermacher,  and  be- 
came ateacher  at  Maulbronn,  and 
at  Tubingen.  In  1835  he  pub- 
lished his  celebrated  Leben  Jesii 
(trans,  by  George  Eliot,  'Life  of 
Jesus,'  1846-50),  in  which  he 
traced  the  formative  forces  of 
Christianity  to  the  myth-making 
tendency.  The  work  attracted 
widespread  attention,  and  Strauss 
was  forced  to  abandon  his  tutor- 
ship. In  Zwei  friedliche  Blatter 
and  in  a  third  edition  of  the  Le- 
ben (1839)  he  made  certain  con- 
cessions to  his  critics,  and  about 
this  time  was  elected  to  a  theo- 
logical chair  at  Zurich.  The  ap- 
pointment was  at  once  quashed, 
however,  and  Strauss  in  resent- 
ment published  a  fourth  edition 
of  his  Leben  Jesu  (1840),  in 
which  he  recanted  all  that  he  had 
previously  conceded,  and  practi- 
cally broke  with  Christianity. 
In  the  same  year  he  issued  Die 
Christliche  Glaubenslehre,  in 
which  the  distinctive  doctrines  of 


Christianity  are  attenuated  to 
vague  pantheistic  notions  of  the 
Hegelian  sort.  In  1864  appeared 
a  thorough  recast  of  the  Leben 
Jesu,  in  which  the  traditional 
character  of  Jesus  is  shown  to  be 
a  combination  of  Greek  and  Jew- 
ish elements — a  Socrates  miscon- 
ceived as  a  magician.  In  1872 
appeared  Dcr  alte  und  der  neue 
Glaube  ('The  Old  Faith  and  the 
New,'  1873).  Consult  mono- 
graphs by  Zeller,  Biedermann, 
and  Hausrath. 

Strauss,  Johann  (1804-49), 
Austrian  composer,  was  born  in 
Vienna.  He  founded  a  band  of 
his  own  (1826),  and  from  1833 
made  highly  successful  tours 
throughout  Europe.  His  waltzes 
—of  which  he  wrote  152 — are 
his  best-known  compositions, 
and  their  charm  of  melody  and 
brilliant  instrumentation  raised 
this  form  of  music  incalculably. 

Strauss,  Johann,  The 
Younger  (1825-99),  Austrian 
composer,  often  called  the  'waltz 
king,'  was  the  son  of  Johann 
Strauss  (q.  v.).  He  studied  the 
violin,  and  in  1844  was  conduc- 
tor of  a  restaurant  orchestra. 
After  his  father's  death  in  1849 
he  succeeded  him  as  conductor 
at  the  Vienna  court  balls,  and 
made  successful  tours  in  Austria, 
Germany,  and  Russia.  He  com- 
posed nearly  500  waltzes  and 
pieces  of  dance  music,  of  which 
the  most  famous  are  :  The  Beau- 
tiful Blue  Danube,  Vienna 
Blood,  The  Thousand  and  One 
Nights,  Artist  Life,  and  Wine, 
I.  Oman  and  Song.  His  best 
operettas,  which  are  as  widely 
popular  as  his  waltzes,  are  In- 
digo (1871)  ;  Die  Fledermaiis 
(1874);  Der  lustige  Krieg 
(1881)  ;  and  Der  Zigeunerbaron 
(1885).  His  music  is  refined, 
rnelodious,  and  original,  and  was 
highly  esteemed  by  many  greater 
composers. 

Strauss,  Richard  (1864-  ), 
Bavarian  composer,  and  con- 
ductor, studied  music  under  his 
father  (Franz  Strauss)  and  Wil- 
helm  Mayer.  At  sixteen  he 
composed  his  first  symphony,  and 
soon  afterward  a  'serenade'  for 
wand  instruments,  which  found 
immediate  favor.  In  1898  he 
was  made  first  conductor  at  Ber- 
lin, and  in  1908  director  in  gen- 
eral. In  1919—24  he  was  con- 
ductor of  the  Vienna  Opera, 
without,  however,  entirely  sever- 
ing his  relation  with  Berlin.  He 
visited  the  United  States  in  1905 
and  in  1921.  Among  his  notable 
works  are  the  operas  Guntram 
(1894),  Feuersnot  (1901),  Sa- 
lome (1905),  Elektra  (1909), 
Der  Rosenkavalier  (1911), 
Ariadne  auf  Naxos  (1912),  Die 
Frau  ohne  Schatten  (1919), 
Intermezzo  (1924),  Die  Aegyp- 
tischc  Helena  (1928),  Arabella 
(1933),  Die  Schweigsame  Frau 


Stravinsky 


KFK 


494 


Streator 


(1935),  Fridcnstag  (1937), 
Daphne  (1938)  ;  the  symphonic 
poems  Don  Juan  (1889),  Mac- 
beth (1890),  Don  Quixote 
(1898);  four  symphonies;  sev- 
eral orchestral  works,  and  many 
songs.  As  a  composer  he  repre- 
sents the  ultra-modern  school. 
His  critics  deny  that  he  posseses 
the  gift  of  melody,  but  his  ex- 
traordinary mastery  of  orches- 
tration is  universally  acknowl- 
edged. He  has  gained  his  high- 
est fame  with  his  symphonic 
poems  and  his  beautiful  songs. 
Of  his  operas  Der  Rosenkavalicr 
has  generally  been  considered 
the  most  effective. 

Stravinsky,  stra-vin'ski, 
Igor  Fedorovitch  (1882- 
),  Russian  composer,  was 
born  in  Oranienbaum,  near  Len- 
ingrad. After  studying  law,  he 
became  a  pupil  of  Rimsky- 
Korsakoff,  whom  he  met  in 
1902,  and  under  him  acquired 
great  technical  mastery.  His 
early  works,  while  individual,  do 
not  disclose  the  'anarchistic' 
tendency  of  later  ones.  They 
include  a  Symphony  (1907), 
Scherzo  Fantastique  (1908)  for 
orchestra,  and  a  symphonic  fan- 
tasia Firezvorks  (1908).  Other 
works  of  importance  are  the  bal- 
lets. The  Firebird  (1910),  Pc- 
trouschka  (1911),  and  Consecra- 
tion of  Spring  (1913)  ;  the  opera 
The  Nightingale  (1914)  ;  Re- 
nard  (1916)  ;  Les  Noces  (1917- 
23)  ;  History  of  the  Soldier 
(1918)  ;  Symphonies  for  Wind 
Instruments  (1920)  ;  concerto 
for  piano  and  orchestra  (1924)  ; 
Oedipus-Rex  {1927)  ;  Sym- 
phony of  Psalms  (1930)  ;  Per- 
sephone (1934)  and  various  con- 
certos, songs  and  piano  pieces. 
Stravinsky's  work  is  strikingly 
original ;  with  ample  command 
of  orchestral  resources,  his 
strange  conceptions  are  force- 
fully expressed  in  individual 
harmonic  idiom,  rich  instrumen- 
tal coloring,  and  startling  dy- 
namic power. 

Strawberry,  a  small  fruit  na- 
tive to  both  the  Old  and  the  New 
World,  greatly  improved  by  cul- 
tivation. The  principal  wild 
strawberries  of  the  _  United 
States  are  Fragaria  virginiana 
and  F.  americana.  The  ever- 
bearing type  F.  vesca  is  native 
to  Europe.  Garden  varieties  of 
strawberries  have  been  derived 
chiefly  from  crossing  the  Chilean 
strawberry  F.  chiloensis  with  F. 
virginiana. 

The  strawberry  plant  is  hardy 
and  may  be  successfully  grown 
from  Florida  to  Alaska,  thriving 
best  on  a  moderately  rich  loam 
soil,  well  drained.  The  Ameri- 
can varieties  have  a  short  an- 
nual season  of  fruitfulness,  but 
the  European  species  often  bear 
more  or  less  continuously 
through  the  warm  weather. 


Strawberries  are  propagated 
by  offsets  from  the  mother  plant. 
These  are  usually  set  in  rows 
three  to  four  feet  apart  and 
about  18  inches  distant  from 
one  another  in  the  row.  The 
beds  should  be  set  out  in  the 
spring  and  cultivated  during  the 
season.  The  first  and  second 
crops  usually  give  much  the 
heaviest  yield  of  berries.  Fol- 
lowing that,  it  is  better  to  set 
out  a  new  plantation  than  to  con- 
tinue the  old  one.  The  plants  are 
usually  allowed  to  form  a 
matted  row  about  18  inches  wide, 
though  the  runners  are  some- 
times kept  cut,  and  the  plants 
grown  in  hills.  By  this  method 
larger  berries  are  Secured. 
After  the  ground  is  frozen  in  the 
fall,  the  plantation  is  covered 
with  a  mulch  of  2  or  3  inches  of 
clean  straw,  marsh  hay,  or  simi- 
lar litter,  to  protect  the  plants 
through  the  winter. 

Well-rotted  barnyard  manure 
makes  the  best  fertilizer  for 
strawberries,  supplemented  with 
50  to  100  bushels  of  wood  ashes 
per  acre.  Where  ashes  are  not 
available,  sulphate  or  muriate  of 
potash  may  be  used,  about  300 
pounds  per  acre.  Nitrate  of 
soda  at  the  rate  of  1  ^  pounds 
per  square  rod,  applied  after  the 
plants  have  started  in  the  spring, 
is  beneficial. 

Strawberry  growing  is  an  im- 
portant industry.  Numberless 
varieties  have  been  cultivated, 
and  the  fruit  is  grown  under 
glass  to  an  increasing  extent  in 
order  to  supply  the  demand  for 
out-of-season  fruit.  The  chief 
disease  to  which  the  plant  is 
liable  is  leaf-spot,  due  to  Myco- 
sphcerella  fragaria,  a  fungus 
which  attacks  the  leaves,  some- 
times to  such  an  extent  that  the 
plants  die.  Leaves  so  affected 
should  be  collected  and  de- 
stroyed, and  the  young  healthy 
foliage  sprayed  with  Bordeaux 
mixture.  Other  diseases  are 
powdery  mildew,  which  renders 
the  berries  tasteless  and  dry,  and 
botrytis  rot,  which  usually  oc- 
curs during  transportation  and 
is  best  controlled  by  careful  sort- 
ing and  supervision  before  ship- 
ment. 

Strawboard,  a  kind  of  mill- 
board or  thick  cardboard,  made 
of  straw  after  it  has  been  boiled 
with  lime  or  soda  to  soften  it. 
See  Pasteboard. 

Streamline,  a  term  applied 
to  those  designs  of  land,  water 
and  air  vehicles  which  have  the 
purpose  of  lessening  the  resist- 
ance of  the  mediums  through 
which  the  vehicles  travel.  The 
ideal  streamline  design  is  a  long 
ellipsoid,  flattened  at  the  front 
and  tapering  to  a  point  in  the 
rear.  A  body  which  is  stream- 
lined allows  the  air  or  water  cur- 
rents to  flow  smoothly  around  its 


surface,  reuniting  in  its  wake 
the  currents  it  has  broken.  Bod- 
ies which  are  not  streamlined 
cause  a  turbulence  in  the  cur- 
rents through  which  they  pass 
and  leave  eddies  in  their  wake 
which  hinder  speed.  Typical  ex- 
amples in  nature  of  perfect 
streamlining  are  a  bird's  or  fish's 
body  or  a  rain-drop. 

The  smooth  flow  of  air  or 
water  around  streamlined  bodies 
decreases  resistance,  makes 
higher  speeds  possible,  and  cuts 
the  cost  of  fuel  consumption. 
Racing  cars,  an  example  of  ex- 
treme streamlining,  have 
achieved  speeds  of  about  370 
miles  per  hour.  Since  stream- 
lining is  of  little  value  until 
speeds  of  over  50  miles  per  hour 
are  reached,  automobile  manu- 
facturers have  used  only  a  modi- 
fied streamline  design.  The  first 
streamlined  train  in  the  United 
States  was  brought  out  in  1933 
by  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad. 
Since  then  all  major  railroad 
systems  have  put  such  trains  into 
service.  Airplanes  are  good  ex- 
amples of  streamlining.  Even 
though  the  airplane  may  be  per- 
fectly streamlined,  the  flow  of 
air  around  it  will  become  turbu- 
lent when  its  speed  is  increased 
beyond  a  limiting  point.  At 
speeds  of  400  miles  per  hour  or 
over,  other  difficulties  appear 
such  as  the  heating  effect  of 
friction  with  air  and  the  forma- 
tion of  shock  waves. 

Because  of  the  beauty  of  its 
smooth  flowing,  uninterrupted 
line,  streamlining  has  been  wide- 
ly used  in  the  field  of  industrial 
arts. 

Streatham,  stre'tam,  residen- 
tial district,  in  Surrey,  England, 
included  in  the  metropolitan  bor- 
ough of  Wandsworth,  6  miles 
southwest  of  London.  Streat- 
ham Park,  the  home  of  Henry 
Thrale,  where  Dr.  Johnson  was 
a  frequent  visitor,  has  been  de- 
stroyed. Magdalen  hospital,  the 
oldest  rescue  home  in  England, 
is  at  Streatham. 

Streator,  stre'tor,  city,  Illi- 
nois, in  Lasalle  county,  on  both 
banks  of  the  Vermilion  River, 
and  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe,  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton and  Quincy,  the  Chicago  and 
Alton,  the  New  York  Central, 
and  the  Wabash  Railroads ;  50 
miles  southwest  of  Joliet.  The 
city  manufactures  bottles,  ma- 
chinery, glass,  flour,  brick  and 
tiles,  wagons,  sewer  pipe,  vitri- 
fied clay  goods,  hardware  spe- 
cialties, lumber,  brick,  agricul- 
tural implements,  and  iron  cast- 
ings. There  are  also  food  can- 
ning and  metal  stamping  facto- 
ries. Streator  is  situated  in  the 
Vermilion  coal  region  and  is  a 
shipping  point  for  large  quanti- 
ties of  coal.  Pop.  (1930)  14,- 
728;  (1940)  14,927. 


m  i  4  ^^^^^ 


street  Cleaning  KFK  495  Street  Cleaning: 


Street  Cleaning.  The  wear 
and  tear  of  street  pavements  due 
to  the  hammering  effect  of  iron- 
or  steel-shod  horses,  the  ham- 
mering and  grinding  of  metal- 
surfaced  wheels,  and  the  suction 
of  motor  vehicles  all  combine  to 
create  street  dirt,  which  alter- 
nates from  dust  to  mud  and  mud 
to  dust,  according  to  the  state  of 
the  weather.  Added  to  the  dirt 
so  created  are  the  droppings 
from  loaded  vehicles  and  from 
the  horses  themselves,  and  also 
the  dirt  brought  on  to  the  pave- 
ments by  horses  and  wagons 
alike  as  they  come  fresh  from 
unpaved  streets. 

Street  dirt,  in  whatever  form, 
is  a  nuisance  and  in  many  of  its 
forms  it  may  be  a  serious  menace 
to  health.  Aside  from  its  general 
uncleanliness,  it  may  contain  the 
germs  of  disease,  particularly 
air-borne  diseases,  like  tubercu- 
losis and  pneumonia,  which  may 
gain  access  to  the  human  system, 
when  the  air  is  laden  with  dust, 
or  when  mud  tracked  indoors  is 
subsequently  spread  in  the  form 
of  dust.  In  addition  to  specific 
infection,  street  dust  may  cause 
irritation,  leading  to  serious  af- 
fections of  the  eyes,  throat,  and 
lungs. 

In  the  establishment  of  a  mu- 
nicipal street  cleaning  depart- 
ment two  factors  enter  into  con- 
sideration— the  elimination  of 
unnecessary  litter  and  the  most 
economical  and  efficient  disposal 
of  such  dirt  as  cannot  be  pre- 
vented. In  addition  to  natural 
dirt,  composed  of  dust  from  the 
air,  dirt  from  the  wear  of  pave- 
ments, vehicles,  tires  and  horses' 
shoes,  excrement  of  animals, 
leaves  of  trees,  etc.,  there  is 
much  unnecessary  litter — refuse 
thrown  from  buildings  or  swept 
from  sidewalks,  debris  from  con- 
struction operations,  and  articles 
discarded  by  pedestrians.  By 
the  use  of  waste  cans  placed  at 
freciuent  intervals,  and  by  edu- 
cational campaigns  and  appeals 
to  civic  pride,  much  of  this  un- 
necessary waste  can  be  elimi- 
nated. 

Most  experts  agree  that  street 
cleaning  by  municipal  employees 
is  more  satisfactory  and  econom- 
ical than  by  contract.  So  much 
detail  is  involved,  for  which  it  is 
difficult  to  specify  and  bid,  that 
the  charges  for  proper  inspec- 
tion, when  the  work  is  let  out, 
are  generally  quite  dispropor- 
tionate to  the  cost  of  the  labor. 
The  matter  of  paving  also  enters 
to  a  considerable  degree  into 
the  question  of  waste  disposal, 
smooth  hard  pavements  being 
kept  clean  more  easily  and  at 
less  expense  than  rough  uneven 
surfaces. 

New  York  is  not  only  the 
largest  urban  community  in  the 
world,  but  also  the  cleanest,  a 


fact  conceded  by  internationally- 
known  health  and  sanitation  ex- 
perts. The  magnitude  of  the 
everyday  problems  which  faces 
the  officials  of  the  Department 
of  Sanitation  may  be  seen  from 
a  few  of  the  major  problems 
with  which  it  must  cope,  in  or- 
der to  keep  the  city  in  a  sanitary 
and  healthful  condition  at  all 
times. 

There  are  more  than  5,000 
miles  of  paved  streets  to  be 
cleaned  every  day ;  more  than 
4,600,000  tons  of  refuse  to  be 
collected  yearly  from  approxi- 
mately 2,500,000  apartment 
houses  and  homes  and  a  definite 
program  of  land  reclamation  to 
be  fulfilled.  This  huge  project 
is  being  accomplished  by  a  staff 
of  less  than  14,000  men;  3,500 
pieces  of  automotive  equipment 
and  the  complete  cooperation  of 
six  units  of  operation  within  the 
department — Divisions  of  Ad- 
ministration ;  Waste  Disposal ; 
Street  Cleaning  and  Collections  ; 
Trials  and  Legal  Affairs ;  Per- 
sonnel, Finance  and  Supplies ; 
and  the  Division  of  the  Motor 
Equipment. 

Of  these,  the  Division  of 
Waste  Disposal  is  responsible 
for  all  final  disposition  which 
includes  landfill  operations,  in- 
cineration, water  front  dumps, 
and  the  operation  of  47  steel  well 
type  barges  used  to  transport 
some  of  the  collections  to  Rikers 
Island,  a  440  acre  development 
situated  in  the  East  River.  The 
Division  of  Street  Cleaning  and 
Waste  Collection  is  responsible 
for  the  collection  of  all  garbage 
and  refuse,  the  flushing  and 
sweeping  of  the  streets,  and 
snow  removal  work.  The  Divi- 
sion of  Motor  Equipment  de- 
signs and  creates  in  its  own 
shops  actual  working  models  of 
all  specially  needed  equipment 
before  putting  the  work  out  for 
bidding  to  commercial  manufac- 
turers, as  well  as  maintaining 
and  repairing  all  automotive 
eouipment  used  by  the  depart- 
ment. 

A  break-down  of  the  official 
figures  of  the  department  shows 
that  there  are  more  than  27,000,- 
000  cubic  yards  of  refuse  col- 
lected by  the  department 
throughout  the  city  every  year. 
Private  cartmen,  who  collect  ref- 
use from  business  houses,  ac- 
count for  2,545,000  additional 
cubic  yards.  Of  the  27,000,000 
cubic  yards  collected  by  the  De- 
partment, 10,180,000  cubic  yards 
are  disposed  of  by  incineration. 
The  balance  of  more  than  17,- 
000,000  cubic  yards  is  disposed 
of  in  eleven  landfill  operations 
now  being  conducted  throughout 
the  city  of  which  Rikers  Island 
alone  received  7,300,000  cubic 
yards. 

The  landfill  reclamation  pro- 


gram now  being  carried  on  is 
the  largest  ever  attempted  by 
any  city  or  governmental  unit  in 
the  world.  Real  estate  values  on 
completed  reclaimed  areas  made 
during  the  last  three  years  have 
increased  these  property  values 
by  more  than  $150,000,000. 
This  method  of  reclaiming  low- 
lying  mosquito  and  rat  infested 
useless  marshland  has  thus  far 
been  responsible  for  the  creation 
of  more  than  2,600  acres  of  good 
land,  the  greater  part  of  which 
is  now  being  tvirned  into  public 
parks,  playgrounds,  wading 
pools,  sites  for  schools,  public 
buildings  and  airports. 

Two  of  the  world's  largest 
reclamation  projects  have  re- 
ceived wide  pviblicity  for  the  en- 
gineering genius  displayed  in 
their  making.  The  1939-40 
World's  Fair  site,  consisting  of 
1,216  acres,  has  been  turned  into 
the  city's  largest  park  and  has  a 
real  estate  value  of  more  than 
$25,000,000.  The  North  Beach 
Airport,  originally  consisting  of 
150  acres  of  land  completely  un- 
der water,  was  formed  from 
19,000,000  cubic  yards  of  refuse 
material  transported  across  the 
waters  of  Flushing  Bay  over  a 
pontoon  bridge,  and  consists  of 
550  acres  with  an  assessed  real 
estate  value  without  buildings  of 
$40,000,000.  The  Floyd  Ben- 
nett Airport,  under  control  of 
the  Navy  Department  for  mili- 
tary purposes,  consists  of  87 
acres.  Twelve  acres  of  newly 
made  land  has  been  turned  over 
to  the  Army  at  Fort  Tot- 
ten,  Brooklyn  for  military  pur- 
poses. 

Official  statistics  show  that  the 
landfill  method  of  disposal  and 
reclamation  costs  but  six  cents 
per  cubic  yard  as  against  twenty- 
eight  cents  per  cubic  yard  for 
incineration  disposal.  The  scope 
of  current  reclamation  work  not 
only  solves  the  question  of  dis- 
posal but  completely  eliminates 
areas  which  otherwise  would  re- 
qviire  extensive  mosquito  control 
elimination. 

The  present  method  of  land 
reclamation  employed  by  this 
Department,  has  iDeen  adopted 
by  officials  of  many  principal 
cities  throughout  the  country. 
Chicago  and  Davenport  in  Iowa 
were  the  first  cities  to  follow 
New  York's  lead  in  adopting 
this  method.  Incinerators  were 
closed  in  both  of  these  cities  in 
preference  for  the  landfill 
method.  Like  New  York,  they 
now  have  many  public  improv- 
ments  to  show  for  their  fore- 
sight. 

New  York  University  has 
been  conducting  an  independent 
landfill  survey  for  three  years. 
Preliminary  reports  show  that 
the  methods  employed  in  New 
York  in  no  way  endanger  pub- 


street  Cleaning 


KFK 


495  A 


Street  Railways 


lie  health.  These  same  conclu- 
sions were  also  drawn  by  a  body 
of  eminent  sanitary  and  health 
experts  appointed  by  the  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Public  Health  at 
Washington,  D.  C.  The  thor- 
oughness of  operation,  which  the 
engineers  of  the  Department  are 
applying  to  these  landfill  sites, 
may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that 
the  refuse  is  packed  with  eighty- 
ton  tractors  and  bulldozers  im- 
mediately after  it  is  dumped  into 
the  fill.  Following  this  packing 
operation,  heavy  layers  of  clean 
earth  are  then  applied,  thereby 
sealing  the  refuse  below  the  sur- 
face. Constant  inspections  are 
made  by  officials  of  the  depart- 
ment to  insure  specification  re- 
quirements. 

The  mosquito  elimination  pro- 
gram is  also  administered  by  the 
Department.  The  extensive 
work  involved  in  this  project 
may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that 
more  than  $14,000,000  was  spent 
in  this  city  from  1936  to  1940. 
This  program  has  been  designed 
permanently  to  eliminate  areas 
in  which  breeding  has  been  prev- 
alent for  years  and  where  the 
stench  of  stagnant  marshland 
proved  obnoxious  to  nearby  resi- 
dents. 

While  New  York  has  had 
limited  epidemics  of  yellow  fever 
and  malaria,  two  diseases  car- 
ried by  mosquitos,  the  health 
department  records  show  that 
less  than  fifty  cases  have  been 
treated  here  during  the  last  year, 
all  traceable  to  contact  in  other 
countries.  Statistical  data,  com- 
piled by  the  research  mosquito 
laboratory,  show  that  of  the  123 
species  of  mosquitoes  known  in 
North  America  only  27  different 
types  have  been  found  in  New 
York  City  and  while  not  all  of 
them  spread  disease,  they  are 
known  as  enemies  of  the  comfort 
and  general  welfare  of  the  hu- 
man and  animal  population. 

In  addition  to  the  permanent 
elimination  work,  the  Depart- 
ment is  equipped  with  twenty- 
five  high  pressure  tank  trucks 
which  spray  a  solution  of  py- 
rethium  combined  with  miscella- 
neous crude  oils  over  more  than 
35,000  acres  of  salt  marshland 
within  the  city.  Of  the  177,426 
sites  inspected  in  1940,  17,146 
were  found  to  have  breeding. 
This  data  concludes  that  these 
findings  made  necessary  the 
spraying  of  160,280  catch  basins 
and  the  use  of  378,336  gallons 
of  larvicide. 

The  modernization  of  the  au- 
tomotive equipment  of  the  De- 
partment has  played  a  major 
role  in  meeting  the  continual 
collection  and  disposal  problem 
caused  by  an  ever-enlarging  pop- 
ulation. Somewhat  less  than 
1,500  pieces  of  equipment  are 
employed  daily  to  cope  with  this 


collection  problem;  315  of  these 
collection  trucks  have  a  capacity 
of  twenty-four  cubic  yards,  105 
have  a  capacity  of  12  cubic 
yards,  and  the  balance  can  load 
up  to  21  cubic  yards.  All  of 
these  trucks  are  completely  cov- 
ered and  streamlined  and 
equipped  with  pneumatic  tires, 
automatic  lift  and  dumping  bod- 
ies, and  automatic  loaders. 
Four  hundred  and  fifteen  pieces 
of  equipment  are  used  exclu- 
sively for  cleaning  purposes. 

Of  a  total  of  332  high  pres- 
sure flushers,  25  have  a  capacity 
of  3,500  gallons,  75  a  capacity 
of  2,500  gallons  and  the  balance 
varies  around  1,500  gallons. 
These  flushers  are  also  used  dur- 
ing the  snow  season  to  flush  the 
streets  of  snow  when  tempera- 
tures permit.  The  automotive 
unit  of  this  Department  is  com- 
pleted by  981  pieces  of  snow 
equipment,  54  wreckers,  gaso- 
line tank  trucks,  tractors,  trail- 
ers, light  delivery  trucks,  and  25 
high  pressure  mosquito  tank 
trucks.  There  are  60  sand 
spreaders,  79  brooms,  228  snow 
loaders  and  624  cross-walk  plows 
used  solely  to  combat  snow. 

Sanitary  education  of  school 
children  also  plays  an  important 
part  in  keeping  the  city  free 
from  dirt  and  disease.  Lectures 
are  given  in  the  public  schools 
by  the  Director  of  Sanitary  Edu- 
cation employing  the  theme  of 
'Cleanliness  at  home  and  out- 
side.' These  activities  are  aug- 
mented by  a  Junior  Inspectors 
Club  which  is  managed  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Department. 
The  membership  of  this  club 
numbers  more  than  125,000  chil- 
dren of  school  age.  There  are 
semi-weekly  broadcasts  over  the 
Municipal  Radio  Station  by  the 
members  of  the  club. 

Street  Lighting.  The  earli- 
est lighting  of  highways  was 
probably  accomplished  by  torch- 
es, links,  or  flambeaux  carried 
by  the  wayfarer  and  these  con- 
tinued to  be  the  chief  means  of 
street  illumination  until  the 
eighteenth  century. 

Street  lighting  was  inaugu- 
rated in  Paris  in  1318  with  the 
installation  of  three  fixed  lan- 
terns but  it  was  not  until  1409 
that  lanterns  were  placed  in  each 
street.  The  year  1558  intro- 
duced an  important  device — the 
falot,  a  vessel  filled  with  tallow, 
resin  or  other  inflammable  ma- 
terial, one  of  which  was  placed 
at  each  street  intersection.  In 
1667  the  Lieutenant  of  Police, 
La  Reynie,  instituted  a  general 
system  of  candle  lanterns,  which 
were  displaced  early  in  the  eight- 
eenth century  by  oil  lanterns. 
In  1745  polished  metal  reflectors, 
rcvcrherc,  were  first  employed, 
and  these  were,  in  turn,  replaced 
by  gas  lamps. 


Street  lighting  in  London  fol- 
lowed much  the  same  course. 
About  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  nightwatchmen 
carried  cressets  or  open  pots  af- 
fixed to  poles,  and,  at  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  horn  lan- 
terns. Towards  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century  oil  lanterns 
were  installed. 

In  America  pine  knots  were 
largely  employed  as  a  means  of 
illumination  until  the  develop- 
ment of  the  whale  industry  of 
New  England,  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries,  brought 
about  an  extensive  use  of  crude 
whale  oil  and  spermaceti  candles. 
After  the  discovery  of  petroleum 
in  1859,  kerosene  came  into 
widespread  use. 

Gas  lighting  was  first  em- 
ployed early  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  William  Murdock  being 
credited  with  its  discovery  in 
1802,  when  he  so  lighted  a  manu- 
factory near  Birmingham,  Eng- 
land. Streets  were  lighted  by 
gas  in  1807,  although  the  first 
real  municipal  gas  lighting  was 
in  Westminster  in  1814.  It  was 
introduced  into  Baltimore  in 
1817  and,  in  the  following  t\yo 
decades,  into  most  European  cit- 
ies. Improvement  in  gas  illu- 
mination was  made  by  the  Bun- 
sen  burner  (1855)  ;  by  the  Lowe 
process  water  gas  (1875)  ;  and 
by  the  Welsbach  gas  mantle 
(1885). 

The  first  successful  applica- 
tion of  electricity  to  street  light- 
ing in  Europe  was  in  Jabloch- 
koff's  lamps,  or  'electric  candles,' 
during  the  Paris  Exposition  in 

1878.  In  America  street  light- 
ing by  arc  lamps  was  inaugu- 
rated   in    Cleveland,    Ohio,  in 

1879.  and  in  New  York  City  in 

1880.  About  1894  the  enclosed 
carbon  arc  lamp  was  perfected 
and  the  magnetite  lamp  about 
1904.  In  recent  years  the  Mazda 
lamp  has  been  successfully  em- 
ployed in  street  lighting. 

Some  of  the  more  recent  street 
and  highway  electric  lighting  in- 
stallations have  made  use  of 
sodium  vapor  lamps,  which  cast 
a  glareless,  yellowish  light  of 
high  penetrating  quality.  Such 
experiments  have,  in  the  main, 
proved  entirely  successful  and 
have  played  no  small  part  in  ac- 
cident reduction.  See  Electric 
Lighting. 

Street  Railways,  a  term  in- 
cluding in  its  larger  sense  (1) 
city  street  car  lines  (2)  inter- 
urban  electric  railways  (3)  ele- 
vated or  subway  rapid  transit 
lines,  and  (4)  trackless  trolley 
lines.  All  four  of  these  types 
of  transportation  stem  from  a 
common  origin,  the  first  street 
railway  line  built  in  New  York 
City  in  1832.  While  each  type 
now  has  its  own  individual  char- 
acteristics, there  are  also  cer- 


Street  Railways 


KFK 


495  B 


Street  Railways 


tain  intermediate  types  which 
make  it  impossible  to  draw  sharp 
lines  of  demarkation  between  the 
several  classifications. 

Generally  speaking,  the  _city 
street  car  line,  as  the  name  indi- 
cates, is  one  that  runs  on  tracks 
in  city  streets.  Its  cars  are  now 
propelled  by  electricity  almost 
everywhere  except  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, where  cable  operation  of 
street  cars  continues  on  a  few 
particularly  steep  grades.  Elec- 
trical energy  for  the  motors  of 
the  cars  is  commonly  obtained 
from  a  single  overhead  wire  with 
which  a  trolley  pole  extending 
upward  from  the  roof  of  the  car 
is  in  continuous  contact.  A  va- 
riation of  this  method  is  found 


tance  apart.  The  tracks  of  these 
lines  are  laid  in  subways,  on 
elevated  structures,  or  on  private 
rights  of  way.  In  a  number  of 
cities,  however,  street  car  lines 
have  been  placed  underground  in 
congested  districts  and  are  op- 
erated with  trains  of  two  or 
three  cars  coupled  together. 
The  dividing  line  between  this 
type  of  street  car  operation  and 
rapid  transit  train  operation  is 
somewhat  vague.  One  general 
difference  between  the  two  is 
that  the  street  cars  obtain  elec- 
trical energy  from  overhead 
wires  while  typical  transit  trains 
get  it  from  a  third  rail. 

In  contrast  to  the  other  types 
of  transportation,  the  trackless 


dent  of  the  Chemical  Bank,  ob- 
tained a  charter  for  the  New 
York  &  Harlem  Railroad,  which 
was  to  serve  as  the  city  section 
of  a  continuous  line  to  Albany. 
The  original  permit  was  for  a 
route  from  23rd  Street  to  the 
Harlem  River  via  Fourth  Ave. 
Permission  was  later  obtained  to 
extend  the  route  down  Fourth 
Ave.  and  the  Bowery  as  far  as 
Walker  Street. 

Construction  was  started  early 
in  1832,  and  by  November  a  mile 
of  double  track  had  been  laid 
between  Prince  and  14th  Streets. 
The  rails  were  simply  flat  strips 
of  iron  fastened  to  stone  blocks 
imbedded  in  the  ground.  The 
connecting  line  which  the  promot- 


Cuurtesy  of  J.  G.  Brill  Co 


The  First  Street  Car,  Built  by  John  Stephenson  in  1831. 


at  Washington,  D.  C.  and  New 
York  City,  where  the  electrical 
conductor  is  placed  in  an  under- 
ground conduit  between  the  rails, 
and  contact  is  made  by  means 
of  a  'plow'  extending  down- 
ward from  the  under  side  of  the 
car. 

Interurban  electric  railways 
are  those  that  run  between  cities 
rather  than  within  them.  Some 
operate  at  high  speed  over  pri- 
vate rights  of  way ;  others  op- 
erate at  moderate  speeds  on 
tracks  laid  on  a  highway.  Be- 
tween the  latter  type  of  inter- 
urban and  the  ordinary  street 
car  line  there  is  no  clear  dividing 
line.  Most  interurban  railways 
obtain  electrical  energy  from  an 
overhead  wire  although  a  third 
rail  and  sliding  contact  shoe  are 
used  in  some  places. 

Rapid  transit  lines  may  be 
roughly  defined  as  urban  electric 
railways  operating  trains  be- 
tween stations  spaced  some  dis- 


trolley,  or  trolley  bus,  is  suscep- 
tible of  being  rather  accurately 
defined.  It  is  a  vehicle  similar 
in  general  design  to  a  gasoline 
propelled  bus,  but  equipped  with 
one  or  more  electric  driving 
motors  which  obtain  current 
through  a  trolley  pole  in  contact 
with  an  overhead  wire.  This 
electrical  arrangement  is  similar 
to  that  of  a  street  car  except 
that  the  absence  of  track  neces- 
sitates the  use  of  a  second  wire 
and  a  second  pole  for  the  return 
electrical  circuit  which  is  com- 
pleted through  the  rails  for  the 
street  car. 

History. — The  first  street 
railway  was  an  accidental  out- 
growth of  an  entirely  different 
idea.  By  1830  steam  railroad 
operation  had  begun  to  demon- 
strate its  practicability.  Fore- 
seeing a  great  future  for  this 
type  of  transportation,  a  group 
of  New  York  business  men, 
headed  by  John  Mason,  presi- 


ers  expected  to  be  built  down 
the  Hudson  River  Valley  from 
Albany  to  the  Harlem  River  had 
not  yet  materialized,  so  the  New 
York  &  Harlem  decided  to  oper- 
ate a  local  service  similar  to  that 
of  the  horse-drawn  omnibuses  on 
that  portion  of  its  line  that  ran 
through  built-up  areas. 

John  Stephenson,  who  had  at- 
tained prominence  as  a  builder 
of  omnibuses,  was  commissioned 
to  build  two  cars.  Their  design, 
however,  was  less  like  that  of 
the  omnibuses  than  that  of  the 
steam  railroad  cars  of  the  period. 
Each  vehicle  was  divided  into 
three  compartments,  each  com- 
partment having  an  entrance 
door  and  seats  for  ten  persons, 
five  facing  forward  and  five 
backward.  A  team  of  horses 
furnished  the  motive  power. 
The  driver  had  a  seat  on  the  roof 
with  his  feet  hanging  over  the 
end  of  the  car  body. 

Operation  started  in  the  latter 


street  Railways 


KFK 


495  C 


Street  Railways 


part  of  1832.  It  was  so  success- 
ful that  another  mile  of  track 
was  built  the  next  year.  By 
1834  the  length  of  the  route  had 
grown  to  four  miles,  additional 
cars  had  been  built,  and  the 
street  railway  was  giving  serious 
competition  to  the  omnibuses 
which  had  previously  been  the 
chief  reliance  of  people  wishing 
to  travel  about  the  city. 

New  Orleans  in  1834  was  the 
second  city  to  have  street  rail- 
way service.  This,  too,  was  the 
accidental  outgrowth  of  a  differ- 
ent plan.  A  railroad  was  started 
to  connect  the  city  with  the  small 
suburb  of  Carrollton,  four  and  a 
half  miles  to  the  west.  Before 
it  was  completed  the  promoters 
decided  to  start  local  operation 
on  a  branch  line  on  Magazine 
Street  with  a  single  two-horse 
car. 

Strangely  enough,  no  more 
street  railways  were  built  until 
the  1850's,  when  additional  lines 
were  started  in  Brooklyn  and 
New  York.  Boston  followed  in 
1856  and  Philadelphia  in  1858. 
Baltimore,  Cincinnati,  Pitts- 
burgh and  Chicago  were  not  far 
behind. 

In  France,  street  railway  op- 
eration began  in  Paris  in  1853. 
Birkenhead  had  the  first  passen- 
ger-carrying tramway  in  Eng- 
land in  1860.  London  followed 
shortly  after.  An  American, 
George  Francis  Train,  was  the 
builder  of  the  first  lines  in  both 
places. 

The  great  advantage  of  the 
street  railway  over  the  horse- 
drawn  omnibus  was  its  utiliza- 
tion of  iron  wheels  rolling  on 
iron  rails.  The  force  required 
to  pull  a  vehicle  in  this  manner 
was  much  less  than  that  required 
to  pull  a  vehicle  of  equal  weight 
over  rough  cobblestone  pave- 
ments, and  the  ride  was  much 
smoother  and  more  comfortable. 
Expansion  of  street  railways 
continued  rapidly  during  the 
1860's  and  1870's.  In  1882  it 
was  announced  at  the  first  con- 
vention of  the  American  Street 
Railway  Association  that  there 
were  in  the  United  States  at  that 
time  some  18,000  street  railway 
cars  being  pulled  by  more  than 
100,000  horses  over  3,000  miles 
of  track. 

Cable  Railways, — The  great- 
est disadvantage  of  the  horse- 
drawn  street  railway  was  its 
relatively  slow  speed — little  bet- 
ter than  that  of  the  horse-drawn 
omnibus.  This  was  particularly 
noticeable  on  routes  with  steep 
grades.  In  San  Francisco  some 
of  the  hills  were  so  steep  that 
the  horse  cars  did  not  attempt  to 
climb  them.  This  inspired  An- 
drew S.  Hallidie,  a  manufac- 
turer of  wire  rope  in  that  city, 
to  devise  an  entirely  new  system 
of  street  car  operation — the  cable 


railway.  His  system  consisted 
in  principle  of  a  continuous  steel 
cable  running  in  a  conduit  be- 
tween the  rails  below  the  level 
of  the  pavement.  A  gripping 
clamp,  extending  downward 
from  the  car  through  a  slot  in 
the  pavement  could  take  hold  of, 
or  release,  the  cable  at  will.  A 
stationary  steam  engine  at  one 
end  of  the  line  operated  the 
cable.  The  first  experiment  with 
this  type  of  street  railway  opera- 
tion was  made  on  Clay  Street, 
San  Francisco,  in  1873.  It  was 
a  great  success  and  other  cable 
railways  were  soon  built.  Chi- 
cago took  up  the  idea  in  1882. 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  St. 
Louis,  Oakland,  Denver,  Wash- 
ington, Kansas  City,  Providence, 
Seattle,  Baltimore  and  other  cit- 
ies followed,  both  in  the  United 
States  and  abroad. 

Cable-operated  street  railways 
were  a  great  improvement  over 
the  horse  railways.  They  were 
faster,  and  could  use  bigger  cars. 
Soon  after  they  were  developed, 
however,  a  practical  means  was 
discovered  to  utilize  electricity 
as  a  motive  force  for  street  cars. 
Its  superiority  over  the  cable 
was  quickly  demonstrated,  and 
virtually  all  cable  railways  were 
changed  over  to  electricity. 

The  peak  period  of  cable  rail- 
way operation  in  the  United 
States  was  in  the  early  1890's. 
At  that  time  there  were  about 
5,000  cars  running  on  more  than 
500  miles  of  track  in  fifteen  or 
sixteen  cities.  By  the  beginning 
of  1940,  the  cable  railway  had 
been  abandoned  everywhere  ex- 
cept in  San  Francisco  where 
there  remained  less  than  100 
cars  running  on  a  few  routes 
with  particularly  steep  grades. 

Electric  Railways, — Experi- 
ments looking  to  the  use  of  elec- 
tricity as  a  means  of  moving 
railway  cars  date  back  to  1835, 
when  the  street  railway  was  in 
its  infancy  and  the  steam  rail- 
road was  still  young.  The  early 
experimenters  included  Thomas 
Davenport,  a  blacksmith  of 
Brandon,  Vt.,  Robert  Davidson 
of  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  Moses 
G.  Farmer  of  Dover,  N.  H.,  and 
Prof.  Charles  G.  Page,  an  official 
of  the  United  States  Patent  Of- 
fice. All  of  these  experimenters 
employed  storage  batteries  as  the 
source  of  their  electrical  energy, 
but  these  batteries  were  not  very 
satisfactory,  as  they  were  ex- 
tremely heavy  and  expensive  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  cur- 
rent produced. 

Between  1860  and  1870  nu- 
merous experiments  were  made 
to  produce  electricity  by  some 
means  better  than  batteries,  but 
they  were  not  particularly  suc- 
cessful. It  was  only  in  1873, 
with  the  discovery  that  electric- 
ity could  be  generated  by  rotat- 


ing an  electric  motor  by  mechan- 
ical means,  that  an  ample  supply 
of  cheap  electricity  could  be  ob- 
tained. 

A  question  then  arose  as  to 
how  electricity  could  be  con- 
veyed from  the  generator  to  a 
moving  car.  Dr.  Werner  Sie- 
mens built  an  electric  railway  at 
the  Berlin  Industrial  Exposition 
in  1879,  using  the  running  rails 
to  carry  electricity  to  the  car. 
Later  he  built  another  at  Lich- 
terfelde  and  then  a  somewhat 
longer  line  between  Portrush  and 
Bushmills,  Ireland,  using  a  third 
rail.  In  1880  Thomas  A.  Edi- 
son experimented  with  a  third 
rail  electric  railway  at  Menlo 
Park,  N.  J.  These  experiments 
proved  that  electricity  could  be 
utilized  as  the  motive  power  for 
railway  cars.  The  distance 
which  it  could  be  transmitted 
from  the  generator  was  limited, 
and  the  greatest  field  of  useful- 
ness of  the  electric  railway  ap- 
peared to  lie  in  cities,  where  no 
part  of  the  line  would  be  more 
than  a  few  miles  away  from  the 
generating  station.  The  chief 
difficulty  was  that  an  electrified 
third  rail  in  the  street  consti- 
tuted a  serious  hazard.  Few  of 
the  existing  street  railways  were 
interested  in  electrification. 
Most  continued  with  animal 
power  or  cable.  A  few  experi- 
mented with  cars  propelled  by 
steam,  compressed  air,  ammonia 
gas,  etc. 

At  Cleveland,  in  1884,  Ed- 
ward M.  Bentley  and  Walter  H. 
Knight  built  an  electric  railway 
with  a  third  rail  placed  in  an 
underground  conduit  between 
the  running  rails  and  below  the 
surface  of  the  pavement.  This 
line  was  moderately  successful, 
but  other  cities  were  slow  to  take 
up  the  idea  because  of  the  high 
cost  of  construction  and  the  dan- 
ger of  a  short  circuit  being 
caused  by  water,  ice,  or  snow 
getting  into  the  conduit. 

In  1885  Charles  J.  Van  De- 
poele,  a  Belgian  who  had  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States  and 
taken  up  the  study  of  electricity, 
demonstrated  a  short  electric 
railway  at  the  Toronto  Agricul- 
tural Fair.  This  railway  utilized 
an  overhead  wire  and  a  spring 
supported  pole  on  the  roof  of  the 
car  as  a  means  of  conveying 
electricity  to  the  motors.  One 
of  the  visitors  to  the  Fair  was 
Joseph  Gaboury  who  owned  the 
controlling  interest  in  the  street 
car  company  at  Montgomery, 
Alabama.  He  was  so  much  im- 
pressed by  the  demonstration 
that  he  engaged  Van  Depoele  to 
work  out  a  plan  for  electrifying 
the  system  at  Montgomery. 
Construction  started  early  in 
1886,  and  on  April  1 5  of  that 
year  regular  service  began. 
The  experiment  was  so  success- 


Vol.  XL— Page  495  D 


street  Railways 


KFK 


496 


Street  Railways 


ful  that  electrification  was  ex- 
tended until  the  system  had  18 
cars  running  on  15  miles  of 
track.  Montgomery  thus  be- 
came the  first  city  in  the  world 
to  have  an  extensive  system  of 
electric  transportation.  Some- 
what later  a  disastrous  fire  de- 
stroyed the  company's  power 
house  and  it  was  necessary  to 
revert  to  animal-drawn  transpor- 
tation for  a  considerable  period. 

Meanwhile,  Frank  J.  Sprague, 
a  former  lieutenant  in  the 
United  States  Navy,  had  been 
interesting  himself  in  the  prob- 
lem of  railway  electrification. 
In  1887  he  was  asked  to  accept 
a  contract  for  electrifying  the 
Union  Passenger  Railway  at 
Richmond,  Va.  This  involved 
many  difficulties  as  the  route  se- 
lected had  steep  grades  and 
sharp  curves.  Despite  these  dif- 
ficulties, he  proceeded  with  the 
project  and  an  11 -mile  line, 
equipped  with  40  cars,  was  put 
in  operation  early  in  1888.  The 
Richmond  line  was  a  success 
from  the  start  and  furnished  the 
inspiration  for  the  adoption  of 
electricity  for  street  railway  use 
in  a  great  many  other  places. 
Within  two  years  there  were 
hundreds  of  electric  cars  in  op- 
eration in  Boston,  Minneapolis, 
St.  Paul,  Cleveland,  St.  Louis, 
Pittsburgh,  Tacoma  and  other 
cities. 

In  1890,  according  to  the 
United  States  Census  of  Street 
and  Electric  Railways,  there 
were  more  than  8,000  miles  of 
street  railway  track  in  operation, 
of  which  only  about  1,200  miles 
were  electrified.  In  1902  the 
total  trackage  amounted  to  over 
22,000  miles,  including  rapid 
transit  lines.  All  but  a  small 
part  was  electrically  operated. 
Extensions  made  during  the 
decade  1902-1912  amounted  to 
nearly  20,000  miles,  bringing  the 
total  to  about  42,000  miles. 
This  same  trend  continued  for 
several  years,  as  shown  by  the 
total  of  approximately  48,000 
miles  reported  in  1917.  By  that 
time,  however,  the  automotive 
vehicle  was  beginning  to  make 
its  influence  felt.  This  not  only 
put  a  stop  to  major  extensions  of 
electric  railway  trackage,  but 
led  eventually  to  a  substantial 
reduction  as  riding  diminished 
and  it  was  found  more  economi- 
cal to  render  service  by  other 
means  on  many  routes.  Numer- 
ous small  cities,  both  in  the 
United  States  and  other  coun- 
tries, have  abandoned  all  street 
railway  service.  In  the  larger 
cities  it  has  generally  been  re- 
tained. 

Interurhans. — The  interur- 
ban  electric  railway  was,  in  the 
beginning,  merely  an  extension 
of  the  city  street  railway  into 
the  surrounding  country.  Later 


it  became  more  highly  developed, 
with  larger  cars,  heavier  rails, 
and  higher  operating  speeds. 
Much  of  the  track  was  laid  on 
private  rights-of-way  instead  of 
the  public  highway.  Many  in- 
terurban  electric  lines  did  a  large 
freight  business,  in  addition  to 
their  passenger  business.  Some 
went  so  far  as  to  operate  parlor 
cars,  dining  cars,  and  even  sleep- 
ing cars. 

Virtually  all  interurban  lines 
were  subject  to  the  serious  dis- 
advantage of  having  to  operate 
over  local  street  railway  tracks 
from  the  city  limits  into  their 
terminals  in  the  downtown  dis- 
tricts. Naturally,  the  number  of 
passengers  carried  was  small  in 
comparison  with  those  carried  by 
city  street  railway  lines.  Fares 
were  somewhat  higher  on  the 
interurban  but,  generally  speak- 
ing, the  revenues  did  little  more 
than  cover  the  cost  of  operation, 
if  they  did  that.  Under  these 
circumstances,  the  interurbans 
were  particularly  vulnerable  to 
the  competition  of  the  private 
automobile  and  the  bus  which 
took  a  considerable  volume  of 
business  away  from  them  in  the 
period  following  the  first  World 
War.  This  was  also  a  period  of 
rising  costs,  and  many  interur- 
bans were  forced  into  receiver- 
ship. By  1940  a  substantial  part 
of  the  interurban  electric  rail- 
way mileage  in  the  United  States 
had  been  abandoned. 

Subways  and  Elevateds, — 
The  earliest  form  of  rapid  trans- 
it was  the  underground  railway. 
In  1863  the  Metropolitan  Rail- 
way began  operation  of  a  four- 
mile  subway  in  London,  using 
coal-burning,  steam  locomotives 
to  haul  its  trains.  A  similar 
project  was  almost  immediately 
suggested  for  New  York,  but  de- 
lays of  various  sorts  occurred 
and  it  was  not  until  41  years 
later  that  trains  actually  ran  in 
the  first  New  York  subway.  At 
Boston  a  subway  project  on  a 
smaller  scale  was  completed  and 
put  in  service  in  1897,  years 
after  a  practical  means  had  been 
found  to  use  electricity  as  a  mo- 
tive power. 

Long  before  there  were  any 
subways  in  the  United  States 
there  was  an  extensive  develop- 
ment of  elevated  railway  rapid 
transit.  Charles  T.  Harvey  se- 
cured an  amendment  to  the  Rail- 
road Law  of  the  State  of  New 
York  in  1866,  permitting  the 
construction  of  a  railroad  to  be 
operated  'by  means  of  a  pro- 
pelling rope  or  cable  attached  to 
a  stationary  power.'  Under  this 
permission  a  short  section  of  ele- 
vated railway  was  built  on 
Greenwich  Street  in  New  York 
City.  Operation  was  commenced 
in  1868.  The  cable  method  of 
propulsion  did  not  prove  to  be  a 


success  and  small  steam  loco- 
motives were  substituted.  Fol- 
lowing years  witnessed  steady 
expansion.  Chicago  built  an  ele- 
vated railway  in  1892.  Boston, 
which  had  been  discussing  an 
elevated  railway  since  1879,  did 
not  actually  have  one  until  some 
years  later.  Philadelphia  was 
the  last  of  the  four  cities  in  the 
United  States  to  build  its  ele- 
vated line. 

Elevated  railways  have  been 
built  also  in  Liverpool,  Berlin, 
Hamburg,  and  Elberfeld,  the 
latter  being  a  unique  mono-rail 
system.  Their  popularity  has 
declined  in  recent  years  due  to 
the  noise  of  operation  and  objec- 
tion to  the  presence  of  the  struc- 
tures in  public  streets.  Besides 
the  subways  in  London,  Boston, 
and  New  York  already  men- 
tioned, such  facilities  have  been 
built  also  in  Berlin,  Paris,  Mos- 
cow, Tokyo,  Buenos  Aires,  Chi- 
cago, Philadelphia,  Madrid,  Bar- 
celona, Glasgow,  Osaka,  and 
Sydney. 

Trackless  Trolley  or 
Trolley  Bus. — It  was  early  rec- 
ognized that  there  were  disad- 
vantages as  well  as  advantages 
in  _  the  ordinary  type  of  street 
railway  with  electrically  operated 
cars  running  on  steel  rails.  One 
of  the  greatest  disadvantages 
was  the  high  cost  of  building 
and  maintaining  the  track  struc- 
ture. This  led  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  trackless  trolley  or 
trolley  bus,  a  vehicle  operated 
by  electric  power  obtained  from 
an  overhead  trolley  wire  of  the 
sort  used  by  street  cars,  but  hav- 
ing rubber-tired  wheels  and  no 
track.  A  second  overhead  wire, 
parallel  to  that  supplying  the 
current,  acted  as  a  return  circuit 
to  the  power  generating  station. 

This  type  of  vehicle  became 
very  popular  in  England  in  the 
1920's  as  much  of  the  tramway 
track  had  been  badly  neglected 
during  the  years  of  the  first 
World  War,  and  the  cost  of  re- 
conditioning it  was  considered  to 
be  excessive.  Its  widespread 
adoption  in  the  United  States 
came  somewhat  later  when  the 
progress  of  the  gasoline-pro- 
pelled bus  had  made  available 
better  tires,  better  springing, 
and  a  more  satisfactory  body. 

In  1940  there  were  nearly  3,- 
000  trackless  trolleys  in  opera- 
tion in  the  United  States  and  an 
approximately  equal  number  in 
England.  They  were  in  use  on 
a  more  limited  scale  in  many 
other  countries.  Among  the 
cities  having  extensive  trolley 
bus  systems  at  that  time  were 
London,  Moscow,  Newark,  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee,  Boston,  Indi- 
anapolis and  Seattle. 

Car  Desian. — The  original 
cars  for  the  New  York  &  Har- 
lem R.  R.  were  similar  in  design 


JAN  1  4  1942 


Street  Railways 


KFK 


497 


Strength  of  Materials 


to  the  early  steam  railroad  cars 
with  separate  compartments  run- 
ning cross-wise  of  the  vehicle. 
This  was  not  practical  for  street 
railway  service,  and  a  change  was 
soon  made  to  a  design  generally 
similar  to  that  of  the  horse- 
drawn  omnibus.  The  interior 
was  arranged  as  a  single  com- 
partment with  seats  running 
lengthwise.  A  single  door  was 
placed  at  the  rear  instead  of 
having  doors  on  both  sides  of 
the  vehicle  for  each  compart- 
ment. The  driver  remained 
seated  on  the  front  edge  of  the 
roof. 

The  first  important  change 
from  this  design  was  to  bring 
the  driver  down  to  a  standing  po- 
sition on  a  platform  at  the  front 
end  of  the  body.  A  door  was 
then  introduced  between  the 
front  platform  and  the  interior 
of  the  body.  At  the  rear  a  sec- 
ond platform  was  built  to  re- 
place the  step  or  steps  by  which 
the  passengers  had  boarded  and 
alighted  from  the  vehicle.  The 
car  so  arranged  had  the  impor- 
tant advantage  that  it  could  be 
operated  in  either  direction  by 
unhitching  the  horses  from  one 
end  and  hitching  them  on  at  the 
other. 

This  basic  design  persisted 
throughout  the  horse-car  and 
cable-car  eras,  and  far  into  the 
electric  car  era.  Lighting  and 
ventilation  were  improved,  and 
seats  made  more  comfortable. 
The  original  4-wheel  support  for 
the  car  body  was  replaced  by  an 
8-wheel  arrangement  with  4 
wheels  on  each  of  two  swivelling 
trucks.  This  permitted  the  use 
of  longer  bodies  accommodating 
more  passengers.  Other  changes 
were  made  in  certain  details,  but 
the  main  features  of  street  car 
design  remained  much  the  same 
until  about  1910. 

At  that  time  a  plan  was  in- 
troduced whereby  the  passenger 
paid  his  fare  at  the  time  he 
boarded  the  car  instead  of  board- 
ing the  vehicle  and  taking  a  seat 
before  a  conductor  came  to  col- 
lect it.  The  conductor  stood  on 
the  rear  platform  which  was 
made  large  enough  to  accommo- 
date ten  to  twenty  people  so  that 
the  car  would  not  be  delayed  by 
the  procedure  of  collecting  their 
fares  but  could  go  ahead  as  soon 
as  the  last  passenger  had  stepped 
aboard.  Cars  with  larger  rear 
platforms  generally  operated  in 
one  direction  only  in  contrast  to 
the  earlier  cars  which  could  be 
run  equally  well  in  either  direc- 
tion. A  later  development  of 
the  same  general  idea  came  with 
the  introduction  of  one-man 
operation  of  street  cars  as  a 
means  of  reducing  expenses. 
Passengers  then  boarded  the  car 
at  the  front  end  and  dropped 
fares  in   a  box   alongside  the 


motorman.  Exit  was  also  at  the 
front,  although  some  cars  were 
equipped  with  a  treadle-operated 
door  at  the  center  or  rear. 

Generally  speaking  the  trend 
was  toward  larger  and  larger 
cars  until  1916.  To  gain 
increased  capacity  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  people 
carried,  two  cars,  and  even  three 
cars,  were  coupled  together  at 
certain  times.  In  some  instances 
the  extra  cars  were  equipped 
with  motors  while  in  others  they 
were  without  motive  power. 
Double-deck  cars  were  adopted 
abroad  as  a  means  of  obtain- 
ing larger  capacity  but  were 
never  much  used  in  the  United 
States. 

In  1916  began  a  trend  toward 
smaller  cars.  This  was  the  re- 
sult of  a  design  developed  by 
Charles  Birney  who  devised  an 
arrangement  of  safety  devices  to 
permit  operation  by  one  man. 
The  so-called  Birney  or  safety 
cars  had  only  four  wheels  and 
seated  about  30  passengers  as 
compared  with  50  or  more  for 
the  8-wheel  cars.  The  Birney 
car  enjoyed  only  brief  popular- 
ity, but  it  was  found  that  its 
safety  devices  could  be  applied 
successfully  to  8-wheel  cars,  and 
the  trend  again  turned  in  the  di- 
rection of  larger  vehicles. 

Modern  Developments. — 
In  the  1930's  it  became  evident 
that  the  riding  public,  accus- 
tomed to  the  comfort  of  the  au- 
tomobile, must  be  given  a  more 
attractive  street  railway  car  or 
the  street  railways  would  lose 
most  of  their  business.  To  ac- 
complish this  there  was  formed 
the  Electric  Railway  Presidents' 
Conference  Committee,  which 
made  a  far-reaching  study  of 
street  car  design.  The  result 
was  the  development  of  an  en- 
tirely new  kind  of  car,  utilizing 
rubber  extensively  in  its  struc- 
ture to  eliminate  noise  and  vi- 
bration. It  was  faster  as  well 
as  quieter,  and  much  more  at- 
tractive in  appearance.  Hun- 
dreds of  these  cars  were  put  in 
operation  in  New  York,  Chicago, 
Pittsburgh,  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more, Washington,  Boston,  Los 
Angeles,  and  other  cities  where 
they  did  much  to  restore  the  pop- 
ularity of  the  street  railway. 

John  A.  Miller, 
Editor,  Transit  Journal. 

Strehlenan,  Nikolaus  N. 
von.    See  Lenau,  Nikolaus. 

Strelitzia,  stre-lit'si-a,  or 
Bird  of  Paradise  Flower,  a 
genus  of  South  African  herba- 
ceous plants,  belonging  to  the 
order  Musacccc.  The  leaves  are 
large  and  boat-shaped,  the  flow- 
ers odd-shaped  and  showy,  with 
brilliant  coloring. 

Strength  of  Materials,  the 
resistance  offered  by  metals, 
woods,  stones,  and  other  materi- 


als used  in  construction  to  sys- 
tems of  stress  applied  to  them. 
The  strength  of  a  given  material 
can  be  determined  only  by  ex- 
periment, the  kind  of  test  to  be 
applied  depending  upon  the 
nature  of  the  stresses  to  which 
the  material  will  be  subjected. 
Every  test  involves  two  kinds  of 
measurement — that  of  the  stress 
applied,  and  that  of  the  accom- 
panying deformation  or  destruc- 
tion.   (See  Elasticity.) 

The  various  kinds  of  resist- 
ance presented  by  materials  are 
usually  classified  under  the  head- 
ings tensile  strength ;  compres- 
sion strength  ;  shearing  strength  ; 
flexural  strength  ;  torsional 
strength. 

Tensile  strength  is  the  resist- 
ance to  final  breaking  of  the  ma- 
terial by  a  direct  pull. 

Compressive  strength  is  the 
resistance  to  compression  and 
final  crushing  by  direct  pressure 
applied  to  comparatively  short 
pieces. 

Shearing  strength  is  the  resist- 
ance to  the  stress  produced  by  a 
force  acting  tangential  to  its  sur- 
face (see  Shear).  The  ultimate 
strength  under  shearing  is  gen- 
erally less  than  that  under  ten- 
sion or  compression. 

Flexural  strength  is  the  resist- 
ance to  bending,  the  form  of  the 
beam  being  altered  by  transverse 
forces  or  loads. 

Torsional  strength  is  resist- 
ance to  twisting.  It  is  princi- 
pally dependent  on  shearing 
strength  but  usually  involves  also 
tensile  and  compressive  strength. 

The  ultimate  tensile  strength 
of  steel  varies  from  30  to  45 
tons'  weight  per  square  inch 
of  section,  while  the  ultimate 
shearing  strength  varies  from  22 
to  35.  Cast-iron,  again,  which 
has  a  tensile  strength  of  7  3^ 
tons'  weight  per  square  inch,  has 
a  strength  under  crushing  of  45 
and  a  shearing  strength  of  12. 

The  term  thrust  resistance  is 
used  when  the  material  under 
consideration  is  in  the  form  of  a 
column.  In  this  case  the  bar 
may  fail  by  direct  crushing,  but 
usually  fails  because  it  bends 
and  becomes  subject  to  flexural 
stress,  in  which  case,  as  the 
force  is  applied  at  the  ends,  the 
more  it  bends,  the  greater  the 
strain  and  liability  to  rupture. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a 
bar  is  subjected  to  two  or  more 
of  the  above  stresses  at  the  same 
time,  in  which  case  the  resultant 
strain  is  dependent  on  whether 
the  forces  act  together  or  oppose 
each  other.  In  any  case,  the  dis- 
position of  the  material  in  the  bar 
which  is  to  be  used  is  an  impor- 
tant element  in  the  strength  of 
the  bar.  Unless  otherwise  stated, 
these  several  kinds  of  resistance 
to  strain  are  assumed  to  have 
reference  to  continuous  and  grad- 


strength  of  Materials  KFK 


498 


Strike 


ually  applied  stress.  But  the 
stresses  may  be  applied  suddenly, 
as  in  impact,  or  may  be  subject 
to  a  periodic  or  rhythmic  change; 
in  both  cases  the  material  be- 
haves in  a  fashion  markedly  dif- 
ferent from  its  behavior  under 
similarly  applied  steady  stresses. 

When  a  bar  is  subjected  to 
stress,  it  changes  form.  As  long 
as  this  change  of  form  is  not  per- 
manent, but  disappears  when  the 
stress  is  removed,  the  elastic  limit 
is  not  exceeded,  and  the  deforma- 
tion is  proportional  to  the  stress 
applied.  At  that  stress  where 
the  material  ceases  to  be  elastic, 
and  becomes  permanently  'set,' 
it  has  reached  the  yield-point. 
Beyond  this  point  the  deforma- 
tion is  not  usually  proportional 
to  the  applied  stress.  The  stress 
at  the  yield-point,  rather  than  the 
ultimate,  or  breaking  strength, 
is  the  important  thing  for  a  de- 
signer to  know  concerning  a 
material.  All  this  demands  care- 
fully planned  series  of  experi- 
ments, involving  the  invention 
and  construction  of  appropriate 
machinery,  and  a  detailed  co-or- 
dination of  the  many  complicated 
results  obtained.  Another  neces- 
sary line  of  experimenting  is  the 
study  of  temperature  change 
upon  the  strengths  of  materials. 

When  a  bar,  say  of  iron,  is  sub- 
jected to  any  of  the  combinations 
of  stress  indicated  above,  and  the 
strain  is  pushed  up  to  and  beyond 
the  yield-point,  curious  changes 
of  texture  take  place.  These 
changes  indicate  that  the  sub- 
stance is  yielding  and  flowing 
along  stress  lines,  and  a  careful 
study  of  them,  by  microscope  if 
necessary,  may  in  certain  cases 
serve  to  indicate  the  previous 
history  of  the  piece  under  con- 
sideration. Very  characteristic 
also  is  the  fracture  when  the  ma- 
terial finally  breaks  down.  From 
the  form  and  appearance  of  a 
fresh  fracture  important  conclu- 
sions may  be  drawn  as  to  the 
quality  and  homogeneity  of  the 
material. 

All  the  phenomena  of  over- 
strain go  to  show  that  a  metal  is 
not  a  homogeneous  substance, 
but  is  built  up  of  nuclei  cemented 
together  by  intermediate  material 
of  a  different  physical  and  chem- 
ical character.  There  is  indeed 
an  approximation  to  a  kind  of 
crystallization.  Any  strain 
means  the  displacement  among 
themselves  of  these  nuclei,  as 
well  as  a  deformation  of  each 
nucleus.  Statistically  considered, 
the  behavior  of  the  material  as  a 
whole  may  be  expressed  in  a 
sufficiently  simple  mathematical 
form;  and  yet  individually  the 
elements  of  the  material  may 
undergo  an  infinite  variety  of 
strains  and  deformations. 

See  Elasticity.  Consult  R. 
H.  Thurston's  Materials  of  Engi- 
neering; M.  Merriman's  Strength 
of  Materials. 


Strepslptera,  strep-sip'ter-a, 
or  Bee  Parasites,  a  group  of 
curious  insects,  usually  believed 
to  be  highly  modified  beetles 
(Coleoptera),  which  are  parasitic 
upon  the  members  of  the  order 
Hymenoptera  (especially  bees 
and  wasps),  and  upon  the  Hemip- 
tera.  The  best-known  genus  is 
Stylops,  whence  a  bee  affected 
with  strepsipterous  parasites  is 
described  as  stylopized,  but  in  no 
case  has  the  life-history  been 
completely  worked  out.  The 
larval  Stylops  is  found  in  the 
larvae  of  the  bee,  and  the  female 
never  leaves  its  host,  but  grows 
and  develops  with  the  latter.  In 
the  adult  state  it  is  wormlike,  and 
protrudes  a  part  of  its  body  from 
the  abdomen  of  the  bee,  appar- 
ently in  order  that  its  eggs  may 
be  fertilized.  It  produces  an 
enormous  number  of  minute 
young,  which  cover  the  body  of 
the  host  like  a  fine  powder;  but 
the  exact  mode  in  which  these 
find  their  way  to  new  bee  larvae 
is  obscure.  The  males  are  minute 
and  winged,  and  after  leaving  the 
body  of  the  host  have  a  very 
brief  free  life  (sometimes  only 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes), 
during  which  they  fly  about  with 
great  rapidity,  and  presumably 
fertilize  the  sedentary  females.  As 
a  rule,  each  bee  carries  only  one 
parasite. 

Streptocarpus,  strep-to-kar'- 
pus,  a  genus  of  tropical  and 
South  African  herbaceous  planti, 
belonging  to  the  order  Gesnera- 
ceae.  They  are  usually  woolly  or 
hairy,  and  often  stemless,  with  a 
leaf  or  leaves  spreading  close  to 
the  ground.  They  bear  showy 
flowers,  and  are  frequently  culti- 
vated under  glass. 

Streptococ'cus,  a  genus  of 
micro-organisms  whose  cells, 
spherical  in  shape,  occur  in 
chains.  It  includes  a  large  num- 
ber of  pathogenic  forms,  as 
Streptococcus  erysipelatis,  the  spe- 
cific micro-organism  of  erysipelas 
and  Streptococcus  pneumonia,  or 
the  Pneumococcus. 

Stresemann,  Gustav  (1878- 
1929),  German  statesman,  was 
born  in  Berlin.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Universities  of  Berlin  and 
Leipzig,  and  entered  on  a  busi- 
ness career  and  also  wrote  articles 
for  various  journals  and  maga- 
zines. In  1907  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Reichstag,  repre- 
senting the  great  industrial  lead- 
ers ot  Germany,  also  editing  the 
party  journal.  He  later  went  to 
Dresden  where  he  was  elected  to 
the  Municipal  Council.  During 
the  World  War  he  pursued  a 
vigorous  Nationalist  policy  and 
at  its  close  founded  and  became 
leader  of  the  German  People's 
Party  which  played  an  important 
part  in  Germany's  domestic 
policy.  From  August  to  Novem- 
ber, 1923,  he  was  Chancellor  of 
Germany,  but  his  views  concern- 
ing the  return  of  the  Hohen- 


zoUerns  and  the  Ruhr  occupation 
caused  his  downfall.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1923,  he  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  Chancellor 
Marx'  cabinet,  and  continued  as 
such  in  Luther's  cabinets.  He 
was  largely  responsible  for  the 
Locarno  Pact. 

Stress.  See  Elasticity; 
Strength  of  Materials. 

Stretcher,  a  stone  or  brick 
laid  horizontally  lengthwise  in  a 
wall.  A  stretcher  course  is  one 
without  headers.  See  Brick- 
laying; Masonry. 

Strickland,  Agnes  (1796- 
1874),  English  historian,  was 
born  near  Southwold,  Suffolk. 
She  wrote  a  number  of  historical 
stories  for  children  and  with  her 
sister  Elizabeth  published  Lives 
of  the  Queens  of  England  (1840- 
8).  Other  works  are  Letters  of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  (1842-3), 
Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scotland 
(1850-9),  Lives  of  the  Bachelor 
Kings  of  England  (1861),  Lives  of 
the  Last  Four  Stuart  Princesses 
(1872),  a  novel.  How  Will  It  End? 
(1865),  and  [several  volumes  of 
poetry. 

Strict    Constructionists,  a 

term  in  American  history  ap- 
plied to  those  who  construe  the 
Constitution  in  accordance  with 
its  letter  and,  in  general,  refuse  to 
recognize  the  so-called  'implied' 
powers  of  the  Federal  govern- 
ment. More  or  less  consistently 
strict  constructionist  views  have 
generally  been  held  by  the  Anti- 
Federalist  and  Democratic  par- 
ties. See  Anti-Federalists; 
Constitution. 

Stricture,  a  contraction  of  a 
tube,  a  duct,  or  an  orifice,  as  of 
the  esophagus,  the  urethra  or  the 
intestine.  Urethral  stricture  may 
be  of  reflex  origin  or  may  be  due 
to  inflammation  or  to  cicatricial 
contraction  following  an  ulcer. 
Forcible  dilatation  by  bougies  is 
often  of  service,  but  cutting  op- 
erations may  be  required.  In 
malignant  stricture  of  the  lower 
bowel  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
make  an  artificial  anus  at  a  higher 
level  (see  Obstruction,  Intes- 
tinal) . 

Striegau,  shtre'gou,  town, 
Prussia,  in  Silesia;  32  miles  south- 
west of  Breslau.  Points  of  inter- 
est include  a  fourteenth  century 
church  and  a  memorial  tower. 
Leather  goods,  brushes,  and  ci- 
gars are  manufactured.  Pop. 
13,500. 

Strike,  a  geological  term  used 
in  connection  with  strata,  denot- 
ing the  direction  of  a  line  drawn 
horizontally  on  their  bedding 
planes.  It  is  consequently  at 
right  angles  to  the  dip.  Thus  in  a 
basin-shaped  bed  the  strike 
curves  round  in  a  circle.  A  sudden 
change  of  strike  in  a  bed  or  series 
of  beds  may  be  produced  by 
faults,  bringing  rocks  having  dif- 
ferent directions  of  dip  in  contact 
with  one  another.  The  out-crops 
of  strata  correspond  with  their 


strike,  Political 


KSD 


499  Strikes  and  Lockouts 


strikes  only  when  the  surface  of 
the  ground  is  a  horizontal  plane 
or  the  beds  are  vertical. 

Strike,  Political.  The  politi- 
cal strike  differs  from  the  ordi- 
nary strike  in  that  it  is  not 
confined  to  a  single  industry  but 
may  cover  a  wide  range  of 
industries,  and  its  purpose  is, 
primarily,  to  bring  about  a 
political  reform  rather  than  a 
change  in  the  immediate  con- 
ditions of  employment  of  a 
homogeneous  group  of  wage- 
earners.  Thus  in  1902  an  at- 
tempt was  made  in  Belgium  to 
organize  a  poltical  strike  in  order 
to  force  the  government  to  re- 
form the  suffrage,  and  in  Russia, 
in  1905,  the  political  strike  was 
invoked  as  a  means  of  enforcing 
the  popular  demand  for  consti- 
tutional government.  The  politi- 
cal strike  also  is  distinct  from 
that  of  the  sympathetic  strike, 
which  latter  form  is  one  in  which 
wage-earners  other  than  the 
original  strikers  leave  their  work 
in  order  to  assist  in  enforcing  the 
demands  of  the  strikers.  The 
great  strike  in  1889  on  the  Lon- 
don docks  and  other  great  rail- 
road and  mining  strikes  which 
included  many  affiliated  occupa- 
tions were  sympathetic  ^  rather 
than  political  strikes.  The  terms 
'political'  and  'general'  as  re- 
ferring to  strikes  are  often  used 
interchangeably,  but  improperly 
so. 

The  promoters  of  political 
strikes  have  been  radical  leaders, 
particularly  socialists,  who  rnay 
or  may  not  have  any  connection 
with  an  extensive  labor  organiza- 
tion. Their  efforts,  however, 
often  are  directed  toward  the 
enlistment  of  labor  organizations 
in  their  attempts  to  bring  about 
a  reorganization  of  society. 
They  advocate  a  simultaneous 
strike  of  the  largest  labor  or- 
ganizations, particularly  those 
whose  cessation  from  work  for  a 
period  of  time  would  inflict  such 
distress  in  the  great  centres  of 
population  that  a  new  social 
order  could  quickly  be  brought 
about.  Political  strikes  have  as 
yet  proven  in  large  measure  un- 
successful in  accomplishing  the 
purpose  for  which  they  were  de- 
clared. For  a  statement  and 
criticism  of  the  theory  of  the 
political  strike,  consult  Seilhac, 
Les  Grevcs  and  Jaures,  Studies 
in  Socialism. 

Strikes  and  Lockouts.  A 
strike  is  a  concerted  withdrawal 
from  work  by  a  group  or  several 
groups  of  employees  in  order  to 
enforce  a  demand  initiated  by 
themselves,  or  to  resist  a  demand 
proposed  by  their  employer  or 
employers.  A  lockout  is  a  re- 
fusal by  one  or  more  employers  to 
permit  a  group  or  several  groups 
of  employees  to  continue  at  work, 
such  refusal  being  made  in  order 
to  enforce  a  proposed  regulation 


of  their  own  or  to  resist  a  demand 
on  the  part  of  their  employees. 

In  their  industrial  effects  these 
two  classes  of  industrial  disturb- 
ances are  practically  the  same ; 
the  only  essential  difference  be- 
tween them  is  that  in  the  case  of 
the  strike  the  employees  take  the 
initiative  in  putting  a  stop  to 
work,  while  in  the  case  of  the 
lockout  the  initiative  is  taken  by 
the  employer.  As  each  party  to 
an  industrial  dispute  often  seeks 
the  support  of  public  sentiment, 
a  strategic  advantage  may  be 
gained  by  the  one  party  if  it  suc- 
ceeds in  placing  upon  the  other 
party  the  onus  of  initiating  the 
dispute.  Hence  it  is  difficult  to 
determine  in  which  category 
many  disputes  of  this  character 
actually  belong.  However,  as 
the  strike  is  the  more  general 
occurrence  than  the  lockout,  most 
of  the  countries,  including  United 
States  and  Canada,  which  collect 
statistics  of  this  character,  have 
abandoned  the  task  of  distin- 
guishing between  strikes  and 
lockouts  and  list  them  jointly 
under  the  classification  of  strikes, 
or  strikes  and  lockouts. 

There  being  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  strikes  than  lockouts,  the 
greater  share  of  responsibility  for 
industrial  conflict  is  apt  to  be 
laid  upon  the  employee,  for  a 
considerable  number  of  disputes 
classed  as  strikes  are  brought 
about  by  the  employees  for  the 
purpose  of  resisting  proposed  re- 
ductions in  wages  or  in  securing 
such  working  conditions  as  im- 
provements in  industrial  life 
have  shown  to  be  only  just  and 
reasonable. 

In  any  consideration  of  strike 
statistics  the  mere  number  of 
strikes  occurring  in  any  one  year 
should  not  be  taken  as  an  indica- 
tion of  the  prevalence  of  indus- 
trial conflict  during  that  year, 
for  strikes  and  lockouts  are  of 
varying  degrees  of  magnitude, 
affecting  in  some  instance  only 
one  small  establishment  while  in 
other  instances  the  dispute  may 
extend  throughout  an  entire 
section  of  the  country  involving 
hundreds  or  even  thousands  of 
employees  and  many  establish- 
ments, and  may  also  embrace  an 
entire  industry  throughout  a 
country  or,  indeed,  as  in  the  case 
of  general  sympathetic  strikes, 
several  closely  related  industries. 
It  is  therefore  apparent  that  con- 
clusions which  are  based  merely 
upon  the  number  of  strikes 
occurring  may  be  very  mislead- 
ing. Thus,  a  strike  of  several 
thousand  employees  in  a  number 
of  establishments  would  count 
no  more  in  the  total  number  of 
strikes  than  a  strike  in  a  single 
establishment,  involving  only  a 
few  employees.  The  number  of 
establishments  involved  is  a 
somewhat  better  basis  for  de- 
termining the  prevalence  of  in- 


dustrial disputes  during  a  given 
period,  but  in  any  comparison 
of  disturbances  in  several  in- 
dustries even  these  data  are  mis- 
leading owing  to  the  varying 
size  of  establishments  in  the  sev- 
eral industries.  The  most  satis- 
factory basis  for  comparison, 
therefore,  is  found  to  be  the  num- 
ber of  strikers,  or,  even  better, 
the  number  of  persons  thrown 
out  of  employment.  In  the  best 
tables  of  statistics  on  this  sub- 
ject each  of  these  four  classes  of 
data  is  usually  shown,  and  in  the 
more  advanced  investigations 
effort  is  made  to  determine  not 
only  these  facts,  but  also  the 
duration  of  each  strike,  in  order 
that  the  aggregate  number  of 
days  lost  in  any  dispute  may  be 
determined.  By  securing  such 
information  it  is  possible  to  esti- 
mate (although  very  roughly  it 
must  be  admitted)  the  loss  to 
the  employee,  the  employer,  and 
to  the  public,  occasioned  by  the 
industrial  disputes  during  a  given 
period  of  time. 

Following  the  declaration  of  a 
strike  by  a  group  of  workmen 
and  their  withdrawal  from  work, 
they  usually  make  no  immediate 
endeavor  to  procure  work  else- 
where, but  remain  away  from 
work  for  a  period  of  time  which 
it  is  supposed  will  render  it  neces- 
sary for  the  employer  to  grant 
their  demands  or  close  down  his 
establishment.  In  many  cases 
if  he  endeavors  to  obtain  other 
employees,  effort  is  made  by  the 
strikers  to  prevent  his  so  doing 
by  'picketing'  his  establishment, 
by  persuading  new  workmen  not 
to  enter  his  employ,  and  in  some 
cases  by  less  peaceful  methods 
such  as  intimidation,  boycott, 
etc.  If  the  employees  are  well 
organized,  they  are  better  able  to 
enforce  their  demands  than  if 
they  are  acting  merely  as  indi- 
viduals. Generally  strikes  are 
brought  about  by  trade-unions, 
but  in  some  instances,  as  a  result 
of  a  wave  of  favorable  public 
sentiment  generated  by  adminis- 
trations friendly  towards  organ- 
ized labor,  such  as  prevailed  dur- 
ing the  Wilson  administration 
and  the  N.R.A.  regime,  groups 
of  workmen  may  invoke  the  aid 
of  organizers  of  existing  trade 
unions  in  their  efforts  toward 
unionization  and  for  the  pro- 
tection of  whatever  legislative 
and  industrial  gains  they  had 
obtained.  Again,  quite  often, 
groups  of  workmen  may  strike 
against  iniquitous  conditions  of 
work  and  in  the  process  of  the 
strike  form  units  of  regularly- 
constituted  unions  in  their  re- 
spective trades  or  industries,  or 
band  into  independent  trade 
unions. 

Where  the  strikers  are  mem- 
bers of  trade-unions,  they  are 
usually  assisted  by  contributions 
from  the  'strike  funds'  of  the 


strikes  and  Lockouts  KSD 


499  A  Strikes  and  Lockouts 


organizations  with  which  they 
may  be  affiliated ;  furthermore 
they  often  receive  the  'moral 
assistance'  of  other  trade- 
unionists,  who  may  bring  in- 
fluences to  bear  upon  the  em- 
ployers concerned  which  may 
lead  to  the  granting  of  the  de- 
mands of  the  strikers.  Thus,  the 
greater  the  strength  of  the  union 
and  the  stronger  its  affiliations, 
the  longer  and  more  effective 
may  be  the  strike  in  which  it  is 
engaged.  To  conduct  a  strike 
successfully  a  strong  organiza- 
tion of  employees  is  deemed 
necessary,  particularly  under 
modern  conditions  where  new 
employees  can  readily  be  brought 
from  a  distance  in  order  to  fill 
the  places  of  the  strikers.  The 
trade-union,  which  is  main- 
tained from  year  to  year  and 
which  has  accumulated  a  reserve 
fund  which  may  be  used  in  the 
conduct  of  a  strike,  is  therefore 
in  a  better  position  to  enforce  its 
demands  for  changes  in  condi- 
tions of  employment  than  a 
group  of  unorganized  employees. 
Consequently  the  conduct  of 
strikes  has  come  to  be  an  im- 
portant function  of  the  trade- 
union.  While  most  strikes  are 
ordered  by  trade-unions,  there 
are  nevertheless  frequent  cases 
where  strikes  are  not  so  ordered, 
and  conducted  against  the  wishes 
of  the  trade-union  officials.  In 
many  instances  where  the  strike 
may  have  been  ordered  by  a 
trade-union  the  strikers  include 
many  who,  while  not  members 
of  the  union,  are  nevertheless  in 
sympathy  with  the  purposes  for 
which  the  strike  has  been  ordered 
and  join  the  ranks  of  the  strikers. 
Thus,  in  the  anthracite  coal 
strike  of  1902,  the  textile  strike 
at  Fall  River  in  1904-5,  the 
Colorado  strike  of  1914,  and  the 
steel  strike  of  1919,  and  in  most 
of  the  strikes  during  the  N.R.A. 
in  1933,  the  non-union  workers 
were  in  the  majority  and  in  many 
cases  were  not  less  persistent  in 
maintaining  the  strike  than  the 
union  men  themselves. 

The  date  on  which  the  first 
strike  occurred  has  never  been 
agreed  upon  by  economic  histo- 
rians. Some  cite  the  exodus  of 
the  Israelites  from  Egypt  under 
the  leadership  of  Moses  as  the 
first  strike,  but  while  it  had  some 
of  the  element  of  modern  dis- 
putes, it  was  a  revolt,  partly  re- 
ligious, of  a  subject  people,  not 
of  a  body  of  wage-earners.  An- 
cient and  mediaeval  history  also 
record  other  popular  uprisings 
which  resembled  modern  strikes 
in  certain  respects,  but  not  until 
the  general  establishment  of  the 
wage  system  of  industry  has 
there  occurred  what  may  prop- 
erly be  considered  a  strike,  the 
essential  feature  of  which  is  the 
effort  on  the  part  of  working 


people  to  improve  their  economic 
status  as  wage-earners. 

In  early  modern  times,  when 
the  masters  in  a  craft  formed  an 
association  which  acted  in  har- 
mony in  matters  of  wages  and 
of  prices,  journeymen  craftsmen 
sometimes  formed  associations  of 
their  own  and  struck  for  higher 
wages  or  better  conditions  of 
employment.  In  the  eighteenth 
century,  in  England,  strikes  were 
numerous,  but  were  local  in  their 
scope  and  were  confined  mainly 
to  the  skilled  trades. 

Certain  legal  records  show 
with  reasonable  certainty  that 
there  was  a  strike  of  bakers  in 
New  York  City  as  early  as  1741, 
and  in  1796  and  again  in  1798  it 
is  recorded  that  there  was  a 
'turn  out'  (as  a  strike  was  then 
called)  of  boot  and  shoemakers 
in  Philadelphia.  In  New  York 
in  1803  there  was  a  'Sailors' 
Strike,'  considered  by  some 
writers  as  the  first  strike  in  the 
United  States.  In  1805  the 
shoemakers  in  Philadelphia 
'turned  out,'  again,  and  in  1809 
in  New  York  City  there  oc- 
curred a  strike  among  the  cord- 
wainers.  During  the  Jacksonian 
era,  especially  from  1820  to  1837, 
workers,  emboldened  by  the  spirit 
of  liberalism  that  swept  the  na- 
tion, were  engaged  in  numerous 
strikes  and  formed  many  new 
trade-unions.  From  1837  to  the 
close  of  the  Civil  War  strikes 
were  relatively  few,  involved  but 
small  groups  of  employees,  and 
were  of  short  duration,  but  with 
the  great  industrial  development 
following  the  Civil  War  a  more 
closely  organized  class  of  work- 
ers was  developed,  and  strikes 
therefore  became  more  numerous 
and  better  organized.  Accord- 
ing to  information  published  in 
the_  Third  Annual  Report  of  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of 
Labor  (1887)  there  occurred  in 
the  United  States  during  the 
whole  period  1741-1880,  1,491 
strikes  and  lockouts  of  which  rec- 
ords were  obtainable,  and  of 
these,  1,089  related  to  wages,  278 
to  other  known  causes,  and  124 
to  unknown  causes  ;  of  the  whole 
number  316  succeeded,  154  were 
compromised,  583  failed  entirely, 
while  the  results  in  438  cases 
could  not  be  ascertained.  It  was 
shown  by  a  report  of  the  tenth 
census  that  in  1880  there  were 
610  strikes.  In  no  year  prior  to 
that  was  any  considerable  num- 
ber of  strikes  reported. 

From  1880  to  /P05— After 
1880  statistics  of  strikes  and 
lockouts  occurring  in  the  United 
States  were  collected  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Labor. 
These  statistics  for  the  period 
1881-1905  were  published  in  the 
Twenty-first  Annual  Report  of 
the  Commissioner  of  Labor, 
1906.     During   the   period  of 


twenty-five  years  there  were  36,- 
757  strikes  and  1,546  lockouts  in 
the  United  States,  making  a  total 
of  38,303  disturbances  of  this 
character  not  including  disturb- 
ances of  less  than  one  day's 
duration.  Strikes  occurred  in 
181,407  establishments  and  lock- 
outs in  18,547  establishments, 
making  a  total  of  199,954  estab- 
lishments affected.  The  total 
number  of  persons  who  went  out 
on  strike  during  the  period  was 
6,728,048  and  the  number  of 
persons  locked  out  was  716,- 
231,  making  a  total  of  7,444,279 
persons  striking  or  locked  out. 
Owing  to  the  dependence  of  one 
occupation  upon  another,  many 
fellow  employees  not  immediately 
concerned  in  the  strikes  or  lock- 
outs were  unable  to  continue 
work.  The  entire  number  of  per- 
sons thrown  out  of  work,  includ- 
ing these  fellow  employees,  was 
8,703,824,  and  the  number 
thrown  out  on  account  of  lock- 
outs was  825,610,  making  a  total 
of  9,529,434  persons  thrown  out 
of  work  as  a  result  of  such  labor 
disturbances  during  the  entire 
period  of  twenty-five  years.  Illi- 
nois, Massachusetts,  New  York, 
Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  led  the 
other  states  in  respect  to  the 
number  of  strikes  and  the  num- 
ber of  persons  involved.  The 
most  important  cause  of  strikes 
was  for  increased  wages,  form- 
ing 32.24  per  cent  of  all  strikes 
for  all  causes,  following  by  18.84 
per  cent  for  recognition  of  unions 
and  unions  rules. 

The  average  duration  of  strikes 
during  this  period  was  25.4  days. 
Of  all  establishments  involved  in 
strikes,  61.38  per  cent  were 
closed,  and  the  average  number 
of  days  closed  per  establishment 
was  20.1. 

The  employees  won  their  de- 
mands in  47.94  per  cent  of  the 
181,407  establishments  involved 
in  strikes  ;  were  partly  success- 
ful in  15.28  per  cent,  and  failed 
entirely  in  36.78  per  cent.  In 
57.20  per  cent  of  the  18,547  es- 
tablishments involved  in  lock- 
outs, the  employers  succeeded  in 
enforcing  compliance  with  their 
regulations;  in  10.71  per  cent 
were  partially  successful,  and  in 
32.09  per  cent  they  failed.  Of 
all  strikes,  68.99  per  cent  were 
ordered  by  labor  organizations 
and  90.34  per  cent  of  all  es- 
tablishments involved  were  in- 
cluded in  strikes  so  ordered.  Of 
the  persons  thrown  out  of  work  as 
a  result  of  the  strikes,  90.57  per 
cent  were  males.  Owing  to  the 
greater  proportion  of  males  em- 
ployed these  percentages  do  not 
represent  the  relative  disposition 
of  the  two  sexes  to  engage  in 
strike.  During  that  period  there 
had  been  an  increasing  disposi- 
tion on  the  part  of  employers 
and  employees  to  settle  their  dis- 
putes by  means  of  joint  agree- 


strikes  and  Lockouts  KSH 


499  B         Strikes  and  Lockouts 


ments  between  officials  represent- 
ing organizations  with  which 
the  parties  were  connected. 

From  1916  to  1932,— Bt- 
tween  1906  and  1913  no  reports 
on  strikes  were  issued  by  the 
Federal  Bureau  of  Labor  Sta- 
tistics. Beginning  in  1914  and 
continuing  in  1915,  fragmentary 
information  was  collected,  not 
comparable  with  any  previous  or 
later  data.  Since  1916  more 
complete  data  have  been  given 
from  time  to  time,  in  the  Monthly 
Labor  Review.  The  American 
Federation  of  Labor  publishes 
data  in  The  American  Fcdcra- 
tionist,  monthly. 

The  years  1916  to  1920  in- 
clusive, had  an  average  of  over 
2,000  industrial  disputes  a  year 
and  of  over  a  million  persons  in- 
volved, excepting  1919. 

In  1921  the  number  of  indus- 
trial disputes  dropped,  though 
with  a  slightly  corresponding  de- 
crease in  the  number  of  persons 
involved.  In  1922,  while  the 
number  of  disputes  had  dropped 
considerably,  the  number  of  per- 
sons involved  rose  to  the  high- 
est figure  for  the  period  1916- 
1932.  From  1924  onward,  there 
was  an  appreciable  decrease  both 
in  the  number  of  strikes  and  of 
persons  involved,  the  lowest  fig- 
ures being  in  1928  and  1929,  two 
so-called  prosperity  years,  and  in 
1930,  the  first  year  of  the  de- 
pression. In  1931  and  1932, 
years  of  suffering  to  American 
workers,  there  were  only  few  in- 
dustrial disputes. 

The  _  industries  leading  all 
others  in  the  number  of  indus- 
trial disputes  from  1916  to  1932 
were  building  trades,  clothing, 
furniture,  iron  and  steel,  leather, 
lumber,  metal  trades,  coal  min- 
ing, and  paper  manufacturing. 
While  the  questions  of  hours, 
wages  and  recognition  of  various 
unions  formed,  as  in  the  past, 
the  principal  causes  of  industrial 
conflicts,  discharge  of  employes, 
unfair  products,  sympathy  for 
strikers  in  other  trades,  jurisdic- 
tion and  protest,  and  other  con- 
ditions formed  important  causes 
of  a  good  number  of  strikes. 
To  compute  the  losses  caused  to 
the  employers,  employes  and  so- 
ciety by  industrial  disputes  is 
difficult,  as  the  only  tangible  fac- 
tor known  to  the  computer  is 
wages,  the  other  factors,  such  as 
profit  and  social  goods,  being 
potential  elements,  and  thus  all 
computations  must  be  considered 
as  pure  estimates. 

/9ii-7Pi7.— The  record  for 
1933  was  1,562  strikes  and  813,- 
134  workers  involved.  In  1934, 
1,856  strikes  with  1,466,695 
workers  involved ;  46  workers 
were  killed  in  battles  with  police 
and  private  guards.  Militia  was 
called  out  in  19  states.  In  1935, 
1,898  strikes  were  reported,  with 


1,141,363  workers  involved.  The 
year  1936  was  characterized  by  a 
large  number  of  strikes  with 
smaller  totals  of  workers  in- 
volved and  of  shorter  duration. 
There  were  2,172  strikes  and  the 
number  of  workers  involved  was 
788,648.  A.  F.  of  L.  unions 
were  involved  in  more  than  three- 
fourths  of  the  strikes,  independ- 
ent unions  in  7.4  per  cent,  and 
unions  affiliated  with  the  Com- 
mittee for  Industrial  Organiza- 
tion (C.I.O.),  after  their  suspen- 
sion from  the  A.  F.  of  L. 

The  C.I.O.,  Committee  of  In- 
dustrial Organization,  arose  as  an 
insurgent  body  from  the  ranks 
of  the  A.  F.  of  L.  towards  the 
end  of  1935,  when  eight  affiliated 
unions,  headed  by  John  L.  Lewis, 
broke  away  from  the  parent  or- 
ganization and  formed  the  C.I.O. 
The  cause  of  the  breach  was  the 
conservative  policy  of  the  A.  F. 
of  L.  in  failing  to  recruit  mem- 
bers for  its  unions  from  all  the 
humbler  grades  of  unskilled  or 
semiskilled  workers,  thus  re- 
stricting admission  to  the  'aris- 
tocracy' of  labor. 

The  year  was  distinguished  by 
the  introduction  of  a  new  tech- 
nique in  industrial  disputes  :  the 
'sit-down'  or  'stay-in'  strike. 
This  took  five  forms:  1.  A  stop- 
page for  a  few  moments  or  a  few 
hours  until  a  specific  grievance 
was  settled,  when  work  was  re- 
sumed. 2.  A  stoppage  by  a  group 
of  workers  which  aroused  senti- 
ment for  a  general  walk-out, 
which  thereupon  developed  into  a 
regular  picketing  strike.  3.  A 
sit-down  for  a  few  hours,  when 
the  employer  forced  the  employ- 
es out  and  closed  the  plant,  the 
dispute  thus  becoming  a  lock-out. 
4.  A  procedure  whereby  dissatis- 
fied employes  reported  for  work 
each  day  or  shift,  but  sat  at  their 
places  and  refused  to  work,  re- 
turning home  at  the  end  of  each 
shift.  5.  A  stay-in  strike,  in 
which  part  or  all  of  the  strikers 
stayed  in  the  plant  overnight. 

Great  Strikes  in  the  U nited 
States, — Of  the  great  strikes 
which  have  occurred  in  the 
United  States  the  following  may 
be  cited  :  In  1877  occurred  the 
first  great  strike,  which  began  on 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad 
at  Martinsburgh,  W.  Va.,  fol- 
lowed in  the  same  year  by  a  mem- 
orable strike  on  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad,  involving  various  roads 
having  their  termini  at  Pitts- 
burgh. Both  of  these  strikes 
were  accompanied  by  rioting,  de- 
struction of  property  and  loss  of 
life,  rendering  it  necessary  for 
civil  authorities  to  call  out  armed 
forces  to  restore  order.  In  1883 
a  strike  of  telegraphers,  consti- 
tuting a  majority  of  the  commer- 
cial telegraphers  in  the  country  at 
that  time,  was  widespread  in  its 
effects.     In  1885  began  an  ex- 


tensive strike  on  the  South- 
western, or  what  is  known  as  the 
Gould  System  of  railways,  which 
was  again  renewed  in  1886.  The 
next  important  strike  was  that 
at  Homestead,  Pa.,  in  1892,  be- 
tween the  Carnegie  Steel  Com- 
pany and  its  employes  at  the 
Homestead  works.  Actual  fight- 
ing between  armed  employes 
and  Pinkertons  employed  by  the 
company  led  the  Governor  to  call 
out  the  entire  force  of  the  State 
militia  and  to  place  the  town  un- 
der martial  law  until  order  was 
restored. 

In  1894  occurred  the  great 
Pullman  strike,  which  under  the 
leadership  of  Eugene  V.  Debs, 
threatened  to  embroil  organized 
labor  into  a  sympathetic  strike 
of  nation-wide  proportions.  It 
began  at  the  works  of  the  Pull- 
man Palace  Car  Company  at 
Pullman,  a  suburb  of  Chicago, 
and  extended  to  all  the  principal 
railroad  lines  radiating  from  Chi- 
cago. Violence  attended  this 
strike,  as  in  all  great  railroad 
strikes,  and  troops  numbering 
over  14,000  were  required  to 
maintain  order.  Aside  from 
losses  occasioned  to  the  company 
and  the  employes,  the  loss  to 
the  public  was  enormous,  owing 
to  delays  in  transportation  and 
other  inconvenience  and  uncer- 
tainty felt  throughout  the  coun- 
try. Bradstreet's  estimated  the 
losses  to  the  public  at  $80,000,- 
000. 

The  anthracite  coal  strike  of 
1902,  involving  145,000  men, 
began  on  May  12  and  continued 
until  October  23  of  that  year. 
The  contest  was  carried  on  with 
great  determination  by  both 
operators  and  miners.  Shortage 
of  coal  threatened  great  hardship 
to  the  general  public,  and  recog- 
nizing the  force  of  public  opinion, 
the  parties  agreed  to  abide  by  the 
award  of  a  commission  appointed 
by  the  President  to  arbitrate  the 
matter.  An  official  report  of  this 
commission  has  been  published 
as  a  government  document. 

In  July,  1904,  a  strike  of 
textile  operatives  at  Fall  River, 
Mass.,  involving  over  25,000  em- 
ployes resulted  in  a  stoppage  of 
work  for  a  period  of  six  months. 
Finally  the  employers  and  em- 
ployes agreed  to  submit  the  case 
to  the  Governor  of  the  State  as 
arbitrator  and  work  was  re- 
sumed. 

In  1905  there  was  a  strike  of 
teamsters  in  Chicago,  which  was 
important,  not  because  of  the 
number  of  men  involved,  but 
because  of  the  violent  measures 
adopted  against  strike-breakers, 
which  resulted  in  the  death  of 
21  persons  and  serious  injury  to 
450  others. 

In  1909  there  was  a  strike  of 
seven  weeks'  duration  in  the 
pressed  steel  car  works  at  Mc- 


strikes  and  Lockouts  KSH 


499  C         Strikes  and  Lockouts 


Kees  Rocks,  Pa.  Seventeen 
nationalities  were  represented 
among  the  4,700  workers  in- 
volved. The  loss  to  the  company 
was  estimated  at  $3,000,000. 
Late  the  same  year  there  was  a 
strike  of  textile  workers  in  the 
model  company  village  of  Lud- 
low, Mass.  It  involved  1,700 
Polish  workers  who  struck  be- 
cause of  a  redviction  in  wages. 

On  Feb.  19,  1910,  a  strike  on 
the  lines  of  the  Philadelphia 
Rapid  Transit  Company  was  de- 
clared by  the  Amalgamated  As- 
sociation of  Street  and  Electric 
Railway  Employes  upon  the 
refusal  of  the  Transit  Company 
to  agree  not  to  employ  members 
of  a  rival  union,  and  to  increase 
wages  to  25  cents  per  hour. 
Great  disorder  ensued.  Mobs 
attacked  and  burned  cars  in  the 
streets,  injuring  the  passengers 
and  crews,  and  the  police  escort- 
ing them.  The  disorder  was 
checked  by  the  assistance  of  the 
State's  mounted  police  and 
militia.  No  settlement  having 
been  reached,  a  sympathetic 
strike  was  called  by  the  Central 
Federated  Union  on  March  5, 
calling  out  50,000  workmen  of 
many  trades. 

In  1910  a  much  more  serious 
strike  occurred  in  the  bituminous 
coal  mines  of  Westmoreland 
county,  Pennsylvania.  There 
were  65  mines  affected,  owned 
by  30  companies,  and  operated 
by  about  10,700  workers,  some 
of  whom  were  members  of  the 
United  Mine  Workers.  The 
strike,  which  began  in  March, 
1910,  in  the  Keystone  Company 
mines  near  Greensburg,  was  not 
declared  off  until  July,  1911. 
There  were  ten  deaths  attribut- 
able to  the  strike.  The  operators 
refused  to  arbitrate  and  made 
no  concessions.  The  strike  was 
a  complete  failure  for  the  union, 
which  was  driven  out  of  the 
county. 

Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania,  was 
also  the  scene  of  a  serious  out- 
break in  1910.  About  9,000 
steel  workers  led  by  the  machin- 
ists and  other  higher  grade 
workers  went  out  in  protest 
against  the  excessive  hours, 
overtime,  and  Sunday  work  de- 
manded by  the  Bethlehem  Steel 
Company.  This  strike,  which 
led  to  a  government  investiga- 
tion by  the  Commissioner  of 
Labor,  was  characterized  by 
much  bitterness  and  violence  and 
necessitated  calling  out  the  State 
police  to  restore  order. 

The  year  1910  was  a  period  of 
great  unrest  among  the  garment 
workers.  New  York  City  was 
the  scene  of  one  contest  involving 
about  60,000  workers  afnliated 
with  the  International  Ladies' 
Garment  Workers  Union  and  in 
the  employ  of  alxjut  15,000  em- 
ployers in  the  cloak,  suit,  and 


skirt  Manufacturers'  Protective 
Association.  The  strike  was 
terminated  by  the  'protocol  of 
peace'  establishing  conditions  of 
work  and  the  setting  up  of  a 
board  of  arbitration  and  a  board 
of  sanitary  control  (vtpon  which 
the  public  was  represented)  to 
establish  labor  standards  for  the 
industry. 

In  the  same  year  a  strike  of 
twenty  garment  workers,  mem- 
bers of  the  United  Garment 
Workers  Union,  employed  by 
Hart,  Schaffner  and  Marx  in 
Chicago  spread  to  40,000  work- 
ers in  other  shops.  After  twenty- 
one  weeks  of  a  strike  character- 
ized bv  many  instances  of  vio- 
lence and  a  loss  of  $5,000,000, 
20,000  of  the  workers  secured  an 
agreement  with  Hart,  Schaffner 
and  Marx  through  the  efTorts  of 
an  arbitration  committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  City  Council  of 
Chicago.  The  remaining  20,000 
workers  surrendered  uncondi- 
tionally. 

The  most  serious  strikes  of 
1912  occurred  among  the  textile 
workers  in  Lawrence,  Mass., 
and  Paterson,  N.  J.  Both 
strikes  were  engineered  by  the 
I.  W.  W.  (q.  v.),  23,000  workers 
were  involved  in  the  Lawrence 
strike  and  27,000  in  the  Paterson 
strike.  There  was  a  good  deal 
of  violence  on  the  part  of  depu- 
ties in  the  Lawrence  strike  and 
2,238  arrests  in  the  Paterson 
strike,  resulting  in  100  jail  sen- 
tences. 

The  year  1913  witnessed  some 
of  the  most  violent  strikes  in  the 
history  of  the  country.  The 
miners  in  the  Paint  Creek  and 
Cabin  Creek  districts  of  West 
Virginia  struck  for  higher 
wages,  shorter  hours,  and  the 
institution  of  the  'check-off'  sys- 
tem. This  strike  lasted  for  four- 
teen months  and  was  accom- 
panied by  rioting  and  bloodshed. 
Martial  law  was  declared  three 
times,  the  entire  State  militia  was 
called  out  and  thirteen  lives  were 
lost. 

One  of  the  longest  and  most 
violent  industrial  contests  in 
history  occurred  in  the  coal 
mines  of  the  Colorado  Fuel  and 
Iron  Company  in  southern  Colo- 
rado, largely  owned  by  the 
Rockefeller  interests.  Actual 
fighting  occurred  between  4,000 
armed  coal  miners,  organized  by 
the  United  Mine  Workers  of 
America,  and  State  militia  and 
Federal  troops  were  called  out  to 
restore  order.  The  strike,  which 
began  on  Sept.  23,  1913,  was 
terminated  only  upon  the  inter- 
vention of  President  Wilson  on 
Dec.  10,  1914.  An  investigation 
was  made  by  Congress,  followed 
by  one  by  the  Commission  on  In- 
dustrial Relations  then  sitting. 

In  1913  occurred  also  the 
strike  of  15,000  copper  miners. 


members  of  the  Western  Federa- 
tion of  Miners,  largely  employed 
by  the  Calumet  and  Hecla  Min- 
ing Co.  in  Calumet,  Michigan. 
The  strike  originated  over  the 
refusal  of  the  companies  to 
recognize  the  union.  The  State 
militia  was  called  out,  and  an 
injunction  was  issued  against  the 
miners.  This  strike  resulted  in 
many  injuries,  and  several  fa- 
talities. 

The  so-called  'Wheatland 
riots'  occurred  in  the  summer  of 
1913,  when  2,800  migratory 
workers  employed  upon  the  Durst 
hop  ranch  at  Wheatland,  Califor- 
nia, organized  by  the  I.  W.  W., 
rebelled  against  the  unendurable 
sanitary  condition  of  the  hop 
fields.  A  meeting  of  protest  be- 
came an  armed  mob  upon  the 
arrival  of  the  police.  Injury  and 
death  resulted.  This  riot  brought 
about  investigations  by  the  State 
Commission  of  Immigration  and 
Housing  and  by  the  Federal 
Commission  on  Industrial  Re- 
lations. 

Forty-five  thousand  New  York 
garment  workers  affiliated  with 
the  International  Ladies'  Gar- 
ment Workers  Union  struck 
again  in  1916.  After  fourteen 
weeks  an  agreement  was  reached 
with  the  419  firms  represented  in 
the  Manufacturers'  Protective 
Association.  No  attempt  was 
made  to  revive  the  'protocol  of 
peace'  of  1910. 

In  1917  occurred  the  notorious 
Bisbee  (Arizona)  affair,  when 
the  deportation  of  some  1,200 
striking  copper  miners  and  their 
sympathizers  necessitated  the 
calling  in  of  Federal  troops  to 
restore  order. 

In  August,  1917,  the  logging 
industry  in  Washington,  Idaho, 
and  western  Montana,  so  neces- 
sary to  the  prosecution  of  the 
war,  was  at  a  standstill.  The 
mills  had  to  close  down  because 
of  lack  of  logs.  This  crisis  was 
precipitated  by  the  walkout  of 
several  hundred  lumberjacks, 
many  of  whom  were  members 
of  the  I.  W.  W.,  in  Humbird 
camps  at  Sandpoint,  Idaho. 
This  strike  was  finally  settled  by 
the  Federal  authorities. 

In  1918,  in  the  midst  of  the 
World  War,  there  were  no  large 
dramatic  strikes  of  any  kind  in 
the  United  States.  Governmen- 
tal control  of  industrial  relations 
and  the  sense  of  patriotism  of 
both  employers  and  workers  were 
undoubtedly  responsible  for  this 
fact. 

Three  strikes  of  unusual  seri- 
ousness occurred  in  1919,  one  of 
367,000  workers  in  the  steel  in- 
dustry, led  by  W.  Z.  Foster,  be- 
gan Sept.  22.  The  U.  S.  Steel 
Corporation,  its  subsidiary  com- 
panies, and  other  steel  manufac- 
turers were  affected.  The  issues 
were    the    recognition    of  the 


strikes  and  Lockouts  KSH 


499  D 


Strikes  and  Lockouts 


union  and  shorter  hours  of  work. 
Though  the  strike  had  the  back- 
ing of  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor  and  of  public  opinion, 
it  was  apparently  lost.  The  strike 
was  the  subject  of  an  investiga- 
tion by  Congress  and  by  the  In- 
terchurch  World  Movement. 

About  425,000  bituminous  coal 
miners,  employed  in  21  States 
and  affiliated  with  the  United 
Mine  Workers  of  America,  voted 
to  strike  Oct.  31,  1919,  unless 
their  demands  for  increased 
wages,  overtime  pay  and  other 
improved  conditions  were  grant- 
ed. President  Wilson  was  op- 
posed to  the  move  of  the  Union. 
A  temporary  injunction  was  is- 
sued on  Nov.  8,  under  authority 
of  the  Lever  Act,  restraining  the 
union  officials  from  any  further 
act  to  bring  about  the  strike  and 
from  using  the  union  strike 
funds.  The  strike  was  called  off 
on  Nov.  11.  An  increase  of 
about  27  per  cent  in  the  wages 
was  granted  to  the  miners  the 
following  year. 

Four  strikes  broke  out  in  the 
Port  of  New  York  in  1919,  in- 
volving from  15,000  to  25,000 
workers.  The  issues  were  wages 
and  collective  bargaining.  The 
last  disturbance  was  an  unsanc- 
tioned walkout  in  October,  last- 
ing about  a  month  and  in  repu- 
diation of  an  agreement  with 
the  National  Adjustment  Com- 
mission. 

A  unique  strike  occurred  in 
1919  when  93  per  cent  of  the 
Boston  policemen  struck  for  the 
right  to  organize  and  to  affiliate 
with  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor.  Public  opinion  was 
aroused  against  the  strikers,  their 
places  were  promptly  filled  by 
substitutes,  and  the  strike  soon 
collapsed.  On  July  1,  1922, 
500,000  railway  shopmen  struck 
against  a  wage  reduction  ordered 
by  the  Railroad  Labor  Board.  A 
sweeping  injunction  against  the 
union  was  obtained  by  Attorney 
General  Daugherty  which  prac- 
tically paralyzed  the  activities  of 
the  strikers.  The  strike  came  to 
an  end  later  in  the  year  with  both 
sides  claiming  victory. 

There  were  few  strikes  of  any 
importance  during  1923,  1924, 
and  1925,  with  the  exception  of 
minor  strikes  in  the  coal  regions. 

In  1926  the  textile  workers  in 
Passaic,  N.  J.  struck  for  higher 
wages  and  better  working  condi- 
tions. They  were  out  nearly  a 
year,  and  won  their  demands.  In 
New  York  City,  40,000  cloak  and 
suit  workers  struck  in  July,  1926. 
An  agreement  was  reached  later 
in  the  year  with  the  workers  ob- 
taining their  demands. 

On  April  1,  1927,  200,000  bi- 
tuminous miners  started  what 
proved  the  most  protracted  strike 
in  many  years.  The  operators  of 
the  mines  refused  to  renew  an 


agreement  with  the  union  based 
on  the  Jacksonville  scale,  in  force 
for  several  years,  which  called 
for  uniform  rates  of  pay  and 
working  conditions  in  all  mines 
throughout  the  country.  They 
maintained  that  on  this  basis  they 
could  not  meet  the  ruinous  com- 
petition of  the  non-union  fields 
of  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky 
and  preferred  to  negotiate  with 
local  unions  on  the  basis  of  dis- 
trict agreements.  In  July  the 
miners  in  Indiana,  Illinois,  and 
Iowa  withdrew  and  those  of 
Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  alone  re- 
mained to  fight  the  issue  out. 
The  miners  had  to  contend  with 
evictions,  injunctions  and  the 
violence  of  armed  guards,  but 
receiving  financial  support  from 
the  American  Federation  of  La- 
bor and  the  anthracite  miners, 
they  were  determined  to  keep  up 
the  fight.  On  April  1  a  minority 
group  within  the  United  Mine 
Workers  of  America  initiated  a 
Save-the-Union  movement,  under 
the  leadership  of  John  Brophy. 
They  appealed  to  the  miners  in 
Illinois  to  rejoin  the  ranks  of 
the  strikers  and  attacked  the  'old 
guard's'  strike  tactics  as  irreso- 
lute and  ineffectual.  Meeting 
with  determined  opposition,  they 
broke  away  and  formed  a  dual 
union,  the  National  Miners 
Union.  Late  in  1928  the  strike 
came  to  an  end,  with  disastrous 
effects  to  the  United  Mine  Work- 
ers. From  a  membership  of 
500,000  in  1922  it  emerged  from 
the  strike  with  a  loss  of  400,000 
members.  The  Jacksonville 
scale  was  abandoned  and  the 
miners  returned  to  work  under 
a  drastically  reduced  wage  scale 
and,  in  many  mines,  under  open 
shop  conditions. 

In  July,  1927,  the  building 
trades  of  Baltimore  were  affected 
by_  a  jurisdictional  dispute  of 
unions;  in  August,  350  theaters 
in  Chicago  closed  as  a  result  of 
a  strike  called  by  the  Moving  Pic- 
ture Operators'  Union. 

On  Jan.  19,  1928,  6,500  shoe 
workers  in  Haverhill,  Mass. 
struck  against  a  proposed  wage 
cut  and  won  their  demands  after 
ten  days;  on  Feb.  20,  25,000 
workers  in  cleaning  and  dyeing 
shops  and  15,000  proprietors  of 
retail  shops  struck  for  the  pur- 
pose of  stabilizing  the  industry 
and  of  eliminating  cut-throat 
competition.  The  strike  ended 
on  March  10  with  a  complete 
success  for  the  strikers.  On 
April  16,  a  general  strike  of 
25,000  workers  in  the  cotton  tex- 
tile industry  of  New  Bedford, 
Mass.  went  into  effect  against  a 
ten  per  cent  wage  cut.  The  strike 
terminated  on  Oct.  6  and  the 
workers  accepted  a  wage  cut  of 
five  per  cent.  On  April  3,  2,000 
union  barbers  in  New  York  City 
struck  for  higher  wages  and  won 


their  demands  on  May  25.  On 
June  10,  took  place  a  unique 
strike  of  465  artists'  models  and 
manikins  in  Chicago.  Their  de- 
mands for  decent  environments 
and  higher  pay  were  granted 
within  2  davs. 

On  May  1,  1929,  4,200  work- 
ers in  the  building  trades  in  St. 
Louis,  Mo.  tied  up  all  building 
operations  and  after  a  strike  of 
six  weeks  obtained  a  new  agree- 
ment and  an  increase  in  wages. 
On  July  1,  1,500  street-car  work- 
ers in  New  Orleans  struck  for 
a  wage  increase  and  the  recogni- 
tion of  their  union.  Strike- 
breakers took  their  places  and 
violence  attended  their  operation 
of  the  cars.  The  strike  was  lost. 
On  July  2,  the  International 
Ladies'  Garment  Workers'  Union 
called  out  30,000  cloak  and  suit 
workers  in  New  York  City.  The 
union's  principal  objective  was 
to  curb  the  sweatshop  conditions 
which  had  developed  alarmingly 
within  the  industry  in  recent 
years,  resulting  partly  from  the 
inactivity  of  the  union  caused  by 
the  internal  dissensions  of  'left 
wing'  elements.  On  July  11  a 
settlement  was  reached  with  the 
Industrial  Council,  the  leading 
organization  of  the  manufactur- 
ers, and  the  union  won  most  of 
its  demands. 

_  On  Feb.  4,  1930,  the  Interna- 
tional Ladies'  Garment  Workers' 
Union  once  more  called  out  30,- 
000  to  35,000  workers  in  New 
York  City  on  strike.  Its  de- 
mands included  a  5-day-and-40- 
hour  week  and  the  total  elimina- 
tion of  the  sweatshop.  Lieut. - 
Governor  Herbert  H.  Lehman 
acted  as  mediator.  On  Feb.  10 
an  agreement  was  reached  with 
the  manufacturers  and  on  Feb. 
12  an  agreement  was  reached 
with  the  jobbers  and  contractors. 
The  union  won  the  shorter  work 
week  and  a  curb  on  the  sweat- 
shop. On  Jan.  7,  2,500  garment 
workers  of  Cleveland,  Ohio  start- 
ed a  general  strike  for  the  40- 
hour  week  and  against  sweatshop 
conditions.  On  Jan.  1 1  an  agree- 
ment was  reached  guaranteeing 
the  workers  the  40-hour  week 
and  other  improvements.  On 
May  5,  5,700  chauffeurs,  em- 
ployed in  building  operations  in 
New  York  City,  struck  for  a 
55-hour  week  and  for  higher 
wages.  They  won  a  wage  in- 
crease on  May  31.  On  July  23, 
2,000  garment  workers  in  Balti- 
more struck  for  the  40-hour  week 
and  the  elimination  of  the  sweat- 
shop. They  won  most  of  their 
demands.  On  Sept.  25,  2,550 
women's  tailors  and  dressmakers, 
employed  in  the  fashionable  shops 
in  New  York  City,  struck  for  a 
wage  increase.  Some  shops 
granted  the  demands  of  the  work- 
ers. On  Sept.  29,  4,000  workers, 
in  the  employ  of  the  Riverside  & 


strikes  and  Lockouts  KSH 


499  E         Strikes  and  Lockouts 


Dan  River  Cotton  Mills,  at  Dan- 
ville, Va.,  struck  for  the  recog- 
nition of  the  National  Textile 
Union,  with  which  they  recently 
affiliated.    They  lost  out. 

The  outstanding  strike  of  1931 
was  that  of  the  bituminous  coal 
miners  in  northern  West  Vir- 
ginia, western  Pennsylvania, 
and  eastern  Ohio,  which  began 
in  May.  The  strikers  demanded 
an  end  to  the  unendurable  living 
conditions  and  low  wages  and  the 
recognition  of  the  dual  unions, 
the  United  Mine  Workers  and 
the  National  Miners  Union.  In 
West  Virginia  the  conflicts  be- 
tween the  strikers  and  armed 
company  guards  resulted  in 
bloodshed  and  deaths.  A  num- 
ber of  strikers  were  arrested  and 
charged  with  homicide.  The 
strike  was  lost.  In  February 
more  than  3,000  hosiery  workers 
in  35  plants  of  Philadelphia 
struck  against  the  open  shop. 
Much  fighting  took  place  between 
the  strikers  and  the  strike- 
breakers with  the  police  who 
guarded  them.  The  strike  was 
lost.  On  July  22,  nearly  2,000 
silk  workers  in  Paterson,  N.  J., 
under  the  leadership  of  the 
National  Textile  Workers  Union, 
struck  for  a  five-day  week  and 
eight-hour  work-day  and  unem- 
ployment insurance.  On  July  26, 
6,500  more  workers,  affiliated 
with  the  Associated  Silk  Work- 
ers Union  and  the  National  Tex- 
tile Workers  Union  joined  the 
ranks  of  the  strikers.  On  Sept. 
15,  about  4,000  workers  returned 
on  a  44-hour  week  basis  and  their 
union  was  recognized.  On  July 
29,  30,000  workers  in  the  men's 
clothing  industry  in  New  York 
City  went  on  strike  against  sweat- 
shop conditions  and  for  more 
complete  union  control.  In  Au- 
gust the  strike  was  over  and  a 
two-year  contract,  to  be  termi- 
nated on  June  30,  1933,  was 
signed  with  the  New  York  Cloth- 
ing Manufacturers'  Exchange. 
In  October  about  8,000  hosiery 
workers  in  New  Jersey  started 
an  outlaw  strike  against  a  wage 
agreement  signed  by  the  Full 
Fashioned  Hosiery  Manufactur- 
ers Association  of  America  and 
the  American  Federation  of  Full 
Fashioned  Hosiery  Workers,  an 
A.  F.  of  L.  organization,  calling 
for  a  drastic  reduction  in  wages. 
On  Oct.  12  the  strikers  capitu- 
lated. In  September  some  20,000 
textile  workers  went  on  strike  in 
Lawrence,  Mass.,  and  environs, 
in  protest  against  a  wage  cut  of 
ten  per  cent.  On  Oct.  10  the 
strike  was  over  and  the  workers 
returned  on  the  reduced  wage 
scale. 

In  1932,  with  the  industrial 
crisis  reaching  an  acute  stage, 
there  were  few  strikes  that  at- 
tracted public  notice,  and  it  was 
only  during  the  midsummer  of 


1933,  with  the  N.I.R.A.  in  opera- 
tion, that  strikes  began  to  flare 
up.  Organized  labor  and  the 
unorganized  workers  suffered 
material  setbacks  in  prestige,  liv- 
ing conditions  and  wages  during 
the  first  three  years  of  the  de- 
pression and,  emboldened  by  the 
favorable  features  of  the  N.I. 
R.A.,  they  were  now  determined 
to  recover  their  post-war  gains 
through  the  means  of  strikes. 
Late  in  July,  1933,  from  35,000 
to  50,000  coal  miners  in  the  em- 
ploy of  the  Frick  Co.  (a  subsid- 
iary of  the  United  States  Steel 
Company),  the  Bethlehem  Mines 
Corporation,  the  Pittsburgh  Coal 
Company,  the  Pittsburgh  Ter- 
minal Coal  Corporation,  and 
others,  all  in  southwestern 
Pennsylvania,  walked  out  on 
strike  and  demanded  the  end  of 
company  unions  and  the  recog- 
nition of  the  United  Mine  Work- 
ers of  America.  Serious  clashes 
broke  out  between  striking  pick- 
ets and  company  deputies,  re- 
sulting in  50  casualties  with 
three  deaths.  On  Aug.  8  the 
strike  was  called  off  at  the  per- 
sonal intervention  of  President 
Roosevelt  and  the  workers'  de- 
mands were  submitted  tO'  arbi- 
tration. Late  in  September 
strikes  were  in  progress  in  the 
plants  of  the  Weirton  Steel  Com- 
pany, in  Steubenville,  Ohio,  and 
in  the  Clairton  works  of  the  Car- 
negie Steel  Company.  Much  vio- 
lence attended  the  scuffles  be- 
tween strikers  and  company 
police  and  deputy  sheriffs.  On 
Oct.  16  the  strike  was  settled, 
with  the  help  of  N.I.R.A.  agents, 
on  terms  regarded  as  a  blow  to 
company  unionism  in  the  indus- 
try. Late  in  August  some  70,- 
000  silk  workers  in  New  Jersey, 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
went  on  strike  for  higher  wages 
and  the  consolidation  of  their 
unions.  Some  15,000  silk  dye 
workers  of  Paterson  returned  to 
work  on  Oct.  25  and  another  10,- 
000,  also  in  Paterson,  returned 
to  work  on  Nov.  30,  having  won 
most  of  their  demands  and  the 
recognition  of  their  unions. 
There  was  much  disturbance 
among  the  miners  in  the  coal 
regions  of  Kentucky  and  Utah 
during  August  and  September 
and  among  the  miners  in  the 
anthracite  coal  regions  in  Penn- 
sylvania in  November.  In 
nearly  all  strikes  of  any  im- 
portance N.I.R.A.  agents  were  in 
the  field  endeavoring  to  conclude 
successful  agreements  for  the 
strikers. 

The  year  1934  was  one  of  the 
most  stirring  in  the  annals  of 
the  American  labor  movement. 
Provisions  in  the  N.I.R.A.  codes 
were  openly  violated  by  employ- 
ers ;  proceedings  of  labor  rela- 
tions boards  were  protracted  and 
disappointing ;    despite  Section 


7-A  of  the  N.I.R.A.  company 
unions  outdistanced  regular 
unions.  As  a  result  the  workers 
became  impatient  and  wrote  his- 
tory in  a  series  of  momentous 
struggles.  On  January  15,  50,- 
000  miners,  under  the  leadership 
of  the  insurgent  United  Anthra- 
cite Miners,  struck  in  Wilkes- 
Barre,  Pa.  and  vicinity  against 
a  ruling  of  the  National  Labor 
Board.  On  Feb.  12  they  returned 
to  work  victorious.  On  Feb.  2, 
30,000  taxi  drivers  in  New  York 
City  struck  for  higher  wages  and 
union  recognition. 

The  same  month,  3,000  laun- 
dry workers  and  3,000  hotel  em- 
ployes struck  for  similar  condi- 
tions and  returned  to  work 
victorious.  On  March  2,  some 
4,000  workers  of  the  Aluminum 
Company  of  America,  New  Ken- 
sington, Pa.,  walked  out  in  de- 
fiance of  the  local  Regional  Labor 
Board,  and  after  12  days  won  an 
1 1  per  cent  wage  increase.  On 
April  3,  3,300  workers  of  the 
N.  Y.  Shipbuilding  Corporation, 
Camden,  N.  J.,  engaged  in  the 
construction  of  war  vessels, 
struck  and  through  the  interven- 
tion of  the  Federal  Government 
returned  to  work  on  May  14  with 
a  14  per  cent  wage  increase.  On 
March  31,  2,300  workers  of  the 
Campbell  Soup  Company,  Cam- 
den, N.  J.,  went  on  strike  for 
better  working  conditions.  On 
July  16,  2,500  workers  of  the 
model  factory  village  Kohler, 
Wis.  went  on  strike.  In  scuffles 
with  private  guards  two  strikers 
were  killed  and  50  wounded. 
Other  significant  strikes  in  the 
midsummer  were  of  15,000  alu- 
minum workers  in  Penna.  and 
elsewhere,  15,000  textile  work- 
ers in  Alabama,  12,000  painters 
in  New  York  City,  and  8,000 
miners  in  Montana. 

Later  in  the  year,  building 
service  workers,  chain  grocery 
and  drug  clerks  in  New  York 
City,  department  store  employes 
in  Milwaukee,  reporters  and  edi- 
torial writers  in  New  York  and 
New  Jersey  and  teachers  in 
Pennsjdvania  struck  for  better 
working  conditions  and  recogni- 
tion of  their  unions.  A  strike  of 
1,900  workers  of  the  Electric 
Auto-Lite  Co.,  Toledo,  Ohio, 
started  on  April  13,  was  at  a 
point  of  developing  into  a  gen- 
eral strike  when  a  settlement  was 
reached  on  June  2.  Wholesale 
arrests  of  pickets,  the  arrival  of 
1,300  soldiers,  a  drastic  injunc- 
tion against  mass  picketing,  the 
death  of  two  strikers  and  six 
wounded  were  the  developments 
of  this  strike.  On  July  16,  127,- 
000  workers  in  San  Francisco, 
California,  joined  in  a  general 
strike  to  help  20,000  longshore- 
men, on  strike  since  May  9,  and 
27,000  teamsters,  out  since  May 
13,  to  win  their  demands  for  con- 


strikes  and  Lockouts  KSH 


499  F         Strikes  and  Lockouts 


trol  of  hiring-  halls,  union  recog- 
nition, and  increased  pay.  For 
three  days  the  city  was  paralyzed. 

The  threats  of  vigilante  com- 
mittees forced  the  strike  leaders 
to  call  off  the  strike.  The  work- 
ers' grievances  were  submitted  to 
the  National  Longshoremen's 
Board.  On  Oct.  1  it  announced 
the  terms  of  settlement :  95  cents 
hourly  wage,  30-hour  working 
week,  and  joint  control  of  hiring 
halls  by  workers  and  employers. 
On  July  21,  the  Central  Labor 
Council  of  Minneapolis  voted 
financial  support  to  several 
thousand  truckers,  on  strike  since 
May  15  for  higher  wages  and 
recognition  of  their  union.  An 
effort  to  move  trucks  with  police 
protection  resulted  in  a  clash  in 
which  two  strikers  were  killed 
and  more  than  50  wounded. 
Martial  law  was  threatened. 

The  intervention  of  Governor 
Olson,  a  friend  of  organized  la- 
bor, resulted  in  a  victory  for  the 
union  and  the  strikers  returned 
to  work  on  Aug.  16.  On  Sept.  3, 
textile  workers  walked  out  on  a 
general  strike  for  a  30-hour 
week,  recognition  of  their  union 
and  abolition  of  the  'stretch-out.' 
Workers  responded  with  enthusi- 
asm in  the  North  and  the  South. 
'Flying  squadrons,'  pickets  in 
trucks  and  battered  cars,  de- 
scended on  mills  and  urged  tardy 
workers  out.  Militia  was  called 
out  in  five  States.  Numerous 
injunctions  were  issued.  Mar- 
tial law  was  declared  in  Georgia. 
Violence  was  widespread,  result- 
ing in  many  killed  and  hundreds 
wounded.  On  Sept.  17,  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt's  Board  of  In- 
quiry, headed  by  Governor  Wi- 
nant  of  New  Hampshire,  issued 
its  report  and  sustained  all  the 
charges  of  the  strikers.  On 
Sept.  24  the  strike  was  called 
off  on  the  personal  promise  of 
President  Roosevelt  that  the 
workers'  grievances  would  be  ad- 
justed on  the  basis  of  his  Board's 
recommendations. 

The  most  important  disputes  in 
1935  were  building  strikes  in 
Toledo,  New  York  City,  and 
other  cities  against  the  'security 
wage'  of  the  Works  Progress  Ad- 
ministration. Hours  were  ad- 
justed to  make  possible  the  pre- 
vailing wage.  From  April  23  to 
May  15,  33,000  workers  in  17 
plants  of  the  General  Motors 
Company  were  on  strike.  From 
Oct.  1  to  Dec.  21,  some  7,000 
longshoremen  throughout  the 
country  walked  out  for  union 
recognition  and  better  working 
conditions.  On  Sept.  23,  400,000 
bituminous  miners  struck  for  in- 
creased wages.  The  strike  was 
the  shortest  in  the  industry's  his- 
tory, and  resulted  in  a  complete 
victory  for  the  miners. 

The  years  1936  and  1937  were 
characterized  by  the  widespread 


application  of  the  'sit-down' 
strike.  From  Feb.  18  to  March 
21,  1936,  14,000  workers  in  the 
Akron,  Ohio  plant  of  the  Good- 
year Tire  and  Rubber  Co.  were 
on  strike  for  a  30-hour  week, 
increased  pay,  and  recognition  of 
their  union.  The  strike  spread 
to  the  major  companies  in  the 
city.  The  strikers  won  most  of 
their  demands.  The  Seattle 
Post-Intclligcnccr  was  forced  to 
suspend  publication  between 
Aug.  13  and  Nov.  30  by  a  strike 
of  27  editorial  workers  organ- 
ized in  the  American  Newspaper 
Guild.  Most  of  the  strikers'  de- 
mands were  granted.  On  Nov. 
27,  600  workers  in  the  Detroit 
plant  of  the  Midland  Steel  Prod- 
ucts Co.  started  a  'sit-down'  strike 
for  better  working  conditions 
and  the  recognition  of  their 
union,  the  United  Automobile 
Workers  of  America,  C.LO. 
group.  Their  demands  were 
granted. 

On  Dec.  30,  the  first  extensive 
'sit-down'  strike  broke  ovit  in  the 
Flint  plant  of  the  General  Motors 
Co.  By  February,  1937,  200,- 
000  workers  of  other  plants  of 
the  Company  were  involved.  Car 
production  dropped  from  53,000 
a  week  in  December  to  1,500.  At- 
tacks of  private  guards,  police, 
tear-gas  and  injvmctions  failed  to 
budge  the  strikers  from  the  oc- 
cupied plants.  Through  the  in- 
tervention of  Governor  Murphy 
of  Michigan  the  strike  ended  on 
Feb.  11.  The  union,  the 
U.T.W.A.,  was  recognized  as  the 
bargaining  agency  for  its  mem- 
bers and  the  wage  bill  was  raised 
by  $25,000,000.  In  March,  67,- 
000  employes  of  the  Chrysler 
Motor  Company  in  Detroit,  and 
10,000  workers  of  the  Hudson 
Motor  Company  started  'sit- 
down'  strikes  and  early  in  April 
returned  to  work  on  the  same 
terms  as  the  workers  of  the  Gen- 
eral Motors  Co. 

On  April  2,  2,000  men  of  the 
Ford  Motor  Company  in  Kansas 
City  walked  out  on  strike,  some 
remaining  in  the  plant,  against 
discrimination  of  vmion  members. 
Later  in  the  month  1,000  work- 
ers of  the  company  struck  in 
Richmond,  Calif,  against  the 
same  condition.  Both  strikes  re- 
sulted in  victory  for  the  workers. 
Emerged  victorious  in  the  auto- 
mobile industry,  the  C.I.O., 
through  its  Steel  Workers  Or- 
ganizing Committee,  next  at- 
tacked the  steel  industry.  On 
March  2,  1937,  the  Carnegie- 
Illinois  Steel  Corp.  signed  a  con- 
tract with  the  S.  W.  O.  C.  On 
May  12,  25,000  workers  of  the 
Jones  and  Laughlin  Steel  Corp. 
in  Pittsburgh  and  Aliquippa,  Pa., 
struck  for  a  collective  bargaining 
contract.  The  strike  was  called 
off  on  May  14.  In  a  referendum 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Na- 


tional Labor  Relations  Board  on 
May  19,  over  80  per  cent  of  the 
workers  voted  to  be  represented 
by  the  C.I.O.  union. 

On  May  26,  about  75,000 
workers  of  five  companies  of  the 
Little  Steel  industry,  including 
Republic  Steel,  Bethlehem,  Na- 
tional, Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube 
Co.,  struck  for  recognition  of  the 
same  union  and  better  working 
conditions.  The  employers  were 
defiant.  Widespread  violence 
was  the  result.  Some  20  strik- 
ers died  and  hundreds  were  in- 
jured in  clashes  with  police  and 
company  guards.  The  strike, 
after  several  months,  appeared  as 
a  defeat  for  the  workers.  Never- 
theless, at  the  end  of  the  year  85 
per  cent  of  the  steel  industry, 
representing  399  steel  com- 
panies and  covering  510,000 
workers,  were  under  contract 
with  the  Amalgamated  Associa- 
tion of  Iron,  Steel  and  Tin  Work- 
ers, a  C.I.O.  affiliate.  The  union 
grew  from  a  membership  of  10,- 
000  in  1936  to  over  200,000.  In 
May  the  United  Automobile 
Workers  of  America,  C.I.O., 
launched  its  drive  to  unionize  the 
last  stronghold  in  the  automobile 
industry  :  the  Ford  Motor  Com- 
pany. The  organizers  faced  a 
fighting  anti-union  employer  and 
considerable  opposition  and  vio- 
lence from  loyal  workers.  On 
May  26  workers  beat  up  several 
C.I.O.  organizers  at  the  Detroit 
plant.  On  June  5  a  company 
union  was  formed  by  loyal  em- 
ployes to  counteract  the  C.I.O. 
At  the  same  time  Mr.  Ford  chal- 
lenged the  legality  of  the  Na- 
tional Labor  Relations  Board. 
At  other  plants,  however,  the 
C.I.O.  organizers  met  with  some 
success.  When  the  St.  Louis 
plant  opened  on  Nov.  24,  after  a 
seasonal  shut  down,  members  of 
the  U.A.W.  picketed  it  and  crip- 
pled its  operation  for  several 
months.  On  Dec.  23  the  Na- 
tional Labor  Relations  Board 
sustained  the  union's  charges 
of  discrimination,  intimidation 
against  union  workers  in  the 
Ford  plants  and  found  Mr.  Ford 
guilty  of  violating  the  Wagner 
Act.  Mr.  Ford  planned  a  court 
fight.  Throughout  November 
some  20,000  employes  were  en- 
gaged in  unauthorized  'sit-down' 
strikes  in  several  plants  of  the 
General  Motors  Corporation,  pre- 
svimably  against  violations  of  the 
union  agreement  on  the  part  of 
the  Company.  These  strikes 
caused  an  interruption  in  the  ne- 
gotiations for  a  new  agreement 
pending  at  the  time  between  rep- 
resentatives of  the  vmion  and  the 
Company.  The  Company's 
spokesmen  would  not  discuss 
terms  until  the  workers  returned 
to  work.  As  a  result  of  the  in- 
tervention of  union  officials,  the 
strikers  returned  to  their  posts 


strikes  and  Lockouts 


KSH 


500  Strikes  and  Lockouts 


and  at  the  end  of  December  the 
union  and  the  Company  were 
still  negotiating  for  a  new  con- 
tract. 

In  October,  the  C.I.O.,  en- 
couraged by  President  Roose- 
velt's statement  on  Sept.  7  that 
the  organization  of  Government 
employes  for  'fair'  conditions, 
barring  strikes,  would  be  toler- 
ated, launched  its  drive  to  union- 
ize the  800,000  employes  on  the 
payroll  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment. At  the  end  of  the  year  it 
enrolled  several  thousand  work- 
ers, 600  employes  of  the  Treas- 
ury Department  alone,  in  the 
United  Federal  Workers  of 
America,  a  C.I.O.  afifiliate, 
formed  in  June.  On  Aug.  7  sev- 
eral hundred  workers,  led  by  the 
Cafeteria  Employes  Union  and 
the  Bakery  Workers  Union,  both 
A.  F.  of  L.  affiliates,  struck 
against  the  Horn  &  Hardart  Au- 
tomats in  New  York  for  shorter 
hours,  higher  pay  and  the  closed 
shop.  This  strike  was  marked 
by  mass  picketing  for  five 
months.  More  than  1,150  ar- 
rests were  made.  The  strike 
was  settled  on  Jan.  5,  1938  by 
Arthur  S.  Meyer,  member  of  the 
State  Mediation  Board.  The 
settlement  terms  held  little  con- 
solation for  the  workers.  The 
defeat  was  attributed  largely  to 
an  apathetic  public  who  patron- 
ized the  automats  despite  the 
long  picket  lines  outside. 

On  Sept.  13,  305  employes  in 
the  editorial  and  commercial  de- 
partments of  the  Brooklyn 
(N.  Y.)  Daily  Eagle,  answered 
the  strike  call  of  the  New  York 
Newspaper  Guild,  C.I.O.  affiliate. 
The  strike  was  characterized  by 
mass  picketing  of  the  newspaper 
plant  as  well  as  of  its  large  ad- 
vertisers, and  mass  parades  of 
sympathizing  trade  unions.  The 
circulation  and  revenue  of  the 
paper  were  crippled  substantially. 
Settlement  of  the  strike  was  ef- 
fected on  Dec.  23  through  the 
intervention  of  the  State  Media- 
tion Board.  The  Guild  was  rec- 
ognized and  all  other  conditions 
granted  were  satisfactory  to  the 
striking  employes.  On  Nov.  25, 
1,300  bus  drivers  on  eight  bus 
lines  in  northwestern  and  mid- 
western  States  struck  for  in- 
creased mileage  rates  and  recog- 
nition of  their  union,  the  Brother- 
hood of  Railroad  Trainmen.  On 
Dec.  1  the  strikers  returned  to 
work  with  a  settlement,  arranged 
by  a  mediator  from  the  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Labor,  granting  in- 
creased wages  but  no  closed  shop. 
,  Outstanding  of  the  gains  of 
organized  labor  in  1937  were 
shortening  of  the  work  week  and 
increase  in  pay.  A  contract, 
signed  in  July  by  the  Cloakmak- 
ers  Joint  Board  of  the  Interna- 
tional Ladies  Garment  Workers 
Union  and  the  manufacturers, 


granted  a  32^  hour  week,  effec- 
tive in  June,  1939.  Over  2,000,- 
000  workers,  through  the  C.I.O., 
gained  the  35  hour  and  36  hour 
work  week.  A  maximum  40 
hour  week  is  guaranteed  in  all 
C.I.O.  agreements.  Flat  glass 
workers  gained  the  6  hour  day. 
At  the  C.I.O.  conference  in  At- 
lantic City,  N.  J.,  Oct.  11,  it  was 
reported  its  members  gained  a 
rise  of  nearly  a  billion  dollars  in 
pay  as  a  result  of  the  organiza- 
tion's drives. 

Strikes  in  Other  Countries. 
— Statistics  of  strikes  and  lock- 
outs have  been  published  by  the 
departments  of  labor  of  the  major 
governments  of  the  world  since 
the  last  decade  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. They  may  be  found  in  the 
periodic  bulletins,  periodicals  and 
annual  reports  as  issued  by  those 
departments.  Since  the  World 
War  there  were  few  strikes  com- 
manding international  attention, 
with  the  exception  of  the  po- 
litical strikes  in  Germany  and 
the  railway  strike,  involving 
500,000  men,  in  1919  and  the 
nation-wide  coal  strike  in  1920 
in  Great  Britain. 

Recent  Tendencies. — T  h  e 
great  strikes  in  history  have 
usually  been  attended  by  acts  of 
violence,  destruction  of  property, 
much  public  inconvenience  and 
apprehension,  and  often  with 
loss  of  life.  The  tendency,  how- 
ever, especially  since  the  World 
War,  is  away  from  the  use  of 
violence,  a  fact  conspicuously 
brought  out  by  comparing  the 
Homestead  strike  of  1892  with 
the  steel  strike  of  1919,  which 
was  comparatively  free  from  vio- 
lence. While  acts  of  violence 
have  in  some  instances  been  at 
the  instigation  of  labor  leaders, 
the  worst  rioting  may  in  many 
instances  be  attributed  to  irre- 
sponsible persons  who  are  not 
immediately  concerned  in  the 
outcome  of  the  strike  but  who 
use  the  occasion  to  engage  in 
illegal  acts  under  the  guise  of 
strike  sympathizers.  Where 
countenanced  by  the  leaders 
in  a  strike,  the  adoption  of 
violent  measures  in  order  to  win 
the  strike  reacts  against  the 
strikers  through  the  alienation  of 
public  sympathy. 

While  it  is  true  that  violence 
in  labor  disputes  during  the 
formative  years  of  the  organized 
labor  movement  had  come  largely 
from  the  side  of  the  strikers, 
thus  necessitating  the  extensive 
employment  of  armed  company 
guards  and  police,  in  recent 
years,  however,  violence  has 
largely  come  from  these  private 
protective  agencies,  and  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  employment  of  strike- 
breakers. 

In  order  to  prevent  violence 
and  destruction  of  property  in 
the  course  of  a  strike,  proceed- 


ings in  equity  to  secure  injunc- 
tions are  frequently  brought  by 
the  employers.  Certain  acts, 
which  may  be  legal  themselves, 
may  be  included  in  the  list  of 
acts  restrained  by  an  injunction. 
This,  it  is  often  alleged  by  labor 
leaders,  results  in  serious  injus- 
tice to  the  strikers,  preventing 
them  from  peaceably  presenting 
their  side  of  the  dispute  to  strike- 
breakers, who  may  know  nothing 
of  the  merits  of  the  case.  At- 
tempts have  been  made  to  secure 
the  enactment  of  a  federal  law 
and  of  State  laws,  limiting  the 
issuance  of  the  injunction  in 
labor  disputes,  and  at  last  they 
are  proving  successful.  On 
March  23,  1932  Congress  had 
enacted  the  Norris-LaGuardia 
Anti-Injunction  Law,  which  re- 
strains the  judges  in  Federal 
courts  from  issuing  injunctions 
in  labor  disputes.  The  State 
of  Wisconsin  enacted  a  State 
Anti-Injunction  Law  similar  in 
form  to  that  of  the  Federal 
statute. 

It  is  only  within  recent  years 
that  legislation  in  the  United 
States  has  been  directed  toward 
the  settlement  of  industrial  dis- 
putes. Formerly  legal  action 
with  reference  to  such  contro- 
versies was  based  on  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  common  law,  and 
chiefly  on  the  law  governing 
criminal  conspiracy.  In  many  of 
the  States  the  laws  relative  to 
strikes,  boycotts,  etc.,  are  prac- 
tically reenactments  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  common  law.  Some 
of  these  laws  make  no  specific 
reference  to  labor  organizations, 
while  others  are  designed  to  regu- 
late directly  strikes  and  lockouts 
and  the  conditions  growing  out  of 
them.  In  many  of  the  States  and 
in  some  foreign  countries  pro- 
vision is  made  for  the  formation 
of  boards  of  arbitration,  before 
which  industrial  disputes  may  be 
arbitrated,  and  in  New  Zealand 
a  system  of  compulsory  arbitra- 
tion was  inaugurated  in  1894. 
The  first  attempt  at  compulsory 
arbitration  in  the  United  States 
was  made  in  the  State  of  Kansas 
by  the  establishment  of  the  Court 
of  Industrial  Relations  in  1920, 
but  it  was  condemned  as  uncon- 
stitutional by  the  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  and  abolished  in  1923. 
Other  methods  that  have  been 
tried  for  settling  labor  disputes 
are  profit-sharing,  cooperative  as- 
sociation of  employers  and  em- 
ployes, industrial  representation 
in  the  management  of  industry 
through  the  creation  of  shop  com- 
mittees, and  other  schemes  for 
making  mutual  the  interests  of 
the  two  parties — all  of  which 
had  proven  partly  successful  dur- 
ing the  years  of  prosperity. 
With  the  onset  of  the  depression 
in  1930  most  of  these  schemes 
were  abandoned. 


strikes  and  Lockouts  KSH 


501 


Strobel 


With  the  enactment  of  the  Na- 
tional Industrial  Recovery  Act 
by  the  Special  Session  of  the 
Seventy-third  Congress  (March 
9  to  June  15,  1933),  it  was 
hoped  that  the  forces  that  had 
worked  toward  industrial  strife 
in  the  past  would  be  gradually 
subdued  and  that  a  strikeless  era 
would  soon  ensue.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  provisions  of  the 
N.I.R.A.  was  that  every  code, 
agreement  and  license  approved 
must  contain  the  following  pro- 
visions : 

1.  That  employes  shall  have 
the  right  to  organize  and  bargain 
collectively  through  representa- 
tives of  their  own  choosing,  and 
shall  be  free  from  the  interfer- 
ence, restraint,  or  coercion  of 
employers  of  labor,  or  their 
agents,  in  the  designation  of 
such  representatives  or  in  self- 
organization  or  in  other  concerted 
activities  for  the  purpose  of  col- 
lective bargaining  or  other  mu- 
tual aid  or  protection. 

2.  That  no  employe  and  no 
one  seeking  employment  shall  be 
required  as  a  condition  of  em- 
ployment to  join  any  company 
union  or  to  refrain  from  joining, 
organizing,  or  assisting  a  labor 
organization  of  his  own  choosing. 

3.  That  employers  shall  com- 
ply with  the  maximum  hours  af 
labor,  minimvmi  rates  of  pay,  and 
other  conditions  of  employment, 
approved  or  prescribed  by  the 
President. 

With  such  provisions  incorpo- 
rated in  the  law  of  the  land,  labor 
unions  received  the  sanction  of 
government  and  of  the  nation, 
and  the  principal  causes  of  strife 
were  automatically  removed.  By 
investing  the  President  with 
licensing  powers,  Congress  prac- 
tically placed  the  prestige  and 
powers  of  the  government  be- 
hind the  objectives  and  principles 
of  organized  labor  and  made  it 
mandatory  for  the  government, 
through  the  N.I.R.A.,  to  inter- 
vene in  industrial  disputes.  The 
wave  of  strikes  that  followed 
in  the  wake  of  the  N.I.R.A. 
wa.s  principally  a  demonstration 
against  the  tardy  employers  who 
were  either  unwilling  to  comply 
with  or  were  trying  to  evade  the 
labor  provisions  of  the  codes  of 
their  respective  industries.  In 
practically  all  strikes  of  impor- 
tance the  N.I.R.A.,  during  its 
brief  career,  intervened  and  en- 
deavored to  effect  speedy  settle- 
ments on  terms  generally  favor- 
able to  the  workers. 

The  Industrial  Disputes  In- 
vestigation Act  of  Canada  came 
into  effect  in  1907.  This  Act 
provided  (in  the  case  of  any  dis- 
pute which  threatened  to  dis- 
turb the  commercial  and  indus- 
trial peace)  for  the  compulsory 
cessation  of  hostilities  by  both 
parties   for  a  period  of  thirty 


days,  during  which  time  a  duly 
appointed  board  was  to  be  em- 
powered to  investigate  the  mat- 
ter and  make  public  a  full  report 
thereon. 

See  Arbitration,  Indus- 
trial; Conciliation  Board; 
Factory  Acts  ;  Profit  Shar- 
ing; Trade  Union. 

Consult  Annual  Reports,  Bul- 
letins, Monthly  Review,  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Labor;  The  American 
Federationist  (monthly),  Week- 
ly News  Service,  A.  F.  of  L. ; 
Union  News  Service  (week- 
ly). The  C.I.O.  News  (weekly), 
Bulletins,  C.I.O. ;  Annual  Re- 
ports, Bulletins,  National  Labor 
Relations  Board;  The  American 
Labor  Year  Book ;  Labor  Fact 
Book,  Vols.  I-III  (Labor  Re- 
search Assn.)  ;  Frankfurter  & 
Greene,  The  Labor  Injunction 
(1930)  ;  J.  Seidman,  The  Yellow 
Dog  Contract  (1932)  ;  L.  L.  Lor- 
win.  The  American  Federation  of 
Labor  (1933)  ;  Labor  and  the 
Government  (1935-  )  Twen- 
tieth Century  Fund ;  S.  Yellen, 
American      Labor  Struggles 

(1936)  ;  C.  Carnes,  John  L. 
Lewis  (1936);  Commons  et  al.. 
History  of  Labor  in  the  United 
States  (4  vols.,  1936)  ;  M.  Keir, 
Labor's  Search  for  More  (1937)  ; 
J.  E.  Johnsen,  Industrial  Versus 
Craft  Unionism  (1937);  Min- 
ton  &  Stuart,  Men  IV ho  Lead  La- 
bor (1937)  ;  R.  R.  Brooks,  IVhen 
Labor  Organizes  (1937);  J.  R. 
Walsh,  C.I.O. :  Industrial  Union- 
ism in  Action  (1937)  ;  H.  C. 
Metcalf,  Collective  Bargaining 
for     Today     and  Tomorrow 

(1937)  ;  L.  Huberman.  The  La- 
bor Spy  Racket  (1937). 

Michael  B.  Scheler, 
Labor  and  Industrial  Specialist. 
Strindberg,  Johan  August 
(1849-1912),  Swedish  dramatist 
and  novelist,  was  born  in  Stock- 
holm, and  spent  a  harsh  and  un- 
happy boyhood,  which  is  re- 
flected in  his  first  drama.  Master 
Olaf,  written  in  1872.  After 
studying  at  the  University  of 
Upsala  for  a  time,  he  was 
variously  engaged  in  teaching, 
on  the  stage,  in  journalism,  and 
as  a  library  assistant,  living  a 
Bohemian  sort  of  life,  which  he 
pictured  in  his  next  work.  The 
Red  Room  (1879),  a  bitter  satire 
on  Swedish  society.  This  met 
with  immediate  success  and  was 
followed  by  The  Secrets  of  the 
Guild  (1880),  The  Netv  King- 
dom (1882),  Mr.  Bengt's  Wife 
(1882),  The  Travels  of  Lucky 
Peter  (1882),  and  Marriage  No. 
1  (1884),  all_  of  which  show 
traces  of  a  belief  in  womankind. 
But  a  change  soon  followed,  and 
in  Marriage  No.  2  (1886)  and 
The  Son  of  a  Servant  Girl 
(1886-7)  he  revealed  himself  as 
a  merciless  hater  of  women  and 
of  the  whole  social  order.  Other 
works  of  this  period  are  The 


Father  (1887).  the  first  of  his 
plays  to  be  staged  in  the  United 
States,  Julie  (1888),  The  Credi- 
tor, Hemsd  Folks  (1887)  and 
The  Lives  of  the  Animals. 
Strindberg's  religious  beliefs, 
which  he  lost  during  middle  life, 
returned  in  his  later  years  and 
he  became  a  mystic,  spending  the 
last  few  years  of  his  life  in  re- 
tirement. This  period  produced 
Christmas,  Easter,  Midsummer, 
Snowwhite,  Gustavus  Vasa, 
Erik  XIV,  Gustavus  Adolphus. 
Strindberg  was  three  times  mar- 
ried but  none  of  the  unions 
proved  lasting. 

String  Courses,  horizontal 
courses  projecting  beyond  the 
face  of  a  wall  to  break  up  a 
monotonously  smooth  surface. 
They  may  be  of  horizontally 
carved  moldings  or  absolutely 
plain  ;  but  in  either  case  the  up- 
per surface  must  slope  outward 
to  drain  off  the  rain-water. 

Stringed  Instruments,  musi- 
cal instruments  made  of  wood 
and  provided  with  strings  of  pre- 
pared wire  or  catgut,  plain  or 
covered.  They  are  of  three 
classes  :  ( 1 )  those  played  with  a 
bow,  as  the  violin,  viola,  violon- 
cello and  double  bass  (qq.  v.)  ; 
(2)  those  twanged  by  the  fingers, 
as  the  harp,  banjo,  guitar,  and 
mandolin  (qq.  v.)  ;  (3)  those 
played  with  keys,  as  the  piano 
and  organ  (qq.  v.).  In  instru- 
ments of  the  first  class  the  tone 
is  produced  by  drawing  a  bow 
made  of  horsehair  across  the 
strings  ;  in  class  two  the  vibra- 
tion is  produced  by  plucking  the 
strings  with  the  fingers.  In 
ordinary  parlance  instruments  of 
the  last  class  are  seldom  con- 
sidered as  stringed  instruments, 
although  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word  they  are  such. 

Stringhalt,  a  nervous  disease 
peculiar  to  the  horse,  character- 
ized by  a  spasmodic  action  of 
the  muscles  of  the  hind  legs, 
giving  the  animal  an  appearance 
of  jerking  up  the  leg  as  he  walks. 
It  is  sometimes  intermittent  but 
in  bad  cases  may  be  seen  in 
every  step.  It  is  aggravated  by 
hard  work.  Treatment  is  of 
little  use,  and  the  ailment  con- 
stitutes unsovmdness  in  the  ani- 
mal, although  it  may  not  greatly 
affect  its  usefulness. 

Strober,  Edward  Henry 
(1855-1908),  Arnerican  diplo- 
mat, was  born  in  Charleston, 
S.  C.  He  was  graduated  from 
Harvard  University  (1877),  and 
from  the  Harvard  law  school 
(1882),  and  was  secretary  and 
charge  d' affairs  of  the  United 
States  legation  in  Madrid  from 
1885-90.  He  was  sent  on  special 
missions  to  Morocco  in  1888  and 
1889;  later  was  Envoy  Extraor- 
dinary and  Minister  Plenipo- 
tentiarv  to  Ecuador  and  Chile. 
From  1898  to  1906  he  was  Bemis 


Strobilation 


KSD 


502 


Strombus 


Professor  of  international  law  at 
the  Harvard  law  school,  and 
during  that  period  went,  on 
leave  of  absence,  to  Siam  as 
general  advisor  to  that  govern- 
ment (1903-05).  In  1903  he  was 
appointed  a  member  of  The 
Hague  Permanent  Court  of  Ar- 
bitration. He  died  in  Bangkok, 
Siam.  He  published  The  Span- 
ish Revolution  (1898). 

Strobilation.  Professor  J.  S. 
Kingsley  defined  this  as  a  process 
of  reproduction  occurring  among 
certain  jellyfishes  (Discomedu- 
S(p),  in  which  the  larva  becomes 
transversely  divided  into  a  series 
of  disks  (Ephyrff),  each  of  which 
later  develops  into  a  medusa. 
The  partially  divided  larva  was 
formerly  regarded  as  an  adult, 
and  was  called  Strohila,  in  allu- 
sion to  its  appearance.  A  process 
akin  to  this  occurs  in  the  growth 
of  the  mushroom  corals  (Fungia) 
as  well  as  in  many  tapeworms,  in 
the  latter  resulting  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  'joints'  or  proglot- 
tids. 

Strobograph,  a  recording  ap- 
paratus for  the  stroboscope 
(q.  v.). 

Stroboscope,  according  to 
Professor  W.  Le  Conte  Stevens, 
an  instrument  for  examining  the 
motion  of  a  body  by  intermittent 
sight.  It  was  invented  in  1832, 
independently,  by  Plateau  in  Bel- 
gium and  Stampfer  in  Germany. 
In  its  simplest  form  it  consists  of 
a  disk  perforated  near  the  cir- 
cumference with  a  series  of 
equidistant  radial  openings, 
through  which  the  body  is  viewed 
while  the  disk  rotates  uniformly. 
Suppose,  for  example,  that  the 
body  is  vibrating,  and  that  the 
time  of  one  complete  vibration  is 
equal  to  that  required  for  the 
disk  to  rotate  through  the  angu- 
lar distance  between  two  succes- 
sive openings.  The  body  will  be 
seen  in  succession  at  the  same 
phase  of  its  motion,  and  will 
hence  appear  stationary.  If  the 
vibration  period  be  slightly 
greater  or  less,  the  body  will  be 
seen  successively  in  slightly  dif- 
ferent phases,  and  the  visual  im- 
pression is  that  of  slow  motion, 
the  rate  of  which  is  calculable  if 
the  rate  of  rotation  of  the  disk, 
the  number  of  openings,  and  the 
period  of  the  body  be  known.  If 
the  interval  of  time  between  the 
successive  momentary  views  of 
the  body  be  equal  to  or  less  than 
the  duration  of  the  retinal  im- 
pression produced  by  it,  the  per- 
ception is  uninterrupted.  This 
duration  decreases  with  increase 
of  time  of  exposure  of  the  retina 
and  with  increase  in  intensity  of 
the  light. 

The  law  determined  experi- 
mentally by  E.  S.  Ferry  in  The 
American  Journal  of  Science 
(Sept.  1892)  is  that  retinal  per- 
sistence varies  inversely  as  the 


logarithm  of  the  number  which 
expresses  the  brightness.  This 
means  that  if  the  intensity  is  in- 
creased by  multiplying  it  by  the 
second,  third  or  fourth  power  of 
some  constant  number,  the  cor- 
responding duration  will  be  one- 
half,  one-third,  or  one-fourth  of 
its  original  value.  Under  the 
conditions  of  ordinary  daylight 
this  duration  varies  from  one- 
fiftieth  to  one-tenth  of  a  second. 

The  principle  of  the  strobo- 
scope is  applied  in  instruments  to 
which  a  variety  of  names  have 
been  given,  such  as  thaumatrope, 
phenakistoscope,  vibroscope,  zoe- 
trope,  zoopraxiscope,  kinetoscope, 
etc.  If  a  succession  of  photo- 
graphs of  a  rapidly  moving  body 
be  taken  at  intervals  of  less  than 
one-tenth  of  a  second,  and  these 
be  appropriately  arranged  for 
examination  by  the  stroboscopic 
method,  the  resulting  perception 
is  that  of  the  body  in  actual  mo- 
tion. With  the  development  of 
instantaneous  photography  the 
preparation  of  such  series  of  pic- 
tures was  brought  to  a  high  de- 
gree of  perfection. 

Strode,  Ralph  (fl.  1350- 
1387),  English  scholar,  educated 
at  Oxford  University,  celebrated 
as  a  professor  of  logic  and  phi- 
losophy. He  was  a  voluminous 
writer  on  educational  science, 
and  also  wrote  excellent  poetry. 
He  played  a  not  unimportant  part 
in  the  scholasticism  of  the  14th 
century  and  his  name  is  linked 
with  those  of  St.  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas and  St.  Bonaventure  for  ex- 
pounding complete  and  grandiose 
theological  systems,  as  well  as 
for  conducting  learned  contro- 
versies with  other  school-men. 
Against  John  Wyclif's  doctrine 
of  predestination  Strode  launched 
a  profoundly  reasoned  attack  and 
also  defended  the  opulence  of  the 
clergy.  His  work,  Logica,  has 
been  lost ;  among  his  other  writ- 
ings which  have  survived  are  a 
treatise  on  the  syllogism,  Conse- 
quentice,  and  some  formal  exer- 
cises in  scholastic  dialectics. 

Strode,  William  (1598- 
1645),  an  English  member  of 
Parliament  who  fought  strenu- 
ously against  the  high-handed 
acts  of  Charles  i.  Together  with 
Denzil  Holies  (q.  v.)  he  was  one 
of  the  members  who  forcibly  held 
the  Speaker  in  his  chair  when 
that  officer  attempted  to  adjourn 
the  House  at  the  king's  command. 
Charged  with  treason  before  the 
Star  Chamber,  Strode  defended 
his  parliamentary  privileges  and 
refused  to  answer  for  'anything 
done  in  the  House  of  Parliament 
but  in  that  House.'  He  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  Tower  'during 
the  king's  pleasure,'  and  was 
held  incarcerated  for  eleven 
years.  He  was  set  free  in  1640 
and  subsequently  sat  in  the 
'Short'  and  'Long'  Parliaments. 


Parliamentary  control  over  min- 
isterial appointments  was  first 
proposed  by  him,  and  he  strongly 
supported  the  Grand  Remon- 
strance (q.  v.).  With  four  other 
members  he  was  impeached  of 
high  treason  in  1642,  yet  he 
stubbornly  rejected  all  sugges- 
tions of  compromise  with  the 
king  and  urged  preparation  for 
war  against  autocratic  majesty. 
Strode  was  present  at  Edge  Hill, 
the  first  battle  of  the  Great  Re- 
bellion, between  king  and  Par- 
liament,    October     23,  1642. 

Strodtmann,  Adolf  (1829- 
1879),  German  author.  He  took 
part  in  the  insurrection  of  1848 
and  was  captured  by  the  Danes. 
He  traveled  to  Paris,  London 
and,  in  1852,  to  New  York.  In 
that  city  and  Philadelphia  he 
worked  as  bookseller  and  jour- 
nalist for  four  years.  He  served 
as  newspaper  correspondent  in 
the  Franco-Prussian  War 
(1870-71).  He  published 
Amerikanische  A  n  thologie 
(1870),  excellent  translations 
from  American  lyric  poets.  He 
also  wrote  a  biography  and 
edited  the  poems  of  Heine. 

Strombidae,  a  family  of  gas- 
teropod  molluscs.  In  superficial 
character  the  shells  vary  consid- 
erably, but  they  have  all  a  more 
or  less  conic  spire  ;  in  most  the 
outer  lip  is  expanded  and  deeply 
notched  anteriorly.  Species  are 
found  in  all  tropical  waters. 

Stromboli,  strom'bo-le,  an  ac- 
tive volcano  on  the  island  of  the 
same  name,  one  of  the  group  of 
the  Lipari  Islands  (q.  v.),  north 
of  Sicily.  Stromboli  has  been 
uninterruptedly  emitting  hot 
stones  and  clouds  of  steam  from 
its  basin  of  molten  lava  since  the 
earliest  period  of  history.  The 
lava  in  its  crater  rises  and  falls 
Vv'ith  a  slow  rhythmical  move- 
ment. At  every  rise  the  surface 
swells  into  great  blisters,  which 
burst,  and  clouds  of  steam  rush 
out  carrying  hundreds  of  glowing 
fragments  of  lava,  often  to  the 
height  of  1,200  feet.  For  cen- 
turies its  glare  at  night  has 
served  as  a  beacon  for  mariners. 
Stromboli  is  almost  in  a  straight 
line  between  Vesuvius  and  Etna, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  on  the  same 
geological  'fault' ;  but  there  is 
no  evidence  of  any  subterranean 
connection  between  them.  Even 
during  the  most  violent  erup- 
tions of  Vesuvius,  Stromboli  has 
continued  its  normal  eruptions. 
It  was  in  violent  eruption  in 
1907,  1912.  1915,  and  1916,  and 
caused  widespread  destruction. 

Stromboli  has  an  area  of  8 
square  miles  and  a  height  of 
3,040  feet.  There  is  an  extinct 
crater  on  the  top ;  the  active 
crater  is  on  the  side,  more  than 
2,000  feet  up.  The  little  town  of 
Stromboli  lies  on  the  east  side. 

Strombus,  or  Wing-shells,  a 


Sltromiiess 

genus  of  marine  tropical  gastero- 

Eods,  in  which  the  spiral  shell 
as  an  expanded  lip,  deeply 
notched  near  the  canal.  The 
best-known  species  is  S.  gigas 
from  the  W.  Indies,  with  a  shell 
weighing  sometimes  from  four  to 
five  pounds.  It  is  imported  into 
Britain  for  cameo-carving,  and  is 
ground  for  use  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  porcelain.  The  animals 
are  very  active,  and  progress  by 


S  trombus. 


leaps.  They  live  chiefly  upon 
carrion,  and  have  very  well  de- 
veloped eyes,  placed  at  the  ends 
of  long  stalks. 

Stromness,  seapt.  tn.,  s.w.  of 
Pomona,  Orkney  Isles,  Scotland, 
14  m.  w.  by  S.  of  Kirkwall;  has 
fishing  and  shipbuilding,  and  is  a 
summer  resort.  Pop.  (1911)  1,656. 
See  Scott's  Pirate. 

Strong,  Augustus  Hopkins 
(1836),  American  educator,  was 
born  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and 
graduated  (1857)  at  Yale,  and  at 
Rochester  Theological  Seminary 
in  1859,  continuing  his  studies 
in  German  universities.  He  was 
pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church 
at  Haverhill,  Mass.,  from  1861  to 
1865,  and  of  the  First  Baptist 
Church  at  Cleveland,  O.,  from 
1865  to  1872,  when  he  was  elected 
to  the  presidency  and  chair  of 
systematic  theology  in  Rochester 
Theological  Seminary.  He  pub- 
lished Systematic  Theology  (188G), 
Philosophy  and  Religion  (1888), 
Great  Poets  and  their  Theology 
(1897),  and  Christ  in  Creation 
and  Ethical  Monism  (1899). 

Strong,  Caleb  (1745-1819), 
American  politician,  born  at 
Northampton,  Mass.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  1764,  and  in 
1772  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 
After  service  in  both  houses  of 
the  Mass.  legislature,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Constitutional 
Convention  at  Philadelphia, 
U.  S.  senator  in  1789-96,  and 
governor  of  Mass.  in  1800-07 
and  1812-16.  He  was  a  strong 
Federalist,  and  during  the  War 
of  1812  assumed  an  attitude 
antagonistic  to  the  government, 

f)ut  obstacles  in  the  way  of  en- 
istments,  refused  to  call  out  the 
state  militia  at  the  call  of  the 
President,  taking  the  position 
that  the  governor  had  the  power 
to  decide  when  such  action  was 


503 

necessary,  and  in  1814  definitely 
withdrew  the  militia  of  Mass. 
from  the  service  of  the  U.  S. 
He  favored  the  Hartford  Con- 
vention, and  approved  of  its 
report.  See  Bradford's  Life  of 
Caleb  Strong  (1820). 

Strong,  George  Crockett 
(1832-63),  American  soldier,  born 
at  Stockbridge,  Vt.  He  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1857; 
served  on  Gen.  McDowell's  staff 
at  Bull  Run,  and  afterward  on 
those  of  Generals  McClellan 
and  Butler;  commanded  the 
expeditions  against  Biloxi  and 
Ponchatoula;  was  commissioned 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers 
in  November,  1862;  participated 
in  the  capture  of  Morris  Island; 
and  was  mortally  wounded  in  an 
assault  on  Fort  Wagner  on  July 
18,  1863.  He  published  Cadet 
Life  at  West  Point  (1862). 

Strong,  James  (1822-94), 
American  educator  and  scholar, 
was  born  in  New  York  city,  and 
graduated  (1844)  at  _  Wesleyan. 
He  was  instructor  in  ancient 
languages  at  Troy  Conference 
Academy,  West  Poultney,  Vt., 
during  1844-6,  and  professor  of 
Biblical  literature  and  acting 
president  at  Troy  University 
during  1858-63.  From  1868  un- 
til 1893  he  was  professor  of 
exegetical  theology  at  Drew 
Theological  Seminary,  having 
meanwhile  followed  private  pur- 
suits at  Flushing,  L.  I.,  during 
1848-57.  From  1871  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Anglo-American 
Bible  Revision  Committee,  and 
during  several  years  he  lectured 
at  the  Round  Lake  Summer 
School.  He  published  English 
Harmony  ana  Exposition  of  the 
Gospels  (1852),  Irenics  (1883), 
and  The  Tabernacle  of  Israel  in 
the  Desert  (1888),  and  was  for 
many  years  engaged  on  the 
monumental  work,  the  Cyclo- 
paedia of  Biblical,  Theological, 
and  Ecclesiastical  Literature  (10 
vols.  1867-81),  of  which  he 
edited  the  first  three  volumes  in 
conjunction  with  Dr.  John  Mc- 
Clintock,  and  the  last  seven 
alone.  His  Exhaustive  Concord- 
ance of  the  Bible  (1895),  the  result 
of  thirty-five  years'  work,  was 
published  after  his  death.  See 
Buttz's  Memoir  in  the  posthu- 
mously published  Student's  Com- 
mentary on  the  Book  of  Psalms 
(1896). 

Strong,  JosiAH  {1847%  Ameri- 
can sociologist,  born  in  Naper- 
ville.  111.  He  graduated  at  the 
Western  Reserve  College,  studied 
at  the  Lane  Theological  Seminary, 
and  filled  pastorates  in  the  Con- 
regational  churches  of  Cheyenne, 
andusky,  and  Cincinnati.  In 
^^02  he  was  elected  president 
^^f  the  American  Institute  of 
Social  Service.  In  connection 
with  this  organization  for  social 
betterment,  he  established  in  1905 


Strong 

a  Museum  of  Security,  designed 
to  safeguard  workers,  indoors 
and  out. 

Strong,  Sir  Samuel  Henry 
(1825),  Canadian  jurist,  born  at 
Poole,  Dorchester,  England.  At 
tlic  age  of  eleven  he  emigrated 
to  Canada  with  his  father,  and 
settled  at  Kingston,  Ontario. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1849,  practised  for  several  years 
in  the  courts  of  Upper  Canada, 
and  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  commission  for  the  consolidat- 
ing of  the  statutes  of  Upper 
Canada  (1856).  In  1860  he  was 
appointed  to  the  faculty  of  the 
Law  Society  of  Upper  Canada, 
which  position  he  retained  until 
1869,  when  he  was  made  a  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  Court  of 
Chancery.  Five  years  afterwards 
he  was  transferred  to  the  Ontario 
Court  of  Error  and  Appeal,  and  in 
the  following  year  was  made  a 
puisne  judge  in  the  newly  created 
Supreme  Court  of  Canada.  He 
was  created  a  Q.c.  in  1863.  In 
1892-1902  he  was  chief  justice 
of  Canada.  He  was  knighted 
in  1893,  and  in  1897  becarne  a 
member  of  the  Privy  Council  of 
England. 

Strong,  Theodore  (1790- 
1869),  American  mathematician, 
born  in  South  Hadley,  Mass.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1812,  was 
tutor  in  mathematics  in  Hamilton 
College  in  1813-17,  and  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy  there  in  1817-27. 
In  1827-61  he  was  professor  of 
mathematics  in  Rutgers  College, 
and  in  1839-63  was  vice-president 
of  that  institution.  He  attained 
great  eminence  as  an  instructor 
in  mathematics  and  was  an  active 
contributor  to  the  mathematical 
and  physical  journals.  His  pub- 
lications include:  Treatise  on 
Elementary  Algebra  (1859),  and 
Treatise  on  the  Differential  and 
Integral  Calculus  (1869). 

Strong,  William  (1808-95), 
American  jurist,  born  in  Somers, 
Conn.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
in  1828,  and  in  1832  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  beginning  his 
practice  in  Reading,  Pa.  He 
was  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1847-51,  and  justice  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1857-68.  In  1870  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  justice  of  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court  by  Grant,  re- 
signing in  1880.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Electoral  Com- 
mission of  1877. 

Strong,  William  L.  (1827- 
1900),  American  merchant,  was 
born  at  Londonville,  O.,  and 
was  occupied  as  a  dry-goods 
clerk  in  that  state  until  his  re- 
moval to  New  York  city  in  1853, 
where  he  took  up  the  same  occu- 

gation.  He  joined  the  firm  of 
utton.  Smith  &  Co.  in  1863,  its 
name  being  altered  to  William 
L.  Strong  &  Co.  in  1870.  Mr. 


Strongbow 


504 


Strong  was  active  in  Republican 
politics  and  was  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  Congress  in  1882. 
In  1894  he  was  elected  a  reform 
mayor  of  New  York  city  through 
the  combination  of  the  Republi- 
cans and  the  anti  -Tammany 
Democrats.  His  term  expired 
Dec.  31,  1897. 

Strongbow  (d.  1176),  surname 
of  Richard  de  Clare  of  Strigul, 
son  of  the  first  Earl  of  Pembroke. 
Entering  into  an  alliance  with  the 
king  of  Leinster,  he  married  his 
daughter.  Landing  in  Ireland, 
he  took  Dublin,  and  on  the  death 
of  Dermot  succeeded  as  king  of 
Leinster,  He  became  a  vassal  of 
Henry  ll.,  king  of  England,  and 
seneschal  of  Ireland  (1173). 

Stronsay,  isl.,  Orkney  group, 
Scotland,  12  m.  n.e.  of  Kirkwall. 
Area,  15  sq.m.   Pop.  (1911)  1,217. 

Strontianite.    See  Strontium. 

Strontianite  is  the  common 
mineral  carbonate  of  strontium, 
SrCOo,  Sr,  70.3  per  cent.  The 
corresponding  sulphate  Celestite 
is  also  a  common  mineral,  and 
these  two  are  the  chief  representa- 
tives of  the  element  Sr  in  nature. 

Strontianite  gives  a  red  flame 
color  before  the  blowpipe.  By 
treatment  with  nitric  acid  the 
nitrate  is  readily  produced  which 
is  extensively  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  fireworks  for  red  effects. 
The  minerals  are  found  in  N.  Y. 

Strontium,  Sr,  87.6,  a  metalHc 
element  of  the  calcium  family, 
found  chiefly  in  celestine,  SrSO., 
and  strontianite,  SrCOs,  derived 
from  Strontian  in  Argyllshire, 
Scotland.  It  is  prepared  by  the 
electrolysis  of  its  fused  chloride, 
and  is  a  hard  yellowish  metal,  of 
specific  gravity  2.5,  which  acts  on 
water,  setting  free  hydrogen.  Of 
its  compounds,  strontium  oxide, 
SrO,  is  a  white,  solid-like  quick- 
lime, that  slakes  in  a  similar  way 
to  form  the  hydroxide,  Sr(OH)2. 
The  salts  of  strontium  are  in  gen- 
eral soluble  in  water,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  sulphate,  phosphate, 
and  carbonate,  and  are  character- 
istic in  imparting  a  brilliant  crim- 
son color  to  the_  flame.  Stron- 
tium hydroxide  is  used  in  the 
beet-sugar  industry  to  recover 
crystallizable  sugar  from  the  mo- 
lasses, and  strontium  nitrate  in 
pyrotechny  to  make  red  fire. 

Strop hanthus,  a  genus  of 
tropical  shrubs  and  trees  belong- 
ing to  the  order  Apocynaceae. 
They  are  mostly  natives  of  Asia 
or  Africa,  and  of  considerable 
beauty.  They  bear  terminal 
cyrnes  of  large,  red,  yellow,  or 
white  infundibuliform  flowers. 
They  require  stove  cultivation,  a 
light  peaty  soil  being  the  best  com- 
post. The  seeds_  of  S.  hispidus 
are  used  in  medicine,  the  alkaloid 
strophanthin  acting  as  a  cardiac 
stimulant  and  diuretic,  much  after 
the  manner  of  digitalin. 


Strossmayer,  Josef  Georg 
(1815-1905),  Austrian  bishop  and 
scholar,  was  born  at  Essek  in 
Slavonia,  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  first  council  of  the 
Vatican  (1869-70).  He  was  a 
zealous  supporter  of  the  Croa- 
tian nationalist  aspirations,  the 
creator  of  the  existing  educational 
systems  of  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and 
Dalmatia,  and  was  made  bishop 
of  Diakovar  in  Croatia  in  1849. 

Strother  ,  David  Hunter 
(1816-88),  American  illustrator 
and  author,  was  born  at  Mar- 
tinsburg,  Va.  (now  W.  Va.),  and 
studied  drawing  under  Pietro 
Ancora  in  Philadelphia,  and 
under  S.  F.  B.  Morse  in  New  York 
city.  He  travelled  extensively  in 
the  West,  and  passed  the  years 
from  1840  to  1845  in  Europe. 
He  then  studied  drawing  on  wood 
with  J.  G.  Chapman  in  New  York, 
and,  returning  to  Martinsburg, 
prepared  his  humorous  'Porte 
Crayon'  papers,  which  appeared 
serially,  and  in  book  form  as  The 
Backwater  Chronicle  (1853)  and 
Virginia  Illustrated  (1857),  sup- 
plying his  own  illustrations. 
From  1861  to  1864  he  served  in 
the  Federal  army,  and  was 
brevetted  brigadier  -  general  in 
1865.  Mr.  Strother  was  consul- 
general  to  Mexico  from  1879  to 
1885. 

Stroud,  mrkt.  tn.,  Glouces- 
tershire, England,  10  m.  s.  of 
Gloucester.  The  town  hall  dates 
from  the  15th  century.  Stroud 
is  the  chief  seat  of  the  west  of 
England  fine  cloth  manufacture, 
and  has  long  been  famous  for  its 
scarlet  dyes.   Pop.  (1911)  8,772. 

Stroudsburg,  bor.,  Pa.,co.  seat 
of  Monroe  co.,  30  m.  N.w.  by 
N.  of  AUentown,  on  the  Analo- 
mink  R.,  a  branch  of  the  Dela- 
ware R.,  and  on  the  D.,  L.  and 
W.,  the  Deh  Val.,  and  the  N.  Y., 
Sus.  and  W.  R.  Rs.  Situated 
"amid  beautiful  scenery,  three 
miles  from  Delaware  Watergap, 
it  is  a  popular  summer  resort. 
There  are  railroad  shops  and 
manufactories  of  silk  and  woollen 
goods,  boilers,  engines,  and  em- 
ery wheels.  Grain  is  raised  in  the 
district.  A  state  normal  school  is 
situated  at  East  Stroudsburg. 
The  first  settlement  was  piade 
here  in  1725,  and  the  borough  was 
incorporated  in  1836.  Pop.C1910) 
4,379. 

Structural  Iron  Work  and 
Construction.  See  Building 
and  Steel  and  Iron  Construc- 
tion. 

Struensee,  Johann  Fried- 
rich,  Count  (1737-72),  Danish 
statesman,  born  at  Halle,  Saxony, 
\vas  made  (1768)  private  phy- 
sician to  King  Christian  vii.  of 
Denmark.  After  reconciling  the 
king  and  queen,  Caroline,  sister 
of  George  iii.  of  England,  his 
influence  grew  paramount  (1770), 
and  he  became  involved  in  an 


intrigue  with  the  queen;  the 
weak-minded  king  was  excluded 
from  affairs,  and  in  July,  1771, 
Struensee  became  prime  minister. 
In  domestic  affairs  he  was  one 
of  the  most  energetic  of  the  en- 
lightened despots  of  the  18th 
century.  His  violence,  remorse- 
lessness,  and  absolute  disregard 
of  the  prejudices  of  the  Danish 
people  raised  against  him  a  strong 
national  party,  headed  by  the 
crown  prince  and  the  queen  dow- 
ager. In  January,  1772,  the  con- 
spirators forced  the  king  to  sign 
a  warrant  for  the  arrest  of  the 
queen  and  Struensee.  The  latter 
was  beheaded  in  April.  His  tragic 
fate  has  been  the  subject  of  several 
plays.  See  Wittich's  Struensee 
(1878),  Blangstrup's  Christian  VI. 
og  Caroline  Matilde  (ed.  1894). 

Struma.   See  Scrofula. 

Struma,  or  Karasu,  riv.,  Bal- 
kan peninsula,  rising  about  20  m, 
s.  of  Sofia,  and  flowing  w.,  then 
S.E.,  through  Bulgaria  and  the 
Turkish  vilayet  of  Saloniki,  to  the 
Gulf  of  Rendina  in  the  .^gean  Sea. 

Strut,  in  framed  structures, 
any  pillar  that  supports  a  weight 
or  thrust  in  general;  hence  it  is 
under  compression,  while  a  tie  is 
in  tension.    See  Column. 

Strutt,  John  William.  See 
Rayleigh,  Baron. 

Strutt,  Joseph  (1749-1802), 
English  antiquary  and  engraver, 
was  born  at  Springfield,  Essex, 
and  apprenticed  to  an  engraver. 
After  1771  he  devoted  himself  to 
study  at  the  British  Museum.  His 
works  are  Regal  and  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Antiquities  (1773);  Manners, 
Customs,  etc.,  of  the  People  of 
England  (1774-6);  Chronicle  of 
England  (1777-8);  Biographical 
Dictionary  of  Engravers  (1785-6); 
Sports  and  Pastimes  of  the  People 
of  England  (1801;  new  ed.  by  J.  C. 
Cox,  1904). 

Struve,  Friedrich  Georg 
Wilhelm  von  (1793-1864),  Ger- 
man astronomer,  was  born  at 
Altona,  and  appointed  in  1813 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Dor- 
pat,  and  director  of  the  observa- 
tory in  1818.  He  issued  in  1820  a 
catalogue  of  795  double  stars,  and 
with  a  9-in.  Fraunhofer  refractor 
he  executed  (1825-7)  a  review  of 
the  heavens,  in  the  course  of  » 
which  he  examined  120,000  stars 
and  discovered  2,343  new  pairs. 
These  results  were  embodied  in 
Catalogus  Novus  (1827),  including 
3,112  entries,  and  with  details  of 
measurement,  in  the  standard 
work  Mensurce  Micrometrica 
(1837).  Their  proper  movements 
were  added  in  Stellarum  Dupli- 
cium  Positiones  Medioe  (1852). 
Summoned  by  Czar  Nicholas  i. 
in  1835  to  superintend  the  erec- 
tion of  the  observatory  of  Pul- 
kowa,  Struve  was  installed  as  its 
director  in  1839,  and  published  in 
1843  a  catalogue  of  514  double 
stars.    He  resigned  in  1862.  The 


Struve 


505 


Stuart 


measurement  of  the  Russo-Scan- 
dinavian  arc,  25''  20'  in  length,  was 
completed  under  his  direction  in 
1855.  In  Etudes  d'Astronomie 
Stellaire  (1847)  he  attempted  to 
reinstate  the  stratum  theory  of 
the  Milky  Way. 

Struve,  Otto  Wilhelm  von 
(1819-1905),  German  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Dorpat.  At  the  age 
of  twenty  he  became  assistant  to 
his  father,  F.  G.  W.  von  Struve, 
at  Pulkova,  and  discovered  be- 
fore 1843,  514  close  double  stars. 
Operations  for  the  survey  of  the 
Russian  empire  were  carried  out 
in  1845-G  under  his  superintend- 
ence, and  he  succeeded  his  father 
as  director  of  the  Pulkova  observ- 
atory in  18G2.  The  first  estimate 
of  the  sun's  velocity  was  given 
hy  him  in  1842;  he  executed 
micrometrical  measurements  of 
Saturn's  ring  system  in  1851,  and 
again  for  comparison  _  in  1882; 
and  calculated  the  orbits  of  sev- 
eral comets  and  binary  stars.  He 
visited  the  U.  S.  in  1879  for  the 
purpose  of  ordering  the  object- 
glass  of  the  proposed  telescope 
for  the  observatory  at  Pulkova 
from  A.  Clark  &  Sons,  and  on 
the  completion  of  the  glass,  he 
came  again  in  1883  to  receive  it. 
He  retired  in  1889. 

Strychnine  C21H22N2O2,  a  ter- 
tiary amine  derived  from  pyri- 
dine, and  found  in  the  fruit  of 
Strychnos  nux  vomica  and  in  St. 
Ignatius's  bean  to  an  extent  vary- 
ing from  one  to  five  per  cent. 
The  strychnine,  with  the  brucine 
occurring  along  with  it,  is  set 
free  by  treating  the  powdered 
seeds  with  lime,  and  extracted  by 
a  solvent,  such  as  chloroform, 
from  which,  after  separation  in 
the  form  of  sulphate,  the  bru- 
cine is  dissolved  out  by  dilute  al- 
cohol, and  the  strychnine  is  puri- 
fied by  crystallization.  Strych- 
nine crystallizes  in  small  color- 
less trimetric  prisms,  which  are 
slightly  soluble  in  water,  forming 
an  intensely  bitter  solution.  It 
forms  salts  with  acids,  the  most 
important  being  the  sulphate, 
which  is  also  intensely  bitter, 
iDUt  more  soluble  than  the  base 
itself.  Strychnine  is  recogniza- 
ble by  the  blue-violet  color  it 
gives  when  its  solution  in  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid  is  acted 
on  by  potassium  bichromate  or 
other  oxidizing  agent,  the  color 
soon  changing  to  red  and  green. 
Small  doses  of  strychnine  or  its 
salts  are  valuable  as  a  stomachic, 
and  as  a  heart  and  respiratory 
stimulant;  but  in  larger  amounts 
it  acts  as  a  virulent  poison,  set- 
ting up  violent  tetanic  convul- 
sions, which  eventually  cause 
death  from  exhaustion  and  suf- 
focation. In  cases  of  poisoning 
little  can  be  done  except  by  a 
physician,  whose  aim  is  to  relax 
the  muscles  by  the  action  of 
anaesthetics,  such  as  chloroform, 


to  remove  the  poison  by  powerful 
emetics  or  stomach  washes,  to 
administer  antispasmodics  as 
chloral,  and  finally,  to  keep  up 
the  respiration. 

Strychnos,  a  genus  of  tropical 
evergreen  trees  belonging  to  the 
order  Loganiaceae.  The  most  im- 
portant member  of  the  genus  is 
S.  nux  vomica,  whose  seeds  are 
used  in  medicine  on  account  of 
the  strychnine  they  contain. 

Stryj,  tn.,  Galicia,  Austria, 
40  m.  s.  of  Lemberg,  with  tanning 
and  the  manufacture  of  matches. 
Pop.  (1900)  23,205. 

Stryker,  Melancthon  Wool- 
SEY  (1851),  American  clergyman 
and  teacher,  was  born  at  Vernon, 
N.  Y.,  and  graduated  from  Ham- 
•ilton  College,  N.  Y.,  in  1872,  and 
from  Auburn  Theological  Semi- 
nary in  1876.  He  s'='rved  as  a 
Presbyterian  pastor  in  Auburn, 
N.  Y.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  (1878-83), 
Holyoke,  Mass.  (1883-5),  and 
Chicago  (1885-92).  In  1892  he 
was  elected  president  of  Hamilton 
College.  He  is  the  author  of  Song 
of  Miriam  (1888);  Church  Son^ 
(hymnal,  1889);  Dies  IrcB  (1893); 
Hamilton,  Lincoln  and  Addresses 
(1895);  Letters  of  James  (1895); 
College  Hymnal  (1897);  Well  by 
the  Gate  (sermons,  1903). 

Strype,  John  (1643-1737),  Eng- 
lish ecclesiastical  historian  and 
biographer,  born  in  Stepney, 
near  London;  became  minister  of 
Leyton,  Essex,  in  1669.  Strype's 
works  are  of  great  value  to 
students  of  history.  The  prin- 
cipal are  Memorials  of  Cranmcr 
(1694),  Life  of  Sir  John  Cheke 
(1705),  Annals  of  the  Reformation 
(1709-3 1),  Ecclesiastical  Memorials 
(1721).  See  Maitland's  Notes  on 
Strype  (1858). 

Stuart,  a  royal  family  of 
Scotland  and  England  which 
traces  descent  from  a  Norman 
baron  who  went  to  England  with 
the  Conqueror  and  whose  second 
son  Walter,  in  the  service  of  David 
I.  of  Scotland,  became  steward, 
whence  the  name.  The  spellings 
'Stuart,'  'Stewart,'  and  'Steuart' 
have  been  used  for  the  various 
branches  of  the  family;  'Stuart'  is 
commonly  used  in  the  U.  S.  See 
Stewart,  House  of. 

Stuart,  city,  Adair  and  Guthrie 
COS.,  la.,  38  m.  w.s.w.  of  Des 
Moines,  and  on  the  Chi.,  Rock  I. 
and  Pac.  R.  R.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  cigars  and  buggies. 
There  is  a  public  library.  It  was 
settled  in  1869  and  incorporated  in 
1877.   Pop.  (1910)  1,826. 

Stuart,  Lady  Arabella  (1575- 
1615),  daughter  of  Charles  Stuart, 
Earl  of  Lennox,  younger  brother 
of  Lord  Darnley.  During  the 
first  six  years  of  his  reign  her 
cousin,  James  i.,  treated  Arabella 
with  consideration;  but  in  1603 
she  was  suddenly  arrested,  owing, 
it  is  supposed,  to  a  rumor  that 
she  was  engaged  to  marrv  a  for- 


eigner. She  soon  made  her  peace 
with  the  king;  but  in  July,  1610, 
James,  on  hearing  of  her  secret 
marriage  with  William  Seymour, 
threw  the  latter  into  the  Tower, 
and  placed  Arabella  in  safe  cus- 
tody. In  1611  Seymour  escaped 
to  Ostcnd;  but  Arabella  was  cap- 
tured near  Calais,  and  being  put 
into  the  Tower,  her  prolonged 
and  hopeless  captivity  made  her 
reason  give  way  before  death 
ended  her  sorrows. 

Stuart,  Charles  Edward 
Louis  Philip  Casimir  (1720-88), 
the  'Young  Pretender'  or  'Bonnie 
Prince  Charlie,'  was  the  eldest  son 
of  James  Francis  Edward  Stuart. 
After  serving  in  the  Polish  and 
Austrian  Succession  wars,  he 
sailed  to  Scotland  from  France  in 
1745,  and  headed  a  movement  on 
behalf  of  his  father's  claim  to  the 
English  throne.  He  was  joined 
by  the  Highlanders,  and  occupied 
Edinburgh,  except  the  Castle. 
After  holding  his  court  at  Holy- 
rood,  he  defeated  Cope  at  Pres- 
tonpans,  and  with  6,500  men 
marched  into  England.  The 
quarrels  among  his  followers 
led  to  diversity  of  counsels,  and 
after  reaching  Derby  he  decided 
to  retire  to  Scotland.  Though 
Charles  Edward  won  the  battle 
of  Falkirk  on  Jan.  17,  1746,  he 
was  overthrown  by  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland  at  Culloden  on  April 
16,  and  fled  to  the  western  High- 
lands. _  Aided  by  the  loyalty  of 
the  Highlanders  and  by  Flora 
Macdonald,  he  escaped  capture; 
and  after  five  months  of  wan- 
dering about  the  west  coast  he 
reached  France.  After  the  treaty 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748  he  was 
not  allowed  to  reside  in  France, 
and  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in- 
various  places  on  the  Continent. 
In  1772  he  married  the  Countess 
of  Albany.  See  The  Lyon  in 
Mourning  and  Itinerary  (Scot. 
Hist.  Soc,  1895-7),  Lang's  Prince 
Charles  Edward  (1900),  and 
Norie's  Life  and  Adventures  of 
Prince  Charles  Edward  Stuart 
(1903-4). 

Stuart,  Gilbert  (1755-1828), 
the  most  noted  American  por- 
trait painter  of  his  time,  born  at 
Narragansett,  R.  I.,  the  son  of 
a  snutf  -  grinder.  At  fifteen  he 
began,  without  instruction,  to 
paint  portraits  that  attracted  the 
attention  of  a  young  Scotch  art- 
ist, named  Alexander,  who  took 
him  to  Scotland  in  1772.  Two 
years  afterwards  he  returned  to 
America,  and  painted  portraits  in 
Newport  and  in  Philadelphia 
until  1775,  when,  he  sailed  for 
T^ondon,  where  for  a  time  he 
played  the  organ  in  a  small 
church.  In  1778  he  entered  Ben- 
jamin West's  studio,  where  he  re- 
mained four  years  as  a  pupil  and 
assistant,  then  establishing  a  stu- 
dio of  his  own.  In  1792  he  re- 
turned to  the  United  States,  and 


Stuart 


506 


Stuart 


after  painting  por 
York  and  Pniladelphia,  among 
them  the  Washington  portrait  of 
1795,  he  settled  in  1806  in  Boston. 
His  fame  rests  largely  upon  his 
many  portraits  of  Washington,  of 
which,  including  repHcas,  some 
forty  examples  are  known,  the 
best  of  them  remarkable  for 
strength,  dignity,  and  rich  color. 
They  are  to  be  found  in  the  chief 
museums  of  the  country.  The 
list  of  his  portraits  painted  in 
London,  where  he  exhibited  at 
the  Royal  Academy  in  1779  and 
in  1782,  include  those  of  Lady 
Erskine,  Lord  Lansdowne,  George 
III.,   George  iv.,  Louis  xvi.  of 


Mason's  Life  and  Works  of  Gil- 
bert Stuart  (1879)  and  Isham's 
History  of  American  Painting 
(1905). 

Stuart,  Henry  Benedict 
Maria  Clement,  Duke  of  York, 
Cardinal  (1725-1807),  the  second 
son  of  James  Francis  Edward,  the 
'Old  Pretender,'  took  orders,  and 
in  1747  received  from  Pope  Bene- 
dict XIV.  a  cardinal's  hat,  and 
Clement  xiii.  appointed  him  to 
the  see  of  Frascati.  On  the  death 
of  Charles  Edward  (1788)  he  styled 
himself  Henry  ix.,  King  of  Eng- 
land. See  Townend's  History  of 
the  Descendants  of  the  Stuarts 
(1858),    Thornton's    The  Stuart 


raid  into  Pope's  rear,  covering  60 
miles  in  24  hours  and  returning  in 
safety  with  Pope's  despatch-book 
and  300  prisoners.  He  had  been 
made  major-general  in  July.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Antie- 
tam  campaign,  and  in  Oct.,  1862, 
again  made  the  circuit  of  McClel- 
lan's  army.  He  was  at  Fredericks- 
burg and  Chancellorsville,  where 
he  commanded  Jackson's  corps 
after  the  latter's  death.  During 
the  Gettysburg  campaign  his 
cavalry  command  had  severe 
fighting,  as  also  in  the  Wilder- 
ness. He  was  defeated  by  Sheri- 
dan and  mortally  wounded  at 
Yellow  Tavern,  May  11,  1864, 


Portraits  of  George  and  Martha  Washington  in  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  hy'Gilhert  Stuart. 


France,  Mrs.  Siddons,  and  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds.  In  the  U.  S. 
he  painted  portraits  of  Washing- 
ton, John  Adams,  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son, James  Madison,  John  Jay, 
Edward  Everett,  John  Jacob 
Astor,  W.  E.  Channing,  Jerome 
and  Mme.  Bonaparte,  Josiah 
Quincy,  and  John  Neagle  (Boston 
Museum).  Soon  after  his  death  a 
collection  of  215  of  his  portraits 
was  exhibited  at  the  Boston 
Athenaeum  for  the  benefit  of  his 
family.  The  Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum of  New  York  has  his  John 
Jay,  Captain  Henry  Rice,  David 
Sears,  Commodore  Isaac  Hull, 
and  Washington  (180.3).  The 
head  of  Washington  known  as 
the  AthenjEum  portrait,  now  in 
the  Boston  Museum,  is  the  most 
popular  portrait  extant  of  the 
Father    of    his    Country.  See 


Dynasty  (1891),  and  Cavelli's  Les 
derniers  Stuarts  (1871). 

Stuart,  or  Stewart,  James. 
See  Moray. 

Stuart,  James  Elwell  Brown 
(1833-64),  American  soldier,  born 
in  Patrick  co.,  Va.  H^  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1854  as  a  second 
lieutenant  in  the  Mounted  Rifles, 
served  in  the  West  until  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War,  and  be- 
came a  first  lieutenant  in  1855. 
He  resigned  on  the  secession  of 
Va.,  and  was  made  in  rapid  suc- 
cession lieutenant-colonel,  colonel, 
and  brigadier-general  of  cavalry 
in  the  Confederate  service,  reach- 
ing the  latter  rank  Sept.  24,  1861. 
During  the  Peninsula  campaign 
he  made  a  successful  raid  around 
the  Federal  army,  and  on  Aug. 
22  and  23,  1862,  during  the 
Manassas  campaign,  conducted  a 


and  died  the  next  day.  See 
McClellan's  Life  and  Campaigns 
of  J.  E.  B.  Stuart  (1885). 

Stuart,  James  Francis  Ed- 
ward, or  the  'Old  Pretender' 
(1688- 17 06),  was  the  reputed  son 
of  James  ii.  After  an  meffectual 
attempt  in  1708  to  land  in  Scot- 
land, he  served  with  the  French 
in  the  Spanish  Netherlands — e.g. 
at  Malplaquet.  When  he  landed 
at  Peterhead  in  December,  1715, 
the  rebellion  in  his  favor  was 
virtually  over.  After  the  alli- 
ance between  England  and  France 
in  1717  he  looked  to  Spain  for 
assistance,  but  the  expedition  sent 
from  that  country  in  1719  proved 
a  failure.  In  1719  James  Ed- 
ward married  the  Polish  princess 
Clementina  Sobieski.  The  Pre- 
tender's dissolute  life  ended  at 
Rome.     See  Roome'a  The  Old 


Stuart 


507 


Student  Volunteer  Movement 


Pretender;  Terry's  The  Chevalier 
de  St.  George. 

Stuart,  Moses  (1780-1852), 
American  Hebrew  scholar,  was 
born  in  Wilton,  Conn.,  and  was 
graduated  (1799)  from  Yale.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1802, 
then  studied  theology,  and  from 
1806  to  1809  was  pastor  of  a 
Congregational  church  in  New 
Haven.  From  1810  to  1848  he 
was  professor  of  sacred  literature 
in  Andover  Theological  Seminary. 
He  made  a  deep  study  of  the 
Hebrew  language  and  prepared  a 
Hebrew  grammar  in  manuscript, 
which  he  used  in  his  classes. 
Having  obtained  Hebrew  type, 
he  himself  began  its  composition, 
and  in  1813  it  appeared  as 
Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language 
without  Points.  Editions  with 
points  were  subsequently  pub- 
lished. Stuart  also  translated 
Genesius'  Hebrew  Grammar  in 
1846.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to 
introduce  German  methods  of 
scholarship  into  the  United 
States,  and  translated  the  works 
of  several  German  orientalists. 
He  was  co-translator  with  Ed- 
ward Robinson  of  George  B. 
Winer's  Greek  Grammar  of  the 
New  Testament  (1852),  and  wrote 
several  Commentaries  and  nu- 
merous monographs  on  subjects 
connected  with  Old  and  New 
Testament  exegesis. 

Stuart,  Ruth  McEnery 
(1856-1917),  American  author, 
was  born  in  Avoyelles  Parish, 
La.,  and  educated  in  New  Or- 
leans. Her  books,  mostly  descrip- 
tive of  Southern  life,  are:  A 
Golden  Wedding  and  Other  Tales 
(18,93)  •,Carlotta's  Intended{lS9^) ; 
The  Story  of  Babette  (1894)  ;  In 
Simkinsville  (1897);  Moriah's 
Mourning  (1898);  The  Woman's 
Exchange  (1899);  Napoleon  Jack- 
son (1902);  George  Washington 
Jones  (1903);  The  River's  Chil- 
dren (1904) ;  The  Second  Wooing  of 
Salina  Sue  (1905);  Aunt  Amity's 
Silver  Wedding  (1908);  Sonny's 
Father  (1910);  Daddy-Do-Fun- 
ny's Wisdom  Jingles  (1913); 
Cocoon  (1915);  Plantation  Songs 
(1916). 

Stubbs,  Charles  William 
(1845-1912),  English  theologian, 
was  born  in  Liverpool.  He  was 
select  preacher  at  Cambridge 
and  at  Oxford  in  various  years 
between  1881  and  1904,  and 
Lady  Margaret  preacher,  Cam- 
bridge (1896j.  In  1894  he  be- 
came dean  of  Ely,  and  in  1906 
bishop  of  Truro.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  works  dealing  with 
the  social  and  economic  aspects 
of  Christianity,  and  several  vol- 
umes of  verse. 

Stubbs,  or  Stubbes,  Philip 
(c. 1555-93),  Puritan  Pam- 
phleteer, whose  chief  works  were 
A  View  of  Vanitie  and  Allarum  to 
England  (1582),  Anatomie  of 
Abuses  (1583),  Rosarie  of  Chris- 


tian Praiers  and  Meditations 
(1583),  Theatre  of  the  Pope's 
Monarchic  (1584),  A  Christal 
Glasse  for  Christian  Women 
(1591),  and  Motive  to  Good  Works 
(1593). 

Stubbs,  William  (1825-1901), 
English  prelate  and  historian, 
was  born  in  Knaresborough. 
He  became  fellow  of  Trinity 
College,  Oxford  (1848),  and  in 
1866  was  made  regius  professor 
of  modern  history,  a  position 
which  he  held  for  eighteen  years. 
Archbishop  Longley  made  him 
librarian  at  Lambeth  in  1862;  he 
became  a  curator  of  the  Bodleian 
library  in  1868,  canon  of  St. 
Paul's  in  1879,  bishop  of  Chester 
in  1884,  and  of  Oxford  in  1889. 
His  historical  works,  which  are  of 
high  authority,  include  the  stand- 
ard Constitutional  History  of 
England  (1874-8),  to  the  acces- 
sion of  the  house  of  Tudor,  The 
Early  Plantagenets  (1874),  Lec- 
tures on  European  History  (1904), 
and  Lectures  on  Early  European 
History  (1906),  the  last  two 
published  posthumously.  His 
Letters  were  issued  by  W.  H. 
Hutton  (1904). 

Stuc'co,  a  term  loosely  applied 
to  the  finer  kinds  of  plaster 
used  in  both  exterior  and  interior 
work.  For  interior  work  it  is 
prepared  by  mixing  plaster  of 
Paris  with  lime  paste.  For 
exterior  work,  it  contains  a  large 
amount  of  Portland  cement. 
Stucco  can  be  colored  by  the  use 
of  mineral  pigments.  See 
Cement;  Scagliola. 

Stuck,  shtuk,  Franz  von 
(1863-  ),  German  painter 
and  sculptor,  was  born  in  Tetten- 
weiss.  He  studied  at  the  Acad- 
emy of  Munich,  and  his  first 
paintings,  exhibited  in  Munich 
in  1889,  won  for  him  a  gold 
medal.  His  plastic  work  com- 
prises chiefly  small  bronze  figures 
which  show  the  same  powerful 
realism  that  characterizes  his 
paintings.  Among  the  best 
known  examples  of  the  latter  are 
Sin,  War,  a  Piela,  Expulsion 
from  Paradise,  The  Sphinx, 
Temptation,  Salome,  Pan,  The 
Wounded  Amazon.  His  Faun  in 
the  National  Gallery,  Berlin,  is 
one  of  his  best  statuettes. 

Stuck,  Hudson  (1863-1920), 
American  Episcopal  clergyman, 
was  born  in  England  and  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1885. 
He  was  graduated  from  the 
theological  department  of  the 
University  of  the  South,  Se- 
wanee,  Tenn.,  was  ordained 
priest  in  1892,  and  from  that 
date  until  1904  served  as  rector 
in  Grace  Church,  Cuero,  Tex. 
and  dean  of  St.  Matthews 
Cathedral,  Dallas,  Tex.  In  1904 
he  was  made  archdeacon  of 
the  Yukon.  In  1913  he  and 
three  companions  were  the  first 
persons  to  reach  the  summit  of 


the  highest  peak  (Mount  De- 
nali)  of  the  Mount  McKinley 
group,  Alaska.  His  publications 
include  Ascent  of  Mount  Denali 
(Mt.  McKinley)  (1914)";  Ten 
Thousand  Miles  with  a  Dog  Sled 
(1914);  A  Winter  Circuit  of  Our 
Arctic  Coast  (1920). 

Stuckenberg,  stuk'^n-berg, 
John  Henry  Wilburn  (1835- 
1903),  American  clergyman  and 
author,  was  born  in  Bramsche, 
Hanover,  Germany,  came  to  the 
United  States  as  a  boy,  was 
graduated  (1857)  from  Witten- 
berg College,  O.,  and  studied 
divinity  there  and  in  German 
universities.  He  was  pastor  of 
Lutheran  churches  in  Iowa  and 
Pennsylvania  from  1860  to  1873. 
meanwhile  serving  as  chaplain  of 
a  Pennsylvania  volunteer  regi- 
ment during  1862-3.  From  1873 
to  1880  he  was  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Wittenberg  College,  and 
from  1881  to  1894  pastor  of  the 
American  church  in  Berlin.  His 
last  years  were  spent  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.  His  writings  in- 
clude History  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession  (1869);  Christian  So- 
ciology (1880);  Life  of  Immanuel 
Kant  (1882);  Tendencies  in  Ger- 
man Thought  (1896);  Sociology 
(1903). 

Stud  Book,  a  volume  contain- 
ing pedigrees  of  blooded  stock, 
particularly  horses.  In  Englaii 
the  general  stud  book,  known  a? 
Weatherby's  Stud  Book,  is  issue  i 
every  five  years.  The  America! 
stud  book  is  issued  by  the 
Jockey  Club,  New  York  City. 

Stu'debaker,  Clement  (1831- 
1901),  American  manufacturer, 
was  born  in  East  Berlin,  Pa., 
settled  in  South  Bend,  Ind.,  in 
1850,  and  in  1852  entered  the 
blacksmithing  business  with  his 
brother  Henry.  They  gradually 
turned  their  attention  entirely 
to  the  construction  of  vehicles, 
and  in  1868  incorporated  the 
Studebaker  Bros.  Manufacturing 
Co.,  of  which  Clement  was  made 
president.  Their  establishment 
gradually  developed  until  it 
became  one  of  the  largest  in  the 
world,  with  a  yearly  output  of 
more  than  75,000  vehicles.  To 
the  manufacture  of  horse-drawn 
vehicles  in  time  they  added  that 
of  automobiles.  Clement  Stude- 
baker was  a  delegate  to  the  Pan- 
American  Congress  of  1889-90, 
was  active  in  politics,  and  held 
various  positions  of  trust. 

Student  Volunteer  Movement, 
a  movement  among  college  stu- 
dents to  awaken  and  maintain  an 
intelligent  interest  in  foreign 
missions.  It  had  its  inception  at 
an  international  conference  of 
Christian  college  students  held 
in  1886  at  Mount  Hermon, 
Mass.,  and  in  1888  an  organiza- 
tion known  as  the  Student 
Volunteer  Movement  for  Foreign 
Missions    was    incorporated  in 

Vol.  XL— Oct.  '26 


Stuergkh 


508 


Sturgis 


New  York  State.  Its  members, 
who  must  declare  their  intention 
of  entering  the  mission  field,  are 
drawn  from  institutions  of  higher 
learning  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

Stuergkh,  Karl,  Count  von 
(1859-1916),  Austrian  states- 
man, was  born  in  Graz.  He  was 
educated  at  the  university  in  his 
native  city,  entered  public  life  in 
1881,  and  ten  years  later  was 
elected  to  the  Reichsrat.  In 
1909  he  became  minister  of 
education  and  in  1911  was  chosen 
premier,  He  was  strongly  op- 
posed to  the  extension  of  the 
franchise,  and  was  a  warm  sup- 
porter of  German  influence  in 
Austria.  He  was  assassinated  by 
Ludwig  Adler,  a  Socialist  editor, 
for  his  refusal  to  convene  parlia- 
ment. 

Stuermer,  Boris  Vladimor- 
viCH  (1848-1917),  Russian  public 
official,  became  governor  of 
Novgorod  in  1894  and  later  was 
director  general  of  the  ministry 
of  the  interior  and  minister  of 
justice.  In  1916  he  became  pre- 
mier and  minister  of  foreign 
affairs.  He  was  unpopular  on 
account  of  his  German  sym- 
pathies, and  was  eventually 
charged  with  being  a  traitor  to 
the  Russian  cause,  was  arrested 
during  the  revolution,  and  died 
after  six  months'  confinement. 

Stuffing.  See  Taxidermy. 

Stuhlweissenburg,  shtobl'vis'- 
en-burK,  city,  Hungary,  capital 
of  the  county  of  Stuhlweissen- 
burg; 40  miles  southwest  of 
Budapest.  It  is  the  residence  of 
a  bishop  and  here,  until  the  time 
of  Ferdinand  i.,  the  kings  of 
Hungary  were  crowned.  Manu- 
factures include  woollens,  silks, 
and  knives.  Pop.  37,000. 

Stukeley,  stuk'li,  William 
(1687-1765),  English  antiquary, 
was  born  in  Holbeach,  Lincoln- 
shire. He  practised  medicine 
in  Boston,  London,  and  Gran- 
tham, but  in  1729  took  holy 
orders,  and  became  rector  of  St. 
George-the-Martyr  in  London. 
Among  his  publications  are 
Account  of  a  Roman  Temple  near 
Graham's  Dike  in  Scotland  (1720), 
Itinerarium  Curiosum  (1724),  and 
Slonehenge  (1740). 

Stupa.    See  Tope. 

Sturdee,  Sir  Frederick 
Charles  Doveton  (18.59-1925), 
British  admiral,  was  born  in 
Charleton,  Kent.  He  entered  the 
navy  in  1871,  passing  through 
the  various  grades  until  in  1910 
he  became  Rear  Admiral,  in 
1917  Admiral,  and  in  1921 
Admiral  of  the  Fleet.  He  vserved 
in  the  Egyptian  war  (1882), 
was  chief  of  staff  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Fleet  (1905  -7)  and  of  the 
Channel  Fleet  (1907),  and  chief 
of  the  war  staff  in  1914-15. 
He  was  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Invincible  in  the  action  off  the 
Falkland  Islands  in  1914,  took 


part  in  the  battle  of  Jutland 
Bank,  1916,  and  was  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Nore  in  1918-21. 
He  was  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor.  In  1916  he  was  created 
first  Baronet  of  the  Falkland 
Islands. 

Sturdy,  or  GiD.  See  Sheep: 
Diseases. 

Sturdza,  stobrd'za,  Demeter 
(1833-1914),  Roumanian  states- 
man, was  born  in  Jassy.  He  was 
educated  mainly  in  Germany, 
and  on  his  return  to  Roumania  in 
1857  he  labored  zealously  for  the 
union  of  the  principalities  of 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  active- 
ly contributing  to  the  fall  of 
Prince  Cusa,  their  head  (1866). 
He  held  office  (1876-88)  repeat- 
edly under  Charles  i.,  and  was 
four  times  prime  minister  (1895- 
96,  1897-9,  1901-04,  and  1907- 
09).  His  published  works  in- 
clude La  marche  progressive  de  la 
Russie  sur  le  Danube  (1878); 
Europe,  Russia,  Roumania  (1888) ; 
La  question  des  portes  de  fer  et 
des  calaracles  du  Danube  (1899); 
Charles  I,  roi  de  Roumanie 
(1899).  _ 

Sture,  stoo're,  Sten,  the  elder 
(d.   1503),   Swedish  statesman. 


was  a  §tout  opponent  of  the 
Union  of  Calmar.  In  1470  he 
was  elected  administrator  by  the 
Swedes,  and  after  defeating  the 
Danish  king.  Christian  i.,  at 
Brunkeberg  (1471),  maintained 
his  position  for  the  next  twenty- 
six  years.  He  founded  the 
University  of  Upsala  (1477)  and 
introduced  printing.  From  1501 
he  was  again  administrator  till 
his  sudden  death  at  Jonkoping. 

Sture,  Sten,  the  younger 
(?1492-1520),  son  of  Svante 
Sture,  was  elected  administrator 
of  Sweden  (1512),  which  he 
defended  against  the  Swedish 
magnates  under  Trolle,  and 
against  Christian  ii.  of  Denmark. 
He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
Bogesund  (now  Ulricehamn) 
fighting  against  the  Danes. 

Sture,  Svante  (d.  1512),  was 
elected  administrator  of  Sweden 
(1504)  after  the  death  of  ,his 
cousin,  Sten  Sture  the  elder, 
and  carried  on  a  successful  war 
with  the  Danes. 

Stur'geon,  a  large  ganoid  fish 
belonging  to  the  family  Acipen- 
seridffi.  The  species  are  exclu- 
sively inhabitants  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  and  are  either  en- 
tirely confined  to  fresh  water  or 
pass  a  part  of  the  year  in  rivers  to 
spawn.  They  are  large,  sluggish 
fishes;  the  body  is  long  and  nar- 


row, sometimes  reaching  a  length 
of  more  than  ten  feet,  with  five 
rows  of  bony  shields.  Their  diet 
consists  of  worms,  crustaceans, 
and   mollusks,   which   the  fish 
routs   out    from    soft  bottoms 
with  its  snout.     The  Common 
Sturgeon   (Acipenser   sturio)  of 
North  America  and  Europe  is 
abundant  in  the  large  rivers  and 
is  much  used  for  food.  The 
sturgeon  of  the  Great  Lakes  {A. 
rubicundus)  and  the  Shovelnose 
(Scaphirhynchus  platyrhynchus) 
of   the    Mississippi   Valley  are 
peculiarly  American  species,  the 
latter    seldom    exceeding  five 
feet   in   length   and   having  a 
broadened  snout.      The  Pacific 
coast  has  a  large  and  important 
species  in  the  White  or  Columbia 
River  Sturgeon    (A.  transmon- 
tanus),  weighing  from  300  to  600 
pounds.  The  Russian  species  {A. 
huso  and  A.  ruthenus)  furnish 
most  of  the  salted  roe  known  as 
caviare  (q.v.);  isinglass  is  made 
from  the  air  bladder. 

Sturgeon  Bay,  city,  Wisconsin, 
county  seat  of  Door  county, 
on  Sturgeon  Bay,  an  inlet  of 
Green  Bay,  and  on  the  Ahnapee 
and  Western  Railroad;  40  miles 


northeast  of  the  city  of  Green 
Bay.  It  is  a  summer  resort  and  a 
manufacturing  place,  producing 
boats,  canned  vegetables,  con- 
densed milk,  and  woodenware. 
There  are  limestone  quarries  in 
the  vicinity;  grain  and  fruits, 
especially  cherries,  are  raised, 
and  there  are  dairying  interests. 
Fishing  is  also  an  important 
industry.  The  city  was  settled 
in  1846  and  incorporated  in  1881. 
The  first  settlers,  mainly  French, 
were  followed  by  Belgians,  and 
later  by  Scandinavians.  Sturgeon 
Bay  claims  to  have  the  largest 
sour  cherry  orchard  in  the 
world — over  1000  acres.  Pop. 
(1910)  4,262;  (1920)  4,553. 

Sturgeon  Falls,  town,  Canada, 
in  the  province  of  Ontario;  on 
Lake  Nepissing  and  on  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway;  200 
miles  northwest  of  Ottawa.  It 
has  pulp  and  paper  mills.  Pop 
(1921)  4,125. 

Stur'gis,  city,  Michigan,  St 
Joseph  county,  on  the  New 
York  Central  and  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroads;  35  miles  south- 
east of  Kalamazoo,  It  has  five 
large  furniture  plants,  and  manu- 
factures of  steel  tanks,  cash 
registers,  machinery,  plumbers' 
supplies,  go-carts,  curtain  rods, 
carbon  coated  paper  supplies, 
wooden  ware,  brass  goods,  ice, 
and  cutlery.     The  electric  light 


Sturgeon 


Vol.  XL— Oct.  '26 


Photos  by  Ewino  Galloway 

STUTTGART,  WURTEMBERG 
1.  The  Market  Place.    2.  The  Horse  Tamer  by  Luis  Hofer,  in  the  Royal  Gardens 

Vol.  XL— Page  509 


Sturgis 


KFI 


509  A 


Stye 


and  water  systems  are  owned 
and  operated  by  the  city.  The 
place  was  settled  in  1827,  in- 
corporated as  a  city  in  1898,  and 
in  1921  adopted  the  commission 
form  of  government.  Pop. 
(1920)  5,995  ;  (1930)  6,950. 

Sturgis,  Russell  (1836- 
1909),  American  architect  and 
writer,  was  born  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  and  was  graduated  (1856) 
from  the  Free  Academy,  now 
the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York.  He  studied  architecture 
in  New  York  and  in  Europe  and 
practised  in  New  York  City 
from  1865  to  1880,  when  he  re- 
tired on  account  of  ill  health. 
Among  the  edifices  designed  by 
him  are  several  of  the  Yale  Uni- 
versity bviildings  and  the  Flower 
Hospital  in  New  York.  From 
1878  to  1880  he  was  professor 
of  architecture  and  the  arts  of 
design  in  the  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York.  He  edited  the 
important  Dictionary  of  Archi- 
tecture (3  vols.  1901-02),  and 
wrote  :  European  Architecture ; 
An  Historical  Study  (1896); 
Annotated  Bibliography  of  Fine 
Art  (1897);  Hozv  'to  Judge 
Architecture  (1903);  The  Ap- 
preciation of  Sculpture  (1904)  ; 
The  Interdependence  of  the  Arts 
of  Design  (1905)  ;  The  Appreci- 
ation of  Pictures  (1905);  A 
Study  of  the  Artist's  Way  of 
Working  in  the  Various  Handi- 
crafts and  Arts  of  Design  (2 
vols.  1905)  ;  A  History  of  Ar- 
chitecture (1906-09),  which  was 
completed  after  his  death  by 
A.  L.  Frothingham,  Jr. 

Sturgis,  Samuel  Davis 
(1822-89),  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Shippensburg,  Pa. 
He  was  graduated  from  West 
Point  in  1846,  and  during  the 
Mexican  War  was  captured 
while  reconnoitering  near  Buena 
Vista.  He  served  against  the 
Apaches,  Kiowas,  and  Coman- 
ches ;  and  on  April  23,  1861, 
evacuated  Fort  Smith,  Arkansas, 
to  escape  being  captured  by  a 
force  of  Confederates.  He 
fought  under  General  Lyon  at 
Dug  Springs,  and  after  the  death 
of  that  general  at  Wilson's 
Creek  took  command  and  con- 
ducted the  retreat  to  Rolla.  He 
was  appointed  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  1861  ;  fought 
at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
at  South  Mountain,  and  at  An- 
tietam.  From  July  8,  1863,  to 
April  15,  1864,  he  was  chief  of 
cavalry.  Department  of  the 
Ohio ;  captured  General  Vance 
and  his  command  in  January 
1864  ;  and  was  afterwards  active 
in  operations  against  General 
Forrest.  He  was  promoted  colo- 
nel of  the  seventh  cavalry  in 
1869,  and  retired  from  the  serv- 
ice in  1886. 

Sturluson,  See  Snorri. 

Sturm,    shtoorm,  Johannes 


(1507-89),  German  educational 
reformer,  was  born  in  Schleiden 
(Luxemburg).  Beginning  in 
1536,  he  reorganized  the  educa- 
tional system  of  Strassburg, 
which  became  the  model  of  other 
municipal  school  systems.  His 
idea  was  to  attain  excellence  by 
a  careful  progression  from 
lower  to  higher  in  the  character 
of  the  studies,  and  to  this  end 
he  established  a  gymnasium  and 
an  academy,  which  in  many  re- 
spects approximated  to  a  uni- 
versity. He  also  believed  that 
all  instruction  should  have  an 
ethical  and  a  spiritual  side.  He 
was  a  prolific  writer,  and  used 
his  influence  in  support  of 
Zwingli. 

Sturm,  Julius  Karl  Rein- 
hold  (1816-96),  pseudonym  of 
Julius  Stern,  German  poet,  born 
at  Kostritz  in  Reuss-Schleiz. 
Among  his  works  are  Fiir  das 
Hans  (1862),  Stilles  Lcben 
(1865),      Israelitischc  Lieder 

(1867)  ,    Von    der  Pilgerfahrt 

(1868)  ,  Lieder  und  Bilder 
(  1870),  Kanipf-und  Siegesge- 
dichte  (1870),  and  Das  Biich 
fiir  meine  Kinder  (1877). 

Sturm  und  Drang.  See 
Germany  :  Language  and  Liter- 
ature. 

Sturt,  Charles  (1795-1869), 
Australian  explorer,  was  born 
in  the  Bengal  Presidency,  and 
went  as  an  army  officer  to 
Sydney  (1827).  He  led  several 
expeditions  into  the  interior,  and 
during  the  last  suffered  svich 
privation  that  he  returned  al- 
most blinded.  He  discovered  the 
Darling  River  and  Lake  Alex- 
andrina.  He  published  Journals 
(1833)  and  Narrative  of  an  Ex- 
pedition into  Central  Australia 
(1849). 

Stuttering.  See  Stammer- 
ing. 

Stuttgart,  shtdbt'gart,  city, 
capital  of  Wiirtemberg,  is  beau- 
tifully situated  on  the  Neckar, 
115  miles  n.w.  of  Munich.  In 
the  center  of  the  city  is  the 
Schloss-Platz,  a  handsome 
square  in  which  stands  the  Jubi- 
lee Column,  erected  in  1841.  On 
the  east  side  is  the  Royal  Pal- 
ace, built  in  1746-1807,  and 
near  by  is  the  Old  Palace,  with 
a  beautiful  courtyard  containing 
an  equestrian  statue  of  Count 
Eberhard.  Other  features  of 
interest  are  the  Stifts-Kirche,  a 
late-Gothic  edifice  of  the  15th 
century ;  the  Natural  History 
Collection,  housed  in  the  State 
Archives  buiJding  ;  the  Academy, 
once  the  seat  of  the  Karlsschule 
where  Schiller  was  educated ; 
the  Royal  Library ;  the  Collec- 
tion of  Antiquities  ;  the  Museum 
of  Art,  with  a  fine  picture  and 
sculpture  gallery ;  the  National 
Industrial  Museum  ;  and  the 
Konigliche  Anlagen,  gardens 
laid  out  in  English  style,  along 


the  rnodern  Neckarstrasse.  The 
city  is  one  of  the  chief  publish- 
ing centers  in  Germany,  and 
manufactures  furniture,  pianos, 
chemicals,  colors,  chocolate, 
carriages,  and  leather.  It  was 
the  birthplace  of  Hegel,  Haufif, 
and  Schwab.  The  counts  of 
Wiirtemberg  took  up  their  resi- 
dence here  in  1265  and  in  1482 
it  became  the  capital  of  the  coun- 
try.    Pop.  (1933)  415,028. 

Stuttgart,  city,  Arkansas, 
county  seat  of  Arkansas  county, 
on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and 
Pacific,  and  the  St.  Louis  South- 
western Railroads;  45  miles  s.e. 
of  Little  Rock.  It  is  a  center  for 
rice,  oats,  hay  and  potatoes. 
Pop.  (1920)  4,522;  (1930) 
4,927. 

Stuyvesant,  sti'vc-sant, 
Peter  (1592-1672),  Dutch  sol- 
dier and  administrator,  was  born 
in  Amsterdam,  Holland.  After 
service  in  the  army  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, he  was  made  Governor 
of  Curagao  (1634),  where  he 
served  until  his  appointment  as 
director  general  of  New  Nether- 
land,  and  where  he  lost  a  leg  in 
battle  with  the  Spaniards.  He 
arrived  at  New  Amsterdam  in 
the  spring  of  1647  and  governed 
the  colony  for  seventeen  years. 
His  rule  was  marked  by  many 
arbitrary  acts,  but  his  executive 
ability  was  great,  and  New 
Netherland  increased  much  in 
population  and  prosperit>  under 
his  government.  He  kept  the 
friendship  of  the  Indians,  ad- 
justed by  treaty  the  disputed 
boundary  between  New  Nether- 
land and  New  England,  and  in 
1655  led  an  expedition  to  the 
Delaware  and  received  the  sur- 
render of  New  Sweden.  On  the 
arrival  of  the  fleet  sent  in  1664 
by  the  Duke  of  York  to  take 
possession  of  the  colony,  which 
had  been  granted  him  by 
Charles  ii  in  disregard  of  the 
rights  of  the  Dutch,  Stuyve- 
sant meditated  resistance,  but  his 
force  was  small,  and,  finding 
that  the  inhabitants  would  not 
support  him,  he  surrendered. 
After  a  short  visit  to  Holland, 
he  returned  and  resided  upon  his 
farm,  the  'Bouwerij,'  on  Man- 
hattan Island,  until  his  death. 
His  farm  gave  its  name  to  the 
present  Bowery. 

Stye,  or  Hordeolum,  an  in- 
flammation of  the  sebaceous 
gland  of  a  ciliary  follicle  at  the 
margin  of  the  eyelid,  due  to  in- 
fection. It  is  usually  associated 
with  some  constitutional  de- 
rangement, resulting  in  lowered 
vitality  and  resistive  power.  A 
stye  begins  with  redness,  pain, 
and  swelling.  After  three  or 
four  days  a  point  of  suppuration 
appears,  generally  at  the  base  of 
an  eyelash.  Styes  often  appear 
in  crops,  either  simultaneously 
or   successively.  Treatment 


style 


KFI 


509  B 


Subject 


should  be  directed  toward  the 
improvement  of  the  general 
health.  Locally  the  eyes  should 
have  rest,  and  the  pain  may  be 
relieved  by  hot  fomentations. 
When  suppuration  appears,  an 
incision  relieves  the  pain  and  ac- 
celerates the  cure. 

Style,  Old  and  New.  See 
Calendar. 

Stylites,_  sti-H'tez,  St.  Sim- 
eon, a  Syrian  monk  of  the  5th 
century,  who  spent  many  years 
of  his  life  on  the  top  of  a  pillar, 
seventy  feet  high  and  four  feet 
square,  which  he  caused  to  be 
erected  near  Antioch.  For 
thirty  years  (429-459)  he  occu- 
pied this  dizzy  altitude,  engaged 
in  meditation,  prayer,  and 
preaching.  He  died  on  his  pillar 
and  was  buried  in  Antioch.  The 
term  'Stylites'  comes  from  the 
Greek,  (ttvXos  ,  'a  pillar,'  and 
Simeon  and  his  imitators 
constitute  a  clan  of  ascetics 
known  as  'Stylites'  or  'Pillar 
Saints.' 

Styptics,  stip'tiks,  a  term  now 
restricted  to  local  applications 
employed  to  arrest  haemorrhage. 
Ice,  cold  water,  alum,  tannic 
acid,  copper  sulphate,  iron  chlor- 
ide and  sulphate,  and  zinc  chlor- 
ide are  the  styptics  in  most  gener- 
al use  ;  but  the  actual  cautery  is 
sometimes  applied  when  the  site 
or  nature  of  the  haemorrhage 
renders  other  applications  fvitile 
or  undesirable.  Styptics  are  ap- 
plicable to  haemorrhages  from 
the   smaller  vessels  only.  See 

HEMORRHAGE. 

Styrax.    See  Storax. 

Styria,  stir'i-a  (Ger.  Stcicr- 
mark),  a  division  (Gau),  Aus- 
tria, in  the  southeastern  part ; 
area,  6,323  square  miles.  It  be- 
longs to  the  Eastern  Alps  re- 
gion, is  traversed  by  the  rivers 
Mur,  Drave,  Save,  and  Enns, 
and  has  many  picturesque  Al- 
pine lakes,  notably  the  Grundel. 
It  is  exceptionally  rich  in  miner- 
al springs,  and  has  numerous 
health  resorts.  The  chief  prod- 
ucts are  wheat,  corn,  barley, 
fruits,  and  iron  ore.  The  princi- 
pal town  is  Graz.  Styria  became 
a  duchy  about  1180  and  was  in- 
corporated with  Austria  by  Ru- 
dolph I.    Pop.  978,845. 

Styx,  in  Greek  mythology  the 
name  of  the  principal  river  of 
the  lower  world,  which  all  must 
cross  at  death.  It  is  described 
as  a  branch  of  Oceanus,  flowing 
from  its  tenth  source.  Charon 
is  the  boatman  who  ferries  souls 
across  the  Styx. 

The  name  is  also  given  to  a 
waterfall  in  Arcadia,  Greece, 
above  Nonacris.  The  water  falls 
in  two  slender  cascades  which 
unite  to  form  a  river  emptying 
into  the  Crathis.  The  wildness 
of  the  scenery  and  the  inacces- 
sibility of  the  spot  greatly  im- 
pressed the  ancient  Greeks  and 


caused  them  to  regard  it  with 
superstitious  awe. 

Suabia.    See  Swabia. 

Suaheli.    See  Swaheli. 

Suakin,  swa'ken,  or  Suakim, 
seaport  town  and  governorship, 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  on  the 
\\est  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  occu- 
pies a  coral  islet  close  to  the 
mainland.  Until  the  opening  of 
the  port  of  Port  Sudan,  in  1906, 
it  was  the  chief  seaport  of  the 
Sudan.  Government  House,  a 
picturesque  building  on  the  wa- 
ter's edge,  served  as  headquarters 
for  both  Gordon  and  Kitchener. 
Tobacco,  cotton,  ivory,  gvuns, 
and  mother-of-pearl  are  ex- 
ported and  Mohammedan  pil- 
grims embark  here  for  Jiddah, 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Red  Sea. 
Pop.  about  15,000. 

Suarez,  swa'rath,  Francisco 
(1548-1617),  Spanish  Jesuit  the- 
ologian. He  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Segovia ;  also  lec- 
tured at  Valladolid,  Coimbra, 
and  at  Rome.  His  system  owed 
much  to  the  Molinists,  though 
on  the  doctrine  of  'grace'  he  for- 
mulated new  principles  for  him- 
self, which  were  afterwards 
adopted  by  the  order.  His  chief 
work  Tractatus  de  Lcgihus  ac 
Deo  Lcgislatorc ,  is  written  from 
the  point  of  view  of  a  Thomist, 
though  on  some  matters  he  en- 
deavored to  discover  a  middle 
course  between  the  realism  of 
Scotus  and  the  nominalism  of 
Occam.  At  the  request  of  Pope 
Paul  v  he  wrote  (1613)  Dcfcn- 
sio  Catholiccc  Fidci  contra  An- 
glicaiicc  Scctcc  Errorcs,  which 
James  i  ordered  to  be  burned  by 
the  common  executioner.  His 
collected  works  were  published 
at  Besangon  (1856)  and  in  the 
Migne  collection. 

Subahdar,  sdb'ba-dar,  origi- 
nally the  title  of  a  governor  of 
a  province  under  the  Mogul  rule 
in  India.  It  is  now  the  designa- 
tion of  a  native  captain  in  the 
Indian  army. 

Subal'tern,  an  army  officer 
below  a  captain,  applicable  to 
first  lieutenants  and  second  lieu- 
tenants. 

Subcon'sciousness,  a  general 
term  covering  phenomena  which 
appear  indirectly  to  partake  of 
the  nature  of  conscious  events, 
but  which  are  not  directly  ob- 
servable through  introspection. 
More  recent  usage  tends  to  sub- 
stitute the  term  'unconscious' 
for  'subconscious.'  To  speak  of 
unconscious  mental  events  seems 
a  contradiction  of  terms,  but  the 
theory  of  the  subconscious  has 
been  developed  in  order  to  ex- 
plain contradictory  psychologi- 
cal phenomena.  Both  the  con- 
duct and  thoughts  of  persons  are 
completely  explicable  only  when 
we  attribute  to  them  certain 
motives  of  which  they  them- 
selves are  unaware,  or  of  which 


they  remain  unaware  until  their 
attention  is  specifically  directed 
to  them.  Such  phenomena  are 
contradictory  if  we  think  of  all 
motives  as  mental  and  all  men- 
tal events  as  conscious.  One 
attempt  at  explanation  has  de- 
scribed subconscious  ideas  as 
'submarginal'  :  just  as  the  ob- 
scure ideas  in  the  margin  of  con- 
sciousness contrast  with  the 
clear  ideas  in  the  focus  of  atten- 
tion, so  there  may  be  a  lower 
level  of  obscurity  for  ideas  be- 
low the  margin.  Another  view 
holds  that  the  unconscious  is  not 
mental  at  all  and  must  ultimate- 
ly be  understood  entirely  in 
terms  of  the  physiology  of  the 
nervous  system. 

The  theory  of  subconscious- 
ness first  gained  scientific  accept- 
ance in  connection  with  the  psy- 
chopathology  of  hysteria  and 
cases  of  alternating  personality. 
It  has  been  furthered  by  the 
study  of  hypnotism,  trance,  and 
automatic  behavior  {e.g.,  auto- 
matic writing),  states  which  ex- 
hibit multiple  personalities.  In 
some  cases  it  appears  that  two 
apparently  incompatible  trains 
of  thought  can  proceed  simul- 
taneously ;  hence  it  has  been  held 
that  the  subconscious  involves 
not  only  an  unconsciousness  but 
also  a  co-consciousness.  The 
application  of  the  psychology  of 
the  unconscious  to  normal  hu- 
man psychology  is  now  associ- 
ated with  the  name  of  Freud  and 
has  developed  rapidly  with  the 
growth  of  psychoanalysis.  See 
Psychotherapy. 

Consult  Freud,  Psychopathol- 
ogy  of  Everyday  Life  (1917), 
Interpretation    of  Dreams 

(1915)  ,  History  of  the  Psycho- 
analytic Movement  (1917)  ;  M. 
Prince,  Dissociation  of  a  Person- 
ality (1910)  and  The  Uncon- 
scious (1914)  ;  W.  White,  Mech- 
anisms of  Character  Formation 

(1916)  ;  W.  McDougall,  Outline 
of  Abnormal  Psychology  (1928). 

Sub-dominant,  in  music,  the 
fourth  tone  of  a  scale,  the  next 
below  the  dominant. 

Subiaco,  sdb-be-a'k6  (anc. 
Sublaqueum) ,  town,  Italy,  40 
miles  east  of  Rome.  It  is  a  city 
of  mediaeval  aspect,  containing 
the  remains  of  one  of  Nero's 
villas,  an  11th  century  castle  (a 
former  papal  residence),  and  the 
early  monasteries  of  St.  Bene- 
dict and  St.  Scolastica.  Pop. 
8,218. 

Subinfeudation.  See  Land- 
lord and  Tenant;  Mesne 
Lord;  Quia  Emptores. 

Subject,  Subjective,  Sub- 
jectivity. The  term  subject  has 
been  used  in  two  senses  in  phi- 
losophy :  (1)  in  the  sense  of  a 
subject  of  attributes  ;  (2)  in  that 
of  the  subject  as  contrasted  with 
the  object  in  the  analysis  of  cog- 
nition.   With  these  two  meanings 


Subject,  Subjectivity  Kl  I 


510 


Subliminal  Self 


of  subject  may  be  connected  the 
curious  change  which  has  taken 
place  in  the  meaning  of  the 
antithesis  of  subjective  and  ob- 
jective. According  to  the  usage 
which  obtained  in  scholastic  phi- 
losophy, and  which  was  carried 
over  into  the  early  modern  pe- 
riod, subjective  meant  pertaining 
to  the  existing  thing  or  subject 
of  attributes;  objective,  on  the 
other  hand,  referred  to  the  thing 
as  a  mental  object  or  as  conceived 
by  the  mind.  When,  however, 
the  second  meaning  of  the  sub- 
ject came  uppermost,  the  usage 


represent.  But  although  the  sub- 
jective and  the  objective  are  con- 
tinually being  contrasted,  it  does 
not  follow  that  there  is  any  neces- 
sary opposition  between  the  two. 
For  what  is  subjective  in  the 
sense  of  being  known,  or  con- 
tained in  the  mind  of  the  in- 
dividual, need  not  be  subjective 
in  the  sense  of  being  misrep- 
resented or  unreal.  When  this 
simple  truth  is  lost  sight  of,  the 
subjectivity  of  knowledge  may 
easily  be  interpreted  in  a  way 
which  leads  to  phenomenalism  or 
relativism.    (See  Relativity  of 


greater  vapor  pressure  to  over- 
come it  and  need  a  correspond- 
ingly higher  temperature,  so  that, 
if  the  external  pressure  is  raised 
sufificiently,  a  substance  that  sub- 
limes at  a  lower  pressure  can  be 
made  to  melt  and  boil  as  usual. 
Thus,  if  some  iodine  is  heated  in 
a  vacuous  tube,  it  subhmes  with- 
out melting,  though  in  a  tube 
containing  air  at  a  pressure 
slightly  above  that  of  the  atmos- 
phere the  iodine  melts.  In  some 
cases  of  apparent  sublimation  the 
action  is  of  a  different  kind;  thus, 
though  ammonium  chloride  ap- 


Photo  by  Burton  Holmes,  from  Ewlng  Galloway 


The  Sublime  Porte 


of  the  antithesis  came  in  the 
course  of  modern  philosophy  to 
be  completely  reversed. 

Subjective  now  means  pertain- 
ing to  the  subject  in  knowl- 
edge, whereas  objective  refers  to 
a  thing  (or  conception)  regarded 
as  having  independent  existence 
(or  validity),  and  therefore  as 
much  more  than  a  mere  repre- 
sentation in  the  knowing  sub- 
ject's mind.  Hence  the  epithet 
subjective  is  very  often  used  to  de- 
note the  merely  subjective — that 
which  has  no  existence  (or  valid- 
ity) beyond  the  subject's  mind. 
Errors  and  prejudices  are  sub- 
jective as  contrasted  with  the 
truth;  illusions  and  hallucina- 
tions are  subjective  as  contrasted 
with  the  realities  which  they  mis- 


Knowledge.)  Kant  himself,  to 
whom  we  owe  the  general  cur- 
rency of  the  antithesis,  affords  in 
his  doctrine  that  human  knowl- 
edge can  never  reach  the  truly 
objective  or  unphenomenal 
things  in  themselves,  a  con- 
spicuous illustration  of  this  error. 

Sublima'tion.  When  a  sub- 
stance on  heating  passes  directly 
from  the  solid  to  the  gaseous 
state  without  intermediate  lique- 
faction it  is  said  to  sublime,  and 
the  change  takes  place  in  the  re- 
verse direction  of  cooling.  This 
behavior  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  boiling  point  of  the  substance 
under  the  particular  pressure  is 
lower  than  the  melting  point.  It 
thus  depends  on  the  pressure, 
which  if  increased  will  require  a 


parently  sublimes  on  heating,  it 
really  decomposes  into  hydrogen 
chloride  and  ammonia,  recombi- 
nation to  solid  ammonium  chlo- 
ride occurring  when  it  cools 
again.  Sublimation  is  vised  com- 
mercially to  separate  and  purify 
such  substances  as  arsenic,  cam- 
phor, iodine,  theine,  and  many 
organic  compounds. 

Sublime  Porte,  the  name 
given  to  the  lofty  gate  of  the 
building  in  which  the  Turkish 
affairs  of  government  were  con- 
ducted under  the  empire.  Turk- 
ish government  is  now  centered 
in  Ankara  (Angora),  Asia 
Minor. 

Subliminal  Self,  a  term  used 
by  F.  W.  H.  Myers  (1843- 
1901 ),  who  declared  that  the  con- 


Sublingual  Glands 


KFI 


511 


Submarine 


scious  portion  of  our  personal- 
ity is  only  the  smaller  part  of 
the  whole.  He  would  explain 
most  so-called  'psychic'  phe- 
nomena— telepathy,  automatic 
writing,  etc. — as  manifestations 
of  the  subconscious  portion  of 
the  personality,  that  below  the 
threshold  (Latin  limcn)  of  con- 
sciousness. Our  ordinary  con- 
sciousness was  only  able  very 
imperfectly  to  express  the  great- 
er whole  ;  the  'spurts'  of  genius 
are  uprushes  of  that  which  is 
submerged,  and  so  are  other  ab- 
normalities. It  must  be  added 
that  Myers's  theories  are  not  yet 
by  any  means  accepted.  Consult 
his  Human  Personality  and  its 
Survival  of  Bodily  Death. 

Sublingual  Glands,  salivary 
glands  in  the  floor  of  the  mouth, 
close  under  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, one  on  either  side  of  the 
fraenum  (bridle)  of  the  tongue. 
They  secrete  saliva  through  nu- 
merous ducts  of  Rivini,  some  of 
which  unite  to  form  the  duct  of 
Bartholin.  The  secretion  con- 
tains ptyalin  and  mucin,  and  is 
alkaline.    See  Saliva. 

Submarine,  Historical, — 
The  first  form  of  submarine  was 
the  diving  bell,  and  this  was  in 
use  as  early  as  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  An  ancient 
tapestry  shows  this  monarch  in 
a  bell  which  was  apparently 
made  of  glass.  In  1587,  Wil- 
liam Bourne,  an  English  mathe- 
matician, in  his  book.  Inventions 
and  Devices,  describes  a  form  of 
submarine  in  great  detail. 
Probably  he  built  such  a  vessel. 
This  craft  was  the  first  on  rec- 
ord to  employ  water  ballast  to 
sink  the  vessel  below  the  sur- 
face. The  work  of  Bourne  was 
probably  known  to  Cornelius 
Van  Dreble,  a  Dutch  physician 
who,  in  1620,  operated  two 
small  oar-propelled  submersible 
craft  on  the  Thames.  He  is 
credited  with  having  demon- 
strated one  of  these  craft  to 
King  James  i  in  1624.  In  1653, 
a  Frenchman  named  De  Son 
constructed  a  submarine  72  feet 
long  at  Rotterdam.  While  De 
Son's  theory  was  sound,  his 
craft  failed  in  practice  as  he 
had  employed  an  internal  paddle 
wheel  for  propulsion.  During 
the  next  hundred  years  many 
submarines  were  designed  or 
built  but  none  of  them  is  worthy 
of  extended  notice.  Borelli,  who 
designed  a  boat  about  1680,  was 
apparently  the  first  to  suggest 
water  ballast  for  submergence 
and  trim.  In  1747,  Symons  built 
a  boat  which  he  tried  on  the 
Thames.  This  oar-propelled  ves- 
sel was  fitted  with  leather  bot- 
tles along  the  sides  for  admit- 
ting and  expelling  water  bal- 
last. The  illustration  of  this 
vessel,  which  appeared  in  the 
Gentlemen's  Magazine  of  1747, 


is  the  oldest  extant  picture  of  a 
submarine.  In  1773,  Day,  a 
ship's  carpenter,  constructed  a 
submarine  which  was  successful- 
ly demonstrated  at  Yarmouth. 
It  carried  two  huge  rocks  as  de- 
tachable ballast.  This  was  the 
foreruner  of  the  detachable  keel, 
a  submarine  safety  device  which 
was  used  until  recent  years.  In 
1774,  Day  lost  his  life  off  Ports- 
mouth while  attempting  a  deep 
submergence  in  22  fathoms  ;  the 
detachable  ballast  apparently 
failed  to  work. 

In  1776,  David  Bushnell,  a  na- 
tive of  Connecticut  and  a  gradu- 
ate of  Yale  in  1775,  desiring  to 
break  the  British  blockade  of 
New  York,  built  the  first  sub- 
marine to  be  used  in  war.  This 
vessel,  called  the  Turtle,  re- 
sembled two  tortoise  shells 
placed  hollow  to  hollow  against 
each  other,  the  joints  being  for- 
ward and  aft.  On  top  of  this 
structure  was  a  small  conning 
tower  fitted  with  a  lid  and  eye 
ports,  just  large  enough  for  the 
head  and  shoulders  of  the  opera- 
tor. At  the  bottom  of  the  hull 
was  a  ballast  tank  which  could 
be  flooded  or  pumped ;  700 
pounds  of  lead  ballast  were  also 
carried,  200  pounds  of  which 
were  detachable.  A  hand-oper- 
ated screw  propeller  projected 
from  the  forward  edge  of  the 
craft,  which  gave  a  speed  of  2 
to  3  knots.  Just  forward  of  the 
conning  tower  a  vertical  screw 
propeller  was  fitted  to  drive  the 
craft  under  water.  The  craft 
normally  operated  with  the  lid 
just  awash.  Immediately  for- 
ward of  the  conning  tower  was 
a  large  wood  screw  so  fitted 
that  it  could  be  turned  from  in- 
side the  ship,  and  could  be  de- 
tached at  the  will  of  the  opera- 
tor. This  screw  was  connected 
by  a  cord  to  the  powder  maga- 
zine which  was  carried  on  the 
after-edge  of  the  ship.  This 
magazine  was  made  of  wood  and 
carried  150  pounds  of  gun  pow- 
der and  a  clockwork  device  for 
exploding  the  charge.  It  was  in- 
tended that  the  operator  should 
work  his  way  under  a  vessel, 
screw  the  wood  screw  into  her 
hull  plating,  release  the  maga- 
zine and  the  screw,  and  then 
make  his  escape  submerged,  the 
clockwork  exploding  the  maga- 
zine later.  This  ingenious  ves- 
sel carried  a  phosphorous  illumi- 
nated compass,  a  water  tube  type 
of  barometer  for  indicating  the 
depth,  automatic  air  vents  in  the 
conning  tower  for  replenishing 
the  air  every  half  hour,  force 
pumps  for  expelling  water  bal- 
last, and  other  new  devices. 

After  successful  trials  at  New 
Rochelle,  in  1776  an  attempt  was 
made  by  Sergeant  Ezra  Lee  to 
destroy  the  English  frigate 
Eagle.    Lee's  attempt  failed  only 


because  he  was  unable  to  drive 
the  screw  through  the  copper 
sheathing  of  the  frigate.  During 
the  War  of  1812  an  attempt  was 
made  on  H.M.S.  Ramillics,  Cap- 
tain Thomas  Hardy,  by  a  native 
of  Norwich,  Connecticut,  in  a 
vessel  of  the  same  type  as  Bush- 
nell's,  the  operator  failing  for  the 
same  reason  as  Lee.  Bushnell 
should  be  given  credit  for  devel- 
oping the  first  successful  mine, 
for  first  using  screw  propulsion, 
for  introducing  the  conning 
tower,  and  for  designing  the  first 
strong  and  stable  hull. 

In  1797,  Robert  Fulton,  an 
American,  wrote  the  French 
Government  proposing  to  build  a 
submarine  for  the  purpose  of 
sinking  British  shipping.  This 
proposal  was  accepted  in  princi- 
ple, but  it  was  only  in  1810  that 
Napoleon  gave  Fulton  funds  to 
build  his  first  submarine,  the  now 
famous  Nautilus.  This  vessel 
was  21  feet  long,  had  a  cylindri- 
cal copper  hull  7  feet  in  diameter, 
and  was  screw  propelled.  Bush- 
nell's  principle  of  the  magazine 
was  used,  a  spike  being  substi- 
tuted for  the  screw.  But  the 
French  refused  to  permit  Fulton 
to  attack  British  vessels,  and  in 
general  threw  cold  water  on  his 
plans.  In  1804,  Fulton  was  in- 
formed by  the  French  that  they 
were  no  longer  interested,  and  in 
May  of  that  year  he  went  to  Eng- 
land where  he  laid  his  plans  be- 
fore Pitt.  Pitt  encouraged  Ful- 
ton, and  many  experiments  were 
carried  out,  in  one  of  which  Ful- 
ton blew  up  the  brig  Dorothy  at 
Walmer.  Pitt's  interest  in  the 
submarine  caused  Admiral  Earl 
St.  Vincent,  then  First  Lord  of 
the  Admiralty,  to  speak  the  pro- 
phetic words :  'Pitt  was  the 
greatest  fool  that  ever  existed  to 
encourage  a  mode  of  warfare 
which  those  who  commanded  the 
seas  did  not  want,  and  which,  if 
successful,  would  deprive  them 
of  it.'  Fulton  then  returned  to 
America,  where  Congress  granted 
him,  in  1810,  $5,000  to  continue 
his  experiments.  He  had  an  80- 
foot  steam  propelled  armored 
submarine  called  the  Mute  under 
construction  when  he  died. 

Little  was  done  in  the  subma- 
rine field  after  Fulton  until  in 
1850,  during  the  Danish-German 
war,  a  Bavarian  named  Bauer 
constructed,  at  Kiel,  a  submarine 
called  Lc  Plongcur  Marin,  26 
feet  by  8  feet,  her  screw  turned 
by  hand.  Fitted  in  the  sides  were 
watertight  hatches  for  admitting 
the  crew  and  for  gloves  by  which 
an  explosive  charge  was  to  be 
fastened  to  the  hulls  of  vessels. 
Her  hull  was  of  metal,  and  bal- 
last tanks  were  fitted  to  admit 
water  for  submerging.  _  The 
craft  was  trimmed  by  moving  a 
heavy  weight  forward  and  aft. 
Bauer  first  made  a  feint  at  the 


Submarine 


KFI 


511  A 


Submarine 


blockade  ships,  scaring  them  ofif. 
Next  year  Bauer's  ship  sank  in 
the  harbor  of  Kiel.  By  flooding 
the  ship  Bauer  managed  to  force 
the  hatches  through  which  he  and 
his  two  assistants  escaped.  The 
ship  was  raised  in  1887.  Scott- 
Russell,  who  had  gone  over 
Bauer's  plans,  brought  out  a  sub- 
marine in  1854-55,  which  was  a 
failure ;  several  men  were 
drowned.  Bauer  next  managed 
to  interest  Russia,  where,  in  1855, 
he  launched  Lc  Diablo  Marin, 
a  vessel  twice  as  large  as  his  first 
ship.  It  was  credited  with  134 
successful  dives.  This  ship  was 
subsequently  lost  at  Ochda,  and 
Bauer,  greatly  disappointed,  quit 
Russia  and  experimented  no 
more  with  the  submarine.  He 
was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most 
successful  of  all  the  early  sub- 
marine inventors. 

During  the  American  Civil 
War  the  Confederacy  attempted 
to  use  the  submarine  to  break  the 
Union  blockade.  Two  types 
were  constructed  ;  one  was  steam 
propelled  and  was  designed  to 
operate  awash,  while  the  other 
was  hand  propelled,  was  fitted 
with  hydroplanes  and  was  de- 
signed to  operate  submerged. 
Both  were  fitted  with  spar  tor- 
pedoes, which  were  attached  to 
the  bow.  Although  a  great  num- 
ber of  men  were  lost  in  the  trials 
of  these  vessels,  the  Confeder- 
ates kept  on  with  these  craft, 
which  they  called  'Davids,'  until, 
in  October,  1863,  the  Ironsides 
was  damaged,  and,  in  Febrt:ary, 
1864,  the  Housatanic  was  sunk, 
her  attacker  sinking  with  her. 
The  Union  also  had  a  submarine, 
the  Alligator,  designed  by  a 
Frenchman.  It  was  unsuccess- 
ful. 

During  this  same  period  the 
inventors  of  other  nations  were 
working  on  the  submarine.  In 
1860,  Narcisso  Monturiol,  a 
Spanish  engineer,  produced  a 
successful  copy  of  Bauer's  sub- 
marine. She  once  submerged  to 
18  meters,  and  on  another  occa- 
sion her  crew  of  ten  made  a  five- 
hour  dive.  In  1863,  France 
launched  a  submarine  designed 
by  M.  Charles  Brun  from  the 
plans  of  Captain  Bourgois.  This 
vessel,  named  Lc  Plongcur,  was 
140  feet  long,  displaced  420  tons, 
was  built  of  iron  and  carried  a 
spar  torpedo.  She  was  driven  by 
compressed  air  and  was  the  larg- 
est svibmarine  built  up  to  this 
time.  This  vessel  was  a  success, 
but  her  poor  depth  control  and 
the  dangers  attending  the  use  of 
the  spar  torpedo  induced  the 
French  to  discontinue  submarine 
experimentation.  Save  for  some 
minor  submarine  research  in 
Russia  no  further  submarine 
work  was  accomplished  until 
1876. 

In  that  year  M.  Drzewiecki,  a 


Russian,  perfected  a  submarine 
which  was  brought  to  the  awash 
condition  by  the  use  of  ballast 
tanks,  further  adjustments  of 
trim  being  taken  care  of  by  the 
movement  of  a  piston  in  contact 
with  the  water.  This  ship  had 
the  further  feature  of  rubber 
sleeves  by  means  of  which  the 
operator  could  fasten  mines  to 
the  hulls  of  ships.  In  1878,  an 
English  curate  named  Garrett 
developed  a  submarine  which 
also  embodied  these  two  features. 
By  1879,  Drzewiecki  built  a 
larger  type  of  submarine.  The 
Russian  Government  ordered  50 
of  these  vessels,  some  of  which 
were  later  powered  with  elec- 
tricity. Drzewiecki  is  known 
for  his  drop  collar  type  of  tor- 
pedo launching.  Garrett,  re- 
ferred to  above,  in  1879,  produced 
a  submarine  called  the  Rcsur- 
gam,  which  was  steam-operated 
and  used  hydroplanes.  This  ship 
was  lost  before  her  value  could 
be  determined,  but  Garrett  ap- 
proached Nordenfelt,  who  was 
later  to  produce  the  famous  Nor- 
denfelt type  of  submarine. 

In  1885,  Ash  and  Campbell 
built  a  50-ton  submarine  which 
was  driven  by  electric  motors. 
This  submarine  is  of  interest  be- 
cause it  was  the  first  to  use  elec- 
tric motors  and  twin-screw  pro- 
pulsion. Water  ballast  was  ad- 
mitted and  expelled  by  means  of 
8  pistons  which  projected  from 
the  sides  of  the  ship  in  the  sur- 
face condition  and  which  were 
drawn  inward  to  decrease  the 
buoyancy  of  the  ship  for  diving. 
These  pistons  seriously  reduced 
the  speed  of  the  ship  on  the  sur- 
face, and  during  the  trials  proved 
to  be  wholly  impractical.  Her 
trials  were  never  completed.  In 
1886,  Waddington  built  a  craft 
37  feet  long,  which  depended  up- 
on a  vertical  screw  for  forcing 
the  ship  under  the  surface.  This 
method  was  used  by  Bushnell 
and  was  being  used  by  Norden- 
felt at  this  time.  Waddington's 
ship  was  a  success,  but  as  it  was 
too  heavy  to  be  carried  on  board 
ship  from  which  it  was  to  be 
launched,  the  type  was  discon- 
tinued. 

During  this  same  period  Nor- 
denfelt, the  great  Swedish  in- 
ventor, was  carrying  out  experi- 
ments along  the  lines  of  Garrett. 
In  1885,  he  launched  Norden- 
felt I ,  a  single  screw  ship  64  feet 
long.  As  in  Garrett's  ship,  the 
vessel  was  propelled  by  using  the 
latent  heat  of  steam  stored  in  two 
tanks,  both  on  the  surface  and 
when  submerged.  This  ship  was 
a  success,  but  it  had  the  disad- 
vantage of  all  steam  submarines 
in  that  it  was  very  hot  when  sub- 
merged, and  also  the  escaping 
gas  from  the  boilers,  after  they 
had  been  sealed  for  diving,  had  a 
serious  effect  on  the  crew.  This 


ship  was  sold  to  Greece  in  1886. 
Thereafter,  Nordenfelt  had  no 
trouble  selling  two  submarines 
to  Turkey  in  1887.  The  design 
of  these  ships  was  similar  to 
Nordenfelt  I,  as  was  the  Russian 
Nordenfelt  which  was  built  for 
that  nation  in  1887.  This  vessel 
operated  with  some  success  but 
was  lost  off  the  coast  of  Jutland 
while  under  tow.  This  ended 
Nordenfelt's  submarine  experi- 
ments. 

During  this  period  Claude 
Goubet  built  a  small  but  success- 
ful submarine.  This  ship  now 
interests  us  principally  as  it  was 
the  first  to  use  the  periscope. 
Goubet  sold  his  ship  to  Brazil. 
Goubet  launched,  in  1889,  the 
Goubet  II  which  established  a 
new  length  of  dive  record  of  8 
hours.  She  failed,  however,  to 
meet  her  tests  and  was  rejected 
by  France.  In  Spain,  in  1888, 
Lt.  Peral  built  a  most  successful 
electric-propelled  submarine.  He 
was  given  a  title  of  nobility  and 
other  distinctions  by  the  Spanish 
Government.  By  1890  Spain's 
enthusiasm  had  petered  out,  and 
no  more  was  heard  of  it. 

During  the  period  from  1885 
to  1900  most  of  the  serious  work 
on  submarines  was  done  by  the 
French.  The  French  have  al- 
ways been  attracted  by  new  naval 
experiments  and  have  favored 
the  commerce-raiding  and  coast- 
defense  type  of  naval  war.  For 
this  the  submarine  is  well  fitted. 
Encouraged  by  the  experiments 
of  Goubet,  the  celebrated  French 
engineer,  Dupuy  de  Lome,  de- 
signed a  submarine.  Before  his 
ship  could  be  laid  down  he  died, 
and  his  work  was  taken  over  by 
M.  Gustave  Zede  who  launched 
a  ship  called  the  Gymnote  in 
1888.  This  craft  was  most  suc- 
cessful and  was  still  in  use  for 
training  and  experimental  work 
in  1907.  In  1891,  an  improved 
Gymnote  called  the  Gustave  Zede 
was  launched.  She  was  140  feet 
long  and  embodied  all  the  essen- 
tial features  of  modern  subma- 
rines. In  1899,  a  smaller  type  of 
ship  was  launched  by  Romazotti, 
who  had  taken  over  the  work  of 
Goubet  and  Zede.  Romazotti 
recognized  that  the  jump  from 
the  30-ton  Gymnote  to  the  266- 
ton  Gustave  Zede  was  too  rapid. 
Romazotti's  ship  was  called  the 
Morse.  In  1896,  a  M.  Laubeuf, 
in  response  to  a  call  for  plans  by 
the  Ministry,  submitted  a  design 
for  a  ship  which  was  to  be  pro- 
pelled by  electricity  submerged 
and  steam  engines  on  the  sur- 
face. This  ship,  called  the  Nar- 
val,  was  launched  in  1899,  and 
was  a  considerable  advance  over 
the  other  French  submarines. 
She  relied  on  electricity  for  pro- 
pulsion both  surface  and  sub- 
merged. The  Narval  was  also 
the  first  to  use  the  double  hull 


Submarine 


KFI 


511  B 


Submarine 


type  of  construction  which  was 
a  feature  of  the  American  Lake 
submarines. 

In  1894,  the  United  States  be- 
came interested  in  submarine 
construction,  and  the  Navy  De- 
partment called  for  inventors  to 
submit  plans.  Plans  were  sub- 
mitted by  Baker,  Holland,  and 
Lake.  Baker  built  a  small  sub- 
marine at  Detroit,  but  the  boat 
failed  in  trials  as  it  was  unable 
to  keep  an  even  depth  line.  The 
experiments  of  Holland  and 
Lake  are  more  interesting. 
John  Holland,  an  Irish  Ameri- 
can, had  designed  submarines 
since  1875.  Holland  was  ahead 
of  his  time  in  that  he  realized 
that  a  successful  submarine  was 
dependant  upon  a  satisfactory 
type  of  propulsion  both  surface 
and  submerged.  He  made  many 
experiments  with  very  small  sub- 
marines in  the  Passaic  River  in 
New  Jersey.  He  was  finally 
commissioned  by  the  Fenian  So- 
ciety to  build  a  submarine  30 
feet  long.  He  built  a  vessel 
which  was  propelled  on  the  sur- 
face by  a  gasoline  engine.  This 
ship  was  called  the  Fenian  Ram 
by  a  facetious  press.  When 
Holland,  the  inventor,  refused  to 
turn  the  vessel  over  to  the 
Fenians,  as  he  wished  to  make 
more  experiments,  it  was  taken 
from  him  by  stealth.  Holland, 
disgusted,  turned  to  the  U.  S. 
Navy.  The  Fenian  Ram  now 
forms  a  part  of  the  Holland  Me- 
morial at  Paterson,  New  Jersey. 
Holland's  designs  had  reached 
Holland  No.  7,  when  he  was  able 
to  interest  the  Navy.  While  this 
ship  was  building  during  1896, 
the  Holland  Company  privately 
built  Holland  No.  8.  Holland 
No.  7  was  launched  as  the  Plung- 
er. Holland  No.  8  was  subse- 
quently purchased  by  the  gov- 
ernment after  exhaustive  tests. 
In  1900  the  U.  S.  Navy  ordered 
6  Holland  submarines. 

As  we  have  noted,  Simon 
Lake  was  also  a  contestant  in 
the  competition  of  1894-95. 
He  was  not  successful  in  this, 
however,  and  the  same  year  laid 
down  a  very  small  submarine  in 
Baltimore.  This  was  of  wood 
and  was  unusual  in  that  it  was 
fitted  with  wheels  for  running  on 
the  bottom.  The  tests  on  this 
ship  were  sufficiently  successful 
to  encourage  Lake  to  lay  down 
the  steel  hulled  Argonaut.  This 
ship  was  also  provided  with 
wheels  and  also  with  a  diving 
compartment.  Lake  was  con- 
vinced from  experiments  with 
the  Argonaut  that,  while  the  cir- 
cular cross  section  hull  is  best 
fitted  for  subsurface  operation, 
it  is  much  less  efficient  than  the 
ship  line  hull  for  surface  o])era- 
tion.  With  thi:;  in  mind,  he  re- 
constructed the  Ar()onaut  in 
1899-1900    and     renamed  her 


Argonaut  II.  She  was  fitted 
with  a  superstructure.  Gaso- 
line engines  were  used  for  sur- 
face propulsion  and  electric  mo- 
tors for  submerged  operation. 
She  was  unusually  successful 
and  remained  in  service  many 
years.  In  1901,  Lake  was  able 
to  interest  the  Navy  Department, 
and  was  able  to  secure  a  contract 
to  construct  the  Protector,  which 
was  launched  in  1902.  This  ves- 
sel was  fitted  with  a  diving  com- 
partment and  with  retractable 
wheels  for  running  on  the  bot- 
tom. The  principal  feature  of 
the  Lake  design  has  been  the 
even  keel  method  of  submerg- 
ence. 

By  1901  the  experiments  with 
the  Narval  and  in  America  by 
Lake  and  Holland  demonstrated 
to  the  world  that  the  submarine 
had  passed  from  the  experi- 
mental to  the  practical  stage.  In 
1901,  Great  Britain  bought  5 
submarines  built  by  Vickers- 
Armstrong  according  to  Holland 
patents.  In  Russia  experimenta- 
tion had  continued  slowly.  In 
1901,  the  Piotr  Koschka  and 
Ferol  were  launched.  They 
were  followed  in  1903  by  the 
Delfin.  Russia  purchased  sev- 
eral Lake  boats  which  were  not 
very  successful  as  the  Russians 
did  not  know  how  to  operate 
them.  In  Italy  submarine  ex- 
perimentation began  in  1892  with 
the  Pullino,  a  vessel  similar  to 
the  Gymnote.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  Dclfino,  a  vessel 
which  was  reconstructed  so  many 
times  that  by  1907  she  was  a 
modern  submarine.  Japan  began 
her  submarines  with  the  pur- 
chase of  5  Hollands  in  1904. 
Portugal  experimented  with 
submarines  as  early  as  1888-89 
when  Lt.  Pontes  launched  a  small 
boat.  A  larger  ship  was  built  by 
Pontes  in  1892,  which  was  un- 
successful. 

Germany  was  the  last  of  the 
great  nations  to  take  up  the  sub- 
marine. The  German  Admiralty 
felt  that  Germany  did  not  have 
the  money  to  spend  on  untried 
weapons  and  preferred  to  wait 
until  something  serviceable  had 
been  produced.  As  far  back  as 
1890  two  small  submarines  of 
the  Nordenfelt  type  were  built. 
These  were  not  very  satisfactory, 
however.  Another  ship  was 
built  in  1902  with  no  great  suc- 
cess. In  1902,  an  engineer 
named  d'Eciuevilley  approached 
Krupp  with  plans  for  a  subma- 
rine. It  has  never  been  ex- 
plained where  d'Eciuevilley 
gained  his  practical  knowledge, 
but  the  ship  when  finally 
launched  in  1905  was  remark- 
ably similar  to  the  French 
Aigrette  class.  Krupp  first  de- 
sired to  build  an  experimental 
boat  at  their  own  expense.  This 
resulted  in   the  Forel,  a  small 


ship  similar  to  the  Gymnote, 
which  was  sold  to  Russia  in 
1904.  Krupp.  in  1904,  began 
construction  of  3  submarines  of 
the  Karp  class  for  Russia. 
These  ships  were  to  have  a  great 
effect  on  the  future  of  subma- 
rines. The  German  Ministry 
were  set  against  the  use  of  ex- 
plosive gasoline.  It  chanced 
that  Korting  Brothers  had  pro- 
duced heavy  oil  engines.  Six 
sets  of  these  engines  were  or- 
dered for  the  Russian  boats.  In 
this  design  Krupp  proposed  to 
use  a  combination  of  internal 
combustion  engines,  dynamos 
and  electric  motors  for  propul- 
sion. This  combination  is  said 
to  have  been  first  proposed  by  an 
American  named  Alstitt,  after 
bottled  steam,  chemical  boilers, 
compressed  air,  electricity,  tread- 
mills, handmills  and  clockwork 
had  all  been  tried  and  failed. 
The  Karp  class  boats  were  suc- 
cessful and  made  the  run  to 
Libau  under  their  own  power. 
In  1905,  Germany  started  sub- 
marine construction  with  the 
U—1,  which  embodied  the  double 
hull  patents  of  d'Equevilley  and 
the  heavy  oil,  electric  motor 
combination.  This  vessel  was 
launched  in  1906,  was  101  feet 
long,  displaced  200  tons  and  had 
a  surface  speed  of  9  knots. 

In  1907,  the  German  Admiral- 
ty set  up  a  standard  of  desired 
military  requirements  for  fu- 
ture submarines.  As  a  result  of 
this,  the  Diesel  engine  was  fitted 
for  submarine  use  and  was 
adopted  about  1911.  Germany 
had  placed  orders  for  50  sub- 
marines prior  to  the  World  War. 
Of  these  only  20  were  available 
at  the  opening  of  hostilities. 

The  submarines  of  the  United 
States  may  be  taken  as  a  pattern 
of  the  general  submarine  trend. 
American  submarines  have  been 
of  three  types,  Holland,  Lake 
and  Government.  The  Holland 
type  boats  are  single  hull  with 
the  ballast  tanks  inside  the  pres- 
sure hull.  Lake  submarines  are 
double  hull,  and  are  designed  for 
even  keel  submergence.  Gov- 
ernment type  is  a  modified  Lake, 
being  single  hull  at  the  bow  and 
stern  and  double  hull  amidships, 
the  inner  hull  being  the  pressure 
hull  and  the  space  between  the 
two  hulls  forming  the  ballast 
tanks  and  the  fuel  oil  storage. 
This  form  gives  ship  lines  to  the 
vessel,  at  the  same  time  permit- 
ting the  pressure  hull  to  be  cir- 
cular in  cross  section  for 
strength.  Until  1930  Ameri- 
can submarines  were  designated 
by  letter,  after  that  date  they 
were  given  fish  names.  American 
submarines  A  class  to  F  class 
Mere  of  Holland  design.  The  D 
class  was  the  last  to  use  the  gaso- 
line engine.  G  class  were  Lake 
type,  while  H  and  K  were  Hoi- 


Submarine 


KFI 


511  C 


Submarine 


land.  The  L  class  were  part 
Holland  and  part  Lake.  The 
Holland  L's  were  at  Bantry  Bay 
during  the  war  and  gave  good 
service.  The  M  class  were  ex- 
perimental Lake  and  were  not 
very  successful.  The  N  class 
were  both  Holland  and  Lake. 
The  O  class  submarines  were  the 
last  to  use  18"  torpedoes;  all 
later   submarines   are  equipped 


propulsion,  2  directly  coupled  to 
each  shaft.  This  arrangement 
gave  considerable  trouble,  while 
the  small  size  of  the  kingstons 
made  the  ships  extremely  slow  in 
diving.  One  vessel  of  this  class, 
the  T-3,  was  withdrawn  from 
commission  in  1926  and  was 
reengined  with  diesels  of  Ger- 
man type.  With  this  new  ar- 
rangement   the    ship    made  22 


built,  of  which  17  were  in  com- 
mission on  Jan.  1,  1939.  The 
United  States  embarked  on  a 
very  extensive  building  program 
in  1939.  All  modern  submarines 
are  characterized  by  high  speed 
on  the  surface,  a  maximum  of  9 
knots  submerged,  excellent 
handling  ciualities,  both  surface 
and  submerged,  and  very  good 
living  conditions.    The  cruising 


Fig.  1.   The  Plongeur  (139  ft  «  12  ft.) 


Fig.  3.   The  Goubet  II.  (20  ft. .  G  ft.) 


Fig.  2.   The  Nordenfelt  (12.5  ft. «  12  ft» 


Fig.  4.   The  Gymnote  (07  ft.  »  6  ft.) 


4 


Fig.  5.    The  Gustave  Zede  (131  ft  «  12  ft.) 

Conninp  Tower 


Fig.  6.  Holland— 1st  type  (85  ft  «  11  ft.) 


Fig.  7.     Section  showing  construction  of 

earlier  Holland  type  submarine 
 tU3  ft  4  ill.  «  II  ft.  y  iii.i  


with  21"  tubes.  0-1  to  O-IO 
were  Holland,  while  0-11  to 
0-16  were  Lake.  These  ships 
were  very  successful.  The  Hol- 
land O's  continued  in  commis- 
sion until  1931,  while  the  Lake 
O's,  although  decommissioned 
after  the  war,  were  considered 
among  the  best  submarines  pro- 
duced up  to  that  time,  although 
they  were  somewhat  less  rugged 
than  the  Holland  type.  One  of 
these  vessels  was  used  by  Sir 
Hubert  Wilkins  in  his  attempt 
to  reach  the  North  Pole  by  sub- 
marine. The  R  class  were  600- 
ton  ships  and  were  of  mixed 
Holland  and  Lake  design.  Six 
Holland  R's  were  in  use  in  1939 
for  training  purposes.  The  S 
class  boats  were  commissioned 
from  1918  to  1924.  These  ships 
were  of  mixed  Holland,  Lake 
and  Government  type.  They 
were  900-ton  ships.  Fifty-one 
of  this  class  were  built,  26  were 
.still  in  commission  in  1939. 
Three  vessels  of  the  T  class  were 
built  ju.st  after  the  war.  These 
ships  were  designed  as  fleet  sub- 
marines and  had  4  engines  for 


Old  Types  of  Submarines 

knots,  the  fastest  speed  made  by 
a  diesel  engined  submarine  up 
to  this  time.  In  1924-25  the 
United  States  launched  its  first 
real  fleet  submarines.  This 
class,  the  V  type,  (later  desig- 
nated B)  were  equipped  with  two 
main  engines  of  2250  hp.  direct- 
ly connected  to  the  shafts  and  2 
1000  hp.  engines  normally  used 
for  charging  but  which  could  be 
electrically  connected  to  the  main 
motors.'  These  ships  were  341 
feet  long,  were  designed  for  21 
knots  on  the  surface  and  9  knots 
submerged.  Their  surface  dis- 
placement was  2100  tons.  These 
ships  were  followed  by  V—4,  5 
and  6.  The  V-4  is  a  mine  layer 
of  2680  tons,  now  named  the 
Argonaut.  The  V—5,  now  named 
the  Narzvhal  and  the  V-6,  now 
named  the  Nautilus,  are  some- 
what lighter  than  the  V-4,  and 
carry  two  six-inch  guns.  Follow- 
ing these  vessels  the  trend  of 
American  submarines  has  been 
toward  the  smaller  type.  The 
Dolphin  is  about  1250  tons, 
which  is  about  the  tonnage  of 
all      submarines  subseciuently 


radius  may  be  said  to  approxi- 
mate that  of  the  fleet,  and  all  of 
the  later  ships  are  designed  to 
operate  with  the  fleet.  On  Jan. 
1,  1939  the  United  States  had 
53  submarines  in  commission. 
Six  were  for  training  purposes, 
26  were  classed  as  coast  defense 
vessels,  1  mine  layer  and  20  of 
the  fleet  class.  Three  subma- 
rines were  completed  between 
January  and  July  1939  and 
twelve  submarines  were  under 
construction  on  July  1,  1939. 

In  Germany  submarine  con- 
struction stopped  with  the  end 
of  the  World  War  as  a  result 
of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles.  In 
1933,  however,  Hitler  began 
submarine  construction  in  spite 
of  the  Treaty.  England  in  1936 
agreed  to  allow  Germany  to  build 
submarines  up  to  35  per  cent  of 
the  British  tonnage.  In  1939 
Germany  took  advantage  of  the 
escalator  clause  in  the  treaty 
and  advanced  the  limit  to  45  per 
cent,  later  abrogating  the  treaty 
entirely.  In  July,  1939,  Ger- 
many had  71  submarines  in  com- 
mission ;     1 5    oceangoing  sub- 


Submarine 


KFI 


511  D 


Submarine 


marines  of  740  tons  ;  24  seago- 
ing submarines  of  500  tons;  and 
32  submarines  of  the  coastal 
class  of  250-300  tons.  The 
speed  of  these  submarines  was 
reported  to  be  low,  the  maximum 
speed  being  about  16  knots.  The 
cruising  radius  and  striking 
power  is  high  for  vessels  of  this 
limited  tonnnage. 

France  possessed  the  largest 
submarine  in  the  world  in  1939, 
the  Surcouf,  which  has  2880 
tons  surface  displacement,  car- 
ries 2  8"  guns  and  one  small 
seaplane.  France  had,  as  of 
1939  a  submarine  force  consist- 
ing of  5  new  ships  of  the  Marillot 
class  building  (1605  tons,  23 
knots),  30  vessels  of  the  Re- 
doubtable class  (1380  tons,  18 
knots),  9  Rcquin  class  (974 
tons),  and  7  small  minelayers. 
In  addition  9  submarines  of  the 
Anrore  class  (805  tons)  were 
building.  In  addition  to  the  9 
submarines  of  the  Anrore  class, 
France  has  33  small  submarines 
of  the  second  class  of  about  500 
tons  surface  displacement. 

Italy  has  paralleled  the  sub- 
marine construction  of  the 
French  and  had,  in  1939,  87  sub- 
marines, besides  36  building. 
The  new  Italian  construction 
was  in  the  900-1000-ton  class 
with  a  speed  of  17  knots. 

Japan  had,  in  1939,  62  sub- 
marines besides  8  building.  Very 
little  is  known  about  the  new 
construction,  but  it  is  reported 
that  it  will  be  in  the  2000-ton 
class.  Japanese  submarines  are 
classified  as  oceangoing  (2000 
tons),  seagoing  (2000  tons), 
minelaying  (1200  tons),  coastal 
(500-1000  tons),  and  harbor  de- 
fense. Harbor  defense  subma- 
rines are  tiny  craft  which  are  still 
in  the  experimental  stage. 

England  had  in  1939,  54  sub- 
marines built  and  15  building. 
New  construction  is  in  the  1100- 
ton  class.  England  has  six  1500- 
ton  minelayers  of  the  Porpoise 
class,  3  oceangoing  submarines 
of  the  Thames  class  (1850  tons), 
with  the  remainder  of  her  ocean- 
going type  in  the  1475-ton  class. 
There  are  12  submarines  of  the 
seagoing  type  {Shark  and 
Sword  fish  class,  960  tons)  and 
12  submarines  of  the  Unity  and 
H  class  (seagoing  type,  730 
tons). 

Submarine  Accidents. — The 

progress  of  submarines  has  been 
attended  with  frightful  losses  in 
both  life  and  property.  Since 
Day  lost  his  life  in  his  primitive 
submarine  in  1774,  every  ad- 
vance in  submarines  has  been 
attended  by  a  loss  of  life.  Dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  the  Confed- 
eracy lost  crew  after  crew  while 
perfecting  the  'Davids.'  Even 
after  1900,  when  submarines 
had  passed  the  experimental 
stage,  submarine  accidents  con- 


tinued with  tragic  regularity. 
England  lost  her  first  submarine, 
the  A-1,  in  collision  (sub- 
merged) with  the  Bermick  Castle 
in  1904.  Russia  lost  the  Del- 
phi iie  with  all  hands  at  Kron- 
stadt  the  same  year.  France 
lost  the  Faradet  in  1905,  the 
Lntin  and  Anguille  in  1906,  and 
the  Algerin  sank  at  anchor  in 
1907.  The  Japanese  lost  No.  6 
in  1910.  The  submarine  losses 
during  the  World  War,  even  ac- 
cidental sinkings,  were  gener- 
ally classed  as  war  losses.  The 
most  serious  single  submarine 
accident  occurred  during  the  war 
when  the  British  lost  three  sub- 
marines of  the  K  class  in  col- 
lision in  one  night. 

The  United  States  has  been 
more  fortunate  than  the  other 
great  powers.  The  sinking  of 
the  F-4  off  Honolulu  in  1915 
was  our  first  serious  submarine 
accident.  Another  vessel  of  this 
class  was  lost  off  San  Diego  dur- 
ing the  war  when  she  was  in  col- 
lision with  a  sister  submarine. 
The  American  submarine  R-6 
sank  alongside  the  dock  with  the 
loss  of  two  lives ;  S-5  sank  in 
1920  but  no  lives  were  lost. 
This  was  also  the  experience 
of  0-5.  S-48  sank  on  build- 
ers' trials  in  1921,  but  no  lives 
were  lost  and  the  boat  was  raised. 
In  1925  the  submarine  S-51  was 
lost  with  all  but  three  men,  when 
she  was  rammed  at  night  on  the 
surface  by  the  S.  S.  City  of 
Rome  off  Block  Island.  The 
ship  was  subsequently  raised. 
This  accident  was  followed  in 
1927  by  the  sinking  of  the  S-4 
when  she  was  rammed  (sub- 
merged) by  the  Coast  Guard  De- 
stroyer Paulding  off  Province- 
town,  Massachusetts.  All  hands 
were  lost.  These  two  accidents 
stirred  public  opinion,  and  the 
Navy  Department  established  a 
board  to  consider  submarine 
safety  devices.  The  submarine 
board  received  several  thousand 
suggestions,  most  of  which  were 
not  practical  and  would  have 
seriously  interfered  with  the 
military  features  of  the  subma- 
rines. From  this  investigation, 
however,  was  prodviced  the  now 
famous  Momsen  Lung,  the  sub- 
marine escape  chamber,  and  im- 
proved methods  of  diving.  All 
submarines  were  fitted  with  tele- 
phone buoys,  escape  hatches, 
Momsen  lungs,  and  the  latest 
type  of  safety  and  salvage  equip- 
ment. 

In  May,  1939,  the  newly  com- 
missioned American  Submarine 
Squalus  sank  off  Portsmouth, 
New  Hampshire,  when  the  en- 
gine air  induction  valve  failed  to 
close.  Twenty-six  men  in  the 
after  section  of  the  ship  were 
lost,  but  the  33  men  in  the  for- 
ward unflooded  part  of  the  ship 
were  rescued  by  the  divers  of 


the  Submarine  Rescue  vessel 
Falcon  by  means  of  the  sub- 
marine escape  chamber,  the  in- 
vention of  Commander  Allen  R. 
McCann,  U.  S.  N.  This  dra- 
matic rescue  was  brought  into 
high  relief  when,  during  June, 
1939,  the  British  submarine 
Thetis  sank  on  her  builders' 
trials  with  a  loss  of  99  men.  The 
Thetis  stuck  her  nose  in  the  mud, 
in  shallow  water,  in  Liverpool 
Bay,  and  for  more  than  four 
hours  her  stern  was  visible  above 
the  surface.  Four  men  escaped, 
using  a  'lung'  similar  to  the 
Momsen  lung.  Later  in  June, 
1939,  the  French  submarine 
Phenix  sank,  with  all  hands,  in 
deep  water,  off  French  Indo- 
China. 

The  saving  of  the  men  of  the 
Squalus  from  a  depth  of  240  feet 
demonstrated  to  the  world  the 
effectiveness  of  the  submarine 
safety  organization  of  the  Ameri- 
can Navy.  All  American  sub- 
marines have  been  equipped  with 
the  lung,  a  device  which  resem- 
bles a  mine  rescue  mask,  and 
which  permits  the  wearer  to 
breathe  under  the  surface  for 
about  30  minutes,  long  enough 
to  slide  up  a  rope  to  the  surface. 
All  submarines  have  been  fitted 
with  escape  chambers,  ascending 
lines,  emergency  oxygen  systems, 
air  purifiers,  salvage  systems 
and  the  lungs  mentioned  above. 
Rescue  vessels  have  been  organ- 
ized, pontoons  are  at  hand  at  all 
naval  stations,  while  the  rescue 
chamber  which  can  be  used  as  a 
sort  of  submarine  elevator  is  kept 
at  all  submarine  bases. 

Submarine  Operations  in 
the  World  War. — Germany 
was  slow  to  realize  the  poten- 
tialities of  the  submarine.  The 
first  duty  of  the  German  sub- 
marine service  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  was  to  form  an  an- 
chored patrol  off  Heligoland. 
On  Aug.  6,  1914,  ten  of  the  20 
serviceable  submarines  Germany 
had  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war, 
made  the  first  war  cruise,  with 
the  object  of  locating  the  Brit- 
ish Fleet.  At  dawn  Aug.  9,  U-15 
was  sighted,  rammed  and  sunk 
by  the  Birmingham.  This  was  the 
first  submarine  sunk  in  the  war. 
One  other  submarine,  U-13 ,  was 
lost  on  this  cruise,  presumably 
by  mines.  Other  patrols  were 
sent  into  the  North  Sea  during 
August,  but  no  results  were 
achieved  until,  on  Sept.  5, 
Hersing  in  U-21  sank  the  Path- 
finder, the  first  vessel  to  be  sunk 
by  a  submarine  in  war  since  the 
American  Civil  War.  This  was 
followed  by  the  sinking  of  the 
Abourkir,  Cressv  and  Hogue  on 
Sept.  22  by  Weddigen  of  the 
U-9.  Sixty-two  officers  and  1073 
men  were  lost.  On  Oct.  15,  U-9 
sank  the  cruiser  Haivke  \\\th 
500  men.    The  first  stages  of  the 


Submarine 


KFI 


512 


Submarine 


war  were  wholly  military  in  na- 
ture. On  Oct.  20,  U-17  stopped, 
searched  and  scuttled  the  mer- 
chant vessel  Glitra.  This  was 
the  first  sinking  of  a  merchant 
vessel  and  opened  the  way  for 
the  submarine  commerce-raiding 
war  which  followed  this  signifi- 
cant event. 

The  German  High  Command 
and  the  German  Cabinet  had 
very  little  idea  of  how  to  utilize 
tlieir  small  submarine  force  at 
the  beginning  of  the  war,  and  no 
conception  of  the  potential  pow- 
er which  it  placed  in  their  hands  ; 
in  fact  they  never  did  realize 
its  possibilities,  although,  of 
course,  many  subordinates  did. 
No  effort  was  made  to  employ 
the  submarines  against  the  pas- 
sage of  the  British  Expedition- 
ary Force  to  France,  or  against 
the  line  of  supplies  there  until 
long  after  the  beginning  of  hos- 
tilities. Neither  was  there  any 
coordinated  effort  to  employ  the 
submarines  in  conjunction  with 
the  High  Seas  Fleet  for  an  at- 
tack on  the  British  Fleet  until  the 
Battle  of  Jutland  at  the  end  of 
May,  1916,  and  then  the  sub- 
marines were  assigned  to  scout- 
ing duty  and  had  no  part  in  the 
actual  battle. 

During  the  fall  of  1914  a 
limited  commerce-raiding  war- 
fare was  carried  out  in  accord- 
ance with  Prize  Rules  in  which 
about  100,000  tons  of  shipping 
was  sunk.  At  this  time  the  Ger- 
mans established  submarine  bases 
at  Ostend  and  Zeebrugge,  on  the 
coast  of  Flanders,  while  the 
British  began  to  establish  nets, 
mine-fields  and  patrol  barriers 
for  protection  in  the  English 
Channel. 

In  February,  1915,  the  Ger- 
mans proclaimed  the  waters  sur- 
rounding Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, including  the  English 
Channel,  a  'war  zone,'  in  which 
they  announced  that  they  would 
sink  withovit  warning  all  British 
merchantmen  encountered.  The 
total  number  of  submarines  then 
available  was  30,  of  which  7  were 
in  the  Baltic,  leaving  only  23  for 
this  ambitious  programme,  and 
since  time  ref|uired  en  route  to 
and  from  station,  overhauling, 
etc.,  depleted  the  number  by 
fully  three-fifths,  not  more  than 
10  operating  boats  could  be  main- 
tained at  sea.  The  Germans 
even  then  had  only  32  small  sub- 
marines under  construction,  of 
which  15  were  minelayers.  The 
defensive  and  offensive  measures 
then  in  use  against  the  subma- 
rines were  not  a  serious  factor 
and  more  than  500,000  tons  of 
merchant  shipping  were  sunk  in 
the  first  four  months,  to  the  end 
of  June,  and  the  small  U-21 
CHersing)  made  a  remarkable 
trip  north  of  the  British  Isles, 
through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar, 


into  the  Adriatic  and  thence  into 
Constantinople  after  sinking  two 
British  battleships  off  the  Dar- 
danelles. 

During  the  summer  of  1915  the 
first  effective  anti-submarine 
measure  appeared.  The  British 
refitted  certain  merchant  ves- 
sels so  that  they  were  practically 
non-sinkable,  installed  an  arma- 
ment of  guns,  concealed  by  col- 
lapsible deck  houses,  and  manned 
the  ships  with  navy  crews  dis- 
guised as  merchant  sailors.  Up- 
on being  hailed  by  a  submarine, 
the  'panic-party,'  which  ap- 
peared to  be  the  entire  crew, 
would  abandon  ship  in  a  dramatic 
manner,  carrying  fake  ship's  pa- 
pers. The  svibmarine  would  ap- 
proach on  the  surface  and  pre- 
pare to  send  bombs  for  sinking 
the  ship,  whereupon  the  'Q-ship' 
would  clear  for  action  and  sink 
the  submarine  by  gunfire.  In 
all  twelve  German  submarines 
were  destroyed  in  this  manner, 
and  thereafter  the  Germans  were 
compelled  to  use  their  expensive 
torpedoes  for  sinkings,  instead 
of  bombs.  Also,  in  1915,  the 
depth  charge  was  introduced  and 
became  an  effective  weapon, 
especially  when  employed  on 
fast  vessels  like  destroyers.  This 
was  a  bomb,  filled  with  about  300 
povmds  of  explosives,  which 
could  be  set  to  explode  at  a  de- 
sired depth  under  water.  The 
use  of  submarines  as  a  counter 
offensive  has  already  been  men- 
tioned and  in  this  manner  the 
Allies  sank  nineteen  German 
submarines. 

During  the  last  six  months  of 
1915  the  Germans  destroyed 
about  one  million  tons  of  ship- 
ping, and  in  the  first  four  months 
of  1916  an  additional  700,000 
tons.  Meanwhile,  the  Germans 
had  sunk  three  passenger  steam- 
ers, the  Lnsitania,  Arabic,  and 
Sussex,  on  which  many  lives  were 
lost,  including  a  number  of 
Americans,  and  the  German  Gov- 
ernment engaged  in  a  long  diplo- 
matic correspondence  with  the 
United  States,  which  finally  re- 
sulted in  a  German  order  revert- 
ing to  submarine  warfare  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  rules  for 
prizes  (April  24,  1916).  In  reali- 
ty all  submarine  activity  was 
virtually  suspended,  except  in 
the  Mediterranean,  for  a  period 
of  about  six  months, — a  breath- 
ing spell  which  gave  the  Entente 
an  opportunity  to  recover  from 
their  pressing  need  of  shipping, 
and  permitted  a  period  of  undis- 
turbed development  of  the  anti- 
submarine offensive,  which  there- 
after began  to  be  effective. 

In  May,  1916,  the  Germans 
had  in  active  service  58  subma- 
rines, a  number  which  increased 
steadily  to  111  in  February, 
1917,  and  reached  its  peak  at 
140  in  October  of  that  year,  de- 


clining then  to  121  in  October 
of  1918.  The  success  of  the  sub- 
marine as  a  weapon,  however, 
depended  less  on  the  number  pos- 
sessed by  the  Germans  than  on 
the  anti-submarine  measures, 
and  these  were  not  really  effec- 
tive until  the  latter  part  of  1917. 
With  all  the  information  now 
available  it  seems  almost  certain 
that  had  the  Germans  adopted 
the  unrestricted  submarine  war- 
fare in  the  summer  of  1915,  or 
even  as  late  as  the  summer  of 
1916,  instead  of  February,  1917, 
they  would  have  thereby  forced 
the  Entente  to  sue  for  peace. 

In  1916  the  Germans  con- 
structed several  large  commer- 
cial submarines  and  the  Dcutsch- 
land  made  two  voyages  to  the 
United  States  (Baltimore  and 
New  London,  Conn.)  with  car- 
goes of  chemicals  and  dyestuffs, 
and  returned  with  crude  rubber^ 
nickel  and  copper.  A  second 
boat,  the  Bremen,  was  lost  at  sea, 
and  later  on  the  Deutschland 
and  her  sister  ships  were  con- 
verted to  men-of-war.  On  Octo- 
ber 7,  1916,  the  U-53  entered 
Newport,  R.  I.,  made  official 
calls,  posted  a  letter  to  the  Ger- 
man Ambassador,  sailed  in  a  few 
hours  and  returned  to  Germany 
after  capturing  and  sinking  six 
ships   off   Nantucket  Lightship. 

In  February,  1917,  the  Ger- 
mans proclaimed  a  new  'war- 
zone'  and,  no  longer  exempting 
nevitrals,  announced  that  all  ves- 
sels found  therein  would  be  sunk 
without  warning.  After  pro- 
tests, the  United  States  broke  off 
diplomatic  relations  and  on  April 
6,  1917,  Congress  declared  that  a 
state  of  war  existed  by  reason  of 
the  acts  of  the  German  Imperial 
Government.  Immediately  after- 
ward the  United  States  dis- 
patched Admiral  Sims  to  London, 
to  command  her  naval  forces 
which  were  to  be  employed 
against  the  submarines  and  up- 
on his  arrival  he  was  informed 
by  Admiral  Jellicoe,  the  First 
Sea  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  that 
the  Germans  had  sunk  over  536,- 
000  tons  in  February,  603,000 
tons  in  March  and  that  in  April 
a  figure  of  900.000  tons  would 
probably  be  reached.  Actually 
the  Germans  sank  110  ships 
around  the  British  Isles  in  the 
first  week  of  April  and  the  total 
tonnage  loss  for  the  month  was 
more  than  one  million  tons. 

The  gravity  of  the  submarine 
menace  was  then  fully  realized 
and  the  .Mlied  Naval  Council  de- 
cided to  devote  every  effort  to- 
ward meeting  it.  The  convoy 
system  was  adopted  and  all  mer- 
chant ships  were  required  to 
proceed  in  convoy  escorted  by 
cruisers,  destroyers,  converted 
yachts  or  other  craft.  Despite 
the  delays  and  congestion  which 
this  entailed  it  did  more  than 


Submarine 


KFI 


513 


Submarine  Mines 


anything  else  to  reduce  the  num- 
ber of  sinkings.  Aircraft  scout- 
ing was  employed  along  the 
coasts  and  in  the  enclosed  waters 
of  the  Irish  Sea,  North  Sea  and 
English  Channel.  Submarine 
chasers  were  equipped  with  lis- 
tening devices,  and  a  large  group 
would  operate  with  a  fast  de- 
stroyer carrying  depth  charges. 
Almost  all  merchantmen  were 
armed  with  guns.  Ships  were 
required  to  steam  at  their  best 


measures  the  world  tonnage  loss 
of  shipping  in  1917  amounted  to 
about  nine  million  tons,  while  the 
British  and  American  shipyards 
turned  out  about  two  million 
tons  of  new  ships.  The  situation 
remained  acute  throughout  1917 
and  the  first  six  months  of  1918, 
but  gradually  the  anti-submarine 
measures  became  more  effective, 
the  Germans  lost  more  and  more 
boats  and  they  suffered  especially 
from  a  lack  of  trained  personnel. 


See  Navies  ;  Torpedo  Boats  ; 
Torpedo;  Submarine  Mines: 
Europe,  Great  War  of  ;  Navy 
OF  THE  United  States,  Limi- 
tation of  Naval  Armament. 

Consult,  Commander  M.  F. 
Svieter,  R.  N.,  The  Evolution  of 
the  Submarine  Boat,  Mine  and 
Torpedo ;  Gibson  and  Prender- 
gast.  The  German  Submarine 
War ;  Jane,  Fighting  Ships  (an- 
nual) ;  Brassey,  Naval  Annual; 
Field,  Story  of  the  Submarine ; 


speed  and  to  follow  zigzag 
courses,  and  the  more  important 
convoys  were  required  to  zigzag 
in  formation.  An  anti-subma- 
marine  division  had  been  estab- 
lished in  the  British  Admiralty  in 
December,  1916,  and  vigorous 
measures  were  thereafter  taken 
in  an  effort  to  block  the  Straits 
of  Dover  against  the  passage  of 
the  U-boats.  The  North  Sea 
Mine  Barrage  (see  Submarine 
Mines)  was  agreed  upon  and  ex- 
tensive mining  operations  along 
the  German  coast  undertaken. 
The  United  States  Navy  had  de- 
veloped a  mine  for  use  against 
submarines  and  with  the  same 
principle  the  British  mines  at- 
tached to  the  nets  were  made 
effective.  All  American  destroy- 
ers in  commission  were  sent 
abroad  to  Queenstown,  Brest, 
and  Gibraltar  for  convoy  and 
other  anti-submarine  duty. 
Large  destroyer  building  pro- 
grammes were  undertaken  by  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
as  well  as  huge  shipbuilding 
projects. 

Despite     all  anti-submarine 


In  1918  the  Germans  sent 
several  submarines  across  the 
Atlantic  to  operate  on  the  Ameri- 
can coast.  These  submarines 
sank  a  number  of  vessels  and 
planted  mines  which  caused  the 
sinking  or  damaging  of  a  num- 
ber of  others,  including  the  ar- 
mored cruiser  San  Diego,  which 
was,  sunk,  and  the  battleship 
Minnesota,  which  was  damaged. 

Present  Position  of  the 
Submarine. — The  submarine  of 
today  is  characterized  by  ex- 
cellent sea-keeping  and  military 
qualities,  medium  tonnage  and  a 
relatively  high  speed  and  large 
cruising  radius.  The  trend  of 
most  of  the  major  nations  is 
toward  sul^marines  which  can 
operate  with  the  fleet  for  scout- 
ing purpf)ses  and  as  weapons  of 
opportunity,  as  it  has  been  recog- 
nized that  the  submarine  alone 
can  effectively  scout  in  an  area 
which  is  controlled  by  the  enemy. 
Only  Germany  among  the  nations 
has  gone  into  the  small  subma- 
rine, possibly  for  the  reason  that 
she  was  forced  to  reconstruct  her 
fleet  entirely  after  1933. 


Domville-Fife,  Submarines ; 
U.  S.  Naval  Institute  Proceed- 
ings,   (Monthly — see  index). 

John  B.  Heffernan, 
Commander,  U.  S.  Navy 
Submarine  Mines  are  ex- 
plcjsive  devices  designed  to  be 
laid  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
water  for  the  destruction  of  hos- 
tile vessels.  The  earliest  re- 
corded use  of  them  was  made 
by  David  Bushnell  of  Connecti- 
cut, the  inventor  of  the  first  sub- 
marine boat  employed  in  actual 
warfare.  Bushnell  made  several 
attempts  in  1777  to  destroy  Brit- 
ish war  vessels  with  floating 
mines  and  nearly  achieved  suc- 
cess. He  blew  up  a  British  sup- 
ply schooner  and  a  man-of-war, 
but  failed  through  accident  to 
reach  the  larger  vessels.  In  the 
War  of  1812,  Mix  of  Norfolk 
exploded  a  torpedo  of  Ful- 
ton's design  under  the  bow  of 
the  British  ship  Plantaganct, 
which  blew  off  her  fore 
channels  and  destroyed  a  boat 
lying  alongside.  During  the 
(Tivil  War,  the  Confederates 
planted  mines  in  great  numl)ers. 


Submarine  Mines 


KFI 


514 


Submarine  Mines 


and  destroyed  23  Federal  ves- 
sels, of  which  7  were  armorclads. 
In  the  Franco-German  War  of 
1870  the  extensive  use  of  mines 
by  the  Germans  prevented  the 
overwhelmingly  superior  French 
navy  from  effecting  a  close 
blockade  of  the  German  coast, 
or  accomplishing  any  offensive 
operations  of  importance.  In 
the  Russo-Japanese  War,  contact 
mines  were  successfully  used  in 
large  numbers,  but  many  broke 
away  from  their  moorings  (or 
were  never  anchored),  and  caused 
disaster  to  merchant  shipping 
during  and  after  the  war.  This 
resulted  in  a  convention  of  The 
Hague  Conference  of  1907  which 
forbade  the  use  of  unanchored 
mines  that  did  not  become  in- 
nocuous in  an  hour,  and  required 
anchored  mines  to  be  so  fitted  as 
to  become  inoperative  if  they 
broke  adrift. 

As  regards  location  in  the 
water,  submarine  mines  are  of 
two  classes — (a)  ground  and  (b) 
buoyant.  Ground  mines  are 
placed  on  the  bottom  of  channels 
and  fairways,  but  are  suitable 
only  for  waters  of  a  depth  slightly 
exceeding  that  necessary  for  the 
passage  of  large  ships.  Buoyant 
mines  are  commonly  designed  to 
float  between  10  feet  and  200  feet 
below  the  surface,  and  are 
(except  'drifters')  adjustable  for 
anchoring  in  considerable  depths 
of  water.  They  will  not  act 
efficiently  in  deep  water  where 
the  tidal  currents  are  strong 
unless  secured  by  anchors  up  and 
down  stream;  and  even  then  they 
must  have  large  excess  buoyancy 
to  resist  being  forced  too  far 
below  the  surface  by  the  drag  of 
the  current. 

As  regards  principles  of  firing, 
mines  are  classed  as  (1)  observa- 
tion and  (2)  contact.  Observation 
mines  are  placed  in  channels  and 
other  waters  where  vessels  pass- 
ing over  them  can  easily  be  seen 
from  the  two  observing  points  on 
shore.  By  means  of  sighting 
vanes  at  each  station,  and  suit- 
ably arranged  contacts  connected 
with  the  mine  field,  the  other 
station,  and  the  firing  battery, 
any  group  of  mines  may  be  ex- 
ploded when  a  vessel  passes  over 
them.  Contact  mines  are  ar- 
ranged to  be  exploded  by  a  pass- 
ing vessel.  Controlled  contact 
mines  are  connected  to  battery 
stations  on  shore.  Like  other 
contact  mines,  they  are  fitted 
with  horns,  plugs,  or  levers  ar- 
ranged about  the  head,  and  so 
connected  that  if  one  of  them  is 
struck  while  the  battery  current 
is  turned  on,  the  electric  circuit 
is  completed  and  the  charge  ex- 
ploded. To  make  the  mine  field 
safe  for  the  passage  of  friendly 
vessels  the  current  is  temporarily 
shut  off.  Uncontrolled  contact 
mines  are  of  many  types.  Drift- 
ing   (i.e.,    unanchored)  contact 


mines  are  supposed  to  become 
innocuous  after  the  lapse  of  an 
hour. 

Anchored  mines  of  the  uncon- 
trolled contact  type,  like  buoyant 
mines  of  the  observation  and 
controlled  classes,  are  held  at  a 
fixed  depth  (usually  between  10 
feet  and  200  feet)  below  the 
water  surface  by  the  pull  of  the 
anchor  rope.    The  correct  depth 


Pfantln^  Buoy 


Rim  (wsWed) 


Up  orWaeheH 
Cap 

"■Clatnp 
►SlngUCopaCsbte 
>-Bala 

>- Round  Seizing 
rBale  Ring 
-Shackle 
►Pia 


^Mooring  Rope  Clamp 
^'Mooring  fiope  Cyelet 


MultipU  Cable 
CasamatA 


»  Cora  Cabtoa 

to  Other  MioGB 


Moored  Submarine  Mine 
(Observation  Type,  with  Planting  Buoy  Not  Yet  Removed.) 


of  immersion  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  distance  weight,  a 
pressure  clutch,  or  an  equivalent 
contrivance.  The  distance 
weight  hangs  below  the  anchor 
when  ready  for  launching  by  a 
line  whose  length  is  the  designed 
depth  of  the  mine  below  the  sur- 
face. When  the  anchor  and 
distance  weight  are  let  go,  the 
former  tends  to  sink  less  rapidly 
than  the  latter  because  it  has 
cavities  which  fill  with  water 
slowly,  while  the  weight  is  of 
solid  lead  or  iron.  While  the 
anchor  is  sinking  the  mine  floats 
on  the  surface,  the  anchor  rope 
unwinding  from  its  reel  until  the 
distance  weight  touches  bottom. 
When  this  occurs  the  distance 


line  slackens,  and  releases  a  pawl 
which  locks  the  anchor  rope  reel. 
The  further  descent  of  the  anchor 
draws  the  mine  below  the  surface 
to  its  designed  position.  In 
some  types  the  distance  weight 
unreels  a  cable  the  length  of 
which  limits  the  depth  to  which 
the  mine  case  will  submerge. 
Upon  unreeling  this  length  a 
tripping  action  takes  place 
which  releases  the  anchor  from 
the  case  and  allows  the  anchor 
and  distance  weight  to  sink  to 
the  bottom  as  described  in  the 
previous  type. 

In  German  and  Russian  mines 
the  adjustment  is  differently 
effected.  When  the  anchor  is  let 
go  it  does  not  pay  out  cable,  but 
draws  the  mine  nearly  to  the 
bottom.  The  dissolving  of  a  sal- 
ammoniac  plug  soon  unlocks  the 
reel,  and  the  mine  rises  as  the 
rope  pays  out.  When  the  water 
pressure  drops  to  that  of  the 
depth  desired,  a  clutch  that  is 
automatically  released  grips  the 
anchor  rope  and  holds  the  mine 
in  position;  at  the  same  time  a 
stop  is  withdrawn  from  the 
anchor  rope  connection  which 
permits  the  strain  on  the  rope  to 
close  the  main  break  in  the  firing 
circuit.  Each  contact  horn  con- 
sists of  a  short  piece  of  lead  pipe 
which  projects  from  the  head  of 
the  mine  and  contains  a  sealed 
glass  tube  filled  with  a  chlorate  of 
potash  mixture.  Until  the  mine 
is  ready  for  launching  each  con- 
tact horn  is  protected  by  a 
strong  brass  tube  that  surrounds 
it  and  screws  to  a  boss  around  the 
hole  in  the  mine 
case.  When  a 
horn  is  struck  the 
glass  is  broken. 
The  chlorate  mix- 
ture then  drops 
into  a  battery  jar 
containing  zinc 
and  carbon  strips, 
a  current  is  gene- 
rated, and  the 
mine  explodes. 
To  facilitate  lift- 
ing the  mines,  a 
tripping  line  ex- 
tends from  each 
next  anchor,  and 
mine  to  a  small 
By  pulling 


Istrftution  8m 


mine  to  the 
from  the  last 
buoy  or  other  mark, 
the  tripping  line  a  bight  in  the 
anchor  rope  is  released.  This 
permits  the  mine  to  come  to  the 
surface,  and  the  release  of  ten- 
sion on  the  anchor  rope  opens  the 
main  break  in  the  firing  circuit  so 
that  the  mine  is  safe  to  handle. 
The  explosive  charge  of  present- 
day  mines  is  usually  of  trinitro- 
toluene (t.n.t.),  and  its  weight 
varies  from  200  to  500  pounds. 

Mining  Operations  in  the 
World  War.~ln  the  War,  the 
enormous  areas  covered  with 
mines,  the  large  number  of 
vessels  destroyed  by  them,  and 
the  extent  of  the  mine-sweeping 


Submarine  Mines 


KFI 


515 


Submarine  Mines 


work  make  the  mining  operations 
of  previous  wars  seem  trivial  in 
comparison.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  narrow  strip  of  sea  along 
the  Dutch  coast,  and  of  channels 
known  only  to  the  defenders  and 
their  pilots,  almost  the  whole 
southern  part  of  the  North  Sea 
was  strewn  with  mine  fields. 
Similar  large  fields  were  planted 
in  the  Baltic,  in  the  channels 
connecting  it  with  the  North  Sea, 
and  in  parts  of  the  Mediterrane- 
an. Except  in  the  vicinity  of 
coast  fortifications  that  are  lo- 
cated on  channels  leading  to 
important  ports,  the  mines  were 
of  the  contact,  uncontrolled 
type;  and  others  of  this  type 
were  laid  by  belligerents  across 
channels  leading  to  the  enemy's 
coast. 

In  former  wars  the  clearing  of 
passages  and  mine  fields  of  the 
enemy's  mines  was  chiefly  ef- 
fected by  counter-mining — i.e., 
firing  heavy  charges  of  high  ex- 
plosives in  the  supposed  vicinity 
of  the  mine  group.  This  was 
never  a  very  satisfactory  pro- 
cedure, and  with  recent  mines  it 
is  quite  ineffective.  Sweeping  is 
now  resorted  to.  Two  vessels, 
separated  by  a  few  hundred 
yards,  take  the  ends  of  a  wire 
hawser  and  drag  the  bight  along 
the  sea  bottom.  This  gathers 
the  mines  into  bunches,  and  they 
are  then  destroyed.  Mine 
sweeping  near  the  enemy's  coast 
is  difficult  and  dangerous. 
Nevertheless,  thousands  of  mines 
were  swept  up  and  destroyed  in 
the  Great  War,  and  hundreds  of 
vessels  of  the  tug  or  steam 
trawler  type  were  constantly 
engaged  in  the  work. 

During  the  war  the  Germans 
developed  the  mine  laying  sub- 
marine and  by  employing  it  were 
able'to  lay  mines  in  the  channels 
of  distant  ports,  and  to  necessi- 
tate extensive  mine  sweeping 
operations.  In  at  least  one 
instance,  however,  the  Germans 
lost  a  submarine  which  ran  on 
one  of  its  own  mines.  Harbor 
channels  everywhere  were  swept 
for  mines  every  morning,  and 
submarines  began  to  plan  accord- 
ingly. The  mine  planter  would 
drop  two  or  three  mines  and  then 
wait  for  the  sweepers,  following 
their  course  and  planting  mines 
in  the  channel  just  swept.  At 
Waterford,  Ireland,  in  September, 
1917,  the  presence  of  a  submarine 
mine  planter  was  suspected  and 
the  sweepers  pretended  to  sweep 
the  channel  but  left  three  or  four 
mines  in  place,  and  the  submarine 
moving  in  to  drop  more  mines 
struck  one  that  it  had  previously 
planted  and  was  blown  up. 

The  North  Sea  Mine  Barrage. — 
One  of  the  most  formidable 
undertakings  of  the  war  was  the 
planting  of  the  North  Sea  Mine 
Barrage,  which  developed  from 
an    American    idea    and  was 


largely  accomplished  by  the  U.  S. 
Navy.  It  was  made  practicable 
by  the  invention  of  the  'antenna 
mine,'  a  particular  form  of  con- 
tact mine,  which  could  be  planted 
at  greater  intervals  than  any 
other  type.  These  mines  had  an 
antenna  of  wires  which  if  touched 
by  a  passing  submarine  would 
explode  the  mine  by  an  electrical 
contrivance.  The  plan  was  to 
lay  a  mine  barrier  across  the 
North  Sea  from  the  Orkney 
Islands,  off  the  coast  of  Scotland, 
to  the  'three-mile  limit'  off  the 
Norwegian  coast — a  distance  of 
270  miles.  The  British  Navy 
undertook  to  lay  80  miles  of 
mines,  while  the  tj.  S.  Navy  was 
to  begin  at  the  point  where  the 
British  mine  field  ended  and 
plant  mines,  in  ten  lines,  from 
that  point  to  the  eastern  end  of 
the  barrier  (190  miles). 

Actual  preparations  were  be- 
gun in  America,  in  October,  1917, 
to  manufacture  125,000  mines, 
the  design  of  which  had  not  yet 
been  perfected,  to  convert  8 
merchant  ships  into  minelayers, 
to  organize  a  special  transporta- 
tion service  of  24  cargo  ships  for 
getting  mines  and  appurtenances 
across  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the 
west  coast  of  Scotland  from 
whence  they  would  be  barged  via 
the  Caledonian  Canal  to  great 
mine  bases  yet  to  be  constructed 
at  Inverness  and  Invergordon. 

Meantime  the  British  made 
renewed  efforts  to  render  the 
Dover  Strait  impassable  to  sub- 
marines, as  without  this  the 
northern  project  would  be  useless. 
Early  in  1918,  they  had  solved 
the  difficult  problem  at  Dover, 
where  strong  currents,  bad 
weather,  great  rise  and  fall  of 
tide,  and  a  bottom  of  loose 
stones  had  previously  baffled  all 
efforts  to  make  an  effective 
barrier. 

After  great  preparatory  efforts 
the  operation  of  laying  the 
Northern  Mine  Barrage  was 
actually  begun  by  the  British 
and  Americans  in  March,  1918. 
The  British  used  small  mine- 
layers and  their  type  of  mine 
which  required  a  great  number  to 
cover  a  comparatively  small 
area.  The  Americans  used  es- 
pecially designed  large  steamers. 
Mining  operations  were  actively 
continued  up  to  the  date  of  the 
Armistice,  at  which  time  the 
barrage  was  almost  completed. 
The  British  had  then  laid  about 
14,000  mines  and  the  Americans 
56,000. 

The  American  mines  were  laid 
in  a  series  of  thirteen  expeditions 
in  which  all  the  U.  S.  Navy  mine- 
layers participated.  They  usu- 
ally sailed  from  the  two  bases  at 
Inverness  and  Invergordon  on 
the  east  coast  of  Scotland  on  a 
dark  and  misty  night,  escorted 
by  British  destroyers  from  the 
Grand  Fleet.    Near  the  point  of 


laying,  they  were  met  by  a 
squadron  of  American  or  British 
battleships  with  cruisers  and 
other  destroyers  to  cover  the 
whole  operation  against  the  pos- 
sibility of  raids  from  the  German 
High  Seas  Fleet.  The  mine- 
layers were  formed  into  a  line 
abreast  at  a  standard  interval 
of  about  500  yards  and  while 
steaming  in  this  formation  at 
high  speed,  each  ship  dropped 
mines  every  few  seconds  until 
the  whole  cargo  was  disposed  of. 
In  this  way  more  than  5,000 
mines  were  laid  in  a  single  expedi- 
tion. The  operation  would  be 
completed  in  three  or  four  hours 
and  then  the  whole  force  would 
return  to  base. 

Soon  after  the  first  two  Ameri- 
can excursions  had  been  com- 
pleted, two  enemy  submarmes 
were  damaged  in  crossing  that 
portion  of  the  barrage.  The 
first,  U-86,  was  damaged  on 
July  9  while  homeward  bound. 
The  second  was  the  U.B.-22 
outward  bound  and  apparently 
destroyed.  Of  course  the  enemy 
immediately  routed  his  subma- 
rines through  a  different  part  of 
the  North  Sea,  but  the  continual 
mining  operations  constantly 
extended  the  area  which  was 
dangerous  to  submarine  passage. 
On  August  10,  the  U-113  was 
damaged  in  the  barrage  while 
outward  bound  and  was  forced 
to  turn  back.  On  September  8, 
U-92  was  sunk  in  the  barrage 
and  another  submarine  was  so 
severely  damaged  that  it  was 
forced  to  return  to  base.  On 
September  25,  U-156  and  on  Oc- 
tober 18,  U.B.-123  were  proba- 
bly lost  in  the  barrage. 

It  is  probable  that  between  two 
and  six  submarines  were  de- 
stroyed and  six  severely  damaged 
as  a  result  of  this  great  North  Sea 
barrage.  Considering  the  fact 
that  it  was  never  quite  com- 
pleted and  that  only  in  March, 
1918  did  it  begin  to  be  even  par- 
tially effective,  these  results  ap- 
pear to  more  than  justify  the 
wisdom  of  the  project. 

The  Allies  had  early  attempted 
to  prevent  the  passage  of  sub- 
marines from  the  Adriatic  Sea 
into  the  Mediterranean  through 
the  Strait  of  Otranto.  Here  a 
mobile  barrage  of  a  large  number 
of  patrol  vessels  was  maintained, 
and  the  Italians  tried  laying  a 
floating  net  barrage  since  the 
water  was  too  deep  for  ordinary 
mining.  The  development  of 
the  American  mine  appeared  to 
offer  a  better  solution  and  steps 
were  accordingly  taken  to  lay  a 
barrage  of  these  mines  across  the 
vStrait  of  Otranto.  In  order  to 
prevent  a  probable  German  move 
to  Constantinople  as  a  submarine 
base,  a  project  was  also  put  for- 
ward for  the  laying  of  a  barrage 
of  American  mines  from  Greece 
to  the  Island  of  Samos,  taking 


Submarine  Telegraphy  KFI 


515  A 


Subsidies 


advantage  of  the  string  of  islands 
in  between.  At  the  time  of  the 
Armistice,  work  upon  an  Ameri- 
can mining  base  at  Bizerta  had 
been  actually  begun,  with  a  view 
to  serving  the  minelaying  op- 
erations for  the  Otranto  ^gean 
barrages. 

See  Submarine. 

Consult  Belknap,  Yankee  Min- 
ing Squadron ;  Barnes,  Subma- 
rine Warfare ;  Bucknill,  Subma- 
rine Mines  and  Torpedoes ; 
Cloke,  Gunner's  Examiner ; 
Fyfe,  Submarine  Warfare; 
Noalhat,  Lcs  torpillcs  et  les 
mines  sousmarinc ;  Sleeman, 
Torpedoes  and  Torpedo  War- 
fare. 

Submarine  Telegraphy. 

See  Telegraphy. 
Submaxillary  Glands,  two 

of  the  group  of  salivary  glands, 
lying  one  on  each  side  of  the 
throat,  immediately  below  the  an- 
gle of  the  lower  jaw.  The  glands 
are  subject  to  various  disorders 
of  primary  and  secondary  ori- 
gin, including  infections  and  in- 
flammations, calculi  tumors,  and 
disorders  of  secretion  which  may 
be  due  to  a  number  of  causes. 
See  also  Saliva. 

Submerged  Forests,  forests 
existing  below  the  surface  of  the 
ocean  or  other  body  of  water. 
Such  forests  are  found  at  sever- 
al places  around  the  shores  of 
the  British  Isles,  their  roots  and 
stumps  becoming  exposed  at  low 
tide.  They  are  known  in  Corn- 
wall (Mount's  Bay),  along  the 
shores  of  the  Bristol  Channel, 
on  the  south  coast  of  England 
(Poole,  Torbay,  Bournemouth, 
Bognor,  St.  Leonard's),  at  the 
mouths  of  the  Humber,  the 
Mersey,  in  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
and  in  the  Orkney  Islands.  They 
are  evidently  for  the  most  part 
of  post-glacial  age,  though  a  few 
may  belong  to  interglacial  peri- 
ods ;  and  weapons  of  stone  and 
bronze  have  been  occasionally 
found  in  them  together  with 
bones  of  elk,  beaver,  wild  ox, 
and  other  animals  which  no 
longer  inhabit  Britain.  Profes- 
sor James  Geikie  arrived  at  the 
conclusion  that  there  were  two 
forest  epochs,  separated  by  a  pe- 
riod of  greater  cold,  in  which 
glaciers  formed  in  the  higher 
valleys,  and  actually  reached  the 
sea  in  some  of  the  mountainous 
districts  of  the  northwest  of 
Scotland.  In  all  probability 
Britain  was  at  that  time  united 
to  the  Continent  and  to  Ireland, 
and  a  great  part  of  the  North 
Sea  was  a  flat  plain  drained  by 
the  Rhine  and  other  rivers. 

Similar  submerged  forests  oc- 
cur in  the  Mississippi  Delta, 
and  at  various  places  along  the 
Atlantic  coast-line  from  Maine 
southward.  They  are  found  only 
in  protected  nooks  or  estuaries, 
sheltered  from  the  waves  of  the 


sea  which  would  otherwise  have 
swept  away  the  forest  soil. 
Submerged  peat  bogs,  which 
have  become  tidal  flats,  and  are 
due  to  the  subsidence  of  the 
earth's  crust,  are  also  found. 

Subor'dina'ries,  charges  in 
heraldry.    See  Heraldry. 

Sub'orna'tion  of  Perjury. 
See  Perjury. 

Subpoena,  sub-pe'na,  a  writ 
or  process  issued  by  a  court,  ju- 
dicial officer,  or  quasi  judicial 
body  commanding  the  person 
named  therein  to  appear  as  a 
witness  at  a  certain  time  and 
place,  under  a  penalty  {sub 
pcvua)  in  case  of  disobedience. 
In  courts  of  common  law,  both 
civil  and  criminal,  when  the 
presence  of  witnesses  is  com- 
pelled in  order  to  give  testimony, 
the  writ  is  called  specifically 
subpoena  ad  testificandum  ('sub- 
pcena  to  testify').  When  the 
writ  contains  an  additional 
clause  directing  the  witness  to 
bring  with  him  certain  specific 
documents,  books,  or  other  arti- 
cles which  may  be  used  as  evi- 
dence, it  is  called  subpoena  duces 
tecum. 

In  the  United  States,  a  sub- 
poena is  enforceable  only  within 
the  State  in  which  the  court  issu- 
ing it  has  jurisdiction.  A  sub- 
poena may  usually  be  served  by 
any  person  of  discretion,  and 
service  is  effected  by  personally 
delivering  a  copy,  showing  the 
original,  and  tendering  the  legal 
fees  (see  Service  of  Process). 
Statutes  in  all  the  States  pre- 
scribe certain  fees  and  mileage 
to  compensate  the  witness  for 
railroad  fare,  or  similar  costs ; 
but  generally  there  is  no  provi- 
sion under  which  he  can  demand 
actual  expenses  in  excess  of  this. 
Disobedience  of  a  subpoena  is 
punishable  as  contempt  of  court 
(see  Contempt  of  Court). 
Disobedience  in  a  civil  action  is 
also  visually  punishable  by  fine. 

Subrogation,  in  law,  is  the 
succession  of  a  person  who  has 
paid  the  debt  of  another  to  all 
the  rights  of  the  original  cred- 
itor as  against  the  debtor.  The 
following  are  the  most  common 
applications  of  the  general  doc- 
trine of  subrogation:  (1)  If  a 
junior  mortgagee  pays  the  debt 
due  to  a  prior  mortgagee,  he  be- 
comes entitled  to  the  prior  mort- 
gage. (2)  When  one  of  several 
joint  debtors  pays  the  entire  debt 
he  becomes  entitled  to  the  contri- 
bution of  the  others,  and  ac- 
cjuires  all  the  rights  of  the  cred- 
itor against  them.  (3)  When  a 
surety  pays  the  demand  pri- 
marily owing  by  his  principal 
debtor  he  is  entitled  to  recover 
the  contributions  due  from  the 
other  sureties,  and  the  entire 
amount  which  he  has  advanced 
from  his  principal.  (4)  All  con- 
tracts   of   fire  and  marine  in- 


surance are  contracts  of  indem- 
nity, and  the  underwriter,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  indemnity,  is 
'subrogated'  to  the  insured — i.e., 
he  is  entitled  to  stand  in  the 
place  of  the  insured  and  recover 
anything  the  latter  could  have 
recovered  by  enforcing  rights  of 
action  against  third  parties. 

Subsidence,  in  geology,  a 
sinking  of  the  earth's  crust  which 
has  been  taking  place  for  a  long 
time,  as  an  interrupted  process 
and  not  at  an  even  rate.  Evi- 
dence of  this  subsidence  is  found 
in  the  existence  of  submerged 
forests  (q.  v.),  in  buildings  and 
other  structures  now  standing  in 
the  water,  and  in  the  increasing 
depth  of  average  water-level 
over  well  known  reefs  and  har- 
bors. The  most  impressive  evi- 
dence, however,  lies  in  the  irreg- 
ular coast-lines  produced  by  the 
drowning  of  valleys,  with  the 
accompanying  production  of 
bays  and  estuaries.  It  has  been 
commonly  observed  that,  where 
heavy  deposits  of  sediment  are 
being  laid  down  by  rivers  in  the 
adjacent  sea,  subsidence  of  the 
ocean  bottom  is  in  progress. 
This  leads  to  the  conclusion  that 
subsidence  and  deposition  of 
sediment  occur  at  about  the 
same  time. 

Sub'sidies,  a  term  most  fre- 
quently used  in  the  following 
ways  :  ( 1 )  Annual  payments  of 
money  by  one  country  to  an- 
other, to  secure  its  neutrality  or 
assistance  in  war,  or  to  induce 
it  to  act  in  accordance  with  the 
advice  and  in  the  interests  of  the 
country  granting  the  subsidy. 
(2)  In  the  history  of  English 
taxation  the  term  has  meant,  in 
its  most  general  sense,  a  grant 
by  Parliament  in  aid  of  the  or- 
dinary revenues  of  the  govern- 
ment ;  it  has  been  applied  to  cer- 
tain export  and  import  duties 
called  tonnage  and  poundage ; 
and  it  has  also  meant  a  special 
tax  of  two  shillings  eight  pence 
on  movables,  and  four  shillings 
on  land,  which  was  granted  to  the 
Crown  in  the  sixteenth  and  sev- 
enteenth centuries.  (3)  The  term 
is  now  most  commonly  used  to 
designate  government  grants  in 
aid  of  private  enterprise,  deemed 
to  be  in  the  public  interest,  as 
of  merchant  shipping. 

Shipping  Subsidies. — Gov- 
ernment grants  in  aid  of  ship- 
ping usvially  are  made  for  one  or 
more  of  the  following  purposes  : 

(1)  the  development  of  national 
shipping    for    commercial    use ; 

(2)  the  assurance  that  national 
shipping  will  be  available  to 
serve  as  transports  and  naval 
auxiliaries  in  time  of  war;  (3) 
the  provision  of  essential  trans- 
portation facilities  between  a 
given  country  and  its  oversea 
territories,  colonies  or  other  pos- 
sessions, and   (4)   for  the  car- 


Subsidies 


KFI 


515  B 


Subsidies 


riage  of  mails.  These  grants 
take  various  forms  both  as  re- 
gards the  construction  and  oper- 
ation of  vessels,  including  (a) 
compensation  for  increased 
speeds  and  naval  auxiliary  fea- 
tures, (b)  payment  of  differ- 
ences in  shipbuilding  and  ship 
operating  costs  so  as  to  place  na- 
tionals on  a  competitive  basis 
v>ith  foreigners,  (c)  assumption 
of  interest  charges  on  loans  for 
the  purchase  or  construction  of 
vessels,  (d)  payments  of  stipu- 
lated amounts  according  to  the 
tonnage  of  cargo  carried,  (e)  ex- 
emption from  taxes,  (f)  provi- 
sion of  additional  insurance 
Vv'here  the  commercial  market 
can  not  absorb  the  entire  risk, 
(g)  compensation  for  increased 
costs  resulting  from  laws  short- 
ening the  hours  of  labor,  (h) 
payments  based  on  freight  levels, 
to  enable  ship  operators  to  tide 
over  periods  of  depression  and 
meet  foreign  competition. 

United  States  post-war  legis- 
lation has  taken  the  form  svic- 
cessivelv  of  the  Merchant  Ma- 
rine Acts,  1920,  1928  and  1936. 
The  first  two  of  these  acts  pro- 
vided for  the  granting  of  con- 
tracts by  the  Postmaster  General 
for  the  conveyance  of  mails  and 
for  the  making  of  loans  for  the 
construction  of  vessels.  Higher 
rates  of  compensation  were  paid 
under  the  Act  of  1928;  more- 
over, an  increase  was  authorized 
in  the  Government's  construc- 
tion loan  fvmd,  carrying  it  to 
$250,000,000.  The  Act  of  1936 
substituted  for  mail  contracts 
and  construction  loans,  direct 
subsidies  in  the  form  of  operat- 
ing and  construction  differentials 
intended  to  place  American  ship 
operators  on  a  parity  in  competi- 
tion with  foreign  operators. 
This  act  also  authorized  the  con- 
struction of  vessels  and  the  char- 
tering of  them  for  private  opera- 
tion. 

The  goal  set  for  a  ten-year  pro- 
gram of  modernizing  the  Ameri- 
can merchant  marine  is  500  ves- 
sels to  be  built  at  the  rate  of 
50  per  year  and  to  be  composed 
of  various  types,  passenger  and 
cargo  (including  tanker),  also 
combination  vessels.  Toward 
the  middle  of  1939,  the  number 
of  vessels  contracted  for  totalled 
66  of  592,000  gross  tons,  costing 
about  $186,305,000.  Of  the  66 
vessels,  20  were  for  the  joint 
account  of  private  operators  and 
the  Government,  with  a  commit- 
ment of  approximately  $24,640,- 
000  as  construction  differential 
subsidy.  The  other  46  vessels 
were  wholly  for  the  account  of 
the  Government  under  title  VII 
of  the  Act  providing  for  con- 
struction by  the  Government  for 
employment  under  private  char- 
ter. Operating  differential  sub- 
sidies in  1939  aggregated  at  the 


rate  of  about  $13,000,000  a 
year. 

Great  Britain  has  paid  mail 
subsidies  for  many  years.  These 
generally  have  been  of  as  much 
benefit  to  the  Government  as  to 
the  shipping  industry  since  the 
(Government  thereby  has  been 
relieved  from  expensive  trans- 
port services  in  connection  with 
the  British  naval  stations  and 
military  establishments  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  world.  Service 
to  the  Government,  rather  than 
aid  to  the  shipping  industry,  has 
been  the  object  of  the  postal- 
contract  system.  Correspond- 
ingly, the  Admiralty  has  svib- 
sidized  certain  vessels  that  have 
been  vmder  contract  with  the 
British  post  office  to  the  extent 
of  paying  for  extra  equipment 
such  as  protected  steering  gears 
and  engine  rooms  and  stiffening 
for  gun  platforms.  The  amounts 
have  been  small  and  of  no  com- 
mercial value. 

Political  and  economic  changes 
wrought  by  the  World  War  have 
influenced  the  Government  to 
aid  shipping  in  a  number  of 
ways  beyond  the  mail  and  ad- 
miralty contracts  already  men- 
tioned. Thus  in  1921  the  Gov- 
ernment passed  the  Trade  Fa- 
cilities Act  which,  with  a  series 
of  extensions  through  1926,  pro- 
vided for  the  guarantee  of  loans 
for  shipbuilding  in  the  aggregate 
of  £27,487,745  ($133,769,100). 
This  act  also  provided  for  loan 
guarantees  to  other  industries 
and  had  relief  of  unemployment 
as  its  primary  objective.  Similar 
legislation  was  enacted  by  the 
Government  of  Northern  Ireland 
and  this  is  still  in  effect.  Grow- 
ing international  competition  and 
economic  depression  have  caused 
the  Government  to  grant  finan- 
cial aid  to  the  Cunard-White 
Star  Line  in  the  form  of  ad- 
vances for  the  building  and  oper- 
ating of  the  super-liners  Queen 
Mary  and  Queen  Elisabeth. 
Three  million  pounds  were  au- 
thorized for  the  completion  of 
the  Queen  Mary,  £1,500,000 
for  working  capital  and  a  fur- 
ther £5,000,000  for  the  Queen 
Elizabeth.  The  Government 
also  arranged  to  provide  in- 
surance for  these  ships  in  so  far 
as  it  can  not  be  obtained  in  the 
commercial  market. 

In  addition,  the  decline  in  the 
charter  market  in  1935  resulted 
in  the  Government  affording  out- 
right subsidies  to  tramp  oper- 
ators, predicated  on  the  rise  or 
fall  of  the  level  of  freights. 
These  subsidies  were  paid  for 
the  years  1935  and  1936  in  the 
amount  of  about  £2,000,000  for 
each  year.  A  like  amount  would 
have  been  paid  for  1937,  but 
the  charter  market  improved  and 
authorization  was  automatically 
suspended.    The  act  was  not  re- 


newed in  1938.  A  scrap-and- 
build  scheme  was  adopted  also, 
in  1935,  whereby  advances  were 
made  to  shipowners  who  ar- 
ranged to  demolish  two  tons  of 
old  vessels  for  every  new  ton 
they  had  built  (or  one  ton  for 
every  ton  modernized).  The  ag- 
gregate of  advances  was  £3,- 
548,124  although  the  statute  had 
authorized  a  maximum  of  £10,- 
000,000.  The  rate  of  interest 
was  not  to  exceed  3  per  cent. 

France  has  granted  aid  to  its 
shipping  more  extensively  per- 
haps and  for  a  longer  period 
than  _  has  any  other  country. 
Subsidies  have  been  paid  for 
both  operation  and  construction. 
Those  for  operation,  in  the  form 
of  postal  contracts,  have 
rounded  out  approximately  a 
century  of  application.  They 
have  varied  somewhat  in  their 
particulars,  but  the  postal-sub- 
sidy principle  has  remained  un- 
disturbed— guaranteed  sailings 
with  specified  equipment  under 
penalty  provisions  in  considera- 
tion of  stipulated  compensation 
or  assumption  of  financial  risk 
by  the  State.  Further  assistance 
has  been  resorted  to  in  recent 
years  because  of  economic  de- 
pression, the  need  to  relieve  un- 
employment and  to  improve  la- 
bor conditions.  The  total  cost 
of  subsidies  in  1937  amounted 
to  about  a  billion  francs  or  $34,- 
000,000. 

Italy.  The  subsidy  system  is 
formulated  to  serve  Italian  citi- 
zens in  their  relation  to  the 
State  ;  it  is  designed  principally 
to  insure  their  transportation  un- 
der the  national  flag  between  the 
various  ports  of  the  peninsula, 
the  islands  and  the  colonies.  As 
in  the  case  of  other  countries, 
however,  economic  depression 
and  the  exigencies  of  interna- 
tional competition  also  have  been 
factors  influencing  subsidy  leg- 
islation. Shipping  services  are 
classed  as  indispensable  or  use- 
ful ;  some  of  the  former  are 
purely  local,  but  others  extend 
all  around  Italy  and  to  the  Med- 
iterranean coast  of  Asia,  Africa 
and  Europe.  More  recently  they 
include  Ethiopia.  The  scope 
of  financial  assistance  takes  into 
account  mobilization  and  the 
range  of  military  duties  ;  also  it 
provides  a  means  of  transport- 
ing Italian  citizens  for  attend- 
ance at  sessions  of  Parliament  or 
for  discharge  of  official  duties 
as  officers  or  employees  of  the 
Government.  The  'useful'  serv- 
ices are  those  which  connect 
Italy  with  foreign  countries  on 
the  Indian,  Pacific  and  Atlantic 
oceans.  In  addition  to  operat- 
ing contracts,  aid  is  provided  by 
duty  exemptions  of  materials  for 
shipbuilding,  maritime  credit 
with  state  contributions  of  inter- 
est,   navigation    premiums  for 


Subsidies 


KFI 


516 


Substitutions 


cargo  vessels  and  income  tax  ex- 
emptions. Annual  appropria- 
tions have  totaled  as  much  as 
287,500,000  lire  in  some  years. 

Germany.  The  principal  State 
grants  are  those  in  respect  of 
currency  equalization  and  the 
cost  of  new  construction.  Cur- 
rency subsidies  are  intended  to 
cover  at  least  a  part  of  the  loss 
to  which  German  shipowners  are 
subjected  by  spending  in  marks 
and  earning  in  depreciated  cur- 
rencies. Construction  subsidies 
are  paid  for  the  reason  that  the 
cost  of  building  ships  is  higher 
in  German  yards  than  in  foreign. 
Special  assistance  over  and 
above  the  currency  and  construc- 
tion grants  common  to  all  Ger- 
man shipowners  is  afforded  the 
North  Atlantic  service  which  re- 
ceives financial  support  based  on 
the  accounts  of  the  'Norda'  con- 
cerns formed  by  the  Hamburg- 
America  Line  and  the  North 
German  Lloyd.  This  assistance, 
like  the  currency  eqvialization 
payments,  is  an  outright  and  un- 
conditional grant.  It  appears  to 
be  the  German  point  of  view  that 
subsidies  within  reasonable  lim- 
its are  necessary  Cin  a  world 
in  which  the  natural  channels  of 
trade  are  disturbed  by  customs 
barriers,  exchange  dif^icvilties, 
nationalism,  boycott,  government 
control  and  other  external  forces. 

Japan.  Subsidies  date  from 
1875  when  they  were  first 
granted  to  the  Mitsvibishi  Kaisya, 
the  only  large  shipping  company 
then  in  existence.  They  have 
since  been  extended  greatly  in 
scope  and  amount  and  have  pro- 
vided the  necessary  stimulus  to 
the  achievement  of  Japan's  mer- 
chant marine  ambitions.  De- 
pendence upon  supplies  from 
overseas  both  as  regards  food- 
stuffs and  raw  materials  for'in- 
dustry,  also  the  desire  for  mili- 
tary transports  and  naval  auxil- 
iaries, have  caused  Japan  to 
grant  subsidies.  Operating 
grants  have  been  made  to  both 
liner  companies  and  tramptown- 
ers  but  only  in  recent  years  to 
the  latter.  Of  the  liner  com- 
panies, the  Nippon  Yusen 
Kaisya  receives  by  far  the  larg- 
est share  although  the  Osaka 
Shosen  Kaisya  also  receives  a 
substantial  amount.  Besides 
these  operating  grants,  subsidies 
have  been  paid  to  carry  out  ship 
improvement  plans  whereby  old 
vessels  would  be  dismantled  and 
new  ones  built.  Thus,  during 
the  period  1931  to  1937  nearly 
300,000  tons  were  built  toward 
which  the  Government  made  con- 
tributions in  the  aggregate  of 
14,000,000  yen.  Grants  in  addi- 
tion to  the  afore-mentioned,  have 
been  made  in  compensation  for 
building  fast  vessels.  Moreover, 
the  Government,  in  participation 


with  private  banking  _  interests, 
has  furnished  extensive  mari- 
time credit. 

Norway.  Government  financ- 
ing of  shipping  is  principally  for 
the  maintenance  of  local  serv- 
ices. 

See  Shipping,  Merchant. 

Albert  E.  Sanderson. 
Chief  of  Shipping  Section, 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Commerce. 

Subsoil.   See  Soils. 

Substance  (from  the  Latin 
substantia,  'being'),  a  term  which, 
in  different  senses,  has  played  an 
important  part  in  philosophical 
and  theological  discussion.  It 
may  denote  either  the  concrete 
individual — e.g.,  this  or  that  man 
(its  primary  meaning  for  Aris- 
totle); or  it  may  signify  the 
general  nature  common  to  the 
members  of  a  class,  as  humanity 
is  to  all  men  (the  essence  or 
Platonic  idea).  To  this  am- 
biguity Christian  theologians 
owe  some  of  their  difficulties  and 
disputes  in  their  attempts  to 
define  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 

The  philosophical  doctrine  of 
substance  took  on  a  different  as- 
pect, according  as  one  or  the 
other  of  these  two  meanings  was 
uppermost.  Thinkers  of  a 
Platonic  tendency,  like  the  scho- 
lastic exponents  of  realism,  re- 
garded the  essence  or  universal  as 
having  a  higher  or  truer  reality 
than  the  individual;  and  sim- 
ilarly, the  wider  universal  was 
always  a  higher  reality  than  the 
narrower.  The  logical  outcome 
of  this  line  of  thinking  is  that 
God,  the  highest  reality,  is 
conceived  as  infinite  being  or 
substance;  but  being  which,  as 
infinite,  is  emptied  of  all  positive 
determinations,  since  any  posi- 
tive determination  would  seem 
to  'limit'  it  and  make  it  finite. 
In  the  Cartesian  philosophy 
essentially  the  same  type  of 
doctrine  is  present,  coming  to 
its  full  expression  in  Spinoza,  who 
recognizes  in  God  the  one  and 
only  substance  of  which  all  finite 
things  are  but  the  transitory 
modes.  The  monadism  of  Leib- 
niz may  be  regarded  in  relation  to 
Spinoza  as  an  expression  of  the 
opposed  view,  that  the  individual 
is  the  true  reality.  But  the  type 
of  doctrine  opposed  to  realism  in 
its  scholastic  form  was  Nominal- 
ism, which  held  so  exclusively 
to  the  reality  of  the  individual  as 
to  make  the  essence  or  general 
nature  a  mere  name  or  a  thought 
in  the  mind.  (See  Nominalism.) 

In  modern  philosophy,  the  no- 
tion of  substance  has  been  sub- 
jected to  criticism  in  two  direc- 
tions. On  the  one  hand,  it  has 
been  asked  how  we  are  to  think 
the  relationship  involved  in  it. 
Locke  raised  this  question  point- 
edly enough  by  his  naive  confes- 
sion that  he  could  see  nothing  in 
the  conception  of  substance  but 
'a  supposition,  to  which  we  accus- 


tom ourselves;  of  a  support  we 
know  not  what,'  for  the  qualities 
we  perceive.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  has  been  felt  that  the  notion  of 
substance  is  a  very  inadequate 
and  misleading  one  to  apply  to 
spiritual  being  or  consciousness. 

In  Logic,  the  converse  of  sub- 
stance is  Attribute.  The  former  is 
considered  to  be  self-evident, 
while  the  latter  can  only  be  con- 
ceived as  possessing  a  dependent 
existence. 

Substitutions,  a  branch  of 
mathematics  which  considers  the 
results  of  substituting  certain 
quantities  or  numbers  belonging 
to  a  given  set  for  an  equal  num- 
ber of  similar  quantities  or  num- 
bers belonging  to  the  same  set. 
For  example,  given  any  function 
of  the  four  quantities,  xi,  Xi,  xs,  Xi, 
we  get  a  new  function  if  we  sub- 
stitute 2  for  1,  3  for  3,  4  for  2,  and 
1  for  4.  Let  us  represent  this  sub- 
stitution by  s,  then  by  successive 
applications  of  the  substitutions 
we  find  s  =  2,  4,  3,  1;  ss  =  4,  1,  3,  2; 
sss=l,  2,  3,  4.  Hence  the  sub- 
stitution s  is  such  that  s'  =  l. 
Now,  whatever  be  the  number  of 
letters  involved,  and  whatever  be 
the  substitution,  it  is  found  that  a 
sufficient  number  of  repetitions  of 
s  leads  to  the  original  arrange- 
ment, and  that  consequently  s 
satisfies  an  equation  of  the  form 
s"=l.  The  smallest  number  n 
which  satisfies  this  equation  is 
called  the  order  of  the  substitu- 
tion. 

In  the  case  just  given  the  three 
quantities  represented  by  1,  2, 
4  form  what  is  called  a  cyclic  sub- 
stitution. Any  substitution 
must  be  composed  of  a  definite 
number  of  cyclic  substitutions. 
Thus  the  substitution  which 
transforms 

a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j 

into 

d,  j,  i,  e,  h,  c,  b,  a,  f,  g 
is  built  up  of  the  cyclic  substitu- 
tions (adeha)  (bjgh)  (cifc).  Evi- 
dently the  order  of  a  cyclic  sub- 
stitution is  simply  the  number  of 
letters  involved  in  the  cycle;  and 
the  order  of  any  substitution  is 
consequently  equal  to  the  least 
common  multiple  of  the  orders  of 
its  component  cycles.  This  meth- 
od has  important  developments 
and  applications  in  the  theories  of 
numbers,  of  groups,  and  of  equa- 
tions. 

The  most  familiar  substitu- 
tion is  that  known  as  the  linear 
substitution,  in  which  a  transfor- 
mation is  effected  by  putting  in 
place  of  each  variable  or  indepen- 
dent unit  in  an  algebraic  expres- 
sion linear  expressions  involving 
the  other  variables  or  units.  Such 
a  substitution  leaves  the  order  of 
the  algebraic  expression  unal- 
tered. It  has  one  of  its  most 
important  applications  in  the 
ordinary  analytical  theory  of 
curves  and  surfaces,  and  especial- 
ly in  projective  geometry.  See 


A  MODERN  DOUBLE-DECKED  SUBWAY. 


View  of  the  New  Lexington  Avenue  System,  New  York  City.  Before  Completion.  On  the  Lower 
Level.  E:xpress  Trains  will  Run,  with  Stations  About  a  Mile  Apart.  The  Upper  Level  Is  for  Local 
Trains,  with  Stations  About  One-third  of  a  Mile  Apart. 


Subway^ 


517  A 


readily  accessible.  The  London 
deep  rapid-transit  tunnels,  300 
feet  below  ground  level,  which 
serve  the  same  purposes  as  shal- 
low rapid  transit  subways  (ex- 
cept that  elevators  are  needed 
Water  Proof incf  .. 


high  speed;  therefore  they  are 
adapted  for  long-haul  service, 
and  are  used  for  this  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  streetrcar  traffic,  which  is 
essentially  short-haul  transporta- 
tion.   Except  for  a  few  pieces  of 


held  to  outweigh  their  greater 
cost.  The  first  subways  were 
planned  and  built  in  the  late 
nineties,  following  a  twenty-year 
period  during  which  elevated  rail- 
ways had  been  the  main  resource 


Waterproofing'' 


New  York  Subway.- 


■  Minimum  Depth  of  Concrete  8  ' 
Half  Cross  Section. 
-Halj  Cross  Section  and  Partial  Longitudinal  Section, 


Port  Lorcitudinol  Secticr 
Four-Track  Portion. 


for 


passengers),  have  not  been 
copied  elsewhere.  The  Hudson 
Tube  system  at  New  York  City, 
a  rapid-transit  system  with  four 
tunnels  under  the  Hudson  River, 
uses  tunnel  construction  in  its 


subway  in  Boston,  practically 
all  other  city  transit  subways  are 
used  for  the  operation  of  rapid- 
transit  trains,  instead  of  forming 
links  in  the  surface  street-car 
system. 


in  providing  urban  rapid  transit. 
At  the  present  time,  little  new 
elevated  construction  is  going  on. 

The  largest  rapid-transit  sub- 
way system  in  the  world  is  that 
of  New  York  City,  and  the  first 


Rods, 

4"C.foC: 


Waterproofing 


a 

Concrete} 


Boston  Subway. — Cross  Section  of  a  Passenger  Station. 


land  vsections  only  for  construc- 
tion reasons,  and  wherever  pos- 
sible the  line  rises  to  near  the 
surface. 

vSubways  being  free  from  inter- 
secting streets  and  railways,  cars 
and  trains  in  them  can  be  run  at 


Subways  provide  the  same  ser- 
vice as  elevated  railways,  but 
cost  three  to  five  times  as  much 
to  build.  Their  advantagCvS — 
they  do  not  darken  or  obstruct 
the  streets  or  produce  noise  and 
dust — are  nowadays  generally 


line  was  built  there.  This  orig- 
inal subway,  operation  of  which 
started  in  1904,  includes  some  16 
miles  of  railway  in  subway,  be- 
sides several  miles  of  elevated 
extension.  Subsequent  enter- 
prises  were  begun  in  1906  and 


Subway's 


518 


Subways 


in  1912,  on  a  plan  designed  to 
gridiron  the  entire  city  with 
rapid-transit  lines — all  subways 
except  in  outlying  districts,  where 
elevated  structures  are  used. 
The  completed  dual  rapid-transit 
system  of  Greater  New  York  will 
comprise  about  630  miles.  (See 
New  York  City,  Transportation.) 

Boston  and  Philadelphia  are 
the  two  other  American  cities 
having  subway  systems.  The 
Philadelphia  system  consists  of 
an  east  -  and  -  west  line  under 
Market  Street,  continuing  be- 
yond the  Schuylkill  River  as  an 
elevated  extension.  North-and- 
south  subways  have  been  pro- 
jected and  planned  for. 

The  Boston  system  is  an  ex- 

=^fe  Anf> 
FuH-on  '=0=  S^- 
Dey  St., 


The  tubes  are  reached  from  the 
street  by  elevators. 

Paris  has  an  extensive  subway 
network  comprising  two  ring 
lines  and  a  number  of  east-and- 
west  and  north-and-south  trans- 
verse lines.  Most  of  these  are 
under  the  control  of  one  com- 
pany, which  allows  of  transferring 
at  all  intersections.  One  of  the 
north-south  lines,  with  several 
branches,  is  operated  by  an  inde- 
pendent company. 

Berlin  possesses  the  main  stem 
of  a  thorough  subway  system, 
the  existing  stem  running  north- 
east and  southwest  through  the 
entire  city,  with  two  branches, 
one  built  municipally.  An  inde- 
pendent city-built  subway  run- 


structure  of  a  lined  tunnel,  but 
with  few  exceptions  it  is  built  in 
open  excavation  from  the  street 
surface,  and  the  street  subse- 
quently refilled  over  it.  In  most 
instances,  cellular  steel-and-con- 
crete  construction  comprises  ver- 
tical columns  along  the  side 
walls  and  between  the  tracks, 
spaced  every  4  to  10  feet  along 
the  length  of  the  structure,  steel 
roof  beams  resting  on  the  col- 
umns, and  an  encasing  shell  of 
concrete;  in  a  few  cases,  the  steel 
framing  members  (columns  and 
beams)  have  been  omitted,  and  a 
pure  reinforced  concrete  cellular 
construction  used  (Fourth  Ave- 
nue subway.  New  York).  The 
accompanying  view  of  a  section 


Plan 

MAMHAT  PAtsI 

Stee,  Beam  and  Concr.  Consf.--->f^^^^^"'^Tunn^^^^^^^  ConsfruCfJOn  yyftf,  UShelt- 

2  if,, 


Const  fein-f.  Cone 
\W.S.SA  Const'  , 


BROOKl_Vts» 

Beinforced  Concrete  Cohstruefion 


Miles 

New  York  Subw^ay. — Profile  of  Manhattan-Brooklyn  Extension  Beneath  the  East  River. 


tensive  network  of  lines  centring 
about  a  subway  terminal  loop  of 
the  dock-front  elevated  railway. 
A  subway  line  westward  to 
Brookline,  another  north  to 
Cambridge  and  south  to  Dor- 
chester, and  a  street-car  tunnel 
to  East  •  Boston  are  important 
parts  of  the  system. 

Subways  for  a  number  of  oth- 
er American  cities  —  e.g.,  Pitts- 
burgh, Cleveland,  Detroit — have 
been  studied  and  their  construc- 
tion agitated.  The  great  initial 
cost  of  subways,  however,  re- 
quires a  very  dense  traffic  to 
make  them  pay  their  carrying 
charge,  and  this  condition  is 
found  only  in  the  largest  cities. 

The  famous  deep-tube  system 
of  London  is  the  earliest  under- 
ground rapid-transit  system.  It 
consists  of  cast-iron  tubes,  each 
single  track,  in  pairs,  driven  by 
the  shield  method  (.see  Tunnels). 


ning  north  and  south  is  the  most 
recent  addition.  This  subway 
system  grew  out  of  a  cross-town 
elevated  line  with  a  short  sub- 
way section,  the  latter  being  de- 
veloped and  extended  until  the 
original  elevated  railway  line  be- 
came a  minor  appendage.  There 
are  short  portions  of  subway  in 
Hamburg  and  Budapest,  and  a 
depressed  rapid  transit  railway 
in  Vienna  (not  a  true  subway,  as 
it  is  in  open  cut). 

Construction.  —  Disregarding 
the  shield-driven  deep  tunnels  in 
London,  already  mentioned,  ex- 
isting subways  are  either  con- 
crete arch  structures  of  roughly 
elliptical  section,  or  steel-and- 
concrete  structures  of  box-shaped 
or  cellular  section.  The  latter  is 
the  common  type;  the  elliptical 
arch  section  is  used  exclusively 
in  the  Paris  system.  The  latter 
in  its  nature  is  identical  with  the 


of  the  newest  New  York  subway 
(Lexington  Avenue)  exhibits  the 
general  nature  of  the  structure  as 
seen  before  most  of  the  concrete 
encasement  is  in  place. 

Subway  construction  involves 
many  difficulties  that  greatly  in- 
crease the  cost.  Most  important 
is  the  cutting  through  of  the 
sewer  system  of  the  city,  which 
usually  lies  within  the  vertical 
range  of  the  subway.  This  ne- 
cessitates extensive  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  sewers,  and  provision 
for  new  main  drainage  lines  and 
outfall.  Crossings  of  rivers  and 
creeks  require  tunnels  which  in 
most  cases  have  formed  especially 
difficult  problems,  dealt  with  by 
various  methods  of  tunnelling 
and  caisson  sinking.  (See  Tun- 
nels.) 

Operalion.  —  Subway  railways 
are  possible  only  because  of  elec- 
tric traction,  as  the  smoke  and 


Succession 


520 


^ckllng 


eteam  from  locomotives  would 
make  them  untenantable.  The 
system  used  employs  direct  cur- 
rent at  about  600  volts  potential, 
supplied  by  a  third  rail  supported 
on  insulators  just  above  ground 
alongside  the  track,  the  return 
going  through  the  track  rails. 
The  speeds  range  from  25  to  40 
miles  per  hour. 

Succession  is  a  term  of  the 
civil  law  denoting  the  devolution 
of  a  deceased  person's  legal  rights 
and  duties  upon  his  heirs'  de- 
scendants. The  word  is  thus 
used  in  Louisiana  and  Scotland. 
If  the  heirs  are  appointed  by  will, 
the  succession  or  inheritance  is 
said  to  be  testamentary;  if  they 
are  designated  by  the  law  itself,  in 
the  absence  of  a  will  or  in  certain 
cases  notwithstanding  its  provi- 
sions, the  succession  is  legal.  In 
the  Anglo-American  common  law 
the  term  succession  is  only  tech- 
nically applied  to  the  transmis- 
sion of  rights  and  duties  to  the 
successive  members  of  a  corpora- 
tion. 

Succession  Act.    See  Act  of 

Settlement. 

Succession,  Apostolic,  a  term 
applied  to  the  alleged  uninter- 
rupted succession  of  the  three 
apostolic  orders — bishops,  priests," 
and  deacons — in  the  Church  by 
an  unbroken  chain  of  ordination 
from  the  apostles,  and  therefore 
from  Jesus  Christ,  down  to  the 
present  day.  Through  this  unin- 
terrupted succession  of  ordina- 
tion the  ministry  so  ordained 
claims  to  be  invested  with  all  the 
powers  and  privileges  of  the  apos- 
tles, and  therefore  to  represent 
directly  the  Lord  Himself.  This 
view,  founded  on'isuch  passages  as 
Matt,  xviii.  18,  is  maintained  by 
the  Greek,  Roman  Catholic, 
Oriental,  and  Anglican  churches, 
who  further  hold  that  the  unin- 
terrupted succession  is  capable  of 
historical  proof,  and  is  essential 
to  the  transmission  of  valid  or- 
ders in  the  Church.  Other  relig- 
ious bodies,  such  as  the  Presby- 
terians, hold  that  no  such  special 
significance  attaches  to  the  pas- 
sages referred  to,  and  maintain 
that  the  rise  of  the  sacerdotal 
orders  did  not  take  place  until  the 
fourth  century.  See  Bishop; 
Episcopacy.  Consult  Hatch's 
Organization  of  the  Early  Chris- 
tian Churches;  Gore's  The  Church 
and  the  Ministry. 

Succession  Wars  is  the  general 
name  given  to  contests  which 
took  place  in  Europe  during  the 
eighteenth  century  on  the  extinc- 
tion of  certain  dynasties  or  ruling 
houses.  Four  such  wars  are  usu- 
ally enumerated — that  of  the 
Spanish  succession  (17()l-i;i),  of 
the  Polish  succession  (17:i;}-:w), 
of  the  Austrian  succession  (1740- 
1748),  and  of  the  Bavarian  suc- 
cession (1777-79).    See  the  sec- 


tion History  in  the  articles  Spain, 
Poland,  Austria. 

Succin'ic  Acid  (CH2COOH)2, 
a  dibasic  acid  occurring  in  amber 
and  other  resins,  from  the  former 
of  which  it  can  be  obtained  by  dis- 
tillation, though  it  is  more  easily 
prepared  by  the  reduction  of 
malic  acid.  In  the  animal  king- 
dom it  has  been  detected  in  the 
fluids  of  hydatid  cysts  and  hydro- 
cele, in  the  parenchymatous  juices 
of  the  thymus  gland  of  the  calf, 
as  well  as  of  the  pancreas  and 
thyroid  gland  of  the  ox.  It  can 
be  obtained  synthetically  by  the 
hydrolysis  of  ethylene  cyanide, 
and  forms  monoclinic  crystals 
with  adisagreeabletaste.  Itmelts 
r.t  180°^c.,  is  somewhat  soluble  in 
water,  and  forms  a  series  of  salts, 
of  which  the  insoluble,  buff-col- 
ored ferric  succinate  is  employed 
as  a  test  for  the  acid. 

Succory.    See  Chicory. 

Succu'bae.   See  Demonology. 

Su-chau,  soo'chou',  Su-chow, 
or  SoocHOW,  city,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Kiang-su,  China,  on 
Ta-hu  Lake  and  the  Grand  Ca- 
nal ;  55  miles  northwest  of  Shang- 
hai. It  is  in  the  heart  of  the  silk 
district,  and  is  one  pf  the  wealth- 
iest cities  of  the  republic.  The 
city  is  partially  built  on  a  score  of 
islands,  and  is  threaded  by  canals, 
from  which  it  has  been  called  'the 
Venice  of  China.'  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  thirty  feet 
high  and  twelve  miles  in  circum- 
ference. Many  of  the  granite 
bridges  spanning  the  canals  are  of 
high  architectural  merit.  The 
Great  Pagoda  of  Su-chau,  240 
feet  high,  has  nine  stories,  with 
sixty  doors  opening  upon  balco- 
nies. 

The  environs  of  Su-chau  are 
covered  with  orchards,  gardens, 
mulberry  groves,  and  cultivated 
fields  of  cotton,  rice,  wheat, 
fruit,  and  Vegetables.  The  manu- 
factures consist  of  silk  goods 
(over  7,000  looms),  cotton  and 
linen  fabrics,  and  articles  of 
ivory,  horn,  wood,  glass,  and 
lacquered  ware.  The  city  was 
largely  destroyed  during  the 
Taiping  Rebellion  (I860).  It 
was  opened  to  foreign  trade  in 
1896.  A  Chinese  and  European 
school  was  opened  in  1900.  Pop. 
500,000. 

Suchet,  sii-sha',  Louis  Ga- 
briel, Due  d'Albufera  (1770- 
1826),  French  soldier,  was  born  in 
Lyons.  He  distinguished  himself 
in  the  Italian  campaigns  of  1796 
and  1799-1800,  in  the  latter  of 
which  he  was  second  in  command 
to  Massena.  At  Marengo,  and  in 
the  great  engagements  of  1805-7 
— Austerlitz,  Saalfeld,  Jena,  Pul- 
tusk,  Ostrolenka — he  ably  assist- 
ed Napoleon.  Named  governor 
of  Aragon,  he  inflicted  defeats 
on  the  British  under  Blake  (1809) 
and  under  O'Donnell  (1810),  and 


conquered  Valentia  (1812).  He 
was  created  count  (1808),  mar- 
shal of  France  (1811),  and  after 
the  abdication  of  Napoleon  was 
made  Due  d'Albufera  by  Louis 
xviii.,  but  was  involved  in  Napo- 
leon's fall  after  Waterloo.  He 
wrote  Memoir es  (1829-34).  Con- 
sult Barault-Roullon's  Le  Mare- 
chal  Suchet.  ' 

Sucker,  in  botany,  is  (1)  a 
shoot  or  branch  originating  on 
a  subterranean  portion  of  the 
stem;  (2)  a  shoot  or  sprout 
arising  from  the  root  near  or 
remote  from  the  trunk  of  certain 
trees,  as  the  silver-leaf  poplar; 
and  (3)  an  adventitious  shoot  or 
sprout  from  the  stem  or  limbs,  as 
the  rapidly  growing  erect  shoots 
of  an  apple  or  pear  tree. 

Sucliing  Fish,  or  Sucker,  the 
Echeneididae  family,  many  spe- 
cies of  which  are  popularly  called 
Remoras,  though  the  name  strictly 


Sucking  Fish  (Echeneis  renter  a). 


applies  to  only  one.  Their  special 
peculiarity  is  that  the  first  dorsal 
fin  is  converted  into  an  adhesive 
disc,  which  occupies  the  upper 
side  of  the  head  and  neck.  The 
disc  consists  of  a  double  series  of 
transverse  lamellae,  which  can  be 
erected,  and  by  the  production  of 
a  series  of  vacuums  enable  the 
fish  to  attach  itself  very  firmly  to 
any  flat  surface.  Remoras  usu- 
ally fasten  themselves  to  moving 
objects,  such  as  ships,  other  fish, 
especially  sharks,  turtles,  and  so 
on;  and  for  this  reason  are  some- 
times attached  to  lines  and  used 
to  catch  other  fish  and  turtles. 
The  true  remora  occurs  in  warm 
waters;  but  other  species  of  suck- 
ing fishes  of  the  Echeneididae 
family  occur  in  all  seas.  The 
best-known  species  are  E.  remora, 
growing  to  about  eight  inches, 
and  E.  naucrates,  a  slender  form 
which  attains  three  feet. 

In  the  United  States,  the  name 
Sucker  is  given  to  fresh-water  fish 
of  the  family  Catostomidae,  of 
which  there  are  many  species. 
The  very  common  white  sucker,  a 
dull-colored,  lazy  fish  about  fif- 
teen inches  long,  is  easy  to  catch, 
especially  in  the  spring,  but  has 
little  flavor  to  recommend  its  use 
for  food. 

Suclding,  Sir  John  (1609-42), 
English  poet,  was  born  in  Whit- 
ton,  Middlesex.  After  1628  he 
seems  to  have  served  in  the  army 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  He  re- 
turned to  England  in  1632,  and 
became  famous  at  the  court  of 
Charles  i.  for  his  wit  and  prodi- 
gality. In  1639  he  raised  a  force 
of  hprse  tp  aid  the  king  against 


Sucre 


KFP 


521 


Suctoria 


the  Scots.  Suckling  became  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  for  Bramber  in 
1640;  but  having  joined  in  the 
plot  to  rescue  Strafford  from  the 
Tower  in  1641,  he  had  to  liee  to 
France.  His  chief  compositions 
are  The  Goblins,  Aglaura,  and 
Brennoralt.  Suckling's  fame  rests 
chiefly  on  his  lyrics,  among 
which  are  'Why  So  Pale  and  Wan, 
Fond  Lover?'  and  'I  Prithee  Send 
Me  Back  My  Heart.'  Consult 
Life  prefixed  to  the  Selections  by 
A.  L  Suckling. 

Sucre,  city,  Bolivia;  nominally 
the  capital,  but  recently  the  seat 
of  government  has  been  trans- 
ferred to  La  Paz.  Sucre  is  situ- 
ated on  the  watershed  between 
the  basins  of  the  Amazon  (Gua- 
pay)  and  the  La  Plata  (Pilco- 
mayo).  It  is  the  residence  of  the 
archbishop  of  La  Plata  and  Char- 
cas,  the  primate  of  Bolivia.  Its 
principal  buildings  are  the  Cathe- 
dral (1553),  the  President's  Pal- 
ace and  Halls  of  Congress,  the 
cabildo  or  town  hall,  a  mint,  the 
courts  of  justice,  and  the  Univer- 
sity of  San  Xavier.  In  1912  an 
important  new  scheme  of  water 
supply  was  completed,  water  be- 
ing brought  from  Cajamarca,  a 
watershed  some  15  miles  distant. 
Si'cre  was  founded  in  1539  by  a 
companion  of  Pizarro,  and  was 
called  Chuquisaca.  Pop. 
(1939)  34,600. 

Sucrose.    See  Sugar. 

Suction  Gas  Producer,  one  of 
the  devices  by  which  producer  gas, 
suitable  for  use  in  gas  engines,  is 
obtained.  The  accompanying  il- 
lustration shows  the  double  case 
generator  on  the  left,  with  the 
evaporator  at  the  top,  and  on  the 
right  the  gas  cleaner,  where  the 


and  steam  passing  up  through 
the  furnace  bed.  The  steam  is 
generated  in  the  vaporizer  by  the 
heated  gas,  and  the  air  is  sup- 


1908  there  were  in  the  United 
States  over  500  producer  power 
plants,  of  which  85  per  cent  were 
of  the  suction  type.     See  Gas. 


TO  GAS 
ENGINE 


Suction  Gas  Producer. 


plied  at  first  by  a  blower,  and 
afterward  (as  soon  as  gas  has 
formed  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
work  the  engine)  by  the  suction 
stroke  of  the  cylinder.  The 
quantity  of  gas  developed  is 
thus  largely  determined  by  the 
amount  that  is  demanded  by 
the  engine. 

The  common  fuels  for  suction 
producers  are  anthracite  coal, 
charcoal,  and  coke;  but  experi- 
ments are  being  made  to  adapt 
the  apparatus  for  the  cheaper 
fuels.    Most  suction  plants  are 


Consult  Flurscheim's  Working 
Hints  for  Suction  Gas  Producers 
(1909) ;  C.  A.  M.  Smith's  Suction 
Gas  Plants  (1909);  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Mines  Bulletin  No.  13  (1911). 

Suctoria,  an  order  of  Infusoria, 
including  fresh-water  and  marine 
forms.  In  the  young  stage  the 
Suctoria  are  uniformly  covered 
with  cilia;  but  in  the  adult  con- 
dition they  bear  instead  stiff,  rod- 
like processes,  often  knobbed  at 
the  tip,  which  are  called  tentacles. 
By  means  of  these  the  animals 
are  able  to  suck  out  the  contents 


gas  is  washed  by  a  fine  spray  of 
water  as  it  rises  through  a  col- 
umn of  coke. 

The  carbon  monoxide  is 
developed  by  a  mixture  of  air 


of  200  horse  power  or  less,  owing 
to  the  fuel  cost. 

The  device  was  invented  in 
1895,  and  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States  about  1903.  In 


of  their  prey,  which  usually  con- 
sists of  ciliate  Protozoa.  Sucto 
ria  are  all  sedentary  in  habit.  Ex- 
amples are  Acineta  and  Dendro- 
soma.  See  Protozoa;  Infusoria. 


Suczawa 


KFP 


522 


Sudan 


Suczawa,  town,  Austria,  in 
Bukowina ;  48  miles  southeast 
of  Czernowitz.  It  manufactures 
beer,  stoneware,  and  leather. 
Pop.  11,539. 

Sudan,  Soudan,  or  Bilad- 
ES-SuDAN  ('Land  of  the  Blacks'), 
includes  a  large  belt  of  Africa 


Abyssinia  and  Uganda;  and  on 
the  west  by  the  Belgian  Congo 
and  French  West  Africa.  The 
area  is  967,500  square  miles. 

Topography. — The  northern 
part  of  the  Sudan  is  mostly  des- 
ert, with  small  tracts  of  pasture 
land.  Ranges  of  hills  rise  near 


Native  Types  of  the  Sudan. 
1.  View  in  Timbuktu.   2.  Mandingo.   3.  Tuareg.   4.  Fulani.   5.  Hausa.   6.  Dinka. 


south  of  Egypt  and  the  Sahara. 
The  French  Sudan  is  the  coun- 
try of  Upper  Senegal  and  Niger, 
and  the  country  east  of  the  Ni- 
ger is  often  spoken  of  as  the 
Central  Sudan ;  but  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan  is  the  only  po- 
litical division  now  properly  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
twenty-second  parallel  of  north 
latitude  ;  on  the  east  by  the  Red 
Sea  and  Eritrea ;  on  the  south  by 


the  Nile  to  about  3,500  feet,  and 
near  Suakin  are  peaks  fully 
5,000  feet  high.  Kordofan  is  a 
table  land  rising  to  2,000  feet, 
while  the  hilly  Dar  Nuba  and 
Darfur  attain  summits  of  6,000 
feet.  The  country  is  drained  by 
the  Nile  (q.  v.)  and  its  tribu- 
taries. The  Bahr-el-Ghazal  and 
its  tributaries  converge  like  a 
large  fan  from  the  watershed, 
which,  running  northwest  from 
the  Albert  Nyanza,  sinks  from 


6,000  feet  to  about  2,500  feet 
near  Dem  Ziber. 

Climate  and  Soil. — The  cli- 
mate is  healthy,  though  intense- 
ly hot  in  summer,  increasing  in 
humidity  toward  the  south.  The 
average  temperature  between 
November  and  March  is  86°  f.  ; 
between  March  and  November, 
104°  F.  The  average  annual  rain- 
fall at  Gambela  is  46  inches ; 
at  Khartum,  6  inches ;  at  Mon- 
galla,  36  inches.  Severe  dust 
storms  occur  between  May  and 
July.  Sleeping  sickness  is  found 
in  the  Lado  Enclave,  and  malaria 
and  blackwater  fever  are  not  un- 
o  known. 

Mining. — Gold,  copper,  iron, 
lead,  antimony,  lignite,  natron, 
salt,  and  alum  are  found ;  but 
only  gold  is  produced  in  com- 
mercial quantities. 

_  Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  car- 
ried on  in  the  Berber  and  Don- 
gola  provinces.  The  Gezira  irri- 
gation scheme,  about  170  miles 
south  of  Khartum,  was  put  in 
operation  in  1926.  By  means  of 
this  plan  the  Sennar  dam  at 
Makwar  on  the  Blue  Nile  was 
constructed,  and  over  80,000 
acres  of  land  were  cultivated 
with  Sakaharidis  cotton. 
^  Agriculture. — The  chief 
crops  are  wheat,  barley,  dates, 
sesame,  and  cotton.  The  Tokar 
district  is  the  chief  cotton  sec- 
tion ;  but  the  Gezireh  plain,  is 
now  the  center  of  the  industry. 
Trade  in  live  stock  is  increas- 
ing. The  chief  native  woods  are 
ebony,  gum  (Kordofan  prov- 
ince), acacia,  bamboo,  and  rub- 
ber (Bahr-el-Ghazal).  The  Su- 
dan is  the  chief  source  of  the 
world's  supply  of  gum  arable 
and  ivory. 

Commerce. — The  principal 
^  imports  are  cotton  piece  goods, 
sugar,  liquors,  iron  and  steel, 
gunnies,  wheat,  flour,  tea,  and 
machinery.  The  exports  are  gum, 
cotton,  sesame,  ivory,  hides  and 
skins,  and  durra.  The  Sudan 
railways  system  of  1991  miles 
extends  from  Wadi  Haifa  to  El 
Obeid,  to  Port  Sudan  and  Sua- 
kin eastward,  and  to  Sennar  on 
the  Blue  Nile.  There  are  river 
steamship  services  and  a  motor 
transport  service  between  Juba 
and  Nimule.  There  are  33  wire- 
less stations  and  6,275  miles  of 
telegraph  and  telephone  routes. 

Population. — The  northern 
part  of  the  Sudan  is  occupied  by 
Moslems  of  Negro  (Nuba),  Ham- 
itic,  and  Semitic  (Arab)  races. 
On  the  Upper  Nile,  Sobat,  and 
Bahr-el-Ghazal,  and  the  Abys- 
sinian frontier,  dwell  uncivilized 
Negroes — the  Shiluks,  Nuers, 
Dinkas,  Baris,  Boruns,  Bongos, 
Bolandas,  Jurs,  Golos,  etc.  Pop, 
6,590,996. 

Education. — The  education 
system  is  divided  into  two 
spheres — Northern   and  South- 


Sudan 


KFP 


523 


Sudermann 


ern.  In  the  former,  education  is 
mainly  directed  by  the  govern- 
ment. Higher  education  is  rep- 
resented by  the  Gordon  Memo- 
rial College  at  Khartum.  There 
are  two  junior  secondary 
schools,  117  boys'  elementary 
schools,  62  girls'  elementary 
schools,  and  a  training  college 
for  teachers.  There  are  techni- 
cal schools  at  Omdurman  and 
Atbara.  Eight  independent  inter- 
mediate and  several  elementary 
schools  are  managed  by  and  for 
the  natives.  There  are  52  non- 
government schools,  165  sub- 
grade  schools,  180  state-sided 
indigenous  Koran  schools,  and 
various  mission  schools. 

Government. — The  Sudan  is 
divided  into  8  provinces  with 
British  governors,  appointed  by 
the  Governor-General  from  the 
officers  of  the  Egyptian  army. 
The  Governor-General,  appoint- 
ed by  the  King  with  the  approv- 
al of  the  British  Government, 
and  his  council  (created  in 
1910)  make  all  the  laws.  The 
capital  is  Khartum  (pop.  44,- 
950).  Other  towns  are  Omdur- 
man, the  old  Dervish  capital 
(pop.  116,196),  North  Khartum. 
Haifa,  Merowe,  Berber,  Wad 
Medani,  Suakin,  and  Port  Sudan 
(founded  in  1909). 

The  currency  is  the  same  as 
that  of  Egypt,  but  European  cur- 
rency has  been  introduced.  The 
Sudan  was  able  to  declare  its 
financial  independence  of  Egypt 
starting  from  Jan.  1,  1913. 

Provincial  and  district  courts 
have  been  established,  and  there 
is  a  judicial  commissioner  at 
Khartum.  There  are  also  Mo- 
hammedan courts  conducted  by 
natives. 

History. — The  Sudan  is  said 
to  be  the  territory  known  in  the 
Bible  as  the  land  of  Gush,  and 
later  as  Nubia.  In  750  b.c.  the 
king,  Pianchi,  conquered  Egypt 
and  founded  the  twenty-fifth  dy- 
nasty. Roman  control  in  the  in- 
terior was  only  partial.  It  was 
converted  to  Christianity  in  545 
A.D.  The  country  was  invaded 
by  the  Arabs  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, and  became  Mohammedan 
in  the  early  Middle  Ages.  ^  Of 
the  later  mediaeval  history  little 
is  known. 

Internal  disturbances  during 
the  eighteenth  century  led  to  the 
reconquest  of  the  country  by 
Egypt  (1820).  Egyptian  rule 
was  gradually  extended  to  the 
south,  chiefly  through  the  ef- 
forts of  Baker,  Gordon,  and  oth- 
er Europeans.  In  1882  occurred 
the  Mahdi  revolt,  which  was  not 
finally  put  down  until  the  Bat- 
tle of  Omdurman  (1898).  In  the 
following  year  the  Sudan  was 
constituted  a  condominion  of  the 
British  and  Egyptian  govern- 
ments. 

The   Lado   Enclave  (17,000 


square  miles)  was  transferred  to 
the  Sudan  by  the  Belgian  Con- 
go in  June,  1910,  and  is  a  part  of 
the  Mongalla  province.  Excava- 
tions at  Merowe  and  elsewhere 
have  revealed  many  ancient  re- 
mains. See  Egypt. 

Consult  Budge,  The  Egyptian- 
Sudan  (1907)  ;  Fothergill,  Five 
Years  in  the  5fudan  (1910); 
Artin,   England  in   the  Sudan 

(1911)  ;  Comyn,  Service  and 
Sport  in  the  Sudan  (1911)  ;  Ste- 
vens,   My    Sudan    Year  Book 

(1912)  ;  Cotton,  Sport  in  the 
Eastern  Sudan  (1912);  Crabites, 
The  Winning  of  the  Sudan 
(1934);  Macmichael,  The  An- 
glo-Egyptian   Sudan     (1934) ; 


Boston  and  Maine  Railroad ;  20 
miles  west  of  Boston.  The  Sud- 
bury River,  an  affluent  of  the 
Concord,  separates  part  of  the 
town  from  Wayland  on  the  east. 
The  town  also  contains  the  vil- 
lages of  North,  East,  and  South 
Sudbury.  Two  miles  west  of  the 
last  is  the  'Wayside  Inn,'  cele- 
brated in  Longfellow's  Tales  of 
a  Wayside  Inn.  Pop.  (est.  1945) 
2,054. 

Sudd,  a  jungle  growth  of  the 
upper  White  Nile,  Sudan,  which 
extends  along  the  banks  and  over 
the  surface  of  the  river,  obstruct- 
ing navigation.  In  1900-02  much 
of  it  was  removed,  some  of  the 
blocks  cut  out  being  a  mile  long 


The  Wayside  Inn,  at  Sudbury,  Mass. 


Hamilton,  ed.,  The  Anglo-Egyp- 
tian Sudan  from  Within  (1937). 

Sudbury,  town,  Canada,  Nip- 
issing  district,  Ontario,  264 
miles  north  of  Toronto.  It  is  a 
commercial  center  and  distrib- 
uting point.  The  nickel  mines  of 
the  district  furnish  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  world's  supply  of  that 
metal.  Lumbering  is  carried  on. 
Pop.  (1941)  31,888. 

Sudbury  borough,  England, 
Suffolk,  on  the  Stour  ;  16  miles 
south  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds. 
The  churches  of  All  Saints,  St. 
Gregory,  and  St.  Peter  are  all 
ancient.  The  town  was  former- 
ly noted  for  its  woolen  manufac- 
tures, introduced  by  Flemings  in 
the  fourteenth  century.  Silks, 
velvets,  and  coco-fiber  matting 
are  made,  and  there  are  brewer- 
ies and  lime  works.  Gainsbor- 
ough, the  artist  (1727-88),  was 
a  native.  Pop.  7,007. 

Sudbury,  town,  Massachu- 
setts, Middlesex  county,  on  the 


and  twenty  feet  thick.  The  sudd 
area  covers  35,000  square  miles. 
In  1910  a  concession  of  375,000 
acres  was  granted  to  an  Anglo- 
German  syndicate,  formed  to 
manufacture  fuel  briquettes 
from  the  dried  sudd.  The  plant 
was  made  available  for  paper 
pulp  by  the  discovery  in  Febru- 
ary, 1913,  of  a  successful  bleach- 
ing process. 

Sudermann,  Hermann 
(1857-1928),  German  play- 
wright and  novelist,  occupying, 
with  Gerhart  Hauptmann  (q.  v.), 
the  first  place  among  the  con- 
temporary writers  of  his  coun- 
try. He  was  born  at  Matzicken 
in  East  Prussia,  studied  history, 
philosophy,  and  literature  at 
Konigsberg  and  Berlin,  and  gave 
himself  up  to  a  literary  career 
in  the  capital. 

For  a  long  time  Sudermann 
wrote  without  recognition,  but 
with  his  social  drama,  Die  Ehre 
(1889),  he  leaped  into  European 


Sudermann 


KFP 


524 


Suez  Canal 


fame.  Its  intimate  appeal  to  the 
German  public  lay  in  its  power- 
ful delineation  of  the  influence 
of  caste  upon  ethics ;  to  non- 
Germans  it  was  a  masterly  piece 
of  dramatic  construction.  Then 
followed  the  social  plays,  So- 
doms  Endc  (1890),  depicting 
with  gloomy  intensity  the  'nerv- 
ous,' artificial  civilization  of  the 
modern  great  city ;  and  Heimat 
(1893),  repeatedly  translated  in- 
to English,  and  presented  as 
Magda,  by  far  the  best  known  of 
Sudermann's  plays  and  regarded 
as  marking  the  height  of  his 
achievement.  Its  central  theme 
.  is  the  problem  that  runs  all 
through  the  dramatist's  work — 
the  hollowness  of  traditional 
morality,  the  right  of  the  indi- 
vidual to  happiness  uncondi- 
tioned by  the  prescriptions  of 
convention,  and  the  inevitable 
disaster  which  is  the  lot  of  the 
individual  who  dares  to  assert 
his  right  against  accepted  stand- 
ards. 

The  later  plays  are  Die  Schmet- 
terlingsschlacht  (1894);  Das 
Gluck  im.  Winkel  (1896)  ;  Mori- 
turi  (1897  ;  Eng.  trans.),  a  group 
of  three  one-act  plays  of  somber 
tone  and  exquisite  workman- 
ship;  Johannes  (1897;  Eng. 
trans.),  dealing  with  the  story  of 
the  Baptist ;  Die  Drei  Reiher- 
federn  (1899),  a  dramatic  alle- 
gory after  the  manner  of  Haupt- 
mann ;  Johannisfeuer  (1901), 
presented  in  New  York  in  1904 
as  The  Fires  of  St.  John,  a  play 
that  throbs  with  passion  and 
preaches  submission  to  duty  ;  Es 
Lehe  das  Lehen!  (1902),  pre- 
sented in  New  York  in  1903 
with  great  success  as  The  Joy  of 
Living;  Der  Sturmgeselle  Sok- 
rates  (1903),  a  comedy  of  so- 
cialistic tendencies ;  Das  Blu- 
menboot  (1905)  ;  Stein  unter 
Steinen  (1905);  Rosen  (1907; 
Eng.  trans.,  1909),  four  one-act 
plays;  Strandkinder  (1909); 
Der  Bettler  von  Syrakus  (1911). 
The  novels  are :  Frau  Serge 
(1886),  the  story  of  a  woman's 
soul  crushed  within  the  confines 
of  the  marital  life,  but  yearning 
for  liberty,  translated  as  Dame 
Care ;  Im  Zwielicht  (1885)  ; 
Geschwister,  tales  (1887)  ;  Der 
Katzensteg  (1889),  containing 
the  profoundly  moving  character 
of  the  beautiful  and  faithful 
woman-animal,  Regina,  trans- 
lated under  that  title  into  Eng- 
lish ;  lolanthes  Hochzcit  (1892)  ; 
Es  War  (1894)  ;  Das  Hohe  Lied 
(1909),  translated  under  the 
title  The  Song  of  Songs  (1910)  ; 
Die  Indische  Lilie  (1911)  ;  Der 
Tolle  Professor  (1926);  Die 
Frau  des  Steffen  Tromholt 
(1927). 

Consult  Duke,  Modern  Dram- 
atists;  Jung,  Hermann  Suder- 
mann (1902)  ;  Heller,  Studies 
in   Modern   German  Literature 


(1905)  ;  Axelrod,  Hermann  Su- 
dermann (1907)  ;  Bulthaupt, 
Ibsen,  Wilderbruch,  Sudermann, 
Hauptmann  (1907)  ;  Spiero, 
Deutsche  Geister  (1910)  ; 
Phelps,  Essays  on  Modern  Nov- 
elists (1910)  ;  Hale,  Dramatists 
of  To-day  (1911). 

Sudetenland.  See  Czecho- 
slovakia. 

Sudetic  Mountains  connect 
the  Carpathians  with  the  moun- 
tains of  Franconia,  and  separate 
the  basins  of  the  Bohemian  Elbe 
and  the  Moravian  March  from 
the  Oder.  They  consist  of  short, 
broken,  and  somewhat  parallel 
ranges,  with  a  general  southeast- 
erly trend,  intersected  by  nu- 
merous valleys.  The  chief  divi- 
sions are  the  Isergebirge,  Riesen- 
gebirge  (the  highest),  Glatzer. 
Moravian  Gesenke,  and  Altva- 
tergebirge.  Minerals  (iron,  zinc, 
lead,  copper,  and  coal)  are  abun- 
dant. 

Sudras,  the  lowest  of  the  four 
great  classes  into  which  the  peo- 
ple of  India  were  divided  on  the 
institution  of  caste.  It  included 
races  of  mixed  blood  and  many 
of  the  aboriginal  tribes  who 
adopted  Hindu  customs,  and  now 
includes  artisans,  field  laborers, 
and  menials.  The  races  which 
continued  outside  the  pale  of 
Hinduism  were  'out-castes,'  or 
Pariahs.  But  the  superiority 
which  Sudras,  in  some  parts  of 
India,  claim  over  Pariahs  is 
quite  out  of  keeping  with  the 
degraded  position  assigned  to 
them  in  Manu.  See  Caste. 

Sue,  Joseph  Marie  (1804- 
59),  better  known  by  his  pen- 
name  of  Eugene  Sue,  French 
novelist,  was  born  in  Paris.  He 
practiced  medicine  for  a  time, 
pursuing  literature  in  secret.  At 
length  he  lighted  upon  the  vein 
which  has  rendered  him  famous 
— novels  of  the  mysterious  and 
supernatural  dashed  with  popu- 
lar socialism.  Of  this  type  Les 
Mysteres  de  Paris  (1842),  Le 
Juif  Errant  (1844-5),  Les  Sept 
Peches  Capitaux  (1847-9),  and 
Les  Mysteres  du  Peuple  (1848- 
9)  are  the  most  notable.  His  two 
most  famous  novels,  translated 
into  English  as  The  Mysteries 
of  Paris  and  The  Wandering 
Jew,  have  been  widely  read  in 
the  United  States  as  well  as  in 
Europe.  After  the  French  Revo- 
lution of  1848  he  represented 
Paris  in  the  National  Assembly 
until  the  coup  d'etat  of  Louis 
Napoleon,  when,  to  avoid  arrest, 
he  retired  to  Savoy  (1852). 

Sueca,  town,  Spain,  province 
Valencia,  near  the  Jucar ;  19 
miles  south  of  Valencia.  The 
town  has  trade  in  fruit  and 
grain.  Pop.  17,571. 

Suess,  Eduard  (1831-1914), 
German  geologist,  born  in  Lon- 
don. He  became  an  assistant  in 
the  Tmi>erial  Mi!ic*-a]f\"-cril  Mu- 


seum at  Vienna  (1852),  and  pro- 
fessor of  geology  (1857)  in  the 
same  city.  He  was  a  prominent 
radical  politician.  His  principal 
books  are:  Ueber  den  Loss 
(1866);  Bau  der  Italienischen 
Halbinsel  (1872)  ;  Die  Entste- 
hung  der  Alpen  (1875)  ;  and  his 
most  important  production.  Das 
Antlitz  der  Erde  (1883-8;  Eng. 
trans,  as  The  Face  of  the  Earth, 
by  H.  B.  C.  Sollas,  1904). 

Suet,  the  solid  fat  obtained 
from  sheep  and  cattle.  It  con- 
sists principally  of  the  palmi- 
tates  and  stearates  of  glycerol, 
with  some  of  the  oleate  and  more 
or  less  connective  tissue.  If  heat- 
ed the  fats  melt,  and  can  be  run 
off,  forming  tallow.  Oleomarga- 
rine is  obtained  by  more  careful 
treatment  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture, followed  by  the  removal  of 
some  of  the  higher  melting  com- 
ponents. 

Suetonius,  whose  full  name 
was  Gaius  Suetonius  Tran- 
QUiLLus  ic.  75-160  A.D.),  Roman 
historian  and  friend  of  Pliny. 
He  became  chief  secretary  to 
the  Emperor  Hadrian.  He  wrote 
Lives  of  the  Twelve  Caesars,  A 
Book  of  Famous  Scholars,  an- 
other of  Famous  Orators,  and 
Lives  of  Terence,  Horace,  Per- 
sius,  Lucan,  Juvenal^  and  Pliny 
the  elder.  The  Lives  of  the 
Twelve  Caesars  is  chiefly  a  col- 
lection of  anecdotes,  largely  of 
a  scandalous  nature,  but  it  con- 
tains many  valuable  facts.  His 
style  is  clear  and  unadorned. 

Suevi,  Germanic  people  or 
confederation.  Caesar's  Suevi 
inhabited  the  modern  Baden, 
while  Tacitus  places  them  to  the 
north  and  east  of  that  region : 
either  they  had  migrated  between 
50  B.C.  and  100  a.d.,  or  Caesar 
met  only  a  portion  of  the  people. 
After  250  a.d.  the  name  is  used 
of  the  Germanic  people,  from 
whom  the  modern  Swabians  have 
derived  their  name.  In  later  his- 
tory they  appear  in  alliance  with 
the  Alemanni  and  Burgundians, 
and  hold  the  German  side  of 
Gaul  and  Switzerland  ;  and  even 
enter  into  Italy  and  Spain,  in 
union  with  the  Visigoths. 

Suez,  town,  Egypt,  at  the 
southern  end  of  the  Suez  Canal. 
Once  a  flourishing  emporium  for 
Oriental  trade,  it  fell  into  decay, 
and  until  the  opening  of  the  Suez 
Canal  was  a  wretched  village. 
The  modern  town  is  built  on  a 
desert  peninsula.  The  European 
quarters  are  regularly  laid  out, 
and  contain  the  large  ware- 
houses of  the  Peninsular  and 
Oriental  Steamship  Company. 
Pop.  (1937)  49,686. 

Suez  Canal  connects  the  Med- 
iterranean and  Red  Seas.  Its  to- 
tal length  is  103  miles,  includ- 
ing the  natural  transit  links  of 
the  Timsah  and  Great  and  Lit- 
tle Bitter  lakes,  and  the  average 


Suez  Canal 


KFP 


525 


Suffolk 


time  of  transit  is  about  15  to  18 
hours.  The  original  dimensions 
gave  a  width  of  150  to  300  feet 
at  the  water  level  and  72  feet  at 
the  bottom,  and  a  depth  of  26 
feet.  Between  1885  and  1889  the 
canal  was  enlarged  and  im- 
proved at  a  cost  of  $20,000,000, 
the  result  of  which  was  to  make 
a  uniform  depth  of  29  feet,  a 
width  of  213  feet  in  the  straight 
parts,  and  from  246  feet  to  262 
feet  in  the  curves,  and  thus  to 
enable  ships  of  15,000  tons  to 
pass  through.  Since  1901  further 
extensions  have  been  in  prog- 
ress;  and  since  the  close  of  1913 
the  canal  has  had  a  depth  of  36 
feet,  and  accommodates  vessels 
drawing  31  feet  of  water. 
With  the  help  of  electric  light, 
navigation  is  carried  on  at  night. 

Situated  at  the  southern  en- 
trance of  the  canal  is  Port  Tew- 
fik,  over  2  miles  from  the  town 
of  Suez.  It  comprises  within  its 
limits  the  offices  and  workshops 
of  the  canal  company,  the 
dwelling  houses  of  its  employees, 
the  principal  offices  of  the  ship- 
ping agents,  the  barracks  of  the 
coast  guards,  and  the  offices  of 
the  quarantine  service.  At  the 
northern  end  is  Port  Said  (q.  v.) 
on  the  Mediterranean.  A  disin- 
fecting station  has  been  erected 
on  the  central  quay  at  Port 
Ibrahim  Docks. 

In  1940  the  number  of  transits 
through  the  canal  was  2,419  with 
a  total  net  tonnage  of  12,712,- 
979,  more  than  half  of  which 
was  British  with  Italy  second, 
followed  in  the  order  of  shipping 
tonnage  by  The  Netherlands, 
Norway,  France,  and  the  United 
States.  The  number  of  passen- 
gers carried  in  1940  was  98,944 
as  compared  with  the  maximum 
number  of  751,592  in  1936,  this 
sharp  drop  reflecting  the  effect 
of  the  outbreak  of  the  Second 
World  War  in  1939. 

History, — The  first  canal  was 
constructed  by  Seti  i,  and  is  pic- 
tured on  the  walls  of  the  temple 
of  Karnak.  The  first  person  who 
in  modern  times  took  up  the  sub- 
ject of  making  a  waterway  be- 
tween the  two  seas  was  Napo- 
leon I,  in  1798;  but  Lepere,  the 
engineer  whom  he  employed  to 
survey  the  district,  made  out  a 
difference  of  thirty  feet  between 
the  levels  of  the  Mediterranean 
at  low  water  and  the  Red  Sea  at 
high  water,  and  the  project  was 
abandoned.  In  1846  a  commis- 
sion, which  included  Stephenson, 
separated  without  forming  any 
definite  plan. 

Mougel  and  Linant,  two 
Frenchmen,  in  1855  drew  up  a 
scheme,  with  M.  de  Lesseps  as 
their  superintendent.  In  1856  the 
scheme  was  submitted  to  an  in- 
ternational commission,  and  the 
work  was  begun  ;  and  on  Nov. 
17,  1869,  the  canal  was  opened 


for  traffic.  The  cost  was  about 
$80,000,000.  In  1875  the  Brit- 
ish Government,  through  Lord 
Beaconsfield,  bought  for  $20,- 
400,000  the  Khedive's  stock- 
nearly  one-half  of  the  total  is- 
sue. The  canal  is  owned  by  a 
French  corporation  in  which  the 
British  government  holds  295,- 
026  shares  of  a  total  of  652,932. 


Suez  Canal. 


Consult  Voisin,  Le  Canal  de 
Sues  (10  vols.,  1903-6);  Rob- 
erts, Egypt  and  the  Sues  Canal 
(Smithsonian  Institution,  1943). 

Suez,  Gulf  of,  the  western 
bifurcation  of  the  Red  Sea,  ex- 
tends 190  miles  to  the  northwest, 
and  has  a  width  of  about  30 
miles.  It  is  connected  with  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  by  the  Suez 
Canal. 

Suez,  Isthmus  of,  the  nar- 
row neck  of  land  which  connects 
Asia  with  Africa.  It  has  a  width 
of  about  70  miles,  and  across  it 
is  cut  the  Suez  Canal.  The  sur- 
face is  sandy,  interspersed  with 
salt  marshes  and  ancient  lakes. 


Suffern,  village,  New  York. 
Rockland  county,  on  the  Erie 
Railroad  ;  32  miles  northwest  of 
New  York.  It  has  a  hospital  and 
several  churches.  It  manufac- 
tures pharmaceutical  chemicals, 
household  utensils,  radio  and 
electrical  parts,  and  railroad 
supplies.  The  surrounding  coun- 
try is  mountainous  and  pictur- 
esque. Pop.  (1930)  3,757;  (1940) 
3,768. 

Sufficient  Reason,  a  formu- 
lation of  the  principle  of  causal- 
ity associated  specially  with  the 
name  of  Leibniz,  who  recognizes 
the  principles  of  contradiction 
and  sufficient  reason  as  the  two 
fundamental  principles  of  all 
reasoning,  and  defines  the  latter 
as  affirming  {Monadology,  sec. 
32)  'that  there  can  be  no  fact 
real  or  existing,  no  statement 
trvie,  unless  there  be  a  sufficient 
reason  why  it  should  be  so  and 
not  otherwise,'  although,  he  adds, 
these  reasons  usually  can  not  be 
known  by  us.  In  the  case  of 
necessary  truths  the  reason  is 
discoverable  by  mere  analysis, 
for  their  opposites  would  involve 
contradiction  ;  but  in  the  case  of 
truths  of  fact  we  must  seek  the 
reason  in  other  facts,  and  ulti- 
mately in  the  final  reason  or 
ground  of  all  existence,  God. 

Suffield,  town,  Connecticut, 
Hartford  county,  on  the  Connec- 
ticut River,  and  on  the  New 
York,  New  Haven,  and  Hart- 
ford Railroad;  16  miles  north  of 
Hartford.  It  is  the  trade  center 
of  an  agricultural  district  rais- 
ing tobacco.  The  Kent  Memorial 
Library  is  there.  The  town  was 
set  off  from  Springfield  in  1670. 
Pop.  (1940)  4,461. 

Suffocation.  See  Asphyxia; 
Respiration  ;  Strangulation. 

Suffolk,  city,  Virginia,  coun- 
ty seat  of  Nansemond  county,  on 
the  Nansemond  River,  and  on 
the  Norfolk  and  Western,  the 
Seaboard  Air  Line,  the  Atlantic 
Coast  Line,  the  Southern,  the 
Norfolk  and  Southern,  and  the 
Virginian  railroads;  18  miles 
southwest  of  Norfolk,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  steam- 
er. It  is  a  manufacturing  place, 
has  peanut  factories,  also  wood- 
working, chemical  and  machin- 
ery industries.  It  was  settled  in 
1742.  Pop.  (1930)  10,271  ; 
(1940)  11,343. 

Suffolk,  maritime  county, 
eastern  England.  Its  coasts  are 
low,  and  much  encroached  on  by 
the  sea;  and  its  surface  is  low 
and  undulating,  traversed  in  the 
west  by  a  chalk  ridge  (highest, 
352  feet).  The  principal  rivers 
are  Waveney  (Norfolk  border), 
Blyth,  Ore  with  Aide.  Orwell, 
and  Stour  (Essex  border).  All, 
except  Blyth  and  Aide-Ore,  have 
wide  lower  courses.  In  the 
northeast  are  broads  (Oulton, 
Flixton,  etc.)  like  those  of  Nor- 


Suffolk 


KFP 


525  A 


Suffrage,  Woman 


folk.  In  the  northwest  is  the 
Breckland  district,  with  heath. 
On  the  coast  are  bathing  resorts 
(Lowestoft,  Southwold,  Alde- 
burgh,  Felixstowe).  Coprolites, 
chalk,  and  clay  are  worked. 

Agriculture  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry, the  county  being  one  of 
the  most  fertile  districts  in  Eng- 
land. Barley,  oats,  and  wheat 
are  the  principal  cereal  crops. 
Livestock  is  also  important.  A 
fine  breed  of  horses,  known  as 
Suffolk  punches,  is  reared. 

Manufactures  include  agricul- 
tural implements  (Ipswich,  Bury 
St.  Edmunds,  etc.),  railway 
plant,  engineering  works,  milling 
machinery  (Ipswich),  guncotton 
and  cordite  ( Stowmarket) ,  tex- 
tiles (Ipswich,  Haverhill,  etc.), 
gun-flints  (Brandon),  and  artifi- 
cial manures  (Ipswich,  Stow- 
market, etc.). 

Anciently  occupied  by  the 
Iceni,  Suffolk  afterward  formed 
part  of  the  Roman  Flavia  Cac- 
saricnsis  and  of  the  Saxon  East 
Anglia,  and  suffered  much  from 
the  Danish  ravages.  The  Flem- 
ings, who  settled  here  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  developed  the 
woolen  industry.  Antiquities  in- 
clude Burgh  (3astle,  an  impor- 
tant Roman  relic ;  remains  of 
Benedictine  abbey  at  Bury  St. 
Edmunds ;  castles  of  Framling- 
ham  and  Orford  ;  tumuli  in  sev- 
eral parts ;  many  old  mansions 
(Moyse's  Hall,  Bury,  twelfth 
century)  ;  and  numerous  medi- 
eval churches  of  flint  and  stone, 
with  elaborately  carved  wood- 
work. Area,  1,455  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1931)  401,114.  Consult 
Victoria  History  of  Stiff  oik  (2 
vols.,  1907-11)  ;  Dutt,  The  Nor- 
folk and  Suffolk  Coast  (1910). 

Suffolk,  Charles  Brandon, 
Duke  of  (d.  1545),  was  created 
Viscount  Lisle  in  151  v3,  and 
Duke  of  Suffolk  in  1514.  He 
was  a  courtier,  soldier,  and  fa- 
vorite at  the  court  of  Henry  viii, 
whose  sister  Mary,  widow  of 
Louis  XII  of  France,  he  secretly 
married  (1515). 

Suffrage.  See  Elections; 
Electorate;  Citizenship. 

Suffrage,  Woman,  a  world- 
wide movement,  dating  from 
about  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  having  as  ^  its 
object  the  political  enfranchise- 
ment of  women.  Before  the 
close  of  1920  there  were  twenty- 
eight  countries  where  women 
had  been  granted  full  suffrage. 

Great  Britain, — By  the  pub- 
lication, in  1792,  of  Vindication 
of  the  Rights  of  Women,  Mary 
Wollstonccraft  became  the  pio- 
neer in  the  demand  of  women 
for  political  liberty  in  England. 
The  Reform  Bill  of  1832  was, 
however,  the  actual  beginning  of 
the  agitation  for  woman  suf- 
frage. This  Act,  by  introducing 
the  word  male  before  person,  re- 


stricted the  Parliamentary  fran- 
chise to  men.  In  1835  John  Stu- 
art Mill,  an  ardent  champion  of 
women's  rights,  moved  an 
amendment  to  the  Representa- 
tion of  the  People  Bill  which 
would  leave  out  the  word  man 
and  substitute  person;  this 
amendment  was  lost.  An  act 
passed  in  1852  provided  'that  all 
words  importing  masculine  gen- 
der shall  be  deemed  and  taken 
to  include  females  unless  the 
contrary  is  expressly  provided'  ; 
on  the  strength  of  this  over 
5,000  women  in  Manchester  ap- 
plied for  registration.  A  test 
case  was  made  of  this  which  was 
decided  adversely  to  the  women 
but,  as  a  result,  suffrage  was  ex- 
tended in  1869  to  unmarried 
women  and  widows  who  were 
householders.  After  that  time 
bills  and  resolutions  were  con- 
stantly before  the  House  of 
Commons,  many  passed  their 
second  reading,  and  finally,  on 
Nov.  21,  1918,  the  long  struggle 
for  the  parliamentary  franchise 
was  ended  when  the  Woman 
Suffrage  Bill  was  passed. 

The  first  women's  suffrage 
societies  were  founded  in  Man- 
chester, in  London  and  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1867,  and  in  Bristol 
and  Birmingham  in  1868.  They 
united  to  form  the  National 
Union  of  Women's  Suffrage 
Societies,  a  large  and  powerful 
body  with  many  affiliated  so- 
cieties and  membership  in  all 
parts  of  Great  Britain.  Other 
societies  having  for  their  object 
the  political  enfranchisement  of 
women  are  the  National  Wom- 
en's Social  and  Political  Union, 
the  Men's  League  for  Women's 
Suffrage,  the  National  Indus- 
trial and  Professional  Women's 
Suffrage  Society,  the  New  Un- 
ion, the  League  of  Catholic 
Women,  the  Younger  Suffra- 
gists, the  Women  Writers'  Suf- 
frage League  and  many  others. 
The  Women's  Social  and  Politi- 
cal Union,  under  the  leadership 
of  Mrs.  Emmeline  Pankhurst, 
formed  the  militant  wing  of  the 
suffragists. 

Canada, — By  the  close  of  1918 
all  the  provinces  in  Canada  had 
granted  full  suffrage  to  women. 
Municipal  suffrage  was  granted 
in  1884  to  property-owning  wid- 
ows and  spinsters  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Quebec  and  Ontario ; 
in  1886  in  the  province  of  New 
Brunswick  to  all  property-own- 
ing women  except  those  whose 
husbands  were  voters  ;  in  Nova 
Scotia,  in  1886,  and  in  Prince 
Edward  Island,  in  1888,  to  prop- 
erty-owning widows  and  spin- 
sters. In  1916  full  suffrage  was 
given  to  women  in  Manitoba, 
Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  and 
British  Columbia. 

Other  Countries, — To  the 
Scandinavian  countries  belongs 


the  honor  of  first  granting  the 
franchise  to  women.  Finland 
granted  full  parliamentary  rights 
to  her  women  in  1906;  Norway 
followed,  giving  the  full  fran- 
chise to  tax-paying  women  in 
1907  and  to  all  women  in  1913  ; 
Iceland  extended  full  suffrage 
in  1915,  as  did  Denmark,  while 
Sweden  gave  the  municipal 
franchise  to  women  on  the  same 
terms  as  men  in  1909  and  full 
suffrage  in  1919. 

New  Zealand  gave  the  full 
parliamentary  vote  to  women  in 
1893  ;  state  suffrage  was  granted 
in  South  Australia,  1895  ;  West 
Australia,  1900;  New  South 
Wales,  1902;  Tasmania,  1903; 
Queensland,  1905  ;  Victoria, 
1908.  National  suffrage  through- 
out federated  Australia  was 
granted  in  1902. 

British  South  Africa  has  mu- 
nicipal suffrage  for  women  in 
all  four  provinces  ;  British  East 
Africa  granted  full  suffrage  in 
1919;  British  India  and  Burma 
grant  suffrage  to  women  on  the 
same  terms  as  men.  The  Isle  of 
Man  has  had  full  suffrage  since 
1881. 

The  years  1918  and  1919  saw 
a  remarkable  extension  of  the 
territory  in  which  woman  suf- 
frage is  enjoyed.  During  that 
time  Great  Britain,  Czechoslo- 
vakia, Germany,  Holland,  Hun- 
gary, Austria,  Luxembourg,  Po- 
land, Rhodesia,  Russia,  Servia 
and  Uruguay  all  gave  full  suf- 
frage rights  to  women.  Belgium 
granted  full  suffrage  to  widows 
who  have  not  remarried  and  to 
mothers  of  soldiers  killed  in  the 
war,  or  civilians  shot  by  Ger- 
mans. 

United  States, — Votes  for 
women  had  its  advocates  in  the 
United  States  long  before  there 
was  any  organized  movement  to 
that  end.  In  1667,  Margaret 
Brent  of  Maryland,  heir  of  Lord 
Calvert,  demanded  voice  in  the 
legislature  of  Maryland,  and  in 
1776  Abigail  Adams  in  a  letter 
to  her  husband,  John  Adams,  de- 
manded for  her  sex  a  recognition 
in  the  new  government  about  to 
be  formed. 

Frances  Wright,  a  Scotch 
woman,  and  Ernestine  Rose,  a 
Polish  woman,  were  the  real 
pioneers  in  the  agitation  for 
equal  rights  for  women  in 
America.  In  1836  Ernestine 
Rose  circulated  a  petition  in 
Albany  favoring  a  married 
women's  property  law.  She  ob- 
tained only  five  signatures,  but 
thirteen  years  later  the  act  giv- 
ing married  women  the  right  to 
their  own  property  was  passed, 
Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton,  Paulipe 
Wright  Davis,  the  Grimke  sis- 
ters, Lucretia  Mott,  and  Lydia 
Maria  Child  were  all  champions 
of  the  woman-suffrage  move- 
ment and  of  the  anti-slavery  agi- 


Suffrage,  Woman 


KFP 


525  B 


Snfiism 


tation.  At  the  World's  Anti- 
Slavery  Convention  in  London, 
1840,  to  which  American  socie- 
ties sent  women  delegates,  these 
women  were  denied  any  recog- 
nition, on  account  of  which 
William  Lloyd  Garrison  refused 
to  take  his  seat  and  withdrew 
with  the  women  to  the  Galleries. 
Out  of  this  incident  grew  the  de- 
sign of  holding  a  women's  rights 
convention  in  America  and  at  the 
call  of  Lucretia  Mott  and  Eliza- 
beth Cady  Stanton  this  first 
convention  was  held  at  Seneca 
Falls,  N.  Y.,  July  19,  1848.  A 
declaration  of  sentiments  mod- 
eled on  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence was  drawn  up  and 
signed  by  over  a  hundred  men 
and  women.  In  1852  a  conven- 
tion with  delegates  from  eight 
states  and  Canada  w^as  held  in 
Syracuse.  In  1850  there  was  a 
women's  rights  convention  in 
Salem,  O.,  in  1851  one  in  Ak- 
ron, O.,  and  in  1852  the  first 
state  association  was  formed  at 
Massilon,  O.  A  convention  was 
held  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  in 
1850;  in  Dublin,  Ind.,  in  1851, 
and  in  Westchester,  Pa.,  in 
1852. 

In  May,  1869,  the  National 
Woman  Suffrage  Association 
was  formed  under  the  leadership 
of  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton  and 
Susan  B.  Anthony,  and  in  No- 
vember of  the  same  year  the 
American  Woman  Suffrage  As- 
sociation was  organized  under 
the  leadership  of  Lucy  Stone 
and  Julia  Ward  Howe.  The 
chief  difference  in  the  two  asso- 
ciations was  a  matter  of  policy. 
The  National  Association  con- 
sidered the  Federal  Amendment 
the  chief  object  for  which  to 
work,  and  the  American  Associ- 
ation favored  working  for  suf- 
frage state  by  state.  The  two  as- 
sociations united  later  to  form 
the  National  American  Woman 
Suffrage  Association. 

In  1872,  in  order  to  make  a 
test  case  of  the  provision  in  the 
Fourteenth  Amendment  that  'no 
state  shall  make  or  enforce  any 
law  which  shall  abridge  the  priv- 
ileges or  immunities  of  citizens 
of  the  United  States,'  Miss 
Anthony,  with  fifty  other  wom- 
en, registered  at  the  polls  in 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and  on  Nov.  5 
she  cast  her  vote.  For  this  she 
was  prosecuted  by  the  U.  S. 
Government  and  fined  $100.  A 
second  attempt  was  made  by 
Mrs.  Virginia  Minor  and  this 
case  was  carried  to  the  Supreme 
Court,  which  decided  against 
her.  Miss  Anthony  then  deter- 
mined to  concentrate  her  ener- 
gies on  securing  a  new  amend- 
ment that  should  do  for  women 
what  the  Fourteenth  had  done 
for  the  Negro.  This  amendment, 
known  as  the  Susan  B.  Anthony 
Federal  Amendment,  was  first 


introduced  in  Congress  in  Jan- 
uary, 1878,  by  Senator  Sargent. 
It  was  reported  adversely  to  the 
Senate  from  committee.  After 
that  it  was  introduced  in  each 
succeeding  Congress  until  its 
final  passage.  It  first  came  to  a 
vote  in  the  Senate  in  1887,  when 
there  were  16  votes  in  its  favor 
to  34  against  it.  It  went  to  the 
Senate  again  in  1913,  1914, 
1916,  and  1918.  It  was  not  voted 
on  in  the  House  until  1915.  In 
May,  1919,  the  House  passed  the 
amendment  by  a  majority  of  42, 
and  in  June  it  passed  the  Senate 
by  a  majority  of  2.  Tennessee, 
the  thirty-sixth  state,  ratified  the 
amendment  on  Aug.  18,  1920, 
and  it  was  proclaimed  in  force 
eight  days  later. 

Wyoming  was  the  first  state 
to  give  full  suffrage  to  women. 
As  a  territory,  in  1869,  it  passed 
a  bill  giving  women  the  same 
right  to  vote  and  hold  office  as 
men  and  when  the  state  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union  in  1890, 
equal  suffrage  was  made  a  part 
of  the  Constitution.  At  the  time 
of  the  ratification  of  the  Federal 
Amendment  fourteen  states  had 
given  full  suffrage  to  women. 
Colorado,  in  1893  ;  Idaho  and 
Utah  in  1896 ;  Washington  in 
1910;  California  in  1911;  Ari- 
zona, Kansas,  and  Oregon  in 
1912;  Montana  and  Nevada  in 
1914  ;  New  York  in  1917  ;  Okla- 
homa, Michigan,  and  South  Da- 
kota in  1918.  Alaska  gave  the 
suffrage  to  women  in  1913.  Illi- 
nois, North  Dakota,  Nebraska, 
Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Rhode  Is- 
land, Indiana,  Iowa,  Maine, 
Minnesota,  Missouri,  Wisconsin 
and  Ohio  had  presidential  suf- 
frage ;  Illinois,  North  Dakota, 
Nebraska,  Kentucky,  and  Ten- 
nessee had  also  municipal  suf- 
frage ;  Vermont  was  given  mu- 
nicipal suffrage  in  1917  and 
presidential  suffrage  in  1919. 
Arkansas  and  Texas  had  pri- 
mary suffrage. 

Some  form  of  school  suffrage 
had  been  granted  in  Kentucky, 
New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts, 
Mississippi,  New  Jersey,  Con- 
necticut, Delaware,  and  Wis- 
consin. Louisiana  had  a  tax- 
paying  suffrage. 

Bibliography, — Consult  His- 
tory of  Woman  Suffrage,  edited 
by  E.  C.  Stanton,  S.  B.  An- 
thony, M.  J.  Gage  and  I.  H. 
Harper ;  Mrs.  Pethick  Law- 
rence, English  Militant  Meth- 
ods;  Harper,  A  Brief  History  of 
the  Movement  for  Woman  Suf- 
frage in  United  States;  Peck, 
Woman  Suffrage  in  the  United 
States;  Shaw,  The  Story  of  a 
Pioneer;  Porter,  A  History  of 
Suffrage  in  United  States; 
Franklin,  The  Case  for  Woman 
Suffrage ;  Crother,  Meditations 
on  Votes  for  Women;  Eastman, 
Woman    Suffrage    and  Senti- 


ment;  Philips,  Selected  Articles 
on  Woman  Suffrage ;  Zimmern, 
Woman's  Suffrage  in  Many 
Lands;  Hecker,  Short  History 
of  Women's  Rights. 

Suffren,  Pierre  Andr^:  de 
SuFFREN  Saint-Tropes,  Bailli 
DE  (1726-88),  French  admiral, 
was  born  in  Provence.  He 
fought  against  the  British  fleet 
at  Toulon  (1744)  and  Cape  Bret- 
on (1746),  and  was  captured  in 
the  Bay  of  Biscay.  On  his  re- 
lease he  spent  some  years  with 
the  Knights  Hospitallers  of 
Malta;  but  having  rejoined  the 
French  navy,  he  fought  in  the 
engagement  off  Minorca,  was 
again  captured  in  the  naval  bat- 
tle in  which  Admiral  Boscawen 
annihilated  the  French  fleet 
(1759),  and  was  a  prisoner  in 
England  until  peace  was  made 
(1763).  He  next  administered 
severe  punishment  to  the  Sallee 
rovers  ;  then  helped  to  blockade 
Gibraltar.  Proceeding  to  the 
East  Indies,  he  captured  Trin- 
comali,  and  fought  two  drawn 
battles  with  the  British  fleet  off 
the  coast  of  India. 

Sufiism  (a  word  derived  ei- 
ther from  the  Arabic  suf,  'wool,' 
from_  the  material  worn  by  the 
dervishes,  or  from  the  Greek 
sophos,  'wise')  is  a  philosophical 
revolt  against  the  rigid  law  and 
ritual  of  Mohammedanism  in 
Iran  (Persia).  Sufiism  finally 
crystallized  into  a  pantheistic 
mysticism  which,  tinged  by  the 
teachings  of  Zoroaster,  adopted 
also  something  of  the  Buddhistic 
theory  of  life.  But  a  wide  gulf 
separates  the  Buddhist  from  the 
Sufi.  While  the  former  owns  no 
deity  and  no  soul,  the  latter  ac- 
knowledges the  existence  of 
both.  Each  system  has  for  its  end 
the  absorption  of  the  human  into 
the  divine;  but  while  the  Bud- 
dhist seeks  in  mental  abstrac- 
tion a  complete  cessation  from 
thought  and  sense,  the  Sufi  as- 
pires to  a  growing  acquaintance 
with  God,  such  as  will  culminate 
in  ecstatic  devotion  to  the  Di- 
vine Being — a  love  which  will  so 
envelop  the  soul  as  to  dispel  all 
inferior  affections  and  desires. 
This  consummation  is  reached 
by  five  stages  :  ( 1 )  service — obe- 
dience to  the  law  of  God  ;  (2) 
love — the  attraction  of  the  soul 
to  God;  (3)  seclusion — medita- 
tion on  divine  things  ;  (4)  knowl- 
edge— metaphysical  studies  on 
the  nature  and  attributes  of 
God;  and  (5)  ecstasy — the  ex- 
citement produced  by  a  full  com- 
prehension of  divine  love  and 
power.  The  Sufi  contends  that 
no  definition  can  convey  to  the 
uninitiated  the  esoteric  meanings 
attached  to  these  five  stages  in 
the  progress  of  the  soul.  Sufiism 
has  inspired  nearly  all  the  best 
poetry  of  Persia,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  the  Divan  of 


Sugar 


KFP 


526 


Sugar 


Hafiz,  the  Gulistan  oi  Sadi,  and 
the  Gulshan-i-Raz  of  Shabistari. 
Consult  Palmer,  Oriental  Mys- 
ticism; Browne,  'Sufiism'  in  Re- 
ligious Systems  of  the  World, 
and  his  Literary  History  of 
Persia  (1902);  Ali  ibn  Uth- 
man,  The  Kashf  Al-Mahmjub 
(1911). 

Sugar,  a  sweet,  water-soluble, 
colorless,  crystallizable  sub- 
stance which  occurs  in  virtually- 
all  green  plants  and  which  forms 
an  important  article  of  human 
food.  By  extension  the  term  is 
applied  also  to  a  whole  class  of 
polyhydric  aldehydes  and  ke- 
tones {monosaccharides)  of 
more  or  less  sweet  taste  and  re- 
ducing properties,  which  are 
classified  further  according  to 
the  number  of  carbon  atoms  as 
trioses  (glyceric  aldehyde,  dihy- 
troxyacetone),  tetroses  {e.g.,  d- 
threose),  pentoses  {e.g.,  L-arabi- 
nose),  hexoses  {e.g.,  D-glucose  or 
dextrose,  d- fructose  or  levulose, 
i>-galactose,  L-sorbose)  etc.,  and 
to  certain  sugar-like  condensa- 
tion products  of  the  monosac- 
charides in  which  two  or  more 
molecules  of  the  former  are  com- 
bined with  elimination  of  water 
{oligosaccharides).  The  oligo- 
saccharides are  further  classified 
according  to  the  number  of 
monosaccharide  units  combined 
therein,  as  disaccharides  {e.g., 
sucrose,  lactose,  maltose)  trisac- 
charides  {e.g.,  gentianose,  raffi- 
nose,  melezitose),  tetrasaccha- 
rides,  etc.  The  saccharides  com- 
prise a  section  of  the  class  of 
carbohydrates  (q.  v.). 

Sugar,  sucrose,  cane-sugar, 
beet-sugar  or  saccharose  (ob- 
solescent) are  disaccharides  of 
the  composition  C12H22O11,  _  of 
which  the  molecule  is  a  combina- 
tion of  one  molecule  each  of 
D-glucose  (dextrose)  and  D-fruc- 
tose  (levulose)  joined  by  elim- 
ination of  one  molecule  of  water 
and  is  designated  in  systematic 
organic  chemical  nomenclature 
as  l-(o;-D-glucopyranosyl)-2-/3- 
D-fructofuranoside.  Sucrose 
crystallizes  in  anhydrous,  hemi- 
hedral  crystals  of  the  monocHnic 
system,  which  have  a  specific 
gravity  at  17>4°  c.  (as  compared 
with  water  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture) of  1.558046,  and  melt 
(with  decomposition)  when  pure 
at  about  174°  c,  but  which  may 
show  melting-points  between 
160°  and  180°  C-  on  account  of 
traces  of  impurities.  Sucrose  is 
resistant  to  alkaline  hydrolysis 
and  is  non-reducing  unless  first 
hydrolyzed  into  its  constituent 
hexoses.  It  is  almost  insoluble  in 
most  organic  solvents  (benzene, 
ether,  chloroform,  etc.),  and 
very  sparingly  soluble  in  alcohol 
but  very  soluble  in  water  in  pro- 
portion to  the  temperature.  A 
saturated  aqueous  solution  at 
20°  c.  (68°  F.)  contains  67.09 


per  cent  of  sugar  by  weight  (also 
expressed  as  67.09°  Brix)  (203.9 
parts  of  sugar  to  100  parts  of 
watef )  and  shows  a  specific  grav- 
ity of  1.32911  as  compared  with 
water  at  4°  c.  or  of  1.33146  as 
compared  with  water  at  20°  c. 
(This  is  equivalent  to  36.095  de- 
grees Baume). 

Sucrose  rotates  the  plane  of 
polarized  light  to  the  right  (dex- 
trorotation) showing  a  specific 
rotation  of  +66.5°  for  the  d  line 
of  sodium  at  20°  c.  (68°  p.).  In 
aqueous  solutions,  sugar  under- 
goes inversion,  i.e.,  hydrolysis  to 
invert  sugar,  an  equi-molecular 
mixture  of  D-glucose  (dextrose) 
and  D-fructose  (levulose)  gener- 
ally encountered  in  a  syrupy 
state,  when  subjected  to  the  cat- 
alytic influence  of  either  acids  or 
the  enzyme  invertase  which  oc- 
curs widely  in  nature  but  nota- 
bly in  yeasts.  Invert  sugar  shows 
a  levorotation  of  the  plane  of  po- 
larized light  which  accounts  for 
the  term  'inversion'  as  applied  to 
the  hydrolysis  of  dextrorototary 
sucrose. 

Although  very  widely  distrib- 
uted in  the  plant  kingdom  and 
present  in  most  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, the  sugar  of  commerce  is 
prepared  chiefly  from  two  plants, 
the  sugar  cane  {Saccharum  offi- 
cinariiim  L.)  of  tropical  regions 
and  the  sugar  beet  {Beta  vul- 
garis L.)  of  temperate  climates. 
Small  quantities  are  obtained 
from  the  maple,  certain  palms, 
and,  as  syrup,  from  sorghum. 

In  the  preparation  from  cane 
or  beet,  sugar  is  merely  re- 
moved from  the  plant  structure 
without  chemical  alteration  of 
any  kind.  The  canes,  as  brought 
to  the  factory,  contain  from  10 
to  17  per  cent  sucrose,  according 
to  season,  variety  and  locality, 
canes  in  the  tropics  being  richer 
than  those  in  sub-tropical  re- 
gions. Revolving  knives  cut  the 
cane  stalks  into  chips,  or  shred- 
ders tear  them  into  shreds,  be- 
fore passage  through  crushers 
and  a  train  of  serrated  rolls  ar- 
ranged triangularly  in  sets  of 
three  which  press  out  the  juice 
under  hydraulic  pressures  of  100 
to  500  tons. 

Warm  water  is  applied  to  the 
residual  fiber  or  bagasse  (Brit. 
megasse)  between  the  sets  of 
rolls  to  improve  sucrose  extrac- 
tion which  generally  reaches  90 
per  cent  or  higher.  The  bagasse, 
representing  about  25  per  cent  of 
the  weight  of  original  cane  and 
still  containing  from  40  to  50  per 
cent  of  moisture,  is  most  gener- 
ally burned  in  the  furnaces  as 
fuel  for  operating  the  mill.  Some 
bagasse  is  used  currently  for 
making  wallboard,  litter,  mulch- 
es, and  plastics,  while  persistent 
efforts  continue  toward  utiliza- 
tion for  paper  and  alpha  cellu- 
lose. 


The  expressed  juice,  screened 

to  remove  bagasse  particles,  is 
treated  with  milk  of  lime  and 
heated  to  the  boiling  point  to 
neutralize  acidity  due  to  such  or- 
ganic acids  as  aconitic,  malic, 
oxalic,  glycolic  and  ^  succinic 
(defecation  or  clarification).  The 
clarification  produces  a  precipi- 
tate, largely  tricalcium  phos- 
phate, that  carries  down  albu- 
minous and  gummy  materials, 
fats  and  waxes,  as  it  settles  in 
tanks  designated  as  clarifiers 
(intermittent  or  continuous) 
from  which  clear  juice  is  drawn 
off.  The  precipitates  (muds, 
scums,  slops)  are  generally 
pressed  in  filter  presses  or  fil- 
tered on  rotary  filters  to  remove 
additional  juice  (press-juice) 
from  the  press-cake  (cachaza) 
the  former  being  mingled  with 
raw  juice  from  the  rolls  and  the 
latter,  after  washing,  discarded 
or  returned  to  the  fields.  Phos- 
phate is  sometimes  added  before 
liming,  to  juices  low  in  natural 
phosphate,  in  order  to  produce 
sufficient  precipitate  for  efficient 
removal  of  colloid. 

Clarified  juice  containing 
from  10  to  15  per  cent  sugar,  the 
remainder  being  largely  water, 
is  concentrated  .under  reduced 
pressure  in  a  series  of  three  or 
four  evaporators  arranged  in 
tandem  so  that  the  vacuum  is 
greater  and  the  boiling-point 
consequently  lower  in  each  suc- 
cessive vessel,  while  for  efficient 
operation  the  vapors  removed 
from  each  are  used  to  heat  the 
next  (multiple-effect  evapora- 
tors). The  concentrated  syrup 
containing  55  to  70  per  cent  sol- 
ids (Cuba,  meladura)  is  trans- 
ferred to  a  single-effect  vacuum 
pan  where  evaporation  is  contin- 
ued under  reduced  pressure  to  a 
suitable  point  of  supersaturation 
where  spontaneous  graining  oc- 
curs, or  much  more  generally, 
seed  grain  of  sugar  is  added  ,to 
initiate  crystallization 

Syrup  is  then  admitted  judi- 
ciously at  intervals  with  adjust- 
ment of  pressure  and  tempera- 
ture as  the  water  evaporates  and 
the  crystals  grow,  until  the  pan 
is  filled  with  a  dense  mass  of 
crystals  of  the  desired  size, 
mixed  with  syrup  {massecuite) , 
in  which  the  total  proportion  of 
water  is  reduced  to  about  8  per 
cent. 

The  strike  of  massecuite  con- 
tains about  75  per  cent  sucrose 
which  yields  60  per  cent  of  crys- 
talline sugar  and  40  per  cent  of 
syrup  (or  molasses)  when  sep- 
arated in  centrifugal  machines, 
which  are  cylindrical  perforated 
metal  baskets  rotating  on  a  ver- 
tical spindle  at  speeds  ranging 
from  1000  to  1800  revolutions 
per  minute.  Rotation  for  a  few 
minutes  throws  most  of  the  A 
molasses  out  through  the  perfo- 
rations leaving  crystals  of  'A' 


Sugar-Refining 


Vol.  XI.— Page  527 


Sugar 


KFP 


528 


Sugar 


sugar  on  the  screen.  A  very  light 
wash  with  water  may  be  made. 

The  A  molasses  is  returned  to 
a  second  vacuum  pan  for  reboil- 
ing  to  produce  a  second  crop  of 


in  the  presence  of  accumulated 
salts  and  invert  sugar  that  re- 
duce the  rate  of  crystal  growth. 

The  final  molasses  or  black- 
strap is  that  which  will  not  eco- 


Beet  Sugar  Manufacture. 
Fltr.  1.  Dlffiisiiiff  Vessel  t  sliced  beet  enters  at  lid  a,  water  at  /,  steam  at  h  and  e ; 
the  ouice  is  drawn  off  at  d,and  the  exhausted  slices  are  removed  through  manhole  g.  Fijf. 
S.  K  eliesit  er :  juice  enters  at  a,  and  flows  upwards  to  c :  steam  enters  d  and  escapes  at 
c.  Fic-  8.  Chsireosil  Filter:  juice  enters  at  a,  passes  down  through  charcoal  ft,  and 
leaves  by  pipe  c;  /,  drain  cock ;  e,  manhole.  Fisr.  4.  Steam  Heater :  sectional  eleva- 
tion and  plan  ;  c,  steam  entrance  ;  6,  coil ;  d,  steam  outlet ;  a,  valves  for  emptying  pan. 
Flff.  5.  CarboiiatiiiK  Tsiiik:  lime  is  added  to  the  juice,  carbonic  acid  gas  is  forced 
through  pipe  b  and  perforated  coil  c,  and  steam  through  cock  d  and  coil  e,  escaping  at/; 
a,  valve.  1  Ig.  6,  l>ec:iiitin{r  Vessel :  a  float  c,  with  outlet  b,  communicates  oy  a  flex- 
ible pipe  with  outlet  a ;  deposited  matter  is  removed  by  valve  d.  Fie.  7.  Vat-uiim 
Pan  :  by  air  pump  a  juice  is  drawn  in  at  b,  and  heated  by  steam  entering  coil  c  at  d  and 
steam  jacket /at  g ;  fcand  I,  steam  traps  to  remove  condensed  water ;  the  sugar  crystals 
formed  are  removed  at  m.  Fic:.  8.  Centrif'uifal  l»ryln|>:  Machine:  sugar  crystals 
are  put  in  wire  cage  a,  and  the  rapid  revolution  forces  out  the  moisture  through  casings 
c  to  pipe  d ;  the  dried  sugar  is  removed  by  door  e  and  spout  f.  Fi  jr.  9.  General  Ar- 
rangement of  Plant:  a,  water  tank  ;  b,  water  pipe  ;  c,  c,  diffusers,  juice  passing  from 
c  to  c  through  reheater  d  (only  two  diffusers  are  shown,  but  seven  are  commonly  used); 
e,  defector  or  carbonating  tank  ;  /,  decanting  vessel  (two  pair  of  these  are  shown) ;  g, 
charcoal  Alter ;  h,  boiler  or  steam  heater ;  k,  vacuum  pan ;  /,  drying  machine. 


crystals  (B  sugar)  and  a  B  mo- 
lasses. 

After  a  third  boiling,  the  low- 
grade  massecuite  may  be  rotated 
slowly  by  internal  vanes  in  cy- 
lindrical tanks  (crystallizers)  for 
several  days  to  permit  separation 
of  a  maximum  quantity  of  sugar 


nomically  yield  more  sugar  by 
direct  crystallization  though  it 
generally  still  contains  40  to  60 
per  cent  of  total  sugars  (25  to  40 
per  cent  sucrose  and  30  to  12 
per  cent  hexoses)  along  with  8  to 
15  per  cent  of  inorganic  salts 
(ash),  gums,  acids,  1  to  4  per 


cent  of  nitrogenous  compounds 
and  caramelization  products.  The 
ash,  whose  major  components 
are  sulfates,  chlorides,  and  phos- 
phates of  calcium,  magnesium, 
and  potassium,  along  with  cara- 
melization products,  gives  the 
final  molasses  a  bitter  taste  and 
laxative  effect  which  cause  it  to 
be  considered  generally  as  inedi- 
ble. Blackstrap  is  used  for  pro- 
duction of  rum,  industrial  alco- 
hol, acetone,  butanol,  yeast,  and 
other  materials  by  fermentation, 
and  for  feeding  livestock. 

A  modern  raw  sugar  factory 
produces  only  one  grade  of  raw 
sugar  which  is  a  mixture  of  the 
A,  B^  and  C  sugars  described. 
Raw  sugars  delivered  to  the  con- 
tinental United  States  have  grad- 
ually increased  in  purity  over  a 
period  of  years  and  in  1946  aver- 
aged well  over  97°  in  polariza- 
tion. The  ash  content  of  raw  sug- 
ars is  in  the  neighborhood  of  0.5 
per  cent,  and  each  crystal  is 
coated  with  a  film  of  molasses. 

The  refining  of  raw  sugar  gen- 
erally includes  affination,  melt- 
ing, defecation,  char  filtration  or 
an  alternative  process  for  re- 
moving color,  and  crystalliza- 
tion, followed  by  drying  and 
sieving  to  classify  the  various 
crystal  sizes. 

Affination  is  essentially  a 
process  for  removing  the  surface 
film  of  molasses  from  the  raw 
sugar,  thus  raising  the  purity  to 
about  99  per  cent.  It  consists  of 
mingling  the  raws  with  a  heavy 
syrup,  hot  or  cold,  and  purging 
the  mixture  in  centrifugal  ma- 
chines where  the  crystals  are 
washed  with  water.  The  washed 
crystals  are  then  dissolved 
(melted)  in  less  than  half  their 
weight  of  water  to  give  a  solu- 
tion which  has  considerable  col- 
or. Pumped  to  'blow-up'  tanks  at 
the_  top  of  the  refinery,  the  so- 
lution may  be  treated  there  with 
phosphate  and  lime  to  produce 
a  precipitate  which  will  carry 
down  fibers,  clay,  sand,  gums, 
pectins,  and  protein  materials 
that  have  escaped  removal  pre- 
viously, as  well  as  a  part  of  the 
color.  Alternative  processes  of 
defecation  employ  lime  and  kisel- 
guhr  (diatomaceous  earth),  or 
lime  and  paper  pulp,  or  various 
combinations  of  the  listed  agents. 

The  precipitate  and  filter  aid 
are  removed  by  a  filter  press,  a 
rotary  filter,  or  by  flotation 
(Williamson  process).  The  clear 
filtrate  is  traditionally  run  to 
cisterns  filled  with  bone-char 
and  which  have  capacities  of 
1200  to  2500  cubic  feet.  The 
char,  consisting  largely  of  cal- 
cium phosphate  with  about  10 
per  cent  of  carbon  and  a  little 
calcium  oxide,  removes  colored 
materials  as  the  liquor  slowly 
filters  through  until  exhausted, 
after  which  it  may  be  revivified 


Sugar 


KFP 


529 


Sugar 


by  heating  in  retorts  to  1000°  f. 
or  higher  in  the  absence  of  air. 
A  given  batch  of  sugar  solution 
is  generally  passed  through  a  se- 
ries of  chars  of  various  degrees 
of  activity  ending  with  the  most 
active  one,  from  which  it  emerges 
almost  completely  colorless.  Cur- 
rently, activated  vegetable  car- 
bons are  used  in  conjunction 
with  or  in  place  of  bone  char. 

Another  refining  process  de- 
colorizes washed  sugar  melts  of 
99  per  cent  purity  or  better  by 
treatment  with  calcium  hypo- 
chlorite and  calcium  phosphate. 
Suspended  matter  is  carried  to 
the  surface  by  bubbles  and  clear, 
colorless  liquid  is  drawn  from 
the  bottom. 

Boiling  to  grain  is  carried  out 
in  vacuum  pans  at  a  temperature 
of  65°  to  75°  c.  in  a  manner 
closely  similar  to  that  described 
for  raw  sugar.  The  centrifuged 
white  sugar  is  washed,  spun 
nearly  dry  (2  per  cent  moisture) 
and  final  traces  of  moisture  are 
removed  by  drying  in  rotary 
driers  through  which  heated  air 
is  drawn  (granulators) .  After 
cooling,  the  crystals  are  screened 
to  remove  lumps  or  coarse  par- 
ticles. By  adjustments  of  the 
boiling  procedure,  the  average 
crystal  size  is  regulated  to  pro- 
duce standard  granulated,  extra 
fine  granulated,  or  still  finer 
grades  known  variously  as  fruit 
granulated,  fruit  powdered,  des- 
sert sugar,  berry  sugar  or  super- 
fine. Coarser  grades  are  sanding 
sugar,  manufacturers'  granulat- 
ed, medium  coarse,  coarse  or 
extra  coarse. 

All  washings  and  affination 
syrups  are  reworked  by  appro- 
priate methods  so  that  final  losses 
are  extraordinarily  small.  A  final 
refinery  molasses  (refinery  syr- 
up, barrel  syrup,  refinery  black- 
strap) is  obtained;  Brix  82°; 
sucrose,  36  per  cent;  reducing 
sugars,  20  per  cent ;  ash,  8  per 
cent;  organic  non-sugars,  12 
per  cent ;  water,  24  per  cent. 

Cube  and  tablet  sugars  are 
made  either  by  moistening  sugar 
of  the  desired  grain  with  heavy 
white  syrup,  pressing  or  molding 
into  cubes  and  drying ;  or  else 
by  casting  massecuite  into  slabs, 
centrifuging,  drying,  sawing, 
and  breaking. 

Confectioners'  sugar  and  pow- 
dered sugar  are  made  by  grind- 
ing to  various  degrees  of  fine- 
ness in  hammer  mills.  Three  per 
cent  cornstarch  or  1  per  cent  tri- 
calcium  phosphate  is  generally 
added  to  prevent  caking.  The 
trade  name  is  4X  or  6X  pow- 
dered. 

Soft  sugars^  known  to  the  pub- 
lic as  brown  sugars,  are  formed 
by  granulation  from  low  purity 
refinery  syrups.  They  are  packed 
moist,  containing  about  4  per 
cent  water  and  range   in  ash 


from  0.5  to  2.0  per  cent.  Clas- 
sification is  according  to  color 
(numbered  from  1  to  16),  five 
or  six  grades  being  generally 
sold,  such  as  yellow  (e.g.,  No. 
8),  light  brown  (e.g.,  No.  10) 
and  dark  brown  (e.g.,  No.  13). 

Liquid  sugars  are  high  test 
syrups  of  about  68°  Brix  made 
in  several  grades  including  wa- 
ter-white. They  are  produced 
from  raw  sugar  by  methods  sim- 
ilar to  those  described  without 
boiling  to  granulation.  They  are 
delivered  in  tank  trucks  and 
handled  by  pumping. 

Inverted  refined  syrups  have 
become  increasingly  important 
in  manufacturing  products  such 
as  ice  cream,  candy  and  bakery 
goods.  The  degree  of  inversion, 
color  and  analysis  vary  widely. 
Resistance  to  granulation  is  an 
outstanding  property. 

Cane  syrups  or  table  syrups 
are  made  by  a  variety  of  process- 
es. Whole  cane  juice  may  be 
concentrated  without  removal  of 
granulated  sugar  to  73-75  per 
cent  solids.  Coagulated  albumins 
may  be  removed  hj  skimming, 
or  partial  neutralization  with 
lime  may  be  employed.  Treat- 
ment with  sulfur  dioxide  (sul- 
fitation)  may  precede  liming.  If 
crops  of  sugar  are  removed,  the 
residue  may  be  marketed  as  edi- 
ble molasses. 

High  test  molasses  production 
attained  considerable  magnitude 
in  Cuba  and  Puerto  Rico,  espe- 
cially for  supplying  alcohol  dis- 
tilleries during  the  Second 
World  War.  It  was  made  by  in- 
verting evaporator  syrup  (see 
above)  with  acid  or  yeast  and 
concentrating  to  molasses  den- 
sity (about  85  Brix).  Total  sug- 
ars varied  from  70  to  80  per 
cent. 

Beet  Sugar  is  made  from  sug- 
ar-beets containing  from  10  to 
18  per  cent  sugar.  They  are 
washed,  sliced  into  V-shaped 
slices  called  cossettes,  and  the 
sugar  is  extracted  by  water  heat- 
ed progressively  from  60°  c.  to 
75  or  80°  c.  as  it  passes  through 
a  battery  of  dififusers  with  a  ca- 
pacity of  five  tons  each,  dissolv- 
ing the  maximum  quantity  of 
sugar  while  coagulating  the  pro- 
toplasm of  the  cells.  The  water 
required  is  approximately  one 
and  one-half  times  the  weight  of 
beets. 

The  pulp  removed  from  the 
diffusers  contains  95  per  cent 
water.  It  is  either  preserved  wet 
in  silosi  where  it  vmdergoes  fer- 
mentation, or  is  dried  to  10  or  20 
per  cent  moisture.  Both  wet  and 
dry  pulp  are  very  valuable  cat- 
tle feeds.  Molasses  is  often 
mixed  with  the  dried  pulp. 

The  juice  is  strained  and 
treated  with  lime.  Passage  of 
carbon  dioxide  at  80°  c.  to  ad- 
just the  acidity,  produces  a  pre- 


cipitate that  is  removed  by  fil- 
tration or  settling.  A  second  car- 
bon dioxide  treatment  removes 
lime  as  calcium  carbonate  which 
adsorbs  impurities  as  it  settles. 

Tricalcium  saccharate  obtained 
by  the  Steffens  process  (see  be- 
low) may  be  used  instead  of 
lime.  On  carbonation,  this  is  de- 
composed into  calcium  carbonate 
and  sugar.  Carbonation  is  gener- 
ally followed  by  a  treatment 
with  sulfur  dioxide  (sulfitation) 
which  adjusts  the  acidity.  The 
clarified  juice  containing  10  to 
12  per  cent  sugar  is  concen- 
trated by  methods  similar  to 
those  described  in  the  case  of 
cane  milling.  An  additional  sul- 
fitation may  be  used. 

Production  of  pure  granulated 
sugar  from  these  juices  parallels 
the  production  from  clarified 
cane  juices,  yielding  pure  white 
sugar  and  beet  molasses.  Beet 
molasses  differs  from  cane  mo- 
lasses in  containing  very  little 
invert  sugar  but  about  50  per 
cent  of  sucrose  and  10  or  12  per 
cent  of  inorganic  salts  besides 
glutamic  acid,  betaine  and  other 
nitrogenous  compounds.  Raffi- 
nose  may  be  present  to  the  ex- 
tent of  1  to  3  per  cent. 

Further  sugar  may  be  removed 
frorn  beet  molasses  by  adding 
calcium  oxide  at  a  temperature 
below  18°  c.  to  produce  a  pre- 
cipitate of  tricalcium  saccharate. 
After  filtration,  this  compound 
may  be  substituted  for  lime  in 
the  treatment  of  diffusion  liq- 
uors, or  decomposed  with  carbon 
dioxide,  to  regenerate  sugar  and 
precipitate  calcium  carbonate. 
This  procedure  is  generally 
known  as  the  Steffens  process. 
Strontium  or  barium  hydroxides 
may  be  used  similarly.  The  for- 
mer is  not  used  in  the  United 
States  but  one  plant  employs 
barium  hydroxide.  The  Steffens 
waste  is  used  as  a  source  of 
mono  sodium  glutamate  which  is 
prized  as  a  condiment  and  for 
recovery  of  potassium  salts.  Un- 
Steffinized  beet  molasses  is  used 
for  cattle  feeding  and  for  pro- 
duction of  citric  acid  and  yeast 
by  fermentation  processes. 

Maple  Sugar, — Methods  of 
making  maple  sugar  and  syrup 
from  the  juices  of  Acer  Saccha- 
rinum  L.  were  learned  by  early 
settlers  from  the  aborigines.  It 
is  a  product  principally  of  the 
North  Atlantic  states,  notably 
Vermont,  New  York,  and  Ohio. 
The  trees  are  tapped  in  Febru- 
ary, March,  and  April  according 
to  locality  and  season,  during 
the  flow  which  is  favored  by  cold 
nights  and  warm  days.  With  an 
auger,  a  half-inch  hole  is  made 
in  the  trunk  at  first  half  an  inch 
deep,  and  increased  by  degrees 
to  two  inches.  A  spout  of  wood 
or  metal  is  inserted  and  the  sap 
flows  out  and  is  collected  in  a 


Sugar 


KFP 


530 


Sugar  Beet 


pail  from  which  it  is  conveyed 
at  intervals  to  a  larger  receiver  ; 
from  this  it  is  carried  to  a  boiler, 
after  straining.  The  sap  fer- 
ments easily  and  therefore  can 
not  be  kept  long.  The  boiling 
and  refining  are  carried  out  by 
cruder  methods  than  those  em- 
ployed in  the  beet  and  cane  in- 
dustries but  are  similar  in  prin- 
ciple. Maple  sugar  is  never  re- 
fined since  its  impurities  impart 
a  characteristic  taste  that  is  high- 
ly prized.  A  tree  yields  from  2 
to  6  pounds.  The  syrup  is  simi- 
larly characteristic  in  flavor  and 
sells  at  high  prices. 

Statistics. — N  o  r  mal  world 
production  of  sugar  is  approxi- 
mately 33  million  tons  a  year,  di- 
vided almost  equally  between 
cane  and  beet,  with  cane  sugar 
somewhat  in  the  lead.  The  Unit- 
ed States  uses  approximately 
one-fifth  of  this  total  supply.  Un- 
der the  Sugar  Act  of  1937,  defi- 
nite quotas  of  sugar  were  estab- 
lished for  the  various  areas  that 
supply  the  United  States.  Of  the 
total,  55.59  per  cent  of  the  re- 
quired sugar  but  not  less  than 
3,715,000  short  tons,  were  to  be 
obtained  from  United  States  ter- 
ritory and  possessions.  The  re- 
maining 44.41  per  cent  of  the 
total  requirement  was  to  be  pro- 
rated among  the  Philippine  Is- 
lands, Cuba,  and  foreign  coun- 
tries other  than  Cuba. 

The  sugar  from  all  the  areas 
listed  was  duty-free  except  the 
.89  per  cent  of  44.41  per  cent 
which  was  allotted  to  'foreign 
countries  other  than  Cuba'  on 
which  full  duty  was  paid,  and 
Cuban  sugar  upon  which  a  pref- 
erential tariff  of  80  per  cent  of 
full  duty  was  imposed. 

Leading  cane-sugar  producing 
areas  outside  of  those  referred 
to  above  are  India,  Java,  For- 
mosa, Brazil,  Peru,  Mauritius, 
Australia,  Santo  Domingo,  Na- 
tal, Egypt,  Demerara,  Fiji  and 
the  British  Indies. 

Leading  beet  sugar  producing 
areas  outside  of  the  United 
States  are  normally  Russia,  Ger- 
many, Czechoslovakia,  France, 
Belgium,  Poland,  Holland,  Italy, 
Spain,  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, Hungary,  Sweden,  Den- 
mark, and  Rumania.  In  the  Unit- 
ed States,  leading  beet-sugar 
states  are  California,  Colorado, 
Nebraska,  Montana,  Wyoming, 
Idaho,  Utah,  Michigan,  and 
Ohio. 

During  the  Second  World 
War,  Java  and  the  Philippines 
were  early  lost  as  sugar  sources 
for  the  Allies,  the  Philippines 
being  responsible  for  the  main 
drop  in  supplies  to  the  United 
States.  Beet  sugar  production 
fell  in  the  United  States  during 
most  of  the_  period.  The  total 
from  Hawaiian,  Puerto  Rican, 
and  mainland  cane  sugar  sources 


were  also  somewhat  reduced  on 
the  average,  while  the  deficits 
were  partially  met  by  increased 
Cuban  output  after  a  lag  due  to 
maintenance  of  pre-war  crop- 
purchase  contracts. 

Uses  of  Sugar* — The  use  of 
sugar  as  a  food  far  outweighs 
all  other  uses  statistically.  From 
50  to  66  per  cent  of  the  distribu- 
tion goes  to  homes  and  institu- 
tions. The  largest  industrial  use 
is  in  baking  (11  to  12  per  cent). 
Following  this  are  confectionery 
9 1/2  per  cent,  carbonated  bever- 
ages pel"  cent,  canning  and 
preserving  5%  per  cent,  dairy 
products  3^4  per  cent,  flavoring 
extracts  3^4  per  cent,  fountain 
syrups  3y^  per  cent,  pickles  and 
relishes  1  per  cent,  miscellane- 
ous foods  such  as  preserved  and 
cured  meats,  salad  dressings, 
etc.,  1%  per  cent,  non-food  prod- 
ucts y2  per  cent  and  pharmaceu- 
ticals      per  cent. 

Miscellaneous  non-food  vises 
include  applications  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  adhesives,  foundry 
cores,  explosives,  drugs,  weld- 
ing-rod coatings,  varnishes,  pa- 
per, mirrors,  mortar,  special 
charcoals,  crucibles  and  special 
fuels. 

Though  not  a  complete  food 
itself,  sugar  is  rarely  used  alone 
and  promotes  consumption  of 
other  foods  by  rendering  them 
more  palatable.  Thus  sugar  no- 
tably promotes  the  use  of  citrus 
and  other  fruits,  dairy  products 
and  cereals.  Its  action  as  a  pre- 
servative provides  an  additional 
basis  for  use  in  meat-curing, 
pickles,  jellies,  jams,  preserves 
and  marmalades. 

Sugar  is  assimilated  more  rap- 
idly than  any  other  known  food 
and  efficiently  supplies  food  en- 
ergy. It  exerts  efficient  anti- 
ketogenic action  inhibiting  keto- 
sis  due  to  the  over-utilization  of 
fats  ;  like  other  carbohydrates 
spares  protein  from  combustion 
in  the  body,  increases  resistance 
to  over-ventilation  (alkalosis)  at 
high  altitudes  _  and  deposits  gly- 
cogen in  the  liyer  which  in  turn 
functions  in  elimination  of  tox- 
ins, protects  the  liver  against 
damage,  assists  in  maintaining 
normal  blood  sugar  levels  and 
serves  as  a  carbohydrate  reserve. 

Bibliography: 

Sugar  Manufacture:  Wiley, 
Cane  Sugar  Handbook  (1945)  ; 
Lyle,  Technology  for  Sugar  Re- 
finery Workers  (1941)  ;  Geer- 
ligs.  Cane  Sugar  and  its  Man- 
ufacture and  Practical  ■  White 
Sugar  Manufacture  (1924)  ; 
Murke,  Manufacture  of  Beet 
Sugar  (1921). 

Production  of  Maple  Syrups 
and  Sugar :  Farmer's  Bulletin 
No.  1366  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agricul- 
ture, June  1937);  Mantell,  Ad- 
sorption (1945,  with  chapters  on 
Bone  Char  and  Related  Materi- 


als, Ion  Exchangers,  and  Chro- 
matagraphic  Adsorption  Anal- 
ysis). 

Molasses  and  By-Products : 
Owen,  Utilization  of  Blackstrap 
Molasses  (1947)  ;  Mcintosh,  In- 
dustrial Alcohol  (1923). 

Uses  of  Sugar:  Scientific  Re- 
ports of  the  Sugar  Research 
Foundation.  No.  I  (New  York, 
1944)  ;  Abel,  Sugar  as  a  Food 
(Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  93.  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agriculture). 

Analysis:  Brown  and  Wiley, 
Physical  and  Chemical  Methods 
of  Sugar  Analysis  (1941)  ; 
Bates,  Polarimetry,  Saccharim- 
etry,  and  the  Sugars  (Circular 
of  the  National  Bureau  of 
Standards  C.  440.  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Commerce,  May,  1942)  ;  Of- 
ficial and  Tentative  Methods  of 
Analysis  (Association  of  Official 
Agricultural  Chemists.  6th  ed. 
Washington,  1945). 

Organic  Chemistry  of  Sugars : 
Micheel,  The  Chemistry  of  the 
Sugars  (1947)  ;  Pigman  and 
Wolfrom  (ed.).  Advances  in 
Carbohydrate  Chemistry  (Aca- 
demic Press,  New  York,  1945)  ; 
Oilman,  Advanced  Organic 
Chemistry  (1943)  ;  Pringsheim, 
The  Chemistry  of  the  Monosac- 
charides and  of  the  Polysaccha- 
rides (1932)  ;  Haworth,  The 
Constitution  of  Sugars  (1929)  ; 
Armstrong  and  Armstrong,  The 
Simple  Carbohydrates  (1934). 

Historical:  Taylor,  A  Saga  of 
Sugar  (1944)  ;  Surface,  The 
Story  of  Sugar  (1917);  Taus- 
sig, Some  Notes  on  Sugar  and 
Molasses  (1940). 

Economic  and  Legal:  The 
World  Sugar  Situation  {'Evire^dM 
of  Agricultural  Econoraics.  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture,  issued  an- 
nually) ;  Willcox,  Can  Industry 
Govern  Itself  f ;  Dalton,  Sugar, 
A  Case  Study  of  Government 
Control;  Sugar  During  World 
War  II  (War  Records  Mono- 
graph 3). 

Sugar  Beet  {Beta  vulgaris), 
a  member  of  the  Beet  family  (see 
Beet),  of  the  same  species  as 
the  common  garden  and  fodder 
beets,  extensively  grown  in  Eu- 
rope and  to  a  lesser  extent  else- 
where, and  forming  one  of  the 
two  principal  sources  of  the 
world's  sugar  supply.  The  plant 
requires  a  deep,  fertile,  loamy 
soil,  and  thrives  best  in  north 
temperate  latitudes.  To  pro- 
duce beets  high  in  sugar  content, 
good  soil  preparation,  proper 
seed  selection,  and  careful  culti- 
vation are  required,  and  machin- 
ery and  implements  are  exten- 
sively utilized.  The  soil  is 
ploughed  deepljr  and  well  worked, 
and  the  seed  is  planted  in  May 
from  1  to  U/2  inches  deep,  at  the 
rate  of  15  to  20  lbs.  per  acre. 
The  drills  are  placed  twenty  to 
twenty-four  inches  apart,  and 
the    young    plants    thinned  to 


Sngrar  Bounties  KFP  531  Suicide 


about  eight  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  The  cultivation  must  be 
thorough  and  constant,  especially 
during  early  growth.  The  crop 
matures  in  September,  and  the 
roots  are  harvested  by  means  of 
a  beet  puller.  The  crowns  with 
the  leaves  are  removed  before 
the  beets  are  hauled  to  the  fac- 
tory. 

^  Sugar  Bounties  Conven- 
tion, an  international  confer- 
ence, held  in  London  (1887),  at 
which  representatives  from  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  France,  and 
Austria  were  present.  At  this 
conference  the  bounty  system 
was  condemned  in  theory.  As  the 
system,  however,  was  profitable 
to  sugar-growers  of  the  continent 
of  Europe,  another  conference 
was  held  at  Brussels  (1898), 
which  was  adjourned  till  1902, 
when  it  was  decided  that  all 
bounties  should  be  abolished  in 
September  1903.  See  also  Brus- 
sels Sugar  Convention. 

Sugar  'Cane  (Saccharum  of- 
ficinarum) ,  a  member  of  the 
grass  family  grown  in  tropical 
and  sub-tropical  countries  for  the 
production  of  sugar.  It  is  a  per- 
ennial plant  with  creeping  roots, 
and  grows  to  a  height  of  eight  to 
twelve  feet  and  more,  though  it 
usually  bends  or  reclines  at  ma- 
turity. The  cylindrical  stalk, 
composed  of  numerous  joints,  is 
covered  with  a  whitish  powder 
called  cerosin,  and  is  two-thirds 
filled  with  the  sweet,  juicy  pith. 
The  leaves  are  alternate,  ribbon 
shaped,  and  from  three  to  five 
feet  long. 

The  sugar  cane  is  usually 
grown  on  large  plantations,  and 
the  largest  crops  are  obtained 
from  rich  soils  that  have  abun- 
dant moisture.  The  land  is 
generally  ploughed  early  in  the 
fall  and  ridged  to  facilitate 
drainage.  The  crop  is  propa- 
gated from  entire  canes  or  from 
sections  of  the  stalk  which  are 
covered  with  soil  from  three  to 
four  inches.  During  recent  years 
it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the 
seed  is  also  fertile,  and  a  num- 
ber of  valuable  seedling  varieties 
have  been  originated,  but  as  a 
method  of  general  propagation 
the  use  of  seed  is  not  practical, 
(jood  varieties  are  ready  for  cut- 
ting eight  or  ten  months  after 
planting.  The  plants  are  cut  just 
above  the  ground,  and  fresh 
canes  spring  from  the  original 
stalks.  This  goes  on  for  several 
years,  though  each  crop  is  small- 
er in  size.  Sugar  cane  contains 
about  75  per  cent  of  water  and 
15  per  cent  of  sucrose,  the  rest 
being  mostly  fiber. 

In  practically  all  regions  the 
sugar  cane  is  subject  to  attack 
by  parasitic  diseases  and  by  in- 
sect enemies.  The  more  impor- 
tant diseases  are  Leaf  Spot  {Cer- 
cospora    longipes),    Ring  Spot 


{Lcptosphacria  sacchari),  and  a 
Leaf-Splitting  Disease,  which  at- 
tack the  foliage;  Red  Rot,  Gum- 
mosis.  Smut,  Pineapple  Disease, 
Black  Rot,  Sereh  (in  Java),  and 
Ilau  (in  Hawaii),  which  affect 
the  stems  ;  and  a  disease  of  the 
roots  due  to  Marasmiu  sacchari. 
Care  in  seed  selection,  rotation 
of  crops,  and  treatment  of  seed 
cane  with  fungicides  are  preven- 
tive measures. 

The  chief  sugar  cane  insects  in 
the  United  States  are  the  Sugar 
Cane  Beetle  (Ligyrus  rugiceps), 
which  attacks  the  stubble  or  the 
young  cane,  and  the  Sugar  Cane 
Borer,  which  tunnels  its  way 
through  the  soft  pith  of  the  stalk. 
In  Hawaii  a  weevil  borer 
(Sphenophorus  ohscurus)  attacks 
the  stalks  of  cane,  and  in  the 
West  Indies  a  bark-boring  bee- 
tle (Xyleborus  piceus)  causes 
considerable  damage. 

Consult  Noel  Deerr,  Sugar 
and  Sugar  Cane;  Jones  and 
Scard,  Manufacture  of  Cane 
Sugar  (1911). 

Sugars,  a  group  of  carbohy- 
drate substances,  sweet  to  the 
taste,  easily  soluble  in  water, 
slightly  soluble  in  alcohol,  and 
insoluble  in  ether.  They  are 
colorless,  odorless,  usually  crys- 
tallizable,  and  optically  active, 
their  solutions  rotating  the  plane 
or  polarized  light  to  the  right  or 
left.  With  the  notable  exception 
of  cane  sugar,  most  of  them  have 
strong  reducing  powers.  They 
are  in  general  capable  of  un- 
dergoing fermentation  (q.  v.) 
through  the  action  of  yeasts, 
moulds,  and  bacteria. 

In  nature  sugars  occur  chiefly 
in  green  plants,  in  the  economy 
of  which  they  play  an  important 
role.  They  are  manufactured  by 
the  chloroplasts  from  carbon  di- 
oxide and  water,  and  are  diffused 
to  the  various  parts  of  the  plant 
body  to  be  utilized  in  the  forma- 
tion of  proteids,  or  are  stored  for 
future  use.  In  addition  to  nat- 
ural sugars  a  number  of  sugars 
have  been  prepared  synthetically 
by  Emil  Fischer  and  others. 

Based  upon  their  behavior 
toward  hydrolytic  agents,  sug- 
ars are  classified  as  Monosaccha- 
rides, which  can  not  be  hydro- 
lyzed,  having  the  formula 
(TsHioOs  or  CeHigOe ;  Disaccha- 
rides,  which  break  up  into  two 
molecules  according  to  the 
formula  C12H22O11  +  H2O  = 
2C6H12O6 ;  and  Trisaccharides, 
which  yield  three  molecules 
of  monosaccharides,  as  follows, 
CWH32O16  +  2H2O  =  3CoHioOe. 

The  monosaccharides  include 
the  pentoses,  or  sugars  containing 
five  carbon  atoms,  and  hexoses, 
containing  six  carbon  atoms. 
The  pentoses  rarely  occur  free 
in  plants  but  are  found  in  a  com- 
bined state  as  in  cherry  or  wood 
gum$,    The    hexoses  embrace 


glucose  or  dextrose  (q.  v.),  com- 
monly known  as  grape  sugar ; 
fructose  (q.  v.),  levulose,  or  fruit 
sugar,  which  occurs  in  most  ripe 
fruits  and  in  honey ;  sorbose, 
which  is  produced  by  the  oxida- 
tion of  sorbitol,  an  alcohol  oc- 
curring in  the  juice  of  the  moun- 
tain ash  and  in  most  plants  of 
the  order  Rosaceae ;  galactose, 
which  rarely  occurs  in  a  free 
state,  but  which  may  be  obtained 
by  the  hydrolysis  of  milk  sugar, 
and  of  certain  vegetable  gums 
and  pectic  substances  ;  and  man- 
nose,  found  free  in  some  plants 
and  in  cane-sugar  molasses,  but 
prepared  most  commonly  from 
vegetable  ivory. 

The  disaccharides  include  su- 
crose, saccharose,  or  cane  sugar, 
derived  principally  from  the  sug- 
ar cane  and  sugar  beet  (qq.  v.), 
but  present  also  in  the  sap  of 
many  plants,  as  millet,  pineap- 
ple, banana,  palms,  and  maples 
(see  Sugar)  ;  maltose  (q.  v.), 
or  malt  sugar,  formed  by  the 
action  of  diastase  on  starch,  with 
the  intermediate  production  of 
dextrin  ;  lactose,  or  milk  sugar 
(q.  V.)  ;  and  the  less  familiar 
isomaltose,  cellobiose,  mycose  or 
trehalose,  agavose,  and  lupeose. 

The  trisaccharides  are  raffi- 
nose,  which  is  found  in  nature  in 
cotton  seed,  barley,  eucalyptus, 
manna,  and  in  small  amounts  in 
beet  root ;  melectiose ;  and  stach- 
yose. 

Several  methods  are  employed 
for  determining  the  sugar  con- 
tent of  solutions.  A  procedure 
based  on  their  optical  activity  is 
especially  adapted  to  cane  sugar 
and  other  sugars  in  which  the 
amount'  of  rotation  produced  is 
proportioned  to  the  amount  of 
sugar  in  a  given  volume  of  solu- 
tion (see  Saccharimeter).  Re- 
ducing sugars  may  be  estimated 
by  the  reduction  of  Fehling's  so- 
lution (q.  v.). 

Consult  Haas  and  Hill,  Chem- 
istry of  Plant  Products  (1913)  ; 
J.  E.  Mackenzie,  The  Sugars  and 
Their  Simple  Derivatives  (1914). 

Suhl,  zool,  town,  Germany, 
province  Saxony,  Prussia,  pic- 
turesquely situated  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Thuringian  Forest ; 
13  miles  northeast  of  Meiningen. 
It  has  long  been  famous  for  its 
manufacture  of  firearms ;  other 
industries  are  iron  and  machine 
works,  potteries,  and  tanneries. 
Pop.  15,481. 

Suicide  denotes  the  act  of 
taking  one's  own  life  ;  also  a  per- 
son who  has  died  by  his  own 
hand.  By  the  common  law  of 
England  suicide  is  a  felony, 
which  formerly  involved  the  for- 
feiture of  all  the  deceased's 
property  to  the  crown,  and  sub- 
jected him  to  a  barbarous  form 
of  burial  at  a  cross  road  with  a 
stake  driven  through  his  body. 
To  the  present  day  the  Church 


Sui-fu 


KFP 


531  A 


Sullivan 


of  England  will  not  allow  sui- 
cides to  be  buried  in  consecrated 
ground,  nor  can  the  service  for 
the  dead  be  performed  over  their 
remains.  Accordingly  in  every 
possible  case  the  coroner's  jury, 
instead  of  bringing  in  a  verdict 
of  felo  de  se  (self-murder),  finds 
that  the  deceased  committed  sui- 
cide while  temporarily  insane. 
In  the  United  States,  forfeiture 
of  property  is  unknown,  as  it  has 
also  been  in  England  since  1870. 

Most  of  the  questions  which 
are  brought  before  the  courts 
have  relation  to  policies  of  life 
insurance.  Such  phrases  in  a 
policy  as  'commit  suicide'  or  'die 
by  his  own  hand'  are  generally 
interpreted  to  refer  only  to  vol- 
untary acts,  and  not  to  include 
such  as  are  done  under  the  in- 
fluence of  insane  delusions.  Fre- 
quently, however,  the  policy  is 
expressly  declared  to  be  void 
should  the  insured  commit  sui- 
cide whether  sane  or  insane.  A 
person  who  kills  another  at  the 
latter's  own  request  is  guilty  of 
murder  (q.  v.).  The  law  includes 
under  suicide  the  case  of  one 
who  in  attempting  to  kill  anoth- 
er kills  himself  by  accident. 

Sui-fu,  swe'fdb',  or  Hsu- 
CHAU-FU,  town,  China,  on  the 
Yangtse-kiang,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Min-ho  ;  150  miles  south- 
west of  Chung-king.  It  has  salt 
and  coal  mines,  and  a  large  trade 
with  Yiin-nan.  Pop. _1 25, 000. 

Sui  Juris,  su'i  joo'ris  (Latin 
'of  one's  own  right')  is  a  phrase 
of  Roman  law  indicating  the  po- 
sition of  a  free  citizen  who  was 
not  in  the  power  of  a  family  head 
(pater-familias) .  Those  in  such 
power,  and  also  slaves,  were  said 
to  be  alieni  juris  ('of  another's 
right').  In  modern  law  the  phrase 
sui  juris  is  popularly  used  with 
reference  to  one  who  possesses 
full  capacity  to  enter  into  a  bind- 
ing contract,  and  incur  any  obli- 
gations, or  do  any  legal  acts 
which  an  adult  person,  not  under 
any  legal  disability,  may  do. 

Suir,  sh(5br,  river,  Ireland, 
rises  in  Tipperary,  flows  south  to 
the  border  of  Waterford,  where 
it  bends  northeast  and  then  east, 
and  joins  the  Barrow  with  Nore 
in  Waterford  Harbor.  Length 
about  100  miles. 

Sulaiman  Hills,  soo-la'e- 
man,  or  Suliman,  which  once 
formed  the  boundary  between 
Afghanistan  and  India,  run  from 
north  to  south,  parallel  to  the  In- 
dus. The  following  four  towns 
mark  the  position  of  the  most 
important  passes  :  Attock,  where 
the  Kabul  joins  the  Indus  ;  Dera 
Ismail  Khan,  close  to  the  Khy- 
ber  Pass ;  Dera  Ghazi  Khan ; 
and  Sukkur.  The  length  of  the 
range  is  350  miles  and  the  high- 
est peak  is  Takht-i-Sulaiman,  or 
Throne  of  Solomon  (11,070  ft.). 

Suleiman  Pasha,  sob'la-man 


pa-sha  (1838-92),  Turkish  gen- 
eral, learned  the  art  of  war  in 
Montenegro,  Crete,  and  Yemen, 
and  was  for  some  time  instructor 
in  the  Military  Academy  at 
Constantinople,  of  which  he  be- 
came director.  He  gained  hon- 
ors against  the  Servians  in  1876, 
and  was  the  hero  of  the  mag- 
nificent defense  of  Shipka  Pass 
against  the  Russians  in  1877. 
He  then  acted  as  commander  in 
chief  of  the  army  of  the  Danube. 
Defeated  near  Philippopolis,  he 
was  degraded  and  condemned  to 
imprisonment.  The  Sultan  par- 
doned him,  however,  and  he  died 
at  Bagdad. 

Sulfa  Drugs.  See  Chemo- 
therapy. 

Sul'grave  Manor,  a  pictur- 
esque hamlet  in  Northampton- 
shire, England,  the  ancestral 
home  of  George  Washington. 
When  Henry  viii  abolished  all 
English  monasteries  he  granted 
the  priory  of  St.  Andrews  in 
Sulgrave,  1539,  to  Lawrence 
Washington,  of  Gray's  Inn, 
London,  who  formerly  lived  in 
Northampton.  Here  in  Sulgrave 
he  lived  with  his  wife  and  eleven 
children  imtil  his  death  (1585). 
The  second  son  Robert  and  his 
wife  lived  in  Sulgrave  until  1610, 
when  Robert  and  his  son  Law- 
rence sold  it  to  Lawrence  Make- 
peace of  Lincoln's  Inn,  Robert's 
nephew.  Robert  was  the  ances- 
tor of  George  Washington. 

The  church  and  the  manor 
house  are  the  places  of  interest. 
The  former,  dating  in  some  parts 
to  1350,  in  others  to  1650,  is  of 
early  English  architecture.  The 
house  is  of  limestone,  fairly  well 
preserved  and  was  evidently  in 
its  day  a  building  of  size  and  im- 
portance. A  shield  embossed  in 
plaster,  said  to  have  formerly 
borne  the  Washington  arms, 
hangs  over  the  front  entrance, 
and  in  the  gable  above  are  the 
royal  arms  and  the  initials  E.R. 
— Elizabeth  Regina. 
_  In  1914  the  British  Commis- 
sion for  the  celebration  of  the 
Hundred  Years  of  Peace  between 
England  and  the  United  States 
bought  the  Sulgrave  Manor 
house  for  £8,500,  the  ex-officio 
trustees  being  the  American  am- 
bassador in  London,  the  British 
ambassador  in  Washington,  and 
the  regent  of  the  Mount  Vernon 
Ladies'  Association  of  the  Unit- 
ed States.  The  house  has  been 
restored  and  furnished  witli  fur- 
niture of  the  period.  Funds  for 
the  purpose  were  collected  by  the 
American  Society  of  Colonial 
Dames  which  has  also  estab- 
lished a  permanent  endowment 
of  more  than  £20,000. 

Sul'la,  Lucius  Cornelius 
Sulla  (138-78  b.c),  who  called 
himself  'Felix,'  Roman  general 
and  state'sman.  was  a  scion  of  a 
patrician  family  belonging  to  the 


illustrious  Cornelian  gens.  He 
was  quaestor  in  107  u.c,  and 
distinguished  himself  under  Ma- 
rius  in  Africa,  where  he  captured 
Jugurtha  ((j.  v.).  He  served  with 
Marius  and  Catulus  against  the 
Teutons  and  Cimbri  in  102  and 
101.  In  93  he  was  praetor  ;  in  92 
governor  of  Cilicia.  Soon  after 
his  return  to  Rome  the  Social 
War  broke  out,  and  Sulla  de- 
feated the  insurgents  in  Cam- 
pania and  Samnium,  took  Bovi- 
anum  (89),  and  was  elected  con- 
sul for  88  B.C.  At  this  time 
Marius  and  Sulpicius  (qq.  v.) 
revolted  against  the  senate,  and 
Sulla  marched  to  Rome,  put  Sul- 
picius to  death,  outlawed  Marius 
and  others,  and  re-established 
the  power  of  the  senate.  He  land- 
ed in  Epirus  in  the  summer  of 
87  to  prosecute  the  war  against 
Mithridates  (q.  v.),  and  reduced 
him  to  submission. 

Sulla,  early  in  83,  landed  at 
Brundisium  in  Italy  apd  defeat- 
ed Norbanus,  while  the  army  of 
Scipio,  deserted  to  him.  In  82 
he  moved  on  Rome,  won  the  de- 
cisive battle  of  the  Colline  Gate, 
and  before  long  all  Italy  sub- 
mitted to  him.  Sulla  then  set 
himself  to  extirpate  his  political 
opponents  of  the  democratic  fac- 
tion by  proscriptions,  executions, 
and  confiscation  of  their  proper- 
ty. As  dictator  (81-79)  he  cur- 
tailed the  legislative  powers  of 
the  assembly  of  the  tribes  ;  ex- 
cluded ex-tribunes  from  higher 
ofiices ;  re-enacted  old  laws  en- 
forcing an  interval  of  two  years 
between  holding  different  magis- 
tracies, and  one  of  ten  between 
holding  the  same  office  twice ; 
increased  the  number  of  praetors 
and  quaestors  ;  and  ruled  that 
magistrates  should  hold  power 
in  their  year  of  office  only  at 
Rome.  Consult  Beesly's  The 
Gracchi,  Marius,  and  Sulla. 

Sullivan,  Sir  Arthur  Sey- 
mour (1842-1900),  English  mu- 
sical composer,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don. He  studied  tmder  Goss  and 
Sterndale  Bennett  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  in  1858-61  at 
Leipzig.  His  first  composition  of 
importance  was  music  to  The 
Tempest  (Crystal^  Palace,  1862). 
His  numerous  brilliant  dramatic 
works,  which  made  him  famous, 
began  with  Cox  and  Box 
(1866)  ;  these,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  his  grand  opera  Ivan- 
hoe,  are  all  in  the  nature  of 
comic  operas.  His  long  associa- 
tion with  W.  S.  Gilbert  (q.  v.)  in 
the  production  of  the  well-known 
series  of  operas  beginning  with 
Thespis  (1871),  followed  among 
others  by  Trial  hv  Jury  (1875), 
The  Sorcerer  (1877),  H.  M.  S. 
Pinafore  (1878),  Pirates  of  Pen- 
zance (New  York,  1879,  London, 
1880).  Patience  (1881),  lolanthe 
(1882),  The  Mikado  (1885),  Rnd- 
digore  (1887),  The  Yeomen  of  the 


Sulliyan 


531  B 


SullF-Prudbomme 


Guard  (1888),  The  Gondoliers 
(1889).  Utopia  Ltd.  (1893),  and 
The  Grand  Duke  (1896),  is  a 
notable  instance  of  successful 
collaboration.  Other  light  operas 
are  The  Chieftain  (1894),  The 
Beauty  Stone  (1898),  The  Rose  of 
Persia  (1899),  and  The  Emerald 
Isle  (completed  by  E.  German, 
1901). 

Sir  Arthur  Sullivan  also  pro- 
duced many  other  compositions, 
including  the  cantata  Kenilworth 
(1864),  the  overtures  In  Me- 
moriam  (1866),  Marmion  (1867), 
and  Di  Ballo  (1869), the  oratorios 
The  Prodigal  Son  (1868),  and  The 
Light  of  the  World  (1873),  a  Festi- 
val Te  Deum  for  the  Prince  of 
Wales'  recovery  in  1872,  The 
Martyr  of  Antioch  (1880)  and 
The  Golden  Legend  (1886).  To 
the  general  public,  however,  he  is 
better  known  by  his  hymns  and 
songs,  and  especially  his  tuneful 
light  operas,  his  music  being  as 
much  appreciated  by  the  masses 
as  by  cultured  musicians.  He 
was  principal  of  the  National 
Training  School  for  Music  (1876- 
81),  and  was  knighted  in  1883. 
Consult  his  Letters  and  Reminis- 
cences (ed.  by  A.  Lawrence). 

Sullivan,  James  (1744-1808), 
American  jurist,  brother  of  Gen- 
eral John  Sullivan  (q.v.),  was 
born  in  Boston.  He  began  the 
practice  of  law  at  Biddeford;  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Provincial  Congress  in 
1775;  in  1776-82  was  a  Judge  of 
the  Superior  Court;  and  in  1784- 
5  a  member  of  the  Continental 
Congress.  He  was  attorney  gen- 
eral in  1790-1807,  and  governor 
of  his  native  State  in  1807-8.  A 
member  of  the  American  Acad- 
emy of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  a 
founder  of  the  Massachusetts 
Historical  Society,  he  wrote  Ob- 
servations on  the  Government  of 
the  United  States  (1791);  Impar- 
tial Review  of  the  Causes  of  the 
French  Revolution  (1798);  Dis- 
sertation on  the  Constitutional 
Liberties  of  the  Press  (1801). 

Sullivan,  James  Edward 
(1860-1914),  American  athletics 
official,  was  born  in  New  York 
City.  From  early  youth  he  was 
an  enthusiast  in  athletic  sports 
and  in  1885  was  elected  president 
of  the  Pastime  A.  C.  In  1888  he 
became  one  of  the  organizers  of 
the  Amateur  Athletic  Union,  and 
its  first  secretary;  and  in  1893 
was  chairman  of  the  A.  A.  U. 
committee  which  had  charge  of 
the  World's  Fair  meet  in  Chicago, 
He  was  prominently  identified 
with  the  revival  of  the  Olympic 
Games  (q.v.),  and  was  director- 
general  of  the  games  at  St.  Louis 
in  1904  and  U.  S.  commissioner 
to  the  games  at  Athens  in  1906 
and  London  in  1908.  He  organ- 
ized the  Public  Schools  Athletic 
League  of  New  York,  founded 
The  Athletic  News,  was  editor  of 
the  New  York  Sporting  Times, 


and  published  Spalding's  Athletic 
Library. 

Sullivan,  John  (1740-95), 
American  soldier,  was  born  in 
Berwick,  Me.  He  was  appointed 
brigadier  general  by  Congress  in 
June,  1775;  served  in  the  siege  of 
Boston;  was  sent  in  1776  to  com- 
mand the  army  in  Canada;  and 
after  the  defeat  at  Three  Rivers 
conducted  the  retreat  to  Crown 
Point.  He  was  made  a  major 
general  in  August,  1776,  and  was 
captured  at  the  Battle  of  Long 
Island  (August  27).  After  his 
exchange  he  led  one  of  the  col- 
umns in  the  attack  at  Trenton, 
and  was  active  at  Princeton, 
Brandywine,  and  Germantown, 
In  1779  he  led  an  expedition 
against  the  Iroquois.  He  was  a 
Member  of  Congress  in  1780-1; 
governor  of  New  Hampshire  in 
1786-9;  and  U.  S.  district  judge 
from  1789  until  his  death. 

Sullivan,  Thomas  Russell 
(1849-1916),  American  author, 
was  born  in  Boston,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Boston  Latin  School. 
After  residing  for  a  few  years 
in  Europe  he  returned  to  the 
United  States  and  was  clerk  and 
cashier  in  the  banking  firm  of 
Lee,  Higgins  &  Co.  (1873-88). 
After  1888  he  devoted  himself  to 
literary  work,  in  which  he  was 
conspicuously  successf  ul .  He  was 
a  member  of  the  National  Insti- 
tute of  Arts  and  Letters.  Among 
his  best  known  works  are  Roses  of 
Shadow  (1885);  Day  and  Night 
Stories  (1890,  1893);  Tom  Sylves- 
ter (1893);  The  Courage  of  Con- 
viction (1902);  Boston  Old  and 
New  (1912);  The  Hand  of  Pe- 
trarch (1913).  He  is  also  the 
author  of  a  number  of  plays  in- 
cluding The  Catspaw  (1881),  and 
a  dramatized  version  of  Dr. 
Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde  (1886). 

Sullivan's  Island,  an  island 
in  Charleston  Harbor,  the  site  of 
Fort  Moultrie.  See  Charleston; 
Moultrie,  Fort. 

Sul'ly,  James  (1842-  ), 
English  psychologist,  was  born  in 
Bridgewater,  Somersetshire.  He 
was  educated  at  Regents'  Park 
College,  London,  and  at  the  Uni- 
versities of  Gottingen  and  Berlin. 
For  many  years  he  lectured  upon 
education  in  the  College  of  Pre- 
ceptors; and  from  1892  to  1903 
was  Grote  professor  of  the  philos- 
ophy of  mind  and  logic  in 
University  College,  London.  His 
chief  works  are  Sensation  and 
Intuition  (1874);  Pessimism 
(1877);  Illusions  (1881);  Out- 
lines of  Psychology  (1884);  Teach- 
er's Handbook  of  Psychology 
(1886) ;  The  Human  Mind(1892) ; 
Studies  of  Childhood  (1895); 
Children's  Ways  (1897);  Essay  on 
Laughter  (1902);  Italian  Travel 
Sketches  (1912). 

Sully,  Maximilien  de  Beth- 
une.  Due  de  (1560-1641), 
French  statesman,  was  born  in 
Rosny,  near  Mantes,  of  a  noble 


Protestant  family.  He  attached 
himself  to  the  court  of  Henry  of 
Navarre  in  1571;  was  in  Paris  at 
the  time  of  the  St.  Bartholomew 
Massacre,  and  escaping  with 
difficulty  accompanied  Henry 
in  his  flight  from  the  French 
court.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
the  war  against  the  Catholic 
League,  and  had  command  of 
the  artillery  at  Coutras  (1587). 
He  approved  of  the  King's  poli- 
tic conversion,  and  throughout 
his  reign  remained  his  most 
trusted  counsellor.  In  1594  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  State,  and  thereafter  was 
first  minister  in  all  but  name. 

Sully's  chief  attention  was 
given  to  finance,  and  he  succeed- 
ed in  substituting,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, direct  collection  of  taxes  by 
the  state  for  the  system  of  tax 
farming  that  had  previously  pre- 
vailed. He  paid  off  a  hundred 
millions  of  livres,  and  without 
placing  additional  burdens  on  the 
people  raised  the  income  of  the 
state  from  seven  to  sixteen  mil- 
lions. 

After  the  assassination  of  his 
master.  Sully  was  forced  to  re- 
sign the  superintendence  of 
finance,  but  was  allowed  to  retain 
the  care  of  the  woods  and  the 
artillery,  and  was  even  presented 
by  Marie  de'  Medici  with  a  re- 
ward of  300,000  livres.  But  his 
reign  was  at  an  end,  and  before 
long  he  retired   to  his  estate. 

Sully,  Thomas  (1783-1872), 
American  portrait  painter,  was 
born  in  Horncastle,  Lincolnshire, 
England,  and  in  1792  was 
taken  by  his  parents  to  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.  In  1809  he  went  to 
London,  where  he  studied  under 
Benjamin  West,  and  returning 
to  the  United  States  in  1812,  he 
settled  in  Philadelphia,  and 
achieved  a  reputation  as  one  of 
the  leading  portrait  painters.  In 
1837  he  made  another  visit  to 
London,  and  painted  a  portrait 
of  Queen  Victoria.  Among  his 
best  known  portraits  are  those  of 
Dr.  Rush  and  Dr.  Coates,  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Hospital;  Thomas 
Jefferson,  in  the  Military  Acad- 
emy, West  Point;  Charles  Kem- 
ble,  Rembrandt  Peale,  James 
Madison,  John  Marshall,  and 
Andrew  Jackson,  in  the  Corcoran 
Gallery,  Washington;  George 
Frederick  Cooke  as  Richard  III. 
in  the  Philadelphia  Academy; 
William  Gynn,  and  portraits  of 
himself,  wife,  and  daughter  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art. 

Sully  -  Prudhomme,  sii-le'- 
pru-dom',  Rene  Francois  Ar- 
MAND  (1839-1907),  French  poet, 
was  born  in  Paris.  He  was  edu- 
cated for  the  law  but  soon 
abandoned  it  for  literature.  His 
first  volume,  Stances  et  Poemes 
(1865),  was  praised  by  Sainte- 
Beuve,  and  achieved  an  un- 
doubted success.  His  work  is 
characterized  by  subtlety  and  ele- 

VoL.  XL— March  '29 


Sullys  Hill  National  Park 


532 


Sulphur 


gance  of  thought,  sympathy  with 
the  beautiful  and  noble,  great 
rhythmical  felicity,  and  power  of 
happily  wedding  sound  and 
sense.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy  in  1881, 
and  received  the  Nobel  Prize 
(q.v.)  in  Hterature  in  1901.  The 
best  of  his  later  works  are  Les 
epreuves,  Les  solitudes,  Les  des- 
tins.  Impressions  de  la  guerre,  La 
France,  La  justice,  Le  bonheur. 

Sullys  Hill  National  Park. 
See  National  Parks. 

Sulmona.    See  Solmona. 

Sulphate  of  Magnesia.  See 
Epsom  Salts. 

Sulphates.  See  Sulphuric 
Acid. 

Sulphides.  See  Sulphur. 
Sulphites.   See  Sulphurous 
Acid. 

Sul'phocy'anates,  Sulpho- 
CYANiDES,  or  Thiocyanates,  are 
the  salts  of  thiocyanic  acid, 
HSCN,  which  can  be  obtained  as 
a  strongly  acid  aqueous  solution 
by  the  action  of  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  on  barium  thiocyanate. .  It 
is  best  known  in  its  salts,  of 
which  potassium  sulphocyanate, 
KSCN,  is  characteristic,  and 
forms  colorless,  deliquescent, 
very  soluble  crystals.  This  com- 
pound was  formerly  prepared  by 
fusing  the  cyanide  with  sulphur, 
but  is  now  obtained  from  ammo- 
nium thiocyanate,  a  substance  of 
similar  properties  contained  in 
gas  liquor,  and  prepared  on  a 
large  scale  by  heating  carbon  di- 
sulphide  with  aqueous  ammonia 
solution.  Mercury  sulphocyanate, 
when  heated,  swells  enormously, 
and  is  used  in  toys  known 
as  'Pharaoh's  serpents.'  Thiocy- 
anates are  used  as  a  test  for  ferric 
iron,  which  yields  a  blood  red 
thiocyanate,  as  a  reagent  for  the 
estimation  of  silver  and  in  man- 
ufacturing cyanides. 

Sul'phonal,  diethyl-sulphone, 
dimethyl-methane  (CH.3)2C(S02- 
C2H5)2,  is  prepared  by  the  con- 
densation of  acetone  with  ethy 
mercaptan  and  the  subsequent 
oxidation  of  the  condensation 
product.  It  forms  white,  odorless 
prismatic  crystals  that  are  only 
slightly  soluble  in  water,  alcohol, 
and  ether,  and  melt  at  125.5°  c. 
It  has  been  used  in  medicine  as  a 
hypnotic,  but  has  been  replaced 
by  veronal,  because  of  the  greater 
solubility  of  its  sodium  deriva- 
tive. 

Sulphon'ic  Acid,  HSO2OH,  a 
monobasic  acid  known  only  in 
its  derivatives,  particularly  those 
in  which  the  hydrogen  atom  is 
replaced  by  an  alkyl  or  an 
aryl  radical.  The  alkyl  sul- 
phonic  acids  are  i)repared  by  the 
oxidation  of  mercaptans  with 
nitric  acid,  and  are  strongly 
acid,  crystalline,  hygroscopic  sol- 
ids; while  the  aromatic  sulphonic 
acids  are  obtained  by  the  action 
of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  on 
the    hydrocarbons    and  their 

Vol.  XI. —March  '29 


derivatives,  and  are  also  crystal- 
line solids.  The  sulphonic  acids 
yield  sulphonchlorides,  sulphon- 
amides,  etc.,  and  in  the  case  of 
aromatic  derivatives  are  fre- 
quently important  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  synthetic  compounds,  as 
the  phenols. 

Surphur,  or  Brimstone,  S, 
32.06,  is  a  non-metallic  element, 
widely  distributed  in  nature  both 
in  the  free  state  and  in  combina- 
tion. Elementary  sulphur  is 
found  chiefly  in  volcanic  districts. 
The  principal  sulphur-bearing 
regions  are  Caltanisetta  and  Gir- 
genti  provinces  in  Sicily,  Ro- 
magna  in  Italy,  Louisiana,  Texas, 
and  the  States  bordering  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  Hokkaido  in 
Japan,  the  Caucasus,  Upper 
Egypt,  New  Zealand,  Iceland, 
and  Hungary.  In  combination, 
sulphur  occurs  largely  in  pyrites, 
not  only  that  of  iron,  FeS2,  but 
also  in  cupreous  and  arsenical 
varieties.  Sulphides  of  lead 
(galena),  of  zinc  (blende),  mer- 
cury (cinnabar),  and  antimony 
(stibnite)  are  also  widely  dis- 
tributed, but  like  the  numerous 
sulphates,  such  as  gypsum 
(CaSOO.  celestine  (SrSOO,  Ep- 
som salt  (MgSOO,  and  heavy 
spar  (BaS04).  are  not  practical 
sources  of  sulphur,  although  the 
sulphides  of  iron,  copper,  and 
zinc  are  extensively  used  to 
furnish  sulphur  dioxide  for  sul- 
phuric acid  manufacture. 

The  method  employed  in  the 
recovery  of  sulphur  in  crude  form 
as  commonly  practised  in  South- 
ern Europe  is  wasteful  but  simple. 
A  heap  of  native  sulphur,  con- 
taining up  to  2,000  tons,  is  made 
on  sloping  ground  and  partially 
walled  round  and  covered  with 
sulphur  refuse.  Some  air  holes 
or  chimneys  are  left,  and  at  the 
lower  side  of  the  slope  rough 
moulds  for  the  reception  of  the 
molten  sulphur  are  provided. 
When  the  heap  is  set  on  fire  a 
part  of  the  sulphur  burns,  giving 
out  enough  heat  to  melt  the 
rest,  which  trickles  down  to  the 
moulds;  as  much  as  two-thirds 
of  the  sulphur  present  is  obtained 
in  a  successful  operation.  The 
process  of  extracting  sulphur  by 
fusion  by  superheated  steam  has 
been  used  to  considerable  extent 
in  Louisiana  and  Texas.  Distilla- 
tion has  also  been  carried  on, 
though  only  to  a  comparatively 
small  extent.  Sulphur  is  also 
obtained  by  heating  pyrite, 
though  the  product  is  impure  and 
the  yield  very  poor;  most  of  the 
sulphur  from  sulphides  goes  to 
make  sulphuric  acid  by  com- 
bustion of  the  sulphide.  A  por- 
tion of  this  sulphur  is  sometimes 
recovered  from  the  waste  by  the 
Leblanc  alkali  process.  (See 
Sodium.)  Crude  sulphur  is  puri- 
fied by  distillation  from  iron  re- 
torts into  brickwork  chambers,  in 
which,  when  cold,  the  sulphur 


vapor  condenses  as  a  fine  powder 
known  as  'flowers  of  sulphur' ;  but 
as  the  temperature  rises  it  is  de- 
posited in  the  Hquid  form.  The 
latter  is  cast  into  thick  sticks  for 
sale  as  'roll  sulphur.' 

Common  sulphur  is  a  pale  yel- 
low, odorless,  brittle  solid,  which 
is  insoluble  in  water  but  readily 
dissolves  in  solvents  such  as  car- 
bon disulphide,  from  which  it 
crystallizes  in  rhombic  octahedra. 
It  is  as  a  brittle  opaque  aggre- 
gate of  minute  crystals  of  the 
octahedral  variety  that  sulphur 
usually  appears  in  the  market, 
and  it  is  characterized  by  its  very 
poor  conducting  power  for  elec- 
tricity and  heat.  Rhombic  sul- 
phur melts  at  115°  c.  and  mono- 
clinic  at  119°  c,  the  liquid  when 
near  the  melting-point  being  mo- 
bile and  of  golden  yellow  color. 
On  raising  the  temperature  the 
liquid  becomes  dark  red  and  in- 
creases in  viscosity,  so  that  at 
250°  c.  the  vessel  containing  it 
can  be  inverted  without  the  sul- 
phur running  out.  On  still  fur- 
ther raising  the  temperature,  the 
sulphur  becomes  darker  and 
liquid  again,  boiling  at  1445°  c.  to 
a  brownish-red  gas.  If  the  sul- 
phur is  suddenly  chilled,  as  by 
pouring  into  cold  water,  it  passes 
into  a  third  allotropic  variety 
known  as  plastic  sulphur,  which 
is  soft  and  springy  like  India 
rubber.  This  form  is  insoluble  in 
carbon  disulphide,  and  changes 
in  a  few  days  into  the  brittle 
octahedral  form.  Flowers  of 
sulphur,  and  'milk  of  sulphur,' 
produced  by  precipitating  solu- 
tions of  polysulphides  with  acids, 
are  probably  not  distinct  forms, 
but  only  finely  divided  octahe- 
dral sulphur. 

Chemically,  sulphur  enters  in- 
to reaction  easily;  thus  when 
heated  it  catches  fire  at  a  com- 
paratively low  temperature  and 
burns  in  air  or  oxygen  with  a 
lilac  flame  to  form  sharp-smelling 
and  suffocating  fumes  of  sul- 
phur dioxide.  Metals,  such  as 
iron,  burn  brightly  when  heated 
in  sulphur  vapor;  while  reaction 
with  non-metals,  such  as  iodine, 
carbon,  and  hydrogen,  also 
readily  takes  place,  the  cor- 
responding sulphides  being 
formed.  Boiled  with  solutions 
of  potassium  or  calcium  hydrox- 
ides, complex  mixtures,  chiefly 
composed  of  polysulphides,  are 
formed.  Sulphur  is  chiefly  em- 
ployed for  the  production  of 
sulphur  dioxide,  for  fumigation, 
for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric 
acid,  sulphites,  etc.,  and  as  a  com- 
ponent of  gunpowder  and  pyro- 
technic mixtures.  It  is  also  an 
excellent  insulator,  and  when 
applied  molten  is  used  as  a 
cement.  In  medicine  it  is  used 
externally  as  a  parasiticide  for 
the  cure  of  scabies,  and  internally 
as  a  mild,  though  somewhat  un- 
pleasant, aperient. 


Sulphur 


533 


Sulphur 


Of  the  simple  compounds  of 
sulphur  the  following  are  among 
the  more  important: — Hydrogen 
sulphide  or  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen, H2S,  is  a  gas  that  occurs 
naturally  in  some  mineral  springs 
and  emanations  from  the  soil, 
and  is  formed  whenever  organic 
matter  containing  sulphur,  such 
as  the  albumin  of  eggs,  under- 
goes decay.  It  is  commonly  pre- 
pared by  the  action  of  dilute 
hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  acid  on 
ferrous  sulphide,  2HC1  -FeS  = 
FeCl2  +  H2S,  numerous  special 
forms  of  apparatus  having  been 
devised  for  the  purpose,  but  for 
general  use  Kipp's  apparatus 
serves  quite  satisfactorily.  Hy- 
drogen sulphide  is  a  colorless  gas 
that  smells  like  rotten  eggs,  and 
is  poisonous.  It  is  slightly 
soluble  in  water,  liquefies  at 
—  74°c.,  or  at  17  atmospheres  at 
room  temperature  and  freezes 
at  91°  c.  to  an  ice-like  solid. 
When  set  on  fire  it  burns  in 
air  with  a  lilac  flame,  produc- 
ing water  and  sulphur  dioxide  or 
sulphur  according  to  the  quantity 
of  air  supplied.  Hydrogen  sul- 
phide is  faintly  acid  to  litmus 
paper,  and  forms  a  series  of  salts 
(the  sulphides)  which  are  useful 
in  the  laboratory  as  the  means  of 
detecting  and  estimating  metallic 
radicals.  The  forrriation  of  lead 
sulphide  is  used  as  a  test  for 
hydrogen  sulphide,  and  is  the 
cause  of  blackening  of  paints 
containing  lead  compounds; 
while  the  formation  of  sulphide 
of  calcium  by  the  action  of  slaked 
lime  on  the  gas  is  commonly  em- 
ployed to  remove  hydrogen  sul- 
phide from  gases  containing  it. 
Another  important  property  of 
hydrogen  sulphide  is  its  reducing 
action — for  example,  ferric  salts 
are  reduced  to  ferrous  salts,  its 
behavior  in  this  way  being  made 
use  of  commercially  to  reduce 
nitro-derivatives  to  anilines. 
Hydrogen  sulphide  is  also  em- 
ployed therapeutically,  the  effi- 
cacy of  certain  mineral  waters  in 
the  treatment  of  rheumatism, 
skin  diseases,  etc.,  being  probably 
due  to  the  small  quantity  of 
hydrogen  sulphide  dissolved  in 
them. 

Sulphur  dioxide,  sulphurous 
anhydride,  SO2,  is  a  gas  that  is 
given  off  from  some  volcanoes, 
and  is  produced  whenever  sul- 
phur or  its  compounds  are  burned 
in  air.  This  process,  in  which 
either  sulphur  itself  or  pyrite, 
FeS2,  is  burned,  is  the  method  by 
which  sulphur  dioxide  is  obtained 
commercially,  chiefly  for  the 
manufacture  of  sulphuric  acicf, 
S+02  =  S02,  and  4FeS2+ll02  = 
2Fe203  +8S02.  On  a  small 
scale  sulphur  dioxide  can  be  con- 
veniently obtained  by  heating 
copper  and  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid,  when  a  reaction,  in 
the  main  represented  by  the 
equation  Cu  +  2H2SO4  =  CuS04 


-f2H20  -f SO2.  takes  place,  or  by 
acting  on  sodium  sulphite  with 
sulphuric  acid,  Na2S03 +2H2SO4 
=  2NaHS04  +H2O  +SO2.  Sul- 
phur dioxide  is  a  colorless  gas, 
with  a  very  sharp,  suffocating 
smell.  It  is  very  soluble  in  water, 
one  volume  of  the  latter  dissolv- 
ing fifty  volumes  of  the  gas  at 
ordinary  temperatures.  Sulphur 


from  which  a  claf?s  of  salts  (the 
sulphites)  is  derived.  vSulphur 
dioxide  in  the  presence  of  water 
has  powerful  reducing  properties, 
converting  halogens  to  hydrogen 
halides,  etc.,  and  destroying  va- 
rious coloring  matters.  This 
action  is  made  use  of  to  bleach 
straw  and  wool.  The  gas  has  also 
a  powerful  antiseptic  action;  one 


NATURAL  CWiT^ 
BY  SOLUTION  OF  ! 
OlSULPMlDE.  &LC 


1  .  OB 
EVAPORATIN 


NC  orr  PAT 


ONHILLSIOC    SICILY  ^ 
auLPMUn  ORE  BUILT  UP  WITH  AIR  CHAI4NEL&A  Ltf 

B.  COATINGS  OF  POWDtRCD  St  BURNT  OUT  ORE 

C.  SLOPING  FLOOR 

D.  MELT  CD  aULPHOB  FLOWING  TO  POT  E 
r. SULPHUROUS  ACID  FUMES 


PLAt,TlC  SULPHUR 
ULPHUR  SUDDENLY  CHILLCD 
IN  COLD  WATER 


C.VAPOUR  PAbSINC  TO  BRICK 
rORMlNC>LOVi/tRS  OF  SULPHUR' 
E  SULPHUIV   FLOWING  TO  POT  F. 


The  Preparation  of  Sulphur 


dioxide  is  easily  liquefied,  at  a 
temperature  of  —10°  c,  under 
atmospheric  pressure,  and  at  15° 
c.  under  a  pressure  of  2.7  atmos- 
pheres. The  liquid,  which  is 
colorless,  is  readily  obtainable 
commercially.  Sulphur  dioxide 
does  not  burn  in  air  or  with 
ordinary  combustibles,  though 
metals  such  as  potassium  burn 
brightly  in  it,  forming  their 
sulphides  and  oxides.  The  solu- 
tion of  sulphur  dioxide  in  water 
reddens  litmus,  forming  the  un- 
stable dibasic  sulphurous  acid 


of  the  commonest  methods  of  dis- 
infection is  to  burn  sulphur  in 
the  room  and  shut  it  up  closely 
for  some  hours.  Sulphur  dioxide 
is  further  employed  as  an  'anti- 
chlor'  to  remove  the  last  traces  of 
chlorine  from  materials  bleached 
with  the  latter,  in  the  curing  of 
hops,  and  the  like. 

Sulphur  trioxide,  sulphuric  an- 
hydride, SO3,  is  formed  to  a  small 
extent  when  sulphur  is  burned 
in  air.  It  is  prepared  either 
by  heating  certain  sulphates, 
Fe2(S04)3  =  Fe203  4-2SO3.  or  by 
Vol.  XL— March  '29 


Sulphur  Dioxide 


534 


Sulphuric  Acid 


passing  a  mixture  of  sulphur 
dioxide  and  oxygen  over  a  heated 
catalytic  agent,  such  as  platinized 
asbestos.  Sulphur  trioxide  is  a 
colorless,  crystalline  solid,  that 
melts  at  17°  c,  and  readily  vola- 
tilizes to  a  fuming,  choking  gas; 
one  form  of  the  crystals  re- 
sembles asbestos,  subliming  with- 
out passing  through  the  liquid 
state.  Sulphur  trioxide  reacts 
violently  with  water  to  form  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  is  employed 
technically  in  the  preparation  of 
carbon  compounds. 

Production. — Sicily  has  been 
the  chief  source  of  native  sul- 
phur. But  of  recent  years  the 
extensive  deposits  of  Louisiana 
and  later  of  Texas  have  control- 
led the  world  production.  The 
world's  production  of  sulphur 
amounts  to  about  2,500,000  tons, 
of  which  the  United  States  pro- 
duces about  85  per  cent,  and 
Sicily  10  per  cent. 

Sulphur  Dioxide.  See  Sul- 
phur and  Sulphurous  Acid. 

Sulphuretted  Hydrogen. 
See  Sulphur. 

Sulphuric  Acid,  Hydrogen 
Sulphate,  or  Oil  of  Vitriol, 
H2SO4,  is  almost  exclusively  pre- 
pared by  two  methods — the 
'chamber'  and  the  'contact'  pro- 
cesses. The  foundation  of  the 
former  was  laid  by  Ward  about 
1740,  who  prepared  sulphuric 
acid  by  burning  small  charges  of 
sulphur  and  saltpetre  in  the  pres- 
ence of  water  under  a  glass  bell. 
The  chemistry  of  the  process  is 
by  no  means  clear,  and  there  is 
much  discussion  as  to  the  stages 
in  which  the  reactions  occur;  but 
in  effect  it  appears  that  sulphur 
dioxide  in  the  presence  of  water 
is  oxidized  by  nitrogen  peroxide 
to  sulphuric  acid,  NO2  -I-SO2  4- 
H20  =  H2S04-hNO;  the  nitric 
oxide,  to  which  the  nitrogen  per- 
oxide has  been  reduced,  is  reoxi- 
dized  to  the  peroxide  by  atmos- 
pheric oxygen,  2NO  +O2  =  2NO2. 
Thus  a  comparatively  small 
quantity  of  nitrogen  peroxide 
serves  to  oxidize  an  indefinitely 
large  supply  of  sulphur  dioxide. 
The  details  of  the  process  vary 
somewhat  with  different  makers, 
but  are  in  general  as  follows: 
Sulphur  or  mineral  sulphides  in 
the  form  of  pyrites  are  burned  on 
the  grate  of  a  furnace,  producing 
a  gas  that  contains  about  7  per 
cent,  of  sulphur  dioxide,  10  per 
cent,  of  oxygen,  and  83  per  cent, 
of  nitrogen,  and  leaving  a  residue 
of  ferric  oxide,  4FeS2 -1-1102  = 
2Fe203  -f-8S02.  In  the  flues  of  the 
furnaces  are  placed  earthenware 
pots,  which  can  be  charged  with 
sodium  nitrate  and  sulphuric 
acid,  thus  setting  free  nitric  acid, 
NaNOa -t-H2S04  =  NaHS04  + 
HNO3.  From  2  to  12  parts  of 
sodium  nitrate  are  used  per  100 
of  sulphur  burnt,  according  to  the 
care  with  which  the  nitrous  gases 
are  preserved.  The  nitric  acid  is 

Vol.  XL— March  '29 


probably  at  once  reduced  by  the 
hot  sulphur  dioxide  to  nitric 
oxide,  3SO2  +2HNO3  -I-2H2O  = 
3H2SO4 -I-2NO,  and  the  mixture 
of  gases  then  passes  up  a  Glover 
tower,  in  which  the  nitrogen 
oxides,  which  would  otherwise  be 
lost  at  the  exit  of  the  apparatus, 
are  restored.  The  gases  then 
enter  the  large  leaden  chambers 
which  are  the  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  the  process,  and  there, 
meeting  water  in  the  form  of 
steam  or  very  fine  spray,  the 
main  reactions  mentioned  above 
take  place.  The  chambers  are 
usually  a  series  of  three,  one 
opening  into  the  next.  They  are 
built  of  sheet-lead  supported  on 
a  wooden  frame,  the  sheets  of 
lead  being  united  without  solder 
by  melting  the  edges  together. 
The  bottom  of  the  chamber  forms 
a  shallow  tray,  in  which  the  weak 
acid  formed  by  the  reaction  is  col- 
lected, and  whence  it  overflows 
into  suitable  receivers.  In  order 
to  economize  space,  part  of  the 
chambers  are,  in  some  plants,  re- 
placed by  plate  towers,  in  which 
the  gases  are  forced  up  cylinders 
filled  with  porcelain  plates  and 
meet  water  passing  in  the  oppo- 
site direction.  The  gases  then 
pass  up  a  Gay-Lussac  tower, 
down  which  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid  trickles  over  per- 
forated plates  or  flints  so  as  to 
'scrub'  the  gases  thoroughly  and 
dissolve  the  nitrogen  peroxide 
present;  the  residue,  which  is 
practically  nitrogen,  free  from 
acid  gases,  escapes  by  the 
chimney.  The  nitrated  acid 
from  the  Gay-Lussac  tower  is 
pumped  to  the  top  of  the  Glover 
tower  mentioned  above,  where  it 
is  diluted  by  the  addition  of  the 
weak  chamber  acid,  and  allowed 
to  trickle  down  and  meet  the  hot 
kiln  gases.  Under  the  influence 
of  the  dilution  and  the  action  of 
the  sulphur  dioxide  the  nitrogen 
peroxide  contained  in  the  acid  is 
reduced  to  nitric  oxide,  and  is 
returned  to  the  gases  to  enter  the 
chambers  again.  By  this  action, 
in  which  a  considerable  quantity 
of  sulphuric  acid  is  formed,  and 
by  the  evaporative  effect  of  the 
hot  gases,  the  whole  of  the  acid 
sent  down  the  tower  is  concen- 
trated. 

Of  the  acid  produced,  much  is 
utilized  in  manufactures  in  the 
form  of  the  chamber  acid  directly 
obtained.  This  acid  is  about  spe- 
cific gravity  1.5  to  1.6  and  con- 
tains from  60  to  70  per  cent,  of 
H2SO4.  Part  of  it  can  be  con- 
centrated in  the  Glover  tower  to 
a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.72, 
corresponding  to  nearly  80  per 
cent,  of  H2SO4;  a  similar  strength 
is  obtained  by  evaporation  in 
leaden  pans.  If  required  more 
concentrated,  it  must  be  evapo- 
rated in  glass,  or  preferably  plat- 
inum, stills.  By  these  methods 
an  acid  of  specific  gravity  1.84, 


corresponding  to  98  per  cent,  of 
H2SO4,  is  obtained;  but,  as  a 
rule,  the  concentration  is  not 
carried  further  than  from  93 
to  95  per  cent.  Besides  water 
and  traces  of  oxides  of  nitro- 
gen, oil  of  vitriol  is  liable  to 
contain  lead  sulphate  and  ar- 
senic as  its  principal  impurities. 
The  former  is  precipitated  by 
diluting  the  acid,  while  the  latter 
can  be  removed  by  hydrogen 
sulphide,  or  its  presence  can  be 
avoided  by  using  sulphur  dioxide 
from  brimstone  or  from  the 
hydrogen  sulphide  of  the  alkali 
waste  recovery  process.  The  con- 
centrated acid  may  also  be  puri- 
fied by  distillation.  Anhydrous 
sulphuric  acid  may  be  obtained 
by  freezing  the  concentrated  acid 
and  separating  the  crystals,  but 
is  better  prepared  by  the  contact 
process,  by  which  fuming  acid 
containing  an  excess  of  sulphur 
trioxide  can  also  be  obtained. 

In  the  contact  process  sulphur 
dioxide  is  prepared  by  burning 
pyrite  as  before,  and  is  then  very 
carefully  purified,  particularly 
from  dust  and  arsenic,  which  are 
fatal  to  the  success  of  the  pro- 
cess. The  gases  containing  sul- 
phur dioxide  along  with  ex- 
cess of  atmospheric  oxygen  are 
then  heated  to  a  carefully  regu- 
lated temperature,  and  brought 
in  contact  with  the  catalytic 
agent,  such  as  asbestos  or  cal- 
cined magnesium  sulphate  im- 
pregnated with  finely  divided 
platinum  when  the  oxygen  and 
sulphur  dioxide  unite  to  form  sul- 
phur trioxide,  2SO2 +02  =  2S03. 
Heat  is  given  out  in  the  process, 
and  is  got  rid  of  by  making  it 
warm  the  incoming  gases,  or  dis- 
sociation of  the  product  would 
take  place.  The  sulphur  trioxide 
formed  is  then  absorbed  in  water, 
or  better,  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
H2O +S03  =  H2S04.  when  acids 
containing  any  desired  percent- 
age of  sulphur  trioxide  can  be 
obtained;  this  is  the  outstanding 
advantage  of  the  contact  process. 
More  recently  vanadium  pent- 
oxide,  V2O5,  has  been  developed 
as  a  catalytic  agent. 

Fuming  sulphuric  acid  is  also 
called  Nordhausen  sulphuric  acid, 
from  its  having  been  originally 
prepared  at  Nordhausen  in  Cen- 
tral Germany  by  heating  partial- 
ly oxidized  ferrous  sulphate,  from 
which  mixtures  of  sulphur  diox- 
ide, sulphur  trioxide,  and  steam 
from  the  water  of  crystallization 
present  are  given  ofi",  the  last  two 
condensing  as  fuming  sulphuric 
acid,  while  colcothar  or  ferric 
oxide  is  left,  2FeS04  =  Fe203  -t- 
SO2  -I-SO3,  and  Fe2(S04)3  =  Fe203 
+  3SO3. 

Pure  sulphuric  acid  is  a  heavy, 
colorless,  oily  liquid,  which  is 
without  odor  and  does  not  fume. 
It  is  often  of  more  or  less  brown 
color,  from  having  taken  up  dust 
and  organic  matter.  Sulphuric 


A.  S>ULPHUR  DIOXIDE. 

B.  WATER  ON  SODIUM  PEROXIDE  FORMINC  OXYQCN 

C  NITRIC  OXIDt 

D  STEAM  CA^HEFUUYREOULATEO 

E.  DRAU&MT  TUBt 


CAV-LU&b  A^ 
CA«>t.!>  PASSING  THnOUC 
COXiE  MET  BY  FLOW  OF 
JCEKITRATED  CHA 


GUOVERb  TOWER 
CASE1&  PASSING  THHOUGM 
FLINTS  METBVFLOWOF- 
ATEPfcSULPHURig 

ACID 


A. KILNS  BURNINC^  PyniTES 

b.flutto  glove.r&  toweh 
CGlover"&  tower 
D. nitre:  POT& 

t.MAIIM  PIPE,  carrying  oxygen 
NITROGEN,  SULPHUR  DIOXIDE 
NITRIC  FUME&Ci^ATER  VAPOUH 
TaUE-AD  CHAMDtR&.1.2..5 


PLAM 


O   ARRANGtMElNT  OF  PLANT 


r.STEAM  JETS  CONVERTING  CHAMBER 

CRVSTALSl  TO  SULPHURIC  ACIO 
G.SHAFTSj    to   CARRY   GASES  TO 

2."°B»a"°  CHAMBERS 
H.EXIT  PIPE  TO  GAY-LUb&AC  TOWER 
I  .CAY-UU^&AC  TOWCR 


J.PLAN  UNDER  CHAMBER  N?  2. 
K.TANK.  FOR  ACID  FROM  GLOVERS  TOWER 

I  CONCENTRATING  PANS  TO  FORM  ST  RO  N  C  ER  AC  I  D 

M.NITRATED  ACIO  F  RO  M  G  AY-L  U&S  AC  TOWER 

FLOWS  TO  BOILERS  M.TOBEPUMPEO  DACtSTO 

TOP  OF  Clovers  towef\. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  SULPHURIC  ACID. 


Vol.  XI. — Page  535 


Vol.  XI.— March  '29 


Sulphuric  Acid 


536 


Sulpicius 


acid  unites  with  water  with  great 
avidity,  much  heat  being  evolved 
in  the  process,  so  that  the  acid 
should  always  be  diluted  by  add- 
ing it  in  a  thin  stream  to  water, 
and  not  conversely,  or  explosive 
ebullition  may  take  place.  The 
affinity  of  sulphuric  acid  for 
water  is  so  great  that  many  sub- 
stances are  decomposed  by  it 
with  loss  of  water;  thus,  sugar 
is  converted  into  a  black  carbon- 
aceous mass  and  formic  acid  into 
carbon  monoxide.  It  is  owing 
to  this  property  that  the  concen- 
trated acid  is  used  to  dry  gases, 
and  that  it  has  so  great  a  corro- 
sive power  in  destroying  the  skin, 
clothes,  etc.;  while  the  dilute 
acid,  besides  staining  woollen 
fabrics  red,  rapidly  rots  textiles 
of  any  description. 

Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  is 
without  action  on  iron,  and  can 
safely  be  transported  in  iron 
tanks.  When  heated  to  boiling, 
sulphuric  acid  dissociates  into 
sulphur  trioxide  and  water. 

Sulphates. — Sulphuric  acid  is 
intensely  sour,  and  is  dibasic, 
forming  both  normal  and  acid 
salts,  called  sulphates,  by  inter- 
action with  metals,  hydroxides, 
etc.  With  metals  it  behaves  in 
two  ways:  if  diluted  and  put 
with  iron,  zinc,  etc.,  hydrogen  is 
set  free  and  a  sulphate  formed; 
while  when  concentrated  and 
heated  with  copper,  mercury, 
etc.,  a  sulphate  and  sulphur  di- 
oxide is  obtained. 

The  sulphates,  whether  occur- 
ring naturally  or  derived  from 
the  acid,  are  a  class  of  salts  of 
great  importance.  Heavy  Spar, 
BaS04,  Gypsum,  CaS042H20, 
Celestine,  SrS04,  and  Epsom 
Salts,  MgS047H20,  are  among 
the  most  important  natural  sul- 
phates. 

The  metallic  sulphates  are  pre- 
pared artificially  by  the  action 
of  the  metal,  its  oxide,  hydroxide, 
or  salt  on  sulphuric  acid;  the 
details  in  the  individual  cases 
depending  on  the  solubility  or 
otherwise,  volatility,  etc.,  of  the 
products.  As  a  class,  the  normal 
sulphates  are  characterized  by 
being  well  crystallized,  stable 
salts,  which,  with  the  exception 
of  those  of  lead  and  barium,  are 
soluble  in  water.  The  insolubil- 
ity of  the  latter  is  utilized  as  a 
test  for  sulphuric  acid  or  any  sol- 
uble sulphate,  a  white  precipitate 
being  obtained  when  barium 
chloride  is  added  to  the  solution. 

The  acid  sulphates  or  bisul- 
phates,  of  which  sodium  hydro- 
gen sulphate,  NaHS04,  may  be 
taken  as  typical,  are  in  general 
similar  to  the  normal  sulphates, 
but  have,  in  addition,  a  strongly 
acid  reaction.  The  alums  are  an 
important  class  of  double  sul- 
phates, in  which,  in  general,  an 
alkali-metal  sulphate,  such  as  of 
potassium,  is  crystallized  with 
water  and  the  sulphate  of  either 

Vol.  XL— March  '29 


aluminum,  chromium,  ferric  iron, 
etc.,  and  forms  a  compound  of 
the  type  K2S04Al2(S04)324H20. 

Sulphuric  acid  is  probably  used 
for  a  greater  variety  of  purposes 
in  the  chemical  arts  than  any 
other  substance.  The  heaviest 
uses  are,  in  percentage  of  total 
production,  approximately  as 
follows:  fertilizer  industry,  30 
per  cent.;  petroleum  industry, 
20  per  cent.;  chemical  industry 
(including  coal  products),  20 
per  cent.;  iron  and  steel  and 
other  metallurgical  industries, 
20  per  cent. 

The  sulphuric  acid  production 
in  the  United  States  for  the 
years  1925-1927  (including  all 
grades)  averaged  7,000,000  long 
tons.  The  acid  is  marketed  in 
several  forms:  50°  Baume  acid, 
containing  about  51.04  per  cent, 
of  SO3;  60  per  cent.  Baume 
acid,  containing  about  63.7 
per  cent,  of  SO3;  and  66°  Baume 
acid  (commercial  oil  of  vitriol), 
containing  79  per  cent,  of  SO3. 
Higher  strengths  usually  consist 
of  free  SO3  dissolved  in  the  acid, 
as  in  pyro-sulphuric  acid,  and  the 
fuming  or  Nordhausen  acid. 
Oleum  is  a  grade  containing  30 
per  cent,  of  free  SO3,  in  a  total  of 
87.14  per  cent,  of  both  free  and 
combined  SO3.  Nearly  the  whole 
of  the  world's  output  of  pyrite 
(q.v.),  about  15,000,000  tons 
annually,  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sulphuric  acid. 

The  world's  production  totals 
about  14,000,000  tons,  of  which 
the  United  States  produces  about 
50  per  cent.,  France  and  Ger- 
many each  13  per  cent..  Great 
Britain  9  per  cent.,  and  Italy  8 
per  cent.;  other  producing  coun- 
tries are  Belgium,  Poland,  Spain, 
Denmark,  Holland  and  Sweden. 
Consult  Lunge's  Sulphuric  Acid 
and  Alkali  (new  ed.  1911);  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey's  Mineral  Re- 
sources of  the  United  States. 

Sulphuric  Anhydride,  SO3,  is 
obtained  by  distilling  fuming 
Nordhausen  sulphuric  acid,  a 
fibrous  mass  of  silky  crystals 
being  deposited  in  the  receiver. 
It  is  a  tough  solid,  melting  at 
65°  F.  (183°  c),  and  possessing 
none  of  the  properties  of  an  acid, 
not  even  affecting  the  skin.  It 
attracts  moisture  with  great 
avidity,  thereby  being  converted 
into  sulphuric  acid. 

Sulphuric  Ether  is  a  mislead- 
ing name  sometimes  given  to 
ordinary  or  ethyl  ether  (C2H2)20, 
for,  though  usually  prepared  by 
the  aid  of  sulphuric  acid,  it  con- 
tains no  sulphur.  See  Ether. 

Sulphurous  Acid,  H2SO3,  is 
unknown  in  the  pure  state,  a 
solution  of  sulphur  dioxide  in 
water  acting  as  this  acid.  This 
solution  is  colorless  and  smells 
strongly  of  sulphur  dioxide,  which 
is  driven  off  again  by  heating  or 
by  passing  air  through  it.  It  is 
acid  to  litmus  and  behaves  as  di- 


basic, giving  rise  to  a  series  of 
both  normal  and  acid  salts — the 
sulphites — which  are  obtained  by 
the  action  of  the  gas  or  its  solu- 
tion on  hydroxides  or  carbonates 
of  the  metals. 

The  normal  salts,  of  which 
sodium  sulphite,  Na2S037H20,  is 
characteristic,  are  crystalline  and 
without  odor  of  sulphur  dioxide, 
which  is,  however,  readily  set 
free  from  them  by  the  action  of 
acids.  The  acid  salts,  of  which 
sodium  bisulphite,  NaHSOs,  is 
typical,  smell  of  sulphur  dioxide 
— a  feature  which  is  also  charac- 
teristic of  salts,  such  as  potas- 
sium meta-bisulphite,  K2S2O5,  in 
which  sulphur  dioxide  is  united 
with  the  normal  sulphite. 

The  sulphites  are  employed,  be- 
cause of  the  sulphur  dioxide  they 
evolve,  as  reducing  agents  and 
preservatives.  Sodium  sulphite 
is  largely  used  in  this  way  in  pho- 
tography, and  calcium  bisulphite 
in  brewing.  The  bisulphites  are 
also  valuable  in  the  purification 
of  acetone  and  aldehyoes,  as  they 
form  crystalline  compounds  with 
them. 

Sulphurous   Springs.  See 

Springs. 

Sulphur  Springs,  town,  Tex- 
as, county  seat  of  Hopkins 
County,  on  the  Louisiana  Rail- 
way and  Navigation  Company  of 
Texas  and  the  St.  Louis  South- 
western Railroad;  75  miles 
northeast  of  Dallas.  It  has 
foundries  and  cottonseed-oil  mills 
and  cotton  gins.  There  are 
mines  of  lignite  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  (1910)  5,151;  (1920)  5,558. 

Sulpicians,  a  society  of  Ro- 
man Catholic  priests,  devoted  to 
the  education  of  candidates  for 
the  priesthood.  It  was  founded 
in  1641  by  Jean  Jacques  Olier, 
priest  of  the  parish  of  Saint- 
Sulpice  (Paris),  from  which  the 
order  takes  its  name.  The  So- 
ciety now  has  charge  of  many 
of  the  clerical  seminaries  in 
France. 

In  1642  the  Sulpicians  came 
to  Canada,  where  they  played 
an  important  part  in  the  found- 
ing of  the  city  of  Montreal.  In 
October,  1791,  St.  Mary's  Sem- 
inary, the  first  in  the  United 
States,  was  opened  at  Baltimore 
by  a  party  of  French  Sulpicians; 
Mount  St.  Mary's  College  was 
established  at  Emmitsburg,  Md., 
in  1808;  and  in  1831,  St.  Charles 
College,  near  Ellicott  City,  Md., 
was  opened.  The  order  has  charge 
of  the  seminaries  of  the  dioceses 
of  Baltimore  and  San  Francisco, 
and  of  St,  Austin's  College, 
Washington. 

Sulpicius,  PUBLIUS  RUFUS 
(124-88  B.C.),  Roman  orator,  be- 
gan his  career  as  a  supporter  of 
the  Senatorial  party.  In  95  B.C. 
he  accused  the  demagogic  tribune 
Norbanus  of  treason;  in  93  he 
was  quaestor,  in  89  he  served 
under  Pompeius  Strabo  in  the 


Sultan 


537 


Sulzer 


Social  War,  and  in  88  he  was 
elected  tribune.  But  before  long 
he  joined  the  party  of  Marius, 
who  probably  bought  his  support. 
He  then  brought  forward  and 
carried  some  democratic  laws, 
and  also  passed  a  decree  trans- 
ferring the  command  in  the 
Mithridatic  War  from  Sulla  to 
Marius.  He  was  slain  in  the 
Sullan  proscriptions  which  fol- 
lowed. 

Sultan,  a  Mohammedan  title, 
signifying  a  ruling  prince  or 
monarch,  as  the  sultan  of  Mo- 
rocco; especially  used  of  the  sul- 
tan of  Turkey,  who  calls  himself 
Sultan  of  Sultans,  or  Padishah. 
The  name  of  Sultana  is  given  to 
the  mother,  wife,  or  daughter  of  a 
sultan.  The  old  English  form  of 
the  word  was  Soldan  or  Sow  dan. 

Sultan  pur,  town,  capital  of 
Sultanpur  district.  United  Prov- 
inces, India,  on  the  River  Gumti; 
58  miles  northeast  of  Allahabad. 
Pop.  10,000.  The  district  has  an 
area  of  1,707  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  1,000,000.  Sultan- 
pur is  a  purely  agricultural  dis- 
trict, producing  large  quantities 
of  rice,  pulses,  wheat,  barley,  and 
sugar  cane. 

Sultanpur,  town,  Kapurthala 
state,  Punjab,  India;  59  miles 
southeast  of  Lahore.   Pop.  9,000. 

Suite,  Benjamin  (1841),  Cana- 
dian poet  and  historian,  was  born 
in  Three  Rivers,  Quebec,  He 
was  educated  there,  and  served 
as  a  volunteer  on  the  frontier 
(1865),  for  which  he  received  a 
medal.  He  was  editor  of  Le 
Canada  (Ottawa)  in  1866-7,  when 
he  became  translator  to  the  Ca- 
nadian House  of  Commons,  and 
was  private  secretary  to  the 
minister  of  militia  and  defence 
(1870-73).  and  chief  clerk  and 
acting  deputy  'minister  (1889), 
retiring  in  1903.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety of  Canada,  and  its  presi- 
dent in  1904.  His  works  include: 
Les  Chants  Nouveaux  (1880);  La 
Poesie  Francaise  au  Canada 
(1881);  Hisloire  des  Canadiens- 
FranQais  (1882-4);  La  Langue 
Francaise  en  Canada  (1898);  La 
Bataille  de  Chdleaugay  (1899); 
History  of  Quebec  (1908);  Pages 
d'Hisloire  du  Canada  (1891). 

Sulu,  or  JoLO,  island,  Philip- 
pines, in  the  middle  of  the  Sulu 
Archipelago,  of  which  it  is  the 
second  in  area,  following  Basilan. 
It  extends  about  37  miles  east 
and  west,  and  14  miles  north  and 
south,  covering  about  380  square 
miles.  It  is  traversed  from  north- 
east to  southwest  by  three  al- 
most parallel  mountain  chains. 
In  structure  it  is  volcanic,  sur- 
rounded with  coral  reef  forma- 
tions. There  are  twelve  impor- 
tant summits,  the  highest  of 
which,  Mount  Tumangtangis,  is 
2,894  feet.  They  are  covered  to 
the  top  with  fine  forests.  The 
west  coast  abounds  in  cocoanut 

Vol.  XI.— 36. 


and  fruit  groves.  Small  streams 
are  numerous,  and  considerable 
areas  are  under  cultivation. 

The  inhabitants  are  mainly 
agricultural,  and  raise  large  num- 
bers of  cattle  and  carabao,  and 
some  horses.  The  staples  are 
tapioca,  rice,  corn,  ubi,  taro, 
copra,  hemp,  and  small  quanti- 
ties of  sugar  cane  and  tobacco. 
There  is  k  great  variety  of  trop- 
ical fruit;  the  fisheries  are  im- 
portant. Pop.  50,000,  mostly 
wild. 

Sulu,  or  JOLO,  pueblo,  Philip- 
pines, capital  of  the  island  and 
archipelago  of  Sulu;  595  miles 
from  Manila.  The  town  has 
brick  walls  and  redoubts,  built 
by  the  Spaniards,  who  cleared 
away  much  of  the  old  town  in 
1878.  There  are  some  fine 
streets,  and  many  gardens  and 
fountains.  Macadamized  roads 
lead  to  the  neighboring  towns. 
A  stone  pier  extends  1,080  feet 
into  deep  water,  with  a  light- 
house at  the  extremity. 

Sulu  is  the  centre  of  the  pearl 
industry,  and  is  in  direct  com- 
munication by  steamer  with 
Manila  and  Singapore.  Formerly 
the  commercial  centre  of  the 
islands,  it  has  been  surpassed  by 
Manila  and  Cebu,  but  is  still  of 
trade  importance.  The  exports 
are  principally  mother-of-pearl, 
copra,  and  fish.  Sulu  was  the 
seat  of  the  sultans  of  Sulu  up  to 
the  time  of  its  capture  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1876.    Pop.  10,000. 

Sulu  Archipelago  (Spanish 
Jol6),  Moro  province,  Philippine 
Islands,  extends  from  the  penin- 
sula of  Zamboanga,  Mindanao, 
southwest  to  the  coast  line  of 
Borneo,  for  a  distance  of  180 
miles.  The  archipelago  consists 
of  a  chain  of  245  islands,  which 
separate  the  Celebes  Sea  on  the 
southeast  from  the  Mindoro  on 
the  north  and  the  Sulu  Sea  on 
the  northwest.  The  larger  isl-. 
ands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
are  mountainous.  The  smaller 
ones  are  mainly  coral,  and  rise 
but  little  above  the  surface  of  the 
ocean.  The  extreme  verdure  and 
semblance  of  cultivation  make 
them  particularly  charming. 
They  fall  into  six  groups,  from 
northeast  to  southwest,  Basilan, 
Balangingi,  Sulu,  Pangutaran, 
Siasi,  and  Tawi-Tawi. 

The  staples  of  the  Sulu  Isl- 
ands are  rice,  tapioca,  sweet  po- 
tatoes, wild  fruits,  coffee,  choc- 
olate, corn,  hemp,  saffron,  in- 
digo, sesame,  and  cotton.  Rub- 
ber and  gutta  percha  are  found 
on  some  of  the  islands.  The 
Chinese  intermediaries  of  com- 
merce bring  merchandise,  opium, 
and  tobacco,  in  exchange  for 
pearl  shell,  sharks'  fins,  beche  de 
mer,  and  native  cordage.  Shell 
fishery  affords  the  most  impor- 
tant occupation. 

The  dominant  race  are  the 
Mores  (see  Moro),  who  were 


never  completely  subjugated  by 
the  Spaniards.  Piracy  was  long 
one  of  their  chief  occupations, 
and  their  depredations  were 
feared  not  only  in  the  rest  of  the 
archipelago  and  Borneo,  but 
from  New  Guinea  to  Singapore, 
and  even  in  Polynesia.  The  Sulu 
language  resembles  more  the 
Fijian  than  other  Malay  tongues. 
Pop.  (1912)  75,000.  Consult 
Saleeby's  History  of  Sulu  (1908): 
Arnold's  Philippines  (1912). 

Sulu  Sea,  an  inland  body  of 
water  of  the  Philippine  Archi- 
pelago. Panay  and  Negros  lie 
on  the  northeast;  Mindanao  and 
the  Sulu  Islands  on  the  south- 
east; Borneo  on  the  southwest; 
and  Palawan  on  the  northwest. 
It  is  350  miles  from  north  to 
south,  and  410  from  east  to  west. 

Sulzbach,  commune,  Rhenish 
Prussia;  7  miles  northeast  of 
Saarbriicken.  It  has  coal  and 
iron  mining  and  glass  works. 
Pop.  (1910)  22,433. 

Sulzbach,  town,  Bavaria,  Ger- 
many; 30  miles  east  of  Niirnberg. 
It  has  iron  mines  and  blast  fur- 
naces.   Pop.  (1910)  5,480. 

Sulzer,  JOHANN  Georg  (1720- 
79),  German-Swiss  philosopher, 
was  born  in  Winterthur.  In  1747 
he  was  professor  of  mathematics 
at  the  Joachimsthal  College  at 
Berlin,  and  in  1763  Frederick  ii. 
appointed  him  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  the  Military  Academy. 
His  best  known  work  is  Allge- 
meine  Theorie  der  Schdnen  Kiinste 
(1771-4),  in  which  he  sought  for 
the  moral  origin  of  the  fine  arts. 

Sulzer,  William  (1863),  Amer-  D^^'i  ^ov-^j'^ 
ican  executive,  was  born  in  Eliz- 
abeth, N.  J.  He  studied  at  Co- 
lumbia, was  admitted  to  the  New 
York  bar  (1884),  and  practised 
law  in  New  York  City.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  New  York  legis- 
lature (1890-94),  becoming  Dem- 
ocratic floor  leader,  and  speaker 
of  the  assembly  (1893).  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1894,  and 
served  continuously  until  1911. 
He  was  a  candidate  for  the  Dem- 
ocratic nomination  for  governor 
of  New  York  State  in  1896  and 
1906.  In  1912  he  received  the 
nomination  for  governor,  and 
was  elected,  assuming  office  on 
Jan.  1,  1913. 

Under  his  administration  im- 
portant social  reform  legislation 
was  enacted,  although  his  direct 
primary  bill  was  rejected.  He 
then  appealed  to  the  people, 
touring  the  State  in  behalf  of 
the  measure,  and  called  the  legis- 
lature in  special  session  to  pass 
the  bill,  which  was  again  de- 
feated. In  the  meantime,  a 
committee  of  the  legislature  ap- 
pointed to  investigate  the  prisons 
and  charities  of  the  State  began 
an  inquiry  as  to  charges  made 
against  the  Governor;  and  fol- 
lowing their  preliminary  report, 
a  resolution  to  impeach  him  was 
passed  on  Aug.  14,  1913-  The 


Sumach 


Sumatra 


Court  of  Impeachment  convened 
on  Sept.  18.  On  Oct.  16  Sulzer 
was  found  guilty  on  three  of 
the  eight  articles  of  impeach- 
ment— i.e.,  filing  a  false  state- 
ment of  campaign  contributions, 
making  affidavit  that  this  state- 
ment was  true  (perjury),  and 
suppressing  testimony  before  the 
legislative  investigating  com- 
mittee (misdemeanor).  On  Oct. 
17  the  Court,  by  a  vote  of  43  to  12, 
ordered  his  removal  from  office. 

Sumach,  Sumac,  or  Shumac 
(Rhus),  a  genus  of  small  trees 
and  shrubs  of  the  natural  order 
Anacardiaceae,  with  small,  incon- 
spicuous flowers  in  panicles  or  in 
corymbs,  and  the  fruit  a  small, 
nearly  dry  drupe.  The  species 
are  numerous,  and  are  found  in 
almost  all  parts  of  the  world, 
except  the  coldest  regions  and 
Australia.  Some  of  them  are 
useful  in  the  arts  and  in  medi- 
cine, and  some  are  remarkable 
for  their  poisonous  properties. 

Of  the  acrid  and  poisonous 
species  the  most  important  is  the 
Poison  Ivy  (R.  toxicodendron  or 
R.  radicans)  of  North  America,  a 
shrub  from  1  to  3  feet  high 
(when  it  is  also  called  Poison 
Oak),  or  a  climber,  with  leaves 
of  three  leaflets,  and  a  milky 
juice,  which  becomes  black  on 
exposure  to  air.  The  leaves  have 
been  used  in  medicine  as  a  stim- 
ulant of  the  nervous  system. 
Similar  to  this  in  properties  is 
the  Poison  Sumach  (R.  venenata 
or  R.  vernix),  with  from  7  to  13 
leaflets,  also  known  as  Poison 
Alder  and  Swamp  Dogwood,  an- 
other North  American  species, 
the  juice  of  which  is  very  acrid. 
Even  the  emanations  are  injuri- 
ous to  some  persons,  who,  from 
standing  close  to  these  plants, 
or  from  handling  them,  experience 
a  cutaneous  eruption  with  vio- 
lent itching.  A  saturated  alco- 
holic solution  of  lead  acetate, 
used  as  a  lotion,  is  the  best  rem- 
edy.   (See  Poisonous  Plants.) 

Species  of  sumach  of  commer- 
cial and  medicinal  importance 
include  the  following:  The  Vene- 
tian Sumach  (R.  cotinus),  known 
also  as  Wig  Sumach,  Wig  Tree, 
and  Smoke  Plant,  is  a  native  of 
Southern  Europe  and  Western 
Asia,  and  is  also  grown  in  gar- 
dens as  an  ornamental  shrub. 
It  has  simple  leaves,  and  hairy 
corymbs  of  fruit,  which  resemble 
periwigs.  The  wood  furnishes  a 
yellow  dye  (see  Fustic),  and  the 
leaves  a  red  dye;  wood,  leaves, 
and  root  are  used  in  tanning;  the 
bark  has  been  employed  as  a 
substitute  for  Peruvian  Bark; 
and  the  seed  resembles  the 
almond  in  flavor.  The  very  acid 
fruit  of  the  Sicilian  or  Elm- 
Leaved  Sumach  (R.  coriaria),  a 
native  of  the  countries  around 
the  Mediterranean,  with  pinnate 
leaves,  has  been  used  as  a  condi- 
ment, and  the  seeds  and  the 


leaves  medicinally  as  tonic  and 
cooling.  This  species  is  also  used 
for  tanning  and  dyeing.  The 
sumach  of  commerce  consists  of 
its  finely  ground  leaves. 

Similar  in  its  properties  is  the 
Virginian  Sumach,  or  Stag's- 
Horn  Sumach  (R.  typhina  or  R. 
hirta),  a  native  of  North  America 
and  common  in  British  gardens, 
which  has  the  branches  curiously 
crooked,  and  covered  when  young 
with  a  soft,  velvety  down.  The 
milky  juice  affords  a  varnish, 
and  the  flowers  supply  abun- 
dance of  honey.    The  Smooth- 


Leaved  Sumach  (R.  glabra),  a 
similar  species,  has  acid  leaves, 
which  are  used  for  domestic  pur- 
poses. This  species  is  sometimes 
troublesome  as  a  weed.  The 
Sweet-scented  Sumac  (R.  aromat- 
ica),  a  low  shrub  with  aromatic 
leaves,  is  well  known  as  a  honey 
producer  for  bees. 

The  Varnish  Sumach  (R.  ver- 
nicifera),  a  native  of  Japan 
and  Nepal,  yields  a  varnish 
much  used  in  Japan  for  lacquer 
work.  R.  metopiurn  yields  in 
great  abundance  a  gummy  resin, 
which  in  a  pure  state  is  yellow 
in  color,  and  of  a  hard,  brittle 
consistence.  R.  pumila  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  most  poison- 
ous of  the  genus.  R.  succedanea, 
a  native  of  Japan,  has  fleshy 


fruit  containing  a  nut,  which 
yields  an  oil  that  is  made  into 
candles. 

Sumarokov,  Alexander  Pet- 
ROviTCH  (1718-77),  Russian 
dramatist  and  founder  of  the 
modern  Russian  theatre,  was 
born  in  Wilmannstrand,  Finland. 
While  a  student  at  St.  Peters- 
burg he  attracted  attention  with 
the  tragedy  of  Horev.  His  col- 
lected works  appeared  in  1787. 

Sumatra,  island,  the  western- 
most of  the  Sunda  group  in  the 
East  Indian  Archipelago,  be- 
tween lat.  5°  40'  n.  and  5°  59' s., 


and  long.  95°  16'  e.  and  106°  3' 
45"  E.  Greatest  length,  1,115 
miles;  greatest  breadth,  275 
miles;  area,  161,612  square  miles. 
It  is  separated  from  the  Malay 
Peninsula  by  the  Strait  of  Ma- 
lacca, and  from  Java  by  the 
Strait  of  Sunda. 

The  Bukit  Barisan  Mountains, 
a  series  of  parallel  groups  of  vol- 
canic formation,  extend  the 
length  of  the  island,  close  to  the 
western  coast,  which  is  precipi- 
tous. The  range  culminates  in 
Korintji  (or  Indrapura),  an 
active  volcano  of  12,400  feet. 
Toward  the  east  the  land  slopes 
gently  in  broad  plains  to  a  wide 
alluvial  district  which  is  being 
extended  eastward  by  the  silt- 
laden  rivers. 


Sumatra 


KFP 


537  B 


Summers 


The  mountain  lakes,  which  are 
characteristic  of  the  island,  are 
largely  of  volcanic,  and  more  es- 
pecially of  craterial  origin ;  the 
most  important  are  the  Sing- 
karah,  the  Korintji,  the  Ranau, 
and  the  Toba,  the  last  with  an 
area  of  785  square  miles.  To- 
wards the  west  the  rivers  of  Su- 
matra are  of  necessity  short  and 
rapid,  but  several  of  the  east- 
ward streams,  the  Rokan,  Siak, 
Indragiri,  Jambi,  and  Palem- 
bang  or  Musi,  grow  to  imposing 
rivers  in  their  passage  through 
the  plains.  They  are  fed  by  an 
abundant  rainfall ;  the  average 
precipitation  at  Deli,  for  exam- 
ple, is  83  inches  per  annum. 

The  temperature  is  high  but 
equable,  with  an  annual  average 
of  80°  F.  The  alluvial  lowlands 
are  regarded  as  unhealthful,  but 
above  the  level  of  3,000  feet  the 
climate  is  delightful.  The  wet 
season  extends  from  November 
to  March.  Violent  storms  are 
common. 

Most  of  the  island  is  heavily 
forested  with  teak,  ebony,  san- 
dalwood, pine,  camphor,  ben- 
zoin, and  other  tropical  gum- 
bearing  trees,  and  palms  in  wide 
variety,  from  the  cocoanut  to 
the  sago.  The  eastern  coast  of 
Atjen  is  ^  planted  with  Areca 
palms,  yielding  the  valuable 
Areca  nut. 

Agricultural  products  are  to- 
bacco (western  coast),  coffee 
(eastern  coast),  rubber,  gutta 
percha,  rattan,  pepper,  nutmegs, 
mace,  cinnamon,  and  other 
spices,  and  rice.  The  cultivation 
of  tea  was  begun  in  1911.  Tropi- 
cal fruits  flourish,  and  corn, 
sweet  potatoes,  and  yams  are 
cultivated.  Wild  animals  are  the 
elephant,  two-horned  rhinoceros, 
tapir,  tiger,  panther,  antelope, 
Malay  deer,  several  varieties  of 
apes,  flying  lemur  and  flying  fox, 
Malay  bear,  wild  dog,  hares,  and 
other  small  animals. 

Gold  and  silver  are  found  in 
several  localities  ;  tin  on  the  is- 
lands of  Banka  and  Billiton ; 
lead,  copper,  iron  (magnetite), 
sulphur,  saltpeter,  and  alum  in 
the  mountain  section.  There  are 
deposits  of  marble  and  coal  fields 
(at  Ombilin),  besides  scattered 
beds  of  lignite.  Petroleum  oc- 
curs in  abundance — the  field, 
which  includes  Borneo  and  Java, 
being  one  of  the  most  productive 
in  the  world. 

Commerce. — T  h  e  principal 
exports  of  Sumatra  are  tobacco, 
petroleum,  rubber,  lumber,  cof- 
fee, coconuts  and  copra,  gutta 
percha,  pepper,  nutmegs,  and 
other  spices.  The  imports  are 
chiefl;^  foodstuffs,  cloth,  build- 
ing material,  and  machinery.  In 
1940  there  were  1,233  miles  of 
railway  and  tramway  in  the  is- 
land. 

Population.^ln    1930  the 


population  of  Sumatra  num- 
bered 7,677,826.  The  largest 
cities  are  Padang,  Palembang, 
Medan,  and  Belewan. 

The  population  shows  great 
diversity — with  admixtures  of 
Arabs,  Klings,  Chinese,  and 
Bengalese  on  the  coast,  and  of 
Hindus  in  the  interior.  The 
principal  tribes  are  the  Lam- 
pongs,  in  the  extreme  south ; 
the  Redjongs,  on  the  Upper 
Musi ;  the  Lebongs  on  the  Up- 
per Ketucan  ;  the  Gayos,  on  the 
western  coast ;  the  Malays,  on 
the  west  coast  and  inland  (Men- 
angkaban)  ;  the  Bataks,  Malay 
in  origin,  on  the  east  coast ;  and 
the  Chinese  in  the  northwest. 
Malay  is  generally  used  as  the 
language  of  commerce.  The  pre- 
vailing religion  is  Mohamme- 
danism. 

Government, — Sumatra  is 
nominally  under  the  control  of  a 
Dutch  governor,  resident  at  Pa- 
dang, who  is  responsible  to  the 
Governor-General  of  the  Dutch 
East  Indies.  The  island  is  di- 
vided into  six  administrative  dis- 
tricts, known  as  residencies.  The 
native  tribes,  however,  acknowl- 
edge the  supremacy  of  their 
princes,  and  in  a  large  part  of 
the  interior  there  is  no  other 
government. 

History, — The  first  European 
to  visit  Sumatra  was  Ludovico 
de  Varthema,  in  1505  ;  and  he 
was  followed  in  1509  by  the 
Portuguese  Lopez  de  Figuera. 
The  Dutch  began  making  settle- 
ments in  1599.  Several  times 
they  were  temporarily  dislodged 
by  successful  rebellions,  and  did 
not  complete  the  occupation  of 
the  coast  until  1881.  From  1811 
to  1825  the  island  was  virtually 
in  control  of  the  English,  and 
the  last  English  claims  were  not 
relinquished  tmtil  1870.  Su- 
matra, like  the  other  portions 
of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  realm, 
fell  under  the  temporary  domi- 
nation of  Japan  in  the  Second 
World  War  during  the  period 
1942-45. 

Consult  Loeb,  Stimatra :  Its 
History  and  People  (1935)  ; 
Satake,  Camera  Pictures  of  Su- 
matra, Java,  and  Bali  (1936)  ; 
Schnitger,  Forgotten  Kingdoms 
in  Sumatra  (1939)  ;  Daniel,  Is- 
lands of  the  East  Indies  (1944). 

Sumba,  island  of  the  Little 
Sunda  group,  Dutch  East  Indies. 
See  Sandalwood. 

Sumbawa,  sum-ba'wa,  island 
of  Little  Sunda  group,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  between  Lombok 
and  Flores.  It  is  almost  divided 
by  the  deep  bay  of  Sale  or  Sum- 
bawa in  the  north,  and  rises  in 
Tamboro  volcano  to  over  9,000 
feet.  Sulphur,  arsenic,  asphalt, 
and  petroleum  are  found.  Ex- 
ports include  rice,  tobacco,  wax, 
teak,  and  edible  bird's  nests.  The 
town  of  Sumbawa,  on  the  north- 


ern coast,  has  a  good  harbor. 
Area  4,300  square  miles.  Pop. 
315,512. 

Sum'bul,  a  herbaceous  plant 
belonging  to  the  order  Umbel- 
li-ferae.  It  is  a  native  of  Turke- 
stan, growing  from  eight  to  ten 
feet  high,  and  having  a  graceful 
habit  and  beautiful  foliage.  The 
root  is  used  in  medicine  as  a 
stimulant,  by  reason  of  the  aro- 
matic oil  which  it  contains.  For 
pharmaceutical  purposes,  the 
dried  root  is  imported  from  Rus- 
sia and  Iran. 

Sumerian,  su-me'ri-an,  the 
name  given  to  the  language  be- 
lieved by  many  scholars  to  have 
been  spoken  by  the  non- Semitic 
Shumeri  of  Southern  Babylonia 
(see  Babylonia),  and  therefore 
to  be  regarded  as  the  most  an- 
cient language  of  the  world.  It 
has  been  preserved  in  the  con- 
temporaneous inscriptions  of 
kings  (in  cuneiform  characters), 
and  in  an  extensive  collection 
of  bilingual  incantations  and 
hymns,  in  which  the  Sumerian 
text  is  accompanied  by  its  Se- 
mitic (Babylonian  or  Assyrian) 
translation  or  pronunciation. 
The  large  admixture  of  Semitic 
words  and  phrases  has  been  the 
basis  of  a  controversy  still  un- 
settled, some  eminent  Assyriolo- 
gists  contending  that  what  is 
called  Sumerian  is  no  more  than 
an  earlier  cryptographic  form  of 
Babylonian- Assyrian. 

Consult  Prince,  Materials  for 
a  Sumerian  Lexicon  (4  vols.)  ; 
Langdon,  Sumerian  and  Baby- 
lonian Psalms,  and  Sumerian 
Grammar  and  Chrestomathy 
(1911)  ;  Myhrman,  Sumerian 
Administrative  Documents,  and 
Babylonian  Hymns  and  Prayers 
(1911);  Radan,  Sumerian 
Hymns  and  Prayers  to  the  God 
Nin-ib  (1911);  Halevy,  Precis 
d'A  llogra  ph  ie  Assyro-Babylo  ni- 
enne  (1912). 

Summary  Proceedings,  a 
form  of  court  proceeding  in  the 
nature  of  a  trial,  held  before  a 
judge  or  justice  of  the  peace, 
but  without  a  jury.  Originally 
employed  for  cases  of  contempt 
of  court,  it  is  now  applied,  under 
special  statutes,  to  offenses  aris- 
ing under  police  regulations, 
which  are  dealt  with  peremp- 
torily. 

Summer,  the  warmest  season 
of  the  year,  begins  astronomical- 
ly in  northern  latitudes  when 
the  Sim  enters  the  zodiacal  sign 
of  Cancer,  about  June  22,  and 
terminates  at  the  autumnal  equi- 
nox, about  Sept.  21.  The  sum- 
mer of  southern  latitudes  com- 
prises the  time  of  the  year 
which  constitutes  the  winter  of 
the  northern  hemisphere.  See 
Seasons. 

Summers,  Thomas  Osmond 
(1812-82),  American  clergyman, 
was  born  in  Corfe  Castle,  Isle  of 


^nmmer  Schools 


KFf 


538 


Summerslde 


Purbeck,  Dorsetshire,  England, 
and  in  1830  went  to  Baltimore. 
He  studied  for  the  ministry,  and 
joined  the  Baltimore  M.  E.  Con- 
ference (1835) ,  and  was  one  of  the 
nine  preachers  who  formed  the 
Texas  Conference.  He  was  gen- 
eral book  editor  of  the  M.  E. 
Church  South  from  its  organiza- 
tion until  his  death.  He  founded 
The  Sunday  School  Visitor,  of 
which  he  was  editor  for  four 
years,  subsequently  editing  The 
Quarterly  Review.  On  election  to 
the  chair  of  systematic  theology 
at  Vanderbilt  University,  where 
he  was  dean  of  the  theological 
faculty,  he  devoted  himself 
wholly  to  literature.  Among  his 
numerous  writings  are:  Commen- 
tary on  the  Gospels,  Acts,  and 
Romans;  Biographical  Sketches  of 
Eminent  Ministers;  Systematic 
Theology.  Consult  Fitzgerald's 
Life. 

Summer  Schools,  institutions 
conducted  for  educational  pur- 
poses during  the  summer  season 
alone,  sometimes  entirely  inde- 
pendent but  more  often  carried  on 
in  connection  with  an  established 
college  or  university.  In  the 
United  States  summer  schools 
are  a  comparatively  recent  devel- 
opment, the  outgrowth  of  the 
long  summer  vacation,  the  in- 
creasing desire  of  people  to  utilize 
their  leisure  time  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage, and  the  economic  de- 
sirability that  the  great  educa- 
tional plants  should  not  lie  idle 
a  quarter  of  the  year. 

As  early  as  1840  Ralph  Waldo 
Emerson  and  A.  Bronson  Alcott 
proposed  a  summer  school  which 
some  forty  years  later  was  actu- 
ally established  as  the  Concord 
Summer  School  of  Philosophy. 
In  1869  summer  courses  in  geol- 
ogy were  offered  by  Harvard 
University;  during  the  next  few 
years  professors  and  instructors 
at  Yale  and  at  Vassar,  with  a 
number  of  their  students,  made 
trips  to  various  points  of  scientific 
interest  for  the  purpose  of  study; 
and  in  1873  Professor  Louis 
Agassiz  of  Harvard  established 
on  Buzzards  Bay  what  may  be 
called  the  first  American  Summer 
School.  Professor  Asa  Gray  soon 
followed  his  example  with  a  sum- 
mer school  of  botany,  and  al- 
though both  of  these  schools  were 
short-lived  they  were  shortly  re- 
placed by  others  of  a  more  per- 
manent character.  In  1888,  the 
Marine  Biological  Laboratory, 
which  since  its  inception  has  been 
the  leading  summer  biological 
workshop  of  the  country,  was  es- 
tablished at  Woods  Hole,  Mass. 
The  summer  schools  conducted 
by  the  Chautauqua  Assembly 
date  from  1874.  (See  Chautau- 
qua.) 

Summer  schools  may  be  classi- 
fied as  follows:  (1)  Schools  that 
teach  only  a  single  branch  of 


learning,  such  as  religion,  phi- 
losophy, science,  library  work, 
etc.;  examples  of  which  are  the 
above  mentioned  Marine  Labora- 
tory at  Woods  Hole,  the  North- 
field  Summer  Conference,  the 
Lake  Geneva  conference  and  the 
Sauveur  Summer  College  of  Lan- 
guages; (2)  schools  of  the  arts, 
such  as  drawing,  music,  oratory; 
examples  of  which  are  the  Lexing- 
ton (Mass.)  Normal  Music  School 
and  the  Boston  School  of  Ora- 
tory; (3)  schools  of  pedagogy, 
among  which  the  Martha's  Vine- 
yard Summer  Institute,  estab- 
lished in  1878,  takes  high  rank; 

(4)  general  summer  schools,  at 
which  all  or  nearly  all  subjects 
are  treated  and  the  idea  of  study 
is  combined  with  that  of  rest  and 
recreation,  as  exemplified  partic- 
ularly by  the  Chautauqua;  and 

(5)  summer  schools  at  colleges 
and  universities,  which  class  has 
increased  so  rapidly  as  to  include 
a  large  proportion  of  all  American 
universities,  particularly  State  in- 
stitutions. 

While  the  instruction  offered  at 
the  summer  sessions  of  universi- 
ties was  at  first  rather  popular  in 
character,  it  has  developed  to  such 
a  degree  that  at  present  courses 
are  provided  at  a  number  of  insti- 
tutions not  only  in  the  regular 
subjects  of  the  college  curriculum, 
but  also  in  law,  medicine,  en- 
gineering, education,  etc.,  as  well 
as  in  the  graduate  schools.  The 
result  is  that  the  standards  of  the 
university  summer  sessions  are 
coming  to  be  regarded  as  identical 
with  those  of  the  regular  academic 
year;  and  students  have  thus 
been  enabled  to  shorten  their  time 
of  residence — reducing  the  time 
required  for  securing  the  bach- 
elor's degree,  for  example,  from 
four  years  to  three  and  a  half  or 
three  years.  Furthermore,  stu- 
dents who  are  deficient  in  a  por- 
tion of  their  work  during  the  reg- 
ular term  are  able  to  make  up  this 
deficiency  during  the  summer; 
and  those  who  are  entering  an  in- 
stitution on  advanced  standing 
have  frequently  been  able  co  ar- 
rive at  a  more  satisfactory  adjust- 
ment of  their  schedule  as  the  re- 
sult of  educational  opportunities 
provided  during  the  summer 
months.  The  University  of  Chi- 
cago recognized  the  economic 
waste  involved  in  shutting  down 
an  educational  plant  for  a  third 
or  a  quarter  of  a  year,  as  early  as 
1891,  when  it  announced  its  pol- 
icy of  conducting  courses  during 
four  quarters  of  three  months 
each,  an  arrangement  which  has 
been  in  full  force  since  1894  (see 
Chicago,  University  of). 

Summer  sessions  have  also 
been  an  important  factor  in  en- 
couraging student  migration,  as 
well  as  in  bringing  students  of  a 
particular  institution  in  contact 
with  teachers  from  other  colleges 


and  universities — thus  often  en- 
abling them  to  enjoy  the  privi- 
lege of  study  under  some  famous 
foreigner.  The  serious  student  or 
teacher  is  rarely  inclined  to  spend 
in  comparative  idleness  three  or 
four  months  of  each  year,  and  the 
remarkable  growth  of  the  sum- 
mer schools  during  the  past  quar- 
ter century  bears  eloquent  testi- 
mony to  his  desire  to  avail  him- 
self of  the  opportunities  which 
are  being  provided  in  bountiful 
measure. 

Registration  in  the  university 
summer  schools  in  1921  was  59,- 
378.  Of  this  number  Columbia's 
enrollment  was  the  largest,  being 
reported  as  11,809;  other  univer- 
sities reported  as  follows:  Chi- 
cago, 6,458;  California,  6,176; 
Wisconsin,  4,547;  Cornell,  2,739; 
Michigan,  2,769;  New  York  Uni- 
versity, 2,096;  Harvard,  2,022; 
Iowa  State,  2,019;  and  Illinois, 
1,973.  The  1912  figures  for 
Columbia  were  3,602;  tor  Chicago, 
3,531;  for  California,  2,275. 

Summer  schools  or  vacational 
courses  for  teachers  or  for  foreign- 
ers are  also  conducted  by  a  num- 
ber of  European  universities — not 
on  the  university  basis;  but  these 
summer  schools  or  vacational 
courses  are  not  to  be  confused 
with  the  summer  semesters,  which 
constitute  part  of  the  regular  uni- 
versity work.  Vacational  courses 
are  carried  on  in  Great  Britain 
at  Edinburgh,  London,  Oxford, 
and  Ramsgate;  in  France  at 
Bayeux  and  Granville,  Grenoble, 
Besangon,  Boulogne-sur-Mer, 
Caen,  Dijon,  Le  Havre,  Honfieur, 
Lisieux,  Nancy,  Paris,  Rouen, 
Saint  Malo,  Saint  Servais,  Saint- 
Valery-en-Caux,  Tours,  and  Ver- 
sailles; in  Germany  at  Berlin, 
Freiburg,  Greifswald,  Hamburg, 
Gottingen,  Jena,  Kaiserslautern, 
Lubeck,  Marburg  and  Wies- 
baden; in  Switzerland  at  Gen- 
eva, Lausanne,  and  Neufchatel; 
in  Belgium  at  Liege;  in  Italy-  at 
Florence;  and  in  Spain  at  Ma- 
drid and  Santander. 

See  University  Extension. 

Consult  the  Bibliography  on 
summer  schools  in  Dr.  Adams' 
monograph  (No.  16),  in  the  series 
prepared  under  the  auspices  of 
the  State  of  New  York  for  the 
U.  S.  Commission  to  the  Paris  Ex- 
position of  1900;  G.  E.  Vincent's 
Summer  Schools  and  University 
Extension;  E.  G.  Dexter's  History 
of  Education  in  the  United  States; 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulle- 
tin No.  31  (1922). 

Summerside,  seaport,  Can- 
ada, Prince  Edward  Island, 
county  seat  of  Prince  county,  on 
the  Canadian  National  Rail- 
road ;  40  miles  northwest  of 
Charlottetown.  The  harbor  ac- 
commodates large  vessels.  Man- 
ufactures include  lumber,  flour, 
and  agricultural  implements. 
Pop.  (1941)  4,983. 


Summerville 


KFP 


539 


Sumner 


Summerville,  town,  South 
Carolina,  Dorchester  county,  on 
the  Southern  Railroad;  21  miles 
northwest  of  Charleston.  It  is  in 
the  midst  of  fine  mountain  and 
woodland  scenery,  and  is  a  fa- 
vorite summer  and  health  resort. 
Pop.  (1930)  2,579  ;  (1940)  3,023. 

Summit,  city,  New  Jersey, 
Union  county,  on  the  Lackawan- 
na Railroad ;_  10  miles  west  of 
Newark.  It  is  charmingly  situ- 
ated on  the  summit  and  slopes 
of  Second  Mountain,  and  com- 
mands a  view  extending  to  New 
York  Bay  on  one  side  and  up  the 
Passaic  Valley  on  the  other.  It 
is  a  residential  suburb  of  New 
York,  and  is  a  popular  summer 
resort.  Throughout  the  vicinity 
are  numerous  picturesque  drives 
over  well-kept  roads.  A  pharma- 
ceutical plant  and  research  labo- 
ratories are  situated  here  ;  there 
are  extensive  nurseries  ;  and  the 
city  is  well  known  for  the  culti- 
vation of  roses.  It  contains  the 
Overlook  Hospital,  A  monument 
on  Hobart  Hill  marks  the  site 
of  a  beacon  light  and  signal  gun 
of  the  Revolutionary  period. 
Pop.  (1930)  14,556;  (1940)  16,- 
165. 

Summit  Hill,  borough,  Penn- 
sylvania, Carbon  county,  on  the 
Lehigh  and  New  England  Rail- 
road ;  7  miles  west  of  Mauch 
Chunk.  It  is  in  a  coal-mining 
district.  Pop.  (1930)  5,567  ; 
(1940)  5,406. 

Summons.  A  writ  or  notice 
served  upon  a  defendant  in  a 
civil  action,  commanding  him  to 
appear  therein  within  a  certain 
time  and  answer  the  complaint, 
under  penalty  of  having  judg- 
ment entered  against  him  by  de- 
fault. It  may  be  served  with  or 
without  a  copy  of  the  complaint. 
It  should  contain  the  name  of  the 
court,  the  title  of  the  action,  and 
the  signature  and  address  of  the 
plaintiff  or  his  attorneys.  See 
Service  of  Process. 

Summum  Bonum.  See  Eth- 
ics. 

Sumner,  Charles  (1811- 
74),  American  statesman,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  on  Jan.  6, 
1811,  the  descendant  of  William 
Sumner,  who  emigrated  from 
England  to  Dorchester,  Mass., 
about  1635.  He  was  gradu- 
ated^ from  Harvard  (1830), 
studied  at  the  Harvard  Law 
School  (1831-3),  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Boston  bar  in  1834. 
In  1835-6  he  was  an  instructor 
in  the  Harvard  Law  School.  In 
December,  1837,  he  went  to  Eu- 
rope, where  he  remained  till 
May,  1840,  pursuing  the  study 
of  jurisprudence  at  the  _  Sor- 
bonne  and  elsewhere.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Boston  he  first  came  into 
prominence  by  a  civic  oration, 
on  July  4,  1845,  under  the  title 
of  'The  True  Grandeur  of  the 
Nations.' 


A  member  of  the  Whig  Party 
by  descent  and  associations, 
Sumner  took  little  interest  in 
politics  until  the  threatened  ex- 
tensions of  Negro  slavery  over 
newly  acquired  territory  awak- 
ened a  spirit  of  resistance  in  the 
free  states.  He  was  at  one  with 
the  Abolitionists  in  asserting  the 
inherent  and  total  sinfulness  of 
slavery ;    but   unlike   them  he 


maintained  that  the  Constitution 
did  not  recognize  property  in 
man,  and  that  slavery,  a  purely 
sectional  institution,  could  be 
combated  in  the  political  arena, 
and  so  crippled  by  legislation 
that  it  would  necessarily  dwindle 
and  become  extinct.  In  1848  he 
joined  with  others  holding  sim- 
ilar views  in  the  formation  of 
the  Free  Soil  Party  (q.  v.). 

Nominated  for  Congress  in 
1848,  he  was  easily  defeated  by 
the  Whig  candidate,  R.  C.  Win- 
throp;  but  in  April,  1851,  after 


a  protracted  contest,  he  was 
elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  as 
the  successor  of  Daniel  Webster, 
by  the  combined  Free  Soil  and 
Democratic  votes  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts legislature.  The  post 
thus  gained  he  continued  to  hold 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
being  re-elected  in  1857,  1863, 
and  1869. 

At  the  outset  Sumner  stood 


almost  alone  in  the  Senate  as  the 
uncompromising  opponent  of 
slavery.  He  urged  the  repeal  of 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law ;  refused 
to  recognize  the  finality  of  the 
Compromise  Measure  of  1850; 
and  opposed  the  Kansas-Nebras- 
ka Bill  of  1854;  while  his  elabo- 
rately prepared  speeches  in- 
flamed hostility  in  his  opponents. 
On  May  22,_  1856,  while  sitting 
at  his  desk  in  the  Senate  cham- 
ber after  an  adjournment,  he 
was  suddenly  assaulted  by  Pres- 
ton S,  Brooks  (q.  v.),  a  member 


Charles  Sumner. 


Sumner 


KFP 


540 


Sumter,  Fort 


of  Congress  from  South  Caro- 
lina, and  by  repeated  blows  on 
the  head  with  a  heavy  cane  pros- 
trated on  the  floor  in  a  state  of 
insensibility.  His  injuries  were 
so  severe  as  to  incapacitate  him 
for  public  life  during  nearly 
four  years.  He  resumed  his  seat 
at  the  close  of  1859,  and  in  June, 
1860,  delivered  a  speech  on  the 
question  of  the  admission  of 
Kansas  as  a  free  state,  which  he 
published  under  the  title  of  Tlie 
Barbarism  of  Slavery. 

The  secession  of  the  Southern 
States  left  the  Republican  Party 
in  control  of  both  Houses  of 
Congress,  and  in  March,  1861, 
Sumner  was  elected  chairman 
of  the  Senate  Committee  on  For- 
eign Affairs.  He  was  urgent  for 
the  emancipation  of  the  slaves, 
and  after  this  had  been  secured, 
in  obtaining  for  the  colored  race 
full  civil  and  political  equarity. 
He  supported  the  impeachment 
of  President  Johnson,  and  was 
foremost  in  opposing  President 
Grant's  project  for  the  acquisi- 
tion of  San  Domingo.  His  con- 
duct on  this  occasion  led  to  his 
exclusion  in  1871  from  the  chair- 
manship of  the  committee  on 
foreign  relations ;  and  his  con- 
tinuous and  acrimonious  cen- 
sures on  Grant's  administration 
brought  about  a  rupture  with  the 
leaders  of  the  Republican  Party, 
which  was  rendered  complete  by 
his  support  of  Greeley  as  candi- 
date for  the  Presidency  in  1872. 
His  death  at  Washington,  how- 
ever, obliterated  all  asperities, 
and  left  only  the  remembrance 
of  his  great  services  and  distin- 
guished career. 

Sumner's  position  in  the  field 
of  politics  was  in  some  respects 
unique.  From  first  to  last  he 
was  an  independent  rather  than 
a  partisan.  His  position  was  a 
commanding  one,  owing  to  his 
unimpeachable  integrity,  his  un- 
flinching courage,  his  singleness 
of  purpose  and  consistency  of 
action,  his  freedom  from  every 
suspicion  of  intrigue  or  self- 
seeking,  and  his  identification 
both  as  a  victim  and  a  victor 
with  the  cause  to  which  he  had 
devoted  all  his  energy  and  tal- 
ents. His  nature  was  too  open  to 
admit  of  misconstruction,  and 
the  poet  Longfellow,  with  whom 
he  lived  in  intimacy,  described 
him  as  the  whitest  soul  he  had 
ever  known. 

Consult  his  Works;  Pierce's 
Memoirs  and  Letters;  Lives  by 
Lester,  Chaplin,  and  Anna  L. 
Dawes. 

Sumner,  Charles  Richard 
f  1790-1874),  English  prelate. 
George  iv  made  him  his  private 
chaplain  at  Windsor  in  1821.  In 
1826  he  became  bishop  of  Lan- 
daff,  and  in  1827  bishop  of 
Winchester.  He  published 
Ministerial  Character  of  Christ 


Practicallv    Considered  (1824). 

Sumner,  Edwin  Vose  (1797- 
1863),  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Boston.  He  entered  the 
army  as  second  lieutenant  in 
1819,  and  served  in  the  Black 
Hawk  and  the  Mexican  Wars, 
distinguishing  himself  at  Cerro 
Gordo  and  Molino  del  Rey.  He 
was  governor  of  New  Mexico 
(1851-3),  and  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  was  in  command 
of  the  Department  of  the  Pacific 
with  the  rank  of  brigadier  gen- 
eral. He  became  commander  of 
the  second  Army  Corps  in  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  early  in 
1862,  and  led  it  during  the  Pen- 
insula and  Antietam  campaigns 
— particularly  distinguishing 
himself  at  Fair  Oaks.  He  com- 
manded the  right  grand  division 
at  Fredericksburg,  and  was  later 
commander  of  the  Department 
of  Missouri. 

Sumner,  Increase  (1746- 
99),  American  jurist,  was  born 
in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  and  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  in 
1767.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  (1770),  and  was  a  member 
of  the  State  Constitutional  Con- 
vention of  1779.  From  1782  to 
1797  he  was  an  associate  justice 
of  the  U:  S.  Supreme  Court ;  in 
1789  he  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  which  adopted  the 
Constitution  of  the  United 
States;  and  from  1797  till  his 
death  he  was  governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. 

Sumner,  John  Bird  (1780- 
1862),  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, brother  of  C.  R.  Sumner, 
was  born  in  Kenilworth.  He  be- 
came bishop  of  Chester  (1828), 
and  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1848).  He  published  Apostoli- 
cal Preaching  (1815)  ;  Moral 
Attributes  of  the  Creator  (1816), 
Evidences  of  Christianity  (1824). 

Sumner,  William  Graham 
(1840-1910),  American  educa- 
tor, was  born  in  Paterson.  N.  J. 
He  graduated  from  Yale  (1863), 
and  studied  at  Geneva  and  Got- 
tingen.  In  1866-9  he  was  a  tutor 
at  Yale,  and  was  then  ordained 
in  the  Protestant  Church.  From 
1872  to  1909,  he  was  professor 
of  political  and  social  science 
at  Yale.  He  wrote :  History  of 
American  Currency ;  Lectures 
on  the  History  of  Protection  in 
the  United  States ;  What  Social 
Classes  Owe  to  Each  Other; 
The  Financier  and  Finances  of 
the  American  Revolution;  A 
Flistory  of  Banking  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  ;  Folkways. 

Sumter,  city,  South  Carolina, 
capital  of  Sumter  county,  on 
the  Seaboard  Airline  and  Atlan- 
tic Coast  Line  railroads ;  42 
miles  s.E.  of  Columbia.  It  has 
manufactures  of  furniture,  ve- 
neers, cotton,  and  lumber.  Pop. 
(1930)   11,180;   (1940)  15,874. 

Sumter,     Thomas  (1734- 


1832),  was  born  in  Hanover 
county,  Va.,  and  served  in  the 
Virginia  militia  during  the 
French  and  Indian  War.  He  is 
best  known  for  his  exploits  dur- 
ing the  War  of  Independence, 
but  saw  little  active  service  un- 
til after  the  fall  of  Charleston 
(May,  1780).  In  July,  1780,  he 
was  appointed  brigadier  general 
of  the  state  troops,  and  during 
the  remainder  of  the  war  car- 
ried on  a  partisan  campaign.  He 
failed  in  an  attack  upon  Rocky 
Mount  in  August,  1780;  but  a 
few  days  later  defeated  500  Loy- 
alists and  regulars  at  Hanging 
Rock;  and  on  July  15  intercept- 
ed and  defeated  a  convoy  with 
stores  between  Charleston  and 
Camden.  His  own  regiment, 
however,  was  almost  annihilated 
by  Lieut. -Col.  Bannastre  Tarle- 
ton  at  Fishing  Creek  ;  but  a  new 
force  was  soon  recruited,  with 
which  he  defeated  Major  James 
Wemyss  at  Fishdam,  and  re- 
pulsed Tarleton's  attack  at 
Blackstock  in  1780.  In  1781 
Congress  thanked  him  for  his 
services.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  state  convention  which  rati- 
fied the  Federal  constitution  for 
South  Carolina  in  1788,  he  him- 
self opposing  that  instrument.  In 
1789-93,  and  in  1797-1801,  he 
was  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Representatives,  and  of  the  U.  S. 
Senate  in  1801-10. 

Sumter,  Fort  (named  after 
Gen.  Thomas  Sumter),  an  Amer- 
ican fort  associated  with  both 
the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the 
Civil  War,  was  built  of  brick,  in 
the  form  of  a  truncated  penta- 
gon 38  feet  high,  on  a  shoal, 
partly  artificial,  in  Charleston 
Harbor,  314  miles  from  the  city. 
On  the  secession  of  South  Caro- 
lina, in  December,  1860,  Major 
Anderson,  in  command  of  the  de- 
fenses of  the  harbor,  abandoned 
the  other  forts,  and  occupied 
Fort  Sumter,  mounting  62  guns, 
with  a  garrison  of  some  80  men. 
The  attack  on  the  fort  was 
opened  by  Gen.  Beauregard  on 
April  12,  1861,  and  it_  surren- 
dered on  the  14th — this  event 
marking  the  beginning  of  the  war. 

The  Confederates  strength- 
ened the  fort  and  added  10  guns. 
Though  the  harbor  was  soon 
blockaded  by  a  Federal  fleet,  no 
serious  attempt  to  retake  the 
fort  was  made  xintW  April  7 
1863,  w^ien  Admiral  Dupont 
sent  nine  ironclads  to  attack  at 
close  range.  Little  damage  was 
done  the  fort ;  while  the  Keokuk 
was  sunk.  On  July  10  Gen. 
Q.  A.  Gillmore  (q.  v.)  effected 
a  landing  at  Morris  Island,  and 
on  July  11  and  18  made  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  to  take  Fort 
Wagner,  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  island.  Attacks  on 
Fort  Wagner  were  suspended, 
and  the  guns  were  trained  upon 


Sumptuary  Laws 

Sumter.  Fire  was  opened  on  Aug. 
17,  and  within  a  week  the  fort 
was  almost  a  ruin  through  the 
combined  fire  of  the  batteries  and 
the  monitors.  The  commander 
refused  to  surrender,  however,  and 
further  bombardments  on  Aug.  30 
and  Sept.  2  dismounted  every  gun. 
Fort  W  agner  was  abandoned  by 
the  Confederates  on  Sept.  6,  but 
the  infantry  which  held  Sumter 
still  refused  to  surrender,  and  a 
Federal  assault  during  the  night 
of  Sept.  8  was  repulsed  with  a  loss 
of  125  killed,  wounded,  and  cap- 
tured. The  captured  guns  of 
Fort  Wagner  were  also  turned 
upon  the  fort  Oct.  26  and  it  was 
soon  reduced  to  a  shapeless  heap, 
but  the  men  in  the  bombproofs 
defied  capture.  Not  until  the 
approach  of  Gen.  Sherman  was 
the  post  finally  abandoned,  Feb. 
17,  1865,  and  the  same  flag  which 
had  been  lowered  four  years 
before  was  again  raised.  See 
Johnson  and  Bue\,  eds., Battles  and 
Leaders  of  the  Civil  War  (1888); 
Crawford,  Genesis  of  the  Civil 
War  (1887);  Doubleday,  Remi- 
niscences of  Forts  Sumter  and 
Moultrie  (1876);  Gillmore,  En- 
gineer and  Military  Operations 
around  Charleston  in  1863  (1865). 

Sumptuary  Laws  are  intended 
to  maintain  class  distinctions, 
to  repress  luxury  and  discourage 
extravagance  especially  among 
the  lower  classes,  by  means  of 
regulations  regarding  ostenta- 
tious expenditure  on  food,  dress, 
furniture,  and  ornament.  Oc- 
casionally legislation  of  an  en- 
tirely different  character,  such 
as  Queen  Elizabeth's  political 
Lent  to  encourage  the  North  Sea 
fisheries,  the  regulations  regard- 
ing the  wearing  of  linen  in  Scot- 
land and  of  woollens  in  England, 
is  called  sumptuary;  but  this  is 
really  protective  legislation.  In 
the  United  States  the  term  is  some- 
times applied  to  laws  restricting 
the  sale  of  alcoholic  beverages, 
cigarettes,  etc. 

English  sumptuary  legislation 
ranges  from  the  14th  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  16th  century,  and  is 
directed  chiefly  against  extrava- 
gance in  dress,  although  Edward 
III.  tried  to  limit  the  number  of 
courses  of  food  that  his  subjects 
might  partake  of  {De  Cibariis 
Utendis,  1336).  This  remained 
on  the  statute  book  till  1856,  but 
it  was  not,  even  at  first,  enforced. 
In  1363  an  act  was  passed  to  re- 
strain 'the  outrageous  and  ex- 
cessive apparel  of  divers  people 
against  their  estate  and  degree.' 
About  1463  the  desire  to  promote 
English  industry  becomes  the 
motive  of  the  legislation,  and  acts 
were  passed  in  that  year  and  in 
1482.  There  was  further  legisla- 
tion in  1515.  Most  of  the  Eng- 
lish laws  of  this  character  were 
repealed  in  1603. 

Sumy,^  tn.,.  Kharkov  gov.,  S 


541 

Russia,  84  m.  N.w.  of  Kharkov 
city,  with  breweries,  distilleries, 
tanneries,  brick  fields,  tallow 
foundries,  and  candle  manufac- 
tories.   Pop.  (1900)  28,519. 

Sun,  the  chief  luminary  and  the 
ruling  body  of  the  planetary  sys- 
tem, is  a  radiant  globe  866,400  m. 
in  diameter,  at  a  mean  distance  of 
92,900,000  m.,  and  subtending  an 
angle,  as  viewed  by  us,  of  32'.  It 
has  a  superficial  area  11,900  times, 
a  volume  1,300,000  times,  those 
of  the  earth,  but  is  only  331,000 
times  more  massive.  Its  mean 
density  is,  accordingly,  0.255  the 
terrestrial,  or  1.4  taking  water 
as  the  unit,  while  gravity  at  its 
surface  is  of  27.6  times  its  ter- 
restrial power.  The  sun  rotates 
on  an  axis  inclined  7°  15'  to  the 
ecliptic  in  a  period  lengthening 
systematically  with  increase  of 
solar  latitude,  from  about  25 
days  at  the  equator  to  27^  days 
in  lat.  45°,  as  determined  by  ob- 
servations of  sun-spots;  and  spec- 
troscopic measures  of  velocity 
show  that  the  retardation  con- 
tinues at  least  up  to  lat.  75°. 
This  vorticose  movement  evi- 
dently excludes  a  solid  consistence 
in  the  body  _  affected  by  it,  and 
probably  indicates  virtual  gaseity 
to  the  core.  Besides,  the  enor- 
mous output  of  light  and  heat 
from  the  photosphere  can  only 
be  maintained  by  a  rapid  inter- 
change of  material  between  the 
surface  and  the  interior.  The 
illuminative  efficacy  of  sunlight 
on  the  earth  surpasses  thirty 
times  that  of  an  arc  light  of  2,000 
candle-power  at  a  distance  of  one 
meter  (Young).  The  accompany- 
ing heat-emissions  would  suffice 
to  melt  every  minute  a  shell  of 
ice  64  ft.  thick  enclosing  the 
sun;  they  represent  the  energy  of 
130,000  horse-power  in  continu- 
ous action  on  each  square  meter 
of  the  solar  surface.  The  earth 
intercepts  only  ^^(jtytjsnOTs  of  this 
copious  flood.  The  photospheric 
temperature  derived  by  Stefan's 
law  from  the  solar  constant  is 
7,000°  to  7,500°  C,  and  has  not 
been  proved  to  vary.  Its  per- 
petuation from  age  to  age  is  ex- 

Elained  on  dynamical  principles 
y  the  slow  advance  oi^  contrac- 
tion. An  annual  shrinkage  of 
300  ft.  in  the  sun's  diameter 
would,  it  is  estimated,  supply  the 
thermal  expenditure,  but  not  for 
an  unlimited  time.  In  five  mil- 
lion years  the  sun  would,  by  a 
continuance  of  the  indicated  pro- 
cess, have  become  eight  times 
denser  than  it  is  now,  and  would 
then  almost  certainly  be  incapaci- 
tated for  vivid  radiation.  Its 
extinction  may,  however,  be  in 
definitely  postponed  by  unknown 
or  barely  suspected  modes  of 
action,  such  as  the  disintegration 
within  its  substance  of  elements 
akin  to  radium. 

The  chemical  constitution  of 


Sun  Bear 

the  sun  is  disclosed  by  the  nature 
of  its  spectrum.  About  forty- 
one  substances  have  been  recog- 
nized as  solar  ingredients  by 
their  spectral  lines.  Five  among 
them — carbon,  silicon,  oxygen, 
helium,  and  hydrogen — are  non- 


The  Sun. 

The  diagram  shows  the  earth  (e),  moon 
(M),  and  tne  moon's  orbit  (mo)  against  the 
disc  of  the  sun  (s),  the  prominences  at  s 
being  sliown  on  the  same  scale. 


metallic;  the  thirty-six  metals 
are  iron,  nickel,  titanium,  man- 
ganese, chromium,  cobalt,  vana- 
dium, zirconium,  cerium,  cal- 
cium, scandium,  neodymium, 
lanthanum,  yttrium,  ytterbium, 
niobium,  molybdenum,  palla- 
dium, magnesium,  sodium,  stron- 
tium, bariurn,  aluminium,  cad- 
mium, rhodium,  erbium,  zinc, 
copper,  silver,  glucinum,  ger- 
manium, tin,  lead,  potassium, 
gallium,  and  lithium. 

The  sun  moves  as  a  star  among 
the  stars,  but  with  only  about 
half  their  average  velocity.  To- 
gether with  its  entire  system,  it 
is  transported  at  the  rate  of 
twelve  miles  a  second  toward  a 
point  on  the  sphere  located  by 
the  best  authorities  in  R.A.  277°, 
dec. -f  35°.  The  nature  of  the 
orbit  described  is  unknown.  See 
Ball's  Story  of  the  Sun  (1893), 
and  Lockyer's  Chemistry  of  the 
Sun  (1887)  and  The  Sun's  Place 
in  Nature  (1897);  also  Sunspots. 

Sunart,  Loch,  sea  loch,  Argyll- 
shire, Scotland,  extends  19^  m. 
E.  between  Ardnamurchan  and 
Sunart  on  the  N.  and  Morven  on 
the  s.  from  the  N.  end  of  the 
Sound  of  Mull. 

Sun-bath.  See  Baths  and 
Bathing. 

Sun  Bear,  or  Malayan  Bear 


Sun  Bear. 


(Ursus  malayanus),  a  small  spe- 
cies found  in  forest  regions,  and 


Siin-blrds 


542 


Sundarband 


extending  from  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula and  Archipelago  into  N.E, 
India. 

Sun-birds  {N ectarim'idcE)  are 
beautiful  passerine  birds,  often 
confused  with  the  American  hum- 
ming-birds. They  occur  through- 
out  Africa,   So  Asia,  extending 


Siin-hirds. 

1.  Metallic  sun-bird.  2.  Malachite 
sun-bird. 

southward  to  N.  Australia,  and 
are  all  small  birds,  with  long 
slender  bills  and  an  exensile 
tongue.  They  frequent  woods 
and  gardens,  and  feed  upon  in- 
sects, insect  larvae,  spiders,  and 
upon  honey.  They  are  of  some 
importance  as  agents  in  the  pro- 
cess of  pollination.  The  nests 
are  built  of  grass,  moss,  etc.,  to- 
gether  with    cobwebs,    and  are 


geous,  and  having  extra  tufts  of 
feathers  like  the  humming-birds. 
Examples  of  sun-birds  are  the 
malachite  sun-bird  {Nectarinia 
famosa)  of  S.  Africa,  and  Cinnyris 
osea  of  Palestine.  See  Shelley's 
N ectariniidce  (1876-80). 

Sun-bittern  {Eurypyga  helias), 
a  curious  S.  American  bird, 
which,  like  the  kagu,  is  regarded 
as  an  aberrant  crane.  It  is  about 
sixteen  inches  in  length,  and  has  a 
long,  pointed  beak  and  a  long  thin 
neck,  while  the  body  shows  curi- 
ous transverse  stripes  in  white, 
brown,  and  black.  In  flight  the 
bird  has  been  compared  to  a 
broad-winged  butterfly.  It  haunts 
the  banks  of  rivers,  especially  the 
Orinoco,  and  feeds  on  insects  and 
fish.  There  is  no  relationship  to 
the  true  bittern.  Besides  the 
common  sun-bittern  there  is 
another  larger  form  {E.  major)  of 
more  uniform  coloration. 

Sunbury,  bor.,  Pa.,  co.  seat  of 
Northumberland  co.,  30  m.  s.s.E. 
of  WiUiamsport,  on  the  E.  bank 
of  the  Susquehanna  R.,  just  below 
the  junction  of  the  N.  and  the  W. 
branches,  and  on  the  Pa.,  the  N. 
Cent.,  and  the  Phila.  and  Read. 
R.  Rs.  The  principal  buildings 
are  the  court  house,  county  peni- 
tentiary, parish  house,  and  the 
Mary  M.  Packer  Hospital.  It  is 
an  important  manufacturing  cen- 
tre, producing  structural  iron, 
nails,  furniture,  coffins,  woollen 
goods,  silk  goods,  carpets,  flour, 
machinery,  etc.  An  Indian  village 
formerly  occupied  the  site  of  the 
town,  and  here  Fort  Augusta  was 
built    during    the    French  and 


Sun-Lodge^  in  which  the  Sun-Dance  is  held. 


decorated  with  pieces  of  paper, 
cloth,  bark,  etc.  There  is  great 
difference  in  the  coloration  of  the 
sexes,  the  males  being  often  gor- 


Indian  War,  in  1756 
ough  was  settled 
incorporated  in 
(1910J  13,770. 


The  bor- 
in    1772,  and 
1797. 


Pop. 


Sunda  Islands,  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  generally  include 
Greater  Sunda  Is.  (Sumatra, 
Java,  Borneo,  Celebes,  Moluccas, 
etc.)  and  Lesser  Sunda  Is.  (Bali, 
Lombok,  Sumbawa,  Sandalwood, 
Flores,  and  on  to  Timorlaut). 

Sun-dance,  an  annual  cere- 
mony among  most  of  the  Indians 
of  the  Plains,  extending  over  a 
period  of  five  to  fourteen  days  and 
characterized  by  prayers  and  sac- 
rifices to  the  sun.  The  ceremony 
is  usually  initiated  by  the  vow  of 
some  individual,  usually  a  woman, 
who  in ,  time  of  great  trial  calls 
upon  the  sun  for  aid.  This 
woman  and  her  husband  are  the 
chief  participants  in  the  prelimi- 
nary ceremonies,  consisting  of 
fasting  and  the  opening  of  a  medi- 
cine bundle.  During  this  prelim- 
inary ceremony  a  circular  struc- 
ture of  poles  is  erected  in  which 
the  sun-dance  takes  place.  This 
structure  is  supported  by  a  centre 
pole,  selected^  by  warriors  and 
drawn  into  camp  with  military 
demonstration.  When  this  struc- 
ture, or  lodge  to  the  sun,  is  com- 
pleted, the  various  military  and 
religious  societies  in  the  tribe  take 
turns  dancing  in  the  sun  lodge, 
rendering  dramatic  presentations 
of  their  own  or  mythical  exploits. 
In  former  times  an  important 
feature  of  this  ceremony  was  the 
torture  of  men  by  complete  or 
partial  suspension  from  cords 
passed  under  the  skin  of  the  breast 
or  back.  In  most  cases  a  cord 
from  the  top  of  the  centre  pole 
was  fastened  to  each  breast,  the 
dancers  pulling  upon  them  until 
the  strip  of  skin  to  which  they 
were  fastened  was  torn  out.  The 
idea  of  the  dancers  was  that  be- 
cause of  their  self-inflicted  torture 
the  supernatural  power  in  the  sun 
would  take  pity  on  them,  and  in  a 
vision  confer  upon  them  some 
power  that  would  aid  them  in  the 
affairs  of  life.  The  sun-dance  as 
a  whole  is  very  tomplcx  and  is 
probably  one  of  the  most  spec- 
tacular ever  practised  by  the 
Indians  of  North  Arnerica.  In 
recent  years  il  has  received  careful 
attention  from  ethnologists,  espe- 
cially Dr.  George  A.  Dorsey  of  the 
Field  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, Chicago.  The  following 
tribes  still  practise  the  sun-dance: 
Dakota,  Assinibc»ine,  Ponca,  Chey- 
enne, Arapaho,  Crow,  Black- 
foot,  Plains  Cree  and  Sarcee. 
The  time  is  the  first  week  in  July. 
See  Dorsey  in  publications  of  the 
Field  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory (Chicago)  ;  Catlin's  Okiepa, 
a  Religious  Ceremony  (1807);  and 
Kroeber's  The  Arapaho  (1906). 

Sundarbans,  the  waste  land 
estimated  at  some  5,500  sq.  m.,  in 
the  Ganges  delta,  India,  between 
the  mouth  of  the  Hugh  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Meghna.  It 
derives  its  name  from  the  abun- 
dant sundri  {Heritiera  littoralis\ 


Sunda  Sea 


543 


Suuday  Schools 


which  yield  useful  timber.  Rice 
is  cultivated  in  the  upper  por- 
tions; the  lower  is  jungle,  the 
haunt  of  tigers,  leopards,  and 
crocodiles. 

Sunda  Sea,  in  the  Eastern  Archi- 
pelago, the  name  given  to  the 
east  extension  of  the  Java  Sea, 
separating  Celebes  from  Flores. 

Sunda  Strait,  a  passage  vary- 
ing from  15  to  80  miles  in 
breadth,  lying  between  Sumatra 
and  Java,  and  connecting  the 
Indian  Ocean  with  the  Sunda 
Sea.  Several  islands  stud  its 
waters,  among  which  are  Kraka- 
toa.  Princes  Island,  Steers,  and 
Calmeijer. 

Sunday.    See  Sabbath. 

Sunday,  Will  I  AM  Ashley 
(1863-^^1^,  American  evangelist, 
popularly  known  as  Billy  Sun- 
day, was  born  in  Ames,  la.,  and 
was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  of  Nevada,  la.,  and  at 
Northwestern  University.  From 
1883  to  1890  he  was  a  well  known 
professional  baseball  player.  In 
1891  he  became  assistant  secre- 
tary of  the  Chicago  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
and  since  1896  he  has  been  a 
prominent  evangelist,  holding 
revival  meetings  throughout  the 
United  States.  His  conversions 
are  said  to  number  more  than 
100,000.  He  was  ordained  in  the 
Presbyterian  ministry  in  1903. 

Sunday  Laws.  In  law,  Sunday 
is  the  first  day  of  the  week,  a  day 
set  apart  for  rest  and  cesvsation 
from  ordinary  work.  All  the 
States  of  the  United  States  have 
statutes  relating  to  the  Sabbath; 
in  most  of  them  it  extends  from 
midnight  on  Saturday  to  mid- 
night on  Sunday.  The  State 
does  not  recognize  the  religious 
character  of  the  day  as  such,  but 
enforces  its  observance,  on  the 
theory  that  one  day  of  rest  in 
seven  is  necessary  for  the  physical 
and  moral  well  being  of  its  citi- 
zens. This  is  constitutional  as  a 
valid  exercise  of  the  police  power. 

The  statutes  of  the  various 
vStates  differ  in  their  provisions, 
and  decisions  vary  in  their  inter- 
pretation. Generally,  however, 
ordinary  business  transactions 
are  prohibited.  For  public  con- 
venience, exceptions  are  usually 
made  as  to  certain  lines  of  busi- 
ness and  works  of  necessity,  as 
.he  transportation  of  passengers 
and  freight,  drug  stores,  physi- 
cians, and  occupations  which 
cannot  be  suspended  without 
harm  or  great  inconvenience  to 
the  general  public. 

In  some  vStates  contracts  en- 
tered into  on  vSunday  are  void, 
but  this  rule  is  not  universal,  and 
is  not  often  resorted  to  as  a  de- 
fence. Negotiable  paper  falling 
due  on  Sunday  is  by  statute  gen- 
erally made  payable  on  the  next 
succeeding  business  day.  Persons 
who  regularly  observe  any  other 
day  of  the  week  as  a  religious 


holiday  are  usually  exempted 
from  the  observance  of  Sunday, 
and  may  therefore  carry  on  their 
ordinary  occupations  on  that 
day. 

Scotland  and  Wales  have  Sun- 
day closing  acts;  England  and 
Ireland  have  limited  closure. 
See  Public  Holidays. 

Sunday  Letter,  or  Dominical 
Letter,  is  one  of  the  seven  let- 
ters A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  used  in 
almanacs,  and  similar  publica- 
tions, to  mark  the  Sundays 
throughout  the  year.  The  first 
seven  days  of  the  year  being 
marked  in  their  order  by  the 
above  letters  in  their  order,  then 
the  following  seven,  and  all  con- 
secutive sets  of  seven  days  to  the 
end  of  the  year,  are  similarly 
marked;  so  that  the  1st,  8th, 
15th,  22d,  etc.,  days  of  the  year 
are  all  marked  by  A;  and  the 
2d,  9th,  16th,  23d,  etc.,  by  B; 
and  so  on.  The  days  being  thus 
marked,  it  is  evident  that  on 
whatever  day  the  first  Sunday 
of  the  year  falls,  the  letter  which 
marks  it  will  mark  all  the  other 
Sundays  in  the  year,  as  the 
number  of  the  letters  and  of  the 
days  in  the  week  is  the  same.  See 
Calendar. 

Sunday  Schools,  institutions 
devoted  to  religious  and  moral 
instruction,  maintained  for  the 
most  part  by  the  Christian 
churches,  but  sometimes  by  phil- 
anthropic and  religious  organiza- 
tions. The  ultimate  aim  of  the 
Sunday  school  is  the  inculcation 
of  the  knowledge  of  the  Word  of 
God,  thus  developing  the  relig- 
ious and  moral  life  of  the  pupil, 
and  increasing  his  usefulness  as  a 
member  of  society. 

Although  systematic  and  wide- 
spread attention  to  the  religious 
training  of  children  is  of  com- 
paratively modern  date,  some 
attention  was  bestowed  upon 
it  in  earlier  times.  The  father 
acted  as  teacher  and  priest 
toward  the  children  in  patriarchal 
times;  and  there  was  provision 
for  the  training  of  children 
in  the  knowledge  of  the  law  in 
the  Jewish  economy.  Ezra  read 
and  had  the  law  explained 
'before  the  congregation  both  of 
men  and  women,  and  all  that 
could  hear  with  understanding' 
(Neh.  viii.).  There  were  religious 
schools  in  connection  with  the 
synagogues  in  New  Testament 
times.  The  Mishna  .;ays,  'at  five 
years  of  age  let  children  begin 
the  Scriptures,  at  ten  the  Mishna, 
and  at  thirteen  let  them  be  sub- 
jects of  the  Law.'  In  the  apos- 
tolic age  teachers  were  set  over 
the  young  and  ignorant.  Clem- 
ent of  Alexandria  and  Origen  did 
duty  as  catechists.  The  classes 
of  Catechumens  (q.v.)  were  in- 
tended for  the  instruction  of  can- 
didates for  church  fellowship; 
instruction  was  given  on  Sundays 


just  previous  to  public  worship, 
and  the  scholars  were  mostly 
adults.  At  the  Reformation, 
Luther  (1,529)  opened  schools  for 
catechizing  children,  Knox  (1560) 
did  the  same  in  Scotland.  St. 
Charles  Borromeo  (q.v.),  arch- 
bishop of  Milan,  founded  Sun- 
day schools  in  his  diocese,  which 
still  exist,  but  these  were  chiefly 
secular.  Sunday  schools  are 
noticed  in  an  ordinance  of 
Albert  and  Isabel  in  1608  as  then 
existing  in  the  Catholic  Nether- 
lands. Both  Richard  Baxter  and 
the  Rev.  Joseph  Alleine  (1634- 
68)  were  in  the  habit  of  gathering 
young  people  together  for  in- 
struction; and  there  were  many 
irregular  and  isolated  attempts 
in  the  same  direction  in  different 
parts  of  Great  Britain. 

The  modern  system  of  Sunday 
school  instruction  dates  from  the 
time  of  Robert  Raikes  (q.v.),  a 
newspaper  publisher  of  Glouces- 
ter, England,  who  founded  and 
consolidated  the  system,  and  gave 
the  subject  publicity  through  his 
journal  and  other  organs  of  pub- 
lic opinion.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  his  philanthropic  work  in 
Gloucester  jails  had  impressed 
him  with  the  direct  connection 
between  ignorance  and  crime. 
One  day,  in  1780,  he  had  gone  to 
hire  a  gardener  in  a  low  suburb  of 
the  town  near  the  Severn,  where 
the  people  were  mostly  employed 
in  a  pin  factory.  He  was  grieved 
at  seeing  the  groups  of  wretched, 
ragged  children  at  play  in  the 
streets,  and  on  inquiry  was  in- 
formed that  on  Sunday  'the 
street  was  filled  with  a  multitude 
of  wretches,  who,  having  no  em- 
ployment on  that  day,  spent  theii 
time  in  noise  and  riot,  and  curs- 
ing and  swearing.'  To  check  this 
deplorable  profanation  of  the 
Lord's  Day  he  engaged  four 
women,  who  kept  dame  schools, 
to  instruct  as  many  children  as 
he  should  send  them  on  Sunday 
in  reading  and  the  church  cate- 
chism, for  which  they  were  to 
receive  one  shilling  each  for  their 
day's  service.  In  this  work  he 
was  assisted  by  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Stock,  of  St.  John's  parish.  The 
children  gathered  into  the  first 
Sunday  schools  ranged  from  six 
to  twelve  or  fourteen  years  of 
age.  Personal  cleanliness  was  the 
only  requirement. 

Owing  to  the  total  ignorance  of 
the  pupils  the  teaching  was  of 
an  educational  nature  at  first; 
the  little  folks  learned  their  let- 
ters, and  to  spell  and  read.  The 
schools  opened  at  8  a,m.,  and  by 
8:30  lessons  were  begun;  after- 
ward the  children  went  home,  or 
to  forenoon  service;  and  in  the 
afternoon  to  school  again  at  the 
close  of  the  church  service  till 
5:30  p.m.  Boys  and  girls  werts 
taught  separately,  and  once  a 
month  they  were  publiclv  cate- 

Vol.  XL— 32-M. 


Sunday  Schools 


543  A 


Sunday  Schools 


chized  in  church  as  to  their  re- 
ligious knowledge.  In  a  short 
period  a  visible  improvement  was 
effected  in  both  the  manners  and 
morals  of  the  children. 

In  1784  the  first  Sunday  school 
was  established  in  London  by  the 
Rev.  Rowland  Hill.  Numerous 
schools  spraing  up  in  all  the  prin- 
cipal towns;  a  society  under  high 
patronage  was  formed  in  London 
in  1785  for  the  establishment  and 
support  of  Sunday  schools;  and 
by  1789  there  were  300,000  schol- 
ars throughout  the  kingdom. 
Hannah  More  (q.v.)  started  a 
school  in  1789,  and  Sydney  Smith 
one  at  Netheravon.  Adam  Smith 
wrote  that  *no  plan  has  promised 
to  effect  a  change  of  manners 
with  equal  ease  and  simplicity 
since  the  days  of  the  apostles'; 
Cowper  and  John  Wesley  like- 
wise approved  of  the  system. 

Originally  organized  to  reach 
the  poor  and  degraded,  the  Sun- 
day school  movement  spread  to 
all  classes.  Paid  supervisors  were 
supplanted  by  voluntary  work- 
ers; secular  teaching  was  discon- 
tinued; the  Bible  came  to  hold 
the  dominant  place  in  the  curric- 
ulum; and  the  Sunday  schools 
and  the  churches  became  affili- 
ated. 

The  growth  of  Sunday  school 
work  in  Great  Britain  has  been 
remarkable.  In  1851  there  were 
27,048  schools,  with  325,450 
teachers,  and  2,987,980  scholars. 
In  1880 — one  hundred  years  after 
the  establishment  of  Raikes'  first 
school — the  number  of  scholars 
was  6,060,677,  and  of  teachers 
674,704.  In  1924  the  number 
of  schools  had  reached  51,000; 
of  teachers  690,000;  and  of 
scholars  6,667,000. 

Sunday  schools  developed  more 
slowly  on  the  Continent;  church 
control  of  education  in  some 
countries,  and  compulsory  relig- 
ious education  in  day  schools  in 
others,  making  their  need  less 
urgent.  They  have  now  been 
established  throughout  Europe, 
largely  through  the  efforts  of  the 
London  Sunday  School  Union 
and  the  American  Foreign  Sun- 
day School  Society.  There  are 
also  schools  in  Asia,  Africa,  Aus- 
tralia, and  South  America. 

The  figures  for  the  different 
divisions  are  as  follows: 


The  first  World's  Convention 
of  Sunday  Schools  met  in  Lon- 
don in  1889,  and  subsequent  con- 
ventions in  St.  Louis  ( 1 893 ) ,  Lon- 
don (1898),  Jerusalem  (1904), 
Rome  (1907) ,  Washington  (1910), 
Zurich  (1913),  Tokyo  (1920), 
Glasgow  (1924),  Los  Angeles 
(1928),  Rio  de  Janeiro  (1932). 

Statistics  gathered  for  the  Los 
Angeles  convention  of  1928,  at 
which  fifty-one  countries  were 
represented,  show  the  world's 
total  of  Sunday  schools  (exclu- 
sive of  those  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church)  to  be  320,620,  with 
3,323,020  teachers,  and  33,751,- 
623  scholars. 

United  States  and  Canada. — 
The  Sunday  school  idea  has 
reached  its  fullest  development 
in  America.  Even  before  Raikes' 
time  a  number  of  schools  had 
been  established  in  connection 
with  various  churches  in  the 
colonies.  Some  of  the  earliest 
were  those  at  Roxbury,  Mass. 
(1674),  Norwich,  Conn.  (1676), 
Plymouth,  Mass.  (1680),  New- 
town, Long  Island  (1683),  and 
Ephratah,  Pa.  (1740).  The 
Raikes  plan  was  at  once. adopted 
by  American  churches;  and  the 
Methodists  organized  their  first 
school  on  that  plan  in  1786,  ♦^he 
Universalists  in  1790,  and  the 
Friends  and  Baptists  in  1791. 

As  in  Great  Britain,  the  work 
was  largely  fostered  by  special 
organizations.  The  earliest  of 
these  was  the  First-Day  or  Sun- 
day School  Society,  formed  in 
Philadelphia,  in  1790,  by  repre- 
sentatives of  various  denomina- 
tions, for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing Sunday  schools  for  the  re- 
ligious instruction  of  the  poor  and 
destitute  children  of  that  city. 
In  1816  the  New  York  Sunday 
School  Union  was  organized ;  and 
in  1817  the  various  local  unions 
in  Philadelphia  united  to  form 
the  Sunday  and  Adult  School 
Union,  which  in  1824  had  over 
700  affiliated  schools  and  auxil- 
iaries. 

In  1820  the  New  York  Union 
proposed  the  formation  of  a 
national  society;  and  with  the 
Sunday  and  Adult  School  Union 
as  a  nucleus,  and  the  other 
unions  throughout  the  country  as 
auxiliaries,  the  American  Sunday 
School  Union  was  organized  in 


1824,  its  stated  purpose  being  the 
publication  of  suitable  Sunday 
school  literature,  the  selection 
and  preparation  of  lessons,  and 
the  organization  and  mainte- 
nance of  Sunday  schools.  (See 
Sunday  School  Union,  Ameri- 
can.) 

Various  denominational  unions 
were  also  organized.  In  1827  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
founded  its  Sunday  School 
Union;  in  1832  the  Congrega- 
tionalists  organized  what  is  now 
the  Congregational  Sunday 
School  and  Publishing  Society; 
and  in  1833  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  formed  its 
Sunday  School  Union. 

Many  local  conventions  and 
several  that  were  national  in 
scope  had  already  been  held  prior 
to  the  First  National  Convention 
of  the  American  Sunday  School 
Union,  which  met  in  1832.  A 
second  convention  met  in  1833,  a 
third  in  1859,  and  in  1869  was 
begun  the  series  of  triennial  con- 
ventions. In  1875  delegates 
from  Canada  were  admitted,  and 
the  meetings  became  known  as 
the  International  Sunday  School 
Conventions.  In  1905  the  name 
was  changed  to  International 
Sunday  School  Association.  Del- 
egates to  the  Association  are  ap- 
pointed by  State  and  provincial 
organizations.  The  headquar- 
ters are  in  Chicago,  where  a  corps 
of  paid  workers  and  volunteer 
helpers  is  maintained.  The  an- 
nual income  is  about  $60,000. 
One  of  the  most  important  duties 
of  the  Association  is  the  prepara- 
tion, through  its  Lesson  Com- 
mittee, of  the  International  Sun- 
day School  Lessons. 

Most  of  the  States  have  inter- 
denominational State  organiza- 
tions, and  numerous  counties  and 
townships  are  organized,  espe- 
cially in  the  North.  Many  States 
also  hold  annual  conventions  for 
the  discussion  of  themes  perti- 
nent to  their  Sunday  school  work, 
and  in  some  States  each  county 
has  its  regular  annual  conven- 
tion. 

Between  1825  and  1829  the 
number  of  schools  in  the  Ameri- 
can Sunday  School  Union  in- 
creased from  1,150  to  5,901.  In 
1829  branch  headquarters  were 
established  at  Cincinnati,  and  in 
two  years  2,867  Sunday  schools 
had  been  organized  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  alone.  For  more 
than  80  years  the  Union  estab- 
lished schools  on  an  average  of 
3K  per  day,  and  was  largely  in- 
strumental in  the  formation  of 
State  and  local  unions — a  work 
of  extension  still  carried  on.  The 
denominational  agencies  are  also 
important  factors  in  Sunday 
school  extension.  At  the  First 
International  Convention  of  1875 
the  United  States  and  Canada  re- 
ported 69,272  Sunday  schools, 


Divisions                    Schools  Teachers  Scholars  -n- 

iinrol  Jmer 

North  America                     159,817  2,179,312  21,851,027  24,030,339 

Central  America                        381  1,832  19,098  29,930 

South  America                       2,976  11,695  159,160  170,855 

West  Indies                           1,930  17,364  171,330  188.694 

Europe                                 90,621  854,905  8,462,845  9,371,750 

Asia                                      37,427  96,564  1,470,818  1,567,382 

Africa                                    13,148  63,477  726,181  789,658 

Malaysia                                 1,422  8,161  100,463  108,624 

Oceania                                 12,898  89,720  790,710  880,430 

Totals                                320,620  3,323,030  33,751,623  37,074,662 


Vol.  XL— 32-M. 


Sunday  Schools 


543B 


Sunderland 


with  788,805  teachers,  and  6,- 
062,064  scholars.  At  a  conven- 
tion held  recently  there  were  re- 
ported 159,817  schools,  with 
2,179,312  teachers  and  21,851,- 
027  scholars. 

These  statistics  do  not  include 
Roman  Catholic  Sunday  schools, 
which  have  about  1,000,000  pu- 
pils in  the  United  States.  Sun- 
day schools  are  an  essential  part 
of  Roman  Catholic  churches. 

In  recent  years  it  has  been  ob- 
served that  the  schools  are  at- 
tended with  a  greater  degree  of 
regularity  if  an  orchestra  were 
present  or  if  a  system  of  special 
awards  and  prizes  were  given  as 
inducements.  Sunday  schools  in 
the  rural  districts  gain  members 
considerably  faster  than  those  in 
the  city.  The  rate  of  growth  is 
small  in  the  type  of  community 
in  which  the  population  and  the 
life  of  the  nation  are  concentrat- 
ing more  and  more  ;  and  it  has 
been  noted  that  the  peculiar 
problems  of  the  city — counter  at- 
tractions, paucity  of  contacts 
during  the  week,  and  loss  of 
neighborhood  consciousness — re- 
tard the  growth  of  its  Sunday 
schools.  After  a  survey  made 
by  research  workers  in  religious 
institutions  it  was  noted  that  an 
elaborate  programme  of  super- 
ficial activities  greatly  aids  the 
membership  growth  of  the 
schools,  and  that  the  outstanding 
means  for  accomplishing  the  pur- 
pose of  the  Sunday  school  are 
Bible  study  and  worship,  with 
teachers  well  trained  for  their 
work. 

Lesson  System, — At  the  out- 
set of  the  Sunday  school  move- 
ment, and  while  it  aimed  chiefly 
at  the  ignorant  class  of  children, 
little  was  taught  beyond  reading, 
the  Bible  being  used  largely  as 
the  textbook.  In  time,  however, 
regular  lessons  were  selected 
from  the  Scriptures  and  taught 
to  the  scholars.  In  the  early 
days  of  American  Sunday 
schools  much  stress  was  laid  on 
memorizing  verses  and  selections 
from  the  various  catechisms. 
This  gave  way,  in  time,  to  regu- 
lar Scripture  lessons,  and  both 
scholar  and  teacher  were  pro- 
vided with  adequate  lesson  helps. 
As  this  plan  increased  in  popu- 
larity, numerous  systems  of  les- 
sons and  textbooks  were  issued, 
some  by  individuals,  some  by  the 
denominational  presses,  so  that 
there  was  little  uniformity  among 
the  different  schools. 

Dr.  Vincent,  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  Chautauqua  (q.  v.),  which 
sprang  from  a  Sunday  school 
convention,  deserves  mention 
for  the  excellence  of  his  Sunday 
school  lessons.  Together  with 
Mr.  Jacobs  of  Chicago  he  took 
the  initiatory  steps  which  led  to 
the   publication    of    the  Inter- 


national Series  of  Lessons.  At 
the  National  Sunday  School  Con- 
vention of  1872  a  committee 
appointed  for  that  purpose  se- 
lected a  series  of  lessons  from 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
covering  not  more  than  seven 
years,  and  their  adoption  was 
recommended  to  all  the  schools 
in  the  coimtry.  Later,  other 
countries  adopted  the  lessons, 
the  name  of  the  organization  was 
changed  to  the  International 
Sunday  School  Association,  and 
for  more  than  thirty  years  the 
uniform  international  lessons 
have  been  in  use  throughout  the 
world. 

In  1902,  in  response  to  a  de- 
mand from  the  International 
Primary  Union,  the  Lesson  Com- 
mittee issued  a  series  of  special 
lessons  for  beginners;  in  1905  a 
course  for  adults  on  the  ethical 
teachings  of  Jesus  was  author- 
ized; and  in  1908  the  Inter- 
national Association  instructed 
its  committee  to  prepare  a  thor- 
oughly graded  series  of  lessons 
for  all  classes,  for  use  in  such 
schools  as  desired  it.  The  series 
of  lessons  thus  prepared  is  aimed 
to  meet  the  spiritual  needs  of  the 
pupil  at  each  stage  of  his  devel- 
opment. The  entire  course  cov- 
ers seventeen  years,  as  follows  : 
Beginners'  Department,  two 
years;  Primary  Department, 
three  years  ;  Junior,  Intermedi- 
ate, and  Senior  Departments,  four 
years  each.  While  these  lessons 
are  based  on  the  Bible,  they  also 
include  Christian  biography  and 
the  consideration  of  the  religious 
and  ethical  problems  of  modern 
life. 

Lessons  have  also  been  pre- 
pared by  other  organizations. 
The  Bible  Study  Union  has  a 
graded  series  arranged  on  a 
slightly  different  plan,  and  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  and  certain 
Lutheran  schools  have  systems 
conforming  with  the  church  year. 

The  Sunday  school  movement 
has  given  rise  to  an  extensive 
literature,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant factors  are  the  periodical 
publications  of  the  different  de- 
nominations, with  their  wide  cir- 
culation and  influence.  Each  of 
the  larger  denominations  also 
issues  many  volumes  for  the  use 
of  scholars  ;  while  many  works 
on  paidology,  pedagogy,  and  Sun- 
day school  methods  have  been 
published  to  aid  teachers  and 
workers. 

During  the  present  century  in- 
creased emphasis  has  been  placed 
upon  the  Sunday  school  as  an 
educational  agency ;  and  better 
buildings  and  equipment,  and 
improved  educational  methods, 
have  come  into  use.  The  Reli- 
gious Education  Association  (q. 
v.),  formed  in  1903,  is  a  result 
of  this  new  emphasis.    Other  re- 


cent developments  are  the  Sun- 
day School  Editorial  Association 
and  the  Sunday  School  Council. 

See  Religious  Education  ; 
Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
sociation ;  Young  Women's 
Christian  Association. 

Bibliography, — Consult  Vin- 
cent's The  Modern  Sunday 
School;  Trumbull's  Yale  Lec- 
tures on  the  Sunday  Schools- 
Meyer's  The  Graded  Sunday 
School  in  Principle  and  Practice 

(1910)  ;  Shepherd's  Religious 
Pedagogy  in  the  Modern  Sun- 
day School  (1911);  Cope's  The 
Evolution  of  the  Sunday  School 

(1911)  and  Efficiency  in  the 
Sunday  School  (1912)  ;  Report 
of  the  W orld's  Sunday  School 
Convention  at  Glasgow  (1924)  ; 
Encyclopccdia  of  Sunday  Schools 
(1914);  Archibald's  Modern 
Sunday  School  (1926). 

Sunday  School  Union, 
American,  an  organization 
formed  in  1824  as  the  successor 
of  the  Philadelphia  Sunday  and 
Adult  School  Union,  founded  in 
1817.  Its  work,  directed  by  lay- 
men, is  interdenominational,  and 
consists  in  the  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  Sunday  schools, 
and  the  publication  of  religious 
and  moral  literature.  Among  the 
latter  are  periodicals  and  lesson 
helps  for  Sunday  schools,  books 
of  reference,  commentaries  and 
other  Biblical  works,  books  for 
home  and  other  libraries,  maps, 
charts,  and  general  Sunday 
school  supplies.  It  distributes  a 
vast  amount  of  religious  litera- 
ture and  maintains  a  large  num- 
ber of  permanent  missionaries. 

Sunderland,  seaport,  and  mu- 
nicipal, parliamentary,  and  coun- 
ty borough,  England,  in  Dur- 
ham, at  the  mouth  of  the  Wear  ; 
12  miles  southeast  of  Newcastle. 
It  comprises  the  parishes  of 
Monkwearmouth,  Bishopwear- 
mouth,  and  Sunderland.  The 
first  district  lies  north  of  the 
Wear,  and  the  others  south,  the 
three  being  connected  by  a  cast- 
iron  bridge,  completed  1796,  and 
widened  by  Stephenson  in  1858, 
and  a  railway  bridge.  The 
parish  Church  of  St.  Peter, 
Monkwearmouth,  was  founded 
in  the  seventh  century  by  Biscop, 
in  connection  with  the  monastery 
where  Bede  became  a  student. 
St.  Michael's,  Bishopwearmouth 
(originally  tenth  century),  con- 
tains some  thirteenth  century 
work.  The  Town  Hall  is  a  hand- 
some modern  structure.  Among 
other  public  buildings  are  the 
Public  Library,  Museum  and 
Art  Gallery,  People's  Palace,  and 
Victoria  Hall.  The  port  at  the 
river  mouth  is  enclosed  by  two 
long  piers.  Great  improvements 
have  been  made,  forming  a  fine 
harbor  of  refuge  of  150  acres. 

Sunderland  is  one  of  the  fore- 
Voi,.  XI  — 32-M. 


Sunderland 


544 


Sunfish 


most  steel  shipbuilding  centres 
in  the  United  Kingdom ;  and 
there  are  engineering,  anchor, 
and  chain-cable  works,  roperies 
(hemp  and  wire),  glass  works, 
forges,  and  other  industries. 
There  is  trade  in  coal  (more  than 
5,000,000  tons  annually).  About 
one  mile  north  of  the  town  is  the 
residential  and  sea-bathing  dis- 
trict of  Roker.  Pop.  (1931) 
185,870. 

Sunderland,  Jabez  Thomas 
(1842-\^;ite)),  American  clergy- 
man, was  born  in'England,  gradu- 
ated from  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago and  the  Baptist  Theological 
Seminary.     He  was  ordained  a 
Baptist  minister  but  later  became 
a  Unitarian.     After  holding 
various  pastorates  in  Massachu- 
setts,  Illinois,   California,  Con- 
necticut,  England  and  New  York, 
he  became  Billings  lecturer  of 
the  American  Unitarian  Associ-  v 
ation  in  Japan,   China,  Ceylon"^, 
and  the  Philippines.     He  pub-  "i^ 
lished  numerous  works  on  theo-]^ 
logical  and  Oriental  subjects. 

Sunderland,  Robert  Spen- 
cer, SECOND  Earl  of  (1640- 
1702),  British  statesman,  was 
born  in  Paris.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  served  as  ambassador 
to  Spain  in  1671,  and  on  his  final 
return  to  England  (1679)  be- 
came a  Secretary  of  State.  At 
the  Revolution,  the  trusted  coun- 
sellor of  Charles  ii.  and  James 
II.,  yet  he  apparently  had  no  dif- 
ficulty in  becoming  the  equally 
trusted  adviser  of  William  iii. 
It  was  on  his  advice  that  the 
king  came  to  rely  on  a  homo- 
geneous administration  chosen 
from  one  party — a  constitutional 
change  of  enormous  importance 
in  England. 

Sundew,  the  popular  name  of 
certain  plants  belonging  to  the 
genus  Drosera.  See  Insectiv- 
orous Plants. 

Sun  Dial,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  time  by  means  of  the 
motion  of  the  sun's  shadow  cast 
by  a  rod  on  its  surface.  It  is  an 
instrument  of  great  antiquity 
and,  before  clocks  and  watches 
became  common,  was  in  general 
use  as  a  time  keeper.  Dial  mak- 
ing was  then  an  important  branch 
of  mathematical  study ;  now  a 
sun  dial  is  more  an  object  of 
curiosity  than  of  utility.  A  dial 
consists  of  two  parts — the  stile 
or  gnomon,  usually  the  edge  of  a 
plate  of  metal,  always  made 
parallel  to  the  earth's  axis,  and 
pointing  toward  the  North  Pole  ; 
and  the  dial  plane,  on  which  are 
marked  the  directions  of  the 
shadow  for  the  several  hours  of 
the  day,  their  halves,  and 
quarters. 

The  most  common  is  the  hori- 
zontal dial,  placed  flat  or  paral- 
lel to  the  horizon  ;  another  form 
is  the  vertical  dial,  fastened,  for 
Vol.  XL— 32-M. 


example,  against  an  upright  wall ; 
the  least  common  is  the  inclined 
dial.  The  horizontal  dial  fre- 
(luently  consists  of  a  flat  table, 
firmly  placed  on  a  solid  pedestal, 
and  having  the  stile  rising  from 
its  centre,  inclined  to  the  merid- 
ian line  of  the  dial  at  an  angle 
equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place. 
The  shadow  of  the  stile  moves 
round  the  northern  part  of  the 
dial  from  morning  to  afternoon, 
and  thus  supplies  a  rough  meas- 
urement of  the  hour  of  the  day. 
The  vertical  dial,  if  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  meridian,  faces  the 
south  or  north.  If  not  in  that 
position,  the  dial  is  said  to  be 
declined.  The  hour  lines  of  a 
south  vertical  dial  are  shown  in 
Fig.  9.  Of  inclined  dials  the 
simplest  is  the  Polar  Dial,  where 
the  plane  is  parallel  to  the 
earth's  axis,  and  therefore  also 
parallel  to  the  stile,  making  the 
hour  lines  also  parallel. 

Dialing. — The  stile  of  a  dial 
being  parallel  to  the  earth's  axis, 
the  problem  of  constructing  a 
dial  resolves  itself  into  that  of 
the  graduation  of  a  dial  plane. 
Suppose  a  hollow  and  trans- 
parent sphere,  to  represent  the 
earth ;  and  suppose  its  equator 
divided  into  24  equal  parts  by 
meridians,  one  of  them  passing 
through  a  given  place,  say 
Washington^  D.  C.  If  the  hour 
of  twelve  be  marked  at  the 
Equator,  both  on  the  latter  me- 
ridian and  that  opposite  it,  and 
all  the  rest  of  the  hours  in  or- 
der on  the  other  meridians,  those 
meridians  will  be  the  hour  circles 
of  Washington,  because  the  sun 
will  pass  from  one  meridian  to 
another  in  one  hour.  Then,  if 
the  sphere  has  an  opacjue  axis, 
the  shadow  of  this  axis  would 
fall,  in  the  course  of  the  day,  on 
every  particular  meridian  and 
hour,  as  the  sun  came  to  the 
plane  of  the  opposite  meridian, 
and  would  thus  show  the  time  at 
Washington.  If  the  sphere  were 
cut  through  the  middle  by  a 
plane,  in  the  rational  horizon 
of  Washington,  and  if  straight 
lines  were  drawn  from  the  cen- 
tre of  the  plane  to  the  points 
where  its  circumference  is  cut 
by  the  hour  circles  of  the  sphere, 
those  lines  would  be  the  hour 
lines  of  a  horizontal  dial  for 
Washington. 

Nocturnal  Sun  Dial, — Work 
began  in  1932  at  Guayaquil,  Re- 
public of  Ecuador,  on  a  noc- 
turnal sun  dial  using  light  in- 
stead of  shadow  to  tell  the  time 
and  expanded  to  relatively  gi- 
gantic proportions.  The  light 
source  would  be  an  electric 
searchlight — a  large  airport  bea- 
con mounted  on  a  Moori.sh  tower 
— composed  of  a  24-inch  unit 
with  a  1,000-watt  lamp  (from 
the  International  General  Elec- 


tric Co.).  The  beacon,  revolving 
once  in  12  hours,  would  indicate 
the  time  by  illuminating  sur- 
rounding landmarks  at  the  same 
time  each  night. 

The  U nivetsal  Dialing  Cyl- 
inder is  a  glass  cylindrical  tube, 
closed  at  both  ends  with  brass 
plates,  on  the  centres  of  which  a 
wire  or  axis  is  fixed.  The  tube 
is  either  fixed  to  a  horizontal 
board  at  an  angle  equal  to  the 
latitude  of  the  place,  or  moves 
on  a  joint,  so  that  it  may  be  ele- 
vated till  its  axis  is  parallel  to 
the  earth's  at  any  latitude.  The 
24  hour  lines  are  drawn  on  the 
outside  of  the  glass,  equidistant 
from  one  another,  and  parallel  to 
the  axis.  When  the  axis  is  ad- 
justed for  the  latitude,  and  the 
board  levelled,  with  the  end  to- 
ward the  north,  the  axis,  when 
the  sun  shines,  will  serve  as  stile, 
and  cast  a  shadow  on  the  hour 
of  the  day  among  the  parallel 
hour  lines.  A  horizontal  plate 
put  into  the  tube,  with  lines 
drawn  from  the  centre  to  the 
several  parallels  cutting  its  edge, 
will  be  a  horizontal  dial  for  the 
given  latitude.  Consult  Daw- 
barn's  The  Sun  Dial;  Gatty's 
Book  of  Sun  Dials. 

Sundsvall,  soons'val,  town, 
Sweden,  in  Vasternorrland  gov- 
ernment, at  the  mouth  of  the 
River  Insdal ;  117  miles  north  of 
Gefle.  It  has  iron  industries, 
sawmills,  shipbuilding  yards,  and 
exports  timber  and  iron.  The 
chief  trade  is  with  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  and  Finland.  The 
harbor  is  well  sheltered  from  the 
east  winds  by  a  group  of  islands 
but  it  is  usually  ice-bound  from 
December  to  May.    Pop.  18,014. 

Sunfish,  a  popular  name  ap- 
plied to  at  least  three  different 
kinds  of  bony  fish. 

(1)  The  true  sunfishes  are  spe- 
cies of  Orthagoriscus,  and  are 
closely  allied  to  the  globe  fishes, 
from  which  they  differ  chiefly  in 
their  short  compressed  bodies, 
which  cannot  be  inflated,  the  ex- 
tremely short  and  truncated  tail, 
and  the  confluent  ventral  fins. 
The  common  sunfish  (O.  mola) 
may  be  from  seven  to  eight  feet 
long,  and  is  bulky  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  its  length.  It  is  widely 
distributed,  and  not  infrequently 
is  found  off  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  United  States. 

(2)  Lampris  liina,  a  beautiful 
form  allied  to  the  so-called  'dol- 
phin' {Coryphana) .  Its  body  is 
compressed  and  elevated,  and 
covered  with  small  scales.  The 
fish  reaches  a  length  of  about 
four  feet,  and  is  bluish,  spotted 
with  silver,  with  scarlet  fins. 
It  is  an  edible  form,  and  occurs 
in  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterrane- 
an. The  names  opah  and  king- 
fish  are  also  applied  to  it,  and 
it  is  regarded  as  excellent  eating. 


Ui  o 
3  C 


to  (U 
3  M 


w  8  S 


5 


c/2  ffi  * 
Q 


•a  ' 

It 


 "  ~  ■   I       .  _—  .   ' 

SOME  TYPICAL  SUNDIALS. 

50  bV^^v  AndrrMkr.^nTil-'!^.lv,.^-  ^^.^f^ek  (British  Museum).  3.  Greek  (from  the  'Tower  of  theWinds,»  Athens),  execute.!  aDouc 
8t  M?rh^l'a  W?nPh*  ^t2r    Ff.^^I^  i'"*"?  wall  under  frieze.   4.  Roman  :  portable,     300  a.d.    5.  Early  English: 

10  FteSfLnVe  •  ITntnn  =■       <^uthbert's,  Darlington.    7,  8.  Renaissance  (Dover  Museum).    9.  Bolton  Abbey. 

'iS^^'^o^Sl^Ti'l^^^^^^^^  aarden,  Rochester.  IL  Wx4. 


% 


gunflower  , 

(3.)  Three  genera  of  small  fresh- 
water percoid  fishes,  found  in  the 
waters  of  N,  America.  They 
rarely  exceed  six  inches  in  length, 
belong  to  the  genera  Centrarchus, 
Bryttus,  and  Pomotis,  are  beauti- 
ful in  color,  and  favorite  game  for 
boys'  fishing  and  for  keeping  in 
aquaria. 

Sunflower,  the  name  of  a  spe- 
cies of  herbaceous  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  Helianthus,  a 
subdivision  of  the  order  Compos- 
hx.  The  common  annual  sun- 
flower is  H.  annuus,  which  re- 
(juires  to  be  raised  from  seed  sown 
in  the  _  spring.  It  should  be 
grown  _  in  deep  and  strong  soil. 
The  vigorous  perennial  autumn- 
blooming  sunflowers  are  rampant 
growers,  and  care  must  be  taken  to 
keep  them  away  from  tender  and 
easily  choked  plants.  See  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agric,  Div.  of  Chem.,  Bull. 
60  (Wiley's  'The  Sunflower  Plant'). 

Sungari,  riv.,  Manchuria,^  a 
trib.  of  the  Amur,  which  it  joins 
from  the  right  220  m.  above  Kha- 
barovka.  It  rises  in  the  Long 
White  Mts.,  flows  N.w.  to  Kirin, 
thence  due  N.  to  the  junction  of 
the  Nonni,  and  thence  N.E.  to 
the  Amur.  In  some  parts  of  its 
course  of  850  m.  the  Sungari  is 
only  a  few  feet  deep,  and  spreads 
out  to  a  width  of  more  tnan  a 
mile,  while  ^  in  other  mountain- 
ous parts  its  channel  is  nar- 
rowed to  300  or  400  ft.  It  is 
navigable  by  light  steam  craft 
as  high  as  Kirin.  It  teems  with 
fish,  including  sturgeon,  trout, 
and  salmon.  In  winter  the  river 
is  frozen  for  five  months,  when  it 
is  used  as  a  highway. 

Sungei  Ujong,  British  pro- 
tected native  state  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  in  the  confederacy 
of  Negri  Sembilan,  lies  on  the 
Strait  of  Malacca,  immediately 
N.  of  the  British  colony  of  Ma- 
lacca. The  country  is  low  and 
swampy  on  the  seaboard,  hilly 
inland,  and  produces  rice,  rub- 


546 

Sunn,  a  fibre  obtained  from 
the  sunn  hemp,  Crotolaria  jun- 
cea,  largely  cultivated  in  India. 
It  is  m.uch'  used  for  rope-making 
and  for  gunny  bags,  canvas, 
paper,  and  fishing-nets. 

Sunnites,  more  correctly  SuN- 
Nis.  The  death  of  Mohammed, 
the  founder  of  Islam,  ^  without 
male  heirs,  and  his  omission  to 
appoint  a  successor,  led  to  the 
division  of  Islam  into  two  sacer- 
dotal and  political  factions,  the 
Shiites  and  the  ^  Sunnites.  The 
latter  sect  took  its  name  from  a 
collection  of  books  on  traditional 
law,  called  the  Sunnat,  which  are 
received  as  having  authority  con- 
current with  and  supplementary 
to  the  Koran.  This  sect  also 
claims  the  right  of  nominating 
the  Prophet's  successors.  The 
Shiites  became  the  poets,  the 
Sunnites  'the  warriors,  of  Islam. 
The  bulk  of  the  population  of 
Turkey  are  Sunnites. 

Sun  Pillar.    See  Halo. 

Sunshine  Recorder,  an  in- 
strument for  measuring  the  dura- 
tion of  sunshine.  The  thermomet- 
ric  recorder,  used  by  the  U.  S. 
Weather  Bureau,  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  glass  tube  of  srnall 
diameter,  carrying  a  cylindrical 
bulb  at  each  end,  the  whole  en- 
closed in  a  vacuum.  The  lower 
bulb  is  coated  with  lampblack 
and  partly  filled  with  mercury. 
The  connecting  tube  projects 
into  the  lower  of  the  two  bulbs 
and  passes  below  the  surface  of 
the  mercury.  While  in  shadow, 
both  bulbs  remain  at  the  same 
temperature.  In^  sunshine  the 
blackened  bulb  is  heated  more 
than  the  other,  and  the  expan- 
sion of  the  air  forces  the  mercury 
to  rise  in  the  tube  until  it  com- 
pletes an  electric  circuit  by  con- 
tact with  two  platinum  wires 
soldered  into  ^  the  glass.  The 
same  circuit  is  interrupted  at 
another  point  by  clock  -  work, 
which  allows  the  current  to  pass 


4  Sun-spot  approaching  the  Edge  o-  the  Sun's  Disc. 


ber,  sugar,  coffee,  tapioca,  and 
tin.  Area,  1,800  sq.  m.  Pop., 
largely  Chinese,  about  30,000. 

Suniiim,  the  ancient  name  of 
the  rocky  promontory  (200  ft.) 
which  forms  the  S.  extremity  of 
Attica  in  Greece.  On  the  highest 
point  was  a  temple  of  Athena, 
dating  probably  450-400  B.c- 


at  intervals  of  one  minute  through 
an  electro-magnet  whose  arma- 
ture is  connected  with  a  pen  that 
traces  a  line  on  a  revolving  cylin- 
der. So  long  as  the  sun  is  shin- 
ing this  line  will  be  interrupted 
by  lateral  strokes  once  a  minute, 
but  will  be  a  continuous  straight 
line  when  the  sun  is  obscured. 


0  Sunspots 

The  burning  recorder  consists 
of  a  glass  sphere  which  focusses 
the  sun's  rays  upon  a  paper  or 
cardboard.  In  the  photographic 
recorder,  the  sunlight  passes 
through  a  small  aperture  and 
traces  a  line  upon  a  piece  of 
sensitized  paper. 

See  C.  F.  Marvin's  'Instruc- 
tions for  the  Care  and  Manage- 
ment of  Sunshine  Recorders,' 
U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  Circular  G 
(1901). 

Sun-spots,  dark  markings  fre- 
quently visible  on  the  solar  sur- 
face, discovered  by  Fabricius  in 
1610.  They  appear  to  be  breaks 
in  the  photosphcric  clouds,  and 
vary  in  dimensions  from  'pores' 
some  hundreds  of  miles  across 
to  enormous  chasms  from  40,000 
to  50,000  m.  in  diameter.  The 
largest  on  record  measured  (Feb. 
2,  1905)  109,000  by  63,000  m., 
and  covered  of  the  sun's 
disc.  A  'normal'  spot  consists 
of  a  central  'umbra,'  which  looks 
black  by  contrast  with  its  sur- 
roundings, but  is  really  (accord- 
ing to  Langley)  500  times  brighter 
than  the  full  moon.  It  includes 
darker  'holes,'  and  is  surrounded 
by  the  'penumbra,'  a  semi-ob- 
scure fringe  of  filaments,  which 
frequently  overhang  the  umbra 
like  a  thatch  or  span  it  with  lus- 
trous 'bridges.'  The  belief  has 
lately  come  to  prevail  that  spots 
differ  widely  in  structure  and 
level.  ^  They  indeed  show  mani- 
fold irregularities.  Some  are 
mere  formless  openings;  others 
appear  as  congeries  of  fragmen- 
tary umbrae  and  penumbral  shreds ; 
most  form  groups  or  trains,  the 
average  duration  of  which  is  fifty- 
six  days  (Cortie).  Individual  large 
spots  commonly  persist  through 
several  solar  rotations.  One  in 
1840-41  lasted  eighteen  months. 
Spots  drift  with  the  sun's  surface, 
and  have,  besides,  small  'proper' 
motions  depending  upon  their 
phases  of  development.  During 
active  growth  they  sometimes  ad- 
vance 6,000  to  8,000  m.  a  day, 
dropping  behind  in  their  decline. 
They  occasionally  give  evidence  of 
internal  gyrations,  but  not  with 
sufficient  regularity  to  lend  sup- 
port to  Faye's  cyclonic  theory  of 
their  origin.  The  spectra  of  sun- 
spots  prove  their  obscurity  to 
arise  from  increased  absorption. 
The  temperature  in  spots  is  prob- 
ably very  high.  They  frequent 
two  zones  on  the  sun's  surface,  in 
b°  to  35°  N.  and  s.  lat.  Scarce 
near  the  equator,  they  seldom  if 
ever  occur  beyond  lat.  45°.  The 
periodicity  of  their  outbursts  was 
detected  by  Schwabe  in  1851. 
The  average  length  of  the  cycle 
is  11.13  years,  divided  into  periods 
of  increasing  and  decreasing  activ- 
ity, which  last  respectively  4.62 
and  6.51  years.  The  2ast  epoch  of 
calm  was  about  June,  1901.  The 
distribution  of  spots  varies  with 


Sunstroke 


KSH 


547 


Superior 


the  progress  of  the  cycle.  A 
steady  diminution  of  mean  lati- 
tude accompanies  the  develop- 
ment of  each  fresh  wave  of  dis- 
turbance— the  first  members  of 
the  series  appearing  just  after 
minimum  in  high  latitudes,  the 
final  ones  closing  down  towards 
the  equator.  This  'law  of  zones' 
was  noted  both  by  Carrington 
and  by  Sporer.  The  periodicity 
of  sun-spots  is  closely  followed 
by  terrestrial,  magnetic,  and  au- 
roral phenomena.  The  cause  of 
sun-spots  remains  obscure. 

Sunstroke,  Insolation,  or 
Heat  Stroke,  general  terms  ap- 
plied to  morbid  conditions  due 
to  exposure  to  excessive  heat. 
Properly  speaking,  Heat  stroke 
and  Sunstroke  are  to  be  differ- 
entiated, though  both  may  be 
included  under  the  term  Insola- 
tion, as  may  a  third  form  known 
as  Heat  Exhaustion. 

Heat  stroke  is  characterized  by 
intense  fever  or  hyperpyrexia,  a 
hot  skin,  and  unconsciousness, 
with  pulmonary  and  venovis 
congestion.  Alcoholism,  physical 
weakness,  poor  health  and  at- 
mospheric moisture  predispose  to 
it,  while  prolonged  residence  in 
tropical  climates  establishes  some 
degree  of  tolerance.  A  fatal 
termination  may  occur  within 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours, 
or  recovery  may  be  complete,  but 
usually  there  remains  a  sensitive- 
ness to  heat  and  inability  to  bear 
high  temperature  or  exposure  to 
the  sun.  In  treatment,  rubbing 
with  ice  or  the  ice-pack  or  bath 
may  be  employed.  Copious  ice 
water  enemata  are  also  useful ; 
or  the  patient  may  be  laid  in  a 
bath  of  cold  water  with  his  head 
resting  on  a  sling  containing  ice. 
When  the  temperature  falls  to 
102°  F.,  he  should  be  put  to  bed, 
and  warmth  applied  to  the  feet, 
and  an  ice  bag  to  the  head. 
Heart  stimulants  such  as  cam- 
phor, caffein,  strophanthus,  or 
digitalin,  should  be  administered. 

In  heat  exhaustion  the  symp- 
toms are  giddiness,  staggering 
gait,  faintness  and  nausea,  a  pale, 
moist  and  cool  skin,  small  and 
soft  pulse,  shallow  breathing,  and 
a  normal,  sub-normal,  or  slightly 
raised  temperature.  Removal  to 
the  shade  or  a  cool  room,  the 
recumbent  position,  application 
of  cold  to  the  head,  and  smelling 
salts  to  the  nose,  are  usually  suf- 
ficient to  revive  the  patient. 

Mild  cases  of  sunstroke  show 
the  same  symptoms  as  heat 
exhaustion.  The  more  severe 
form  is  characterized  by  sudden 
collapse  with  unconsciousness, 
cold  and  wet  skin,  pallor,  feeble 
and  rapid  pulse,  normal  or  sub- 
normal temperature,  and  labored 
or  suspended  respiration.  In 
some  cases  instantaneous  death 
may  occur  owing  to  heart  or 
respiratory   paralysis.     In  this 


form  there  are  all  the  symptoms 
of  shock  as  produced  by  a  sudden 
and  violent  injury  to  the  nerve 
centers.  In  addition  to  the  sim- 
ple treatment  already  mentioned 
for  heat  exhaustion,  cardiac  stim- 
ulants are  required,  and  if  the 
respiration  is  weak,  artificial  res- 
piration should  be  resorted  to. 
Warm  bottles  should  be  applied 
to  the  feet  and  legs. 

Sun  Worship.  The  concep- 
tion of  the  sun  as  the  author  of 
all  things,  the  bringer  of  light, 
warmth,  and  life  to  mankind, 
would  seem  to  be  an  idea  common 
to  all  races.  Sun  worship  was  the 
main  worship  of  the  old  pastoral 
Aryans,  as  may  still  be  seen  in 
Brahman  rites,  and  it  appears  in 
the  Persian  Mithras  (q.  v.),  the 
Greek  Helios  (q.  v.),  and  the 
Egyptian  Ra  (see  Egypt).  In 
Japan  the  sun-goddess  has  been 
worshipped  from  the  earliest 
times.  Ancient  Mexico  and  Peru 
had  their  temples  of  the  sun ; 
and  in  modern  time  the  Indians 
of  the  North  American  plains 
have  celebrated  their  'sun-dance' 
with  many  solemn  rites.  Among 
these  Indians  the  sacred  wheel, 
symbolizing  the  sun,  is  held  in 
reverence  ;  the  same  symbol  fig- 
ures in  the  solar  worship  of  the 
Old  World,  where  it  sometimes 
assumes  the  shape  of  the  sun- 
cross.    See  Sun  Dance. 

Sun  Yat-Sen  (1866-1925), 
Chinese  political  leader,  born  in 
Fatshan,  near  Canton.  He  was 
educated  in  Hawaii  and  studied 
medicine  at  the  Alice  Memorial 
Hospital,  Hongkong,  practicing 
his  profession  for  a  year  in  Ma- 
cao. He  then  devoted  himself  to 
organizing  the  Young  China 
party.  In  1895  he  attempted  an 
unsuccessful  revolt  in  Canton 
and  was  forced  to  flee  to  Japan, 
and  later  to  the  United  States. 
He  organized  his  countrymen  at 
home  and  abroad  for  revolt 
against  the  Manchu  government, 
and  after  the  Revolution  of  1911 
was  made  provisional  president 
of  the  Chinese  Republic,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  resigned  in  1912 
in  favor  of  Yuan-Shih-kai.  He 
advocated  an  extensive  system 
of  railroad  construction  and  was 
appointed  by  the  President  to 
draft  plans  for  a  national  system 
of  railways.  Not  being  in  ac- 
cord wath  the  policy  pursued  by 
Yuan-Shih-kai  however  he  later 
opposed  him  and  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  Japan.  He  went  to  Can- 
ton in  1921  when  the  Kwangsi 
officials  were  ejected  by  General 
Chen  Chiung-ming  and  was 
elected  president  of  China  by  the 
so-called  parliament  of  1921,  but 
was  expelled  in  1922  and  re- 
turned to  Shanghai.  Consult  P. 
Linebarger,  Sun  Yat  Sen  and  the 
Chinese  Republic  (1925). 

Sup.  {supra),  above. 


Super-cooling,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  the  cooling  of  a  liquid 
under  certain  conditions.  If  a 
liquid  is  cautiously  cooled  down 
in  a  perfectly  clean  vessel,  its 
temperature  can  often  be  reduced 
considerably  below  its  proper 
freezing  point  without  solidifica- 
tion taking  place.  If,  however, 
a  fragment  of  the  solid  is  intro- 
duced, freezing  instantly  occurs. 
The  moment  the  liquid  com- 
mences to  solidify  the  latent  heat 
of  fusion  is  set  free,  and  the 
temperature  at  once  rises  to  that 
of  the  true  freezing-point,  and 
remains  at  that  point  till  com- 
plete solidification  takes  place. 
Water  may  be  slowly  cooled  in 
this  way  in  an  air-free  vessel  as 
far  as — 15°  c.  Compare  Super- 
saturation. 

Supererogation,  Works  of, 
voluntary  acts  of  piety  not 
strictly  commanded  of  God  and 
not  essential  to  salvation.  The 
teaching  that  it  is  meritorious  to 
perform  such  acts  is  condemned 
by  Article  xiv  of  the  English 
Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

Superfoetation,  a  term  ap- 
plied during  the  pregnancy  of  a 
mammalian  female  to  the  fertili- 
zation of  a  second  ovum  at  a  con- 
siderably later  date  than  the  first. 
It  is  possible  in  females  posses- 
sing a  double  or  bicornuate 
uterus.  It  is  said  to  be  common 
in  the  hare. 

Superior,  city,  Nebraska, 
Nucholls  county,  on  the  Repub- 
lican River;  135  miles  southwest 
of  Omaha,  on  the  Goldenrod 
Highway  and  the  Sunflower 
Trail.  It  has  grain  and  lumber 
interests  and  a  large  cement  fac- 
tory.   Pop.  (1930)  3,044. 

Superior,  city,  Wisconsin, 
county  seat  of  Douglas  county, 
at  the  west  end  of  Lake  Superior, 
on  St.  Louis  Bay,  opposite  Du- 
luth,  at  the  mouths  of  the  Ne- 
madji  and  St.  Louis  Rii^ers,  and 
on  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Min- 
neapolis and  Omaha,  the  Duluth, 
South  Shore  and  Atlantic,  the 
Great  Northern,  the  Northern 
Pacific,  the  Minneapolis,  St. 
Paul  and  Saulte  Ste.  Marie,  and 
other  Railroads  ;  8  miles  south- 
east of  Duluth,  Minnesota. 
Noteworthy  institutions  are  a 
Carnegie  Library,  a  State  Teach- 
ers College,  St.  Mary's  Hospital 
and  a  fine  Court  House. 

The  excellence  of  the  harbor 
adds  materially  to  the  commer- 
cial importance  of  the  city. 
There  are  13  large  coal  docks,  4 
merchandise  docks.  17  grain  ele- 
vators, with  a  combined  capacity 
of  18,000.000  bushels,  and  ship- 
yards. Additional  industries  in- 
clude the  manufacture  of  motors, 
lumber,  iron  products,  bricks, 
flour,  machinery,  windmills,  and 
planing-mill  products.  The  city 
is  an  important  shipping  point  for 


Supedor 


KSH 


548 


Superphosphate 


wheat,  lumber,  flour,  cement, 
iron  and  steel,  and  lard.  It  is 
believed  that,  in  1661,  the  head- 
quarters of  Radisson  and  Gros- 
seilliers  were  situated  here.  In 
1681  Du  L'hut  established  a 
trading  station  in  this  locality. 
The  place  was  laid  out  in  1855 
Pop.  (1920)  39,671;  (1930) 
36,113. 

Superior,  Lake.  The  largest 
and  most  westerly  of  the  great 
lakes  of  the  St.  Lawrence  basin, 
and  the  largest  body  of  fresh 
water  in  the  world.  It  forms  a 
great  crescent  in  main  outline 
with  both  eastern  and  western 
extremities  contracted  and  point- 
ing southward.  Its  mean  length 
on  this  curve  is  420  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  167  miles;  total 
shore  line,  1,750  miles;  elevation 


Shipping  is  carried  past  this  ob- 
struction in  two  canals,  one 
Canadian  and  one  American. 
The  southern  shore  is  formed  by 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  One 
of  the  most  striking  geographic 
features  is  the  great  projection 
of  land  that  extends  from  the 
southern  shore  into  the  central 
body  of  the  lake.  This  is  known 
as  Keweenaw  Point,  forming  a 
part  of  the  upper  peninsula  of 
Michigan.  ♦ 

The  largest  affluent  is  the  St. 
Louis,  flowing  into  the  western 
extremity  of  the  lake  between 
Duluth,  Minn.,  and  Superior, 
Wis.  There  are  thirty  other 
good-sized  streams  and  about 
two  hundred  smaller  ones.  The 
waters  of  the  lake  are  extremely 
cold    and    exceptionally  trans- 


portant  places.  There  is  an  im- 
mense lake  traffic,  which  is  sus- 
pended in  the  winter  season. 

The  Lake  Superior  region  is 
famous  for  its  extraordinary 
wealth  in  iron  and  copper.  The 
Mesabi  and  Vermilion  iron  ranges 
of  Minnesota,  and  the  Penokee- 
Gogebic,  the  Marquette,  the 
Menominee  and  others  of  Michi- 
gan and  Wisconsin,  are  the  great- 
est iron  producers  of  the  world. 
The  annual  product  is  measured 
on  each  range  in  millions  of  tons. 
Keweenaw  Point  is  equally  fa- 
mous for  its  great  mines  of  native 
copper.  The  deepest  mine  shafts 
in  the  v/orld  are  there,  reaching 
down  more  than  5,000  feet,  and 
the  lodes  are  found  profitable  at 
that  depth. 

The  region  is  a  very  old  one 


above  the  sea,  602  feet;  approxi- 
mate mean  depth,  900  feet;  esti- 
mated area,  31,200  square  miles; 
total  drainage  area,  including 
its  own  basin,  80,400  square 
miles.  The  shore  line  is  irregu- 
lar, and  islands  are  numerous. 
The  northern  shore  is  rugged  and 
often  precipitous,  with  basaltic 
ridges  and  sheer  cliffs  rising  to 
heights  of  600  to  1,000  feet  above 
the  lake.  The  southern  shore  is 
in  part  more  gentle  in  profile,  but 
the  Pictured  Rocks  of  Michigan 
are  precipitous.  Minnesota  forms 
the  western  and  northern  shore 
to  the  Pigeon  river,  and  Canadian 
territory  extends  thence  to  the 
outlet  of  the  lake  at  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  where  a  descent  of  22  feet 
in  three  quarters  of  a  mile  forms 
the  falls  bearing  that  name  and 
pours  the  waters  to  Lake  Huron. 


parent.  A  regular  current  is  es- 
tablished within  the  lake  by  the 
influence  of  winds  and  tidal  ten- 
dencies. Storms  of  great  vio- 
lence are  frequent  and  those  of 
the  late  fall  are  often  especially 
dangerous. 

During  late  glacial  time  Lake 
Superior  stood  at  a  much  higher 
elevation  and  several  abandoned 
beaches  are  preserved  from  100 
to  600  feet  above  the  present 
level.  The  basin  has  been  tilted 
a  little  to  the  westward  since  that 
time,  with  the  effect  of  drowning 
some  of  the  rivers  such  as  the 
lower  course  of  the  vSt.  Louis. 
There  are  good  harbors  atDuluth 
and  Fort  William,  Ont.  The 
principal  cities  on  the  vshores  of 
the  lake  are  Duluth  and  Su- 
perior. Port  Arthur,  Ont.,  and 
Marquette.  Mich.,  are  other  im- 


geologically,  pre-Cambrian,  and 
its  structure  is  exceedingly  com- 
plicated. Because  of  the  great 
economic  demands,  much  of  this 
has  been  worked  out  with  care  by 
geologists,  and  it  has  added  more 
to  our  knowledge  of  the  old 
Archaean,  or  the  revolutions  of 
geologic  history  before  the  pres- 
ervation of  life  forms,  than  any 
other  region  in  America. 

Superphosphate,  the  mixture 
of  calcium  hydrogen  phosphate, 
CaH4(P04)2,  and  gypsum,  CaS04 
2H2O,  obtained  by  treating  finely 
ground  bone  ash  or  the  crude 
mineral  phosphate,  Ca3(P04)2, 
with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  of  spe- 
cific gravity  1.57.  The  mixture 
sets  solid,  and  is  ground  for  use 
as  a  fertilizer,  its  value  depending 
on  the  amount  of  soluble  phos- 
phate present.    This  may  vary 


Supersaturation 


KFP 


549 


Supreme  Court 


from  as  low  as  20  per  cent  with 
some  of  the  mineral  superphos- 
phates up  to  75  per  cent  if  a 
bone  ash  is  used  alone. 

Supersaturation.  If  a  solu- 
tion of  a  crystalline  solid  is 
evaporated  or  cooled,  a  point  is 
eventually  reached  at  which 
there  is  present  in  the  liquid  as 
much  of  the  solid  as  it  can  dis- 
solve ;  and  on  continuing  the 
process  the  solid  separates  in 
crystals,  if  there  are  crystals  of 
the  same  kind  present.  Compare 
Super-cooling. 

Superstitious  Uses,  in  Eng- 
lish law,  are  trusts  designed  to 
propagate  religion  not  tolerated 
by  law.  Formerly  Roman  Catho- 
lic and  Jewish  trusts  were  void 
as  superstitious ;  but  now  edu- 
cational or  religious  trusts 
among  Roman  Catholics  or  Jews 
are  valid,  but  not  a  trust  to  say 
masses  for  the  dead,  except  in 
Ireland.  ^ 

Suppe,  Franz  von  (1820- 
95),  Austrian  musical  composer, 
born  at  Spalato,  Dalmatia.  He 
was  musical  director  at  Vienna, 
and  wrote  operas,  many  of  which 
are  popular  in  Germany  ;  but  his 
only  compositions  known  in  Eng- 
land, and  those  by  which  he  is 
best  known  in  the  U.  S.,  are  the 
operas  Fatinitza  and  Boccaccio, 
and  the  overture  to  Dichtcr  und 
Bauer  (Eng.  trans.  Poet  and 
Peasant^. 

Supplementary  Proceed- 
ings. Under  modern  codes  of 
procedure,  certain  proceedings  to 
discover  property  belonging  to  a 
judgment  debtor  against  whom 
an  execution  has  issued  and  been 
returned  vinsatisfied.  The  prac- 
tice is  to  obtain  an  order  of  the 
court  requiring  the  judgment 
debtor  to  appear  before  the  court 
at  a  certain  time  and  submit 
to  examination  concerning  his 
property.  Such  an^  order  also 
contains  an  injunction  restrain- 
ing the  defendant  from  disposing 
of  any  of  his  property  between 
the  time  of  service  and  the  time 
of  the  examination.  The  judg- 
ment creditor's  attorney  may  ask 
any  questions  which  may  reason- 
ably lead  to  the  discovery  of 
property,  and  may  cover  a  period 
of  several  years  prior  to  the  ex- 
amination, and  trace  the  dis- 
position of  property  owned  at 
any  time,  or  to  which  the  debtor 
may  be  entitled  in  remainder  or 
reversion.  The  examination  is 
reduced  to  writing,  and  must  be 
signed  and  sworn  to  by  the  judg- 
ment debtor.  If  property  is  dis- 
covered, a  receiver  may  be  ap- 
pointed to  reduce  it  to  posses- 
sion, convert  it  into  cash,  and 
apply  the  proceeds  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  judgment.  See 
Execution  ;  consult  Bradner's 
Supplementary  Proceedings. 

Supply.  (1.)  A  grant  of  money 
provided  by  a  national  assembly 


to  meet  the  expenses  of  govern- 
ment. The  right  of  initiating 
legislation  carrying  appropria- 
tions is  reserved  to  the  House  of 
Representatives ;  in  Great  Brit- 
ain it  is  vested  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  (2.)  A  term  used  to 
express  the  system  by  which  an 
army  is  provided  with  all  mate- 
rial wants,  both  stores  and  sup- 
plies. Supplies  are  usually  ob- 
tained by  contracts.  Contracts 
are  entered  into  for  a  specified 
period  for  each  locality,  after 
advertisement  for  tenders.  Ra- 
tions are  conveyed  daily  to  the 
quarters  of  the  several  units  sta- 
tioned in  the  command  by  con- 
tractors, while  other  supplies  are 
furnished  periodically  at  longer 
intervals,  or  as  demanded. 

Supply  and  Demand,  in  eco- 
nomics. The  equilibrium  of  de- 
mand and  supply  is  reached 
when  at  a  given  price  the  de- 
mand is  just  great  enough  to  ab- 
sorb or  carry  off  the  supply  ;  but 
the  phrase  'at  a  given  price'  is 
essentialj  for  supply  and  demand 
are  both  relative  to  price.  The 
analysis  of  supply  involves  a 
consideration  of  human  efforts 
and  their  conditions ;  and  the 
analysis  of  demand  involves  a 
consideration  of  the  psychology 
of  human  desires  and  of  the  ex- 
isting distribution  of  wealth  and 
education.  See  A.  Marshall, 
Principles  of  Economics. 

Suppuration  is  the  forma- 
tion of  pus  in  inflamed  tissues. 
It  may  be  caused  by  chemical 
irritants,  such  as  silver  nitrate, 
turpentine,  and  croton  oil,  but  it 
is  most  usually  due  to  the  irri- 
tation of  the  tissues  by  pyoge- 
netic  or  pus-producing  bacteria, 
chiefly  staphylococci,  streptococ- 
ci, and  pneumococci.  See  Pus. 

Suprarenal  Glands,  two 
small,  ductless  glands,  which  lie 
one  over  each  kidney.  They  are 
asymmetrical  and  unequal  in 
size,  the  left  being  the  larger. 
They  have  extreme  arterial  and 
nerve  supplies.  Their  functions 
are  imperfectly  known,  but  they 
are  believed  to  furnish  a  fluid 
that  is  absorbed  by  the  body, 
modifying  the  blood  pressure 
and  determining  the  plasticity 
and  clot-formation  of  the  blood. 
To  tubercular  changes  in  these 
glands  physicians  have  long  at- 
tributed Addison's  disease.  In 
more  recent  years  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  gland  substance 
and  of  adrenalin  has  been  of 
service  in  some  cases  of  Addi- 
son's disease  ;  but  the  chief  val- 
ue of  moth  substance  and  extract 
lies  in  their  powerful  local  as- 
tringent and  laemostatic  action. 
Solutions  applied  locally  produce 
blanching  and  shrinkage  of  nor- 
mal and  of  inflamed  tissues, 
without  having  a  caustic  effect ; 
and  this  property  renders  them 
of  considerable  use  in  the  treat- 


ment of  hay  fever  and  coryza,  as 
well  as  in  other  inflammatory 
and  haemorrhagic  conditions. 

Supremacy,  Royal.  The  ar 
tide  in  the  'oath  of  allegiance' 
taken  by  subjects  to  the  English 
sovereign  formerly  contained  a 
reservation  of  the  king's  author- 
ity as  being  uninfluenced  by  any 
power  claimed  by  the  pope  as 
'God's  vicar  on  earth.'  At  the 
Reformation,  Henry  viii  assert- 
ed his  own  personal  supremacy 
in  the  most  unmistakable  way, 
and  to  such  an  extent  that  Sir 
Thomas  More  and  others  pre- 
ferred death  or  imprisonment  to 
the  admission  of  it.  Elizabeth  on 
her  accession  preferred  to  keep 
in  abeyance  the  title  of  'only 
supreme  head  on  earth  of  the 
Church  of  England,'  though  the 
oath  of  supremacy  was  ordered 
to  be  exacted  from  all  those 
holding  the  higher  public  offices 
in  the  country,  along  with  the 
oaths  of  allegiance  and  abjura- 
tion. In  1858  the  three  oaths 
were  unified.  At  present  the  oath 
of  allegiance  is  held  to  cover 
recognition  of  royal  supremacy, 
and  it  is  not  demanded  from 
members  of  Parliament,  though 
it  still  exists  in  a  modified  form 
in  the  episcopal  writs  of  appoint- 
ment. 

Supreme    Court    of  the 

United  States.  The  highest  ju- 
dicial tribunal  of  the  United 
States.  It  was  established  by  the 
Constitution,  Art.  iii.  Sect.  1, 
which  reads  as  follows  :  'The  ju- 
dicial power  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  vested  in  one  Supreme 
Court,  and  in  such  inferior 
courts  as  Congress  may  from 
time  to  time  ordain  and  estab- 
lish.' The  organization  of  the 
Supreme  Court  was  left  to  Con- 
gress, and  was  effected  bv  the 
act  of  Sept.  24,  1789,  commonly 
known  as  the  'Judiciary  Act,' 
under  the  following  provision : 
'That  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  shall  consist  of  a 
chief  justice  and  five  associate 
justices,  any  four  of  whom  shall 
be  a  quorum,  and  shall  hold  an- 
nually at  the  seat  of  government, 
two  sessions,  the  one  commenc- 
ing the  first  Monday  of  Febru- 
ary, and  the  other  the  first  Mon- 
day of  August.'  The  Constitu- 
tion thus  defines  its  jurisdiction  : 
'In  all  cases  affecting  arnbassa- 
dors,  or  other  public  ministers 
and  consuls,  and  those  in  which 
a  state  shall  be  a  party,  the  Su- 
preme Court  shall  have  original 
jurisdiction.  In  all  other  cases 
before  mentioned,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  appellate  juris- 
diction, both  as  to  law  and  fact, 
with  such  exceptions,  and  under 
such  regulations  as  the  Congress 
shall  make.'  The  'cases  before 
mentioned'  refer  to  the  general 
powers  of  the  Federal  judiciary 
granted  in  Section  2,  Art.  iii  of 


Supreme  Court 


KFP 


550 


Supreme  Court 


the  Constitution :  'The  judicial 
power  shall  extend  to  all  cases  in 
law  and  equity,  arising  under 
this  constitution  and  laws  of  the 
United  States,  and  treaties 
made,  or  which  shall  be  made 
under  their  authority ;  to  all 
cases  affecting  ambassadors,  or 
other  public  ministers,  and  con- 
suls ;  to  all  cases  of  admiralty 
and  maritime  jurisdiction  ;  _  to 
controveries  to  which  the  United 
States  shall  be  a  party  ;  to  con- 
troversies between  two  or  more 
states  ;  between  a  state  and  citi- 
zens of  another  state ;  between 
citizens  of  different  states ;  be- 
tween citizens  of  the  same  state 
claiming  lands  under  grants  of 
different  states ;  and  between  a 
state,  or  the  citizens  thereof  and 
foreign  states,  citizens,  or  sub- 
jects.' By  an  amendment,  Arti- 
cle XI,  the  jurisdiction  original- 
ly granted  was  thus  limited : 
'The  judicial  power  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  shall  not  be  construed 
to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or 
equity  commenced  or  prosecuted 
against  one  of  the  United  States 
by  citizens  of  another  state,  or 
citizens  or  subjects  of  any  for- 
eign state.'  Actions  may  be  com- 
menced only  in  a  court  having 
'original  jurisdiction,'  and  the 
power  of  the  Supreme  Court  in 
this  regard  is  limited  to  the 
classes  of  cases  expressly  men- 
tioned in  the  Constitution.  There 
has  not  been  much  occasion  to 
exercise  this  original  jurisdic- 
tion, but  the  appellate  business  of 
the  court  increased  so  enormous- 
ly that  it  was  impossible  for  the 
court  to  keep  up  with  it,  and,  as 
it  was  getting  further  behind  in 
the  disposition  of  cases  each 
year,  Congress  passed  what  is 
known  as  the  Evarts  Act,  or  Cir- 
cuit Court  of  Appeals  Act, 
March  3,  1891,  26  Statutes  at 
Large,  826.  By  this  act  a  Circuit 
Court  of  Appeals  was  established 
in  each  judicial  circuit  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  provided  that 
the  chief  justice  and  associate 
justices  of  the  Supreme  Court 
assigned  to  each  circuit,  and  the 
circuit  justices,  and  the  several 
district  judges  within  each  cir- 
cuit, shall  be  competent  to  sit  as 
judges  of  this  Circuit  Court  of 
Appeals.  It  is  not  necessary  for 
a  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
to  be  present,  but  when  one  at- 
tends, he  shall  preside.  The  Fed- 
eral statutes  provide  that  the 
chief  justice  and  associate  jus- 
tices of  the  Supreme  Court  shall 
be  allotted  among  the  circuits  by 
order  of  the  court,  and  it  shall 
be  the  duty  of  each  to  attend  at 
least  one  term  of  the  Circuit 
Court  in  each  district  to  which 
he  is  allotted  during  every  pe- 
riod of  two  years.  There  are  nine 
circuits  in  the  United  States. 
The  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals 
has  no  original  jurisdiction.  The 


Evarts  Act  provides  that  appeals 
or  writs  of  error  may  be  taken 
from  the  district  courts,  or  from 
the  existing  circuit  courts,  direct 
to  the  Supreme  Court  in  the  fol- 
lowing cases :  In  any  case  in 
which  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
court  is  in  issue  ;  final  sentences 
and  decrees  in  prize  cases  ;  cases 
of  conviction  of  a  capital  crime ; 
cases  involving  the  construction 
or  application  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States ;  any 
case  in  which  the  constitutional- 
ity of  any  law  of  the  United 
States,  or  the  validity  or  con- 
struction of  any  treaty  made  un- 
der its  authority  is  drawn  in 
question ;  and  in  any  case  in 
which  the  constitution  or  law  of 
a  state  is  claimed  to  be  in  con- 
travention of  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States.  It  is  further 
provided :  'Nothing  in  this  act 
shall  affect  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Supreme  Court  in  cases  ap- 
pealed from  the  highest  court  of 
a  state,  nor  the  construction  of 
the  statute  providing  for  a  re- 
view in  such  cases.'  This  latter 
provision  refers  to  cases  where 
the  decision  of  the  highest  court 
of  the  state  is  adverse  to  a  Fed- 
eral right  or  authority  sought  to 
be  enforced.  The  determination 
of  an  appeal  by  the  Circuit 
Court  of  Appeals  is  final  as  to 
the  rights  of  litigants  in  many 
cases  which  come  within  its  ju- 
risdiction. Where  it  is  not  final, 
the  case  may  be  appealed  to  the 
Supreme  Court  where  the 
amount  in  controversy  exceeds 
$1,000,  exclusive  of  costs.  In  or- 
der that  the  Supreme  Court  may 
not  be  deprived  of  jurisdiction  in 
important  cases,  it  is  given  the 
power  to  require  by  certiorari 
any  case,  of  which  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Circuit  Court  of  Ap- 
peals is  otherwise  final,  to  be 
certified  to  it,  and  in  such  cases 
may  exercise  the  same  power 
and  authority  as  if  sent  there 
regularly.  The  Circuit  Court  of 
Appeals  may  of  its  own  motion 
certify  a  question  of  law  to  the 
Supreme  Court  for  instruction, 
and  in  such  cases  the  Supreme 
Court  may  declare  the  law  appli- 
cable, or  require  the  case  to  be 
sent  up  for  its  determination. 
The  Supreme  Court  is  relieved 
of^  a  vast  amount  of  business  by 
this  act.  The  Supreme  Court  is 
given  certain  general  powers, 
such  as  to  take  bail  in  capital 
cases ;  prescribe  rules,  forms, 
mode  of  proof,  and  proceeding 
in  equity  and  admiralty  cases ; 
rules  for  trial  of  patent  cases ; 
rules  and  forms  in  bankruptcy 
cases,  etc.  The  statutes  provide 
that  'the  trial  of  issues  of  fact  in 
the  Supreme  Court,  in  all  actions 
at  law  against  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  by  jury. 

An  appeal  is  taken  to  the  Su- 
preme Court  by  filing  with  it  an 


authenticated  transcript  of  the 
record  in  the  court  below,  an  as- 
signment or  statement  of  errors, 
and  a  prayer  for  reversal,  with 
a  citation  to  the  adverse  party, 
which  serves  as  notification  to 
him.  An  appeal  must  be  taken 
within  two  years  after  the  entry 
of  judgment  or  of  an  order  un- 
less the  party  is  under  a  dis- 
ability. 

The  President  is  empowered 
by  the  Constitution,  Art.  ii.  Sec. 
2,  to  nominate  and  by  and  with 
the  advise  and  consent  of  the 
Senate  appoint  judges  of  the  Su- 
preme Court,  The  term  of  office 
is  for  life,  or  during  good  be- 
havior. Congress  has  several 
times  changed  the  number  of 
justices.  At  present  the  court 
consists  of  a  chief  justice  and 
eight  associate  justices.  Six  jus- 
tices constitute  a  quorum.  It 
holds  one  term  annually  at 
Washington,  commencing  the 
second  Monday  of  October,  and 
continuing  usually  until  May,  It 
holds  sessions  each  day  of  the 
week,  excepting  Saturdays  and 
Sundays,  from  twelve  noon  until 
4.30  P.M.  Oral  arguments  by 
counsel  are  permitted,  and  print- 
ed briefs  are  also  submitted  on 
behalf  of  each  party.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  court  meet  on  Satur- 
day for  discussion  and  decision 
of  cases  argued  during  the  week, 
and  the  chief  justice  assigns  the 
cases,  after  decision,  to  the  dif- 
ferent justices  to  prepare  writ- 
ten opinions,  which  are  usually 
later  read  to  the  entire  court  for 
its  approval  or  criticism. 

The  important  part  which  the 
Supreme  Court  was  to  assume  in 
national  affairs  was  apparently 
not  fully  realized  by  statesmen 
during  the  early  period  of  the 
history  of  the  republic.  The  first 
chief  ^  justice,  John  Jay,  served 
as  minister  to  England  without 
resigning  from  the  bench,  but 
later  resigned  to  become  gover- 
nor of  New  York ;  and  Oliver 
Ellsworth  went  on  a  diplomatic 
mission,  at  the  same  time  retain- 
ing his  position  as  chief  justice. 
John  Marshall  continued  as  sec- 
retary of  state  in  the  cabinet 
of  President  Adams  for  some 
months  after  his  elevation  to  the 
Supreme  Bench.  Since  the  times 
of  these  great  men,  this  court 
has  shown  itself  to  be  the  great- 
est judicial  tribunal  in  the 
world  ;  has  shaped  our  national 
affairs  in  many  important  crises 
by  its  interpretations  of  the  Con- 
stitution ;  its  power  to  compel 
obedience  to  the  Constitution  by 
state  and  national  legislatures, 
courts,  and  officers  has  been  set- 
tled ;  and  an  appointment  to  be 
one  of  its  Justices  is  universally 
recognized  as  among  the  highest 
honors  which  the  Republic  may 
confer. 

See  Courts  ;  Supreme  Cou^l 


1^  5 

R  ^ 

PL,  ^ 

W  .  ^ 


_u 


05  3 

>  PQ 


m  CO 
=^   3  _ 


c/}  c/2  .S 


©  Press  Association,  Inc. 

FREDERICK  MOORE  VINSON 

Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States 

Vol.  XL— Page  550  A 


Supreme  Court 


KFP 


550  B     Supreme  Court  Decisions 


Justices  of  the  U nited  States  Supreme  Court 

(Names  of  the  Chief  Justices  in  Itahcs) 


Name 

Term 

Born 

Died 

John  Jay,  N.  Y  

1789-1795 

1745 

1829 

1789-1791 

1739 

1800 

William  Gushing,  Mass  

1789-1810 

1732 

1810 

James  Wilson,  Pa  

1789-1798 

1742 

1798 

John  Blair,  Va  

1789-1796 

1732 

1800 

James  Iredell,  N.  C  

1790-1799 

1751 

1709 

Thomas  Johnson,  Md  

1791-1793 

1732 

1819 

William  Paterson,  N.  J  

1793-1806 

1744 

1806 

1795-1795 

1739 

1800 

Samuel  Chase,  Md  

1796-1811 

1741 

1811 

Oliver  Ellsworth,  Conn  

1796-1800 

1745 

1807 

1798-1829 

1762 

1829 

Alfred  Moore,  N.  C  

1799-1804 

1755 

1810 

1801-1835 

1755 

1835 

1804-1834 

1771 

1834 

1806-1823 

1757 

1823 

Thomas  Todd,  Ky  

1807-1826 

1765 

1826 

Gabriel  Duval,  Md  

1811-1835 

1752 

1844 

Joseph  Story,  Mass  

1811-1845 

1779 

1845 

1823-1843 

1768 

1843 

1826-1828 

1777 

1828 

1829-1861 

1785 

1861 

1830-1844 

1780 

1844 

James  M.  Wayne,  Ga  

1835-1867 

1790 

1867 

1836-1864 

1777 

1864 

Philip  P.  Barbour,  Va  

1836-1841 

1783 

1841 

1837-1865 

1786 

1865 

John  McKinley,  Ala  

1837-1852 

1780 

1852 

Peter  V.  Daniel,  Va  

1841-1860 

1784 

1860 

Samuel  Nelson,  N.  Y  

1845-1872 

1792 

1873 

Levi  Woodbury,  N.  H  

1845-1851 

1789 

1851 

Robert  C.  Grier,  Pa  

1846-1870 

1794 

1870 

Benj.  R.  Curtis,  Mass  

1851-1857 

1809 

1874 

John  A.  Campbell,  Ala  

1853-1861 

1811 

1889 

Nathan  Clifford,  Me  

1858-1881 

1803 

1881 

Noah  H.  Swayne,  Ohio  

1862-1881 

1804 

1884 

Samuel  F.  Miller,  Iowa  

1862-1890 

1816 

1890 

1862-1877 

1815 

1886 

1863-1897 

1816 

1899 

Salmon  P.  Chase,  Ohio  

1864-1873 

1808 

1873 

William  Strong,  Pa  

1870-1880 

1808 

1895 

Joseph  P.  Bradley,  N.  J  

1870-1892 

1813 

1892 

Ward  Hunt,  N.  Y  

1872-1882 

1810 

1886 

Morrison  R.  Waite,  Ohio  

1874-1888 

1816 

1888 

John  M.  Harlan,  Ky  

1877-1911 

1833 

1911 

WiUiam  B.  Woods,  Ga  

1880-1887 

1824 

1887 

1881-1889 

1824 

1889 

Horace  Gray,  Mass  

1881-1902 

1828 

1902 

Samuel  Blatchford,  N.  Y  

1882-1893 

1820 

1893 

Lucius  Q.  C.  Lamar,  Miss  

1888-1893 

1825 

1893 

Melville  W.  Fuller,  111  

1888-1910 

1833 

1910 

David  J.  Brewer,  Kan  

1889-1910 

1837 

1910 

1890-1906 

1836 

1913 

George  Shiras,  Jr.,  Pa  

1892-1903 

1832 

1924 

Howell  E.  Jackson,  Tenn  

1893-1895 

1832 

1895 

Edward  D.  White,  La  

1894-1910 

1845 

1921 

Edward  D.  White,  La  

1910-1921 

1845 

1921 

Rufus  W.  Peckham,  N.  Y  

1895-1909 

1838 

1909 

Joseph  McKenna,  Cal  

1898-1925 

1843 

1926 

OHveT  W.  Holmes,  Mass  

1902-1932 

1841 

1935 

William  R.  Day,  Ohio  

1903-1922 

1849 

1923 

1906-1910 

1853 

1917 

1909-1914 

1844 

1914 

Charles  E.  Hughes,  N.  Y  

1910-1916 

1862 

Willis  Van  Devanter,  Wyo  

1910-1937 

1859 

1941 

1910-1916 

1857 

1916 

Mahlon  Pitney,  N.  J  

1912-1922 

1858 

1924 

James  C.  McReynolds,  Tenn  

1914-1941 

1862 

1941 

1916-1939 

1856 

1939 

John  H.  Clarke,  Ohio  

1916-1922 

1857 

1945 

William  H.  Taft,  Conn  

1921-1930 

1857 

1930 

1922-1938 

1862 

1942 

1922-1939 

1866 

1939 

Edward  Terry  Sanford,  Tenn  

1923-1930 

1865 

1930 

Harlan  Fiske  Stone,  N.  Y  

1925-1941 

1872 

1946 

Charles  E.  Hughes,  N.  Y  

1930-1941 

1862 

Owen  J.  Roberts,  Pa  

1930-1945 

1875 

1932-1938 

1870 

i938 

Hugo  L.  Black,  Ala  

1937-  

1886 

Stanley  F.  Reed,  Ky  

1938- . . . . 

1884 

Felix  Frankfurter,  Mass  

1939-. . . . 

1882 

1939- . .  .  . 

1898 

Frank  Murphy,  Mich  

1940- . .  .  . 

1890 

James  V.  Byrnes,  S.  C  

1941-1942 

1879 

Robert  H.  Jackson,  N.  Y  

1941-. . . . 

1892 

Harlan  Fiske  Stone,  N.  Y  

1941-1946 

1872 

1946 

Wiley  Blount  Rutledge,  Jr.,  Ky  

1943- . . . . 

1894 

Harold  H.  Burton,  Ohio  

1945-. . . . 

1888 

Frederick  Moore  Vinson,  Ky  

1946- . . .  . 

1890 

Famous  Decisions.  Consult 
Carson's  History  of  the  Supreme 
Court. 

Supreme  Court,  Famous 
Decisions  of.  The  most  impor- 
tant decisions  are  those  which  by 
construction  of  the  Constitution 
have  platted  the  lines  between 
the  vast  areas  of  state  and 
national  power,  or  between  the 
three  great  divisions,  legislative, 
executive,  and  judicial,  of  the 
national  power,  or  between  all 
governmental  power,  Federal  or 
state,  and  those  rights  of  indi- 
viduals which  are  guaranteed  by 
the  Constitution  as  sacred  and 
inviolable. 

State  Rights  were  involved  in 
the  first  great  constitutional  de- 
cision, Chisholm  v.  Georgia 
(1793),  2  Dallas  419.  The 
opinion,  by  Chief  Justice  Jay, 
construed  that  provision  of  the 
Constitution  which  gives  the  Su- 
preme Court  original  jurisdic- 
tion over  controversies  between 
a  state  and  citizens  of  another 
state,  as  enabling  an  individual 
to  sue  a  state  without  that 
state's  consent.  The  plaintiffs, 
as  executors,  thus  got  a  judg- 
ment against  Georgia  on  a  debt 
owed  the  estate  of  an  English- 
man. As  immunity  from  suit  is 
a_  prime  prerogative  of  sover- 
eignty, the  decision  was  not  gen- 
erally expected  and  caused  much 
indignation,  not  unmixed  with 
gloomy  foreboding  over  the 
prospect  of  innumerable  war 
claims  of  Tories  and  others  be- 
ing enforced  against  the  states. 
The_  Eleventh  Amendment,  de- 
claring that  the  judicial  power 
shall  not  be  construed  as  includ- 
ing suits  against  a  state  by  citi- 
zens of  another  state,  or  foreign 
subjects,  was  promptly  proposed 
and  adopted.  The  Court  decided 
in  Monaco  v.  Mississippi  (1934), 
292  U.  S.  313,  that  a  foreign 
state  could  not  bring  suit  in  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court 
against  an  American  state  with- 
out the  latter's  consent. 

But  although  (without  permis- 
sion) an  individual  can  not  sue 
a  state,  or  the  United  States,  in 
any  court,  there  have  been  many 
instances,  some  of  them  notori- 
ous, in  which  private  persons 
have  been  protected  from  gov- 
ernmental aggression  in  suits  be- 
gun in  the  law  courts  against 
public  officials.  Thus,  in  Osborn 
V.  Bank  (1824),  9  Wheaton  738, 
officers  of  Ohio  were  enjoined 
from  collecting  a  tax  unconstitu- 
tionally imposed  on  the  bank 
under  an  Ohio  law.  In  Poin- 
dexter  v.  Greenhow  (1885),  114 
U.  S.  270 — one  of  the  Virginia 
Coupon  cases,  growing  out  of 
acts  passed  by  Virginia,  like 
other  states,  repudiating  bonded 
indebtedness — it  was  decided 
that,  while  individuals  could  not 
compel  state  officers  to  honor 
her  agreement  to  accept  coupons 
for  taxes,  yet,  where  an  officer 
refused  a  due  tender  of  coupons 


TEMPORARY  PAGES  FOR  NELSON'S  L.  L.  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Insert  in  Volume  XI,  following  page  550B 


New  Deal  Decisions. — Com- 
parable in  scope  with  the  Su- 
preme Court's  invalidation  of 
the  New  Deal's  major  act  for 
industrial  recovery,  the  NRA, 
was  the  death-blow  delivered  to 
the  AAA,  which  embodied  the 
administration's  program  for 
farm  relief.  The  Agricultural 
Adjustment  Act  was  upset  in  the 
Hoosac  Mills  case  on  Jan.  6, 
1936,  by  a  6-3  vote  of  the  court. 
The  majority  opinion,  read  by 
Justice  Roberts,  held  that  the  act 
constituted  an  invasion  of  the 
right  of  the  States  to  regulate 
their  local  activities.  The  use 
of  processing  taxes,  which  were 
the  means  employed  to  regulate 
crop  production,  was  specifically 
invalidated.  In  the  opinion  of 
the  minority  (Brandeis,  Stone, 
Cardozo)  the  decision  rested  on 
a  'tortured  interpretation  of  the 
Constitution.' 

A  decision  favorable  to  the 
New  Deal  was  forthcoming  on 
Feb.  17,  1936,  when  the  court, 
with  Justice  McReynolds  alone 
dissenting,  ruled  that  the  con- 
struction of  Wilson  Dam  at 
Muscle  Shoals  was  constitu- 
tional, and  also  upheld  the  Ten- 
nessee Valley  Authority's  con- 
tract to  purchase  transmission 
lines  from  the  Alabama  Power 
Company.  The  decision,  how- 
ever, did  not  constitute  a  com- 
plete endoi^ement  of  the  TVA. 

On  May  18,  1936,  the  court, 
ruling  on  the  appeals  of  Tway 
and  others,  producers  of  coal,  in- 
validated the  Guffey  bituminous 
coal  act.  The  act's  provision  for 
the  regulation  of  hours  and 
wages  was  overthrown  by  a  6-3 
vote.  Chief  Justice  Hughes  sid- 
ing with  the  majority.  The  price- 
fixing  provision  was  upset  by  a 
5—4  vote,  Hughes  voting  with  the 
minority.  According  to  the  ma- 
jority opinion,  read  by  Justice 
Roberts,  the  tax  on  coal  sales 
by  nonconforming  producers  was 
a  penalty,  and  the  attempted  reg- 
ulation of  mining  exceeded  the 
power  of  Congress  to  regulate 
interstate  commerce. 

On  May  25,  1936.  the  court 
by  a  5-4  vote  held  the  Munici- 
pal Bankruptcy  Act  of  1934 
unconstitutional.  The  majority 
opinion,  read  by  Justice  McRey- 
nolds, was  that  the  act  repre- 
sented an  invasion  of  the  rights 
of  the  states.  The  court  also 
pointed  out  that  the  Constitution 
prohibits  the  States  from  passing 
any  law  impairing  the  obligations 
of  contracts. 

On  June  1,  1936,  the  court, 
5-4,  declared  the  New  York 
State  Minimum  Wage  Law  for 
Women  and  Children  unconsti- 


tutional, as  violating  the  due 
process  clause  of  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment.  The  majority  opin- 
ion, written  by  Justice  Butler, 
declared  that  neither  New  York 
State  nor  the  federal  government 
had  authority  to  fix  wages  for 
women  workers.  President 
Roosevelt  was  reported  as  com- 
menting that  according  to  this 
view  there  would  be  a  'no-man's 
land'  between  the  national  and 
State  legislatures  in  which  nei- 
ther could  act.  Chief  Justice 
Hughes  joined  the  'liberal'  mi- 
nority in  opposing  the  decision, 
which  was  regarded  as  a  blow 
to  the  administration. 

Supreme  Court  Issue  of  1937. 
— In  1937  the  constant  difficulty 
of  societies  of  coping  with  cur- 
rent problems  according  to  rules 
earlier  agreed  on  was  drama- 
tized, for  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  in  the  form  of  a  contest 
in  which  the  protagonists  were 
two  of  the  three  major  branches 
of  government :  the  execvitive 
and  the  judicial.  The  Supreme 
Court,  as  the  watch-dog  of  the 
nation's  fundamental  law,  the 
Constitution,  had  invalidated 
many  of  the  New  Deal's  major 
legislative  items,  notably  the 
NRA,  the  AAA,  the  Guffey  Coal 
Act,  the  Railroad  Retirement  Act, 
the  Municipal  Bankruptcy  Act, 
the  New  York  State  Minimum 
Wage  Law,  and  the  Frazier- 
Lemke  Farm  Mortgage  Act 
(which  President  Roosevelt  had 
approved  although  it  was  not  part 
of  his  program).  After  the  NRA 
decision  President  Roosevelt  had 
declared  that  the  court  had  in- 
terpreted the  interstate  com- 
merce clause  of  the  Constitution 
in  the  light  of  the  'horse-and- 
buggy  days  of  1789.'  The  ad- 
visability was  considered  of 
introducing  a  Constitutional 
amendment  extending  the  powers 
of  Congress  to  enable  it  to  carry 
out  New  Deal  economic  and  so- 
cial objectives,  but  nothing  came 
of  the  project  at  the  time.  In 
the  1936  election  campaign. 
Democratic  leaders  seemed  to 
think  that  these  aims  might  be 
realized  within  the  framework  of 
the  Constitution  as  it  stands. 
President  Roosevelt  too,  on  Jan. 
6,  1937,  in  his  address  to  Con- 
gress on  the  state  of  the  Union, 
implied  that  an  amendment  was 
not  necessary — if  the  Supreme 
Court  would  take  a  'more  en- 
lightened' view  towards  the  Con- 
stitution, and  if  it  could  be  made 
to  harmonize  with  the  legislative 
and  executive  branches  of  the 
government. 

On  February  5,  consequently, 
the  President  startled  the  nation 


when  he  proposed  a  broad  reor- 
ganization of  the  whole  federal 
court  system  with  the  purpose  of 
speeding  its  processes  and  mak- 
ing it  function  'in  accord  with 
modern  necessities.'  Speaking 
of  the  need  for  infusing  'new 
blood,'  doubtless  of  a  liberal  hue, 
into  the  high  tribunal,  Roosevelt 
asked  for  power  to  appoint  one 
new  justice  for  each  member  w'ho 
did  not  resign  at  the  age  of  70  >4 
years,  until  the  court  member- 
ship reached  fifteen.  Other  as- 
pects of  the  plan  were  lost  sight 
of  as  this  feature  immediately 
precipitated  the  major  parlia- 
mentary battle  of  the  year. 

As  the  President  pointed  out, 
the  Supreme  Court  did  not  al- 
ways consist  of  nine  members. 
Originally,  in  1789,  it  had  six 
members,  which  number  dropped 
to  five  in  1801,  rose  to  seven  in 
1807,  and  to  nine  in  1837.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War, 
since  one  justice  w^as  a  Confed- 
erate and  was  not  sitting,  the 
number  was  increased  to  ten. 
Later  reduced  to  seven,  the  num- 
ber was  again  raised  to  nine  by 
Grant,  who  was  accused  of 
'packing'  the  court  with  two  new 
justices  who  he  knew  would  re- 
verse the  4-3  Legal  Tender  de- 
cision. Roosevelt's  proposal  was 
likewise  immediately  pounced 
on  by  former  President  Hoover 
and  others  as  an  attempt  to  pack 
the  court.  Since  it  seemed  also 
that  increasing  the  membership 
would  weaken  the  court,  the 
scheme  was  denounced  as  paving 
the  way,  in  characteristic  fash- 
ion, towards  the  establishment 
of  a  dictatorship. 

Six  of  the  sitting  justices  were 
past  the  age  mentioned  bv  the 
President.  In  the  event  of' their 
refusing  to  retire,  and  had  the 
proposal  been  adopted  at  that 
time,  it  would  have  been  possible 
for  the  court  membership  imme- 
diately to  reach  the  maximum 
of  fifteen.  Of  these  six,  more- 
over— Hughes,  Van  Devanter, 
McReynolds,  Brandeis,  Suther- 
land, and  Butler — all  but  Justice 
Brandeis  were  classed  as  'con- 
servatives,' although  Chief  Jus- 
tice Hughes  had  in  some  deci- 
sions joined  the  'liberal'  minority 
of  Brandeis,  Stone,  and  Cardozo. 
Approval  of  the  plan  would  have 
enabled  Roosevelt  to  change  the 
complexion  of  the  court  by  the 
addition  of  members  doubtless 
more  friendly  to  New  Deal  legis- 
lation. 

At  first  sentiment  towards  the 
proposal  was  divided  along  parti- 
san  lines,  with  Republicans  and 
anti-New  Deal  Democrats  op- 
posed, but  soon  a  major  split,  or, 


New  Deal  Decisions 


KSH 


this  issue  at  least,  was  apparent 
throughout  the  ranks  of  the 
Democrats.  In  the  ensuing 
months  the  plan  was  stoutly  de- 
fended and  vigorously  attacked 
in  legislative  chambers,  in  the 
press,  and  over  the  air.  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt,  invariably  alert 
to  the  tide  of  popular  opinion, 
believed  that  a  majority  of  the 
people  agreed  with  him  that  the 
court  reform  was  immediately 
necessary  if  the  New  Deal  pro- 
gram were  to  be  realized.  In 
Congress,  however,  no  such  pre- 
ponderance of  support  was  ap- 
parent. Lawyers,  moreover,  as 
might  be  expected,  and  as  re- 
vealed by  bar  association  polls, 
opposed  the  proposal  by  a  huge 
majority. 

A  wide  range  of  compromise 
plans  were  brought  forward, 
such  as  advancing  the  proposed 
age  of  retirement  from  70^ 
years  to  75  years,  and  the  sug- 
gestion of  Senator  Burton  K. 
Wheeler,  who  led  the  fight 
against  the  President's  plan,  that 
Congress  be  enabled  to  override 
a  court  decision  just  as  it  can 
override  a  presidential  veto. 
During  the  controversy  it  was 
pointed  out  that  the  Constitution 
nowhere  explicitly  authorizes  the 
Supreme  Court  to  pass  on  acts 
of  Congress  (see  Marbury  vs. 
Madison;  Supreme  Court  De- 
cisions). 

Early  in  March  the  Senate  Ju- 
diciary Committee  began  to  listen 
to  the  arguments,  favorable  and 
opposed,  of  a  large  number  of 
eminent  witnesses.  What  was 
taken  to  reflect  the  attitude  of 
the  court  itself  was  found  in  a 
letter  to  the  committee  by  Chief 
Justice  Hughes,  _  stating  :  'The 
Supreme  Court  is  fully  abreast 
of  its  work.  There  is  no  conges- 
tion of  cases  upon  our  calendar 
.  .  .  The  present  number  of  jus- 
tices is  thought  to  be  large 
enough  so  far  as  the  prompt,  ade- 
quate and  efficient  conduct  of  the 
work  of  the  court  is  concerned 
.  .  .  An  increase  .  .  .  would  not 
promote  the  efficiency  of  the 
court.  It  is  believed  that  it 
would  impair  that  efficiency  so 
long  as  the  court  acts  as  a  unit.' 

The  committee  finally,  on  June 
14,  reported  the  measure  to  the 
Senate,  denouncing  the  Presi- 
dent's proposal  as  'a  needless,  fu- 
tile and  utterly  dangerous  aban- 
donment of  con.stitutional  prin- 
ciple.' The  Senate  administra- 
tion forces  knew  that  they  had  a 
fight  on  their  hands. 

Meanwhile  in  a  series  of  nota- 
ble decisions  the  Supreme  Court 
itself  was  according  New  Deal 
laws  a  warmer  reception.  On 
March  29  the  court  upheld  the 
Minimum  Wages  for  Women 
Act  of  the  State  of  Washington, 
thus   reversing   its   position  as 


shown  in  the  New  York  State 
Minimum  Wage  Act  decision. 
The  reversal  was  made  possible 
by  Justice  Roberts'  shift  to  the 
side  of  the  liberals,  including 
Hughes.  Unanimous  votes  up- 
held the  Railway  Labor  Act  of 
1934,  requiring  the  roads  to  bar- 
gain collectively  with  representa- 
tives of  a  majority  of  their  em- 
ployees, and  the  Frazier-Lemke 
Farm  Mortgage  Moratorium 
Law,  a  redrawn  version  of  a 
measure  held  invalid  in  1935.  A 
signal  New  Deal  triumph  were 
decisions  of  April  12  upholding 
the  National  Labor  Relations  Act 
(the  Wagner  Act).  With  Jus- 
tice Roberts  again  on  the  liberal 
side,  the  court  virtually  reversed 
its  earlier  stand  on  labor  rela- 
tions in  interstate  commerce.  On 
May  24  the  court  validated  the 
Social  Security  Act  of  1935, 
invoking  the  'general  welfare' 
clause  of  the  Constitution  (see 
National  Security  Act; 
United  States:  History). 

This  seeming  change  either  of 
heart  or  of  judicial  reasoning  on 
the  part  of  the  court  weakened 
the  arguments  of  those  who 
championed  the  reorganization 
plan.  Two  other  events  did  like- 
vyise.  One  of  these  was  the  re- 
tirement of  Justice  Willis  Van 
Devanter,  effective  June  2,  which 
made  it  possible  for  a  liberal  to 
be  appointed  to  the  tribunal. 
Van  Devanter's  step  was  taken 
under  the  Sumners  Supreme 
Court  Retirement  Act,  approved 
the  previous  March  1 ,  which  per- 
mits Supreme  Court  justices  to 
retire  (not  resign)  at  the  age  of 
70  on  full  pay.  The  other  event 
was  the  death  of  Senator  Joseph 
T.  Robinson  on  July  14.  The 
veteran  Democratic  leader  (who 
was,  incidentally,  the  Senate's 
'choice'  to  succeed  Van  Devan- 
ter) had  led  the  administration's 
fight  for  the  court  plan.  Shortly 
afterwards  the  administration  ac- 
cepted defeat  and  gave  up  its 
proposal  concerning  the  Supreme 
Court. 

Nevertheless  part  of  the  Pres- 
ident's original  proposal  of  Feb- 
ruary 5  was  salvaged  in  the  form 
of  a  compromise  bill  accepted  by 
both  Congress  and  the  chief  ex- 
ecutive. This  provided  for  cer- 
tain changes  in  the  lower  federal 
courts,  notably  :  the  attorney  gen- 
eral was  empowered  to  intervene 
in  suits  involving  the  constitu- 
tionality of  acts  of  Congress ; 
such  suits  could  be  appealed  di- 
rectly to  the  Supreme  Court ; 
and  certain  curbs  were  placed  on 
the  issuance  of  injunctions  by  the 
lower  courts  against  acts  of  Con- 
gress. 

On  August  12  President  Roose- 
velt unexpectedly  nominated 
Senator  Hugo  L.  Black  of  Ala- 
bama to  the  court  vacancy.  In 
spite  of  certain  opposition  with- 


in the  Senate  to  Black,  a  stanch 
New  Dealer  with  a  liberal  rec- 
ord, his  appointment  was  con- 
firmed and  he  was  sworn  into 
office.  A  storm  of  disapproba- 
tion was  quickly  aroused  by  the 
rumor  that  the  new  justice  had 
at  one  time  been  a  member  of  the 
Ku  Klux  Klan.  In  a  raido  ad- 
dress to  the  nation  on  October  1, 
Justice  Black  stated  that  he  had 
resigned  from  the  Klan  and  pro- 
claimed his  belief  in  the  princi- 
ple of  racial  and  religious  toler- 
ance. Two  motions  challenging 
Black's  right  to  a  court  seat  were 
dismissed  by  the  Supreme  Court 
on  October  11.  Two  arguments 
were  advanced  (but  not  ruled 
on)  :  there  was  no  vacancy  to 
which  Black  could  be  appointed, 
since  Van  Devanter  had  retired, 
not  resigned  ;  if  there  was  a  va- 
cancy. Black,  as  a  member  of 
Congress,  could  not  legally  be 
appointed  to  an  office  the  emolu- 
ments of  which  had  been  in- 
creased during  his  term. 

On  December  6  the  Supreme 
Court  handed  down  two  5-4 
decisions  legalizing  levies  by 
West  Virginia  and  Washington 
on  the  gross  incomes  of  contrac- 
tors on  certain  government  dams. 
These  decisions  were  interpreted 
as  a  reversal  of  the  principle  that 
taxation  by  states  of  income  de- 
rived from  federal  contracts  is 
unconstitutional,  for  which  the 
precedent  was  the  case  of  Mc- 
Culloch  vs.  Maryland  in  1819 
(see  Supreme  Court  Deci- 
sions). It  appeared  possible 
that  the  entire  theory  of  tax  im- 
munity might  be  revised. 

In  1937  also  the  court  in  two 
decisions  extended  its  previous 
affirmation  (in  February,  1935) 
of  the  abrogation  of  the  gold 
clause.  On  March  1  it  held  in 
a  5-4  vote  that  payment  might 
be  made  in  devalued  dollars  even 
in  the  case  of  a  contract  specifi- 
cally requiring  settlement  in 
gold,  and  again  in  December  by 
a  6-3  vote,  in  a  case  involving 
the  government's  promise  to  re- 
deem Liberty  bonds  in  gold,  the 
court  upheld  the  government's 
right  to  devalue  the  dollar. 

By  a  court  ruling  of  Decem- 
ber 20  the  use  of  testimony  based 
on  wire-tapping  was  forbidden. 

Associate  Justice  Sutherland, 
on  Jan.  5,  1938,  gave  notice  of 
his  intention  to  retire  from  the 
Supreme  Court  on  Jan.  18,  thus 
availing  himself  of  the  law  un- 
der which  Justice  Van  Devanter 
had  retired.  This  left  only  two 
members  definitely  conservative 
— Justices  Butler  and  McRey- 
nolds.  On  January  15  President 
Roosevelt  nominated  to  the  latest 
vacancy  Stanley  F.  Reed,  since 
1935  Solicitor  General  of  the 
United  States,  known  as  a  lib- 
eral. 

Irving  Fryer. 


Supreme  Court  Decisions  KFE 


551     Supreme  Court  Decisions 


and  distrained  personal  property 
to  satisfy  a  tax,  he  could  be  sued 
as  a  wrongdoer  and  compelled  to 
return  the  property.  Similarly, 
in  United  States  v.  Lee  (1882), 
106  U.  S.  196,  a  case  of  vast 
importance,  the  rightful  owner 
of  land  was  allowed  to  maintain 
an  action  to  recover  the  posses- 
sion of  it  from  officers  of  the 
United  States  who  were  holding 
it  as  national  property.  That  suit 
was  brought  by  the  son  of  Gen- 
eral Robert  E.  Lee,  to  recover 
the  Arlington  estate,  on  the 
Potomac,  opposite  Washington, 
which  had  been  bid  in  by  the 
government  at  a  Civil  War  tax 
sale  and  devoted  to  use  as  a 
national  cemetery.  The  court 
held  the  sale  void,  and  the  de- 
fendants, who  were  military  offi- 
cers in  charge,  as  trespassers. 
Afterwards  the  United  States  ac- 
quired lawful  title  to  the  land. 
Another  outstanding  case  of  this 
sort  is  Ex  parte  Young  (1908), 
209  U.  S.  123,  in  which  the  At- 
torney General  of  Minnesota 
was  found  guilty  of  contempt  be- 
cause he  disobeyed  a  decree  of  a 
Federal  court  enjoining  him 
from  bringing  proceedings  in  the 
State  courts  to  enforce  the  State 
railroad  rate  law,  which  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad  al- 
leged to  be  unconstitutional. 

Suits  between  States. — A 
most  interesting  series  of  cases 
are  those  in  which  one  State  has 
sued  another  directly  in  the 
Supreme  Court.  In  this  way  the 
Court  has  peacefully  and  effec- 
tually disposed  of  many  serious 
controversies,  which,  if  between 
independent  sovereignties,  would 
have  been  settled  by  diplomacy 
or  war.  (See  the  two- volume 
collection  'Judicial  Settlement  of 
Controversies  between  States  of 
the  American  Union,'  edited  by 
James  Brown  Scott,  published  by 
Carnegie  Endowment  for  In- 
ternational Peace.)  The  major- 
ity of  these  cases  have  related 
to  the  location  of  State  bound- 
aries, the  leading  case  being 
Rhode  Island  v.  Massachusetts 
(1838),  12  Peters  657,  and 
(1846),  4  Howard  591,  in  which 
the  jurisdiction  was  definitely  es- 
tablished. A  number  have  had 
to  do  with  disputes  brought  about 
by  natural  changes  in  the  courses 
of  great  boundary  rivers,  like  the 
Mississippi — the  so-called  'avul- 
sions' and  'accretions,' — e.g.  Mis- 
souri V.  Kentucky  (1870),  11 
Wallace  395  ;  Iowa  v.  Illinois 
(1893),  147  U.  S.  1  ;  Arkansas 
v.  Tennessee  (1918),  246  U.  S. 
158.  The  most  interesting  of  all 
boundary  cases  is  that  of  Okla- 
homa V.  Texas,  in  which  the 
United  States  intervened  and  in 
which  many  opinions  and  de- 
crees are  reported,  running  from 
256  U.  S.  70  (1921)  through 
subsequent  volumes.  It  involved 


primarily  the  location  of  the 
Texas  boundary  on  the  Red 
River,  the  main  question  being 
whether,  under  a  treaty  of  1819 
between  the  United  States  and 
Spain,  it  should  be  the  thread  of 
the  stream  or  on  the  south  bank, 
and,  if  the  latter,  what  was  the 
south  bank  of  that  peculiar 
river.  Incidentally,  an  area  of 
enormously  valuable  oil  land, 
occupied  by  a  motley  popula- 
tion, including  some  disreputable 
and  dangerous  characters,  had 
to  be  taken  possession  of  and 
not  only  operated  but,  practi- 
cally, policed  by  the  Court, 
through  a  receivership,  until  the 
State  jurisdiction  to  which  it 
belonged  could  be  determined 
and  innumerable  private  claims 
be  heard.  Another,  later,  phase 
of  the  case,  involves  the  location 
of  the  boundary  running  north 
from  Red  River,  following  the 
100th  meridian.  Special  mention 
should  be  made  also  of  the 
suit  by  Missouri  against  Illinois 
(1901-1906),  180  U.  S.  208  ;  202 
U.  S.  496,  to  enjoin  the  pollu- 
tion of  the  Mississippi  by  sewage 
emanating  from  the  notorious 
Chicago  drainage  canal,  and  the 
one  brought  by  New  York 
against  New  Jersey  (1921),  256 
U.  S.  296,  to  protect  New  York 
Bay  from  a  similar  invasion. 
Two  suits  were  brought  against 
Colorado,  one  by  Kansas  (1907), 
188  U.  S.  125  ;  206  U.  S.  46,  the 
other  by  Wyoming  (1922),  259 
U.  S.  419,  to  enjoin  the  defendant 
from  allowing  waters  to  be 
diverted  within  her  boundaries 
for  irrigation  purposes  to  the 
damage  of  vested  rights  on  the 
same  streams,  lower  down,  in 
the  plaintiff  States.  In  the  Kan- 
sas case  the  evidence  of  injury 
was  fovmd  inconclusive  and  the 
bill  dismissed  without  preju- 
dice, hut  in_  the  other  full  in- 
junctive relief  was  granted  to 
Wyoming.  Another  remarkable 
litigation  was  that  in  which 
Virginia  obtained  a  large  money 
judgment  against  West  Virginia 
on  the  compact  of  the  latter,  at 
the  time  of  her  admission,  to 
share  the  Virginia  public  debt 
existing  before  West  Virginia 
was  carved  out  of  her  territory. 
The  judgment  not  being  paid, 
the  Court,  upon  Virginia's  ap- 
plication, required  the  members 
of  the  West  Virginia  legislature 
to  show  cause  why  they  should 
not  be  commanded  to  levy  a  tax 
for  that  purpose.  After  the  hear- 
ing, it  was  decided  (See  Virginia 
V.  IVest  Virginia  (1918),  246 
U.  S.  565)  that  Congress,  with 
whose  consent  the  compact  had 
been  made,  had  power  to  enforce 
it,  and  that  the  Court  was 
authorized  to  execute  the  judg- 
ment by  any  means  available 
or  which  Congress  might  pro- 
vide.   The  determination  of  the 


means,  however,  was  left  open 
for  a  future  hearing,  which  be- 
came unnecessary,  as  West  Vir- 
ginia satisfied  the  judgment. 

One  State  cannot  sue  another 
in  the  Supreme  Court  merely  to 
collect  private  debts  for  her 
citizens.  But  in  South  Dakota  v. 
North  Carolina  (1904),  192  U. 
S.  286,  it  was  held  that  bonds 
issued  by  North  Carolina  in 
1866  in  aid  of  a  railroad 
and  secured  by  a  mortgage 
of  railroad  stock  belonging  to 
the  State,  could  be  enforced  at 
the  suit  of  Seuth  Dakota,  to 
which  they  had  been  given  by 
their  private  owners.  In  recent 
suits  of  great  importance  the 
States  of  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania 
established  their  right  to  enjoin 
West  Virginia  from  enforcing 
legislation  which  would  have 
diverted  to  local  uses  the  flow  of 
natural  gas  already  established 
as  a  current  of  interstate  com- 
merce from  West  Virginia  to 
places  of  consumption  in  the 
other  two  States.  Pennsylvania 
V.  West  Virginia  (1923),  262 
U.  S.  553. 

The  United  States  can  sue  a 
State  in  the  Supreme  Court ; 
Utiited  States  v.  Texas  (1891), 
143  U.  S.  621  ;  but,  being  the 
superior  sovereignty,  it  cannot 
be  sued  without  its  consent, 
by  a  State,  Kansas  v.  United 
States  (1907),  204  U.  S.  33. 

A  celebrated  case  in  which  a 
decree  of  the  Court  was  resisted 
by  a  State,  but  vindicated  by 
the  power  of  the  government,  is 
United  States  v.  Judge  Peters 
(1809),  5  Cranch  115.  The 
Court  issued  a  writ  of  mandamus 
to  Peters,  Judge  of  the  Federal 
court  in  Pennsylvania,  command- 
ing him  to  carry  out  a  former 
decree,  which  had  awarded  to  a 
private  party  a  fund  of  money 
also  claimed  by  the  State. 
When,  in  obedience  to  the  man- 
damus. Judge  Peters  issued  proc- 
ess against  the  persons  in  pos- 
session of  the  money,  the 
United  States  Marshal  was  op- 
posed by  State  troops,  and  sum- 
moned a  posse  of  2,000  men. 
Thus  was  engendered  an  in- 
cipient rebellion,  which  was 
happily  terminated  by  the  firm- 
ness of  President  Madison  and 
the  yielding  of  the  State  aiithor- 
ities.  In  United  States  v.  Shipp 
(1909),  214  U.  S.  386;  215  id. 
580,  a  colored  man,  who  had  been 
sentenced  to  death  in  a  State 
court,  applied  to  the  Federal 
court  for  release  by  habeas  corpus, 
and,  this  application  being  de- 
nied, was  consigned  by  the 
Federal  court  to  the  custody  of 
the  county  officials,  pending  his 
appeal  from  the  denial  to  the 
Supreme  Court.  In  this  situa- 
tion, he  was  taken  from  the 
jail  by  a  mob  and  lynched. 
Whereupon,  the  Attorney  Gen- 


Supreme  Court  Decisions  KFE 


551  A   Supreme  Court  Decisions 


eral  of  the  United  States 
charged  that  the  sheriff,  and  his 
assistants,  through  negligently 
failing  to  guard  the  prisoner, 
were  guilty  of  contempt  of  the 
Supreme  Court.  They  were 
found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to 
terms  of  imprisonment  in  the 
District  of  Columbia.  In  re 
N eagle,  135  U.  S.  1,  was  a  pro- 
ceeding in  habeas  corpus  which 
grew  out  of  the  sensational  as- 
sault committed  by  Judge  Terry, 
of  California,  upon  Justice  Field 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  the 
killing  of  Terry  by  Neagle,  a 
deputy  U.  S.  Marshal,  who  had 
been  duly  assigned  to  defend  the 
Justice  against  anticipated  vio- 
lence from  Terry,  It  was  decided 
that  Neagle  acted  in  discharge 
of  his  Federal  duty,  and  could 
not  be  held  to  answer  a  charge  of 
murder  in  the  State  court. 

Marbury  v.  Madison  (1803), 
1  Cranch  137,  was  the  first  of 
John  Marshall's  great  Constitu- 
tional decisions — one  'not  sur- 
passed in  the  ability  it  displays, 
nor  equalled  in  its  utility  by  any 
case  in  the  multitudinous  records 
of  English  and  American  Juris- 
prudence.' The  power  and  duty 
of  the  judiciary  to  disregard  an 
unconstitutional  Act  of  Congress, 
or  of  the  State  legislature  were 
declared  'in  an  argument  ap- 
proaching the  precision  and  cer- 
tainty of  a  mathematical  demon- 
stration.' It  was  a  mandamus 
proceeding  instituted  directly 
in  the  Supreme  Court  by  Mar- 
bury  to  enforce  delivery  of  his 
commission  as  a  justice  of  the 
peace  in  the  District  of  Columbia, 
which  had  been  fully  executed 
before  the  retirement  from  office 
of  President  John  Adams,  but 
which  Madison,  the  incoming 
Secretary  of  State,  acting  on 
orders  from  President  Jefferson, 
declined  to  deliver.  Such  a  case, 
the  Court  held,  was  not  within 
its  original  jurisdiction  as  de- 
fined by  the  Constitution ;  and, 
as  Congress  had  no  power  to  add 
to  that  jurisdiction,  an  Act  pur- 
porting to  do  so  was  necessarily 
void  :  it  could  furnish  no  excuse 
for  the  exercise  by  the  Court  of 
a  jurisdiction  denied  by  the  Con- 
stitution. The  main  interest  of 
the  case  in  its  own  day  lay  in  the 
arguments  found  in  the  opinion 
to  the  effect  that  Marbury  was 
entitled  to  the  commission  and 
would  have  been  awarded  a 
mandamus  if  the  Court  had  had 
jurisdiction.  These  gave  much 
offence  to  Jefferson  and  his  ad- 
herents, and  the  more  so  because, 
as  they  have  since  been  adjudged 
(Myers  v.  United  States,  272 
U.  S.),  they  were  no  more 
than  dicta, — observations  on  the 
merits  of  a  case  which  the  Court 
had  no  power  to  decide.  But,  as 
an  enunciation  of  the  principle 
that  an  Act  of  Congress  (or  of  a 


State  legislature)  in  conflict 
with  the  Constitution,  is  void 
and  must  be  so  treated  by  the 
courts  in  passing  on  the  rights  of 
litigants,  the  decision  was  funda- 
mental to  the  preservation  of 
our  system  of  government. 

A  doctrine  complementary  to 
the  one  just  considered  and  hard- 
ly less  vital, — namely,  that 
review  of  judgments  of  State 
courts  involving  questions  aris- 
ing under  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion and  laws  is  within  the 
judicial  power  of  the  United 
States  and  may  be  had  in  the 
Supreme  Court  when  the  appel- 
late jurisdiction  is  so  regulated 
by  Congress — was  laid  down  in 
Martin  v.  Hunter's  Lessee 
(1816),  1  Wheaton  304,  and 
Cohens  v.  Virginia  (1821),  6  id. 
264,  the  former  a  civil  suit  in- 
volving land,  the  latter  a  criminal 
conviction  for  selling  in  Virginia 
a  ticket  in  a  lottery  held  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  under  au- 
thority from  Congress.  If,  in 
these  cases,  the  Court  had  yield- 
ed to  the  powerful  opposition 
then  massed  against  its  jurisdic- 
tion, each  State  through  its 
courts  and  legislatures  would 
have  placed  its  own  interpreta- 
tion on  the  Constitution  and  laws 
of  the  United  States,  without  re- 
gard to  the  interpretations  in 
other  States,  or  in  the  Federal 
courts,  and  governmental  chaos 
would  have  resulted. 

The  Contract  Clause.  Fletch- 
er V.  Peck  (1810),  6  Cranch  87, 
known  as  the  Yazoo  Lands 
Case  (see  Yazoo  Frauds)  ; 
Dartmouth  College  v.  Woodward 
(1819),  4  Wheaton  518  (see 
Dartmouth  College  Case)  ; 
and  Sturges  v.  Crowninshield 
(1819),  4  Wheaton  122,  are  three 
celebrated  decisions,  through 
Marshall,  enforcing  the  con- 
stitutional provision  inhibiting 
the  States  from  passing  laws  im- 
pairing the  obligations  of  con- 
tracts. The  Fletcher  case  in- 
volved private  titles  under  a 
grant  made  by  the  Georgia 
legislature,  which  a  subsequent 
legislature  sought  to  revoke  as 
having  been  obtained  by  fraud 
and  bribery  of  the  legislators. 
The  Court  decided  that  an  exe- 
cuted grant  is  a  contract,  within 
the  'contract  clause' ;  that  the 
clause  applies  to  contracts  of  a 
State  as  well  as  to  those  between 
individuals  ;  and  that  the  revok- 
ing act  was  unconstitutional. 
It  denied  the  existence  of  judicial 
power,  in  such  a  case,  to  inquire 
whether  the  legislature  had 
acted  corruptly.  This  is  said  to 
be  the  first  instance  in  which  the 
Supreme  Court  itself  was  called 
upon  to  declare  an  act  of  a  State 
legislature  unconstitutional, 
though  there  had  been  a  number 
of  instances  in  the  lower  Federal 
and  the  State  courts. 


The  Dartmouth  College  case 
was  of  special  interest  in  that  the 
charter  of  a  corporation  was  held 
to  be  a  contract  of  the  State, 
protected  by  this  'contract 
clause'  of  the  Constitution  from 
subsequent  amendments  by  the 
State  legislature.  It  led  to  State 
legislation  reserving  the  power  to 
alter,  amend,  or  repeal  the 
charters  of  corporations  granted 
under  general  acts. 

In  Sturges  v.  Crowninshield, 
supra,  a  State  bankruptcy  law 
was  adjudged  invalid  in  so  far 
as  it  would  discharge  debts  con- 
tracted before  its  passage.  The 
decision  came  at  a  time  of 
financial  stringency  when  there 
was  no  Federal  bankruptcy  law 
and  when  many  debtors  had 
been  discharged  by  State  courts. 

Stone  V.  Mississippi  (1880), 
101  U.  S.  814,  held  that  the 
Dartmouth  College  decision  did 
not  prevent  a  State  which  had 
incorporated  a  lottery  company 
from  afterwards  forbidding  lot- 
teries, since  the  legislature  can- 
not_  by  contract  surrender  the 
police  power.  In  Illinois  Central 
v.  Illinois  (1892),  146  U.  S.  385, 
a  grant  made  by  the  legislature 
in  1869  to  a  railroad  company  of 
1,000  acres  of  submerged  land 
along  the  harbor  front  of 
Chicago  was  held  void  and  re- 
pealable  by  a  later  legislature. 
In  the  leading  case  of  Gelpcke  v. 
Dubuque  (1864),  1  Wallace  175, 
involving  municipal  bonds  issued 
to  aid  a  railroad,  it  was  estab- 
lished that  the  validity  of  a 
contract  is  determined  by  the 
State  law  as  it  was  when  the 
contract  was  made,  including 
the  State  court's  decisions,  re- 
gardless of  its  later  decisions 
reversing  them.  There  are  many 
other  interesting  decisions  under 
this  'contract  clause.' 

In  1816,  Congress  chartered 
the  second  United  States  Bank, 
with  authority  to  establish 
branches  in  different  States,  and 
the  power  to  issue  circulating 
notes.  States'  rights  sentiment 
was  aroused  by  this  competition 
with  State  banks,  and  Maryland 
attempted  a  stamp  tax  on  the 
bank's  notes  to  drive  out  the 
branch  established  there.  In 
proceedings  by  the  State,  Mc- 
Culloch,  cashier  of  the  bank,  was 
penalized  for  violating  this  law. 
The  judgment  was  reversed  in 
McCulloch  V.  Maryland  (1819), 
4  Wheaton  316,  in  a  decision  of 
enormous  importance,  announced 
in  one  of  the  most  luminous  of 
Marshall's  opinions.  The  bank, 
he  said,  if  lawful,  was  an  in- 
strument of  the  national  govern- 
ment— a  government  supreme 
within  its  appointed  sphere.  A 
State  could  not  tax  the  instru- 
ments of  this  supreme  govern- 
ment ;  for  the  power  to  tax 
involves  the  power  to  destroy. 


Supreme  Court  Decisions  KFE 


551  B    Supreme  Court  Decisions 


Although  the  power  to  create  a 
corporation  to  act  as  a  national 
fiscal  agency  is  not  a  power  ex- 
pressly granted  by  the  Constitu- 
tion, it  is  to  be  fairly  implied 
from  those  that  are  so  granted, 
including  the  express  power  to 
make  all  laws  that  shall  be 
'necessary  and  proper'  for  carry- 
ing into  execution  the  powers 
enumerated  and  vested  by  the 
Constitution.  The  Court  was 
much  criticized  for  this  decision, 
not  for  holding  an  Act  of  Con- 
gress unconstitutional,  but  for 
declining  to  do  so. 

Among  other  decisions  con- 
cerning the  powers  of  taxation 
and  over  the  currency,  the 
following  are  notable :  Veazie 
Bank  V.  Fenno  (1869),  8  Wal- 
lace 533,  held  that  Congress  has 
power  to  restrain  by  taxation 
the  circulation  of  State  bank 
notes  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
a  sound  and  uniform  national 
currency. 

In  the  Legal  Tender  Case 
(1871),  12  Wallace  457,  the 
Court  overruling  a  previous 
decision,  upheld  the  Civil  War 
legal  tender  acts,  as  a  valid 
exercise  of  the  war  power  ;  and 
this  as  applied  to  debts  con- 
tracted after  their  enactment. 
See  Juillard  v.  Greenman  ( 1 884 ) , 
110  U.  S.  421,  as  to  the  exist- 
ence of  the  same  power  in  time  of 
peace.  Dobbins  v.  Erie  County 
(1842),  16  Peters  435,  held 
invalid  a  State  tax  on  a  Federal 
office;  Collector  v.  Day  (1870), 
11  Wallace  113,  held  invalid  a 
Federal  tax  on  the  salary  of  a 
State  judge,  and  Evans  v.  Gore 
(1920),  253  U.  S.  245,  denied 
the  power  to  subject  to  Federal 
income  taxes  the  salaries  of 
Federal  judges. 

Smith  v.  Kansas  City  Title  Co. 
(1920),  255  U.  S.  180,  sustained 
the  new  Federal  Land  Banks, 
and  the  exemption  of  their  secu- 
rities from  taxation,  as  constitu- 
tional fiscal  agencies,  although 
intended  for  the  purpose  of 
facilitating  loans  to  farmers. 

In  McCray  v.  United  States 
(1904),  195  U.  S.  27,  a  discrimi- 
nating Federal  tax  on  colored 
oleomargarine,  imposed  with  the 
evident  purpose  of  protecting 
the  dairy  industry,  was  held 
constitutional.  The  doctrine  of 
this  case  has  been  affirmed  in 
Miller  v.  Standard  Nut  Marga- 
rine Compafiy  (1932),  284  U.  S. 
498,  and  in  Magnano  Company 
V.  Hamilton  (1934),  292  U.  S. 
40.  And  in  the  extreme  case  of 
United  States  v.  Doremus 
(1919),  249  U.  S.  86,  the  elabo- 
rate regulations  and  drastic  pun- 
ishments of  the  Anti-Narcotic 
Act,  designed  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  indulgence  in  narcotic 
drugs,  were  deemed  valid  means 
of  exercising  the  taxing  power. 
(The  correctness  of  this  decision 


was  questioned  in  United  States 
V.  Daugherty  (1926),  269  U.  S. 
360.)  But  in  the  Child  Labor 
Tax  Case  (1922),  259  U.  S.  20, 
an  attempt  of  Congress  to  regu- 
late child  labor  in  the  States  by 
taking  things  made  by  child  labor 
in  violation  of  regulations  laid 
down  in  the  act  was  found  un- 
constitutional. Following  this 
decision,  an  amendment  to  the 
Constitution  was  proposed  to  the 
States  to  give  Congress  power 
over  the  subject. 

State  taxes  on  chain  stores 
have  been  upheld  in  State  Board 
V.  Jackson  (1931),  283  U.  S.  527, 
and  in  the  West  Virginia  Chain 
Store  Tax  Case  (decided  Jan. 
14,  1935).  In  Puget  Sound 
Power  and  Light  Company  v. 
Seattle  (1934),  291  U.  S.  619, 
the  Court  vipheld  Seattle's  right 
to  impose  a  3  per  cent  privilege 
tax  upon  the  gross  income  of  a 
light  and  power  company  com- 
peting with  the  city's  munici- 
pally owned  plant. 

In  the  'Income  Tax  Case,' 
Pollock  V.  Farmers  Loan  and 
Trust  Co.  (1895),  158  U.  S.  601, 
the  Court  held,  on  rehearing, 
that  income  derived  from  prop- 
erty, personal  or  real,  is  in  effect 
a  tax  on  the  property,  and 
therefore  a  direct  tax  which, 
under  the  Constitution,  must  be 
apportioned  among  the  several 
States  according  to  their  popula- 
tions. This  led  to  the  16th 
Amendment  empowering  Con- 
gress to  lay  such  taxes  without 
apportionment.  Among  numer- 
ous later  decisions  concerning 
such  taxes,  are  Evans  v.  Gore 
(1920),  253  U.  S.  245  (the 
Judge's  salary  case),  and  Eisner 
v.  Macomber  (1920),  252  U.  S. 
189,  holding  stock  dividends  not 
taxable,  because  not  income. 

The  Commerce  Clause. — 
Gibbons  v.  Ogdcn  (1824),  9 
Wheaton  1 — the  Steamboat  Mo- 
nopoly Case — brought  the  first 
constrviction,  in  any  important 
particular,  of  the  clause  of  the 
Constitution  granting  Congress 
the  power  to  'regulate'  commerce, 
among  the  several  States  and 
with  foreign  countries.  Laws  of 
New  York  granting,  for  a  term 
of  years,  to  Livingston  and  Ful- 
ton, the  exclusive  right  to  navi- 
gate the  waters  within  the  State's 
jurisdiction,  with  vessels  pro- 
pelled by  steam,  were  held  inop- 
erative to  prevent  a  steamship, 
licensed  under  the  coasting  trade 
laws  of  the  United  States,  from 
operating  between  New  York 
City  and  a  New  Jersey  port. 
Marshall's  opinion  rejected  the 
contention  that  the  'commerce' 
to  be  regulated  was  confined  to 
the  mere  traffic  of  buying  and 
selling,  or  interchange  of  com- 
modities ;  commerce  is  commer- 
cial intercourse ,  and  includes 
navigation.     To  'regulate'  this 


commerce  is  to  prescribe  the 
rules  by  which  it  shall  be  gov- 
erned, and  this  power  in  Con- 
gress, when  exercised,  is  not  only 
supreme  but  exclusive.  This  case 
excited  wide  public  interest  at 
the  time,  for  political  as  well  as 
commercial  reasons.  Release 
from  competitive  restrictions  im- 
posed by  the  States  gave  imme- 
diate impetus  to  the  development 
of  commerce  by  steam.  The  de- 
cision is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance as  a  foundation  of  national 
unity  and  prosperity.  Had  the 
Court  accepted  the  narrow  con- 
struction adopted  by  the  New 
York  judiciary,  including  the 
eminent  Chancellor  Kent,  which 
was  seriously  supported  at  the 
time  by  strong  advocates  of 
State  rights,  the  general  com- 
mercial intercourse  of  the  coun- 
try would  have  lain  at  the  mercy 
of  State  selfishness  and  rapacity, 
as  it  was  when  the  Constitution 
was  adopted,  and  the  Union,  for 
want  of  a  real  national  power 
over  this  subject,  would  prob- 
ably have  fallen  apart. 

Among  the  great  list  of  later 
cases  involving  the  Commerce 
Clause  may  be  mentioned  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Brozvn  v.  Maryland  (1827),  12 
Wheaton  419,  held  that  a  Mary- 
land license  tax  on  importers 
was  void  under  this  clause  and 
under  the  prohibition  against 
State  import  duties.  In  The 
Passenger  Cases  (1849),  7  How- 
ard, 283,  laws  of  New  York  and 
Massachusetts,  taxing  immi- 
grants and  requiring  shipmasters 
to  give  bonds,  which  were  enact- 
ed for  the  purpose  of  con- 
trolling the  influx  of  paupers 
and  criminals  from  abroad,  were 
held  in  conflict  with  this  clause 
and  regulations  of  Congress. 
The  importance  of  the  decision 
was  accentuated  by  its  relation 
to  laws  of  Southern  States  deny- 
ing entry  to  free  negroes  and 
forbidding  the  taking  out  of 
slaves,  on  vessels.  In  Gilman  v. 
Philadelphia  (1865),  3  Wallace 
724,  the  control  of  Congress  was 
declared  to  extend  to  all  navi- 
gable waters  in  a  State  accessible 
from  other  States.  Tests  of 
navigability  were  laid  down  in 
The  Daniel  Ball  (1870),  10 
Wallace  557,  and  The  Montello 
(1824),  20  id.  430.  Among  the 
many  instances  upholding  the 
Federal  power  to  protect  and  de- 
velop such  waters  none  is  more 
interesting  than  the  recent  case 
of  Sanitary  District  v.  United 
States  (1924),  266  U.  S.  405, 
in  which  Chicago  was  enjoined 
from  diverting  water  from  Lake 
Michigan  in  excess  of  the  quan- 
tity prescribed  by  the  Secretary 
of  War.  Here  (though  not 
resting  on  the  commerce  power) 
may  be  mentioned.  The  Genesee 
Chief  (1852),  12  Howard  443, 


Supreme  Court  Decisions  KFE 


551  C    Supreme  Court  Decisions 


extending  the  admiralty  juris- 
diction of  the  Federal  courts  over 
non-tidal  navigable  waters.  Paul 
V.  Virginia  (1869),  8  Wallace 
168,  held  that  the  business  of 
insurance,  though  conducted 
from  other  States  by  foreign 
corporations,  is  subject  to  local 
State  regulation,  as  it  is  not 
'commerce' ;  Robbins  v.  Taxing 
District  (1887),  120  U.  S.  487, 
that  a  State  cannot  tax  traveling 
salesmen  engaged  in  soliciting 
interstate  business ;  Bozvman  v. 
Chicago  &  N.  IV.  E.  Co.  (1888), 
125  U.  S.  465,  that  a  State  can- 
not forbid  introduction  of  in- 
toxicating liquors  from  other 
States  by  common  carriers. 
Lcisy  V.  Hardin  (1890),  135  U. 
S.  100,  is  the  familiar  Original 
Package  case,  deciding  that  one 
who  imported  beer  into  one 
State  from  another  had  a  right 
to  sell  it  in  the  original  package, 
notwithstanding  a  State  pro- 
hibitory statute.  Wabash  R.  R. 
Co.  V.  Illinois  (1886),  118 
U.  S.  557 — a  decision  of  vast 
importance — denied  any  power 
in  a  State  to  regvilate  charges  for 
railroad  transportation  within 
the  State  when  it  is  part  of  an 
interstate  transaction.  The 
power  to  regulate  intrastate  rates, 
however,  was  frequently  si:s- 
tained — notably  in  the  great 
Minnesota  Rate  Cases  (1913), 
230  U.  S.  352  (and  many  others 
following  in  the  same  volume), 
where  the  history  and  law  of  the 
subject  were  elaborately  re- 
viewed. Rates,  however,  which 
did  not  allow  of  a  fair  return  to 
the  railroad  were  there  held 
confiscatory  and  void  under  the 
Fourteenth  Amendment ;  and  it 
was  shown  that  even  local  regu- 
lations may  be  displaced  by  Con- 
gress if  they  interfere  with  in- 
terstate commerce. 

During  the  World  War,  the 
government  took  complete  con- 
trol of  nearly  all  the  railroad  and 
certain  telegraph  and  telephone 
lines,  and  fixed  their  charges, 
both  intrastate  and  interstate. 
This  was  sustained  as  within  the 
war  power  of  Congress  in 
N  or  them  Pacific  Ry.  Co.  v.  North 
Dakota  (1919),  250  U.  S.  135, 
and  Dakota  Central  Telephone 
Co.  V.  South  Dakota,  id.  163. 
Since  the  War,  under  the  Trans- 
portation Act,  which  aims  to 
insure  an  adequate  transporta- 
tion service  throughout  the 
country,  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission  is  authorized 
to  require  railroads  to  increase 
intrastate  rates  which  are  so  low 
as  to  discriminate  against  inter- 
state commerce.  This  extreme 
exertion  of  the  power  to  regulate 
interstate  commerce  was  sus- 
tained in  Railroad  Commission  of 
Wisconsin  v.  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton, and  Quincy  Railroad  Com- 
pany  (1922),  257   U.   S.  263. 


And  in  Dayton-Goose  Creek 
Railway  Co.  v.  United  States 
(1924),  263  U.  S.  456,  the  Court 
upheld  the  'recapture'  provision 
of  the  same  act,  whereby  the  ex- 
cess profits  of  prosperous  rail- 
roads are  controlled  by  the 
United  States  and  used  in  part, 
through  loans,  and  in  other 
ways,  to  help  out  weaker  rail- 
roads. 

Modern  extraordinary  applica- 
tions of  this  commerce  power 
may  relate  back  to  the  famous 
Lottery  Case,  Champion  v.  Ames 
(1903),  188  U.  S.  321,  holding 
that  Congress  can  exclude  such 
harmful  things  as  lottery  tickets, 
not  onlv  from  the  mails  {Ex 
parte  Rapier,  143  U.  S.  110), 
but  also  from  interstate  com- 
merce. The  White  Slave  Act, 
construed  in  Hoke  v.  United 
States,  227  U._  S.  308,  and 
Caniinetti  v.  United  States,  242 
U.  S.  470,  was  sustained  on  this 
power  of  exclusion  ;  and  upon  it 
also  Congress  attempted  to  base 
its  first  Child  Labor  Act ;  but  that 
was  declared  unconstitutional  in 
Hammer  v.  Dagcnhart  (1918), 
247  U.  S.  251,  because  the  power 
to  regulate  commerce  does  not 
include  the  power  to  regulate 
manufacture. 

The  Second  Child  Labor  Act, 
based  on  the  tax  power,  was  also 
declared  void  in  Child  Labor 
Tax  Case  (1922),  259  U.  S.  20, 
as  already  mentioned. 

The  First  Federal  Employers' 
Liability  Act,  was  held  invalid 
in  Employers'  Liability  Cases 
(1908),  207  U.  S.  463,  because  it 
went  beyond  the  commerce 
power  by  including  railway 
employees  engaged  wholly  in 
intrastate  commerce,  but  the 
second  act,  which  was  limited  to 
accidents  in  interstate  commerce, 
was  sustained  in  Second  Em- 
ployers' Liability  Cases  (1912), 
223  U.  S.  1.  In  Adair  v.  United 
States  (1908),  208  U.  S.  161,  an 
Act  of  Congress  forbidding  dis- 
crimination against  union  labor 
by  railroads  engaged  in  inter- 
state commerce  was  found  not 
properly  a  regulation  of  such 
commerce,  and  therefore  void. 

The  great  Debs  strike  of  1894, 
called  to  enforce  a  boycott  on 
Pullman  cars,  had  tied  up  rail- 
roads over  a  large  part  of  the 
coimtry,  when  it  was  brought  to 
an  end  through  the  combined 
efforts  of  the  military  power, 
employed  by  President  Cleve- 
land, and  the  power  of  the  ju- 
diciary, invoked  by  a  bill  for 
an  injunction  filed  by  the  Attor- 
ney (General  in  the  circuit  court 
at  Chicago,  for  the  protection  of 
interstate  commerce  and  the 
mails.  Debs  and  others  dis- 
obeyed the  injunction  and  were 
imprisoned  for  contempt.  The 
decision  of  the  Supreme  Court 
affirming  this  action  is  one  of  the 


Classics — In  re  Debs,  158  U.  S. 
564.  Another  conspicuous  case 
involving  the  settlement  of  labor 
trouble,  but  by  very  different 
means,  was  Wilson  v.  New 
(1917),  243  U.  S.  332.  To  avert 
a  threatened  strike  of  railway 
hands.  Congress  enacted  a  stat- 
ute temporarily  fixing  both 
hours  and  minimum  wages.  It 
was  decided  that  the  establish- 
ment of  an  eight-hour  day  was 
clearly  within  the  power  to  regu- 
late commerce,  but  to  sustain 
the  wage  regulation  the  court 
felt  constrained  to  resort  to  the 
doctrine  of  'emergency  power,' 
which  was  afterwards  the  basis 
of  decision  in  the  Rent  Cases, 
mentioned  below. 

Whether  the  commerce  power 
extends  over  migratory  birds  was 
a  problem  raised  by  a  protective 
Act  of  Congress,  the  validity  of 
which  was  not  determined  by  the 
Supreme  Court,  because  before 
a  decision  was  necessary  the 
Migratory  Bird  Treaty  had  been 
made  with  Great  Britain.  In 
Missouri  v.  Holland  (1920), 
252  U.  S.  416,  it  was  decided 
that  the  treaty,  and  the  Act  of 
Congress  made  to  enforce  it, 
were  valid,  and  rose  superior  to 
the  rights  of  any  State  respecting 
migratory  birds  within  her  bound- 
aries. This  case  is  most  im- 
portant, both  as  averting  the 
disaster  which  would  result 
from  extermination  of  insectiv- 
orous birds,  and  because  of  the 
liberal  construction  placed  on 
the  treaty-making  power.  It  is 
a  leading  case  on  that  subject. 

One  of  the  great  developments 
of  the  commerce  power  was  the 
Sherman  Anti-Trust  Law,  passed 
to  prevent  or  curb  combinations 
in  restraint  of  interstate  com- 
merce, and  many  of  the  decisions 
concerning  such  alleged  combina- 
tions or  'trusts'  have  attracted 
wide  public  notice.  Mention 
may  be  made  here  of  the  'Sugar 
Trust  Case,'  United  States  v.  E. 
C.  Knight  Co.  (1895),  156  U.  S. 
1,  deciding  that  the  combination 
was  in  the  manufacture  alone 
and  therefore  not  in  interstate 
commerce ;  United  States  y. 
Trans-Missouri  Freight  Associ- 
ation (1897),  193  U.  S.  197, con- 
demning railroad  freight  pools  ; 
Northern  Securities  Co.  v. 
United  States  (1904),  193  U.  S. 
197,  adjudging  unlawful  a  cor- 
poration found  to  acquire  and 
hold  the  stock  of  two  competing 
railroads;  Szvift  &  Co.  v.  United 
States  (1905),  196  U.  S.  375,  the 
'Meat  Trust  Case,'  in  which  the 
court  found  unlawful  an  alleged 
combination  of  meat  packers ; 
The  Standard  Oil  and  Tobacco 
Company  cases  (1911),  221  U. 
S.  1,  106,  in  which  those  notori- 
ous trusts  were  convicted  of  il- 
legality and  decreed  to  be  dis- 
solved, the  Court  making  the  dis- 


Supreme  Court  Decisions  KFE 


551  D    Supreme  Court  Decisions 


tinction  between  restraints  of 
trade  which  are  'reasonable' 
(such  as  the  union  of  two  com- 
peting merchants  in  a  partner- 
ship), and  those  that  are  not; 
the  Union  Pacific-Southern  Pa- 
cific Merger  Case  (1912),  226 
U.  S.  61,  470  ;  the  Shoe  Machin- 
ery Case  (1922),  258  U.  S.  451, 
in  which  the  restrictions  im- 
posed by  the  combination  were 
found  to  be  within  the  rights  as  a 
patentee  of  inventions,  and  the 
'Steel  Trust  Case,'  in  which  the 
combination  did  not  offend  the 
statute  merely  because  of  its 
past  misdeeds  or  its  size  and 
present  capacity  for  wrongdoing. 

After  a  series  of  decisions  on 
slavery  and  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Law  came  Dred  Scott  v.  Sanford 
(1857),  19  Howard  393.  A  slave 
had  been  taken  by  his  master 
from  a  slave  State,  Missouri,  to 
a  free  State,  Illinois,  and  thence 
to  the  part  of  Louisiana  Terri- 
tory north  of  parallel  36°_  30', 
in  which  slavery  was  forbidden 
by  the  Missouri  Compromise 
Act ;  thence  to  Missouri  again 
where  he  resided.  He  brought 
suit  to  recover  his  freedom,  in 
the  Federal  circuit  court,  claim- 
ing to  be  a  citizen  of  Missouri, 
against  Sanford,  to  whom  he  had 
been  transferred,  and  who  was  a 
citizen  of  New  York.  The  juris- 
diction depended  on  the  parties 
being  citizens  of  different  States. 
A  majority  of  the  Supreme 
Court  decided  that  no  Negro 
whose  ancestors  had  been 
brought  here  as  slaves — 
admittedly  Scott's  case — could 
become  a  citizen ;  hence,  that 
there  was  no  jurisdiction.  But 
the  principal  opinion  went  fur- 
ther and  declared  that  Congress 
had  no  power  to  forbid  slavery 
in  the  territories.  This  greatly 
disturbed  and  aroused  the  Abo- 
litionists and  was  virulently 
denounced  as  an  attempt  of 
Southern  sympathizers  on  the 
Supreme  bench  to  aid  the  cause 
of  slavery.  In  Abelman  v.  Booth 
(1859),  21  Howard  506,  a  State 
court  undertook,  by  habeas  corpus, 
to  release  Booth,  who  was  held 
by  a  Federal  court  for  violating 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Act,  and  it 
refused  to  recognize  the  writ  of 
error  from  the  Federal  Supreme 
Court.  In  a  striking  opinion 
Chief  Justice  Taney  upheld 
the  supremacy  of  the  Federal 
judicial  power  and  government. 

Questions  arising  out  of  Civil 
War  from  the  Civil  War  Amend- 
ments to  the  Constitution  and 
the  acts  passed  by  Congress 
during  the  reconstruction  period 
have  led  to  many  notable  de- 
cisions. In  Ex  parte  Milligan 
(1866),  4  Wallace  2,  Milligan, 
\yho  had  not  resided  in  a  rebel- 
lious State,  and  was  not  a  pris- 
oner of  war  nor  connected  with 
the  military  or  naval  service,  was 


arrested  in  Indiana,  where  he 
resided,  on  charges  of  sedition, 
tried  (1864)  before  a  military 
commission  convened  by  the 
military  commander  of  the  dis- 
trict, and  sentenced  to  be  hanged. 
He  was  released  and  discharged 
through  the  writ  of  habeas 
corpus,  upon  the  grounds  that  a 
military  tribunal  had  no  juris- 
diction to  try  such  a  case  outside 
of  the  theatre  of  war  and  where 
the  Federal  courts  were  open,  and 
that  the  constitutional  guaranty 
of  trial  by  jury  had  been  violated. 
Another  source  of  excitement 
and  denunciation  at  that  time 
was  the  ruling  made  in  the 
fealty-oath  cases,  Cummings  v. 
Missouri  and  Ex  parte  Garland, 
4  Wallace  277,  333.  The  first 
of  these  decided  that  a  clause  of 
the  Missouri  Constitution  re- 
quiring clergymen,  in  order  to 
continue  exercising  their  pro- 
fession, to  take  an  oath  that 
they  had  not  participated  in  or 
aided  the  Rebellion,  was  in  con- 
travention of  the  provision  of 
the  national  Constitution  for- 
bidding bills  of  attainder  and 
ex  post  facto  laws. 

Texas  v.  White  (1868),  7  Wal- 
lace 700.  Texas  sued  in  the 
Supreme  Court,  asserting  her 
right  to  certain  bonds  which  had 
belonged  to  her  and  which  were 
negotiated  by  her  secessionist 
government  during  the  war.  It 
was  held,  among  other  things, 
that  the  political  continuity  of 
the  State  was  not  broken  by  the 
war  ;  that  acts  of  the  insurgent 
government  authorizing  the 
transfer  of  the  bonds  were  void 
and  that  the  provisional  govern- 
ment set  up  by  the  Reconstruc- 
tion Act  had  power  to  authorize 
the  suit.  In  the  majority  opinion 
by  Chief  Justice  Chase  occur 
the  much  quoted  words :  'The 
Constitution,  in  all  of  its  pro- 
visions, looks  to  an  indestruct- 
ible Union,  composed  of  inde- 
structible States.' 

In  the  famous  Slaughterhouse 
Cases  (1873),  16  Wallace  36, 
the  Court  found  its  first  occasion 
to  construe  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment.  The  'carpet-bag' 
legislature  of  Louisiana  had 
granted  to  a  corporation  a 
monopoly  of  the  slaughterhouse 
business,  thereby  depriving  many 
persons  of  their  right  to  engage 
in  it.  The  main  question  was 
whether  the  Amendment  had 
made  national  and  State  citizen- 
ship in  effect  one,  so  that 
privileges  and  immunities  which 
before  were  purely  State  affairs 
had  become  endowed  with  a 
Federal  character  and  were  to  be 
protected  and  enforced  by  Con- 
gress and  the  Supreme  Court. 
If  the  Court  had  adopted  this 
construction,  which  was  strongly 
held  by  the  reconstructionists 
and  quite  likely  was  intended  by 


those  who  brought  about  the 
Amendment,  the  structure  of 
the  government  would  have  been 
radically  altered,  and  the  au- 
tonomy of  the  States  would 
have  been  largely  destroyed.  A 
majority  of  the  Justices,  however, 
decided  that  the  right  claimed 
by  the  plaintiff,  to  be  free  of  the 
monopoly,  if  it  existed,  came 
from  the  State,  and  was  not  one 
of  the  privileges  and  immunities 
of  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
which  are  only  such  as  come 
from  the  Federal  government, 
its  character.  Constitution  and 
laws. 

Again,  in  the  Civil  Rights 
Cases  (1883),  109  U.  S.  3,  it  was 
decided  that  the  14th  Amend- 
ment, in  the  privileges  and  im- 
munities clauses  above  quoted, 
and  in  the  clauses  forbidding 
'any  State'  to  deprive  any  person 
of  life,  liberty  or  property  with- 
out due  process  of  law,  or  deny- 
ing the  equal  protection  of  the 
laws,  refers  only  to  State  action 
of  some  sort.  It  empowers  Con- 
gress to  legislate  against  such 
action,  but  not  to  legislate  against 
conduct    by    mere  individuals. 

In  Ex  parte  Yarborough 
(1884),  110  U.  S.  651,  the  Court 
held  constitutional  under  the 
15th  Amendment,  that  the  Civil 
Rights  provision  which  punished 
conspiracies  to  injure,  oppress, 
etc.,  any  citizen  in  the  exercise, 
or  because  of  having  exercised, 
any  right  guaranteed  by  the 
Federal  Constitution  or  laws — in 
that  case  the  right  of  a  Negro  to 
vote. 

In  Giiinn  v.  United  States 
(1915),  238  U.  S.  347,  the 
'Grandfather  Clause'  of  the 
Oklahoma  constitution,  was  held 
void  as  a  violation  of  the  rights 
of  Negroes  under  the  15th 
Amendment.  This  clause  under- 
took to  limit  the  right  to  vote 
to  persons  able  to  read  or  write 
any  section  of  the  State  consti- 
tution, exempting,  however,  all 
persons  who,  on  January  1,  1866, 
or  before,  were  entitled  to  vote 
under  any  form  of  government, 
or  then  resided  in  some  foreign 
nation,  and  their  lineal  descend- 
ants. In  Nixoti  V.  Hcrndon 
(1927),  273  U.  S.  536,  a  Texas 
statute  holding  Negroes  ineligible 
to  vote  in  a  Democratic  primary 
was  held  invalid  as  a  denial  of 
equal  protection  of  the  laws.  In 
Nixon  V.  Condon  (1932),  286 
U.  S.  73,  the  same  Negro  sought 
damages  for  exclusion  from  the 
1928  Texas  primary  election 
under  a  rule  made  by  authoriza- 
tion of  a  State  statute  giving  the 
executive  committee  of  a  party 
power  to  determine  voting  quali- 
fications in  primary  elections. 
This  also  was  held  a  denial  of 
equal  protection  of  the  laws  be- 
cause the  exclusion  power  came 
from  the  State  by  virtue  of  the 


Supreme  Court  Decisions  KFE 


552     Supreme  Court  Decisions 


authorizing  law.  In  Grovey  v. 
Townsend  (decided  Apr.  1, 
1935),  the  Court  held  the  Demo- 
cratic Party  in  Texas  justified  in 
excluding  Negroes  from  the  pri- 
maries on  the  ground  that  it  was 
a  'voluntary  organization  and 
was  competent  to  decide  its  mem- 
bership.' In  Potvcll  V.  Alabama 
(1932),  287  U.  S.  45,  the  Court 
held  that  seven  Negroes  in  the 
famous  Scottsboro  Case  had  been 
denied  due  process  of  law  be- 
cause during  a  trial  in  which 
they  were  convicted  of  a  capital 
crime  they  were  deprived  of  as- 
sistance of  covmsel.  In  Norris 
v.  State  of  Alabama  (decided 
April  1,  1935),  the  Court  re- 
versed the  conviction  of  Norris 
on  the  ground  that  the  exclusion 
of  Negroes  from  the  trial  jury 
constituted  a  deprivation  of  equal 
protection  of  the  laws. 

The  Fourteenth  Amendment 
has  been  involved  in  a  vast 
number  of  cases  in  which  the 
validity  of  State  laws  or  other 
forms  of  State  action  has  been 
passed  upon.  A  few  of  the  lead- 
ing cases  are  as  follows :  Loan 
Association  v.  Topeka  (1875), 
20  Wallace  655,  though  the 
decision  was  based,  not  on  the 
Amendment,  but  the  natural 
rights  of  individuals  and  limita- 
tions of  government,  was  a  case 
of  this  kind.  A  tax  for  the 
benefit  of  a  private  enterprise 
was  there  held  void.  In  Muglcr 
v.  Kansas  (1887),  123  U.  S.  123, 
it  was  held  that  property  in  a 
lawfully  operated  brewery  was 
not  protected  by  the  Amend- 
ment from  a  subsequent  exer- 
cise of  the  State's  police  power 
to  declare  the  making  of  beer  un- 
lawful. A  group  of  very  im- 
portant cases,  known  as  the 
Granger  Cases,  which  grew  out 
of  a  widespread  movement  to 
control  by  State  legislation  the 
rates  and  practices  of  railroads 
and  other  public  service  con- 
cerns, was  decided  in  1877,  in 
favor  of  the  State  power.  The 
Court  said  that  when  one  devotes 
his  property  to  a  use  in  which 
the  public  has  an  interest,  e.  g., 
a  grain  elevator  or  a  railroad, 
he  in  efifect  grants  the  public  an 
interest  in  that  use — it  becomes 
'clothed  with  a  public  interest' — 
and  may  be  controlled  for  the 
common  good.  It  is,  however, 
settled  that  regulation  by  the 
States  or  by  Congress  must  be 
reasonable  and  not  confiscatory 
•  — and  many  State  regulations 
which  were  not  so  have  been 
declared  invalid.  A  similar 
limitation  is  imposed  on  the 
United  States  by  the  Fifth 
Amendment. 

The  Kansas  law  punishing 
employers  who  exact  promises  of 
their  employees  not  to  join 
labor  unions,  was  held  an  in- 
vasion of  the  liberty  of  contract, 


in  Coppage  v.  Kansas  (1914), 
236  U.  S,  1,  and  subsequently 
the  much  talked  of  Industrial 
Court  Law  of  the  same  State, 
which  attempted  to  compel 
adjustment  through  an  adminis- 
trative tribunal,  of  disputes 
over  wages  and  hours  in  certain 
industries,  and  to  forbid  strikes 
and  to  require  employer  and 
employee  to  go  on,  willy-nilly, 
with  the  business,  was  held  an 
unconstitutional  invasion  of  the 
property  rights  of  the  employer, 
and  of  the  liberty  of  both  em- 
ployer and  employee — as  ap- 
plied to  the  meat  packing  and 
coal  mining  businesses.  Wolff 
Packing  Co.  v.  Industrial  Court 

(1923)  ,  262  U.  S.  522;  (1924) 
267  U.  S.  552  ;  Dorchy  v.  Kansas 

(1924)  ,  264  U.  S.  286. 

The  minimum  wage  law  en- 
acted by  Congress  for  the  protec- 
tion of  female  and  minor  workers 
in  the  District  of  Columbia  was 
found  to  be  in  contravention  of 
the  due  process  clause  of  the 
Fifth  Amendment,  in  Adkins  v. 
Children's  Hospital  (1923),  261 
U.  S.  525. 

The  Espionage  Act,  during 
the  World  War,  brought  out  a 
number  of  cases  involving  free- 
dom of  speech  and  liberty  of  the 
press,  of  which  the  most  con- 
spicuous were  those  of  Emma 
Goldman  (1918),  245  U.  S.  474, 
and  Eugene  V.  Debs  (1919), 
249  U.  S.  211.  The  convictions 
were  upheld  under  the  war 
power. 

In  Stromherg  v.  People  of 
California  (1931),  283  U.  S. 
359,  the  Court  declared  uncon- 
stitutional under  the  14th  Amend- 
ment California's  celebrated  'Red 
Flag  Law'  making  it  illegal  to 
display  'any  sign,  symbol  or  em- 
blem of  opposition  to  organized 
government.'  The  same  consti- 
tutional provision  was  the  basis 
for  the  invalidation,  in  Near  v. 
Minnesota  (1931),  283  U.  S. 
697,  of  a  State  law  under  which 
'a  malicious,  scandalous,  and  de- 
famatory newspaper'  might  be 
declared  a  nuisance. 

Of  many  decisions  affecting 
aliens,  mention  should  be  made 
of  the  Chinese  Exclusion  Cases 
(1889),  130  U.  S.  581,  and 
(1893),  149  U.  S.  698,  declaring 
the  power  of  Congress  to  exclude 
aliens,  even  in  violation  of  a 
treaty,  and  to  deport  them  when 
found  unlawfully  in  the  United 
States.  United  States  v.  Wong 
Kim  Ark  (1898),  169  U.  S.  649, 
laid  down  the  important  propo- 
sition that  any  alien  born  of 
alien  parents,  permanently  re- 
siding in  the  United  States,  be- 
comes from  the  time  of  his  birth 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
in  virtue  of  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment.  Osazva  v.  United 
States  (1922),  260  U.  S.  178,  and 
Toyota  v.  United  States  (1925), 


268  U.  S.  402,  have  recently 
decided  that  Japanese  and  Hin- 
dus are  not  'white  persons' 
within  the  peculiar  meaning  of 
the  naturalization  laws  and 
therefore  cannot  be  naturalized 
thereunder.  The  Alien  Land 
Laws  of  California  and  Oregon, 
forbidding  aliens  who  cannot  be 
naturalized  to  own  or  lease  land 
for  agricultural  and  other  pur- 
poses, were  adjudged  valid,  and 
not  in  conflict  with  the  Japanese 
Treaty,  in  Terrace  v.  Thompson 
(1923),  263  U.  S.  179,  and  later 
cases.  In  United  States  v. 
Schzvimmer  (1929),  279  U.  S. 
644,  649,  and  in  United  States  v. 
Macintosh  (1931),  283  U.  S. 
605,  the  right  of  lower  courts  to 
deny  citizenship  to  persons  ex- 
pressing unwillingness  to  bear 
arms  was  upheld. 

The  status  of  the  Indians  and 
the  lands  they  occupied  has 
been  the  subject  of  many  adjudi- 
cations, among  which  the  most 
notable  are  Johnson  v.  Mcin- 
tosh (1823),  8  Wheaton  543, 
settling  that  they  did  not  own 
the  fee,  but  only  a  right  of 
occupancy ;  Cherokee  Nation  v. 
Georgia  (1831),  5  Peters  1, 
holding  that  an  Indian  tribe  is 
not  a  foreign  nation,  but  a  'do- 
mestic dependent  nation'  under 
the  guardianship  of  the  United 
States  ;  and  Worcester  v.  Georgia 
(1832),  6  Peters  515,  known  as 
the  'Missionary  Case,'  in  which  a 
law  of  Georgia  requiring  resi- 
dents in  the  Cherokee  region  to 
procure  licenses  from  the  State 
and  to  swear  allegiance,  was  de- 
clared invalid. 

The  right  of  the  nation  to 
acquire  and  govern  new  territory 
was  sustained  in  Insurance  Com- 
pany V.  Canter  (1828),  1  Peters 
511,  involving  the  Louisiana 
Purchase.  The  'Insular  Cases' 
(1901),  see  DeLima  v.  Bidwell, 
182  U.  S.  1.  and  the  Dooley  and 
Downes  cases  in  the  same  vol- 
ume, followed  by  Hawaii  v.  Man- 
kichi  (1903),  190  U.  S.  197; 
Dorr  V.  United  States  (1904), 
195  U.  S.  138,  and  Rasmussen 
V.  United  States  (1905),  197  U. 
S.  516,  involved  the  status  of 
acquired  territory  with  respect 
to  tariff  duties,  uniformity  of 
taxation,  and  constitutional  guar- 
anties, such  as  trial  by  jury. 

There  were  several  notable  re- 
cent decisions  regarding  the 
powers  of  the  executive  and 
legislative  branches  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. In  the  Humphrey  Case 
(decided  May  27,  1935)  the 
Court  decided  that  while,  accord- 
ing to  the  Myers  Case,  supra, 
the  President  might  discharge  at 
will  postmasters  and  some  other 
employees  whose  duties  were  re- 
stricted to  the  performance  of 
executive  functions,  he  did  not 
possess  the  power  to  remove  an 
official  of  an  agency  of  the  ju- 


Supreme  Court  Decisions  KFE 


553     Supreme  Court  Decisions 


diciary  or  legislature,  e.g.,  the 
Federal  Trade  Commission,  ex- 
cept for  statutory  reasons.  In 
McGrain  v.  Daughcrty  (1927), 
273  U.  S.  135,  the  Court  upheld 
the  Senate's  power  to  compel  a 
witness  to  appear  before  one  of 
its  committees  in  order  that  it 
might  obtain  information  to  aid 
in  legislation.  In  Jurney  v. 
MacCrackcn  (decided  Feb.  5, 
1935)  the  Court  held  that  the 
Senate  had  full  power  to  punish 
for  contempt.  _ 

The  economic  crisis  which  be- 
gan in  1929  gave  rise  to  a  num- 
ber of  important  decisions  con- 
cerning both  private  and  public 
efforts  to  meet  the  emergency  by 
attempts  to  control  disastrous 
competition  and  by  endeavors  to 
ease  the  debt  burden  by  mora- 
toria  on  mortgage  foreclosures. 

An  effort  on  the  part  of  men 
engaged  in  a  business  threat- 
ened by  destructive  competition 
to  bring  stabilization  by  cooper- 
ative action  was  upheld  in  Ap- 
palachian Coals  Inc.  v.  United 
States  (1932),  287  U.  S.  229. 

Public  efforts  to  stabilize  in- 
dustry brought  forth  important 
decisions.  In  an  opinion  which 
caused  much  discussion  at  the 
time,  New  State  Ice  Company 
V.  Liebmann  (1932),  285  U.  S. 
262,  the  Court  invalidated  a  stat- 
ute passed  in  1925  in  Oklahoma 
declaring  the  manufacture,  sale 
and  distribution  of  ice  to  be  a 
public  business,  requiring  a  State 
license  for  the  privilege  of  en- 
gaging in  it,  and  providing  that 
such  license  might  be  refused 
in  communities  where  existing 
service   was    deemed  adequate. 

In  two  subsequent  cases  in- 
volving New  York's  efforts  to 
stabilize  its  milk  industry,  the- 
Court  modified  its  definition  of 
a  business  affected  with  a  public 
interest  as  set  forth  in  the  Okla- 
homa Ice  Case.  In  the  case  of 
Nebbia  v.  New  York  (1934),  291 
U.  S.  502,  a  Rochester  store- 
keeper who  sold  a  five-cent  loaf 
of  bread  with  two  quarts  of  milk 
at  a  price  fixed  for  the  milk 
alone  challenged  the  validity  of 
the  New  York  Milk  Control  Act 
on  the  ground  that  price-fixing 
was  unconstitutional.  In  a  5-4 
decision  the  statute  was  upheld, 
the  Court  declaring,  'Price  con- 
trol, like  any  other  form  of  regu- 
lation, is  unconstitutional  only 
if  arbitrary,  discriminatory  or 
demonstrably  irrelevant  to  the 
policy  the  Legislature  is  free  to 
adopt  and  hence  an  unnecessary 
and  unwarranted  interference 
with  individual  liberty.'  The 
Act  was  again  upheld  in  Hege- 
man  Farms  Corporation  v.  New 
York  Milk  Control  Board  (de- 
cided Nov.  6,  1934). 

Effort  by  public  authorities  to 
stabilize  an  industry  beyond 
State  lines  (e.g.,  milk  control  in 


an  entire  milk  shed)  received  a 
severe  set-back  in  the  Court's  de- 
cision in  Baldwin  v.  Seelig  (de- 
cided Mar.  5,  1935).  In  a 
unanimous  decision  the  Court 
invalidated  the  provision  of  the 
New  York  Milk  Control  Act 
which  forbade  the  sale  within 
the  State  of  milk  bought  outside 
at  a  price  lower  than  that  which 
could  be  paid  legally  to  New 
York  producers. 

Attempts  by  emergency  legis- 
lation to  aid  victims  of  the  eco- 
nomic crisis  against  wholesale 
mortgage  foreclosures  gave  rise 
to  two  notable  decisions.  The 
first  involved  a  State  law  estab- 
lishing a  moratorium  on  fore- 
closures. In  Home  Building  & 
Loan  Association  v.  Blaisdell 
(1934),  290  U.  S.  398,  the  Court, 
in  a  5-4  decision,  declared  that 
the  Minnesota  law  did  not  vio- 
late the  14th  Amendment  by  im- 
pairing a  contract,  holding  that 
'the  question  is  no  longer  merely 
that  of  one  party  to  a  contract  as 
against  another,  but  of  the  use  of 
reasonable  means  to  safeguard 
the  economic  structure  upon 
which  the  good  of  all  depends.' 
Pointing  out  that  a  State  has  the 
power  'to  safeguard  the  vital  in- 
terests of  its  people,'  the  Court 
declared,  'While  emergency 
does  not  create  power,  emer- 
gency may  furnish  the  occasion 
for  the  exercise  of  power.'  In 
a  later  decision,  Louisville  Joint 
Stock  Land  Bank  v.  William  R. 
Bradford  (decided  May  27, 
1935),  the  Court  unanimously 
declared  a  national  statute,  the 
Frazier-Lemke  Farm  Mortgage 
Moratorium  Law,  unconstitu- 
tional on  the  ground  that  it  was 
contrary  to  the  provision  in  the 
5th  Amendment  forbidding  the 
taking  of  private  property  for 
public  use  without  just  compen- 
sation. The  law  provided  that 
for  a  period  of  five  years  a  mort- 
gagor could  not  foreclose  upon 
a  farmer's  property  if  the  owner 
paid  a  'reasonable  rental.'  The 
act  also  made  it  possible  to  ob- 
tain full  title  by  paying  the  ap- 
praised value  of  the  property  re- 
gardless of  the  amount  stated  in 
the  mortgage. 

New  Deal  Decisions, — In 
1935  the  Supreme  Court  gave 
out  the  first  of  its  long-awaited 
decisions  with  respect  to  various 
aspects  of  President  Roosevelt's 
'New  Deal.'  These  opinions 
easily  rank  with  the  most  mo- 
mentous in  the  Court's  history. 

The  first  of  these  cases  to 
come  before  the  Court,  the  Ama- 
zon Petroleum  Case  (decided 
Jan.  7,  1935)  involved  Section  9 
(c)  of  the  National  Industrial 
Recovery  Act,  which  authorized 
the  President  to  prohibit  inter- 
state transportation  of  oil  pro- 
duced in  excess  of  State  quotas. 
The  case  was  decided  on  a  nar- 


row point  of  law  and  did  not  in- 
volve any  serious  set-back  to  the 
President's  program,  since  it  ex- 
pressed no  opinion  as  to  the  oil 
code  itself.  Calling  attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  issue  was  'not  of 
the  intrinsic  importance'  of  the 
oil  law  but  of  the  'constitutional 
process  of  government,' the  Court 
held  the  section  invalid  on  the 
ground  that  Congress  had  dele- 
gated excessive  power  to  the 
President  without  laying  down 
adequate  rules  to  guide  him. 

The  next  issue  raised  by  the 
'New  Deal'  to  reach  the  Supreme 
Court  was  the  validity  of  the 
Government's  abandonment  of 
the  gold  standard.  Few  cases  in 
American  history  have  aroused 
more  general  public  interest. 
The  cases  of  Norman  v.  Balti- 
more &  Ohio  Railroad  and  Unit- 
ed States  V.  Bankers  Trust  Com- 
pany (both  decided  Feb.  18, 
1935)  involved  the  validity  of 
the  action  of  Congress  in  the 
Joint  Resolution  of  June  5,  1935, 
in  setting  aside  the  clauses  in 
private  obligations  guaranteeing 
payments  of  interest  and  princi- 
pal in  gold  as  'against  public 
policy'  and  unreasonable.  The 
Court  upheld  the  decisions  of  the 
lower  Federal  courts  that  'Con- 
gress had  power  to  adopt  the 
Joint  Resolution  with  respect  to 
these  obligations  of  the  railroad 
companies  and  hence  that  gold 
clauses  could  not  be  enforced 
and  the  bonds  were  payable  in 
legal-tender  currency.'  A  third 
case,  Nortz  v.  United  States  (de- 
cided Feb.  18,  1935),  involved 
a  suit  in  the  Court  of  Claims  for 
the  sum  which  the  plaintiff  con- 
tended was  due  him  for  gold  cer- 
tificates of  the  United  States 
Treasury  in  his  possession  on  the 
basis  of  their  alleged  gold  value. 
The  Supreme  Court  held  that  the 
Court  of  Claims  could  not  enter- 
tain this  suit  because  plaintiff 
had  shown  no  actual  damage. 
The  final  gold  case.  Perry  v. 
United  States  (decided  Feb.  18, 
1935)  involved  a  suit  in  the 
Court  of  Claims  for  the  right  to 
collect  the  alleged  gold  value  of 
a  United  States  Fourth  Liberty 
Bond.  The  Court  held  the  Joint 
Resolution  of  June  5,  1935,  in- 
valid 'so  far  as  it  attempted  to 
override  the  obligation  of  the 
United  States  created  by  the 
bond  in  suit.'  The  Court  con- 
tinued, 'It  went  beyond  the  con- 
stitutional authority  of  Congress. 
But  we  hold  that  the  action  is  for 
breach  of  contract  and  that  plain- 
tiff has  failed  to  show  cause  of 
action  for  actual  damages'  and 
'plaintiff  has  not  shown,  or  at- 
tempted to  show,  that  in  rela- 
tion to  buying  power  he  has  sus- 
tained any  loss  whatever.'  There- 
fore the  Court  concluded  that  the 
Court  of  Claims  could  not  enter- 
tain the  suit. 


Supreme  Court  Decisions  KFE 


553  A    Supreme  Court  Decisions 


In  the  next  case  considered, 
Railroad  Retirement  Board  v. 
Alton  Railroad  Company  (decid- 
ed May  6,  1935),  the  Court  not 
only  invalidated  an  important 
piece  of  'New  Deal'  legislation, 
the  Railroad  Retirement  Act  of 
June,  1934,  but  also  raised  seri- 
ous doubt  at  the  time  as  to  the 
legality  of  pending  and  future 
Federal  social  legislation.  In  a 
5_4  decision,  the  Court  declared 
the  Act  unconstitutional  as  a  di- 
rect violation  of  the  due  process 
clause  in  the  5th  Amendment  of 
the  Constitution  on  the  ground 
that  it  took  property  from  one 
group  (the  railroads)  and  gave 
it  to  another  (the  ernployees) 
M'ithout  just  compensation. 

The  next  case,  Schechter 
Poultry  Corporation  v.  United 
States  (decided  May  27,  1935), 
involved  a  major  part  of  the 
'New  Deal'  recovery  program, 
the  National  Industrial  Recovery 
Act.  Pointing  out  that  'extraor- 
dinary conditions  do  not  create 
or  enlarge  constitutional  power' 
and  that  the  economic  crisis 
'cannot  justify  action  which  lies 
without  the  sphere  of  constitu- 
tional authority,'  the  Court  in- 
validated the  'code-making  au- 
thority' conferred  by  Section  3 
of  the  Act  on  the  ground  that  it 
represented  an  unconstitutional 
delegation  of  legislative  power 
not  only  to  the  President  but  to 
persons  who  have  no  relation  at 
all  to  the  legislative  powers  of 
the  Government.  In  the  opinion 
of  the  Covirt,  Congress  had  not 
adequately  defined  'unfair  meth- 
ods of  competition'  or  set  up  any 
standards  or  limitations  on  the 
exercise  of  the  delegated  power. 
Regarding  the  regulation  under 
codes  of  hours  and  wages,  the 
Court  declared  that  the  constitu- 
tional powers  of  Congress  over 
commerce  were  limited  to  that 
having  an  interstate  character  or 
to  such  transactions  as  could  be 
proved  directly  to  affect  inter- 
state commerce.  The  Court  held 
'that  the  attempt  through  the 
provisions  of  the  code  to  fix  the 
hours  and  wages  of  employees  of 
defendants  in  their  intrastate 
business  was  not  a  valid  exercise 
of  Federal  power.'  In  a  concur- 
ring opinion  Justice  Cardozo 
pointed  out  that  the  decision 
made  the  disintegration  of  the 
NRA  inevitable,  since  hours  and 
wages  of  labor  were  the  'very 
bone  and  sinew'  of  this  plan  for 
recovery  and  without  these  pro- 
visions a  code  'collapses  utterly.' 
President  Roosevelt,  after  a  care- 
ful study  of  the  decision,  said 
that  the  Supreme  Court's  inter- 
pretation of  the  interstate  com- 
merce clause  by  implication  de- 
prived the  Federal  Government 
of  all  control  over  economic  and 
social  conditions. 

See  also  Prohibition  ;  Con- 


stitution ;  U.  S.  A.,  History. 

Consult  L.  B.  Evans,  Leading 
Cases  on  American  Constitu- 
tional Law  (2nd  ed.  1925)  ;  A.  J. 
Beveridge,  Life  of  John  Mar- 
shall (4  v.,  1919)  ;  C.  Warren, 
Supreme  Court  in  U.  S.  His- 
tory (4  v.,  1922)  ;_F.  Frankfurt- 
er and  J.  M.  Landis,  Business  of 
the  Supreme  Court  (1927)  ;  E.  S. 
Corwin,  Twilight  of  the  Supreme 
Court  (1934). 

Sur,  the  Phoenician  name  of 
Tyre,  Syria,  one  of  the  most 
famous  cities  of  antiquity.  See 
Tyre. 

Surabaya,  soo-ra-ba'ya,  or 
SoERABAYA,  town,  Capital  of 
Surabaya  residency,  Java,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  on  the  north  coast  of 
Madura  Strait,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Kali  River.  The  city  is 
divided  into  two  sections,  the 
European  section  lying  along  the 
western  bank  and  the  Chinese 
and  native  district  on  the  eastern 
bank.  It  has  a  good  harbor,  and 
is  the  naval  and  military  head- 
quarters of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies.  Sugar,  coffee,  hides,  cot- 
ton, and  tobacco  are  exported. 
Pop.  15,000,  of  whom  about 
9,000  are  Europeans. 

Surakarta,  sob'ra-kar'ta  or 
Solo,  town,  capital  of  Surakarta 
residency,  Java,  Dutch  East 
Indies ;  33  miles  northeast  of 
Jokjokarta.  It  contains  the 
palace  of  the  native  ruler,  and 
is  of  commercial  importance. 
Pop.  125,000,  of  whom  about 
2,000  are  Europeans. 

Surat,  sob-rat',  town,  Bombay, 
India,  capital  of  Surat  district, 
Gujaret  division  on  the  Tapti 
River;  14  miles  above  its  de- 
cayed port,  Savali,  and  160 
miles  north  of  Bombay.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  wall  about  5^ 
miles  in  circumference,  with 
twelve  gates.  Features  of  inter- 
est are  the  castle  and  three  or 
four  handsome  mosques.  Indus- 
tries include  the  manufacture  of 
cotton,  silk,  brocade,  and  em- 
broidery. 

The  district  covers  an  area  of 
1,600  square  miles,  and  has  a 
population  of  635,000. 

Sur'biton,  sur'bi-tun,  town, 
England,  in  Surrey,  1  mile  sovtth 
of  Kingston-on-Thames.  It  is 
the  headquarters  of  the  Kingston 
Rowing  Club  and  the  Thames 
Sailing  Club.  Pop.  (1931)  29,- 
396. 

Surcouf,  Robert  (1773- 
1827),  French  privateer,  was 
born  in  St.  Malo.  His  principal 
exploits  were  in  the  Indian  seas  ; 
his  capture  of  the  Triton  in  1785, 
and  of  the  Kent  in  1800,  caused 
a  sensation. 

Surds,  or  Irrational  Num- 
bers, in  algebra,  and  especially 
in  the  theory  of  numbers,  may  be 
defined  as  the  incommensurable 
root  of  a  commensurable  num- 
ber. The  Mth  root  of  any  number 


is  that  quantity  which  when  mul- 
tiplied by  itself  (n — 1)  times  in 
succession  gives  the  number. 
Thus  the  square  of  the  square 
root  of  2  is  2,  and  the  cube  of  the 

cube  root  of  7  is  7.  V  2  and  7 
are   incommensurable,   and  are 

therefore  surds.  V  4  and  \^  27 
are  not  surds,  because  they  are 
respectively  the  commensurable 
numbers  2  and  3.    A  quantity  of 

the  form  can  be  expressed 

as  a  surd  of  the  form  But 
the  expression  v/ (g  +Vp)  is  not 
a  surd  i(  V  p  is  itself  a  surd ;  for 
then  q  +  V  p  is  not  a  commen- 
surable number.  When  surds  can 
be  expressed  in  terms  of  the  same 
surd,  they  are  said  to  be  similar. 
Thus,  V  1 2  being  equal  to  2  V  3 
is  similar  to  V  3. 

The  square  root  or  quadratic 
surd  is  by  far  the  most  important 
surd  with  which  mathematicians 
have  to  deal ;  but  similar  prop- 
erties hold  for  surds  of  higher 
name.  A  very  important  theorem 
in  quadratic  surds  is  that  if 
A'  +  V  y  =  a  V  b,  where  a,  b, 
X,  y  are  commensurable  numbers 
and  \/  y  ^  b  incommensurable — 
i.e.,  true  surds — then  x  —  a  and 
y  b.  Another  interesting  prob- 
lem is  to  find  the  condition  that  V 
(/?  +  V  q)  may  be  expressible  in 
the  form  of  the  sum  of  two  surds 
■—viz.,  V  X  V  y.  The  condi- 
tions are  that  p2 — q  must  be  a 
positive  perfect  square,  and  that 
p  must  be  positive. 

Surette,  su  -  ret',  Thomas 
Whitney  (1862-  ),  American 
musician,  was  born  in  Concord, 
Mass.  He  was  educated  pri- 
vately, was  a  special  student  at 
Harvard  in  1894  and  studied 
music  under  Arthur  Foote  and 
J.  K.  Paine.  From  1883  to  1893 
he  was  organist  at  Concord 
Church,  and  in  1894-6  at  Christ 
Church,  Baltimore.  He  com- 
posed an  operetta,  PrwctV/a,  which 
has  been  frequently  performed  ; 
Cascobel,  a  romantic  opera  ;  Eve 
of  St.  Agnes,  a  dramatic  ballad; 
Let  God  Arise,  a  thanksgiving 
anthem  for  the  close  of  the  Span- 
ish-American War.  With  D.  G. 
Mason  he  wrote  The  Apprecia- 
tion of  Music  and  has  also  pub- 
lished The  Development  of  Sym- 
phonic Music  (1915)  ;  Music  and 
Life  (1917)  ;  edited  the  Concord 
series  of  music  and  books  on  the 
teaching  of  music  ;  and  has  con- 
tributed many  articles  on  musical 
subjects  to  various  reviews  and 
magazines. 

Surety.    See  Suretyship. 

Surety  Bond  Insurance. 
See  Insurance,  Casualty. 

Suretyship,  an  agreement  by 
one  person,  known  as  the  surety, 
to  become  legally  responsible  for 
the  debt,  default,  or  miscarriage 
of  another,  who  is  called  the 
principal    debtor    or  principal. 


Suretyship 


553  B 


Surface  Tension 


The  third  person  with  whom  the 
contract  is  made  is  usually  desig- 
nated the  creditor. 

The  law  of  suretyship  in  the 
United  States  is  in  general  accord 
with  the  law  in  England.  Where 
an  infant  enters  into  a  contract  of 
suretyship,  beneficial  to  him,  the 
contract  is  not  void,  but  merely 
voidable.  Upon  arriving  at  full 
age,  if  the  infant,  with  knowledge 
that  he  has  a  defence  to  the  con- 
tract by  reason  of  his  infancy, 
ratifies  it,  he  will  be  bound. 

Suretyship  is  created  by  agree- 
ment, express  or  implied,  and  all 
the  elements  of  a  valid  contract 
must  be  present.  If  the  con- 
tract is  entered  into  at  the  time 
the  principal  obligation  is  created, 
the  one  consideration  given  by 
the  creditor  is  sufficient,  or  an  ex- 
tension of  time  of  payment  by 
the  creditor  is  consideration  for 
a  contract  of  suretyship  entered 
into  at  that  time. 

The  relation  of  principal  and 
surety  is  implied  from  certain 
contractual  relations.  For  exam- 
ple, joint  obligors  are  co-sureties 
as  to  each  other,  and  a  retiring 
partner  is  surety  for  the  surviving 
partners  who  assume  the  firm's 
indebtedness.  A  partner  may 
not  bind  his  firm  as  surety;  but 
if  he  does  enter  into  such  a  con- 
tract on  behalf  of  the  firm,  and 
the  firm  ratifies  the  contract,  the 
firm  is  liable. 

Corporations  may  not  gener- 
ally bind  themselves  on  contracts 
of  suretyship.  But  there  are  ex- 
ceptions to  this  rule.  For  in- 
stance, a  railroad  company  may 
guarantee  the  bonds  of  cities  and 
counties  issued  in  aid  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  road;  and  banks 
may  guarantee  the  payment  of 
securities  which  they  transfer  in 
the  ordinary  course  of  their 
business. 

Persons  non  compos  mentis, 
who  enter  into  contracts  of 
suretyship,  are  not  bound  there- 
on, even  though  the  persons  with 
whom  they  contracted  were  un- 
aware of  their  mental  incapacity. 
A  contract  of  suretyship  executed 
under  duress  does  not  bind  the 
surety.  The  cases  conflict  as  to 
whether  the  surety  is  relieved 
by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the 
principal  acted  under  duress. 
Statutes  frequently  provide  that 
a  non-resident  of  the  State  shall 
not  be  accepted  as  surety  upon 
an  official  bond.  But  under  such 
a  statute,  where  a  non-resident 
has  executed  a  bond  as  surety, 
he  cannot  claim  that  the  statute 
relieves  him  from  liability. 

If  the  creditor  enters  intp  a 
new  agreement  with  the  debtor, 
or  changes  or  impairs  the  obli- 
gation without  the  consent  of 
the  surety,  the  latter  is  dis- 
charged.   If  the  creditor  surren- 

VoL.  XL— Oct.  '17. 


ders  securities  to  the  debtor,  the 
surety  is  discharged  to  the 
amount  of  their  value.  If  one  is 
surety  for  the  fidelity  of  an  em- 
ployee, he  is  not  bound  for  defal- 
cations after  the  employer  learns 
of  dishonesty  on  part  of  the 
employee;  and  if  the  surety 
learns  of  dishonesty  he  may  noti- 
fy the  employer  and  be  relieved 
from  subsequent  defalcations  if 
the  employer  retains  the  em- 
ployee in  his  service. 

The  power  of  married  women 
to  become  sureties  is  generally 
regulated  by  statute.  In  some 
of  the  States  the  common-law 
rule  prevails,  and  married  wo- 
men cannot  make  valid  contracts 
of  suretyship.  In  a  few  States 
married  women  are,  by  statute, 
given  an  unlimited  right  to  con- 
tract. In  others  they  are  ex- 
pressly forbidden  to  contract  as 
sureties.  In  still  others  a  married 
woman  cannot  enter  into  a  con- 
tract as  surety  for  her  husband. 

Sureties  are  protected  in  law 
in  various  ways.  In  some  States 
when  the  debt  becomes  due  the 
surety  may  call  upon  the  creditor 
to  sue  the  debtor,  and  if  he  re- 
fuses the  surety  is  discharged; 
and  in  other  States  the  surety  is 
subrogated  to  all  rights  of  the 
creditor  against  the  debtor,  and 
may  enforce  them  in  his  own 
name.  He  is  entitled  to  the 
benefit  of  any  securities  which 
the  creditor  may  have.  If  com- 
pelled to  pay  the  debt,  he  may 
sue  the  principal  for  reimburse- 
ment; but  if  he  has  compromised 
the  claim  he  can  only  recover 
what  he  paid  the  creditor.  A 
surety  is  entitled  to  'contribu- 
tion' from  co-sureties,  if  any, 
if  he  is  compelled  by  the  creditor 
to  pay  the  debt  alone. 

A  surety  and  the  principal 
debtor  may  be  sued  together 
or  separately,  at  the  election  of 
the  creditor.  The  peculiar  rules 
of  negotiable  paper  applicable 
to  indorsers  do  not  apply  to 
sureties,  and  the  obligations 
must  not  be  confused. 

A  surety  is  discharged  by  the 
extinguishment  of  the  principal 
obligation  by  payment  or  per- 
formance; by  tender  of  payment 
by  principal  and  refusal  to  re- 
ceive it  by  creditor;  by  release 
of  the  principal  unless  he  has  se- 
curities of  debtor,  and  then  he 
is  only  liable  to  the  amount  of 
their  value.  Discharge  of  a  co- 
surety discharges  a  surety  to 
the  amount  to  which  he  would 
have  been  entitled  to  contribu- 
tion from  the  former. 

In  recent  years  a  number  of 
surety  companies  have  been  or- 
ganized, the  principal  function 
of  which  is  to  furnish  bail  bonds, 
appeal  bonds,  bonds  for  adminis- 
trators, executors,  receivers,  and 


the  like.  The  validity  of  these 
companies  has  been  judicially 
recognized.  It  has  been  held 
that,  even  where  a  statute  re- 
quires two  sureties,  one  of  these 
companies  is  sufficient.  Surety 
companies  have  now  become  so 
numerous  that  the  statutes  usual- 
ly provide  for  the  acceptance  of 
the  bond  of  such  a  company 
where  two  individual  sureties 
would  be  required.  See  Con- 
tract; Trust  Company;  Title 
Guaranty  Companies. 

Surface  is  the  exterior  part  of 
anything  that  has  length,  breadth 
and  surface.  Mathematically, 
every  body  appears  to  be  limited 
by  a  surface  which  determines  its 
exterior  form  and  separates  it 
from  surrounding  space. 

In  geometry  surface  is  con- 
sidered independently  of  matter, 
and  is  defined  as  the  locus  of  the 
positions  of  a  curve  which  moves 
in  space  according  to  a  given  law. 
Every  finite  region  of  ordinary 
space  is  necessarily  bounded  by 
a  surface,  and  any  two  con- 
tiguous regions  are  separated  by  a 
surface.  In  the  former  case  the 
surface  is  closed;  in  the  latter, 
it  is  usually  limited  by  a  rim, 
which  is  of  the  nature  of  a  line — 
straight,  curved,  or  made  up  of 
straight  and  curved  parts. 

Surfaces  are  classified  in  vari- 
ous ways,  according  to  their 
properties,  the  most  thorough- 
going classification  being  that 
which  depends  on  the  order  of 
the  Cartesian  equation.  Thus  the 
equation  +  +  =  1,  where 
X,  y,  z  are  rectangular  coordinates, 
represents  a  surface  of  the  fourth 
order,  or  a  quartic  surface.  Every 
surface  of  the  wth  order  is  cut  by 
every  right  line  in  n  points,  real 
or  imaginary,  and  every  plane 
section  of  such  a  surface  is  a 
curve  of  the  wth  order.  But  there 
are  other  important  descriptive 
properties  which  may  be  used  as 
bases  for  classification.  Thus 
cones,  which  are  generated  by 
the  motion  of  a  straight  line 
passing  through  a  fixed  point, 
may  be  of  any  order;  and  similar- 
ly cylinders,  which  are  generated 
by  a  right  line  moving  parallel  to 
itself  in  any  manner.  These  are 
special  cases  of  the  general  case 
of  what  are  known  as  rule 
surfaces,  which  are  generated 
by  the  motion  of  a  right  line 
constrained  to  move  in  some  as- 
signed manner. 

The  theory  of  plane  surfaces, 
quadric  and  cubic  surfaces,  have 
been  fairly  well  worked  out;  but 
a  complete  discussion  of  quartics 
and  surfaces  of  higher  order  has 
not  yet  been  given.  The  more 
important  surfaces  are  treated 
under  separate  headings.  See 
Sphere;  Ellipsoid;  Cone. 

Surface  Tension,  a  molecular 


Surf  Bird 


564 


Surgery 


phenomenon  which  appears  at 
the  boundary  of  two  different 
substances,  especially  if  one  of 
these  is  a  liquid.  Over  such  sur- 
faces effects  occur  which  suggest 
that  the  surface  is  in  a  stretched 
condition.  For  example,  a  soap 
bubble  adhering  to  the  rim  of  the 
pipe  or  funnel  by  which  it  is 
blown  tends  to  contract,  and,  if 
the  connected  tube  is  not  closed, 
will  contract  until  it  forms  a  film 
across  the  narrowest  part.  The 
surface  tension  of  clean  water  is 
greater  than  the  surface  tension 
of  dirty  water;  consequently, 
when  a  small  portion  of  the  sur- 
face becomes  contaminated,  the 
greater  tension  over  the  neigh- 
boring cleaner  parts  draws  the 
contaminated  surface  outward, 
until  the  whole  is  equally  dirty. 
This  explains  the  difficulty  of 
keeping  a  surface  of  water  or  of 
any  other  liquid  perfectly  clean. 
Surface  tension  phenomena  also 
exist  at  the  boundary  of  two 
liquids,  whether  these  liquids  do 
or  do  not  mix  together.  In  the 
latter  case  the  phenomena  grad- 
ually disappear  as  the  liquids 
mix.  The  so-called  cohesion  fig- 
ures are  produced  when  a  drop 
of  a  colored  liquid  slightly  heav- 
ier than  water  is  gently  dropped 
into  the  water.  See  Capillar- 
ity. 

Surf  Bird  (Aphriza  virgata),  a 
bird  akin  to  the  turnstone  and 
sandpiper  (qq.v.),  widely  distrib- 
uted along  the  coasts  of  America. 
It  is  brownish  in  color,  with  white 
on  the  wings,  rump,  and  abdo- 
men. 

Surf  Duck.   See  Scoter. 
Surgeon  Fish.    See  Sea  Sur- 
geon. 

Surgeons,  Military.  See  Med- 
ical Department,  U.  S.  Army. 

Surgeons,  Naval.  See  Medi- 
cal Department,  U.  S.  Navy. 

Surgery.  Historical. — Surgery 
dealing  with  those  diseases  and 
injuries  which  are  external  and 
visible  naturally  received  the 
earliest  attention  of  man,  and 
had  already  made  some  progress 
even  in  palaeolithic  times,  thou- 
sands of  years  before  the  days  of 
Homer  and  at  a  time  when  no 
medical  knowledge  existed.  Pa- 
laeolithic art  has  preserved  the 
earliest  evidences  of  surgical  craft 
in  the  caves  of  Europe,  where 
drawings  representing  hands  that 
have  been  mutilated  either  acci- 
dentally or  surgically  still  exist. 
Some  of  these  drawings  represent 
hands  from  which  one  or  more  of 
the  phalanges  have  been  re- 
moved, suggesting  injuries  re- 
ceived in  the  handling  of  the  rude 
flint  implements  then  in  use,  or 
amputations  as  a  consequence  of 
such  injury. 

For  long  ages  man,  in  his  prim- 
itive state,  was  subject  to  injuries 
received  in  the  chase  or  inflicted 
Vol.  XL— Oct.  '17 


in  battle,  and  hence  surgery  had 
made  substantial  progress  before 
medicine  proper  was  even  a  phase 
of  superstition.  Civilization  first 
appeared  in  tropical  climates  for 
the  reason  that  in  such  surround- 
ings the  needs  and  wants  of  the 
body  are  easily  satisfied,  and  lei- 
sure was  enjoyed  in  which  men 
began  to  meditate  and  study 
their  relationship  to  environ- 
ment. Accordingly,  we  find  in 
such  civilizations  the  first  evi- 
dences of  some  advancement  in 
surgical  knowledge  and  art. 
Egyptologists  have  discovered 
the  evidences  in  papyri  that  sur- 
gery had  made  considerable  ad- 
vancement in  Egypt  as  early  as 
5000  or  6000  B.C.  Instruments 
had  been  devised  for  special  oper- 
ations, practitioners  had  begun 
to  limit  their  work  to  certain 
specialties,  the  actual  cautery 
was  in  use.  also  massage,  oint- 
ments, steam  inhalations,  and 
plasters.  Dentistry  and  veterin- 
ary surgery  had  likewise  received 
some  attention.  That  surgical 
knowledge  and  skill  was  by  no 
means  confined  to  those  who 
might  be  called  professionals  is 
shown  by  ancient  writings  which 
have  come  down  to  us.  Thus 
Homer  relates  that  Ulysses  while 
boar  hunting  was  gored  in  the 
knee  by  the  wild  beast,  and  that 
the  wound  thus  produced  was 
closed  and  successfully  treated 
by  his  companions. 

In  Greece  surgery  had  attained 
high  development  before  Hippo- 
crates put  medicine  on  a  rational 
basis,  and  in  the  Hippocratic 
books  we  find  a  rich  collection 
of  surgical  doctrine  and  practice 
drawn  from  centuries  of  experi- 
ence. Medical  scholarship  has 
proved  that  many  of  the  rarest 
forms  of  dislocation  had  not  es- 
caped Hippocrates.  Even  mod- 
ern appliances  were  in  great  part 
anticipated  by  him:  splints,  for 
example,  and  bandages  of  vari- 
ous kinds. 

As  in  the  case  of  medical  lore, 
primitive  surgical  knowledge  and 
skill  were  confined  chiefly  to  the 
priesthood;  and  in  the  ancient 
Greek  school  of  Kos,  whose  great- 
est surgeon  was  Praxagoras,  no 
distinction  was  drawn  between 
surgery  a;id  other  branches  of 
the  healing  art.  The  Alexan- 
drian physicians  linked  surgical 
methods  and  practice  with  those 
of  medicine,  and  left  a  distinct 
mark  on  every  branch  of  healing. 

No  sketch  of  the  history  of 
surgery  would  be  complete  with- 
out a  reference  to  Galen  (q.v.), 
who  died  about  the  year  a.d.  200. 
He  was  for  a  long  time  surgeon 
to  the  gladiators,  and  did  more 
surgical  work  than  has  common- 
ly been  supposed.  His  experi- 
ence in  the  circus  taught  him 
that  the  arteries  carried  blood, 


and  that  hemorrhage  from  arter- 
ies could  be  arrested  by  the  ap- 
plication of  the  ligature.  His 
knowledge  of  anatomy  enabled 
him  to  perform  operations  which 
would  otherwise  have  been  im- 
possible, among  which  may  be 
instanced  one  whereby  he  re- 
moved a  large  part  of  the  ster- 
num and  costal  cartilages,  to- 
gether with  the  underlying  peri- 
cardium, in  the  case  of  a  boy 
who  had  been  injured  in  the  cir- 
cus. Though  the  heart  itself 
was  thus  exposed  the  patient  re- 
covered. 

Celsus  (q.v.),  the  patrician  dil- 
ettante  in  medicine,  is  really  the 
highest  name  in  Roman  surgery, 
though  it  is  doubtful  whether  he 
ever  operated.  Of  the  eight 
books  of  his  admirably  written 
work,  the  last  two  treat  of  sur- 
gery, including  plastic  replace- 
ment of  defects  in  the  outer  ear, 
the  nose,  and  the  lips;  lithotomy 
as  practised  on  boys  (a  cele- 
brated chapter) ;  amputation, 
previously  described  by  no  other 
author;  diseases  of  the  bones, 
with  the  operation  of  trephining, 
fractures  simple  and  compound, 
and  dislocations. 

The  Arabs  borrowed  their  sur- 
gery from  the  Greeks,  chiefly 
from  Paulus  ^Egineta,  even  more 
slavishly  than  their  medicine. 
Their  neglect  of  anatomy  and 
their  Oriental  repugnance  to  op- 
erations involving  the  effusion  of 
blood  serve  to  explain  the  fact 
that  except  Abulkasim  or  Albu- 
casis  (d.  1122)  they  contribute  no 
memorable  name  to  this  branch 
of  the  healing  art.  ^ 

During  this  period  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine  was  largely  mon- 
opolized by  th(^  priests,  but  by  a 
canon  of  the  church  they  were 
forbidden  to  draw  blood,  on  pain 
of  excommunication,  and  hence 
they  abandoned  surgery  to  the 
uneducated  and  ignorant.  Ow- 
ing largely  to  this  circumstance 
surgery  retrograded  rather  than 
advanced  during  many  centuries, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
here  and  there  efforts  were  made 
to  improve  the  situation,  so  that 
this  branch  of  the  healing  art 
was  almost  wholly  in  the  hands 
of  ignorant  barbers,  bathers,  and 
bone  setters.  In  order  that  we 
may  understand  just  what  this 
meant  to  surgery  it  may  be 
stated  that  no  mechanic  or  arti- 
san might  take  as  an  apprentice 
any  youth  from  a  family  in  which 
there  were  either  barbers,  bath 
keepers,  shepherds,  or  butchers. 
Thus  low  had  surgery  sunk  by 
the  close  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. 

Throughout  the  Middle  Ages 
surgical  literature  seems  to  have 
shared  the  fortunes  of  medical 
literature.  First  the  Greeks  were 
in  the  ascendant,  then  their  ser- 


Surgery 


KFP 


555 


Surgery 


vile  imitators,  the  Arabs,  The 
earliest  mediaeval  writers  in  sur- 
gery were  Italians,  followed  in 
the  fourteenth  century  by  the 
French,  while  the  same  period 
witnessed  the  first  English, 
Dutch,  and  German  books  on 
the  subject.  Guy  de  Chauliac, 
the  highest  name  in  that  cen- 
tury, labored  to  bridge  the  chasm 
between  surgery  and  other 
branches  of  medicine.  For  all 
that,  the  mediaeval  surgeon  in 
eastern  Europe  remained  far  be- 
hind his  predecessors  of  the  Ro- 
man and  Byzantine  Empires. 

With  the  opening  of  the  six- 
teenth century  occurred  a  won- 
derful awakening  in  every  de- 
partment of  human  knowledge, 
communicated  by  the  Renais- 
sance. Anatomy  began  to  be 
studied  systematically  and  in 
rather  minute  detail.  This  was 
the  century  of  Da  Vinci,  Vesa- 
lius,  Fallopius,  Sylvius,  Eusta- 
chius,  Arantius,  Varolius,  Pic- 
colhominus,  Fabricius  ad  Aqua- 
pendente,  Servetus,  and  Matteo 
Realdo  Columbo,  all  of  whom 
made  substantial  additions  to 
anatomic  knowledge.  Practical 
men  appeared*  who  attempted  to 
improve  surgical  technique  and 
widen  its  field  of  usefulness.  A 
number  of  new  operations  were 
performed  for  the  first  time  dur- 
ing this  century,  and  procedures 
long  lost  sight  of  were  either^  re- 
discovered or  reintroduced  into 
practice.  Ambrose  Pare  (q.  v.), 
for  example,  rediscovered  the 
use  of  the  ligature  in  the  control 
of  hemorrhage,  performed  the 
first  excision  of  the  elbow  joint, 
and  ligated  bleeding  vessels  when 
amputating  extremities.  At  the 
same  time  more  or  less  success- 
ful efforts  were  made  to  improve 
the  social  and  professional  status 
of  surgeons. 

In  this  the  way  had  been  led 
by  Paris  with  her  College  of 
Surgeons  (College  de  St.  Come, 
1279),  which  in  spite  of  the  uni- 
versity faculty  gained  the  right 
to  create  licentiates  in  surgery. 
Other  qualifying  corporations 
arose  gradually  on  similar  lines. 
With  the  diffusion  of  juster  and 
more  comprehensive  notions  of 
structure  and  function,  surgery 
took  bolder  and  more  effective 
flights,  reaching  her  highest 
point  of  the  seventeenth  century 
under  Richard  Wiseman,  'the 
father  of  English  surgery,'  from 
whose  Seven  Chiriirgical  Trea- 
tises may  be  gathered  the  great 
accessions  he  made  to  sound 
practice,  particularly  in  tumors, 
wounds,  fractures,  and  disloca- 
tions. To  the  distinguished  anat- 
omists Mascagni,  Brcschet,  the 
brothers  John  and  Charles  Bell, 
Tiedemann,  and  C.  M.  Langen- 
beck,  seconded  by  physiologists 
like  Panizzo,  Bell,  Marshall 
Hall,  Magendie,  Flourens,  and 


Bernard,  the  Brothers  Weber, 
and  Joannes  Miiller,  surgery 
owes  the  mighty  advances  she 
made  in  the  first  decades  of  the 
nineteenth  century. 

Until  well  into  the  nineteenth 
century  the  most  important  qual- 
ification of  the  surgeon  was  ra- 
pidity of  action.  The  terrible 
suffering  incident  to  any  opera- 
tion was  such  that  no  one  would 
submit  to  surgery  except  as  a 
last  resort.  Attempts  to  mitigate 
or  abolish  such  agony  are  as  old 
as  medicine  itself,  and  Homer 
refers  to  a  remedy  used  by  Helen 
to  relieve  pain  and  produce  for- 
getfulness.  The  Greeks,  Romans, 
and  Arabs  made  attempts  in  this 
direction,  as  well  as  the  Assyri- 
ans and  Chinese.  Herodotus  says 
that  the  Scythians  made  use  of 
inhalations  of  some  kind  of  hemp 
for  this  purpose.  But  it  remained 
for  the  nineteenth  century  to  de- 
velop a  practical  and  compara- 
tively safe  method  of  producing 
that  condition  to  which  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes  .  applied  the 
term  anaesthesia. 

The  introduction  of  anaesthet- 
ics broadened  the  field  of  sur- 
gery, and  greatly  increased  the 
number  of  operations  performed, 
thus  conserving  human  life,  but 
the  mortality  after  operations 
maintained  a  high  level.  This 
was  partly  due  to  the  shock  in- 
cident to  the  operation  itself,  the 
anaesthetic,  the  accompanying 
loss  of  blood,  and  the  septic  in- 
fection ar  ising  at  the  time  of  the 
operation.  When  the  prevention 
of  hemorrhage  during  an  opera- 
tion is  observed  at  the  present 
time  to  be  so  simple  a  thing  it 
seems  strange  that  the  artery 
forceps  was  not  invented  until 
recent  years.  This  one  invention 
has  been  the  means  of  saving 
an  enormous  number  of  those 
who  would  otherwise  have  suc- 
cumbed. At  the  present  time 
many  operations  of  an  extensive 
nature  are  performed  with  the 
loss  of  an  insignificant  amount 
of  blood,  so  that  death  from 
shock  due  to  this  cause  is  a  rare 
event. 

Before  the  introduction  of  an- 
aesthetics in  1846  by  Dr.  W.  T. 
G.  Morton  (q.  v.)  of  Boston,  the 
great  desideratum  was  speed, 
and  much  was  necessarily  sacri- 
ficed to  that.  An  amputation  or 
a  lithotomy  was  a  matter  of  sec- 
onds, but  the  seconds  held  the 
compressed  agony  of  hours,  for 
the  knife  was  an  instrument  of 
torture  and  the  operating  room 
a  shambles.  Now,  however,  the 
surgeon  no  longer  works  against 
time  upon  tortured  tissues,  but 
upon  a  placid,  sleeping  patient, 
and  accurate  and  careful  dissec- 
tion is  the  rule. 

Only  after  Joseph  Lister  (q.  v.) 
of  England,  inspired  by  the  work 
of  Louis  Pasteur  (q.  v.),  had  in- 


dicated bacteria  as  the  cause  and 
antisepsis  as  the  remedy  of  sep- 
tic conditions  could  surgeons  op- 
erate with  confidence  upon  tlie 
thoracic  and  abdominal  organs, 
and  attack  the  brain  and  the 
heart  itself.  Unfavorable  results 
still  occur,  because  individual 
idiosyncrasies  must  ever  exist, 
but  the  element  of  chance  is 
eliminated  from  the  equation. 

Since  the  introduction  of  an- 
aesthesia and  the  enunciation 
of  anitseptic  doctrines,  further 
progress  has  been  mainly  in  elab- 
oration and  practical  application 
of  the  principles  involved.  New 
anaesthetics  have  been  intro- 
duced, as  well  as  spinal,  rectal 
and_  intravenous  modes  of  ad- 
niinistration,  each  with  its  spe- 
cial indications. 

Advances  and  improvements 
in  surgery  have  been  many  and 
great  during  the  past  two  or 
three  decades,  but  they  have 
been  mostly  along  the  lines  of 
improved  technique :  the  inven- 
tion of  mechanical  devices  calcu- 
lated to  shorten  the  time  con- 
sumed in  an  operation  ;  the  elab- 
oration of  improved  methods  of 
securing  asepsis,  and  in  effecting 
disinfection  of  operative  fields ; 
the  adoption  of  procedures  cal- 
culated to  lessen  shock ;  and  re- 
finements in  diagnostic  acumen. 

Operative  Procedure, — Sur- 
gical treatment  of  an  operative 
nature  may  be  necessary  for  (1) 
congenital  defects,  such  as  hare 
lip  or  club  foot;  (2)  acquired 
defects,  such  as  broken  limbs  or 
lacerated  tissues;  (3)  the  re- 
moval of  foreign  substances, 
such  as  bullets  or  calculi,  from 
within  the  body;  (4)  the  remov- 
al of  diseased  or  injured  struc> 
tures,  which  may  constitute  a 
danger  or  cause  discomfort  to 
the  patient,  such  as  gangrenous 
tissues,  malignant  tumors,  ne- 
crosed bones,  or  carious  teeth ; 

(5)  the  relief  of  conditions 
which  threaten  a  patient  with  in- 
evitable death,  such  as  arterial 
hemorrhage,  laryngeal,  intesti- 
nal, or  urethral  obstruction, 
strangulated  hernia,  or  the  pres- 
sure of  intrathoracic  effusions  ; 

(6)  the  substitution  of  new  for 
lost  tissues,  by  transplantation 
of  skin,  bone,  tendons  or  nerves, 
or  by  introduction  of  mechanical 
prostheses. 

Major  surgical  operations  are 
usually  performed  in  operating 
rooms  of  hospitals.  These  rooms 
are  well  lighted,  both  artificially 
and  naturally,  and  are  lined  with 
tile  or  other  material  to  make 
them  easily  cleaned  and  free 
frorn  dust.  New  methods  of  ven- 
tilation, air-conditioning  and 
heat  regulation  as  well  as  ultra- 
violet irradiation  of  the  air  in 
operating  roorns  has  greatly  di- 
minished the  incidence  of  post- 
operative infection.  When  rooms 


Surgery 


KFP 


555  A 


Surgery 


in  a  private  house  are  used,  they 
must  be  either  stripped  and  thor- 
oughly wiped  out,  or  all  furnish- 
ings must  be  covered  with  ster- 
ile sheets.  The  operating  room 
should  contain  a  minimum 
amount  of  furniture  only  of 
such  a  nature  as  can  be  washed 
and  scrubbed. 

Preoperative  measures  direct- 
ed toward  increasing  resistance 
include  attention  to  diet,  rest  and 
elimination  with  cardiotonics  and 
blood  transfusions  if  indicated, 
and  saline  and  glucose  infusions 
to  restore  fluid  and  chloride  bal- 
ance. Great  advances  have  been 
made  in  blood  transfusion,  the 
blood  type  required  by  the  pa- 
tient being  deterrnined,  and  suit- 
able blood  supplied  by  special 
donors  or  from  blood  banks 
where  blood  is  stored.  Also  blood 
plasma  and  various  other  blood 
substitutes  may  be  used  for 
transfusion,  all  of  which  have 
contributed  their  part  to  lower- 
ing the  mortality  rates  of  sur- 
gical operations.  Also  foods  can 
be  administered  intravenovisly  to 
patients  unable  to  take  nourish- 
ment by  mouth. 

Anaesthetization  must  likewise 
be  preceded  by  proper  prelimi- 
nary treatment  to  prevent  toxic 
and  psychic  reactions  as  well  as 
postoperative  complications. 

Some  major  operations  are 
done  under  local  anaesthesia  by 
injecting  various  solutions  un- 
der the  skin  or  into  the  spine  to 
deaden  pain. 

Instruments  are  boiled  15  min- 
utes in  a  dilute  solution  of  soda 
to  avoid  rust,  and  all  dressings, 
towels,  sheets,  gauze  and  gloves 
needed  for  operative  purposes 
are  prepared  by  sterilization  un- 
der heavy  steam  pressure  which 
penetrates  every  fiber  and  kills 
all  microbes. 

The  surgeon,  assistants,  and 
nurse,  who  handle  instruments 
and  other  surgical  materials, 
must  prepare  by  vigorous  scrub- 
bings  of  their  hands  and  arms 
in  running  sterile  water  with 
brush  and  soap.  Nails  are  thor- 
oughly cleansed  and  kept  short, 
and  after  a  ten-minute  scrubbing 
the  arms  are  soaked  in  various 
antiseptic  solutions  which  kill 
any  remaining  germs.  All  at- 
tendants who  are  to  come  into 
contact  with  the  operative  field 
are  supplied  with  muslin  caps 
and  masks  which  cover  the  head, 
nose  and  mouth,  to  avoid  germs 
or  other  material  dropping  from 
the  head,  or  being  ejected  in 
spray  when  talking,  onto  the 
operative  field.  Sterile  muslin 
gowns  are  donned  by  all,  and 
sterile  rubber  gloves  are  worn 
on  the  hands,  with  the  gown 
sleeves  tucked  in  so  that  no  part 
of  the  operator's  skin  can  come 
into  contact  with  the  patient's 
wound. 


The  patient  is  brought  in  on 
the  operating  table,  asleep ;  his 
shaven  skin  over  and  around  the 
site  selected  for  operation  is 
scrubbed  with  soap  and  water 
and  antiseptic  chemicals ;  or  is 
daubed,  while  dry,  with  various 
solutions  which  destroy  germs 
lying  on  it.  Sterile  towels  are 
pinned  about  the  operative  site, 
and  over  all  an  operative  sheet, 
with  a  suitable  hole  in  its  center, 
is  placed.  This  covers  the  pa- 
tient and  makes  the  field  sterile, 
so  that  the  operators  can  ap- 
proach it  and  not  contaminate 
their  own  surgical  cleanliness. 

Technical  operative  procedure 
follows  :  The  skin  is  cut,  in  this 
sterile  field,  in  the  location,  di- 
rection, and  extent  that  the  op- 
erator thinks  necessary.  Tiny 
and  large  bleeding  points  are 
stopped  by  clamping  on  steel 
instruments  called  hemostats 
(blood  stoppers),  and  the  sur- 
geon continues  his  way,  separat- 
ing or  cutting  deeper  structures 
according  to  the  demands  of  tlie 
disease  being  attacked  until  he 
has  made  proper  exposure.  New 
methods  for  combatting  hemor- 
rhage include  application  of  fi- 
brin foam,  a  combination  of  sol- 
uble cellulose  and  human  throm- 
bin, and  administration  of  chem- 
icals controlling  coagulation. 
Vitamin  K  has  also  been  found 
useful  for  this  purpose.  Flat- 
bjaded  steel  instruments  with 
right-angled  handles  are  slipped 
between  the  lips  of  the  wound, 
and  an  assistant  gently  but  firm- 
ly retracts  the  opening.  The  sur- 
geon then  proceeds  to  locate  the 
seat  of  trouble  and  attempts  its 
removal  or  repair. 

Minimum  handling  of  tissues, 
stoppage  of  oozing  blood  and  the 
avoidance  of  spreading  pus  when 
encountered  are  imperative.  In 
abdominal  operations  gauze 
'sponges'  are  used  to  hold  intes- 
tines out  of  the  way  while  work 
is  being  performed  on  a  certain 
part.  They  are  all  counted  be- 
fore and  after  use  by  the  nurse 
and  assistant. 

An  instrument  table  of  adjust- 
able height,  covered  by  a  thick 
sterile  sac  and  _  an  additional 
towel,  holds  the  instruments  the 
surgeon  will  need,  including 
knife,  scissors,  forceps  for  pick- 
ing up-bleeding  points,  tissue  for- 
ceps, and  a  counted  number  of 
small  gauze  'sponges'  used  for 
wiping  away  oozing  hemorrhage 
that  might  obscure  the  field. 
Blood  for  transfusion,  electro- 
lyte and  protein  solutions  for 
parenteral  administration  as  well 
as  oxygen,  CO2  and  apparatus 
for  artificial  respiration  are  all 
kept  in  readiness  for  instant  use 
should  occasion  demand. 

As  the  operating  surgeon  per- 
forms the  progressive  steps  of 
the  procedure,  his  first  assistant. 


or  senior  interne,  has  ready  the 
instruments  he  may  require,  or 
wipes  out  the  wound  to  give 
clear  vision.  A  well-trained  as- 
sistant can  anticipate  each  desire 
of  the  surgeon,  and  be  of  the 
greatest  help  without  requiring 
spoken  commands.  One  assistant 
ties  bleeding  points,  cuts  off 
knotted  stitches  and  ligatures, 
and  hands  the  operator  needles 
and  thread.  A  second  assistant 
watches  carefully  against  blood 
leakage,  holds  retracting  instru- 
ments, and  requests  from  the  op- 
erating nurse,  as  much  in  ad- 
vance as  he  can  foresee,  all  in- 
struments and  supplies  that  will 
be  needed. 

The  operating  nurse  has  a  sep- 
arate table  a  few  feet  distant 
from  the  operating  table,  on 
which  are  placed,  in  carefully 
arranged  order,  all  instruments, 
sutures,  ligatures,  needles,  dress- 
ings, and  other  supplies  required 
for  the  special  operation  under- 
taken. It  is  her  duty  to  quietly 
and  rapidly  pass  instruments,  to 
cut  off  suitable  lengths  of  threads 
and  ligatures  for  sewing,  mak- 
ing sure  that  none  are  missing 
when  the  operation  is  finished. 
She  must  then  thoroughly  wash 
all  instruments,  r^dles,  and 
gloves,  and  re-sterilize  them  be-, 
fore  they  are  put  away. 

As  an  illustrative  operation, 
simple  appendectomy  one  of  the 
most  frequent  operations  under- 
taken, for  removal  of  an  in- 
flamed appendix  that  has  not 
ruptured  and  is  not  surrounded 
by  an  abscess  may  be  briefly  de- 
scribed. Following  diagnosis  and 
consent  for  operative  removal 
the  site  of  the  inflamed  appendix 
can  frequently  be  determined  by 
palpation  of  the  abdomen  in. the 
anaesthetized  patient.  Rapidly 
but  carefully  the  incision  is 
made  and  each  step  is  passed 
through  until  the  deeper  muscles 
are  separated  or  cut  exposing 
the  last  lining  membrane  or  sack 
which  encloses  the  abdominal 
organs. 

Following  incision  of  the  lin- 
ing membrane  a  finger  is  in- 
serted, the  opening  enlarged  to 
the  size  of  the  skin  wound  with 
scissors,  and  the  appendix  is  lo- 
cated. Once  it  is  located,  it  is 
lifted  gently  into  the  wound,  the 
intestine  being  held  back  by  a 
soft  gauze  sponge.  The  appen- 
dix is  tied  off  at  its  base,  its 
blood  supply  is  controlled  by  ty- 
ing the  artery  which  feeds  it, 
and  its  raw  base  is  neatly  tucked 
in  beneath  a  purse  string  suture 
of  the  bowel  wall  about  it.  Great 
progress  has  been  made  in  the 
management  of  appendicitis  by 
education  of  the  public  regard- 
ing the  danger  of  indiscriminate 
use  of  cathartics,  by  the  advent 
of  the  sulfonamides  and  penicil- 
lin to  combat  infection  and  the 


Surgery 


KFP 


555  B 


Surgery 


routine  use  of  gastrointestinal 
decompression  by  means  of  the 
Miller-Abbott  tube  in  cases  with 
threatening  dynamic  ileus. 

Closure  of  the  wound  depends 
on  the  character  of  the  disease 
found.  Clean  wounds,  without 
pus,  are  generally  closed  tightly, 
each  layer  of  the  tissues  being 
sewn  together  by  stitches  with  a 
curved  needle.  In  deep  layers  of 
the  human  body  absorbable  su- 
tures of  sterilized  animal  gut 
disappear  after  a  fevy  weeks 
when  the  parts  have  united.  Ex- 
ceptionally, as  in  the  intestines, 
silk  or  fine  linen  sutures  are 
used.  Skin  is  closed  very  accu- 
rately by  sewing  with  different 
materials  as  linen,  silk,  silk- 
worm gut,  or  by  small  metal 
clasps  which  are  sprung  togeth- 
er, holding  the  cut  skin  edge  in 
exact  approximation.  These  ma- 
terials are  usually  non-absorb- 
able  and  are  removed  later  by 
the  surgeon  when  the  skin  has 
united.  Newer  suture  materials, 
including  plasma  clot,  living 
fascia  and  nylon,  have  yielded 
good  results. 

Drainage  is  sometimes  used  to 
carry  off  blocfdy  or  other  secre- 
tions or  pus.  It  may  be  a  rub- 
ber tube  with  holes  cut  in  it  or 
gauze  rolled  up  in  gutta-percha 
sheets  to  form  the  cigarette 
drain.  Various  materials  are 
used. 

While  the  skin  is  being  closed 
the  anaesthetic  is  generally 
stopped.  The  minimum  amount 
of  anaesthesia  needed  for  the 
particular  condition  is  desirable. 
Dressings  are  placed  over  the 
closed  wound,  held  by  adhesive 
tape  or  pinned  binders  and 
bandages,  and  the  patient  is  care- 
fully lifted  onto  a  blanketed  cart 
for  removal  to  bed.  He  is  care- 
fully covered  from  drafts  and 
the  surgeon  makes  sure  that  his 
condition  is  satisfactory  before 
he  leaves. 

In  the  postoperative  care  of 
the  patient  emphasis  is  likewise 
placed  on  restoring  as  rapidly 
as  possible  the  disturbed  physio- 
chemical  balance  by  adrnmistra- 
tion  of  fluids  and  chlorides,  on 
relief  of  pain  and  stimulating 
the  cardiovascular  system  to  pre- 
vent surgical  shock.  After  oper- 
ation as  before  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  feed  the  patient  paren- 
terally.  New  measures  to  pre- 
vent postoperative  complications 
include  vein  ligation,  and  ad- 
ministration of  heparin  or  di- 
coumarin  to  prevent  thrombosis 
and  embolism.  Early  exercises 
for  the  legs  as  well  as  earlier 
rising  after  operation  have  also 
been  found  useful  in  this  re- 
spect. More  attention  is_  given  to 
the  position  of  the  patient  than 
formerly,  both  as  a  means  of  im- 
proving circulation  and  afford- 
ing natural  drainage.  There  is 


no  doubt  that  the  discovery  of 
drugs  such  as  sulfonamides  and 
penicillin  will  greatly  change  the 
indications  and  technic  of_  sur- 
gery, as  some  conditions  hither- 
to considered  as  amenable  only 
to  surgical  treatment  will  re- 
spond to  medical  measures,  and 
many  operations  hitherto  consid- 
ered too  risky  owing  to  the  dan- 
ger of  infection  and  fatal  results 
will  now  be  possible.  Also  ad- 
vances in  the  roentgenographic 
and  radium  treatment  of  cancer 
will  limit  the  scope  of  surgery 
in  some  cases  and  extend  it  in 
others.  Education  of  the  public 
as  to  the  great  importance  of 
early  diagnosis  and  early  consul- 
tation for  minor  lesions  will  do 
much  toward  reducing  the  mor- 
tality rates  of  cancer,  which  in 
its  earliest  stages  will  almost  in- 
variably respond  to  complete 
surgical  removal. 

Surgery  of  the  Central,  Pe- 
ripheral and  Sympathetic  Nerv- 
ous Systems. — Great  strides  have 
been  made  in  recent  years  in  the 
diagnosis  and  treatment  of  cere- 
bral tumors.  Now  about  ten  per 
cent  of  intracranial  tumors  are 
amenable  to  surgical  treatment. 
At  a  medical  meeting  a  large 
number  of  patients  carried  on  a 
plate  the  tumors  which  had  been 
removed  from  their  brains  some 
time  previously.  All  of  these  pa- 
tients had  made  a  complete  re- 
covery. Their  cases  at  one  time 
would  have  been  regarded  as  in- 
curable and  shortly  fatal. 

Diagnosis  of  the  situation  and 
nature  of  the  growth  can  be  ac- 
complished by  a  study  of  the  lo- 
calizing symptoms.  Localization 
may  also  be  aided  by  injection 
of  air  or  opaque  fluids  for  en- 
cephalography, ventriculography, 
cerebral  arteriography,  and  ra- 
diology. Disturbance  of  sensa- 
tion or  loss  of  power  in  the  hand, 
arm,  or  leg,  for  instance,  sug- 
gests a  lesion  in  the  center  of 
the  brain  cortex  subservijig 
these  functions. 

In  cases  which  are  doubtfully 
operable  an  exploratory  opera- 
tion is  justifiable.  Exposure  of 
the  tumor  may  not  only  reveal 
a  condition  more  favorable  than 
was  indicated  by  the  symptoms, 
but  removal  of  intracranial  pres- 
sure may  relieve  pain,  prolong 
life,  and  in  a  few  cases  bring 
about  the  absorption  of  the  tu- 
mor. Medical  treatment  of  cere- 
bral tumors,^  except  in  the  case 
of  syphilis,  is  practically  of  no 
avail.  Recently  encoviraging  re- 
sults have  been  reported  in  relief 
of  certain  forms  of  mental  dis- 
ease by  operations  on  the  frontal 
lobes  of  the  brain. 

Surgery  of  the  spinal  cord  has 
likewise  made  remarkable  prog- 
ress in  recent  years. 

Removal  of  intraspinal  pres- 
sure serves  as  valuable  a  pur- 


pose as  does  the  removal  of  in- 
tracranial pressure  in  inoperable 
intracranial  tumors. 

The  most  important  advance 
in  the  surgery  of  the  peripheral 
nerves  has  been  the  demonstra- 
tion that  a  divided  or  severed 
nerve  will  regenerate  much  more 
certainly  if  the  site  of  union  of 
the  divided  ends  be  wrapped 
around  with  a  cuff  of  fat,  fascia, 
or  tantalum  foil.  Also  plasma 
clot  has  been  used  instead  of  su- 
tures to  unite  severed  nerves. 

Great  progress  has  been  made 
in  the  alleviation  of  pain  by  al- 
cohol injection  of  nerves,  opera- 
tions on  the  spinal  cord  and  by 
sympathectomy.  Among  diseases 
responding  to  the  latter  surgical 
procedure  may  be  mentioned  ar- 
thritis, scleroderma,  Raynaud's 
disease,  Buerger's  disease,  con- 
genital dilatation  of  the  colon, 
spastic  paraplegias  and  dysmen- 
orrhea. Patients  suffering  the 
cruel  agonies  of  tabes  dorsalis  or 
inoperable  cancer  can  be  relieved 
of  their  pain  by  chordotomy. 

Abdominal  Surgery, — Ad- 
vances in  abdominal  surgery 
have  been  quite  remarkable,  the 
most  conspicuous  being  in  rela- 
tion to  diseases  of  the  stomach, 
gall  bladder,  and  pancreas.  Cases 
of  simple  ulcer  in  the  stomach  or 
duodenum,  and  of  malignant  dis- 
ease of  the  stomach  or  bowel,  are 
successfvilly  operated  on  every 
day.  An  exploratory  operation 
(laparotomy)  is  now  resorted  to 
in  a  large  number  of  cases  in 
which  ordinary  diagnostic  meth- 
ods or  peritoneoscopy  fail.  It 
consists  of  a  simple  exploratory 
incision,  the  risks  of  the  opera- 
tion in  the  hands  of  a  capable 
surgeon  being  insignificant,  and 
the  advantages  to  the  patient 
very  great,  especially  if  the  con- 
dition is  early  malignant  disease. 
(See  Laparotomy).  The  stom- 
ach may  be  removed  in  whole 
or  in  part.  The  former  operation, 
however,  being  a  much  more  se- 
rious one  is  used  only  in  cases 
of  advanced  malignancy.  Many 
feet  of  the  small  intestine  can 
be  successfully  removed  for 
acute  intestinal  obstruction  or 
other  conditions,  and  practically 
the  whole  of  the  large  intestine 
has  been  removed  for  relief  of 
intractable  chronic  constipation. 

These  operations  have  been 
made  possible  by  improved  tech- 
nique in  anastomosing  different 
portions  of  the  digestive  tract. 
Thus  in  disease  of  the  pyloric 
end  of  the  stomach,  relief  or  cure 
is  frequently  effected  by  the  op- 
eration of  gastro-enterostomy — 
i.e.,  stitching  the  stomach  to  a 
portion  of  small  intestine  lower 
down,  whereby  the  food  passes 
directly  into  the  bowel,  and  does 
not  come  in  contact  with  the  dis- 
eased area.  Gastro-enterostomy 
has  become  one  of  the  common- 


Surgery 


KFP 


555  C 


Surgery 


places  in  surgery.  It  is,  as  a  rule, 
an  easy  and  safe  operation — so 
much  so,  indeed,  that  it  has 
sometimes  been  performed  in 
cases  in  which  it  was  hardly 
suitable.  At  present  surgeons  are 
resorting  less  frequently  to  this 
operation  in  cases  of  disease  oth- 
er than  malignant  growths.  In 
abdominal  surgery  mortality  has 
been  greatly  reduced  by  the  use 
of  parenteral  and  jejunal  feed- 
ing, and  application  of  the  newer 
drugs  to  combat  infection.  The 
use  of  such  apparatus  as  the 
Wangenstein  suction  apparatus 
and  the  Miller-Abbott  tube  has 
proved  lifesaving  in  many  cases. 
Early  ambulation  following  ab- 
dominal operation  is  advocated 
by  many  surgeons. 

Equally  conspicuous  has  been 
the  advance  in  the  surgery  of  the 
gall  bladder  and  bile  ducts,  and 
operations  are  now  frequently 
performed  for  the  relief  or  cure 
of  diseases  which  previously 
were  left  to  take  their  course. 
The  chief  operation,  apart  from 
excision  for  malignant  disease, 
is  drainage  of  the  gall  bladder — 
either  externally  through  the  ab- 
dominal wall,  or  internally  by 
anastomosing  the  gall  bladder 
with  the  intestine  lower  down 
(cholecystenterostomy).  Vitalli- 
um  tubes  have  been  used  with 
good  results  to  re-establish  con- 
tinuity of  injured  bile  ducts.  In 
operations  on  the  gall  bladder,  as 
well  as  in  many  other  operations 
impaired  hepatic  function  should 
be  restored  before  operation  by 
administration  of  a  diet  rich  in 
carbohydrates  and  proteins  and 
ample  amounts  of  vitamins, _  in 
particular  vitamin  B  and  vita- 
min K.  That  comparatively  inac- 
cessible organ,  the  pancreas,  is 
likewise  now  handled  with  com- 
parative impunity  by  the  sur- 
geon. More  especially  the  condi- 
tion of  pancreatitis — acute,  sub- 
acute, and  chronic  varieties — 
has  yielded  brilliant  results  in 
the  hands  of  many  surgeons. 
By  means  of  laboratory  tests 
such  as  the  serum  lipase  and  se- 
rum amylase  tests  surgeons  are 
now  able  to  distinguish  between 
operable  and  inoperable  forms  of 
pancreatitis,  and  the  biochemists 
have  contributed  organic  prepa- 
rations such  as  lipocaic  for  ad- 
ministration following  pancre- 
atectomy.  (See  Pancreatitis). 

Genito-Urinary  Surgery. — The 
most  noteworthy  feature  in  this 
department  in  recent  years  has 
been  the  development  of  the  sur- 
gery of  the  prostate  gland.  Large 
tumors  of  this  gland,  weighing 
many  pounds,  are  now  success- 
fully removed,  leaving  the  pa- 
tient permanently  recovered. 
Cancer  of  the  prostate  in  early 
stages  can  be  cured  by  operation. 
In  more  advanced  stages  tem- 
porary regression  and  relief  can 


be  obtained  by  bilateral  orchi- 
dectomy  or  estrogentherapy.  De- 
capsulation of  the  kidneys  has 
yielded  good  results  in  some 
cases  of  toxic  nephritis  and  ne- 
phrectomy is  also  recommended 
in  certain  types  of  hypertension. 

In  obstetric  surgery,  Cesarean 
section  has  proved  the  means  of 
materially  reducing  the  infant 
and  maternity  mortality  rates. 
Careful  evaluation  of  results  has 
clarified  the  indications  for  this 
procedure.  By  its  use  in  properly 
selected  cases  of  pelvic  dystocia 
the  lives  of  mothers  and  babies 
to  whom  the  natural  route  of 
delivery  could  prove  fatal  have 
been  saved. 

Surgery  of  the  Heart  and 
Blood  Vessels. — Cases  have  re- 
cently been  recorded  in  which 
the  heart  has  been  successfully 
stitched  up  for  penetrating 
wounds  of  that  organ. 

The  prognosis  of  suppurative 
pericarditis  has  been  markedly 
improved  by  the  interventions  of 
pericardiotomy  and  pericardec- 
tomy. In  many  instances  the 
surgeon  can  now  remove  an  em- 
bolus and  suture  the  affected 
vessel  thus  saving  the  lives  of 
patients  hitherto  considered  as 
doomed  to  certain  death.  Opera- 
tions on  the  blood  vessels  include 
ligation  of  the  patent  ductus  ar- 
teriosus, a  congenital  condition 
hitherto  regarded  as  inoperable, 
aortectomy  for  aneurysms  and 
ligation  of  the  femoral  vein  for 
varicose  veins. 

Thoracic  Surgery* — Prog- 
ress in  this  field  has  greatly  re- 
duced the  mortality  in  tumors 
and  other  diseases  of  the  lungs 
and  other  thoracic  organs,  _  and 
has  definitely  extended  the  indi- 
cations for  surgical  treatment  of 
tuberculosis.  In  lung  abscess  em- 
phasis is  placed  on  early  drain- 
age and  accurate  localization  of 
the  bronchopulmonary  segment 
involved.  The  latter  is  rendered 
possible  by  lipiodol  bronchogra- 
,phy  and  cancer  can  be  excluded 
by  bronchoscopy.  Total  lobec- 
tomy is  recommended  in  some 
cases.  Lobectomy  and^  pneumo- 
nectomy are  indicated  in  certain 
forms  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis 
in  which  ordinary  measures  fail. 
Many  tuberculous  patients  have 
recovered  and  returned  to  work 
following  the  operation  on  the 
chest  wall  known  as  thoraco- 
plasty which  permits  collapse  of 
the  diseased  lung.  Careful  aspi- 
ration of  secretions  and  adminis- 
tration of  oxygen  or  CO2  as  re- 
quired have  greatly  reduced  the 
mortality  of  these  operations. 

Interesting  phases  of  surgery 
of  the  endocrine  glands  include 
the  preoperative  use  of  thioura- 
cil  in  surgery  of  the  thyroid,  re- 
moval of  the  thymus  gland  in 
myasthenia  gravis,  of  the  adre- 
nal in  tumors  of  that  gland  lead- 


ing to  premature  puberty  and 
masculinization.  Many  new  and 
promising  interventions  have 
been  developed  such  as  the  fe- 
nestration operation  for  inner 
ear  deafness,  surgical  removal 
of  ruptured  intervertebral  discs 
to  relieve  low  back  pain,  the  re- 
moval of  testicles  in  carcinoma 
of  the  prostate  and  surgical  or 
roentgen  castration  of  the  ova- 
ries in  cancer  of  the  female 
breast.  Only  time  can  prove  the 
final  worth  of  these  operations. 
Attempts  have  also  been  made  to 
supply  deficient  glandular  func- 
tion by_  implantation  of  animal 
glands  into  human  subjects,  as 
in  the  famous  monkey-gland  op- 
erations of  Voronof  that  had  re- 
juvenating properties. 

The  recent  interest  in  geriat- 
rics is  manifested  also  by  nu- 
merous studies  on  the  effects  of 
surgery  in  the  aged.  Old  people 
do  not  react  to  surgical  inter- 
ventions in  the  same  manner  as 
younger  patients,  and  the  sur- 
geon must  adapt  his  technic  ac- 
cordingly. This  is  important  con- 
sidering the  fact  that  for  years 
to  come  the  higher  age  groups 
will  constitute  an  increasing 
proportion  of  the  population. 
The  danger  of  emergency  opera- 
tions in  old  persons  is  stressed 
and  for  this  reason  preventive 
surgery  is  especially  important 
in  this  group  of  patients.  They 
need  special  preoperative  care 
and  postoperative  attention  to 
combat  the  weaknesses  to  which 
age  is  subject. 

War  Surgery, — The  First 
World  War  exerted  marked  in- 
fluence on  surgery,  though  chief- 
ly in  surgery  devoted  to  the 
treatment  of  wounds  and  infec- 
tions, and  to  the  performance  of 
plastic  operations. 

Military  surgery  differs  from 
the  surgery  of  civil  life  princi- 
pally in  the  added  difficulties  en- 
countered, the  extensively  lacer- 
ated, contused  wounds  with  shat- 
tered and  comminuted  bones  that 
are  met  with,  the  almost  _  inevi- 
table and  practically  universal 
primary  infection  of  wounds  of 
war,  the  lack  of  hospital  facili- 
ties, and  the  great  number  of 
cases  brought  for  treatment  in 
a  very  short  time.  The  general 
surgical  principles  _  remain  the 
same — the  general  lines  of  treat- 
ment are  identical — but  the 
character  of  the  wounds  seen  in 
military  operations  is  entirely 
different  from  those  ordinarily 
seen  in  civil  practice,  and  the 
conditions  under  which  they 
must  be  treated  are  entirely  un- 
like those  of  civil  life.  Probably 
the  nearest  approximation  to 
wounds  of  war  seen  in  civil  life 
is  encountered  in  machinery  or 
railroad  accidents,  but  even 
here  surgical  assistance,  under 
good  hospital  conditions,  is  much 


Surgery 


KFP 


555  D 


Surgery 


more  quickly  given,  and  primary- 
infection  not  liable  to  be  so  viru- 
lent and  extensive. 

The  work  of  the  military  sur- 
geon in  campaign  is  divided  into 
three  zones — the  zone  of  the  ad- 
vance, the  lines  of  communica- 
tion, and  the  home  territory. 
The  regimental  surgeons  are  the 
first  professional  men  to  see  the 
wounded,  but  at  the  front,  under 
fire,  little  can  be  done.  The  first- 
aid  packet  issued  to  officers  and 
soldiers  is  of  value  in  preventing 
secondary  infection  from  out- 
side, but  is  of  no  use  in  over- 
coming the  primary,  deep  infec- 
tion of  the  tissues. 

On  the  firing  line  the  surgeon 
can  do  very  little.  He  oversees 
the  collection  of  the  wounded, 
checks  hemorrhage,  if  necessary, 
puts  on  a  light  dressing,  and  does 
what  he  can  to  immobilize  frac- 
tured bones  with  such  crude 
means  as  he  has  at  hand.  He 
makes  his  patients  ready  for 
transfer  to  the  rear,  first  by  lit- 
ter squads  to  the  dressing  sta- 
tion, where  anti-tetanic  _serum_  is 
given  each  patient  provided  with 
a  'diagnosis  tag.'  Then  ambu- 
lance companies  load  them  on 
motor  ambulances  and  remove 
them  to  the  field  hospital.  Here 
something  may  be  done  in  the 
way  of  surgery,  but  not  very 
much,  as  the  surgeons  must  keep 
the  establishments  ready  to  be 
moved  forward  at  a  moment's 
notice  if  the  command  advances, 
or  to  retreat  if  it  falls  back.  Sur- 
gery here  must  be  confined  to 
cleaning  up,  renewing  splints, 
putting  on  fresh  dressings,  giv- 
mg  anti-tetanic  serum  (and  this 
is  now  given  to  every  wounded 
man),  if  it  has  not  already  been 
given  at  the  dressing  station,  and 
doing  only  such  emergency  op- 
erating as  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  save  life,  check  hemor- 
rhage, and  prepare  the  patients 
for  transport. 

With  each  successive  war  the 
missiles  and  weapons  invented 
by  man  have  become  more  dead- 
ly, the  initial  mortality  on  the 
battle  field  higher,  and  the 
wounds  of  the  surviving  more 
extensive  and  mutilating.  To 
restore  and  rehabilitate  the 
wounded  has  in  each  instance 
furnished  a  new  impetus  to  the 
surgeon  for  invention  of  new  op- 
erations, instruments  and  meth- 
ods of  treatment.  Hitherto  our 
surgeons  and  medical  men  have 
been  able  to  keep  pace  with  the 
new  demands  made  on  their  skill 
and  ingenuity.  Now  that  the  new 
zenith  in  destructive  force  has 
been  reached  with  the  advent  of 
the  atomic  bomb  and  its  mysteri- 
ous and  ill  understood  effects, 
the  problem  of  restoration  will 
become  immeasurably  more  com- 
plicated, if  not  indeed  insoluble. 
Fortunately  it  was  used  for  the 


first  time  at  the  very  end  of  the 
Second  World  War,  and  there 
seems  reason  to  hope  that  its  use 
will  be  abandoned  as  a  matter  of 
self  preservation  of  the  human 
race. 

As  in  all  previous  wars,  so  in 
the  Second  World  War,  innu- 
merable devices,  methods  and 
operations  were  developed  to 
meet  the  emergencies  encoun- 
tered. War  is  a  great  school  for 
surgeons,  in  that  their  technic 
can  be  tested  on  vast  numbers, 
and  the  advantages  of  this  or 
that  method  can  be  statistically 
demonstrated.  As  indicated 
above,  the  wounds  in  this  war 
were  more  severe  and  extensive 
than  those  encountered  in  previ- 
ous wars.  Certain  types  of  war 
wounds,  such  as  burns  and  blast 
injuries,  received  special  atten- 
tion. The  most  severe  wounds 
were  penetrating  abdominal 
wounds,  thoracic  injuries  and 
head  injuries.  Patients  with  such 
injuries  are  given  priority  in 
transportation  to  the  hospital  un- 
less immediate  operation  is  indi- 
cated. Improved  results  in  the 
treatment  of  penetrating  abdom- 
inal wounds  were  obtained  by 
the  use  of  blood  transfusions  be- 
fore, during  and  after  operation. 
Wounds  of  the  large  bowel  and 
rectum  were  exteriorized. 

The  serious  problem  of  man- 
agement of  large  sucking 
wounds  of  the  chest  was  solved 
by  packing  those  which  could  not 
be  closed  immediately  with  ster- 
ile vaselinized  gauze  fixed  by 
adhesive  plaster.  Thoracoplasty 
could  then  be  performed  at  a 
later  date.  Aspiration  of  blood 
and  replacement  by  air  may  be 
necessary  in  some  cases.  These 
patients  require  a  prolonged  con- 
valescence. Early  operation  is 
indicated  for  massive  clotting  of 
blood  in  the  pleural  cavity,  em- 
ploying penicillin  to  combat  in- 
fection. In  the  treatment  of  frac- 
tures, immobilization  is  neces- 
sary, but  casts  should  be  split, 
fenestrated  or  bivalved  so  as  to 
prevent  circulatory  disturbances 
and  to  permit  frequent  observa- 
tion of  the  wound.  The  greatest 
advance  in  the  treatment  of  cra- 
nial injuries  is  the  use  of  tanta- 
lum plate  to^  replace  defects.  The 
use  of  refrigeration  anaesthesia 
for  amputation  has  greatly  di- 
minished the  number  of  deaths 
from  gangrene,  not  only  in  dia- 
betics but  also  in  traumatic  in- 
juries. Shock,  hemorrhage  and 
infection  are  less  common  fol- 
lowing this  form  of  anaesthesia. 
With  the  limb  frozen  a  lower 
amputation  is  possible  and  the 
stump  is  less  likely  to  become 
necrotic. 

Although  experience  in  war 
surgery  is  a  great  asset,  it  must 
be  kept  in  mind  that  the  training 
of  large  numbers  of  young  sur- 


geons was  cut  short  by  their  in- 
duction into  military  service, 
and  that  unless  some  provision 
is  made  for  completion  of  this 
interrupted  training,  there  will 
be  a  definite  shortage  of  well 
trained  surgeons  for  the  next 
few  years.  It  is  hoped  that  pro- 
vision for  graduate  training  with 
refresher  courses  and  an  in- 
creased number  of  residencies 
will  help  to  overcome  this  situ- 
ation, 

A  great  contribution  to  re- 
ducing mortality  among  wound- 
ed soldiers  was  made  by  the  Rus- 
sians in  transfusion  of  blood 
from  the  dead  to  the  living  and 
perfecting  means  for  the  storage 
and  transportation  of  blood.  A 
great  forward  step  in  the  Sec- 
ond World  War  was  the  ad- 
vancement of  surgical  service 
nearer  to  the  front  lines.  Not 
only  new  drugs  and  blood  were 
transported  by  plane  to  the  scene 
of  battle,  but  evacuation  of  the 
wounded  to  base  hospitals  and 
burn  centers  was  greatly  facili- 
tated and  accelerated  by  the 
more  modern  means  of  trans- 
portation. In  some  instances 
where  hospitals  had  been  de- 
stroyed by  enemy  fire  or  other- 
wise, whole  hospitals  were  trans- 
ported including  beds,  instru- 
ments and  apparatus  from  thou- 
sands of  miles_  away  within^  a 
few  days.  In  this  manner  the  in- 
terval between  the  time  of  injury 
and  definitive  surgery  could  be 
greatly  reduced  with  demonstra- 
ble improvement  in  the  final  re- 
sults of  wound  treatment.  An- 
other detail  contributing  to  these 
results  was  the  routine  adminis- 
tration of  'booster'  doses  of  tet- 
anus toxoid  at  the  first  dressing 
station  or  at  the  field  hospital 
even  though  soldiers  had  re- 
ceived anti-tetanus  inoculation 
on  induction.  In  the  combat  zone, 
wound  treatment  included  meas- 
ures to  combat  shock  and  blood 
loss,  debridement,  application  of 
sulfonamides  and  occlusive 
dressing  to  prepare  the  soldier 
for  evacuation.  In  cases  in  which 
whole  blood  was  not  available, 
blood  plasma  or  other  blood  sub- 
stitutes were  used  to  tide  the  pa- 
tient over  to  such  time  when 
whole  blood  could  be  produced. 
Penicillin  contributed  greatly  to 
the  reduced  incidence  of  gas 
gangrene  in  the  wounded  and 
was  utilized  to  prevent  early  in- 
fection of  the  wound,  to  control 
infection  during  the  first  weeks 
following  injury  and  to  combat 
sepsis  in  later  stages. 

Transportation  from  the  firing 
line  to  the  base  hospital  is  ac- 
complished first  by  litter  squads, 
then  by  ambulances,  then  by  hos- 
pital trains,  boats,  ships,  and 
planes.  In  addition  to  these,  sup- 
ply wagons,  ammunition  trains, 
returning  troopships,  and  cargo 


Surgery 


KFP 


555  E 


Surgery 


planes  are  utilized,  when  going 
back  empty  to  the  base  of  opera- 
tions, to  carry  wounded.  Motor 
and  air  transportation,  exten- 
sively used  in  the  present  war, 
has  been  of  great  value  in  reduc- 
ing the  time  between  the  receipt 
of  the  injury  and  the  admission 
of  the  patient  to  the  hospital. 

Motor  hospital  units  are  now 
brought  very  close  to  the  firing 
line,  which  provide  in  mobile 
form  operating  facilities  assem- 
bled in  a  number  of  automobile 
trucks.  These  units  have  resulted 
in  the  saving  of  many  lives. 

At  the  base  hospital,  not  ex- 
posed to  fire,  more  careful  defi- 
nite surgical  procedures  are  pos- 
sible ;  and  this  is  the  point  where 
experienced  surgeons  can  save 
life  and  limb,  under  conditions 
that  give  time  and  opportunity 
for  the  careful  study  of  the  cases 
and  for  deliberate  surgery.  It  is 
here  that  infected  wounds  may 
be  systematically  sterilized, 
preferably  by  the  Carrel-Dakin 
method,  which  has  done  much  to 
expedite  healing,  but  which  re- 
quires great  care,  patience,  and 
skill  to  secure  good  results. 
(See  Antiseptics). 

While  it  may  occasionally 
happen  that  a  flesh  wound  in- 
flicted by  rifle  projectile  escapes 
primary  infection,  and  heals 
promptly  if  protected  from  sec- 
ondary infection  by  a  first-aid 
packet,  any  wound  inflicted  by  a 
rifle  bullet,  complicated  by  frac- 
ture of  bone,  and  any  wound  in- 
flicted by  shell  fragment  or 
shrapnel  bullet,  is  practically 
certain  to  be  deeply,  primarily, 
and  extensively  infected,  and 
must  be  treated  from  the  start 
with  that  idea  in  view. 

What  to  do  for  abdominal 
wounds  in  war  has  been  much 
discussed,  and  the  final  conclu- 
sion seems  to  be  as  follows  :  If 
the  patient  is  seen  within  twelve 
hours  after  being  wounded,  and 
the  track  of  the  bullet  is  such  as 
to  make  it  almost  impossible  for 
the  hollow  viscera  to  have  es- 
caped injury,  exploratory  lapar- 
otomy is  to  be  done  without 
delay  and  without  waiting  for 
symptoms  of  peritonitis  to  de- 
velop— always  provided  that  the 
patient  can  be  brought  to  a  place 
where  there  are  facilities  for 
clean  and  deliberate  operating, 
with  plenty  of  time  and  trained 
assistants.  Under  such  condi- 
tions good  results  are  obtainable. 
If  the  location  of  the  bullet  track 
is  such  as  to  make  it  probable 
that  no  hollow  viscus  has  been 
injured,  the  case  may  wait,  for 
wounds  of  the  solid  viscera,  un- 
less immediately  fatal  from  hem- 
orrhage, offer  a  much  better 
prognosis  than  wounds  of  the 
hollow  viscera. 

Plastic  surgery  is  a  compara- 
tively modern  branch  of  surgery 


which  has  attained  enormous 
importance.  The  number  of  op- 
erations performed  for  the  relief 
of  mere  disability  or  disfigure- 
ment has  greatly  increased.  Thus 
a  patient  undergoes  an  operation 
for  hernia  to  avoid  the  incon- 
venience of  wearing  a  truss.  An- 
other has  a  limb  fractured  and 
reset  to  overcome  a  deformity, 
and  cleft  palates,  lop  ears,  and 
unshapely  noses  are  promptly 
submitted  to  the  surgeon  for  cor- 
rection. The  treatment  of  de- 
formities has  become  a  specialty, 
orthopaedic  surgery.  Operations 
to  improve  scars  and  unsightly 
features  constitute  plastic  sur- 
gery. To  this  science  the  First 
World  War  experience  contrib- 
uted a  great  deal. 

Not  only  have  important  ad- 
vances been  made  in  the  science 
of  wound  healing,  including  the 
use  of  many  new  drugs  and  or- 
ganic substances  such  as  allan- 
toin,  cod  liver  oil  and  the  dried 
red  blood  cells  salvaged  from 
plasma  fabrication,  but  new 
methods  of  skin  grafting,  bone 
grafting  and  nerve  grafting  have 
been  evolved.  The  use  of  frozen 
skin  grafts  renders  it  possible 
that  before  long  we  shall  have 
skin  banks  as  well  as  blood 
banks.  One  of  the  most  sensa- 
tional advances  in  plastic  sur- 
gery has  been  transplantation  of 
the  cornea  from  the  cadaver  to 
restore  vision.  In  this  connec- 
tion, too,  we  begin  to  hear  of  eye 
banks.  Synthetic  resins  are  be- 
ing employed  for  the  fabrication 
of  protheses  to  replace  missing 
eyeballs  and  other  facial  parts. 
Recently  a  method  of  attaching 
the  eye  prosthesis  to  the  ocular 
muscles  has  made  it  possible  to 
produce  even  a  moving  eyeball. 
The  race  to  perfect  prostheses 
for  limbs  in  order  to  reduce  to 
a  minimum  the  disability  of  our 
returned  soldiers  is  on.  New  cen- 
ters for  group  re-education  and 
rehabilitation  have  been  formed. 
Industries  have  been  canvassed 
to  locate  jobs  in  which  the  pe- 
culiar disabilities  of_  the  war 
wounded  and  war  blinded  will 
not  be  disqualifying.  In  this 
manner  also  the  victims  of  in- 
juries in  civil  life  will  be  bene- 
fited. 

Industrial  surgery  likewise  is 
becoming  better  organized,  as 
employers  and  workers  alike 
realize  the  advantages  of  early 
and  adequate  treatment  of  minor 
injuries.  Accidents  are  carefully 
recorded  to  meet  the  demands  of 
insurance  companies  and  com- 
pensation boards. 

Surgical  Instruments^ — One 
of  the  chief  factors  in  the  devel- 
opment of  surgery  during  the 
past  century,  ranking  in  impor- 
tance with  the  discoveries  of  an- 
aesthesia and  antisepsis,  has  been 
the    improvement    in  operative 


technique,  largely  made  possible 
by  the  constantly  increasing  skill 
brought  to  the  invention  and 
manufacture  of  surgical  instru- 
ments. Modern  surgical  equip- 
ment includes  a  great  variety  of 
instruments  adapted  to  an  al- 
rnost  equal  variety  of  special  con- 
ditions. In  any  discussion  of  a 
general  character,  such  as  the 
present  article,  however,  only 
those  instruments  in  more  com- 
mon use  can  be  described. 

In  general,  surgical  instru- 
ments are  made  entirely  of  good 
steel,  well  tempered,  and  heavily 
nickel  plated,  handles  and  other 
parts  of  wood,  bone,  ivory,  and 
similar  materials  having  been 
discarded  as  unfit  for  modern 
methods  of  heat  sterilization. 
The  pattern  should  be  as  simple 
as  possible,  with  a  minimum 
number  of  deep  recesses  and 
grooves  to  retain  dirt,  grease, 
dried  blood,  and  thus  add  to  the 
difficulty  of  sterilization.  Com- 
posite instruments,  such  as  those 
having  a  spoon  at  one  end  and 
a  scalpel  at  the  other,  are  to  be 
avoided.  The  instrument  should 
be  fairly  heavy,  and  so  shaped  as 
to  permit  a  firm  grasp  by  the 
surgeon. 

Cutting  instruments  include 
knives  or  scalpels,  chisels, 
gouges,  bone  saws,  scissors,  and 
curettes.  Knives  or  scalpels  are 
of  various  types.  For  cutaneous 
incisions  the  best  is  the  scalpel 
with  a  straight  handle  and  a  gen- 
erous convex  curve  on  the  cut- 
ting edge.  Short  strong  bistou- 
ries are  used  for  resection,  and 
special  knives  of  small  size  for 
the  removal  of  cataracts,  iridec- 
tomy, operations  for  vesico-vagi- 
nal  fistula,  and  other  special  de- 
partments of  surgery.  The  teno- 
tome, a  narrow-bladed  knife  de- 
signed for  the  division  of  ten- 
dons, is  employed  in  cases  re- 
quiring minute  punctures.  For 
amputation  of  the  soft  parts  a 
scalpel  of  medivim  size,  provided 
with  a  strong  blade,  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. 

For  the  division  of  bones,  ex- 
cept in  very  young  children,  the 
knife  is  supplemented  by  other 
instruments — notably  the  oste- 
otomy _  chisel  of  varying  width 
and  thickness ;  the  gouge,  which 
is  in  reality  a  specially  designed 
chisel  having  a  thick,  rounded 
blade,  the  extremity  of  which  is 
bevelled  on  one  face  and  mould- 
ed to  form  a  spoon-like  cavity ; 
shears  with  bent  blades,  such  as 
are  used  for  the  resection  of 
ribs  ;  the  gouge  forceps,  the  bone 
curette,  and  straight-edged  and 
circular  saws,  the  latter  operated 
either  by  hand  or  by  electric  mo- 
tor. The  trephine  (q.  v.)  is  a  spe- 
cial form  of  crown  saw  for  re- 
moving a  circular  disc  of  bone, 
usually  from  the  skull. 

Scissors  are  of  special  value  in 


Surgery 


KFP 


555  F 


Surgery 


cases  in  which  it  is  desired  to  ob- 
tain a  clean  section  in  a  position 
where  it  is  impossible  to  give  the 
tissues  sufficient  tension  for  cut- 
ting with  the  scalpel,  as  well  as 
for  dividing  muscles.  The  most 
useful  type  for  ordinary  surgical 
purposes  are  fairly  heavy,  blunt 
tipped,  with  short  blades  (about 
2  inches)  curved  on  the  flat,  and 
long  handles.  Curettes  are  sharp, 
spoon-like  instruments  for  re- 
moving growths  and  for  scrap- 
ing away  diseased  tissues. 

Forceps  include  a  large  num- 
ber of  instruments  with  two 
blades  and  handles,  used  for  a 
variety  of  purposes.  Thumb  for- 
ceps are  of  two  types :  flat- 
bladed  dissecting  forceps,  which 
depend  on  the  pressure  exerted 
in  pressing  the  blades  together 
to  maintain  their  grasp  on  the 
structures  on  which  they  are 
used ;  and  mouse-toothed  for- 
ceps, with  tips  terminating  in 
sharp  interlocking  teeth  which 
maintain  their  hold  by  punctur- 
ing the  tissues.  Among  the  vari- 
ous forms  for  special  uses  are : 
haemostatic  or  pressure  forceps, 
for  grasping  bleeding  points  or 
vessels  for  the  control  of  hemor- 
rhage during  operation  ;  fixation 
forceps,  for  holding  a  part  in 
place  during  operation,  obstetric 
forceps,  for  making  traction  on 
the  foetus  in  cases  of  difficult  la- 
bor ;  dressing  forceps,  for  grasp- 
ing lint,  drainage  tubes,  etc.,  in 
dressing  wounds  ;  lithotomy  for- 
ceps, for  removing  stone  from 
the  bladder ;  alveolar  forceps, 
for  removing  portions  of  the  al- 
veolar structure  ;  and  dental  for- 
ceps, for  the  extraction  of  teeth. 

Retractors  are  flat  pieces  of 
metal  bent  at  right  angles,  some- 
times terminating  in  sharp 
prongs,  and  provided  with  a  han- 
dle. They  are  employed  for  mak- 
ing traction  on  tissues  and  with- 
drawing them  from  the  operative 
field. 

Probes  are  slender  flexible  in- 
struments for  the  exploration  of 
wounds  and  cavities.  They  in- 
clude the  usual  fine  silver  probe 
with  a  bulbous  tip,  supplemented 
by  larger  probes  for  exploring 
crooked  sinuses  ;  drum  probes, 
provided  with  an  attachment 
which  emits  a  sound  when  in 
contact  with  a  foreign  body ; 
uterine  probes  for  uterine  ex- 
ploration; besides  other  types 
adapted  to  special  surgical  prac- 
tice. 

Bougies  or  dilators  are  intro- 
duced into  the  various  orifices 
and  canals  of  the  body  for  the 
purpose  of  stretching  or  enlarg- 
mg  them,  as  in  stricture,  and  also 
as  guides  in  operative  procedure. 
Rectal  bougies  are  of  flexible 
gum  elastic,  vulcanite,  or  wax, 
cylindrical  or  conical  in  shape, 
and  are  arranged  for  use  in  grad- 
uated sizes.  They  are  warmed 


and  oiled  before  introduction. 
Urethral  bougies  are  made  of 
both  metal  and  gum  elastic.  Lis- 
ter's urethral  bougie  differs  from 
the  usual  type  in  that  the  end  is 
several  sizes  larger  than  the 
shaft.  Oesophageal  bougies  have 
bulbous  tips — known  as  olive 
tips — and  are  used  for  dilation 
of  strictures  and  for  diagnostic 
purposes.  Sounds  are  similar  to 
bougies,  but  their  use  is  confined 
strictly  to  diagnosis. 

Catheters  are  tubular  instru- 
ments of  various  sizes  for  with- 
drawing fluids  from  the  body 
cavities,  especially  for  the  emp- 
tying of  the  bladder.  They  are 
of  silver  or  other  metal,  or  of 
some  elastic  material ;  they  may 
be  of  uniform  cylindrical  shape, 
or  may  terminate  in  some  special 
shape  to  meet  special  require- 
ments. (See  Catheter). 

The  speculum  is  an  appliance 
for  widening  the  natural  open- 
ings of  the  body  so  as  to  bring 
their  interior  into  the  range  of 
vision.  Silver  or  plated  metal  is 
generally  employed  because  of 
its  reflective  power.  The  cysto- 
scope,  also  used  for  visual  ex- 
amination, is  a  hollow  metal  cyl- 
inder for  examining  the  interior 
of  the  bladder.  It  has  an  electric 
lamp  and  prism  at  one  end  and  a 
lens  at  the  other.  The  urethro- 
scopc^  is  designed  for  urethral 
examination  by  means  of  a  strong 
light  _  projected  along  a  metal 
tube  introduced  into  the  urethral 
canal.  The  oesophagoscope,  la- 
ryngoscope, gastroscope,  and  sig- 
moidoscope are  constructed  along 
similar  lines  for  the  examination 
of  the  oesophagus,  larynx,  stom- 
ach, and  sigmoid  flexure. 

The  aspirator  is  an  apparatus 
for  the  removal  of  fluids  or  gases 
from  a  cavity,  as  for  emptying 
abscesses.  Dieulafoy's  aspirator, 
which  is  typical,  consists  of  a 
glass  cylinder  with  a  piston,  and 
with  two  openings — one  for  a 
trocar  and  cannula,  and  one  for 
a  discharge  tube.  The  trocar  is 
a  perforating  rod  or  stylet,  and 
the  cannula  a  hollow  tube 
through  which  the  fluid  may  be 
drawn  out  (see  Trocar).  Dur- 
ing operation  more  elaborate  as- 
pirating devices  are  used  for 
continuous  suction  to  remove 
from  the  operative  field  saliva, 
mucus,  blood,  pus,  urine,  cy.stic 
fluid,  or  irrigating  fluids.  (See 
Aspirator)  . 

Various  types  of  needles  are 
necessary  to  reunite  severed  tis- 
sues. The  most  convenient  form 
for  general  use  is  the  fully 
curved  needle  with  a  double  cut- 
ting edge  toward  the  point. 
Mounted  needles  find  their  chief 
application  where  sutures  are  to 
be  deeply  placed,  while  needle 
holders  of  the  forceps  type  are 
utilized  in  other  cases.  Metal 
clips  are  sometimes  employed  for 


the  approximation  of  the  edges 
of  skin,  but  are  generally  con- 
sidered less  _  satisfactory  than 
careful  suturing.  For  re-uniting 
severed  bone,  perforators  oper- 
ated by  hand  or  electric  motor 
are  usually  required. 

The  application  of  cinematic 
methods  to  surgery  with  moving 
X-ray  pictures  of  organic  proc- 
esses and  of  operations  has 
proved  of  great  service  in  the 
teaching  of  medicine  and  surgery 
as  well  as  in  diagnosis. 

In  connection  with  the  subject 
of  Surgery,  see  the  articles  in  this 
work  on  Anatomy  and  Medi- 
cine, with  the  cross  references 
there  cited ;  also  names  of  or- 
gans and  regions  of  the  body, 
names  of  tumors,  anomalies, 
surgical  diseases  and  conditions 
as  well  as  names  of  instruments 
and  special  operations,  some  of 
which  are  listed  below  : 


Abortion. 
Abscess. 
Acupuncture. 
Adenitis. 
Amputation. 
Aneurism. 
Anthrax. 
Antiseptics. 
Appendix 
Asepsis. 
Autoplasty. 
Bubo. 
Bursa 
Caries. 
Castration. 
Cataract. 
Catheter. 
Cautery. 
Cicatrization. 
Circumcision. 
Cleft  Palate. 
Club  Foot. 
Colectomy. 
CoUes'  Fracture. 
Dissection. 
Electricity  i 

Medicine 

Surgery. 
Fistula. 
Gangrene. 


and 


Gastrostomy. 

Goiter. 

Harelip. 

Hernia. 

Hip  Joint. 

Intussusception. 

Laparotomy. 

Ligature. 

Lithotomy. 

Mastoiditis. 

Necrosis. 

Obstetrics. 

Puerperal  Infec- 
tion. 

Pyaemia. 

Rhinoplastic 
Operations. 

Rodent  Ulcer. 

Septicaemia. 

Serum  Therapy. 

Shock. 

Splints. 

Suppuration. 

Sutures. 

Tonsils. 

Trephine. 

Urinary 
lus. 

Varicose  Veins. 
Venesection. 


Calcu- 


Bibliography*  —  Whitman, 

Orthopedic  Surgery  (1930)  ; 
Kirschner,  Operative  Surgery 
(1931);  Slaughter,  The  New 
Science  of  Surgery  (1946)  ; 
Boyd,  Surgical  Pathology 
(1933)  ;  Eliason,  and  Others, 
Surgical  Nursing  (1934)  ;  Bab- 
cock,  A  Textbook  of  Surgery 
(1935);  Speed.  Textbook  6 f 
Fractures  and  Dislocations 
(1935)  ;  Blair,  et  al.,  Essentials 
of  Oral  Surgery  (1936)  ;  Bur- 
rows, Surgical  Instruments  and 
Appliances  (1936)  ;  Christopher, 
Minor  Surgery  (1936)  ;  Davis, 
Neurological  Surgery  (1936)  ; 
Homans  (comp.),  A  Textbook 
of  Surgery  (1936)  ;  SarnoflP, 
Sarnoff  Surgical  Motion  Picture 
Library  Index  (1936)  ;  Gask 
and  Ross,  The  Surgery  of  the 
Sympathetic  Nervous  System 
(1937)  ;  Hoppe  and  Halverson, 
A  Manual  of  Operative  Proce- 
dure (1937) ;  Horsley,  et  at..  Op- 


Surgical  Association 


KFP 


556 


Surveying 


erative  Surgery  (1937)  ;  G.  Mas- 
sie,  Surgical  Anatomy  (1937)  ; 
R.  L.  Mason,  Preoperative  and 
Postoperative  Treatment  (1937)  ; 
J.  P.  Warbasse  and  E.  M.  Smyth, 
Jr.,  Surgical  Treatment  (1937). 

Surgical  Association, 
American.  A  scientific  body 
formed  in  1880  for  the  advance- 
ment of  surgical  science.  It  holds 
annual  meetings  in  different 
cities,  and  publishes  annual 
Transactions. 

Suricate.    See  Meerkat. 

Surigao,  province,  Philip- 
pines. Northeast  Mindanao.  It  is 
separated  from  Leyte  by  Suri- 
gao  Strait,  and  has  many  deep 
inlets.  It  is  mountainous  in  the 
N.  and  s.w. ;  chief  rivers  are  the 
Agusan  and  Tubay.  It  has  rich 
forests  and  gold  is  washed. 
Area,  12,539  sq.  m.  Pop.  (with 
islands)  110,000.  Surigao  is  the 
capital  with  population  of  15,- 
772. 

Surinam.  See  Dutch  Guiana. 

Surinam,  river,  Dutch  Guiana, 
flows  north  through  the  colony 
to  enter  the  Atlantic  near  Para- 
maribo. Length  about  400  miles. 

Surinam  Toad,  a  large  toad 
(Pipa  americana),  found  in  Gui- 
ana. It  is  included  in  the  Aglossa, 
or  tongueless  toads,  and  is  purely 
aquatic  in  its  habits.  The  head 
is  depressed  and  triangular  in 
shape;  the  skin  is  covered  with 
email  tubercles;  the  digits  on  the 
fore  limb  are  slender,  free  from 
one  another,  and  furnished  with 
star-shaped  processes  at  the  tip, 
while  those  on  the  hind  limbs  are 
broadly  webbed.  The  special  pe- 
culiarity, however,  is  the  habit 
which  the  female  possesses  of 
carrying  the  eggs  until  they 
hatch  in  little  pockets  in  the 
skin  of  the  back.  As  the  eggs 
are  protruded  they  are  spread 
out  over  the  back,  the  male  as- 
sisting in  the  process  and  fertiliz- 
ing the  eggs  simultaneously. 
Each  egg  then  sinks  into  a  pouch 
of  the  epidermis,  which  subse- 
quently becomes  closed  by  a  lid. 
From  these  skin  pockets  the 
young  toads  emerge  after  about 
three  months,  and  then  resemble 
the  parent  except  in  size,  the 
gilled  tadpole  stage  being  omitted 
from  the  life  history. 

Surmullet.    See  Mullet. 

Surnames.    See  Names, 

Surplice,  the  white  garment 
which  ecclesiastics  and  choir 
singers  wear  when  taking  part 
in  divine  service.  It  originally 
reached  to  the  feet,  but  was 
gradually  shortened. 

Surrender.  See  Capitulation. 

Surrender,  in  law,  the  act  of 
yielding  up  an  estate  in  land, 
either  for  life  or  years,  to  the 
person  entitled  to  the  reversion 
or  remainder. 


Surrey,  inland  county,  Eng- 
land, south  of  the  Thames.  It 
is  traversed  east  and  west  by  the 
North  Downs  (Leith  Hill,  965 
feet),  with  many  gentle  emi- 
nences, vales,  well-wooded  parks, 
and  large  commons.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Wey  and 
Mole,  both  flowing  north  to  the 
Thames.  Manufactures  are  car- 
ried on  extensively  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  London;  market  gardening 
and  the  cultivation  of  medicinal 
herbs  and  of  flowers  are  wide- 
spread; hops  are  grown  in  the 
Farnham  district;  of  grain  crops, 
oats  is  the  chief;  and  a  consider- 
able area  is  under  pasture.  Ful- 
ler's earth  is  found  at  Reigate 
and  Nutfield.  Several  lines  of 
railway  radiating  from  London 
traverse  the  county.  Magna 
Carta  was  signed  at  Runny- 
mede,  near  Egham,  in  1215. 
The  Castles  of  Guildford  and 
Farnham  and  ruins  of  Waverley 
Abbey  are  of  archaeological  in- 
terest. Area,  758  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1921)  930,086;  (1931) 
1,180,878. 

Surrey,  Henry  Howard,  Earl 
OF  (c.  1517-47),  English  poet, 
was  influenced  by  the  Italian 
sonneteers  and  by  Sir  Thomas 
Wyatt,  and  introduced  blank 
verse  into  English  literature.  In 
1543  he  took  part  in  the  French 
wars,  being  wounded  at  Mont- 
reuil  in  1544,  and  placed  in  com- 
mand at  Guisnes  and  Boulogne; 
but  in  1546  he  was  defeated  at 
St.  Etienne.  In  1547  a  charge  of 
plotting  for  the  crown  was 
brought  against  him,  and  he  was 
beheaded. 

Surrey,  Thomas  Howard, 
Earl  of,  afterward  third  Duke 
OF  Norfolk  (1473-1554),  was 
lord  admiral  in  1513,  when  he 
took  part  in  the  Battle  of  Flod- 
den,  and  was  created  Earl  of 
Surrey.  In  1520  he  was  lord 
deputy  of  Ireland.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  French 
and  Scottish  wars  (1522).  Anne 
Boleyn  and  Catherine  Howard 
were  his  nieces.  He  was  con- 
demned to  death  in  1546,  but  the 
death  of  Henry  viii  prevented 
the  execution,  and  Queen  Mary 
restored  to  him  his  titles  and 
estates. 

Surrogate.  Specifically,  in 
English  law,  a  person  appointed 
by  a  bishop  or  his  chancellor, 
or  by  an  ecclesiastical  judge,  to 
act  in  his  place,  as  in  granting 
licenses  to  marry  without  banns, 
or  when  such  matters  belonged 
to  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  in 
probating  wills  and  granting 
administration  and  guardianship. 

In  some  parts  of  the  United 
States  the  word  signifies  an 
officer  having  jurisdiction  of  the 
probate  of  wills,  administration 
of  estates,  and  guardianship;  the 


judge  of  an  orphans'  court;  pro- 
bate judge. 

Surveying  may  be  defined  as 
the  location  of  points  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  with  respect  to 
other  points  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  length  of  lines, 
area  of  surfaces,  and  volume  of 
solids,  and  of  furnishing  the  data 
from  which  to  construct  maps, 
profiles,  and  other  similar  records. 
The  subject  may  be  divided  into 
two  parts,  field  work  and  office 
work — the  former  concerning  it- 
self with  the  actual  operations  in 
the  field,  and  the  latter  with  the 
computations,  record,  and  plot- 
ting of  the  same. 

To  make  a  survey,  therefore,  is 
to  take  such  measurements,  linear 
and  angular,  as  are  necessary  to 
prepare  a  plan,  drawn  to  scale, 
which  will  show  as  far  as  possible 
all  objects  within  the  area  in- 
cluded. Plotting  is  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  drawings  from  the 
measurements  and  notes  taken 
on  the  ground.  Measurements 
are  made  in  feet  and  inches  with 
a  100-foot  tape  or  chain;  but 
Gunter's  chain  is  frequently  used, 
where  the  area  alone  is  required. 
Where  works  have  to  be  con- 
structed, however,  and  quanti- 
ties calculated  in  cubic  feet  and 
cubic  yards,  it  is  usual  to  employ 
feet  entirely.  For  vertical  heights 
feet  only  are  used,  and  they  are 
divided  decimally  into  tenths 
and  hundredths;  although  hori- 
zontal distances  are  measured  in 
feet  and  inches,  or  in  feet,  tenths, 
and  hundredths.  A  point  from 
which  a  line  or  an  angle  is 
measured  is  called  a  'station.' 
The  spot  on  the  ground  is  fre- 
quently marked  by  a  peg  or  a 
stone  slab  with  a  metal  plug 
sunk  into  it. 

Instruments.  —  The  instru- 
ments commonly  used  in  survey- 
ing are  chains,  tapes,  and  base 
bars,  for  measuring  horizontal, 
vertical,  or  inclined  distances; 
the  hand  level,  engineer's  level, 
clinometer,  and  barometer  for 
determining  differences  in  eleva- 
tion; and  the  compass,  transit, 
and  sextant  for  angular  measure- 
ments. 

Chaining,  while  more  accu- 
rate than  pacing,  which  is  some- 
times employed  for  rough  approx- 
imations, is  of  little  use  where 
the  allowable  error  is  less  than 
one  in  one  thousand.  In  the 
United  States,  the  chain  is  sel- 
dom employed  except  on  pre- 
liminary location  of  railroad 
lines,  in  laying  out  U.  S.  public 
lands,  and  in  farm  surveys.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  chains,  the 
Guriter's  and  the  engineer's. 
The  Gunter's  chain  is  66  feet 
long,  and  composed  of  100  links. 
A  link  consists  of  a  bar  of  iron 
or  steel  with  a  ring  at  each 


Surveying 

end.  Handles  made  of  brass 
form  part  of  the  end  links,  so  that 
one  chain  length  is  from  the  out- 
side of  one  handle  to  the  outside 
of  the  other.  The  chain  is  divided 
into  10  equal  parts  by  brass  tags 
placed  at  every  tenth  link.  The 
advantages  of  this  chain  are  its 
ability  to  withstand  rough  usage 
such  as  a  tape  could  notj  and  the 
convenience  with  which  it  is  used 
in  measuring  land  areas,  of  which 
it  is  a  unit,  10  square  chains 
equalling  an  acre.  The  engineer's 
chain  is  similar  to  the  Gunter's 
but  is  100  feet  long  instead  of 
only  G6.  It  is  only  occasionally 
used,  as  tapes  have  been  found 
equally  satisfactory  where  the 
chain  may  be  employed.  Tapes 
are  narrow  ribbons  of  iron  or  steel 
with  distances  etched  upon  them 
to  much  smaller  divisions  than  in 
the  chain.  They  are  better  than 
the  latter  under  almost  all  condi- 
tions as  they  permit  of  a  greater 
degree  of  accuracy  and  are  easier 
to  handle.  They  vary  in  length 
from  a  few  feet  to  over  1,500  feet. 
In  Geodetic  surveying  where  ex- 
treme accuracy  is  required,  tapes 
have  been  used  very  successfully 
in  the  measurement  of  base  lines. 
A  tape  is  always  attached  to  a  reel 
for  tne  purpose  of  winding  it  up, 
and  keeping  it  in  a  compact  form 
when  carrying.  A  base  bar  is  a 
rod  of  metal  varying  in  length, 
and  used  in  the  measurement  of 
base  lines  in  Geodetic  work. 
Bars  of  wood,  glass,  and  various 
metals  have  been  employed  with 
the  view  of  maintaining  the  length 
constant  or  to  have  some  means 
of  determining  its  change  of 
length,  so  that  very  accurate 
measurements  may  be  made. 
Measurements  are  taken  by  plac- 
ing the  bars  end  for  end  as  in 
measuring  a  distance  with  a  foot 
rule.  The  bars  are  not  nearly  so 
much  used  at  present  as  they  nave 
been,  as  steel  tapes  seem  to  give 
equally  accurate  results,  and  are 
simpler  in  manipulation.  The 
hand  level  is  an  instrument  for 
quick  work  when  extreme  accu- 
racy is  not  required.  It  consists 
of  a  bubble  placed  over  a  hole  in 
a  brass  tube  about  G  inches  long. 
Below  the  hole  and  bubble,  and 
within  the  tube,  occupying  one 
half  of  it,  is  a  prism,  and  a  wire 
stretched  across  the  hole.  Look- 
ing through  one  end  of  the  tube, 
the  eye  will  see  the  object  at 
which  it  is  directed,  and  the 
bubble  pla3'ing  on  the  prism. 
When  the  bubble  is  bisected  by 
the  wire,  the  lino  of  sight  is  hori- 
zontal. In  general  we  might  de- 
scribe the  level,  such  as  used  by 
engineers,  as  a  telescopic  line  of 
sight  to  which  a  bubble  is  at- 
tached for  the  purpose  of  deter- 
mining horizontal  lines,  and 
therefore  differences  in  vertical 
heights.  The  telescope  is 
mounted  on  a  vertical  axis,  which 


557 


Surveying 


cqn  be  adjusted  exactly  as  in  the 
case  of  a  theodolite.  When  so 
adjusted  that,  on  turning  the 
telescope  round  on  its  axis,  the 
spirit-level  bubble  keeps  in  the 
centre  of  its  run,  all  points  viewed 
through  the  centre  oi^ the  telescope 
are  on  the  same  horizontal  plane. 
A  diaphragm  near  the  eye-piece, 
as  in  the  theodolite,  shows  the 
line  of  collimation.  The  rod, 
used  in  connection  with  the  level. 


graduated  circle,  the  bubbles 
and  sights.  The  needle  is  a 
magnetized  piece  of  steel  bal- 
anced on  a  pivot  in  the  center  of 
the  compass  box.  This  latter  is 
a  metal  case  with  glass  cover 
having  the  outer  edge  of  the 
plate  graduated  from  north  and 
south  to  the  east  and  west  points 
from  zero  to  90  degrees;  thus 
dividing  it  into  four  quadrants. 
The  sights  consist  of  two  ver- 


Engineer*s  Level. 


is  the  graduated  scale  which  is 
sighted  through  the  instrument, 
and  is  marked  in  feet  and  deci- 
mals. 

The  method  of  levelling  is  as 
follows:  The  instrument  is  set 
up  and  adjusted  by  means  of  the 
levelling  screws.  The  rod  is 
held  on  the  point  taken  as  datum, 
and  the  reading  on  it  seen  through 
the  telescope  gives  the  height 
above  datum  of  the  collimation 
of  the  telescope.  If  the  rod  be 
then  held  successively  on  various 
points  whose  levels  are  required, 
the  reading  seen  through  the  tele- 
scope will  in  each  case  give  the 
distance  of  that  point  below  the 
collimation;  and  hence  its  height 
above  datum  is  known.  By 
sending  the  rod  forward  and 
taking  the  forward  reading,  or 
'fore  sight,'  so  as  to^  determine 
the  reduced  level  of  this  'turning- 
point,'  and  then  carrying  the 
level  beyond  the  rod  and  taking 
a  'backsight'  on  the  rod,  stUl 
held  on  the  turning-point,  so  as 
to  determine  the  new  collimation 
level,  and  repeating  this  series 
of  operations,  levels  may  be 
carried  any  distance.  With  this 
system  of  levelling,  horizontal 
distances  do  not  come  into  the 
calculations. 

The  compass  while  not  gen- 
erally used  for  accurate  surveys, 
is  frequently  employed  where 
directions  and  bearings  are  de- 
sired. It  depends  upon  the  fact 
that  a  magnetized  piece  of  steel 
if  suspended  so  as  to  be  free 
to  assume  any  position  will  seek 
the  north  pole,  due  to  the  electric 
currents  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  The  principal  parts  of 
the    compass    are    the  needle. 


tical  standards  with  slits  in  them 
attached  perpendicularly  to  the 
compass  box  opposite  the  zeros 
of  the  scale,  for  the  purpose  of 
sighting  an  object.  The  needle 
gives  the  direction  of  the  north 
and  south  points  when  the  line 
of  sight  is  directed  at  any  object, 
and  thus  the  angle  which  the 
line  makes  with  the  needle  may 
be  determined.  The  bubbles 
serve  the  purpose  of  keeping  the 
plate  horizontal.  The  bearing 
of  any  line  is  read,  north  or  south 
so  many  degrees  east  or  west, 
thus  N.  20°  w.,  s.  30°  E. 

The  prismatic  compass  is  a  mod- 
ification of  the  former.  The  in- 
strument is  set  up  over  a  station 
(A),  and  pointed  along  the  line 
whose  bearing  has  to  be  taken. 
When  viewed  through  the  prism. 


Prismatic  Compass. 


the  sighting  vane  is  seen  in  line 
with  the  station  flag,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  portion  of  the  com- 
pass card  immediately  beneath  the 
prism  can  be  seen  in  reflection,  so 


Surveying 


558 


Surveying 


that  the  bearing  of  the  direction  in 
which  the  instrument  is  pointing 
can  be  read.  Prismatic  com- 
passes of  small  size  are  used  with- 
out a  stand,  being  merely  held 
in  the  observer's  hand. 

The  transit^  a  much  more 
complicated  instrument  than  the 
compass,  but  ^  depending  upon 
the  same  principles,  is  capable  of 
reading  angles,  and  therefore 
bearings,  very  much  more  ac- 
curately than  the  compass.  It 


Engineer  s  Transit. 


consists  of  a  telescope  mounted 
on  supports  which  rest  upon  the 
horizontal  plate.  This  plate  car- 
ries a  graduated  circle,  a  compass 
box  and  needle,  and  a  vernier. 
Beneath  the  telescope  is  a  bubble 
tube  similar  to  that  in  the  level 
by  means  of  which  levelling  may 
be  done.  Besides  the  horizon- 
tal plate  or  arc,  there  is  a  ver- 
tical circle  by  which  angles  in  a 
vertical  plane  may  be  measured. 
The  complete  engineer's  transit 
therefore  enables  one  to  deter- 
mine horizontal  and  vertical 
angles,  read  the  magnetic  bearing 
of  a  line,  and  calculate  dilference 
in  elevation. 

A 


B 


The  principle  of  the  sextant  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying  figure, 
where  a  is  a  fixed  glass,  the  lower 


half  of  which  is  transparent, 
whilst  the  upper  half  is  reflect- 
ing; and  6  is  a  mirror  which  can 
be  turned  to  any  angle  by  means 
of  a  rn'lled  head.  To  use  the  in- 
strument, ^  is  turned  so  that  the 
reflected  image  of  a  flag  at  B  is 
seen  in  the  mirror  portion  of  a  so 
as  to  be  in  line  with  a  flag  at  A  as 
seen  through  the  clear  glass  of  a. 
A  vernier  in  connection  with  b 
moves  along  a  scale  of  degrees, 
so  that  the  angle  between  a  and 
B  can  be  read  off.  The  sextant 
is  not  so  much  the  surveyor's 
instrument  as  the  navigator's,  by 
whom  it  is  regularly  used  to  ob- 
serve the  altitude  of  the  sun  for 
determining  latitude  and  longitude 
when  at  sea.   See  Sextant. 

Plane  or  Land  Surveying. — 
A  plane  or  land  survey,  is  one  of 
a  comparatively  small  tract  of 
land,  usually  never  exceeding 
100  square  miles  in  extent,  where 
in  consequences,  curvature  of  the 
earth  may  be  neglected,  and 
which  embraces  merely  the  data 
regarding  the  dimensions  and 
location  of  property  and  building 
lines,  roads,  streams,  etc.,  all 
referred  to  a  meridian,  and  for 
the  purpose  of  determining  the 
area  of  the  plot  surveyed.  In 
small  surveys  the  work  is  plotted 
by  projecting  on  to  a  horizontal 
plane.  This  means  that  the  di.s- 
tances  between  points  at  differ- 
ent levels,  if  measured  on  the 
slope,  must  be  reduced  so  as  to 
give  only  the  horizontal  distance, 
and  the  angles  between  two 
stations  must  be  the  azimuth— 
i.e.  the  angle  between  the  verti- 
cal planes  passing  through  the 
observing  station  and  each  of  the 
observed  stations.  Plane  survey- 
ing requires  the  use  of  the  cham 
and  tape  for  linear  measurements 
and  the  compass  or  transit  for 
angular  measurements,  while  the 
level  will  be  used  for  the  determi- 
nation of  differences  in  elevation. 

To  measure  lengths  with  the 
chain  requires  two  men — the 
'head  chamman'  and  the  'rear 
chainman.*  The  former  taking  one 
handle  of  the  chain  and  eleven 
pins,  goes  forward  towards  a  pole 
set  up  at  the  station  to  be  chained 
to.  The  rear  chainman  keeps  his 
handle  of  the  chain  at  the  starting- 
station,  and  directs  the^  head 
chainman  so  that  the  chain  lies 
in  the  straight  line  between  the 
two  stations.  The  chain  is  then 
drawn  tight,  and  the  head  chain- 
man  puts  a  pin  into  the  ground 
to  mark  the  point  to  which  his 
handle  reaches.  He  then  ad- 
vances with  the  chain  another 
length  towards  the  station,  and 
the  rear  chainman  comes  forward 
to  the  pin  in  the  ground  and 
holds  his  end  of  the  chain  there, 
whilst  the  head  chainman  puts  his 
second  pin  at  his  -end  of  the 
chain  when  it  is  in  line  and  drawn 
tight.    When  the  head  chainman 


has  put  in  his  last  (eleventh)  pin, 
the  rear  chainman  gives  him  the 
ten  he  has  picked  up,  so  that  the 
head  chainman  can  proceed  once 
more.  Where  the  ground  is 
uneven,  the  chain  must  be  held  out 
horizontally,  and  a  plumb-line 
used  to  find  the  point  to  put  in  the 
pin.  Where  accurate  work  is  re- 
quired, a  steel  tape  should  always 
be  used  in  place  of  a  chain. 

A  traverse  is  a  survey  of  a  series 
of  stations,  each  one  of  which  is 
fixed  from  the  last  by  (1)  the  dis- 
tance from  the  last,  and  (2)  the 
angle  which  that  measured  line 
makes  with  the  last  measured 
hne.  It  is  a  case  of  surveying  by 
polar  co-ordinates,  the  pole  being 
each  of  the  stations  successively. 
If  from  the  last  of  the  stations  so 
fixed  the  first  of  the  series  can  be 
similarly  sighted  upon  and  meas- 
ured to,  then  a  'closed  traverse' 
has  been  made,  and  the  accuracy 
of  the  work  can  be  checked.  This 
can  be  done  either  by  testing,  if 
the  work  can  be  plotted,  or,  pref- 
erably, by  calculating  the  co- 
ordinates— viz.  x  =  r  cos  0  and  y 
=  r  sin  6,  from  the  lengths  and 
bearings  of  the  lines.  If  the  bear- 
ings of  the  lines  are  taken  with 
reference  to  a  fixed  direction  (sav 
north),  instead  of  measuring  each 
included  angle  independently,  it 
is  simple  to  find  the  co-ordinates, 
or  'northing  and  easting,'  or 
platitude  and  departure,'  or  merid- 
ian and  perpendicular,  with  a 
table  of  logarithms  or  with  a  slide 
rule.  In  a  closed  traverse  the  sum 
of  the  northings  should  equal  the 
sum  of  the  southings,  and  simi- 
larly with  the  eastings  and  west- 
ings. But  errors  are  as  likely  to 
occur  in  plotting  as  in  surveying. 
Moreover,  paper  expands  and 
contracts  to  such  an  extent  with 
change  of  humidity  that,  unless 
the  work  is  all  plotted  at  one  time, 
it  is  hard  to  get  lengths  to  check. 
Under  by  no  means  extraordinary 


conditions,  paper  will  alter  .2  per 
cent.  The  method  of  tabulating 
the  co-ordinates  of  a  closed  trav- 
erse is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
figure. 

In  many  cases  a  closed  traverse 
cannot  be  made,  as  in  the  survey 
of  the  route  ot  a  railway  line, 
or  aqueduct,  or  road.  In  this 
case  the  only  check  on  the  dis- 
tances must  be  by  a  repetition  of 


Surreylnsr 

the  chaining.  The  angles  can  be 
checked  by  taking  an  astrononii- 
cal  observation  to  determine  the 
meridian  (true  north  or  true  south) 
at  one  end  of  the  Hne,  and  work- 
ing through  the  survey  with  the 


559 

intersection  of  these  b'nes  with 
those  drawn  from  A  determine  new 
stations  and  objects.  The  plane- 
table  is  most  frequently  used  for 
rough  preliminary  work  where  ra- 
pidity is  of   greater  importance 


Surveying 

the  spot-levels  is  most  accurately 
done  oy  calculation. 

To  make  a  topographic  survey 
with  transit  and  stadia  rods,  the 
transit  must  be  specially  adapted 
to  the  work  and  is  then  sometimes 


Closed  Traverse,  with  Co-ordinates  worked  out  {}rom  Actual  Survey). 


Line. 


Al- Al07 
107—  108 


108- 
109— 
106— 
105- 
102— 
101— 


109 
106 
105 
102 
101 
1 


Stations. 


A  1 
107 

108 
109 
106 
105 
102 
101 
1 

Length  of  traverse 


Bearing. 


209°  25'  0" 
251°  31'  0" 
291° 23'  30" 
80°  51'  0" 
17°  24' 20" 
55°  32'  0" 
338°  51'  0" 
131°  48'  20" 


Angle  beyond 
Right  Angle. 

Length. 

N. 

S. 

E. 

29°  25'  0" 

752'  0" 

655.1 

71°  31'  0" 

833'  6" 

264.3 

21°  23'  30" 

619'  3" 

225.8 

80°  51'  0" 

593'  6" 

94.4 

585.9 

17°  24'  20" 

582'  0'^ 

555.4 

174.1 

55°  32'  0" 

471'  6" 

266.8 

388.7 

68°  51'  0" 

496'  6" 

463.0 

41°  48'  20" 

1028'  9" 

685.8 

766.8 

5377'  0" 

1605.4 

1605.2 

1915.5 

369.3 
790.5 
576.6 


179.1 


Totals. 


N. 


s. 

E. 

w. 

0 

0 

0 

655.1 

369.3 

919.4 

1159.8 

693.6 

1736.4 

599.2 

1150.5 

43.8 

976.4 

587.7 

766.8 

0.0 

bearings  so  found  to  the  other  end 
of  the  line,  and  there  making  a 
second  observation  of  the  me- 
ridian. . 

Topographic  Surveying. — A  to- 
pographic survey  is  one  under- 
taken for  the  purpose  ^of  repre- 
senting the  natural  and  artificial 
features  of  the  country,  such  as 
roads,  railroads,  hills,  valleys, 
rivers,  lakes,  houses,  cultivated 
fields,  outcrops,  etc.,  etc.,  upon  a 
map.  There  are  two  general 
methods  of  making  such  surveys, 
one  by  means  of  the  plane-table, 
and  the  other  by  means  of  the 
transit  and  stadia  roads. 

P/ane-/a6/e.— With  the  plane- 
table  the  work  is  plotted  m  the 
field,  and  a  survey  is  made  in 
which  the  angles,  instead  of  being 
read  in  degrees,  are  sighted 
directly  on  to  the  paper,  and  the 
lengths  between  the  stations  are 
scaled  and  plotted  as  soon  as  they 
are  measured.  A  board  with  the 
paper  stretched  ori  it  is  set  on  a 
tripod,  fitted  with  levelling  screws 


as  in  a  theodolite.  It  is  set  up 
over  a  station  (A)  A  and  levelled 
up,  and  a  point  is  marked  on  the 
paper  to  represent  the  point  occu- 
pied. The  directions  of  various 
stations  and  prominent  objects 
from  A  are  sighted,  and  lines 
drawn  on  the  paper  radiating  in 
these  directions  from  the  point  A. 
The  distance  from  A  A  to  B  is 
then  chained,  and  the  distance 
scaled  on  the  paper  along  the 
direction  line  AB  and  B  so  fixed. 
The  table  is  moved  to  B,  and 
set  so  that  the  line  BA  points  to 
A,  and  from  the  point  B  on  the 

Eaper  direction  lines  are  drawn  as 
eiore  to  the  other  stations.  The 


than  accuracy  of  detail.  It  can  be 
used  with  great  success  along 
with  a  telescope  having  stadia 
webs.  The  distances  to  objects 
are  read  with  the  telescope,  and 
the  directions  to  them  signted  on 
the  plane-table  and  their  posi- 
tions plotted  at  once.  Theodo- 
lite angles  are  read,  booked,  and 
plotted;  while  plane-table  angles 
are  plotted  direct,  thus  escaping 
two  sources  of  error.  Plane- 
table  work  should  be  plotted  to 
a  large  scale,  and  if  necessary 
reduced,  but  never  enlarged.  In 
plane  -  table  work  it  is  some- 
times customary  to  locate  lines  of 
equal  elevation,  called  contours, 
before  beginning  the  actual  work 
of  location.  A  contour  line  on  a 
plan  is  a  line  every  point  on  which 
IS  at  the  same  level.  From  a  plan 
with  contour  lines  drawn  at  equal 
vertical  heights  apart,  a  very 
good  idea  of  the  form  of  the  coun- 
try can  be  grasped.  A  contour 
plan  is  of  great  value  for  prelimi- 
nary work— for  example,  for  fixing 
the  line  of  a  road  or  railway,  or 
for  choosing  a  site  for  laying  out 
works  or  buildings.  By  means  of 
a  level  and  rod,  a  series  of  points 
on  a  contour  may  be  pegged  off, 
and  the  positions  of  these  pegs 
surveyed  by  any  of  the  ordinary 
methods.  A  scries  of  cross-sec- 
tions of  the  ground  may  be  taken, 
and  when  these  are  plotted  the 
positions  on  plan  where  a  par- 
ticular level  occurs  on  each  sec- 
tion give  a  series  of  points  on  a 
contour.  Spot-levels  niay  be 
taken  at  points  of  prominent 
change  of  form  on  the  ground, 
and  the  positions  of  these  sur- 
veyed and  marked  on  the  plan, 
with  their  levels  written  against 
them.  Between  any  two  such 
spot-levels  the  intervening  contour 
points  are  interpolated.  ^  This 
method  entails  least  work  in  the 
field,  and,  especially  in  irregular 
ground,  is  much  the  quickest. 
With  a  tachometer  the  levels  and 
positions  of  the  spots  can  be 
taken  at  one  observation.  The 
interpolation  of  the  lines  between 


called  a  tachometer.  A  tachom- 
eter has  all  the  parts  of  a  theo- 
dolite or  transit  for  measuring 
angles,  and  in  addition  the  tele- 
scope has  a  stadia  diaphragm. 
In  measuring  distances,  a  rod 
graduated  in  feet  and  decimals 
is  held  vertically  at  the_  poyit 
whose _  distance  from  the  instru- 
ment is  required.  The  telescope 
is  directed  to  the  rod,  and  by 
means  of  the  slow-motion  screw 
on  the  vertical  arc  one  of  the  stadia 
lines  is  made  to  coincide  with  any 
exact  foot  on  the  rod.  The 
amount  of  rod  then  included  be- 
tween the  stadia  lines  multiplied 
by  a  constant,  usually  100,  is  the 
distance  in  feet  to  the  rod.  If  the 
telescope  is  inclined  considerably 
from  the  horizontal  while  taking 
a  stadia  reading  on  hilly  ground, 
the  vertical  angle  must  be  read, 
that  the  true  horizontal  distance 
may  be  deduced. 

In  arranging  the  positions  of 
stations,  it  should  be  seen  that 
the  triangles  formed  are  'well- 
conditioned' — that  is  to  say,  one 
side  should  not  be  either  very  long 
or  very  short,  compared  with  the 
others.  The  lines  to  be  measured 
between  the  stations  should  be 
conveniently  situated  for  includ- 
ing the  objects  to  be  surveyed. 
Check  measurements,  either  of 
lines  or  of  angles,  should  be  taken. 

A  Hydrographic  Survey  is  one 
made  in  connection  with  any  body 
of  water  whether  still  or  running, 
for  the  purpose  of  determining  the 
depth,  area  of  cross-section,  con- 
formation of  the  bottom,  velocity 
in  various  sections,  slope  of  water 
surface,  location  of  natural  fea- 
tures on  or  near  the  shore,  such  as 
rocks,  lighthouses,  buoys,  signals, 
the  location  of  channels,  etc. ,  etc. 
In  making  such  a  survey  it  is  cus- 
tomary at  least  in  connection  with 
the  more  extended  ones  to  estab- 
lish stations  on  the  adjoining 
shores  to  form  a  system  of  trian- 
gulation,  and  from  these  to  locate 
the  desired  objects.  If  we  take  the 
specific  example  of  a  hydro- 
graphic  survey  of  a  lake  for  reser- 


Surveying 


560 


Surveying 


voir  purposes,  it  will  involve  the 
following  work:  The  location  of 
the  triaiigulation  system  as  a 
basis  from  which  to  locate  other 
points  in,  the  future  work;  the 
topography  on  the  shores  for  a  dis- 
tance ofSOO  ft.  or  more  back  from 
the  shore,  together  with  sound- 
ings taken  at  a  sufficient  number 
of  points  in  the  lake  to  furnish 
the  data  whereby  the  volume  of 
the  water  contained  may  be  deter- 
mined or  the  amount  that  would 
be  added  by  an  increase  in  the  sur- 
face elevation.  Such  soundings 
may  be  made  by  any  one  of  the 
following  methods,  depending 
upon  the  conditions  most  favor- 
able: location  of  the  soundings 
with  reference  to  known  points, 
first,  by  two  angles  read  at  fixed 
points  on  shore;  second,  by  two 
angles  read  in  the  boat;  third,  by 
taking  soundings  on  a  given  line 
and  reading  one  angle  from  the 
boat  or  shore;  fourth,  by  sounding 
along  a  given  line  at  given  inter- 
vals of  time  and  rowing  at  a  uni- 
form speed;  fifth,  by  taking  sound- 
ings at  the  intersections  of  fixed 
range  lines;  sixth,  by  wires  or 
cords  stretched  between  fixed 
stations  and  taking  soundings  at 
given  points  along  the  cord. 

Mine  Surveying,  and  by  this  is 
meant  the  surveying  required  of 
the  mine  surveyor,  includes  in  its 
most  general  aspect  not  only  all  of 
those  forms  employed  on  the  sur- 
face, but  also  such  modifications 
of  the  same  as  must  be  adopted 
underground  to  secure  similar 
data.  We  might,  therefore,  divide 
mine  surveying  into  two  parts: 
surface  and  subsurface  opera- 
tions, the  former  including  both  a 
land  and  topographic  survey  of 
the  properties,  and  the  latter  the 
work  of  bringing  the  survey  from 
the  surface  into  the  mine  and  the 
method  of  procedure  there.  Ref- 
erence monuments  should  be 
established  near  the  shaft  or  tun- 
nel of  the  mine  so  that  the  two 
surveys  may  be  easily  tied  in  one 
with  the  other.  It  is  claimed  that 
underground  surveys  are  never  so 
accurate  as  those  made  above 
ground;  but  this  is  not  so.  It  is  a 
fact,  however,  that  with  the  gener- 
ally cramped  conditions  of  the  set- 
up, the  somewhat  unstable  condi- 
tion of  the  tripod,  and  the  use  of 
artificial  light,  it  becomes  more 
difficult  to  secure  accuracy,  but 
care  and  practice  should  result  in  a 
degree  of  precision  not  less  than 
that  required  for  surface  work. 
Candles  are  used  to  illuminate  the 
cross  hairs  of  the  telescope  and 
also  the  backsight  and  foresight. 
To  make  backsight  and  fore- 
sight visible,  special  forms  of 
lamps  are  sometimes  employed, 
the  flame  of  which,  vertically 
below  the  station  from  whicn 
the  lamp  hangs,  is  bisected  in 
sighting.  Where  lamps  are  not 
employed  the  plumb  bob  is  hung 


from  the  station  and  the  string 
made  visible  by  holding  a  light 
behind  it.  It  is  usually  customary 
to  run  the  'drifts'  ana  'headings' 
on  the  'levels'  in  advance  of  the 
stoping  as  a  means  of  prospecting 
the  ground,  and  hence  the  loca- 
tion of  these  workings  must  be 
plotted  from  the  survey  notes  to 
mtelligently  indicate  the  relation 
of  the  ore  bodies  to  each  other. 
The  surveys  also  form  a  basis 
from  which  to  continue  further 
work  and  to  check  the  progress 
made  in  the  stopes.  Generally 
such  surveys  are  made  once  a 
month  as  least,  so  that  the  maps 
may  be  plotted  and  kept  up  to  date. 
The  stations  used  in  subsurface 
work  differ  from  those  on  the  sur- 
face in  the  fact  that  they  are  gen- 
erally placed  in  the  roof  rather 
than  the  floor.  Where  the  mine  is 
pretty  generally  timbered  nails 
will  be  used,  or  a  brass  tag,  num- 
bered, will  be  driven  in  so  that  a 
plumb  bob  may  be  attached  to  one 
of  the  nails  which  fasten  it  to  the 
timber.  Where  no  timbers  exist 
a  hole  must  be  drilled  into  the 
roof,  the  centre  of  which  will  act 
as  the  station.  All  stations  are 
numbered  or  marked  for  reference. 
With  the  stations  in  the  roof  it 
becomes  necessary  to  centre  under 
the  point  rather  than  over  it,  as  in 
surface  work,  and  for  this  purpose 
the  telescope  of  the  instrument 
carries  a  centring  mark  on  the 
top,  so  that  when  it  is  in  adjust- 
ment, and  the  long  bubble  is  in 
the  centre  of  the  tube,  the  point 
will  be  in  the  vertical  axis  of  the 
transit. 

In  measuring  the  angles,  it  is 
always  better  to  double  them;  i.e., 
read  them  twice,  and  then  take 
the  magnetic  bearing  as  a  check 
on  the  observation.  Considering 
the  intermediate  step,  that  of  con- 
necting the  surface  surveys  with 
those  in  the  mine,  we  find  that  all 
mines  are  entered  either  by  a  tun- 
nel or  shaft.  In  the  former  case 
no  difficulties  arise,  but  in  the 
latter,  whether  the  shaft  is  in- 
clined or  vertical,  extreme  care  is 
required  to  bring  the  surface 
surveys  under  ground.  With  ver- 
tical shafts  two  cases  arise:  first, 
that  where  there  are  two  shafts, 
and  second,  where  there  is  but  one. 
Under  the  former  conditions,  at 
each  shaft  a  single  steel  wire  is 
suspended,  and  their  co-ordinates 
or  position  determined  from  the 
surface.  The  instrument  is  then 
taken  below,  and  by  sighting  on 
one  of  the  wires  and  running  a 
traverse  through  the  mine  till  the 
other  one  may  be  located,  the 
data  is  collected,  by  which  all  the 
points  of  the  underground  survey 
may  be  established  with  refer- 
ence to  th£  lines  and  points  on  the 
surface.  With  only  one  vertical 
shaft^  two  wires  are  suspended, 
and  in  a  somewhat  similar  man- 
ner the  points  below  ground  are 


established.  If  the  shaft  is  in- 
clined points  are  located  by  sight- 
ing directly  with  the  transit. 
Special  forms  of  transit  may  be 
required  in  this  work,  such  as  one 
with  a  top  or  side  telescope,  with 
which  it  IS  possible  to  get  a  more 
nearly  vertical  line  than  with 
ordinary  instruments. 

Geodetic  Surveying. — When  the 
extent  of  the  survey  is  such  that, 
owing  to  the  curvature  of  the 
earth,  the  surface  of  mean  sea- 
level  would  differ  appreciably 
from  a  plane  surface,  vertical 
projection  cannot  be  used.  The 
triangles  are  no  longer  plane  tri- 
angles, and  the  lines  measured 
are  no  longer  straight  lines,  but 
arcs.  Since  the  plan  has  to  be 
drawn  on  a  plane  surface  of 
paper,  some  system  of  projection 
has  to  be  chosen  to  allow  of  this. 
For  most  engineering  purposes, 
however,  it  is  sufficiently  near  the 
truth  to  regard  the  surface  of  the 
earth  as  a  plane.  Plane  geometry 
and  trigonometry  are  then  used.. 
For  more  accurate  work,  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  is  taken  as  that 
of  a  sphere,  and  spherical  trigo- 
nometry is  used.  On  still  more 
accurate  observation  the  earth  is 
found  to  be  nearer  an  oblate 
spheroid  than  a  sphere.  The 
'geoid'  is  the  name  given  to  the 
figure  which  has  the  form  of  the 
surface  of  the  great  oceans.  It 
further  has  the  property  that  at 
every  point  the  surface  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  direction  of  the 
force  of  gravity  at  that  point,  as 
indicated  by  the  plumb-line.  A 
survey  which  takes  into  account 
the  true  form  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face is  called  a  'geodetic  survey.' 

On  account  of  the  irregularity  of 
the  earth's  surface,  angles  can  be 
more  easily  measured  than  lines. 
Hence  in  geodesy  it  is  usual  to 
measure  one  base-line,  from  the 
ends  of  which,  by  angular  instru- 
ments, new  stations  are  deter- 
mined. From  these  new  ones  are 
located  and  so,  by  a  system  of 
triangulation,  stations  established 
throughout  the  area. 

Base-lines  can  be  measured 
with  great  accuracy  with  a  steel 
tape  of  considerable  length,  or 
with  Jaderin  wires  of  Guillaume 
nickel  -  steel,  as  used  on  the 
geodetic  survey  of  S.  Africa.  The 
distance  measured  at  one  reading 
is  about  400  ft.,  and  the  tape  is 
supported  at  short  intervals  on  the 
tops  of  pegs  driven  into  the 
ground,  so  as  to  be  in  line  and  at 
one  gradient,  but  not  necessarily 
at  one  level.  The  difference  of 
level  between  the  extreme  ends  is 
found  by  levelling  from  one  to 
the  other.  The  expansion  of 
steel  with  heat  is  considerable; 
but  when  the  coefficient  for  the 
tape  has  been  determined,  the 
necessary  correction  can  easily 
be  made.  The  chief  difficulty  is 
in  observing  the  temperature  of 


Survivorship 


KFP 


561 


Sutherlandshire 


the  steel,  and  cloudy  weather 
should  be  chosen  for  doing  the 
work,  as  then  few  variations  are 
likely  to  occur. 

Survi'vorship.  It  was  for- 
merly held  that  there  was  a  pre- 
sumption under  the  common 
law,  that  of  two  or  more  persons 
who  lost  their  lives  by  the  same 
disaster,  the  stronger  survived 
the  others  by  some  period  of 
time.  This  was  of  great  impor- 
tance in  determining  the  heirs 
of,  or  persons  entitled  to  an  es- 
tate, where  two  persons,  one  of 
whom  would  succeed  the  other  if 
he  survived  him,  perished  in  the 
same  disaster,  and  there  was  no 
proof  as  to  which  expired  first. 
The  courts  of  most  states  have 
repudiated  this  doctrine,  and  now 
require  proof  if  possible ;  other- 
wise the  jury  may  find  that  they 
perished  at  the  same  moment. 

Surya,  sobr'ya,  one  of  the  two 
names  by  which,  in  Hindu  my- 
thology, the  sun  is  known.  In 
the  Rigveda  he  is  generally  rep- 
resented as  a  car-drawn  deity, 
wedded  to  Ushas,  or  the  Dawn. 
He  is  also  the  source  of  life,  and 
watches  closely  the  actions  of 
men. 

Suryasiddhanta,  sobr'ya- 
sed-han'ta,  a  Sanskrit  work  on 
astronomy.  An  English  transla- 
tion by  E.  Burgess  and  W.  D. 
Whitney  was  published  in  1860 
in  the  Journal  of  the  American 
Oriental  Society;  another  in 
1861,  at  Calcutta,  by  Bapu  Deva 
Sastrin.  Biot  held  that  the  Hin- 
dus derived  their  system  of  as- 
tronomy from  the  Chinese,  while 
Professor  Weber  was  of  opinion 
that  the  Hindu  system  is  of  a 
much  earlier  date  than  the  Chi- 
nese. 

Sus,  sobs,  or  SusA,  seaport. 
North  Africa,  Tunisia,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Hammamet,  Mediterra- 
nean Sea  ;  32  miles  northeast  of 
Kairwan.  The  leading  industry 
is  the  production  and  export  of 
olive  oil.  Sus  occupied  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Roman  city  of 
Hadrumetum,  which  was  the 
base  of  Hannibal's  operations  in 
the  second  Punic  war.  Pop. 
21,000. 

Susa,  soo'za,  or  Shushan  (of 
Daniel),  chief  city  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Susiana  in  ancient  Per- 
sia. It  was  situated  in  a  plain 
between  the  Choaspes  (now 
Kherkha)  and  the  Shaur.  From 
cuneiform  inscriptions  discov- 
ered in  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  it  is  believed  that 
Darius,  son  of  Hystapes,  was 
the  founder  of  the  city.  A  little 
to  the  south  of  the  great  mound 
of  Susa,  discovered  by  excava- 
tion, is  the  reputed  tomb  of  Dan- 
iel. Susa  is  said  to  have  been 
the  winter  residence  of  the 
Achaemenian  rulers.  After  the 
Macedonian  era  it  fell  into  ruins, 
but  was  rebuilt  by  Shapur  ii. 


When  the  Arab  invasion  oc- 
curred, its  fortifications  were 
dismantled,  but  it  continued  to 
exist  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  was 
a  center  of  sugar  cultivation. 

Susan'na,  History  of,  a 
short  book  of  the  Apocrypha, 
forming,  with  Bel  and  the  Dra- 
gon and  the  Song  of  the  Three 
Holy  Children,  what  are  known 
as  the  apocryphal  additions  to 
Daniel  in  the  Septuagint.  It 
tells  of  one  Susanna,  the  wife  of 
Joakim,  resident  at  Babylon  dur- 
ing the  exile,  as  having  been  so- 
licited to  unchastity  by  two  el- 
ders, who,  having  been  repelled, 
conspire  to  accuse  her  of  the 
same  sin,  they  having  been  wit- 
nesses. Susanna  is  condemned 
to  death,  but  is  saved  by  Daniel, 
who,  cross-questioning  the  elders 
separately,  shows  their  evidence 
to  be  contradictory,  whereupon 
they  are  put  to  death.  It  is  un- 
likely that  the  original  was  in 
Hebrew,  but  scholars  differ  as 
to  whether  it  was  in  Greek  or  in 
Aramaic.  Consult  commentaries 
cited  under  Apocrypha;  also 
Hastings,  Dictionary  of  the  Bi- 
ble (vol.  i). 

Suspension  Bridge.  See 
Bridge. 

Susquehanna,  sus-kwe- 
han'o,  borough,  Pennsylvania,  in 
Susquehanna  county,  on  the  Sus- 
quehanna River,  and  on  the  Erie 
Railroad ;  36  miles  north  of 
Scranton.  Noteworthy  features 
are  the  public  library.  Laurel 
Hill  Academy  (parochial),  the 
Simon  H.  Barnes  Memorial  Hos- 
pital, and  the  famous  railroad 
bridge  which  spans  the  Susque- 
hanna River  at  this  point.  Plan- 
ing-mill  products,  machinery, 
and  chemicals  are  manufactured  ; 
shops  of  the  Erie  Railroad  are 
situated  here,  and  the  district 
contains  coal  mines  and  blue- 
stone  quarries.  Pop.  (1930) 
3,203;  (1940)  2,740. 

Susquehanna  River,  river 
of  the  eastern  United  States, 
rises  in  two  main  branches — the 
North  Branch,  which  issues 
from  Lakes  Otsego  and  Schuy- 
ler, Otsego  county,  N.  Y.,  and 
the  West  Branch,  which  has  its 
source  in  northwestern  Pennsyl- 
vania. These  streams  unite  at 
Sunbury,  Pa.,  below  which  the 
river  flows  south  and  southeast 
to  its  mouth  at  Havre  de  Grace, 
at  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay. 
Its  principal  tributaries  are  the 
Chemung  and  Juaniata  rivers. 
The  most  important  cities  on  the 
banks  of  the  Susquehanna  are 
Williamsport,  Lockhaven.  and 
Clearfield  on  the  West  Branch, 
and,  on  the  North  Branch,  Bing- 
hamton,  N.  Y.,  Harrisburg  and 
Wilkes-Barre,  Pa.,  and  Port  De- 
posit, Md.  The  length,  follow- 
ing the  North  Branch,  is  422 
miles  ;  the  entire  drainage  basin 
is    27,655    square   miles.  The 


Susquehanna  is  navigable  only 
as  far  as  Port  Deposit,  Md.,  and 
is  used  mainly  to  float  lumber. 
The  middle  and  southern  parts 
of  its  course  are  followed  by  a 
canal. 

Sus'sex,  maritime  county, 
England,  on  the  English  Chan- 
nel, with  an  area  of  1,459  square 
miles.  The  coast  is  generally 
low  and  uniform.  The  South 
Downs  traverse  the  southern 
part  of  the  county,  terminating 
in  the  high  cliff  of  Beachy  Head, 
while  the  center  and  northern 
part  are  occupied  by  the  Weald, 
a  wide  undulating  tract  formerly 
covered  with  forest.  The  princi- 
pal rivers  are  the  Rother,  Ouse, 
and  Arun,  with  the  West  Rother, 
flowing  to  the  English  Channel. 
Chalk  and  clay  are  quarried, 
and  natural  gas  is  obtained  at 
Heathfield.  Nearly  two-thirds 
of  the  cultivated  area  is  under 
pasture,  the  county  being  the 
home  of  the  famous  Southdown 
breed  of  sheep.  The  area  under 
woods  and  plantations  is  greater 
than  in  any  other  English  coun- 
ty, except  Hants.  The  Romans 
had  many  stations  in  the  dis- 
trict, which  later  formed  the 
kingdom  of  the  South  Saxons. 
Within  its  borders  were  fought 
the  battles  of  Senlac  (1066)  and 
Lewes  (1264).  Pop.  (1931) 
769,859. 

Sussex  Skull.  See  Pilt- 
DOWN  Skull. 

Sus'ten  Pass,  a  Swiss  Alpine 
pass  (7,422  ft.),  which  leads 
from  Meiringen  in  the  Hasli  or 
Upper  Aar  valley  to  Wassen,  on 
the  St.  Gothard  Railway. 

Suth'erland,  George  (1862- 
1942),  American  legislator  and 
jurist,  was  born  in  Buckingham- 
shire, Eng.,  and  was  brought  to 
the  United  States  as  a  small 
child.  He  received  an  academic 
educatio»,  studied  law  at  the 
University  of  Michigan,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1883.  He 
subsequently  practiced  at  Salt 
Lake  City,  was  a  member  of  the 
Senate  in  the  first  state  legisla- 
ture of  Utah  (1896-1900)  and 
was  sent  to  Congress  in  1901— 
03.  He  served  as  U.  S.  Senator 
(Rep.)  for  the  terms  of  1905-11 
and  1911-17,_  and_  (1922-1938) 
was  an  associate  justice  of  the 
U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  He  was 
president  of  the  American  Bar 
Association  (1916-17)  and  was 
considered  one  of  the  ablest  law- 
yers in  the  United  States.  His 
Constitutional  Power  and  World 
Affairs  (1919)  is  one  of  the 
great  works  on  the  Constitution. 

Sutherland  Falls,  celebrated 
waterfall  (1,904  ft.),  near  Mil- 
ford  Sound,  New  Zealand. 

Sutherlandshire,  maritime 
county,  in  the  north  of  Scotland, 
bounded  on  the  southeast  by 
Moray  Firth  and  on  the  north 
and  west  by  the  Atlantic.    It  is 


Sutlej 


KFP 


562 


Suwanee  River 


the  wildest  and  least  densely 
populated  ,county  in  Scotland. 
The  surface  is  generally  moun- 
tainous, with  wide  moorlands 
and  some  fertile  valleys.  Ben 
More  Assynt  and  Ben  Clibrigg 
reach  elevations  of  3,273  feet 
and  3,154  feet  respectively.  The 
salmon  and  herring  fisheries  are 
important.  Dornoch  is  the  coun- 
ty town.  Dunrobin  Castle,  on 
the  coast  near  Golspie,  is  the 
seat  of  the  Duke  of  Sutherland. 
Brochs  and  towers  indicate  Pic- 
tish  occupation,  but  early  in  the 
11th  century  the  covuity  became 
Scandinavian,  and  remained 
Norse  till  its  annexation  to  the 
Scottish  kingdom.  Prior  to 
1810  all  the  available  cultivable 
land  in  the  county  was  held  by 
small  crofters,  who  led  a  most 
precarious  existence ;  between 
1810  and  1820  many  of  the 
crofts  were  converted  into  sheep- 
walks,  and  the  crofters  were  re- 
moved to  the  coast  or  assisted  to 
emigrate  to  Canada.  Between 
1873  and  1878  large  tracts  of 
land  were  cleared  and  reclaimed, 
especially  at  Lairg  and  Kildonan, 
at  the  expense  of  the  Duke  of 
Sutherland.  Pop.  (1931)  16,- 
100. 

Sut'Iej,  one  of  the  five  rivers 
of  the  Punjab,  India,  from  which 
the  province  derives  its  name. 
It  rises  in  Lakes  Manasarowar 
and  Rakastal  in  western  Tibet, 
15,200  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
enters  the  Pinijab  at  its  eastern 
border.  Flowing  almost  due 
west,  it  receives  the  Beas  and, 
farther  on,  the  Chenab.  After 
a  course  of  about  900  miles  it 
joins  the  Indus  at  Mithankot, 
south  of  Multan.  It  is  naviga- 
ble for  steamers  as  far  as  Firoz- 
pur. 

Sutras,  sob'tras,  in  Sanskrit 
literature,  collections  of  rules 
which  form  the  basis  of  teaching 
in  religious  ritual,  grammar,  and 
ceremonial  customs  ;  and  also  in 
the  various  systems  of  philoso- 
phy. In  the  sutras  each  system 
of  philosophy  is  complete,  and 
elaborated  to  its  smallest  detail, 
giving  an  exposition  which  leaves 
nothing  obscure. 

Sutro,  Adolph  Heinrich 
Joseph  (1830-98),  American 
mining  engineer,  was  born  in 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  Prussia.  He 
was  graduated  as  a  mining  engi- 
neer from  the  polytechnic  school 
in  that  city,  and  in  1853  went  to 
California  and  engaged  in  gold 
mining.  Shortly  after  the  open- 
ing of  the  Comstock  mines  in 
Nevada,  he  went  to  Virginia 
City,  and  planned  the  long  Sutro 
tunnel  for  draining  and  ventilat- 
ing the  mines.  This  tunnel  is 
more  than  20,000  feet  long,  and 
its  construction  occupied  a  large 
force  of  men  for  more  than  eight 
years.  Sutro  accumulated  a 
great  fortune  in  dealing  in  min- 


ing shares  while  managing  the 
tunnel  operations,  and  soon  after 
their  completion  settled  in  San 
Francisco  and  became  a  dealer 
in  real  estate.  He  was  a  gener- 
ous benefactor  to  the  city,  and 
bequeathed  large  sums  to  the 
University  of  California,  Vassar 
College,  and  other  educational 
institutions,  for  the  founding  of 
scholarships  and  the  encourage- 
ment of  scientific  research.  As 
Populist  candidate,  he  was  elect- 
ed mayor  of  San  Francisco  in 
1894. 

Sutro,  Alfred  (1863-1933), 
British  dramatist,  was  educated 
in  London  and  in  Brussels. 
Among  his  many  plays  are 
Arethusa  (1903)  ;  The  Walls  of 
Jericho  (1904);  The  Perfect 
Lover  (1905);  The  Barrier 
(1907);  The  Perplexed  Hus- 
band (1911)  ;  The  Two  Virtues 
(1914)  ;  The  Laughing  Lady 
(1922);  The  Great  Well  (1922); 
Desperate  Lovers  (1927);  and 
Living  Together  (1929). 

Suttee.    See  Sati. 

Sut'ter,  John  Augustus 
(1803-80),  American  pioneer, 
was  born  in  Kandern,  Baden. 
After  graduating  from  the  mili- 
tary college  at  Berne  in  1823,  he 
entered  the  French  service,  but 
in  1834  emigrated  to  the  United 
States.  In  1838  he  visited  Ore- 
gon, the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and 
Alaska,  and  in  1839  established 
the  first  settlement  at  Sacra- 
mento, Calif.  There  he  built  a 
fort  named  Helvetia,  and  was 
for  a  time  Mexican  governor  of 
the  region.  At  the  time  of  the 
conquest  of  California  by  the 
United  States  he  was  in  prosper- 
ous circvimstances,  but  gold  was 
discovered  upon  land  claimed  by 
him,  and  as  a  result  he  was  de- 
prived of  his  estate,  though  ulti- 
mately he  received  an  annual 
pension  of  $3,000  from  the  Cali- 
fornia legislature.  He  settled  in 
Litiz,  Pa.,  in  1873.  Consult 
Zollinger,  Sutter:  The  Man  and 
His  Empire  (1939). 

Sutton  Coldfield,  municipal 
borough,  England,  in  Warwick- 
shire, 7  miles  northeast  of  Bir- 
mingham. New  Hall,  a  moated 
mansion  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, and  the  parish  church  are 
the  chief  points  of  interest.  In 
the  vicinity  is  a  picturesque 
park,  the  gift  of  Henry  viii,  se- 
cured by  Bishop  Vesey,  and 
much  frequented  by  the  people 
of  Birmingham.    Pop.  29,924. 

Sutton-in-Ashfield,  town, 
England,  in  Nottinghamshire, 
3  miles  southwest  of  Mansfield. 
The  church  of  St.  Mary  Magda- 
lene dates  from  the  fourteenth 
century,  and  includes  part  of  a 
twelfth  century  building.  The 
leading  industries  are  coal  min- 
ing and  the  manufacture  of  ho- 
siery.   Pop.  25,151. 

Su'tures,  in  anatomy,  are  the 


seams  between  connected  skull 
or  face  bones.  They  are  of  vari- 
ous kinds,  and  include  harmonia 
or  the  apposition  of  one  bone 
against  another  ;  schindycsis,  the 
reception  of  one  bone  into  a  fis- 
sure of  another  ;  as  well  as  squa- 
mous, or  overlapped  bevelled 
edges ;  serrate,  the  interlocking 
of  teeth-like  edges,  etc. 

Sutures,  or  stitches  in  surgery, 
are  used  to  close  wounds  and  to 
unite  divided  tissues.  In  some 
positions  the  material  used  must 
be  capable  of  absorption  after  it 
has  kept  the  parts  in  apposition 
sufficiently  long  to  allow  of  un- 
ion. Catgut  and  other  animal 
textures  fulfil  this  condition.  In 
other  cases  the  stitch  may  con- 
sist of  silk,  horsehair,  or  wire, 
which  must  be  removed  subse- 
quently. 

Suva,  capital  of  the  Fiji  Is- 
lands (q.  v.). 

Suvla  Bay.  See  Darda- 
nelles ;   Europe,  Great  War 

OF. 

Suvoroff,  su-va'rof,  or  Suva- 
roff,  Alexander  Vasilie- 
viTCH,  Count  (1729-1800), 
Russian  general,  who  rose  from 
the  ranks,  and  never  was  defeat- 
ed, not  even  by  Napoleon.  He 
was  born  at  Moscow.  Having 
distinguished  himself  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  he  was  as- 
signed high  command  in  the  Pol- 
ish campaign  of  1768-71.  He 
then  defeated  the  Turks  in  the 
First  Turkish  War  (1773); 
crushed  the  revolt  (1775)  of 
Pugatchev  and  of  the  Caucasian 
tribes  (1780)  ;  drove  the  Turks 
back  in  the  Second  Turkish  War 
(1789),  from  Fokshani,  the  river 
Rymnik,  and  the  stronghold  of 
Ismail ;  stormed  Praga  in  the 
second  Polish  campaign,  and  in- 
duced the  surrender  of  Warsaw 
(1794).  He  was  then  sent  to 
help  the  Austrians  against  the 
French  in  Italy,  and  gained  a 
series  of  brilliant  victories  over 
Moreau,  Joubert,  and  Macdonald. 
He  crossed  the  Alps,  with  ter- 
rible sacrifice  of  men,  and  met 
Massena  at  Schwyz,  but  was  too 
weak  to  accept  battle,  and  re- 
treated into  Austria.  He  was 
given  the  title  Prince  Italski  and 
in  1800  was  made  commander  in 
chief  of  the  Russian  armies. 
Consult  Life  by  Spalding. 

Suwalki,  sob-val'ke,  or  Su- 
VALKY,  formerly  a  province  of 
Russian  Poland,  now  divided  be- 
tween Poland  and  Lithuania. 
The  chief  industries  are  agricul- 
ture and  forestry.  Pop.  718,- 
000. 

Suwalki,  town,  Lithuania,  60 
miles  southwest  of  Kovno.  It  is 
a  center  of  timber  and  grain 
trade.  During  the  early  part  of 
the  First  World  War,  it  was  the 
scene  of  severe  fighting.  Pop, 
31,600. 

Suwanee    River,  su-wii'ne, 


Suzdal 


KFP 


563 


Swallow 


Florida,  rises  in  Okefinokee 
Swamp,  in  southern  Georgia,  and 
flows  240  miles  in  a  general 
southerly  direction,  to  empty 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  about 
15  miles  northwest  of  Cedar 
Keys.  It  is  navigable  as  far  as 
White  Springs. 

Suz'dal,  town,  central  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Vladimir, 
22  miles  north  of  Vladimir. 
The  Cathedral  of  the  Nativity, 
founded  by  St.  Vladimir  in  the 
tenth  century,  partly  recon- 
structed in  1528,  ranks  among 
the  most  famous  Russian 
churches.    Pop.  10,000. 

Suzerain,  a  feudal  overlord. 
The  modern  use  of  the  work  sig- 
nifies the  overlordship  of  one 
power  over  another,  as  that  of 
the  Porte  over  its  tributary 
states. 

S.V.,  Sancta  Virgo,  Holy  Vir- 
gin ;  also  siih  voce,  'under  the 
heading.' 

Svalbard.   See  Spitzbergen. 

Svas'tika,  a  symbol  of  un- 
known origin,  and  early  intro- 
duced into  India,  apparently  in 
connection  with  sun-worship.  It 
appears  either  as  a  cross  in  a  cir- 
cle— thus,  ® — or  as  a  cross  with 
the  arms  bent  at  right  angles — 
thus,  .  The  latter  syrfibol  is 
found  in  heraldic  and  ecclesiasti- 
cal work  in  Christian  countries, 
as  well  as  in  the  catacombs,  and 
is  known  as  the  fylfot.  Mediae- 
val mystic  writers  derived  it 
from  the  Greek  gamma,  which 
they  thought  suggestive  of  Christ 
as  the  cornerstone  ;  but  it  is  seen 
on  objects  exhumed  at  Troy  by 
Dr.  Schliemann,  and  in  early  In- 
dian and  Chinese  art ;  also  in 
Mexico  and  Peru. 

The  svastika  in  its  latter  form 
with  arms  crossed  and  bent  at 
right  angles  became  the  emblem 
of  the  National  Socialist  move- 
ment in  Germany  under  the  no- 
torious dictator  Adolf  Hitler 
(q.  V.)  and  thus  became  associ- 
ated throughout  the  world  with 
the  brutality  and  chicanery  of 
the  Germans  in  the  Second 
World  War  (1939-45)  and  the 
subsequent  ruin  of  Germany  as 
a  great  power. 

Sveaborg:,  tn.,  fortress,  and 
seapt.,  Finland,  Nyland  prov., 
4  m.  s.E.  of  Helsingfors  city,  on 
islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland. 
Constructed  in  1748-70  as  a 
Swedish  Gibraltar,  it  was  taken 
by  the  Russians  in  1808,  and  un- 
successfully bombarded  by  the 
Anglo-French  fleet  in  1855. 

Svearike,  or  Svealand,  a  di- 
vision of  Sweden,  comprising 
the  city  of  Stockholm  and  the 
counties  of  Stockholm,  Upsala, 
Sodermanland,  Westmanland, 
Orebro,  Vermland,  and  Koppar- 
berg. 

Svendborgr,  tn.,  Denmark, 
Funen,  29  m.  by  rail  s.E.  of 
Odense,   on    Svendborg  Sound. 


Its  two  churches  date  from  the 
13th  century.  It  is  a  shipbuild- 
ing center.    Pop.  (1930)  14,392. 

Svendsen,  Johan  Severin 
(1840-1911),  Norwegian  musi- 
cal composer,  was  born  at  Chris- 
tiania  (Oslo)  ;  became  conduc- 
tor of  the  musical  association  in 
Christiania,  and  in  1883  was 
made  court  conductor  at  Copen- 
hagen. His  compositions  include 
a  symphony  and  other  orchestral 
works,  chamber  music,  concertos 
for  violin  and  for  'cello,  and 
songs.  One  of  his  best-known 
works  is  his  beautiful  Romance 
for  the  violin. 

Sverdlovsk.    See  Ekaterin- 

BERG. 

Sverdrup,  Johan  (1816-92), 
Norwegian  politician,  was  born 
at  Jarlsberg ;  elected  to  the  Stor- 
thing in  1851  as  a  Radical  mem- 
ber, and  eventually  became 
(1871-72)  leader  of  the  peasant 
separatist  party.  As  president 
of  the  Storthing  he  played  a  very 
prominent  part  in  securing  the 
presence  of  ministers  in  the 
Storthing,  and  in  overriding  the 
king's  claim  to  an  absolute  veto 
upon  its  proceedings.  In  1883 
he  became  prime  minister,  but 
resigned  in  1889. 

Sverdrup,  Otto  (1855-1930), 
Norwegian  Arctic  explorer,  born 
at  Haarstad  in  Helgoland ; 
joined  Nansen's  expedition  over 
the  Greenland  ice-fields  in  1888, 
and  was  chosen  by  Nansen  as 
captain  of  the  Fram  for  his 
North  Pole  expedition.  When 
Nansen,  on  March  14,  1895, 
quitted  the  Fram  in  order  to 
make  his  way  to  the  Arctic  Cir- 
cle by  sledge,  Sverdrup  under- 
took the  leadership  of  the  expe- 
dition. In  1898-1901  he  led  a 
second  expedition  in  the  Fram, 
and  discoveaed  several  islands 
(Ringnes,  Axel  Heiberg,  King 
Oscar  Land)  between  Greenland 
and  the  Parry  Isles  and  Melville 
I.  The  expedition  is  described 
in  his  New  Land  (Eng.  trans. 
1904). 

Svetchine,  Madame.  See 
Swetchine. 

Swabia,  duchy  of  Germany, 
existed  from  the  beginning  of  the 
10th  to  beyond  the  middle  of  the 
13th  century,  and  corresponded 
generally  to  Wiirtemberg,  Ba- 
den, and  S.  W.  Bavaria. 

Swaheli,  a  mixed  Arab-Ban- 
tu people  of  Zanzibar  and  the 
opposite  mainland  between  Mom- 
basa and  the  Rufiji  R.  All  are 
Mohammedans,  with  a  measure 
of  culture  due  to  Arab  influ- 
ences. The  language,  which, 
thanks  to  their  enterprising  spir- 
it as  traders,  caravan-leaders, 
and  carriers,  has  become  the 
chief  medium  of  intercourse 
throughout  E.  Central  Africa,  is 
of  Bantu  structure,  but  is  full  of 
Arabic  words  and  expressions. 
It  is  written  both  with  the  Arabic 


and  the  Roman  alphabet,  and  has 
been  carefully  cultivated  and 
largely  used  by  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries. 
See  J.  L.  Krapf,  Elements  of 
the  Kisudheli  Language  (1850), 
and  A  Dictionary  of  the  Suahili 
Language  (1882)  ;  Bishop  E. 
Steere,    Swahili  Exercises 

(1882)  . 

Swain,  George  Fillmore 
(1857-1931),  American  civil  en- 
gineer, born  in  San  Francisco, 
and  graduated  at  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology  in 
1877.  He  visited  Europe  in 
1877-80,  and  studied  at  the 
Royal  Engineering  School  at 
Berlin.  In  1887  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  civil  engineering  in  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology and  engineer  to  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Railroad  Commission. 
In  1894  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Boston  Transit  Commis- 
sion. He  is  the  author  of  Re- 
port on  the  Water  Power  of  the 
Atlantic  Watershed  (vol.  xvii  of 
Tenth  U.  S.  Census). 

Swain,  Joseph  (1857-1927), 
American  educator,  was  born  at 
Pendleton,  Ind.,  and  graduated 

(1883)  at  Indiana  University, 
where  he  was  successively  in- 
structor, assistant  professor,  and 
professor  of .  mathematics  from 
1886  to  1891.  He  held  the  same 
chair  at  Leland  Stanford,  Jr., 
University  during  1891-3,  and 
in  1893  was  elected  president  of 
his  alma  mater,  which  position 
he  resigned  in  1902  to  become 
president  of  Swarthmore  Col- 
lege. 

Swallow,  or  Chimney  Swal- 
low, a  passerine  bird,  belonging 
to  the  family  Hirundinidae, 
which  includes  the  swallows  and 
martins,  birds  which  are  not  re- 
lated to  the  swifts,  in  spite  of  the 


Swallows. 


superficial  resemblance.  Both 
swallows  and  martins  are  char- 
acterized by  the  short  and  wide 
bill,  which  is  deeply  cleft,  with 
a  very  wide  gape,  and  a  mouth 
which  opens  to  about  the  line  of 
eye,  the  narrow  elongated  wings, 
the  small,  weak  feet,  and  the 
forked  tail.  They  are  cosmopol- 
itan in  distribution,  and  feed 
upon  insects,  which  are  taken  on 
the  wing.    The  family  is  repre- 


Swallowing 


KFP 


564 


Swanton 


sented  in  all  the  temperate  parts 
of  the  world,  and  one  species, 
the  bank  swallow  (Clivicola  ri- 
paria),  is  nearly  cosmopolitan, 
making  its  nest  in  companies  in 
holes  in  sandy  cliffs  right  around 
the  world. 

The  North  American  swallows 
include  besides  the  bank  swal- 
low, and  its  relative  the  rough- 
wing,  the  large  purple  martins 
which  nest  so  abundantly  in  bird- 
boxes  ;  the  white-bellied  and  vio- 
let-green swallows,  less  com- 
mon ;  and  the  two  barn  swallows. 
These  last  are  the  familiar  birds 
which  each  summer  take  up  their 
residence  about  our  barns  and 
outhouses,  having  totally  aban- 
doned in  the  eastern  half  of  the 
country  their  wild  methods  of 
nidification.  The  barn-swallow 
proper  is  distinguished  by  its 
chestnut  breast  and  deeply 
forked  tail  from  the  eave  or  cliff 
swallows,  which  have  a  short 
squarish  tail.  The  former  con- 
struct, cup-like  nests  of  mud, 
straw  and  feathers  plastered 
against  the  wall  or  laid  on  the 
upper  surface  of  a  beam  inside 
the  barn,  as  formerly  it  sought 
to  do  under  the  shelter  of  rocky 
ledges  and  cave-roofs.  The  lat- 
ter makes  a  globular  nest  of  pel- 
lets of  mud,  entered  by  a  bottle- 
like neck,  and  places  it  always 
on  the  outside  of  the  building 
close  up  under  the  eaves  ;  orig- 
inally its  nests  were  built  in 
closely  packed  communities 
against  the  face  of  some  cliff,  as 
still  may  be  seen  in  the  remote 
West.  Several  swallows  of  sim- 
ilar appearance,  and  with  the 
same  habit  of  seeking  association 
with  civilized  man,  occur  in 
South  America. 

Swallowing,  or  Degluti- 
tion, is  a  complicated  action 
whereby  food  or  liquid  is  car- 
ried from  the  mouth  to  the  stom- 
ach. Within  the  oesophagus  the 
bolus  is  involuntarily  carried 
downwards  by  peristaltic  move- 
ments of  the  muscular  fibers. 
Deglutition  is  voluntary  only  so 
long  as  the  food  is  in  the  mouth. 
When  the  bolus  has  passed  the 
palatine  arch  the  act  becomes  re- 
flex, and  is  controlled  by  a  nerve 
center  in  the  medulla  oblongata. 
Swallowing  can  thus  be  per- 
formed during  unconsciousness. 
The  stimulus  for  the  reflex  part 
of  the  act  is  the  presence  of  food 
or  liquid  in  the  pharynx,  or  at 
the  root  of  the  tongue. 

Swallowwort,  a  name  given 
to  plants  of  the  genus  Asclepias, 
more  usually  known  as  'milk- 
weeds.' They  bear  umbels  of 
flowers,  and  are  for  the  most 
part  plants  with  milky  juice. 
Among  the  species  are  A.  sti- 
pitacca  and  A.  Cornuti  (the 
common  milkweed),  the  young 
shoots  of  which  are  sometimes 
eaten  like  asparagus.    A.  incar- 


nate, A.  tuberosa  (the  butterfly 
weed),  and  A.  curassavica  (the 
wild  ipecacuanha)  are  among 
the  species  valued  for  their  me- 
dicinal properties. 

Swami,  a  title  originally  used 
to  indicate  the  Supreme  Being ; 
subsequently  it  was  applied  to 
idols,  leaders  of  religious 
thought,  priests  or  men  of  rank. 
It  is  now  used,  among  '  Tamil 
and  Telugu  Hindus,  as  a  re- 
spectful form  of  address,  equiv- 
alent to  'teacher' ;  sometimes  it 
is  part  of  a  name — e.g.  Rama 
Swami. 

Swammerdam,  Jan  (1637- 
80),  Dutch  naturalist  and  ento- 
mologist, was  born  at  Amster- 
dam. He  devoted  himself  to 
natural  history,  especially  to  the 
dissection  of  insects.  He  was 
author  of  a  General  History  of 
Insects  (1792)  and  a  History  of 
the  Day  Fly  {\ 6^1).  He  was  a 
disciple  in  religion  of  the  mystic 
Antoinette  Bourignon,  whom  he 
followed  to  Holstein. 

Swampscott,  tn.,  Massachu- 
setts, Essex  CO.,  adjoining  Lynn 
on  the  E.,  11m.  n.e.  of  Boston, 
on  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  on 
the  Bost.  and  Me.  R.  R.  It  is  a 
residential  community  and  a 
fashionable  summer  resort.  A 
fishing  industry  is  carried  on 
from  this  place.  The  first  set- 
tlement here  was  made  in  1629, 
and  the  town  was  incorporated 
in  1852  ;  previously  it  was  a  part 
of  Lynn.  Pop.  (1930)  10,346  ; 
(1940)  10,761. 

Swan  {Cygmis),  a  genus  of 
birds  belonging  to  the  family 
Anatidae,  whose  members  are 
characterized  by  their  long 
necks  ;  the  naked  patch  between 
the  eye  and  the  beak  (lores)  ; 
the  fact  that  the  sexes  are  alike 
in  plumage ;  and  the  predomi- 
nance of  white  tints,  except  in 
the  Australian  swan.  The  tame 
or  mute  swan  (C.  olor)  has  the 
front  part  of  the  bill  orange, 
while  the  lores  and  the  large 
basal  tubercle  are  black.  There 
is  a  variety  known  as  the  Polish 
swan.  The  bird  is  distributed 
throughout  Europe  and  extends 
into  Asia,  but  through  much  of 
the  area  it  is  not  truly  wild. 
Swans  are  all  birds  of  powerful 
flight,  and  are  more  or  les.s  gre- 
garious in  habits.  Though  fre- 
quenting fresh  water  in  summer, 
they  are  often  found  at  the  sea 
in  winter.  They  seem  to  pair 
for  life,  and  place  their  large, 
untidy  nests  upon  the  ground 
near  water.  The  food  consists 
largely  of  water  plants,  but  also 
of  insects  and  mollusks.  The 
note  is  loud  and  trumpet-like, 
the  windpipe  in  many  species 
being  curiously  folded.  Even 
the  so-called  mute  swan  trum- 
pets in  the  wild  state.  North 
America  possesses  two  species, 
both   uncommon   except   m  the 


northwestern  interior,  of  which 
the  trumpeter  (Cygnus  buc- 
cinator) is  best  known,  and  in 
autumn  is  frequently  shot  along 
the  Great  Lakes  and  westward. 
It  is  a  near  relative  of  the 
whooper  or  whistling  swan  of 


Mute  Swan. 


the  Arctic  regions  of  the  Old 
World.  Australia  has  a  species 
which  is  black  throughout. 

Swan,  John  Macallan 
(1847-1910).  English  sculptor 
and  painter,  born  at  Old  Brent- 
ford ;  studied  painting  under  Ge- 
rome  and  sculpture  under  Fre- 
miet.  In  1880  his  Prodigal  Son 
was  bought  for  the  Chantrey  col- 
lection (Tate  Gallery,  London). 
In  1894  he  was  elected  a.r.a., 
and  in  1899  member  of  the  Roy- 
al Watercolor  Society.  He  was 
the  finest  English  sculptor  of  an- 
imals in  his  suggestion  of  their 
essential  character,  structure, 
and  movement.  See  Baldry's 
Drawings  of  John  M.  Swan 
(1905). 

Swan,  Sir  Joseph  Wilson 
(1828-1914),  English  inventor, 
born  at  Sunderland.  He  patent- 
ed the  carbon  or  autotype  process 
of  obtaining  permanent  photo- 
graphic prints,  and  invented  bro- 
mide paper.  Swan's  name  is 
best  known  in  connection  with 
the  invention  of  the  incandescent 
electric  lamp,  which  he  first  ex- 
hibited in  1879.  He  was  knight- 
ed in  1904. 

Swansea,  seapt.  tn.,  munic, 
CO.,  and  pari.  bor..  Wales,  Gla- 
morganshire, at  the  mouth  of 
the  Tawe,  60  m.  w.n.w.  of  Bris- 
tol ;  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  tin- 
plate  manufacture,  and  one  of 
the  most  important  copper  smelt- 
ing and  refining  towns  in  the 
world,  and  has  extensive  coal 
mines.  Its  docks  cover  over  120 
acres.    Pop.  114,673. 

Swanton,  tn.,  Vermont, 
Franklin  co.,  9  m.  n.n.w.  of  St.  • 
Albans,  on  the  Missisquoi  R., 
about  2  m.  from  the  n.  end  of 
Lake  Champlain,  and  on  the 
Cent.  Vt.,  the  Gr.  Trunk,  and 
the  Bost.  and  Me.  R.  Rs.  It 
manufactures  smokeless  powder 
and  explosives,  shotgun  am- 
munition, suspenders,  lime,  and 
finished  marble.  Limestone  and 
variegated  marble  are  found  in 
the  district.  The  town  owns  and 
operates   the    water-works  and 


Swarthmore  College 


565 


Sweating  System 


electric-lighting  plant.  The  place 
was  incorporated  in  1790.  Pop. 
(1920)  3,343;  (1930)  3,433. 
Swarthmore  College, 

swarth'mor,  a  co-educational  in- 
stitution at  Swarthmore,  Pa.,  11 
miles  southwest  of  Philadelphia, 
founded  1864  by  the  Society  of 
Friends  and  named  from  Swarth- 
more Hall  in  England,  the  home 
of  George  Fox,  founder  of  the 
Society.  Enrollment  was  limited 
to  500  students.  Courses  of 
study  in  arts,  science  and  en- 
gineering lead  to  the  degrees  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts  and  B.  of 
Science.  In  1921  honors  courses 
were  introduced,  planned  some- 
what after  the  fashion  of  those 
in  English  universities.  Students 
who  have  done  exceptional  work 
in  their  first  two  years  are  per- 
mitted to  read  for  honors  in  a 
definitely  outlined  field  of  study. 
They  are  relieved  from  required 
attendance  at  regular  class,  but 
meet  twice  a  week  in  seminars 
for  discussion  and  reading  pa- 
pers. The  final  test  is  a  series 
of  examinations,  written  and 
oral,  given  by  a  committee  of 
professors  from  other  institu- 
tions. The  college  offers  gradu- 
ate fellowships  and  a  number  of 
undergraduate  scholarships.  The 
college  buildings  occupy  a  site  of 
200  acres.  The  endowment  is 
more  than  six  million  dollars. 
The  library  contains  about  80,- 
000  volumes. 

Swastika.    See  Svastika. 

Swatow,  swa'tou,  seaport, 
China,  in  Kwanktung  province, 
is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Han,  5  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  189  miles  northeast  of 
Hongkong.  It  has  been  open  for 
foreign  trade  since  1869,  though 
for_  long  it  had  a  reputation  for 
anti-foreign  feeling.  Sugar  is 
exported,  and  considerable  trade 
is  done  in  tea,  paper,  tobacco, 
beans,  and  bean-cake.  Pop. 
(1930)  142,000. 

Swaziland,  swa'zi-land,  a  ter- 
ritory of  the  Transvaal,  British 
South  Africa,  occupying  an  area 
of  6,678  square  miles  in  the 
southeastern  corner.  The  Le- 
bombo  mountains  lie  on  the  east ; 
the  western  part  is  a  grass-cov- 
ered plateau,  and  the  central  part 
fertile  rolling  country.  There  is 
considerable  mineral  wealth, 
chiefly  tin,  gold,  and  coal.  Agri- 
cultural products  include  tobacco, 
maize,  beans,  millet,  and  sweet 
potatoes,  and  cattle  and  sheep 
are  raised.  The  Swazis  are  a 
warlike  people  akin  to  the  Zulus. 
In  1930  the  population  numbered 
about  130,000  (2,200  Euro- 
peans). In  1894  Swaziland 
was  placed  under  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  South  African 
republic  and  in  J  906  under 
the  High  Commissioner  for 
South  Africa.  The  official  seat 
is  M'babane. 


Swearing  is  the  making  affir- 
mation of  a  statement  or  fact  by 
an  appeal  to  a  supernatural 
power  (see  Oath).  Profane 
swearing  is  the  appeal  to,  or 
mention  of,  sacred  things,  in  an 
irreverent  manner. 

The  variety  of  oaths  that  have 
been  invented  is  infinite  and 
curious.  The  Romans  swore 
by  Hercules  ('Mehercule') ,  by 
Castor  and  Pollux  ('Edepol,' 
'Ecastor'),  and  other  divinities. 
In  modern  times  profane  oaths 
have  become  disguised  in  form 
so  that  their  original  significa- 
tion is  no  longer  thought  of. 
Thus  the  French  exclamations 
'Parbleu'  and  'Corbleu'  are 
merely  corruptions  of  'par  Dieu' 
(by  God)  and  'corps  de  Dieu' 
(God's  body).  The  old  English 
oaths  'Sdeath,'  'Zounds,'  and  the 
like  were  originally  'God's  death,' 
'God's  wounds,'  etc. 

The  Church  has  always  de- 
nounced profane  swearing  as  a 
heinous  offence  and  the  laws  of 
practically  all  the  States  of  the 
United  States  impose  penalties 
on  profane  swearers. 

Sweat.  See  Perspiration  ; 
Skin. 

Sweating  Sickness,  or  Mil- 
iary Fever,  a  disease  of  un- 
known cause,  characterized  by 
pyrexia,  profuse  sweats,  and  an 
eruption  of  miliary  vesicles  or 
sudamina.  At  one  time  it  was 
epidemic  over  a  large  part  of 
Europe,  and  very  fatal  in  Britain 
in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries, 
being  known  as  'the  English 
sweat.'  It  appeared  in  1485, 
and  afterward  in  Holland, 
Germany,  Denmark,  Norway, 
Sweden,  Poland,  and  other  coun- 
tries. An  epidemic  occurred  in 
France  in  1907.  The  disease  has 
never  been  seen  in  the  United 
States.  More  rarely  sweating 
sickness  is  of  a  malignant  type, 
and  is  accompanied  by  high 
temperature,  with  delirium,  ex- 
treme prostration,  and  hemor- 
rhage. In  such  cases  death  may 
occur  within  an  hour  or  two. 

Sweating  System,  a  term  of 
uncertain^  origin,  employed  to 
characterize  the  manufacture  of 
goods  for  the  market  in  tene- 
ments and  dwelling-houses  in  the 
cities.  Under  this  system  the 
'manufacturer'  provides  the  ma- 
terials of  industry,  and  lets  the 
working  up  of  such  materials  to 
a  contractor  for  a  specified  price. 
The  contractor  may,  in  turn,  let 
the  work,  at  a  lower  price,  to  a 
sub-contractor,  who  finds  work- 
ers to  take  the  material  to  their 
homes  and  there  perform  the 
labor  contracted  for.  The  manu- 
facturer may,  however,  deal 
directly  with  the  laborer,  elimi- 
nating contractor  and  sub-con- 
tractor. The  essential  feature 
in  the  system  is  the  performance 
of  work  on  materials  belonging 


to  the  employer  on  the  premises 
of  the  worker. 

The  sweating  system  is  char- 
acterized by  minute  subdivision 
of  labor,  irregular  employment, 
extremely  low  wages,  and  bad 
sanitary  conditions.  Modern  ap- 
pliances and  power  machinery 
cannot  be  installed  in  the  work- 
er's tenement ;  accordingly,  in 
order  to  compete  with  factories, 
wages  are  necessarily  low. 
Classes  of  labor  which  are  not 
fitted  for  factory  employment — 
newly  arrived  immigrants, 
women  with  small  children,  aged 
workmen,  and  invalids — are  the 
reliance  of  the  system.  Since 
such  workers  are  without  other 
resources  for  their  living,  a  re- 
duction in  the  rate  of  pay  for 
sweated  work  merely  results  in 
forcing  them  to  work  longer 
hours  and  to  crowd  together  in 
greater  number  in  cheaper  quar- 
ters. 

The  evils  of  the  system  are  by 
no  means  confined  to  the  workers 
exploited  under  it.  The  con- 
sumer of  sweatshop  goods  runs 
serious  risk  of  disease  in  conse- 
quence of  the  insanitary  condi- 
tions prevailing  in  such  shops. 

The  manufacture  of  ready- 
made  clothing  has  been  the  prin- 
cipal branch  of  the  sweated 
trades.  It  was  at  one  time  esti- 
mated that  half  the  ready-made 
clothing  manufactured  in  the 
United  States  was  made  under 
this  system.  The  manufacture 
of  cigars  is  in  many  sections  of 
the  country  carried  on  in  sweat- 
shops ;  as  is  also  the  making  of 
candy,  bread,  and  other  food 
products.  In  all,  some  thirty- 
five  branches  of  industry  are  in 
part  conducted  under  the  sweat- 
ing system. 

Thirteen  States  enacted  laws 
designed  to  subject  the  sweated 
trades  to  public  control.  The 
earliest  of  these  was  a  New 
York  law  of  1884,  prohibiting 
the  manufacture  of  tobacco  prod- 
ucts in  tenements.  The  law  was 
declared  unconstitutional  in  the 
same  year  as  transcending  the 
police  powers  of  the  State.  The 
principal  provisions  of  existing 
State  laws  relate  to  inspection  of 
home  shops.  The  laws  of  some 
states  require  a  license  for  the 
manufacture  of  specified  articles 
in  tenements  and  dwelling  places. 
The  laws  of  other  States  leave 
such  manufacture  unregulated 
in  a  tenement  or  dwelling  where 
only  members  of  the  family 
residing  there  are  employed,  but 
require  licenses  if  persons  not 
members  of  the  family  are  em- 
ployed. Sanitary  provisions  pro- 
hibiting work  in  rooms  where 
persons  suffering  from  infectious 
or  contagious  diseases  are  pres- 
ent, and  making  certain  require- 
ments as  to  air  space  and  venti- 
lation are  features  common  to 
113-D-3 


Sweating  System 


566 


Sweden 


most  of  the  State  legislation.  The 
number  of  tenements  and  dwell- 
ings in  which  work  is  carried  on 
is,  however,  so  great  that  ade- 
quate inspection  is  almost  impos- 
sible. 

The  organized  labor  move- 
ment has  made  a  vigorous  and 
efifective  fight  for  the  abolition 
of  the  sweating  system,  and  was 
especially  successful  in  the  cigar 
making  and  clothing  industries. 
The  trade  union  label  is  a  guar- 
antee that  goods  have  not  been 
produced  under  sweatshop  con- 
ditions. 

Within  recent  years  an  or- 
ganized effort  to  combat  the 
sweating  system  has  also  been 
made  by  associations  of  con- 
sumers who  bind  themselves, 
wherever  possible,  to  buy  only 
goods  produced  under  conditions 
involving  fair  treatment  to  the 
worker  and  satisfactory  assur- 
ance to  the  purchaser  respecting 
sanitary  conditions.  The  lead- 
ing organization  of  this  type,  the 
National  Consumers'  League, 
had  in  1933  aboiit  3.000  mem- 
bers and  17  branch  leagues  in 
the  industrial  States.  Their 
work  runs  along  two  main  lines 
of  endeavor,  (1)  to  obtain  mini- 
mum wage  laws,  and  (2)  failing 
legislation,  to  publish  lists  of 
business  houses  operating  up  to 
a  certain  standard.  Beginning 
in  1899,  they  found  that  stitched 
white  underwear  was  being  made 
under  insanitary  conditions  of 
labor.  After  investigation,  they 
affixed  a  'white  label'  to  all 
goods  produced  under  approved 
conditions.  This  was  stopped 
later;  but  in  1928  they  published 
a  candy  'white  list,'  discontinued 
in  1933. 

See  Minimum  Wage. 

In  England  the  sweating  sys- 
tem was  widespread  as  early  as 
1850.  An  attempt  to  replace  the 
sweatshop  by  the  co-operative 
shop  was  made  by  the  Christian 
Socialists,  under  the  leadership 
of  Maurice  and  Kingsley,  but 
without  lasting  results.  Several 
attempts  have  been  made  to  miti- 
gate by  legislation  the  evils  of 
the  system,  but  the  result  has 
been  almost  negligible.  Sweat- 
shops are  subject  to  inspection, 
like  factories  ;  and  the  manufac- 
turer is  responsible. 

Drastic  legislation  on  the 
subject  was  enacted  in  Austra- 
lia in  1896,  under  which  wage 
boards  were  created,  consisting 
of  an  equal  number  of  repre- 
sentatives of  employers  and 
employed,  to  fix  wages,  hours 
of  labor,  etc.  Applicable  laws 
embrace  practically  all  trades 
peculiarly  susceptible  to  sweat- 
ing. Minimum  wages  have  been 
fixed  by  _  law  to  afford  the 
least  efficient  workers  reason- 
able hours  and  the  necessi- 
ties of  life.  This  made  the 
113-D-3 


sweating  system  of  industry  un- 
profitable in  some  trades  where 
it  formerly  thrived.  An  inciden- 
tal effect  of  the  law  has  been  to 
make  persons  not  fitted  for  fac- 
tory employment  dependent  up- 
on public  relief. 

Consult  Adams  and  Sumner's 
Labor  Problems;  Commons' 
Trade  Unionism  and  Labor  Prob- 
lems; Kelley's  Some  Ethical  Gains 
through  Legislation;  Annual  Re- 
ports of  the  National  Consumers' 
League;  Proceedings  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor; 
first  and  second  Reports  of  the 
N.  Y.  Factory  Investigating 
Commission  (1913). 

Swe'den,  a  European  country 
occupying  the  eastern  and  larger 
part  of  the  Scandinavian  penin- 
sula. It  extends  from  55°  20'  to 
69°  4'  N.  lat.  and  from  10°  58'  to 
24°  10'  E.  long.  It  is  975  miles 
long,  has  a  breadth  varying  from 
310  to  145  miles,  exclusive  of  the 
northern  and  southern  extremi- 
ties, and  an  area  of  173,035 
square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  west  by  Norway;  on  the 
northeast  by  Finland;  on  the 
east  by  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  and 
the  Baltic  Sea,  which  also  washes 
its  southern  shore.  On  the 
southwest  are  the  Kattegat, 
which  separates  Sweden  and 
Denmark,  and  the  Skager  Rack. 

Topography.  —  Sweden  may  be 
divided  into  three  parts:  North- 
ern Sweden,  or  Norrland;  Cen- 
tral Sweden,  or  Svealand;  and 
Southern  Sweden,  or  Gotaland. 
Northern  Sweden,  which  com- 
prises by  far  the  greater  part  of 
the  country,  consists  of  broad 
river  valleys  with  mountain  and 
forest  lands  lying  between.  The 
northern  border  is  mountainous, 
the  highest  peaks  being  Kebne- 
kaisse  (7,005  feet)  and  Sarjett- 
jokko  (6,970  feet),  but  the  north- 
ern coastal  regions  consist  of 
plains,  only  slightly  above  sea 
level,  traversed  by  slow,  winding 
rivers,  with  here  and  there  soli- 
tary hills  rising  to  a  few  hundred 
feet.  These  plains  are  covered 
with  moraine  deposits  and  con- 
tain large  areas  of  marsh-land 
and  peat-moss.  Central  Sweden 
is  characterized  by  lowlands 
scarcely  more  than  300  feet  above 
sea  level,  often  traversed  by 
eskars  or  ridges  of  coarse  moraine 
matter;  these  ridges  attain  con- 
siderable length  and  height,  are 
usually  wooded,  and  afford  a 
plentiful  water  supply.  South 
Sweden  comprises  the  Smaland 
highlands  in  the  heart  of  Gota- 
land, similar  in  character  to  the 
northern  highlands  and  the 
planes  of  Skane,  formed  of  rocks 
of  Cretaceous,  Jurassic  and 
Silurian  age,  and  having  many 
lakes.  The  islands  of  Oland  and 
Gotland  are  sometimes  regarded 
as  detached  portions  of  the 
planes  of  Skane,  although  they 
more  resemble  the  central  low- 


lands. The  coast  of  Sweden  is 
much  less  indented  than  that  of 
Norway  and  is  fringed  by  num- 
berless islands  which  afford  valu- 
able protection  to  navigation. 

The  country  is  exceedingly 
well  watered.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Thornea,  Kalix, 
Lulea,  Pitea,  Umea,  Angerman, 
Ljusna,  and  Mottala,  falling  into 
the  Baltic;  and  the  Gota  and 
Klar,  flowing  into  the  Kattegat. 
Of  the  numerous  canals,  con- 
necting the  rivers  and  lakes,  by 
far  the  most  important  is  the 
Gota  Canal,  which,  by  means  of 
the  Gota  River  and  the  lakes 
Wener  and  Wetter,  unites  the 
North  Sea  with  the  Baltic.  A 
characteristic  feature  of  Swedish 
scenery  is  the  great  number  of 
lakes,  covering  8.3  per  cent,  of 
the  total  area.  In  the  northern 
part  they  are  elongated  and  in 
many  cases  merge  so  impercepti- 
bly into  the  rivers  as  to  be  in- 
distinguishable. Lake  Wener, 
144  feet  above  sea  level,  with  an 
area  of  2,150  square  miles  is  the 
third  largest  lake  in  Europe. 

Climate  and  Soil. — Generally 
speaking,  the  climate  of  Sweden 
lies  midway  between  the  conti- 
nental and  the  maritime  type. 
In  the  northern  part  it  resembles 
the  former,  in  the  southern,  the 
latter.  The  summ_ers  are  short 
and  the  winters  long  and  cold, 
with  snow  in  all  parts.  The  mean 
temperature  at  Stockholm  is 
25°  F.  in  February,  the  coldest 
month,  and  62°  f.  in  August,  the 
hottest  month.  Fogs  are  fre- 
quent on  the  coasts  in  summer 
but  rare  in  winter.  In  Eastern 
Sweden  the  rainfall  is  about  20 
inches,  decreasing  to  18  inches  in 
the  northern  part.  The  soil  in 
the  highland  region  is  barren  and 
unproductive,  but  in  the  central 
lowlands  and  the  plains  of  Skane 
the  land  is  fairly  fertile. 

Geology. — Sweden  is  a  land  of 
ancient  origin.  Archaean  rocks 
predominate,  but  in  the  north- 
west Silurian  and  Cambrian  for- 
mations occur,  and  tracts  of 
Triassic,  Cretaceous  and  Tertian 
age  are  found  in  Skane.  Deposits 
of  gravel,  sand,  and  clay  form  a 
more  or  less  complete  surface  cov- 
ering. Glaciation,  although  un- 
important today,  is  accountable 
for  the  surface  of  the  land,  the 
characteristic  contours  of  the 
fjords  and  rounded  mountain 
summits,  the  eskars,  conspicuous 
in  the  central  lowlands,  and  the 
level  terraces  and  raised  beaches. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — Sweden  ex- 
tends such  a  distance  from  north 
to  south  that  there  are  several 
different  zones  of  vegetation.  In 
the  northwest  and  highest  part 
of  the  country,  along  the  Nor- 
wegian border,  is  the  alpine  re- 
gion with  heather,  juniper,  dwarf 
birch,  lichens,  and  reindeer  moss. 
Below  the  alpine  region,  form- 
ing a  narrow  belt,  most  freely 


Sweden 


567 


Sweden 


developed  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  country,  is  the  birch  forest 
region  with  a  few  aspens  and 
rowans,  as  well  as  whortleberries, 
wild  strawberries,  and  raspber- 
ries. Still  lower  down  is  the  re- 
gion of  coniferous  trees,  which 
cover  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
the  country.  Pine  and  spruce 
predominate,  but  mingled  with 
them  are  the  aspen,  bird-cherry, 
oak,  ash,  hazel,  alder,  elm,  and 
maple.  In  Skane,  Southern 
Oland,  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
Kattegat  are  great  forests  of 
beech  and  oak. 

The  fauna  of  Sweden  closely 
resembles  that  of  Central  and 
Western  Europe.  Bears,  for- 
merly common,  are  becoming 
rare ;  the  lynx,  wolf,  glutton, 
lemming,  weasel,  and  arctic  fox 
are  found.  Elk,  roedeer,  and 
tame  reindeer  are  fairly  com- 
mon. Seals  abound  on  the  coasts. 
Salmon,  trout,  pike,  perch,  and 
herring  occur  in  the  rivers  and 
along  the  coasts.  Bird-life  is 
abundant  in  summer  and  is  simi- 
lar to  that  of  Europe.  Charac- 
teristic forms  are  the  snow-owl, 
ptarmigan,  capercailzie,  willow- 
grouse,  golden  eagle,  and  wild 
swan. 

Mining, — Sweden  is  rich  in 
minerals,  and  mining  has  long 
been  a  leading  industry.  Iron  is 
the  most  important  deposit,  large 
quantities  being  mined  annually. 
Silver,  lead,  copper,  manganese, 
sulphur  pyrites,  and  gold  occur, 
and  small  amounts  of  coal  are 
produced  in  the  southern  part. 

Forestry, — Nearly  sixty  per 
cent  of  the  land  is  under  forests. 
Timber  is  one  of  the  leading  ex- 
ports, and  wood-working  fac- 
tories, saw  and  planing  mills  fur- 
nish employment  to  about  100,000 
workers.  Exploitation  of  the 
forests  for  a  long  time  caused 
wholesale  destruction,  but  pro- 
tective legislation  has  been  en- 
acted, and  a  State  Forest  Service 
is  maintained. 

Agriculture,  Stock  Raising, 
and  Fisheries, — Sweden  is  an 
agricultural  country,  about  one 
half  of  the  people  being  engaged 
in  farming  and  stock  raising. 
Most  of  the  farms  are  small,  and 
only  about  10  per  cent,  of  the 
entire  land  area  is  under  cultiva- 
tion. The  leading  crops  are  oats, 
wheat,  rye,  barley,  potatoes, 
sugar-beets,  and  hay.  Stock  rais- 
ing and  dairy  farming  are  im- 
portant. Large  quantities  of  but- 
ter are  produced  and  exported, 
particularly  to  Great  Britain. 
Co-operative  methods  are  em- 
ployed in  the  dairy  industry  and 
are  steadily  gaining  adherents. 
Cattle  are  raised  chiefly  for  milk 
production  ;  thoroughbred  horses 
are  raised,  chiefly  for  the  use  of 
the  army,  and  farm  and  draught 
horses  for  general  use.  Reindeer 
are  bred  and  used  by  the  Lapps. 


Poultry  farming  is  carried  on  in 
the  south,  and  bee-keeping  is  a 
thriving  industry. 

Of  the  fish  taken  in  Swedish 
waters,  the  herring  is  of  the 
greatest  commercial  importance  ; 
others  of  economic  value  are 
the  mackerel,  eel,  and  sardine. 
Salmon,  pike,  perch,  bass,_  trout 
and  grayling  are  found  in  the 
lakes  and  rivers. 

Manufactures. — The  most 
important  manufactured  products 
are  those  connected  with  the  iron 
industry,  such  as  electrical  ma- 
chinery, motors,  telephone  sup- 
plies, and  lighthouse  apparatus  ; 
timber  products,  such  as  wood 
pulp,  furniture,  matches,  and 
paper ;  and  porcelain  and  glass 
wares.  Textile  and  chemical  in- 
dustries are  flourishing,  and 
leather  and  rubber  goods  are 
produced. 

Transportation, — I  n  19  3  2 
there  were  10,505  miles  of  rail- 
road in  Sweden,  4,164  of  which 
were  state-owned.  Electrifica- 
tion of  State  lines  south  of  Stock- 
holm is  approaching  completion. 
About  50,000  miles  of  highway 
are  utilised  by  over  150,000 
motor  vehicles.  Civil  aviation  is 
increasing  steadily,  Malmo  being 
the  principal  airport  served  by 
the  German  Luft  Hansa  services. 

Water  Power  and  Elec- 
tricity,— The  country  has  im- 
portant water  power  resources, 
and  industrial  machinery  is 
largely  driven  by  hydroelectric 
energy.  The  potential  capacity, 
developed  and  undeveloped,  of 
water  power  resources  at  mean 
flow  is  estimated  at  15,300,000 
horsepower.  About  45%  of  the 
farms  are  electrically  equipped, 
and  in  the  iron-mining  center  of 
Porjus,  in  Lapland,  the  State  has 
installed  an  hydroelectric  plant 
with  a  capacity  of  nearly  60,000 
kilowatts. 

Finance, — The  National 
Bank,  or  Riksbank,  belongs  to 
the  state,  and  it  alone  can  issue 
notes.  The  krona  is  the  unit  of 
value,  and  is  worth  at  par  $0.2680 
U.  S.  currency.  The  restrictions 
on  the  import  of  gold  were  abol- 
ished in  April,  1931,  and  five 
months  later  gold  payments  were 
suspended  when  Great  Britain 
went  off  the  gold  standard.  The 
note  circulation  was  556  million 
kronor  on  Aug.  31,  1932,  with  a 
gold  reserve  of  206  million  and 
foreign  assets  of  171  million. 

Population, — Sweden's  popu- 
lation in  1930  was  6,141,671,  as 
compared  with  5,904,489  in  1920. 
With  the  exception  of  about 
40,000  Lapps  and  Finns  and  a 
few  others,  it  is  made  up  of 
Scandinavians.  The  population 
of  the  largest  cities  in  1930  was 
as  follows  :  Stockholm,  the  capi- 
tal, 502,207;  Goteberg.  245,690: 
Malmo,  127,875.  Emigration 
has  steadily  declined  since  1923, 


and  in  1930  a  flow  commenced  in 
the  reverse  direction. 
Religion  and  Education, — 

The  great  majority  of  the  Swed- 
ish people  are  adherents  of  the 
Lutheran  Protestant  Church,  and 
that  is  the  recognized  state 
church,  although  all  sects  are 
tolerated.  Education  is  free  and 
compulsory  between  the  ages  of 
seven  and  fourteen.  There  are 
also  normal,  technical,  military, 
veterinary  and  agricultural 
schools,  universities  at  Upsala, 
founded  in  1477,  and  at  Lund, 
founded  in  1688,  and  private  uni- 
versities in  Stockholm  and 
Goteberg. 

Army  and  Navy, — The  pres- 
ent army  organization  is  based 
on  the  principle  of  general  con- 
scription, the  period  of  service 
being  from  twenty  to  forty-three. 
The  men  serve  for  eleven  years 
in  the  Bevaring  or  first  'uppbad'  ; 
for  four  years  in  the  second 
[uppbad' ;  and  for  eight  years 
in  the  Landstorm.  The  total 
peace  strength  of  the  army  is 
about  25,000  which  can  be  in- 
creased to  about  600,000  on  mo- 
bilization. The  navy  is  main- 
tained solely  for  coast  defence 
and  consisted  in  1932  of  12  light 
cruisers,  10  destroyers,  4  torpedo 
gunboats,  40  torpedo  boats  and 
4  submarines.  Treaties  to  out- 
law war  have  been  concluded 
with  Norway,  Denmark  and 
Finland. 

Government, — Sweden  is  a 
constitutional  hereditary  monar- 
chy. The  king  is  advised  by  a 
cabinet  (Statsradet)  of  12  mem- 
bers. Legislative  authority  is  ex- 
ercised by  the  king  and  the  Riks- 
dag, which  is  divided  into  two 
chambers.  The  First  consists  of 
150  members,  who  must  be 
above  thirty-five  years  of  age  and 
possess  a  certain  amount  of  real 
property  or  an  annual  income  of 
at  least  3,000  kronor,  and  who 
are  elected  for  eight  years  ;  the 
Second  consists  of  230  members 
elected  by  universal  suffrage. 
The  Riksdag  must  assemble  each 
10th  of  January  and  may  be  sum- 
moned in  extraordinary  session 
by  the  king. 

History, — Sweden  proper  was 
inhabited  in  ancient  times  by  two 
closely  related  races  (Sver  and 
Goter),  from  whose  conjunction 
the  Swedish  nation  ultimately 
arose,  and  whose  early  kings,  of 
the  Ynglingar  family,  reigned  at 
Upsala.  Christianity  was  first 
preached  in  Svealand  by  St.  Ans- 
gar  in  the  middle  of  the  9th  cen- 
tury ;  but  the  old  heathen  re- 
ligion obstinately  persisted  for 
more  than  two  centuries  and  a 
half  later.  Alternate  Swedish 
and  Gothic  dynasties  ruled  the 
land  till  1250.  During  this  period 
Finland  was  conquered  and 
Christianized.  Under  the  Fol- 
kunger  dynasty  (1250-1397) 
n3-D-3 


Sweden 


568 


Sweden 


both  the  nobility  and  the  clergy 
extorted  considerable  privileges 
from  the  impecunious  monarchs  ; 
and  finally  Margaret  of  Denmark 
united  the  three  Scandinavian 
kingdoms  beneath  her  sceptre  by 
the  union  of  Kalmar  (1397). 

This  union  with  Denmark  and 
Norway,  under  kings  of  German 
extraction  and  arbitrary  inclina- 
tion, became  intolerable  and  led 
to  a  general  rising  under  Gus- 
tavus  I.  of  the  Vasa  family,  who, 
in  1521-3,  shook  off  the  Danish 
yoke,  and  was  elected  king  at  the 
Strengnas  Riksdag  (June  7, 
1523).  Gustavus  devoted  him- 
self during  the  latter  part  of  his 
reign  to  the  rehabilitation  of  his 
impoverished  country,  and  a 
stable  government  was  ensured 
by  a  compact  at  Vesteras  (1544), 
which  made  the  throne  hereditary 
in  Gustavus'  family. 

Gustavus'  two  sons,  Eric  xiv. 
(1560-8)  and  John  in.  (1568- 
92),  succeeded  him  consecu- 
tively. Both  were  weak  rulers 
with  Roman  Catholic  tendencies 
and  vague  ambitions,  which  in- 
volved them  in  abortive  wars 
with  Denmark  and  Russia. 
John's  son  and  successor,  Sigis- 
mund  (1592-9),  who  was 
brought  up  a  Roman  Catholic, 
and  had  become  king  of  Poland 
five  years  before  his  accession  to 
the  Swedish  throne,  was  ulti- 
mately expelled  from  the  king- 
dom by  his  uncle,  Charles  ix.,  the 
youngest  son  of  Gustavus  i.,  and 
a  bigoted  upholder  of  Protestant- 
ism, a  capable  if  cruel  prince, 
who  reigned  from  1599  to  1611. 
It  was  through  his  instrumen- 
tality that  the  Synod  of  Upsala 
(1593)  confirmed  and  completed 
the  Reformation  in  Sweden.  At 
his  death  he  bequeathed  to  his 
son,  Gustavus  Adolphus  (1611- 
32),  three  pending  wars,  with 
Denmark,  Poland,  and  Russia 
respectively. 

The  Danish  War  was  termi- 
nated by  the  peace  of  Knared 
( Jan. ,  1613),  and  peace  was  made 
with  Russia  (Feb.  27,  1617) 
which  ceded  Kexholm  and  Ingria. 
The  war  with  Poland  dragged  on, 
however,  till  1629,  when,  by  a 
six  years'  truce,  Livonia  and  East 
Prussia  were  provisionally  sur- 
rendered to  Sweden.  It  was  then 
that  Gustavus  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  Protestants  in  Germany, 
only  to  fall  victorious  on  the  field 
of  Liitzen  (November  1632). 

The  minority  of  Gustavus' 
daughter  and  successor,  Chris- 
tina (1632-54),  was  made  fa- 
mous by  the  masterly  statesman- 
ship of  the  great  chancellor  Axel 
Oxenstjerna,  and  the  victories  of 
the  Swedish  generals  Baner, 
Torstensson,  and  Wrangel. 
Sweden  reaped  her  reward  at  the 
peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648, 
when  Upper  Pomerania,  with  the 
adjacent  island,  Wismar,  and 
113-D-3 


the  bishoprics  of  Bremen  and 
Verden  practically  gave  her  the 
control  of  all  the  great  German 
waterways,  except  the  Vistula. 
In  1654  Christina  resigned  the 
crown  to  her  cousin,  Carl  Gustaf, 
a  grandson  of  Charles  ix.,  who 
reigned  as  Charles  x.  (1654-60). 
He  finally  expelled  the  Danes 
from  the  Swedish  mainland,  and 
concluded  a  war  with  Poland  by 
the  treaty  of  Oliva  (May  3, 
1660),  which  definitively  ceded 
Esthonia  and  Livonia  to  Sweden. 

During  the  long  minority  of 
Charles  xi.  (1660-72)  the  coun- 
try was  dominated  by  France,  but 
Charles  left  a  prosperous  land  to 
his  heroic  son  Charles  xii. 
(1697-1718)  whose  wars  with 
Denmark,  Russia  and  Poland,  at 
first  successful,  at  length  brought 
disaster.  His  sudden  and  violent 
death  in  1718  saved  Sweden  from 
utter  ruin,  though  not  from  dis- 
memberment. Bremen  and  Ver- 
den were  ceded  to  Hanover  in 
1719;  Hither  Pomerania,  as  far 
as  the  Peene,  to  Prussia,  by  the 
peace  of  Stockholm  (Feb.,  1720)  ; 
and  Ingria,  Esthonia,  Livonia, 
Karelia,  and  part  of  Kexholm  to 
Russia  by  the  peace  of  Nystad 
(Sept.  10,  1721). 

The  period  between  1719  and 
1772  is  called  by  Swedish  his- 
torians the  'period  of  freedom,' 
because  it  was  a  violent  rebound 
from  the  absolutism  of  Charles 
XI.  and  Charles  xii.  to  a  strictly 
constitutional  regime,  the  su- 
preme authority  being  vested  in 
the  Riksdag,  or  Parliament,  com- 
posed of  four  estates — nobility, 
clergy,  burgesses,  and  peasants — 
sitting  in  separate  chambers. 
Sweden  fell  at  length  into  an- 
archy, from  which  she  was  res- 
cued by  Gustavus  in.  (1771-92) 
who  did  much  for  literature  and 
the  arts,  and  by  successful  w^ars 
with  Denmark  and  Russia  did 
much  to  raise  the  prestige  of 
Sweden  in  the  eyes  of  Europe. 
During  the  reign  of  his  semi- 
imbecile  son,  Gustavus  iv.  (1792- 
1809),  Sweden  embarked  in  a 
ruinous  war  with  Russia.  Gus- 
tavus was  forced  to  abdicate  in 
1809,  and  his  uncle,  the  duke 
regent,  became  Charles  xiii.  He 
was  compelled  to  end  the  Russian 
war  by  ceding  to  Russia  all  Fin- 
land and  the  Aland  Islands. 
Farther  Pomerania,  Sweden's 
last  continental  possession,  was 
ceded  to  Prussia  five  years  later, 
but  by  the  peace  of  Kiel  (Jan.  14, 
1814)  she  was  compensated 
therefor  by  the  union  with  Nor- 
way under  one  king.  On  the 
death  (February  1818)  of 
Charles  xiii.,  the  throne  passed 
to  Charles  John  (formerly  the 
French  Marshal  Bernadotte), 
who  had  been  elected  heir  to  the 
throne  by  the  Orebro  Riksdag 
(Aug.  25,  1810).  The  crown  is 
now  hereditary  in  his  family. 


From  1815  to  1905  Sweden's 
relations  with  Norway  are  mainly 
important.  Briefly,  these  rela- 
tions have  turned  upon  the  efforts 
of  Norway  to  break  away  from 
the  union.  The  secession  was 
peacefully  accomplished  in  1905. 
(See  Norway.)  The  principal 
domestic  event  during  this  period 
was  the  reform  of  the  constitu- 
tion on  June  22,  1866,  when  the 
representation  by  estates  was 
abolished,  and  the  existing  consti- 
tution was  established. 

In  1907  King  Oscar  ii.  died 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest 
son  Gustavus  v.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  his  reign  the  question  of 
national  defence  was  in  the  fore- 
front of  Swedish  politics,  and  in 
spite  of  determined  opposition  on 
the  part  of  the  Socialists  and 
Liberals,  a  programme  for  the 
strengthening  of  the  army  and 
navy  was  carried  out.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  World  War, 
Sweden,  in  company  with  the 
other  Scandinavian  countries,  de- 
clared neutrality,  which  it  main- 
tained throughout  the  war.  In 
1918  Sweden  recognized  the  new 
state  of  Finland,  and  in  1921  the 
question  as  to  the  sovereignty 
over  the  Aland  Islands,  which 
had  arisen  previously  between 
Sweden  and  Finland,  was  settled 
by  the  League  of  Nations  in  favor 
of  Finland.  The  ministry  which 
came  into  office  under  Hjalmar 
Branting  in  1920  was  the  first 
socialist  government  in  Swed- 
en's history ;  it  reached  power 
through  a  peaceable  and  orderly 
expression  of  the  people's  will. 
Branting  was  defeated  in  1923 
by  failure  to  cope  with  unem- 
ployment ;  he  was  succeeded  by 
Ernest  Trygger,  who  effected  a 
commercial  agreement  with  So- 
viet Russia.  In  1924  Branting 
again  formed  a  government,  but 
ill-health  soon  compelled  him  to 
relinquish  active  leadership. 

The  Goteborg  system  of  liquor 
control,  M'hich  restricted  the 
hours  of  sale  and  abolished  sa- 
loons, was  extended  by  Dr.  Ivar 
Bratt,  whose  proposals  were  first 
put  into  effect  in  1914.  State- 
controlled  stores  (which  derive 
no  profit  from  sales  beyond  a 
normal  rate  of  interest  on  the 
capital  invested)  retail  all  spirits 
and  wines  with  a  greater  alco- 
holic content  than  3.6  per  cent. 
Booklets  of  tickets  issued  to  the 
heads  of  families  (and  adult  sons 
over  25  years  of  age)  permit  a 
maximum  consumption  of  about 
four  quarts  of  spirits  per  person 
monthly  ;  in  the  event  o{  abuse 
the  privilege  may  be  withdrawn. 
Beer,  with  a  maximum  strength 
of  3.2  per  cent,  by  weight,  may 
be  purchased  in  unrestricted 
quantities  for  consumption  at 
home  or  at  meals  in  hotels.  The 
quantity  of  spirits  purchasable 
with  meals  in  hotels  is  dependent 


Sweden 


KFP 


569 


Sweden 


upon  the  amount  of  food  con- 
sumed. The  desirability  of  com- 
plete prohibition  of  the  liquor 
trade  was  referred  to  a  national 
plebiscite  in  1922,  and  a  decision 
was  given  against  prohibition  by 
a  majority  of  37,890  votes  out  of 
a  total  of  1,808,354.  No  diffi- 
culty in  law  enforcement  has 
been  experienced,  and  illegal 
transportation  and  sale  are  un- 
known. 

The  international  reputation  of 
Ivar  Kreuger  as  a  brilliant  fin- 
ancier was  shattered  by  the  dis- 
closures made  after  his  death  by 
suicide  in  Paris  on  March  12, 
1932.  He  had  manipulated  the 
finances  of  the  Swedish  Match 
Company  and  its  associates  (of 
which  the  greatest  was  the  Kreu- 
ger and  Toll  Company)  by  means 
of  forgery  and  the  assistance  of 
dishonest  colleagues,  to  an  ex- 
tent involving  direct  liabilities  of 
$74,800,000,  in  addition  to  in- 
curring personal  debts  of  $93,- 
500,000.  Although  only  two- 
thirds  of  1  per  cent  of  the  na- 
tional income  was  affected  by  the 
crash,  and  not  more  than  2^  per 
cent  of  the  workers  were  em- 
ployed in  his  industries,  the 
shock  to  the  nation  was  severe. 
In  the  course  of  unraveling 
Kreuger's  tangled  affairs  it  came 
to  light  that  he  was  a  liberal 
contributor  to  the  funds  of  all 
the  major  political  parties. 
Large  sums  were  traced  to  the 
coffers  of  the  Conservative  and 
Independent  Communist  Parties, 
and  in  August,  1932,  it  was  dis- 
closed that  he  had  made  secret 
payments  to  Carl  Gustav  Ekman, 
leader  of  the  People's  Party,  who 
was  at  that  time  premier.  The 
preceding  month  Ekman  had  re- 
turned to  the  receivers  of  Kreu- 
ger and  Toll  50,000  kronor  re- 
ceived from  the  financier,  but  he 
failed  to  acknowledge  receipt  of 
a  second  sum  of  a  like  amount 
from  Kreuger  immediately  prior 
to  his  suicide.  Ekman  resigned 
his  premiership,  and  the  cabinet 
was  reformed  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Finance  Minister  T. 
Hamrin.  A  month  later,  as  the 
result  of  a  general  election,  the 
Socialists  were  returned  to  pow- 
er, and  a  ministry  was  consti- 
tuted under  the  premiership  of 
Per  Albin  Hansson,  long  a  lead- 
er of  the  Social  Democrats. 

_  Sweden  encountered  numerous 
difficulties  in  her  strictly  main- 
tained neutrality  during  the  Sec- 
ond World  War  (1939-45),  not 
the  least  being  her  constant  ef- 
forts to  ameliorate  the  sufferings 
of  the  peoples  of  other  Scandi- 
navian countries.  A  national 
coalition  ministry  under  the  pre- 
miership of  Per  Albin  Hansson 
was  formed  in  December  1939 
and  reconstituted  in  1944  and 
1945.  To  the  end  of  the  war  the 
government  succeeded  in  steer- 


ing a  political  course  that  avoid- 
ed conflict  with  the  Axis  powers 
and  at  the  same  time  created  the 
impression  of  sympathy  with  the 
struggles  of  the  democratic  na- 
tions. Diplomatic  relations  with 
Germany  were  severed  in  May, 
1945.  Sweden  was  admitted  to 
the  United  Nations  Nov.  9,  1946. 

Crown  Prince  Gustaf  Adolf 
(b.  1882)  married,  in  1905, 
Princess  Margaret  (daughter  of 
Prince  Arthur,  Duke  of  Con- 
naught)  who  bore  him  four  sons 
and  one  daughter.  Following 
her  death  in  1920,  the  Prince 
married,  in  1923,  Lady  Louise 
Mountbatten,  daughter  of  the 
former  Prince  Louis  of  Batten- 
berg,  First  Marquess  of  Milford 
Haven.  Prince  Gustaf  Adolf 
(1906-47),  eldest  son  of  the 
Crown  Prince,  married,  in  1932, 
Princess  Sybille  of  Saxe-Co- 
burg-Gotha,  who  bore  him  four 
daughters  and  one  son. 

Sweden  maintains  an  impor- 
tant place  in  the  scientific  and 
artistic  world,  modern  notabili- 
ties including  the  architects 
Ferdinand  Boberg  (1860-1946), 
Gustaf  Clason  (1856-1930)  and 
Ragnar  Ostberg  (1866-1945), 
while  Carl  Milles  (1875-  )  is 
one  of  the  world's  outstanding 
sculptors.  Svante  Arrhenius 
(1859-1927)  originated  the  the- 
ory of  electrolytic  dissociation, 
and  made  numerous  other  addi- 
tions to  scientific  knowledge. 
Allvar  Gullstrand  (1862-1930) 
was  famous  for  his  work  in  op- 
tics, Gerard  de  Geer  (1868-1943) 
known  as  a  brilliant  geologist, 
and  the  work  at  Upsala  Univer- 
sity of  Svedberg  (1884-  ^  ), 
the  chemist,  and  Manne  Sieg- 
bahn  (1886-  ),  the  physicist, 
is  internationally  known. 

Bibliography  *  —  Consult 
Montelius,  Civilisation  of  Swe- 
den in  Ancient  Times ;  Thomas, 
Sweden  and  the  Swedes ;  Baker, 
Pictures  of  Swedish  Life  ;  Bain, 
Scandinavia :  A  Political  His- 
tory of  Denmark,  Norway  and 
Sweden;  Kennedy,  Thirty  Sea- 
sons in  Scandinavia ;  Swedish 
Year  Book ;  Heidenstam,  Swed- 
ish Life  in  Town  and  Country; 
V.  von  Heidenstam,  Swedes  and 
Their  Chieftains  (1925)  ;  Ben- 
son, Sweden  and  the  American 
Revolution  (1926);  Hallendorf 
and  Schiick,  History  of  Sweden 
(1929);  Stomberg,  History  of 
Sweden  (1932)  ;  Bonow,  Swe- 
den: Its  Economic  and  Social 
Life  (1937)  ;  Cole  and  Smith, 
Democratic  Sweden  (1938)  ; 
Joesten,  Stalwart  Sweden 
(1943);  Bonnier,  Sweden:  A 
Wartime  Survey  (1944). 

Swedish  Literature. — It  is 
not  till  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century  that  we  meet  with  any- 
thing that  can  be  seriously  re- 
garded as  literature,  for  the  ru- 
nic   verses    found    on  ancient 


monuments  are  of  purely  ar- 
chaeological interest,  while  the 
literary  activity  which  centered 
round  St.  Bridget  (1303-72) 
and  the  monastery  of  Vadstena 
is  of  a  purely  religious  charac- 
ter. After  the  Reformation,  the 
University  of  Upsala  was  suf- 
fered to  decay,  and  the  Swedish 
gentry  flocked  to  Wittenberg 
and  Rostock  for  an  education 
denied  to  them  at  home.  Nev- 
ertheless, the  reformers,  by 
their  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, fixed,  once  for  all,  the  form 
and  character  of  the  Swedish 
language.  It  was  George  Stjern- 
hjelm  (1598-1672)  who  first 
'taught  the  muses  how  to  play 
and  sing  in  the  Swedish  tongue.' 
His  ballets,  or  operatic  sketches, 
such  as  Then  Fangne  Cupido, 
amused  Queen  Christina's  court. 
Brdllopsbesvdrs  Hiugkommelse, 
the  work  of  his  old  age,  displays 
many  of  the  qualities  of  a  power- 
ful humorist.  The  path  opened 
up  by  Stjernhjelm  was  pursued 
by  his  friend  and  biographer, 
Samuel  Columbus  (1642-79), 
and  by  Peter  Lagerlof  (1648-- 
99),  accounted  the  best  religious 
poet  of  his  day.  Then  followed 
a  period  of  decline,  during  which 
Swedish  literature  fell  beneath 
the^  pernicious  influence  of  Ma- 
rini  and  his  German  imitators. 
The  vagaries  of  this  school  flour- 
ish most  luxuriantly  in  the 
bombastic  odes  of  Dahlstjerna 
(1658-1709).  Amid  the  jarring 
babel  only  one  faint  but  sweetly 
pathetic  note  strikes  the  ear — 
Jacob  Frese's  lyrics. 

A  salutary  change  was  effected 
by  the  rude  and  vigorous  Satir 
mot  vara  dumma  poetcr,  by  Sam- 
uel von  Triewald  (1688-1743), 
the  earliest  Swedish  satirist,  and 
the  dramas  of  Count  Carl  Gy\- 
lenborg,  Johan  Stagnell,  and  R. 
G.  Modee  (1698-1750),  the  two 
former  being  largely  influenced 
by  Swift,  Addison,  and  Wycher- 
ley,  and  the  latter  by  Moliere. 
It  was,  however,  in  Dalin  (1708- 
63)  that  the  English  influence 
produced  its  best  fruits.  Dalin's 
Svenska  Argus  is  a  close  and 
clever,  though  inferior,  imita- 
tion of  Addison's  Spectator.  As 
a  poetic  satirist,  too,  notably  in 
Aprilverk  and  the  masterly  Saga 
om,  Hdste^v,  obviously  suggested 
by  Swift's  Tale  of  a  Tub,  Dalin 
also  did  excellent  work ;  but  his 
plays  are  inferior  to  Gyllen- 
borg's.  On  the  other  hand,  his 
Svea  Rikes  Historia  was  the  first 
serious  attempt  at  a  critical 
history  of  Sweden  in  popular 
form. 

The  chief  pioneer  of  the  French 
school  in  Sweden  was  Hedwig 
Carlotta  Nordenflycht,  the  di- 
rectress of  the  'Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  the  Poetic  Art  in 
Sweden.'  whose  little  house  at 
Stockholm  became  the  favorite 


Sweden 


KFP 


570 


Swedenborg 


resort  of  the  elite  of  Swedish  so- 
ciety— a  sort  of  anticipation  in 
miniature  of  Madame  Geoffrin's 
salon  at  Paris  with  a  more  ro- 
mantic coloring.  Conspicuous 
among  its  frequenters  were  two 
poetical  young  noblemen,  Count 
Philip  Creutz  (1729-85)  and 
Count  Gustaf  Fredrik  Gyllen- 
borg  (1731-1808).  Creutz 
speedily  won  renown  by  his  ex- 
quisite pastoral  poem,  Atis  och 
Camilla;  while  Gyllenborg's 
beautiful  descriptive  idylls — 
Vinteravadct  and  Varqvadet — 
are  still  read  and  admired. 

With  the  accession  of  Gustavus 
III.  (1771),  himself  a  playwright 
and  orator,  begins  the  classical 
period  of  Swedish  literature. 
Nota"ble  Gustavians  were  the 
poets  Kellgren  (1751-95),  Leo- 
pold (1756-1829)  and  Oxen- 
stjerna  (1750-1818),  a  gay  and 
graceful  society  poet,  and  the  au- 
thor of  the  descriptive  idylls 
Dagens  Stunder  and  Skordarne, 
and  the  playfully  mock-heroic 
legend  Disa.  Kellgren,  as  editor 
of  the  Stockholm  Post,  exercised 
for  fourteen  years  an  indisputa- 
ble dictatorship  over  the  national 
literature,  while  Leopold  was  ex- 
travagantly belauded  by  his  con- 
temporaries and  as  unduly  dis- 
paraged by  a  later  age.  Oxen- 
stjerna,  Kellgren,  and  Leopold 
were  the  chief  representatives  of 
the  classical  school  which  looked 
to  France  for  its  models.  But 
along  with,  though  independent 
of,  the  classical  school,  a  purely 
national  school  of  literature  was 
springing  up,  whose  chief  expo- 
nents were  Bellman,  Lidner, 
Hallman,  and  Kexel.  Bellman 
(1740-95),  not  merely  the  great- 
est of  the  Gustavan  poets,  but 
one  of  the  few  great  lyric  poets 
of  modern  times,  was  of  a  genius 
closely  akin  to  that  of  Robert 
Burns,  though  it  is  difficult  for 
any  one  but  a  Swede  to  appre- 
ciate, still  less  to  define,  his 
peculiar  genius.  Lidner's  (1759- 
93)  was  a  vagabond  talent  of 
great  force  and  pathos.  Hallman 
(1732-1800)  enjoys  the  distinc- 
tion of  founding  a  purely  national 
comic  drama  in  Sweden.  Kexel 
(1748-96)  was  a  more  graceful 
but  far  less  original  dramatist 
than  his  friend  Hallman,  and  his 
historical  tale,  Zamaleski,  is  re- 
markable as  being  the  first  Swed- 
ish novel.  More  difficult  to  class- 
ify is  that  child  of  revolt,  the 
eccentric  Thorild  (1759-1808). 

The  formalism  introduced  into 
Swedish  literature  by  the  classi- 
cal school  was  at  last  successfully 
combated  by  the  protagonists  of 
the  rising  romantic  school, 
Askelof  (1787-1848)  and  Atter- 
bom  (1790-1855),  the  latter  the 
author  of  Fagcl  Bid  and  Lyck- 
salifjhctrns  6,  in  their  respective 
journals  Polyfcm  and  Fosfor. 
These  so-called  Phosphorists  in- 


cluded in  their  ranks  the  critic 
Hammerskjold,  the  romance 
writer  W.  F.  Palmblad,  and  the 
poet  and  novelist,  K.  F.  Dahl- 
gren.  Two  independent  poets  of 
the  same  period  are  the  lyrist 
F.  M.  Franzen  (1772-1847),  and 
J.  O.  Wallin,  Sweden's  best 
hymn-writer. 

Another  illustrious  group  of 
writers  and  thinkers  formed 
about  this  time  the  Gothic  Union, 
whose  chief  aim  it  was  to  culti- 
vate and  idealize  old  Scandina- 
vian literature  and  heroic  tradi- 
tion, and  which  numbered  in  its 
ranks  the  poet  and  historian 
Geijer  (1783-1847),  the  poet 
Esaias  Tegner  (1782-1846),  au- 
thor of  Frithjofs  Saga;  Beskow, 
the  chivalrous  apologist  of  Gus- 
tavus III ;  and  Lindeblad.  Quite 
apart  from  these  contending 
coteries  we  find  E.  J.  Stagnelius 
(1793-1823),  a  mystical  nature, 
who  achieved  excellence  in  almost 
every  branch  of  poetry  ;  the  new 
romantic,  J.  L.  Almqvist  (1793- 
1866),  who  yet,  in  his  novel  Det 
gar  an  anticipated  the  realism  of 
a  later  day  ;  Bottiger  ;  and  many 
others.  Epoch-making  were  the 
works  of  Runeberg  (1804-77), 
notably  Fdnrik  Stdls  Sdgncr,  un- 
doubtedly the  finest  poet  of  the 
younger  generation. 

In  the  forties  appeared  a  group 
of  romance  writers  reminiscent 
of  Jane  Austen,  foremost  among 
whom  were  two  women,  Fred- 
erika  Bremer  and  EmilieFlygare- 
Carlen,  while  the  historical  ro- 
mance was  successfully  culti- 
vated by  Starback  and  Crusen- 
stolpe,  though  by  far  the  best 
work  in  this  department  is  Tope- 
lius'  Fdltskdrens  Berdttelscr, 
still  the  most  popular  of  all 
Swedish  story-books.  In  the 
fifties  we  meet  with  a  group  of 
writers  who  founded  the  poetic 
society 'N.S.' — Nyblom.  Snoilsky, 
Bjorck,  Wirsen,  Wikner,  and 
Backstrom  all  of  them  neo- 
romanticists.  Wirsen  was  the 
leading  critic  of  the  party,  and 
Snoilsky  incomparably  its  finest 
poet — indeed,  his  patriotic  cycle 
of  poems,  Svcnska  Bilder,  is  one 
of  the  masterpieces  of  the  litera- 
ture. 

The  realistic  school,  which 
arose  almost  simultaneously, 
owed  much  of  its  impetus  to  the 
Danish  critic  Georg  Brandes. 
August  Strindberg  (1849-1912), 
the  shining  light  of  the  Swedish 
realists,  outraged  every  conven- 
tion, but  his  later  works  took  a 
mystical  turn  and  bore  a  resem- 
blance to  those  of  Huysmans. 
Other  notable  realists  are  Fru 
Leffler-Edgren,  Gustaf  af  Geier- 
stam,  and  Ola  Hansson.  The 
banner  of  idealism  was,  however, 
speedily  unfurled  again  by  Victor 
Rydberg,  whose  Singoalla  would 
alone  suffice  to  immortalize  his 
name. 


Two  independent  writers  of 
great  ability  are  Von  Heidenstam 
and  Levertin,  both  remarkable 
for  the  gorgeous  beauty  and 
vividness  of  their  style.  Heiden- 
stam restored  the  historical  novel 
to  favor  by  his  brilliant  cycle  of 
tales  Karolinerna,  whose  hero  is 
Charles  xii ;  while  Levertin  is 
equally  famous  as  a  novelist,  a 
poet,  and  a  critic.  More  recent- 
ly a  writer  of  the  first  rank 
emerged  in  Selma  Lagerlof 
(1858-1940),  who  invented  an 
entirely  new  genre  of  an  ideal- 
istic religious  tendency.  Other 
names  of  note  are  Lundegard, 
Henning,  Lungqvist,  Schroder, 
Hallstrom,  Elkan,  Wickstrom, 
D.  Fjallstrom,  and  Eroding. 

The  scientific  and  philosophi- 
cal literature  of  Sweden  is  also 
considerable,  and  includes  such 
names,  as  Hoijer,  Bostrom,  RilD- 
bing,  and  Nyblaeus  among  the 
philosophers ;  Geijer,  Fryxell, 
Carlson,  Malmstrom,  Odhner,  E. 
Tegner,  Alin,  and  Hildebrand 
among  the  historians ;  geog- 
raphers, such  as  Nordenskjold ; 
chemists,  such  as  Berzelius  ;  bot- 
anists, such  as  Linnaeus,  Agardh, 
and  Fries ;  philologists,  such  as 
Rydqvist  and  Soderwall. 

Notable  moderns  include  Hjal- 
mar  Soderberg  (1869-1941),  Bo 
Bergman  (1869-  )  and  Hen- 
ning Berger  (1872-1922),  all 
portrayers  of  modern  life,  and 
Hjalmar  Bergman  (1883-1931), 
who  writes  with  imaginative 
force.  HenrikSchuck(1855-  ) 
has  produced  a  great  history 
of  Swedish  literature,  and  Carl 
Grimberg  (1875-1941)  a  schol- 
arly history  of  Sweden.  Birger 
Sjoberg  (1885-1929)  stands  in 
a  class  by  himself,  his  best- 
known  works  being  Fridas  hok 
(1922),  Kvartetten  som  sprdng- 
des  (1924)  and  Kriser  och  kran- 
sar  (1926).  Consult  Horn's  His- 
tory of  Scat!  din  avian  Literature  ; 
Hammerskj  old's  Svcnska  Vitter- 
heten ;  Linstrom's  Svcnska  Poe- 
siens  Histort-a ;  Dietrichsen's  In- 
dledning  i  studiet  af  Svcriges 
Literatur  ;  Wieselgren's  Sveriges 
Skona  Literatur ;  Schiick  and 
Warburg's  Illustrcrad  Svcnsk 
Literatur- Historic  ;  Ljunggren's 
Svenska  Dramat ;  Schweitzer's 
Geschichtc  dcr  Skandinavischcn 
Literatur;  Gunnar  Jorn's  Svcn- 
ska diktarportrdtt  (1924). 

Swedenborg,  swe'den-borg ; 
or  also  sva'den-bory,  Emanuel 
(1688-1772),  Swedish  scien- 
tist, philosopher  and^  religious 
reformer,  was  born  in  Stock- 
holm, the  third  child  and  sec- 
ond son  of  Bishop  Jesper  Sved- 
berg,  former  chaplain  of  Charles 
XI.  Educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Upsala,  he  spent  several 
years  abroad  as  a  student  and 
scientific  observer,  studying  un- 
der Newton,  Flamsteed  and 
Halley.    At  the  same  time,  lodg- 


2°   A      0°    B  2° 

"7  1  r 

SWEDEN 
GOVERNMENTS 

1  Blekiiigre  J  a 

8  Christianstad.H  8 
SElfsborp-  H7 

4  Gefleborg'  K6 

5  Gotland  L8 

6  Gottenborgoch 

Bohus  G7 

7Halland  H8 

8  Jenitland  J  5 

9  Joiikoping  J  8 

-10  Kalmar  K 

11  Kopparberg  . . .  J  6 

12  Ki  onoberg  J  8 

ISMalmohus  ....H  9 
14Noribotten....L3 
loOi  ebi  o  J  7 

Oster  Gotland  .J  7 
17  SkaraboiR.,..H7 
1  SodermanlandK  7 
•  19  Stockholm....  L  7 
20  Stockholm  (City) 
L7 

'1\  Upsala  K 

VI  Wermland ....  K  7 

23  Westei-botten  .  K  4 

24  Westernon  laud 
K5 

25  Westmanland  K  7 


DISTRICTS 

1  Akershu.s  G6 

2  Bereren  D6 

3  Bratsbei  g  F  7 

4  Buskeriid  F  6 

5  Chi'istiania  ....(it 

6  (.'hristians  F6 

7  Fintnarken  ..  P 

8  Hedemai  kcn . .  G  6 

9  Jarlsberg  og 

Laivik'  G7 

10  Lister  og  Mandal 

E7 

11  Nedenes   7 

12  Nordland  J  3 

13Noidi-e 

Bfigenhus  ..E6 

14  Nordi'e 

Tiondlijem.  H4 

15  Roiiisdal  R5 

It)  Sniaiilenene...G  7 

17  Son  d  re 

Beigenhu.'; .  .EC 

18  Sondre 

Trondhiem.  G  .T 
lOStavaiigei  . ...  K7 
20Troin«)  M2 


E    8°  F    10°  G    12°  H    14°  J    16°  K 


L    20°  M 


22°  N   24"  O  20"  p 


SliVEDK^r,  :nOR  WAT 

AND 

DENMARK 

SCALE  OF 


!°  Q 


0    20  40   60   80  100120 

RailrOnrls. . 
Canals  

Size  of  type  indicates  -df^ 
relative  importance],    %  ,|'V 
of  places       JK  ^/ci 


12''LongH  Uudel4  East  J  frouil6°Greeii «  wichis" 


Swedenborg 


571 


Swedenborgian  Church 


ing  with  various  craftsmen,  he 
acquired  the  arts  of  instrurnent- 
making,  book-binding,  cabinet- 
making,  glass-grinding  and  lens- 
making.  On  his  return  to  Swed- 
en he  astonished  the  scientific 
world  by  his  prophetic  vision 
with  plans  for  some  amazing  in- 
ventions which  included  a  glider- 
type  airplane,  a  submarine,  a 
mechanical  piano,  ear  trumpet, 
mercury  pump,  self-propelling 
carriage  and  a  tank  for  ship 
models.  In  1716  he  founded 
Sweden's  first  scientific  peri- 
odical. Daedalus  Hypcrhoreiis. 
In  the  same  year  Charles  xii. 
appointed  him  assessor  or  coun- 
sellor in  the  Royal  College  of 
Mines  and  he  rendered  impor- 
tant services  to  that  monarch 
as  military  engineer.  After  the 
death  of  Charles  Swedenborg 
was  elevated  by  Queen  _  Ulrica 
Eleanora  to  the  Equestrian  Or- 
der of  the  House  of  Nobles.  He 
held  a  seat  in  the  Diet  almost  to 
the  end  of  his  life,  being  consid- 
ered a  liberal  and  advancing^  a 
number  of  notable  pieces  of  legis- 
lation, dealing  chiefly  with 
finance,  commerce  and  temper- 
ance. His  early  scientific  and 
philosophical  _  productions  in- 
cluded a  treatise  on  the  tin-plate 
industry,  Sweden's  first  textbook 
on  Algebra,  a  small  work  on  The 
Motion  and  Position  of  the  Earth 
and  several  essays  on  sea  levels, 
tides,  docks  and  salt  works.  In 
1721,  after  an  extensive  tour  of 
scientific  centres,  he  published 
parts  of  a  work  on  the  principles 
of  natural  philosophy ;  observa- 
tions respecting  iron  and  fire ; 
new  methods  of  finding  longitude 
by  lunar  observations,  and  mis- 
cellaneous observations  in  physi- 
cal science.  In  this  year  was  be- 
gun a  more  ambitious  work,  his 
Principia  or  principle  of  natu- 
ral things,  being  an  attempt  to 
furnish  a  philosophical  explana- 
tion of  the  elementary  world. 
Other  works  appeared  treat- 
ing of  methods  of  mining  and 
preparing  iron.  copper  and 
other  ores.  In  1735  he  was  made 
a  corresponding  member  of  the 
Russian  Imperial  Academy  of 
Sciences.  Later  he  turned  his 
attention  to  physiology  and 
anatomy  with  the  special  object 
of  discovering  the  human  soul, 
his  works — Eeonomia  Regni  Ani- 
malis  (1740-41),  Regnum  Ani- 
male  (1744—5),  De  Cerchro,  and 
Psychologia  Rationalis — deal 
with  man,  not  the  brute  creation, 
and  contain  striking  anticipations 
of  later  scientific  development. 
The  Worship  and  Love  of  God, 
the  last  of  his  philosophical 
w^orks,  appeared  in  1745.  His 
career  took  a  fresh  trend  during 
1743-45.  In  the  latter  year  he 
says  the  spiritual  world  was 
fully  revealed  to  him.  He 
claimed  to  have  been  called  by 


the  Lord  to  unfold  the  true,  be- 
cause interior,  teachings  of  the 
divine  Word  on  all  Christian 
doctrines. 

Swedenborg  died  and  was 
buried  in  London,  1772;  at  the 
request  of  the  Swedish  Govern- 
ment his  remains  were  removed 
to  Sweden  in  1908.  His  chief 
theological  works  are  Heavenly 
Secrets  (1749-56)  ;  Heaven  arid 
Its  Wonders  and  Hell  (1758); 
Divine  Love  and  Wisdom 
(1763)  ;  True  Christian  Religion 
(1771),  a  complete  statement  of 
his  doctrinal  system  ;  Apocalypse 
Revealed. 

The  spread  of  Swedenborg's 
teachings  was  at  first  largely  due 
to  a  Church  of  England  clergy- 
man. Rev.  John  Clowes,  who 
translated  many  of  the  theologi- 
cal writings.  A  society  for  pub- 
lishing Swedenborg's  works  has 
existed  since  1810,  while  the  first 
organization  of  Swedenborgians 
was  formed  in  London,  England, 
in  1783.  Complete  editions  of 
the  theological  works  in  English, 
with  some  of  his  works  in  Latin, 
and  others  in  Latin-English,  are 
issued  by  the  Swedenborg  So- 
ciety in  London  and  the  Sweden- 
borg Foundation,  New  York. 

Consult  R.  L.  Tafel,  Docu- 
ments Concerning  Swedenborg 
(1875-7);  Hyde,  Bibliography 
of  the  Works  of  Swedenborg 
(2,000  entries,  1870);  Stroh, 
Szvcdenborg  Archives  (1918)  ; 
Very's  Epitome  of  Swedenborg's 
Science  (1927)  ;  Lives  by  Wil- 
kinson (1849)  ;  Paxton  Hood 
(1854);  White  (ed.  1868); 
Worcester  (1883);  Trobridge 
(1923)  ;  Warren's  Compendium 
of  the  Theological  Writings  of 
Swedenborg  (1885).    See  Swed- 

ENBORGIAN  ChuRCH. 

Swedenborgian  Church, 

properly  the  Church  of  the  New 
Jerusalem,  whose  doctrines  are 
set  forth  in  the  theological  writ- 
ings of  Emanuel  Swedenborg 
(q.  V.)  recognized  by  the  church 
as  a  divinely  called  and  illumined 
seer  and  revelator.  The  Nevy 
Jerusalem  or  the  New  Church,  as 
it  is  referred  to  throughout 
Swedenborg's  writings,  is  so 
named  from  Revelation  xxi., 
and  the  establishment  of  this  uni- 
versal church  in  heaven  and  on 
earth  is  believed  bv  Swedenbor- 
gians to  be  the  fulfillment  of  that 
and^  all  other  prophecy  in  the 
Scriptures  respecting  the  second 
coming  of  the  Lord  and  His  in- 
stitution then  of  a  kingdom  or 
church  which  should  endure  to 
eternity  (Dan.  vii.  13,  14).  ^The 
faith  of  the  New  Church  is  as 
follows  : 

The  Lord  Jesus  Christ  is  the 
one  only  God.  In  the  Old  Testa- 
ment His  name  is  most  com- 
monly Jehovah  (The  Lord  in 
A.  v.).  God  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  called  Lord,  Jesus  Christ, 


Father,  Son,  Holy  Spirit,  besides 
Other  names.  Since  the  Word  is 
God's  revelation  and  expression 
of  Himself,  the  different  names 
by  which  He  is  called  therein  dis- 
tinguish and  define  His  essence 
and  existence.  His  love,  wisdom, 
and  power,  His  ends.  His  meth- 
ods and  His  acts.  By  the 
Father,  therefore,  is  not  meant  a 
divine  being  or  person  separate 
and  apart  from  other  divine  per- 
sons called  the  Son  and  the  Holy 
Spirit,  but  the  Father  signifies 
the  divine  inmost,  the  divine  es- 
sence, the  divine  love  ;  the  Son 
signifies  the  divine  existence,  the 
divine  appearing,  divine  revela- 
tion, divine  truth,  the  divine 
Word,  the  Divine  Human.  The 
Holy  Spirit  is  the  divine  proceed- 
ing, the  divine  operation,  divine 
influx  adapting  the  appropriating 
to  man  the  divine  gifts  of  life, 
love  and  truth.  Thus  the  Trinity 
is  not  of  God  in  three  persons  or 
of  three  persons  in  God,  but  of 
Divine  Love,  Divine  Wisdom, 
and  Divine  Proceeding,  in  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who,  there- 
fore, is  the  one  only  God.  Man, 
as  an  image  and  likeness  of  God, 
is  constituted  of  the  trinity  of 
soul,  body  and  operation. 

Since  the  Lord,  when  upon 
earth,  glorified  and  made  divine 
his  human  nature,  therefore  His 
second  corning  is  the  revelation 
of  His  Divine  Human.  In  order 
that  this  revelation  of  the  Lord 
God  in  His  Divine  Human  might 
be  known  and  perceived  in  the 
world  to  eternity  and  'since  the 
Lord  cannot  manifest  Himself  in 
person,  and  yet  has  foretold  that 
He  would  come  and  establish  a 
new  church,  which  is  the  New 
Jerusalem,  it  follows  that  he  is 
to  do  it  by  means  of  a  man,  who 
is  able  not  only  to  receive  the 
doctrines  of  this  church  with  his 
understanding,  but  also  to  pub- 
lish them  by  the  press.  That  the 
Lord  has  manifested  Himself  be- 
fore me,  His  servant,  and  sent 
me  on  this  office,  and  that,  after 
this,^  He  opened  the  sight  of  my 
spirit  and  thus  let  me  into  the 
spiritual  world,  and  gave  me  to 
see  the  heavens  and  the  hells,  and 
also  to  speak  with  angels  and 
spirits,  and  this  now  for  many 
years  I  testify  in  truth  ;  and  also 
that  from  the  first  day  of  that 
call  I  have  not  received  anything 
that  pertains  to  the  doctrines  of 
that  church  from  any  angel,  but 
from  the  Lord  alone  while  I  was 
reading  the  Word.'  {True 
Christian  Religion,  779). 

In  America  there  are  two  gen- 
eral organizations  of  those  who 
receive  the  testimony  of  Sweden- 
borg. One,  'The  (General  Con- 
vention of  the  New  Jerusalem,' 
dating  from  1817  ;  the  other  'The 
General  Church  of  the  New  Jeru- 
salem,' held  its  first  General  As- 
sembly in  1897.  The  British  or- 
113-D-3 


Sweeny 


572 


Sweet  Potato 


ganization  dates  officially  from 
1807,  though  meetings  were  held 
in  London  as  early  as  1783. 
There  are  other  New  Church 
organizations,  schools  and  pub- 
lishing houses  throughout  the 
world. 

At  Bryn  Athyn,  Pa.,  is  a  set- 
tlement of  New  Church  families 
devoted  especially  to  the  work  of 
education  in  accordance  with  the 
philosophy,  psychology,  instruc- 
tion, and  the  formation  of  char- 
acter as  set  forth  in  the  new  reve- 
lation. 'The  Academy  of  the 
New  Church,'  established  in 
1876,  is  a  corporation  instituted 
and  chartered  for  the  purpose  of 
conducting  a  universal  system  of 
schools,  wherein  shall  be  taught 
the  doctrine  and  religion  of  the 
church,  as  well  as  every  useful 
science  and  art.  The  end  and 
aim  of  the  Academy  is  to  educate 
its  pupils,  not  only  for  a  life  of 
efficiency  in  this  world,  but  pre- 
eminently to  prepare  them  for 
usefulness  in  the  spiritual  world 
to  eternity.  The  influence  of 
this  organization  has  been  incal- 
culable and  far-reaching,  extend- 
ing to  the  remotest  borders  of  the 
church.  By  its  profound  study 
and  learning  in  the  doctrines  of 
the  church  it  has  created  a  stand- 
ard of  interpretation  of  the  writ- 
ings of  Swedenborg.  and  by  its 
attitude  of  loyalty  and  faithful- 
ness has  exalted  them  within  the 
church  to  a  position  of  supreme 
authority  and  power. 

Sweeny,  Thomas  William 
(1820-92),  American  soldier,  born 
in  Cork,  Ireland.  He  emigrated 
to  the  U.  S.  in  1832;  served  in  the 
Mexican  War  as  a  second  lieu- 
tenant and  lost  an  arm  at  Churu- 
busco,  and  afterwards  had  active 
service  on  the  frontier.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he 
commanded  the  St._  Louis  ar- 
senal. He  assisted  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Camp  Jackson,  and  re- 
ceived a  severe  wound  at  the 
battle  of  Wilson's  Creek.  After- 
wards he  became  colonel  of  the 
52d  Illinois,  took  part  in  the 
operations  against  Fort  Donel- 
son;  distinguished  himself  at 
Shiloh;  and  was  commissioned 
brigadier-general  in  November, 
1862.  He  commanded  a  division 
in  the  Atlanta  campaign,  and 
was  mustered  out  of  the  service 
in  1865.  In  the  following  year 
he  took  part  in  the  Fenian  raid 
into  Canada.  He  re-entered  the 
army  soon  after,  and  was  retired 
in  1870. 

Sweepstakes,  a  way  of  gam- 
bling by  which  a  number  of  per- 
sons stake  their  money  in  a  com- 
mon pool,  the  whole  of  which  falls 
to  the  winner.  When  a  horse 
race  is  the  subject  of  the  stakes, 
each  one  who  is  concerned  draws 
113-D-3 


the  name  of  a  horse  entered  for 
the  event,  and  either  the  holder 
of  the  winning  horse  takes  the 
entire  stakes,  or  those  who  hold 
the  names  of  'placed'  horses  re- 
ceive a  certain  proportion. 

Sweet,  Benjamin  Jeffrey 
(1832-74),  American  soldier,  born 
in  Kirkland,  Oneida  co.,  N.  Y., 
whence  at  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
removed  to  Stockbridge,  Wis. 
He  was  for  a  time  a  member  of  the 
state  senate;  became  a  major  in 
the  6th  Wisconsin  regiment  of 
volunteers,  and  soon  afterwards 
colonel  of  the  21st,  and  was 
dangerously  wounded  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Perryville.  In  1864,  as 
commander  of  Camp  Douglas, 
he  frustrated  a  plot  on  the  part 
of  Confederate  emissaries  and 
Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle 
to  liberate  the  Confederate  prison- 
ers confined  there.  He  was  after- 
wards commissioned  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers. 

Sweet  Bay.  See  Laurel;  Mag- 
nolia. 

Sweetbread,  the  pancreas — 
i.e.  a  gland  of  the  body  which 
lies  between  the  bottom  of  the 
stomach  and  the  vertebrae  of  the 
loins.  This  organ,  when  taken 
from  cattle  and  properly  treated, 
forms  a  delicate  article  of  food. 

Sweet  Brier.    See  Rose. 

Sweet  Flag  {Acorus  calamus), 
a  rush-like  plant,  natural  order 
Araceas,  with  sword-shaped  leaves 
and  two-edged,  leaf-like  scapes, 
from  one  edge  of  which  emerges 
a  cyUndrical  spadix.  It  has  pun- 
gent and  aromatic  properties, 
and  its  root-stock,  the  officinal 
Calamus  aromatics,  is  sparingly 
used  as  a  stomachic,  and  in  con- 
fectionery. It  reaches  from  three 
to  six  feet,  and  is  common  in 
marshy  ground. 

Sweet  Gale,  or  Bog  Myrtle 


Sweet  Gale. 

1,  Male  catkin  ;  2,  male  flower  ;  3,  female 
flower  4,  fi  jit. 

(Myrica  gale),  of  the  order  Myri- 
caceae;  looks  like  a  dwarf  willow, 
and  forms  low  slender  bushes  on 


boggy  ground  throughout  the 
northern  hemisphere.  It  pro- 
duces a  fragrant  resin,  and  on  this 
account  is  used  by  European 
country  people  for  packing  among 
clothes,  to  perfume  them  and  to 
keep  off  insects. 

Sweet  Grass  {Savastana 
odorata)  is  used  by  the  north- 
eastern Indians  for  basketry. 
The  sweet-scented  vernal-grass  is 
Anthoxanthum  odoratum. 

Sweet    Gum.     See  Liquid- 

AMBAR. 

Sweet  Pea,  the  popular  name 
of  Lathyrus  odoratus,  an  annual 
plant.  It  is  of  the  easiest  cul- 
ture, but  will  repay  in  larger  and 
better  blooms  for  a  little  care 
in  the  preparation  of  the  soil.  A 
rich,  deeply  dug  soil  is  desirable, 
and  the  seed  may  be  sown  in  pots 
or  boxes  in  a  frame  in  January 
or  February  for  planting  out  in 
April,  or  it  may  be  sown  in  the 
open,  from  March  to  April,  about 
two  inches  being  allowed  from 
seed  to  seed.  Mr.  Eckford  has 
done  more  than  any  one  to  im- 
prove these  flowers.  It  is  always 
wise  to  red  lead  the  seed  in 
order  to  protect  them  from  birds 
and  mice.  Support  the  growing 
plants  with  brush  or  chicken- 
wire  ;  small  twigs  should  be  given 
as  soon  as  the  plants  are  well 
through  the  ground,  as  these  will 
afford  shelter  and  help  the  plants 
up  on  the  larger  stakes.  Be- 
fore the  hot  weather  sets  in  sweet 
peas  should  be  given  a  thick 
mulch  of  long  litter  or  grass  or 
straw. 

Sweet  Potato.  A  trailing  vine- 
like plant  {Ipomcea  batatas)  native 
to  the  tropics  and  producing 
tuberous  roots  which  are  exten- 
sively_  used  as  a  table  vegetable, 
for  pies,  canning,  and  food  for 
stock.  The  plant  is  widely  grown 
in  all  temperate  and  tropical 
climates,  the  United  States  pro- 
ducing about  50,000,000  busTiels 
annually.  The  states  of  largest 
production  are  Texas,  Alabama, 
Georgia,  Mississii)pi,  and  the 
Carolinas.  New  Jersey  is  the 
northernmost  state  where  the  crop 
is  grown  on  a  commercial  scale. 

The  plant  is  propagated  from 
the  sets  or  shoots  which  spring 
from  mature  tubers  planted  in  a 
hot  bed  or  propagating  house  fur- 
nishing bottom  heat  or  from  cut- 
tings taken  from  the  tips  of  grow- 
ing vines.  The  sets  or  cuttings 
are  set  out  about  18  inches  apart 
in  ridged  rows  3  ft.  apart  after 
danger  from  frost  is  over.  The 
crop  matures  in  90  to  110  days^ 
and  the  yield  varies  from  150  to 
400  bushels  per  acre.  In  storage 
they  keep  best  in  a  dry  room 
maintained  at  a  temperature  of  50° 
to  60°  E.  and  handled  as  little  as 
possible.  The  crop  thrives  best 
on  fertile,  warm,  sandy  loam  soils. 
There  are  a  large  number  of 
varieties  in  cultivation.     In  the 


Sweet  Sultan 


KFI 


573 


Swift 


South  a  soft  sugary  potato  is 
most  in  demand,  while  in  the 
North  a  more  mealy  potato  is 
desired.  The  more  popular 
southern  varieties  are  Sugar 
Yam,  Spanish,  Barbadoes,  etc. 
Farther  north  Jersey,  Nanse- 
mond,  and  Early  Carolina  are 
most  popular.  The  term  yam 
as  commonly  used  refers  to 
varieties  of  sweet  potatoes.  The 
true  yam  (Dioscaren)  is  seldom 
grown  in  this  country. 

Sweet  potatoes  contain  on  the 
average  from  4  to  6  per  cent,  of 
sugar  and  16  to  18  per  cent,  of 
starch,  and  are  therefore  richer  in 
food  constituents  than  the  com- 
mon or  Irish  potato.  See  Farm- 
ers' Bulletin  and  other  publica- 
tions of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  also 
Szvcct  Potato  Culture  by  James 
Fitz  and  by  R.  H.  Price. 

Sweet    Sultan.      See  Cen- 

TAUREA. 

Sweet-william  (Dianthus  bar- 
batus),  an  ornamental  perennial 
plant  of  the  Pink  family.  It  has 
large  lanceolate  leaves  and  round- 
topped  cymes  of  flowers  with 
toothed  petals  in  a  variety  of 
colors.  The  Spotted  Phlox  (P. 
maculata),  with  a  purple  spotted 
stem  and  pink-purple  flowers, 
found  in  rich  woods  and  on  the 
banks  of  streams  from  New 
Jersey  southward,  is  known  as 
Wild  Sweet-william. 

Swetchine,  Madame  Anne 
Sophie  Soymanoff  (1782-1857), 
Russian-French  author,  was  born 
in  Moscow.  She  was  brought  up 
in  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church, 
but  in  1815  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  shortly 
afterwards  settled  in  Paris. 
There  her  mingled  spirituality 
and  intellectual  force  charmed 
a  large  circle  of  friends,  for 
whom  her  famous  salon  became 
a  rendezvous.  Her  writings, 
chiefly  religious,  were  edited  by 
Falloux  (1860).  Consult  also 
her  Letters  (Eng.  trans,  by 
Preston) . 

Swete,  Henry  Barclay  (1835- 
1917),  English  theologian,  was 
born  in  Bristol,  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  was  ordained 
priest  in  1859.  He  was  examining 
chaplain  to  the  Bishop  of  St. 
Albans  (1881-90)  and  was  pro- 
fessor of  pastoral  theology  at 
King's  College,  London  (1882- 
90),  and  regius  professor  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge  (1890- 
1915).  The  most  important  of 
his  many  works  is  The  Old 
Testament  in  Greek  according  to 
the  Septuagint  (1887-94),  a  mas- 
terpiece of  sound  scholarship. 

Sweyn,  Svein,  or  Swegen 
(d.  1014),  king  of  Denmark,  son 
of  Harold  Bluetooth,  succeeded 
his  father  in  986.  In  the  early 
years  of  his  reign  he  was  de- 
feated and  imprisoned  by  the 
Swedes.     In  994  he  began  his 


raids  against  fengland,  and  com- 
pelled Ethelred  the  Unready  to 
pay  him  tribute.  After  recover- 
ing his  lost  Danish  possessions 
from  Sweden,  he  formed  an 
alliance  with  the  Swedish  king 
Olaf  against  Olaf  Tryggvason, 
king  of  Norway,  whom  the  allies 
defeated  at  the  battle  of  Svoldr 
(1000),  conquering  at  the  same 
time  Southern  Norway.  The 
massacre  of  the  Danes  by 
Ethelred  drew  Sweyn  once  more 
to  England,  and  by  the  end  of 
1013  he  had  conquered  nearly  the 
whole  of  that  kingdom.  He  died 
at  Gainsborough.  As  Swens  he 
is  mentioned  by  Shakespeare  in 
Macbeth. 

Swift,  a  general  name  applied 
to  the  members  of  the  family 
Cypselidae,  which  includes  forms 
allied  to  humming-birds,  but  pre- 
senting some  superficial  resem- 
blances to  the  passerine  swallows 
and  martins  (Hirundinidae),  with 
which  they  were  formerly  con- 
fused. Swifts  are  to  be  differ- 
entiated from  humming-birds  by 
their  broad  fiat  skulls,  short, 
curved  bills,  and  extremely  wide 
gape,  as  well  as  by  their  sober 
coloration.  They  are  distributed 
over  the  entire  world,  except  the 
extreme  north  and  south  and 
New  Zealand.  There  are  about 
eighty  species. 

Swifts  are  among  the  most 
aerial  of  birds,  seldom  alighting 
on  the  ground,  and  rarely  perch- 
ing save  at  night.  The  flight  is 
exceedingly  swift  and  powerful, 
and  during  it  the  birds  not  only 
feed  and  mate,  but  often  collect 
materials  for  their  nests,  in  the 
construction  of  which  the  secre- 


Swifts 


tion  of  the  salivary  glands  plays 
an  important  role.  In  the  genus 
Collocalia  this  secretion  is  espe- 
cially abundant  (see  Edible 
Birds'  Nests).  The  eggs  usu- 
ally number  from  two  to  four, 
or  exceptionally  only  one.  The 
note  is  a  harsh  scream,  and  the 
food  consists  of  insects,  whose 
indigestible  portions  are  ejected 
as  pellets. 

Swifts  are  divided  into  three 
sub-families:  (1)  the  Cypselinae, 
including  the  true  swifts,  of 
which  the  European  swift  is  an 
example;  (2)  Chaeturinae,  includ- 


ing the  genus  Collocalia;  and 
(3)  Macropteryginae,  the  tree- 
swifts  of  the  Indian  region,  with 
but  one  genus.  The  common 
American  sooty  brown  Chimney 
vSwift  {Chcetura  pelagica)  is  popu- 
larly called  the  chimney  swallow, 
and  is  familiar  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  breeding  in  chimneys, 
though  it  originally  resorted  in 
flocks  to  hollow  trees  for  the 
purpose.  It  spends  its  winters 
in  Central  America.  In  the  tree 
swifts  (Macropteryx)  a  single  egg 
is  laid  in  a  small  nest  glued  to 
the  side  of  a  branch. 

Swift,  Edwin  Charles  (?- 
1906),  American  merchant,  was 
born  in  Sandwich,  Cape  Cod, 
Mass.  He  went  in  1875  to 
Chicago  with  his  elder  brother, 
Gustavus  F.  Swift,  and  there 
engaged  in  the  butchering  busi- 
ness, afterward  entering  into 
partnership  with  his  brother, 
and  founding  with  him  the 
packing  firm  of  Swift  &  Co.,  of 
which  he  was  subsequently  vice- 
president  and  chairman  of  the 
board  of  directors. 

Swift,  Gustavus  Franklin 
(1839-1903),  American  merchant, 
was  born  in  Sandwich,  Cape  Cod, 
Mass.  He  left  home  at  an  early 
age,  worked  on  a  farm,  became 
a  cattle-driver,  and  eventually 
settled  in  Chicago  (1875),  where 
for  several  years  he  was  en- 
gaged in  the  butchering  busi- 
ness. Recognizing  the  value  of 
refrigerator  cars  for  conveying 
meat,  he  endeavored  to  interest 
the  leading  railroad  companies 
in  fitting  some  out  and  running 
them  into  Chicago,  but  without 
success.  He  thereupon  under- 
took the  construction  of  a  num- 
ber of  cars  of  this  type,  arrang- 
ing for  their  transport  over  the 
various  railroads.  They  were 
immediately  successful,  and  the 
business  thus  begun  grew  so 
rapidly  that  in  1885  it  was 
found  advisable  to  convert  it 
into  a  corporation.  The  firm 
not  only  revolutionized  the  pack- 
ing industry,  but  introduced  a 
new  factor  in  economic  develop- 
ment— the  private  freight  car. 

Swift,  Jonathan  (1667-1745), 
Irish  satirist,  was  born  in  Dublin, 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College 
in  that  city,  and  in  1689  became 
confidential  secretary  to  Sir 
William  Temple  at  Moor  Park, 
Surrey.  He  took  orders  in  1694, 
and  was  presented  to  the  living 
of  Kilroot,  near  Belfast,  but 
about  two  years  afterwards  re- 
turned to  Sir  William.  iVfter  the 
letter's  death,  in  1699,  Swift 
returned  to  Ireland  as  chaplain  to 
the  deputy,  Lord  Berkeley,  and 
was  given  the  small  living  of  Lara- 
cor  and  a  prebend  in  St.  Patrick's 
Cathedral,  Dublin.  In  1704  he 
published  anonymously  his  first 
book,  containing  The  Battle  oj 
the  Books  and  The  Tale  of  a  Tub. 


Swift 


KFI 


574 


Swimming 


While  in  England,  Swift  had 
been  the  friend  and  associate 
of  the  Whigs  Somers  and  Halifax, 
Addison,  and  Steele.  He  was, 
however,  far  more  of  a  church- 
man than  a  politician,  and  the 
Whig  attitude  toward  his  favor- 
ite scheme  for  the  remission  of 
the  Irish  first-fruits  ultimately- 
led  to  the  transfer  of  his  alle- 
giance to  the  Tory  party,  whose 
cause  he  pleaded  in  the  Examiner, 
and  in  a  series  of  powerful  pam- 
phlets. For  this  he  was  pre- 
ferred to  the  deanery  of  St. 
Patrick's.  In  1724  he  greatly 
enhanced  his  popularity  among 
his  own  countrymen  by  a  series  of 
pamphlets  entitled  Drapiey's  Let- 
ters, protesting  furiously  against 
what  all  Ireland  considered  the 


Jonathan  Swift 


scandalous  terms  on  which  a 
patent  was  granted  to  an  English 
merchant,  named  Wood,  to  insti- 
tute a  copper  coinage  in  Ireland. 
Gulliver  s  Travels,  a  keen  satire, 
which  (with  certain  omissions) 
has  gained  lasting  popularity  as 
a  children's  book,  was  published 
in  1726.  His  Modest  Proposal, 
in  which  he  sardonically  pro- 
posed to  alleviate  the  misery  of 
the  Irish  people  by  utilizing  their 
children  as  food,  appeared  in 
1729.  In  1736,  while  writing  the 
Legion  Club,  Swift's  mind  first 
showed  symptoms  of  giving  way. 
The  last  five  years  of  his  life 
were  years  of  almost  unrelieved 
misery.  He  was  buried  in  the 
Cathedral  of  St.  Patrick. 

Swift  was  a  master  of  the  art 
of  satire.  The  grave  irony  with 
which,  in  professing  to  plead  his 
opponents'  cause,  he  pours  ridi- 
cule upon  it,  is  as  unmatched  as 
the  simplicity  and  the  lack  of 
ornament  of  the  medium  through 
which  it  is  expressed.  In  virtue 
of  so  wide-reaching  and  philo- 
vsophical  a  creation  as  the  tale  of 
Gulliver's  Travels,  we  may  class 


him  as  the  greatest  satirist  of 
modern  times. 

Three  women  figure  in  the 
unhappy  story  of  Swift's  life. 
In  early  years  he  had  a  passing 
courtship  with  a  Miss  Waring 
('Varina').  The  real  affection 
of  his  life  was  for  Esther  Johnson 
— the  'Stella'  of  his  verse — whom 
he  first  met  at  Sir  William 
Temple's.  For  her  he  wrote  the 
Journal  to  Stella,  descriptive  of 
his  life  in  London,  but  never 
intended  for  publication;  and 
there  is  a  strong  probability  that 
he  was  privately  married  to  her. 
A  third  woman,  Esther  Van- 
homrigh  ('Vanessa'),  loved  Swift, 
and  received  from  him  in  return 
an  ardent  friendship.  But  when 
jealousy  moved  her  to  ask  for 
an  explanation  of  his  relations 
with  Stella,  Swift  was  so  enraged 
that  he  abruptly  broke  with  her. 
Vanessa  was  so  overcome  that 
she  died  shortly  after  (1723). 
By  her  will  she  left  directions  for 
the  publishing  of  Swift's  metrical 
version  of  their  romance,  which 
appeared  as  Cadenus  and  Va- 
nessa in  1726. 

Sir  Walter  Scott's  edition  of 
1814  is  still  the  most  complete 
collection  of  Swift's  Works;  it 
was  reissued  by  Saintsbury  in 
1891.  Selections  have  been 
edited  by  Traill  (1884-5),  Lewin 
(1886),  H.  Morley  (1889-90), 
and  Craik  (1892).  Consult  Lives 
by  Craik,  Sir  Leslie  Stephen, 
Moriarty,  and  Churton  Collins ; 
M.  M.  Rossi  and  J.  M.  Hone, 
Szvift,  or  tlic  Egotist  (1934)  ;  B. 
Newman,  Jonatiian  Sxvift  (1937). 

Switt,  Joseph  Gardner 
(1783-1865),  American  soldier, 
was  born  on  Nantucket  Island. 
He  was  the  first  graduate  of 
West  Point  (1802),  and  was  as- 
signed to  the  engineer  corps  of 
the  army.  He  rose  rapidly  in 
rank  and  on  the  outbreak  of  war 
with  England  was  made  chief  en- 
gineer of  the  army,  with  the  rank 
of  colonel.  He  saw  active  serv- 
ice under  Wilkinson  in  the  lat- 
ter's  abortive  Northern  cam- 
paign of  1813,  and  afterwards 
took  part  in  fortifying  New  York. 
He  resigned  in  1818  and  devoted 
himself  to  civil  engineering. 

Swift,  Lewis  (1820-1913), 
American  astronomer,  was  born 
in  Clarkson,  N.  Y.,  and  educated 
in  the  Clarkson  Academy.  In 
1862  he  discovered  an  important 
comet,  and  demonstrated  its 
influence  on  star  showers  which 
were  witnessed  at  the  time  of  its 
appearance.  In  1882  the  citi- 
zens of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and 
H.  H.  Warner,  built  and  equipped 
a  large  observatory  for  Dr. 
Swift,  from  which  he  discovered 
more  than  1,000  new  nebulae  and 
many  comets.  Failing  sight  com- 
pelled him  to  discontinue  his 
observations,  and  he  eventually 
disposed  of  his  astronomical  in- 


struments to  the  trustees  of  the 
Lowe  Observatory  in  California. 

Swift,  Lindsay  (1856-1921), 
American  librarian  and  author, 
was  born  in  Boston.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  in  1877, 
and  soon  afterward  joined  the 
staff  of  the  Boston  Public 
Library,  for  which  he  compiled 
and  edited  many  important  bibli- 
ographical works.  He  contrib- 
uted to  many  journals  and 
edited  several  historical  works. 
His  Brook  Farm  in  the  'National 
Studies  in  American  Letters 
Series'  (1900),  is  probably  the 
most  satisfactory  account  yet 
given  of  that  famous  com- 
munity, and  its  connection  with 
the  'Transcendental'  movement. 
Other  works  include  Massachu- 
setts Election  Sermons  (1897); 
Literary  Landmarks  of  Boston 
(1903);      Benjamin  Franklin 

(1910)  ;  William  Lloyd  Garrison 

(1911)  . 

Swilly,  Lough,  Ireland,  a  fine 
inlet  between  Donegal  and  Lon- 
donderry, about  30  miles  long. 
It  is  well  adapted  for  a  harbor 
of  refuge,  and  fortifications  have 
been  erected.  The  largest  battle- 
ships can  anchor  in  Buncrana 
Bay. 

Swimming.  The  power  of 
swimming,  or  sustaining  and  pro- 
pelling the  body  in  water,  is  a 
natural  faculty  with  quadrupeds, 
but  has  to  be  acquired  by  man 
It  is  practised  by  all  races  of  the 
globe,  but  is  brought  to  the 
greatest  perfection  by  those  in 
tropical  climates,  as  the  pearl- 
divers  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  Cey- 
lon, and  the  Eastern  Archipel- 
ago, the  'diving  boys'  of  Aden 
and  kindred  seaports,  the  is- 
landers of  the  Pacific,  and  the 
seafaring  and  fishing  population 
of  tropical  seaboards. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the 
hum.an  body  is  slightly  less 
than  that  of  water,  and  provided 
the  whole  body  is  immersed  and 
the  chest  inflated,  it  will  not 
sink.  Every  portion  of  the  body 
obtruded  above  the  water,  how- 
ever, adds  to  the  weight  of  the 
submerged  part,  and  soon  re- 
verses the  narrow  margin  of 
buoyancy.  The  arms  and  head 
are  the  portions  which  the  strug- 
gling non-swimmer  instinctively 
elevates,  with  the  result  that  the 
trunk  and  legs,  encumbered  with 
the  additional  weight,  drag  him 
down. 

There  are  several  methods  or 
styles  of  swimming.  In  the 
breast  stroke  the  action  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  a  frog  swim- 
ming. The  body  is  horizontal, 
the  chest  breasts  the  water,  the 
chin  is  just  clear  of  its  surface, 
the  arms  are  submerged  about 
three,  and  the  legs  about  eight, 
inches.  The  latter  are  the  prin- 
cipal propelling  power,  and  their 
action  is  circular  and  sideways  to 


Swimming 


575 


Swimming 


the  body,  achieved  by  drawing 
the  heels  up,  with  the  knees  mov- 
ing outwards,  then  kicking  out 
wide  to  either  side,  and  slowly 
completing  a  circle  until  the 
original  starting  posture  is  gam- 
ed, with  the  legs  extended  and 
the  heels  together.  The  arms 
should  be  bent  and  flexed  m 
starting,  the  elbows  within  six 
inches  of  the  sides,  and  the 
hands,  thumbs  together  and 
palms  downward,  under  the 
chin.  The  stroke  consists  in 
shooting  out  the  hands  to  the 
Umit  of  the  arms,  and  then,  with 
a  steady  pull,  sweeping  the  arms 
round  until  they  are  on  a  line 


with  the  shoulders,  when  re- 
covery to  the  starting-point  is 
made.  The  movement  of  arms 
and  legs  should  be  slow,  deliber- 
ate, and  in  unison.  Swimming  on 
the  back  is  the  reverse  of  the 
breast  stroke,  except  that  the 
arms  are  moved  like  oars  in 
rowing. 

In  the  side  stroke,  the  swim- 
mer is  on  his  side,  the  upper  leg 
is  flexed,  and  the  lower  almost 
straight  in  line  with  the  body; 
the  knees  are  then  straightened 
vigorously,  with  the  position  of 
the  thighs  unchanged,  and  the 
legs  snapped  together  like  a  pair 
of  scissors.    At  the  same  time 


the  lower  arm  is  pushed  forward 
and  upward,  while  the  upper  arm 
is  brought  from  a  dipped  posi- 
tion near  the  head  to  the  hip. 
The  scissors  kick,  employed  in 
the  side  stroke,  is  also  used  in  the 
trudgeon,  but  the  arms  are 
carried  out  of  the  water,  turning 
the  body  and  submerging  the 
face.  In  the  crawl  the  move- 
ment of  the  arms  is  similar  to 
that  in  the  trudgeon,  but  the 
thrash  kick,  straight  from  the 
hip,  is  employed.  The  body  is 
kept  flat  on  the  surface  with  the 
face  submerged,  the  head  is 
raised  at  intervals  for  breath;  the 
air  is  exhaled  under  the  water. 


A  variety  of  dives  have  been 
developed.  These  include  the 
plain  front  dive,  with  the  arms 
extended  over  the  head,  thumbs 
locked;  the  swan  dive,  in  which 
the  arms  are  thrown  horizontally 
sidewards  while  the  body  is  in 
the  air,  and  then  brought  rapidly 
back  to  the  original  position  over 
the  head,  as  the  diver  enters  the 
water;  the  back  dive;  the  jack- 
knife  (front  and  back),  in  which 
the  body  is  doubled  in  mid  air, 
so  that  the  hands  may  touch  the 
toes;  somersault  dive;  whirl  dive, 
and  others. 

Swimming  Records. — In  Au- 
gust 1875  Captain  Matthew  Webb 


swam  across  the  British  Channel 
from  Dover  to  Calais,  in  21  hours, 
45  minutes,  covering  an  esti- 
mated distance  of  46  miles.  An 
even  greater  exhibition  of  en- 
durance was  that  of  Montague 
Holbein,  who  in  August  1902 
swam  from  Cape  Grisnez  to 
within  three-quarters  of  a  mile  of 
Dover  Parade  in  22  hours,  21 
minutes,  traversing  a  distance 
stated  to  be  53  miles.  Captain 
Webb's  feat  was  not  repeated 
until  1921,  when  William  Bur- 
gess, another  Englishman,  swam 
the  channel  in  22  hours,  35 
minutes.  In  1923  three  swim- 
mers successfully  performed  this 


difficult  feat:  Henry  P.  Sullivan, 
of  Lowell,  Mass.  in  about  28 
hours;  Enrico  Tiraboschi,  of 
Argentina,  in  16  hours,  33  min- 
utes; Charles  Toth,  of  Boston, 
Mass.,  in  16  hours,  40  minutes. 

The  first  woman  to  swim  the 
channel  was  a  nineteen-year  old 
American,  Gertrude  Ederle,  who 
also  made  a  record  for  speed, 
covering  the  distance  in  14  hours, 
25  minutes,  Aug.  6,  1926.  This 
record  was  beaten  by  Ernst 
Vierkoetter,  a  German,  who 
crossed  in  12  hours,  43  minutes, 
Aug.  30,  1926,  and  by  Georges 
M  ichel ,  a  French  man,  who  crossed 
in  11  hours  5  minutes,  Sept.  10, 


The  Movements  of  Swimming 
1.  Breast  stroke,  seen  from  above.   2.  Treading  water.    3.  The  plunge.   4.  The  high  dive.   5.  Life-saving-a  good 

6.  Overhand  side-stroke. 


Swinburne 


KFI 


576 


Swinburne 


1926.  On  Aug.  28,  1926,  Mille 
Gade  Corson,  of  New  York  City, 
swam  the  Channel  in  15>4  hours, 
and  on  Sept.  17,  Norman  L. 
Derham,  an  Englishman,  swam 
it  in  13  hours,  57  minutes.  (For 
later  records,  see  English 
Channel.) 

The  world's  record  for  100 
yards  is  held  by  J.  Weismuller, 
of  the  United  States,  who  made 
that  distance,  in  1927,  in  51  sec- 
onds. The  woman's  record  for 
the  sam.e  distance  is  59.8  sec- 


onds, made  by  W.  Den  Ouden  of 
Holland  in  1934.  The  world's 
record  for  a  mile  was  made  in 
1934  by  J.  Medica  of  U.  S.  A. 
— 20  minutes,  57.8  seconds  ;  the 
woman's  world  record  was  made 
in  1930  by  H.  Madison,  U.  S.  A., 
whose  time  was  24  minutes,  34.6 
seconds. 

Consult  Dalton  on  Swimming. 

Swinburne,  Algernon 
Charles  (1837-1909),  English 
poet,  was  born  in  London,  and 
even  as  a  child  began  to  compose 
lyrics  and  ballads  which  show 
the  influence  of  the  scenery,  tra- 
ditions, and  legendary  romance 


of  Northumberland  and  the 
Border  lands.  In  1857  he  en- 
tered Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
and  there  won  the  friendship  of 
Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  William 
Morris,  and  Edward  Burne- 
Jones.  After  Oxford  he  went  to 
East  Dene,  near  Bonchurch,  in 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  the  influ- 
ence of  his  surroundings  there  is 
as  directly  traceable  in  his  early 
poetry,  as  is  that  of  his  North- 
umbrian home.  By  this  time  he 
had  written  (though  not  then 


published)  his  first  poetic  drania, 
Chaslelard,  which,  for  all  its 
crudity  in  certain  respects,  is 
unmistakably  a  work  of  genius. 
In  1865  he  went  to  Italy,  visited 
Walter  Savage  Landor  at  Fiesole, 
and  to  him  he  dedicated  his  first 
masterpiece,  Alalanta  in  Calydon 
(1865).  From  this  period  Swin- 
iDurne's  home  was  London, 
though  it  was  not  till  after  the 
publication  of  Bolhwell  (1874), 
Erechtheus  (1876),  and  the  second 
series  of  Poems  and  Ballads 
(1878)  that  he  took  up  residence 
on  Putney  Hill,  where,  with  his 
intimate  friend,  Theodore  Watts- 


Dunton,  he  passed  the  rest  of 
his  life. 

Swinburne  published  his  first 
book,  comprising  the  two  dramas 
The  Queen  Mother  and  Rosa- 
mund, in  1860,  the  first  of  these 
being  practically  a  prelude  to  the 
great  dramatic  cycle  of  Mary 
Stuart,  to  which  he  gave  the  best 
years  of  his  early  and  middle 
manhood.  In  1865,  by  the  pub- 
lication of  that  superb  lyrical 
drama  in  the  Greek  mould, 
Atalanla  in  Calydon,  he  estab- 
lished his  reputation  as  one  of 
the  foremost  poets  of  his  time. 
Chaslelard,  also  published  in 
1865,  should  be  considered  as  the 
first  section  of  the  Mary  Stuart 
trilogy,  its  companion  dramas 
being  Both-well  (1874)  and  Mary 
Stuart  (1881).  In  1866,  by  the 
publication  of  Poems  and  Ballads, 
appearing  in  America,  under  the 
title  Laus  Veneris,  Swinburne 
aroused  a  violent  storm  of  criti- 
cism. Apart  from  their  great  and 
enduring  beauty,  these  poems 
read  now  as  the  work  of  a 
young  and  unbalanced  mind 
aflame  with  the  delight  of  life 
and  the  magic  of  beauty,  and 
intoxicated  by  the  joy  of  revolt — 
by  the  sheer  pleasure  of  throwing 
off  restraint.  Songs  before  Sun- 
rise (1871)  and  Erechtheus  (1876) 
convinced  even  the  most  unsym- 
pathetic judges  that  Swinburne 
was  the  greatest  master  of  metri- 
cal music  since  Shelley,  but  with 
the  exception  of  Tristram  of 
Lyonesse  (1882),  it  is  doubtful 
whether  his  later  works  have  the 
same  poetic  value  as  the  earlier, 
as  they  certainly  have  not  a  like 
poetic  influence. 

In  Swinburne  we  have  a  poetic 
dramatist  of  great  power  and 
beauty,  and  a  rhapsodist  of 
emotional  life  of  unequalled  en- 
thusiasm and  intensity.  He  was 
supremely  the  laureate  of  the  sea. 
Of  his  work  in  prose  the  matter 
is  generally  admirable  and  aU 
ways  interesting,  but  in  manner 
it  is  often  efflorescent  and  re- 
dundant. Among  his  works  not 
already  mentioned  are:  Songs  of 
Two  Nations  (1875);  Songs  of  the 
Springtides  (1880);  Studies  in 
Song  (1880);  A  Century  of  Roun- 
dels (1882);  A  Midsummer  Holi- 
day (1884);  Marino  Faliero 
(1885);  Locrine  (1887);  Poems 
and  Ballads  (3d  series,  1889); 
The  Sisters  (1892);  Astrophel 
(1894) ;  The  Tale  of  Balen  (1896) ; 
Rosamund,  Queen  of  the  Lom- 
bards (1899);  A  Channel  Pas- 
sage, and  Other  Poems  (1904); 
Love's  Cross  Currents:  a  Year's 
Letters  (1905);  a  critical  Essay 
with  Prefatory  Note  (1906).  A 
collected  edition  of  Swinburne's 
works  was  published  in  1904-05. 
Consult  the  biography  by  Will- 
iam Sharp  in  the  Tauchnitz  edi- 
tion of  Atalanta  in  Calydon  and 
Selected  Lyrical  Poems;  also  Sted- 
man's  Victorian  Poets  (rev.  ed.. 


Algernon  Charles  Swinburne 
(Photo  by  Eliot  &  Fry.) 


Swindling 


KFI 


577 


1887),   and   Woodberry,  Swm- 
bunic  (1905).  .  , 

Swindling  is  cheating  or  de- 
frauding by  artifice  for  obtain- 
ing money.  It  may  or  may  not 
be  punishable  as  a  crime,  but  in 
most  cases  amounts  to  legal 
fraud,  and  would  avoid  a  con- 
tract obtained  by  its  means,  lo 
render  swindling  punishable  it 
must  come  under  the  head  of  lar- 
ceny bv  a  trick,  or  the  obtaining 
of  monev  or  credit  by  false  pre- 
tenses— i.e.,  by  a  false  rep- 
resentation as  to  an  existing  fact 
Swindling  is  not  a  technical  legal 
term  in  all  jurisdictions.  bee 
Fraud;  Larceny. 

Swin'don,  municipal  borough, 
England,  in  Wiltshire,  on  the 
Wilts  and  Berks  Canal  ;  77  mi  es 
west  of  London.  Public  build- 
ings include  the  town  hall,  mar- 
ket, corn  exchange,  and  Railway 
Mechanics'  Institution.  The 
chief  industrial  establishment  is 
the  locomotive  and  carriage 
works  of  the  Great  Western 
Railway.  Pop.  (1931)  62,401. 
Swine.  See  Pig. 
Swinemiinde,  sve'nc-mun  dc, 
town,  in  the  Prussian  Province 
of  Pomerania,  on  the  island  of 
Usedom,  68  miles  n.w.  of  Stet- 
tin. It  is  situated  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Swine  and  is  strongly 
fortified.  Near  by  is  Swmde- 
miinde-Bad,  a  popular  watering 
place  with  a  fine  sandy  beach. 
Pop.  about  18,200. 

Swing,  David  (1830-94), 
American  clergyman,  was  born 
in  Cincinnati,  O.  He  was  grad- 
uated (1852)  from  Miami  Uni- 
versity where  he  was  for  twelve 
vears  '(1852-65)  professor  of 
languages.  In  1866  he  was 
called  to  the  pastorate  of  the 
Fourth  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Chicago,  and  there  gained  a 
reputation  as  a  preacher  of  force 
and  deep  spirituality.  He  was 
charged  with  heresy  by  Dr. 
Francis  L.  Patton  (1874),  and, 
though  acquitted  by  the  Chicago 
Presbytery,  he  eventually  re- 
signed his  pastorate.  He  con- 
tinued to  hold  meetings  and 
preached,  until  his  death,  to  large 
congregations.  . 

Swin'ton,  town,  England,  in 
West  Riding,  Yorkshire;  10 
miles  N.E.  of  Sheffield.  It  has 
railway  works,  and  manufactures 
bottles,  glass,  pottery,  and  iron 
goods.    Pop.  (1931)  13,820. 

Swinton,  William  (1833- 
92),  American  journalist  and 
author,  was  born  in  Salton,  Scot- 
land. He  was  educated  in  Knox 
College  (Toronto)  and  Amherst 
College.  After  some  experience 
as  a  preacher  and  teacher,  he 
joined  the  staff  of  the  New  York 
Times  in  1858.  As  war  corre- 
spondent for  that  newspaper,  he 
brought  upon  himself  the  dis- 
pleasure of  General  Burnside, 
and  afterwards  of  General  Grant, 


by  his  frank  criticism  of  military 
movements.  After  the  close  of 
the  war  he  travelled  m  the 
South,  studying  conditions  there, 
and  in  1867  returned  to  the  New 
York  Times,  as  literary  critic. 
From  1869  to  1874  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  belles-lettres  _  in  the 
University  of  California.  He 
wrote  textbooks  of  history, 
geography,  and  language,  which 
were  standard  for  many  years. 
Among  his  other  writings  were  : 
Campaigns  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  (1866);  Twelve  Deci- 
sive Battles  of  the  War  (1867)  ; 
Condensed  History  of  the  United 
States  (1870)  ;  Outlines  of  the 
World's  History  (1875).  He 
edited  Masterpieces  of  Enghsh 
Literature  (1880)  and  A  Treas- 
iirv  of  Tales  (1885). 

Swiss  Guards,  a  famous  reg- 
iment of  Swiss  soldiers  who,  by  a 
decree  of  1616,  were  constituted 
French  royal  bodyguards.  Their 
loyalty  and  devotion  were  un- 
swerving, and  at  the  time  of  the 
French  Revolution  (1792)  the 
greater  part  were  massacred  in 
defending  the  Palace  of  the  Tuil- 
leries  against  the  fury  of  the 
mob.  Thorwaldsen's  famous 
Lion  of  Lucerne  was  designed 
as  a  memorial  to  them. 

The  Papal  bodyguard  is  also 
known  as  the  Swiss  Guards.  It 
consists  of  unmarried  Swiss 
Catholics,  who  must  be  at  least 
five  feet  eight  inches  in  height, 
healthy,  and  free  from  bodily 
disfigurement. 

Switch.    See  Railroads. 
Switch,    an    instrument  for 
opening  or  closing  an  electric 
circuit.     See  Electric  Light- 
ing. . 

Switchback,  a  mountain  rail- 
way in  which  a  series  of  tracks 
run  zigzag,  to  and  fro,  along  the 
slope,  the  train  switching  from 
one  to  another  and  running  al- 
ternately forward  and  backward. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  a  rail- 
way in  which  the  momentum  se- 
cured by  running  swiftly  down  a 
declivity  enables  the  cars  to 
mount  a  steep  ascent,  sometimes, 
however,  with  the  assistance  of  a 
stationary  engine  and  cable  rope. 
The  switchback  system  is  ap- 
plied to  a  popular  method  of 
amusement,  in  which  cars  are 
made  to  descend  steep  inclines, 
and  the  momentum  thus  acquired 
enables  them  to  ascend  to  a  point 
equal  in  height  to  the  original 
starting  point. 

Swithin,  swith  m.  Saint 
(d.  862),  bishop  of  Winchester, 
was  in  high  favor  with  Egbert, 
king  of  the  West  Saxons,  whose 
son  Ethelwulf  made  him  bishop 
in  852.  He  was  one  of  Ethel- 
wulf's  chief  counsellors,  and  was 
active  as  a  builder  of  bridges 
and  churches.  His  day  is  July 
15,  and  an  old  English  supersti- 
tion declares  that  it  will  rain  or 


Switzerland 

be  fair  for  the  next  forty  days, 
according  as  St.  Swithin's  day  is 
rainy  or  clear. 

Swit'zerland,  a  country  of 
Central  Europe  lying  south  of 
Germany,  with  Austria  and  the 
principality  of  Liechtenstein  on 
the  east,  Italy  on  the  south  and 
southeast,  and  France  on  the 
west  and  southwest.  In  form  it 
is  an  irregular  (|uadrilateral  ;  the 
greatest  width  from  east  to  west 
is  227  miles,  the  greatest  length 
from  north  to  south,  137  miles, 
and  the  area,  15,944  square 
miles.  It  lies  entirely  inland, 
having  no  direct  access  to  the 
sea. 

Topography,  —  Switzerland 
is  the  most  mountainous  coun- 
try of  Europe.    The  lowest  point 
is  about  650  feet  above  sea  level ; 
only  2  per  cent  of  the  surface 
is  below  1,000  feet;  34  per  cent 
is   more  than   4,000   feet,  and 
many  peaks  attain  altitudes  of 
over  10,000  feet.    The  country 
falls  naturally  into  three  great 
divisions  :  the  region  of  the  Alps 
in  the  central,  southern,  and  east- 
ern sections ;  the  region  of  the 
Jura  in  the  western  and  northern 
part ;  and  the  plateau  lying  be- 
tween the  two  great  mountainous 
divisions.    The  Alps  with  their 
giant   peaks   and   narrow  river 
valleys  occupy  nearly  three-fifths 
of  the  entire  country.    The  cen- 
tral mountain  mass  is  pierced  by 
the  Rhine  in  the  east  and  the 
Rhone  in   the   west.  Between 
these  two  are  the  Reuss,  the  Aar, 
and    several    smaller  streams, 
while  in  the  south  are  the  Ticino 
and  the  Toce.    Among  the  foot- 
hills of  the  northern  Alps  are 
many  beautiful  and  picturesque 
lakes,    chief    among   which  are 
Neuchatel,    Thun,    Brienz,  Lu- 
cerne, Zug,  and  Zurich ;  to  the 
south  are  Maggiore  and  Lugano, 
each  partly  in  Italy.    The  north- 
ern Alps  are  divided  into  four 
great  groups  :  the  Bernese  Alps 
(Oberland),   which  include  the 
mighty  snow-clad  peaks  of  the 
Jungfrau,       the  Wetterhorn, 
Monch,  Eiger,  and  the  Finsteraar- 
horn  ;  the  Titlis  Alps,  east  of  the 
Bernese  Oberland;  the  Alps  of 
Glarus,  Todi,  and  the  Rigi,  the 
last  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
spots  in  Europe  ;  and  the  lower 
Alps   between   Lake  Constance 
and  Zurich.    The  southern  Alps 
comprise  the  Pennine  Alps,  with 
the    splendid    peaks    of  Monte 
Rosa,  the  Matterhorn,  the  Breit- 
horn  and  the  Weisshorn,  stretch- 
ing   eastward   to   the  Simplon 
Pass ;  the  Lepontine  Alps,  ex- 
tending from  the  Simplon  Pass 
to  St.  Gotthard  ;  the  Ticino  Alps 
to  the  south,  and  the  Bernina 
group  in  the  southeast. 

The  chain  of  the  Jura  moun- 
tains extends  along  the  French 
border  from  southwest  to  north- 
east, occupying  about  a  tenth  of 


Switzerland 


KFI 


578 


Switzerland 


the  area  of  Switzerland.  It  con- 
sists of  parallel  folds  between 
which  lie  narrow  valleys  trav- 
ersed by  picturesqvie  river 
gorges.  The  loftiest  summits 
reach  about  5,000  feet. 

The  plateau  region,  which  is 
the  most  favorable  agriculturally 
and  industrially,  extends  in  a 
belt,  15  to  30  miles  wide,  from 
Lake  Geneva  to  Lake  Constance, 
occupying  nearly  three-tenths  of 
the  country's  area.  The  plateau 
is  from  1,100  to  6.500  feet  high. 


On  the  whole,  the  climate  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  country  is 
healthful  and  invigorating.  The 
soil  is  generally  rather  poor, 
more  than  a  quarter  of  it  being 
unproductive.  Of  the  produc- 
tive area,  about  a  third  is  de- 
voted to  grass  and  pasture  land, 
and  another  third  to  forests. 

Geology  and  Mining. — Four 
geologic  zones  cross  Switzerland 
from  northeast  to  southwest  :  the 
limestone  region  of  the  Jura ; 
the     tertiary     deposits,  chiefly 


flowering  plants,  notable  among 
M'hich  is  the  edelweiss.  Among 
wild  animals  are  the  wolf,  bear, 
ibex,  chamois,  fox,  and  badger, 
all  of  which  are  becoming  scarce 
owing  to  the  increase  of  hunting. 

Industries. — In  the  main, 
Switzerland  is  an  agricultural 
and  pastoral  country,  although 
only  a  few  of  the  cantons  pro- 
duce nearly  enough  for  their 
own  consumption.  Agriculture 
is  followed  chiefly  in  the  valleys, 
where  oats,  wheat,  maize,  barley. 


©Publishers  Photo  Service 

Switzerland:  Lucerne,  showing  the  Chapel  Bridge  and  Water  Tower 


with  an  average  elevation  of 
about  1,400  feet. 

Switzerland  is  watered  by  the 
Rhine,  the  Rhone,  the  Ticino  and 
the  Inn  with  their  tributaries, 
but  none  of  these  is  suitable  for 
navigation.  Presides  the  lakes 
mentioned  alxne,  the  largest  are 
Geneva,  at  the  southwestern 
corner,  partly  in  France,  and 
("onstance,  at  the  northeastern 
C(;rner,  i)artly  in  Germany. 

Climate  and  Soil. — Switzer- 
land's wide  variation  in  cleNation 
produces  a  corrfsiKUulin.L,'^  varie- 
ty of  climate.  Sliclt crcd  regions 
in  the  south  ha\c  a  soft  warm 
climate  similar  to  that  of  North- 
ern Italy,  while  the  crests  of  the 
Alpine  ranges  are  bitterly  cold. 


Miocene,  of  the  central  plain  ;  the 
limestone  of  the  northern  Alps  ; 
and  the  gneiss,  granite,  and  crys- 
talline masses  of  the  southern 
Alps.  Mineral  resources  are  ex- 
tremely limited  ;  some  coal,  iron 
and  manganese  are  mined,  and 
building  stone,  cement,  and  salt 
are  produced.  Mineral  springs 
are  fairly  abundant. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — In  the 
lowlands  olives,  vines,  and  fruits 
flourish  ;  in  the  valleys  at  the 
base  of  the  mountains  are  chest- 
nut, walnut,  beech,  and  maple 
trees,  barley,  wheat,  rye,  and 
oats  ;  still  higher  up  are  firs, 
1)1  nes  and  larches  ;  while  in  the 
regions  of  i)erpetual  snow  grow 
many  species  of  typical  Alpine 


hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  and  vegeta- 
bles and  fruits  are  produced. 
Orchards  and  vineyards  are 
planted  in  every  possible  place. 
Stock  raising,  particularly  the 
raising  of  cattle,  is  of  the 
first  importance  ;  pasturage  con- 
ditions are  excellent,  and  Swiss 
dairy  products  have  a  peculiar 
richness.  Swiss  cheese,  con- 
densed milk,  and  milk  chocolate 
are  world-famous. 

Forests  cover  about  one-fifth 
of  the  country's  area.  The  lakes 
and  rivers  are  well  stocked  with 
fish,  and  beekeeping  and  silk- 
worm culture  are  important. 

Owing  to  its  excellent  water 
power,  and  in  spite  of  limited 
coal  and  iron,  Switzerland  is  a 


Switzerland 


KFI 


579 


Switzerland 


great  manufactviring  country. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  silks, 
artificial  silks  and  silk  ribbons, 
linen,  embroideries,  wool,  cot- 
ton and  cotton  ribbons,  straw- 
plaiting,  machines,  watches  and 
clocks,  paper,  chemicals,  choco- 
late, condensed  milk,  dyestuffs 
and  tobacco  products ;  metal- 
lurgical, electrical  and  pharma- 
ceutical industries  are  also  ex- 
tensive. 

An  industry  peculiar  to  Swit- 
zerland, and  one  which  has 
added  materially  to  her  revenues, 
is  known  as  the  'industry  of  for- 
eigners' ;  it  includes  thousands 
of  hotels  and  pensions  devoted 
to  tourists  and  their  interests. 

Commerce. — The  leading  im- 
ports are  grain  and  other  food- 
stuffs, cotton,  coal,  iron,  and  pe- 
troleum. The  exports  are  ma- 
chinery, watches,  cheese,  choco- 
late, and  silk  and  cotton  goods. 

Transportation. — The  Swiss 
railroads  are  mostly  State-owned 
and  comprise  about  3,218  miles. 
They  are  rapidly  being  electri- 
fied. Motor  roads  are  excellent, 
and  there  is  considerable  traffic 
by  lake  steamers.  It  also  has  a 
very  complete  system  of  tele- 
graphs and  telephones,  con- 
sisting of  about  1,565,524  miles 
of  wire. 

Education  and  Religion. — 
Primary  education  is  free  and 
compulsory,  and  is  rigidly  en- 
forced in  the  Protestant  cantons, 
less  so  in  the  Roman  Catholic. 
For  secondary  education  there 
are  middle  schools  and  commer- 
cial, technical,  domestic  science, 
and  agricultural  schools.  There 
are  seven  universities,  and  a 
Federal  Polytechnic  School  at 
Zurich.  Switzerland  has  com- 
plete liberty  of  creed  and  con- 
science. About  57  per  cent  of 
the  population  is  Protestant,  41 
per  cent  Roman  Catholic,  and  0.4 
per  cent  Jewish. 

Army. — Strictly  speaking, 
Switzerland  has  no  standing 
army,  but  depends  for  defense  on 
a  national  militia  service  which 
is  universal  and  compulsory, 
with  practically  no  exemption 
except  for  physical  disability. 
Those  exempted  pay  taxes  in  lieu 
of  service.  Liability  to  service 
extends  from  the  eighteenth  to 
the  sixtieth  year,  the  first  twelve 
years  being  in  the  'Auszug'  (first 
line),  the  next  eight  in  the  Land- 
wehr,  and  the  last  eight  in  the 
Landsturm.  The  entire  organ- 
ized military  force  consists  of  a 
possible  260,000.  The  frontiers 
of  the  country  are  well  fortified. 

Population. — The  popula- 
tion of  Switzerland  in  1930  was 
4,066,400.  In  1938  it  was  esti- 
mated at  4,200,000.  The  popu- 
lation is  composed  of  German, 
French,  Italian  and  Romansch 
Tin  the  Orisons)  speaking  peo- 
ples.   In  19  of  the  25  cantons  the 


German  language  is  spoken  by 
the  majority  of  the  inhabitants, 
French  in  five  cantons,  and 
Italian  in  one.  The  principal 
cities  with  1930  population  fig- 
ures are:  Zurich  (249,820); 
Bale  (Basel)  (148,063)  ;  Geneva 
(124,121);  Bern,  the  capital 
(111,783);  Lausanne  (75,915); 
St.  Gallen  (63,947)  ;  Winterthur 
(53,925)  ;  Luzern  (Lucerne) 
(47,066)  ;  Biel  (37,726)  ;  La 
Chaux-de-Fonds  (35,252)  ;  Neu- 
chatel  (22,668). 

Government. — Of  Switzer- 
land Bryce  says  :  'It  has  pushed 
democratic  doctrines  farther,  and 
worked  them  out  more  consist- 
ently, than  any  other  European 
State.'  It  is  a  confederation  of 
25  cantons  and  half  cantons  gov- 
erned by  a  constitution.  The 
supreme  legislative  and  execu- 
tive authority  is  vested  in  the 
Federal  Assembly,  consisting  of 
two  chambers,  a  'Standerat'  or 
State  Council,  and  a  'National- 
rat'  or  National  Council.  The 
State  Council  is  composed  of  44 
members,  chosen  and  paid  by  the 
cantons,  two  for  each  canton  and 
one  for  each  half  canton.  The 
National  Council  consists  of  187 
representatives,  chosen  in  direct 
election,  one  for  every  20,000 
persons.  The  chief  executive  au- 
thority is  delegated  to  a  Federal 
Council  of  7  members  elected  for 
four  years  by  the  Federal  Assem- 
bly. The  president  of  the  Con- 
federation and  the  vice-president 
of  the  Federal  Council,  both 
elected  for  one  year  by  the  Fed- 
eral Assembly  in  joint  session, 
are  the  chief  officers  of  the  Con- 
federation. Members  of  the 
Federal  Council  act  as  heads  of 
the  departments  of  foreign  af- 
fairs, interior,  justice  and  po- 
lice, military,  finance  and  cus- 
toms, agriculture  and  industry, 
and  posts  and  railways.  Each 
canton  has  its  own  local  and  in- 
dependent government,  based  on 
the  sovereignty  of  the  people. 
The  popular  initiative  and  refer- 
endum hold  an  important  place  in 
Swiss  government. 

History. — At  the  time  the 
Roman  writers  first  mention  the 
land  now  known  as  Switzerland, 
it  was  inhabited  by  Celtic  tribes 
known  as  Rhietians  and  Helve- 
tians. In  58  B.C.  Caesar  began 
the  confjuest  of  the  Helvetians 
and  for  the  four  centuries  fol- 
lowing Roman  civilization  was 
imposed  on  the  native  tribes.  In 
the  4th  and  5th  centuries  a.d. 
Germanic  and  P>iirgundian  tribes 
pushed  their  way  into  Switzer- 
land, and  from  these  two  basic 
stocks  the  Swiss  of  today  are 
largely  derived.  In  the  6th  cen- 
tury the  German  tribes  were  con- 
quered by  the  Franks,  and  their 
territory  became  a  part  of  the 
Merovingian  and  later  of  the 
Carolingian  realm.     In  the  7tli 


century  a  party  of  Irish  monks 
converted  the  people  to  Christi- 
anity and  founded  many  churches 
and  monasteries.  In  the  9th 
century  Switzerland  became  a 
part  of  the  German  Empire  and 
took  its  full  share  in  the  fight- 
ing and  suffering  caused  by  the 
conflict  between  imperial  and 
papal  powers. 

The  house  of  Habsburg  (q.  v.) 
early  acquired  extensive  posses- 
sions in  Swabia,  as  well  as  in  the 
county  of  the  Ziirichgau,  and 
when  in  1273  Rudolf  of  Habs- 
burg became  einperor,  he  had 
practically  control  of  what  is  now 
German  Switzerland.  The  ex- 
tension of  his  power  was  viewed 
with  alarm  by  the  small  com- 
munities settled  in  the  valleys 
round  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  and 
in  August,  1291,  a  few  days  after 
his  death,  the  three  forest  can- 
tons of  Uri,  Schwyz  and  Unter- 
walden  bound  themselves  to- 
gether in  a  defensive  alliance, 
which  came  to  be  known  as  the 
Perpetual  Leagvie.  This  formed 
the  nucleus  of  the  Swiss  confed- 
eration. 

In  1315  Leopold  of  Austria 
led  an  army  against  Schwyz,  the 
leader  of  the  league,  but  was  de- 
feated with  great  loss  (Nov.  15, 
1315)  at  Morgarten.  Three 
weeks  later  the  victors  renewed 
in  greater  detail  the  league  of 
1291,  and  it  was  subseciuently 
joined  by  other  districts — in  1332 
by  Lucerne;  in  1351  by  the  free 
imperial  city  of  Zurich;  in  1352 
by  the  Austrian  districts  of  Zug 
(won  definitely  in  1364)  and 
Glarus  (won  definitely  at  the 
Battle  of  Nafels  in  1388),  and 
finally  in  1353  by  the  free  im- 
perial city  of  Bern,  which  in 
1339,  at  Laupen,  had  broken 
the  power  of  the  neighboring 
Burgundian  nobles.  In  1386 
Leopold  III  of  Austria  attempted 
to  crush  the  power  of  the  league, 
but  met  with  defeat  and  death  at 
Sempach  (July  9,  1386). 

The  league  now  took  the  ag- 
gressive,- protecting  the  men  of 
Appenzell  (1411)  against  their 
lord,  the  abbot  of  St.  Gall,  and 
making  alliances  with  the  town 
of  St.  Gall  (1412)  and  with  the 
sister  confederation  in  Valais 
(1416),  or  the  upper  valley  of 
the  Rhone.  In  1415,  after  the 
excommunication  of  Frederick  of 
Austria  by  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance, the  league  made  its  first 
conquests — the  Habsburg  domin- 
ions in  the  Aargau,  henceforth 
ruled  as  subjects. 

In  1436  civil  war  broke  out 
with  regard  to  the  inheritance  of 
the  last  count  of  Toggenburg, 
Zurich  allying  itself  with  Aus- 
tria and  holding  out  against  the 
rest  of  the  league,  but  finally 
suffering  defeat  in  1450.  In 
1452  the  league  made  its  first 
treaty  of  alliance  with  France, 


Switzerland 


KFI 


580 


Switzerland 


and  in  1460  Thurgau  was  taken 
from  Sigismund  of  Austria. 

Soon  another  enemy  appeared 
on  the  scene — Charles  the  Bold, 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  Bern  being 
in  the  forefront  against  him  and 
his  ally,  Savoy.  Several  por- 
tions of  Savoy  were  seized 
(1474-5)  by  Bern  and  her  allies, 
who  twice  inflicted  severe  de- 
feats on  Charles'  army — 'at 
Grandson  on  March  2,  1476,  and 
at  Morat  on  June  22,  1476 — 
while  they  aided  in  his  final  de- 
feat at  Nancy  in  January,  1477. 

Five  other  members  were  now 
added  to  the  confederation — in 
1481  Fribourg  and  Soleure  (sat- 
ellites of  Bern),  in  1501  the 
free  imperial  cities  of  Basel  and 
Schaffhausen,  and  in  1513  Ap- 
penzell,  while  various  towns  be- 
came allied  with  the  league.  In 
1487-8  two  of  the  three  leagues 
of  Rhsetia  (Grisons)  became  al- 
lies, and  in  1499  the  confeder- 
ates helped  them  defeat  the  Aus- 
trians  in  the  battle  in  the  Calven 
gorge,  after  which  the  confeder- 
ation became  practically  free 
from  the  empire,  though  its  in- 
dependence was  not  formally 
recognized  until  the  Treaty  of 
Westphalia  (1648)  150  years 
later. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  15th 
century  the  Swiss  had  attempted 
to  wrest  from  the  Milanese  the 
Val  Levantina  and  the  Val 
d'Ossola,  both  south  of  the 
Alps.  Early  in  the  16th  century 
invasions  of  Northern  Italy 
were  renewed.  In  1500  Bellin- 
zona  was  taken  by  the  three  for- 
est cantons,  and  in  1512  most  of 
the  rest  of  Tessin  by  the  confed- 
erates and  Chiavenna  and  the 
Valtellina  by  the  Rhaetian 
leagues.  The  struggle  for  Mi- 
lan itself  was  finally  settled  by 
the  French  victory  of  Mari- 
gnano  in  1515.  In  1516  and 
1521  close  treaties  of  alliance 
w^ere  made  with  France. 

Under  the  eloquent  preaching 
of  Zwingli  (q.  v.),  the  Reforma- 
tion made  rapid  progress  in 
Switzerland  and  led  eventually 
to  civil  war,  the  five  Catholic 
cantons — Uri,  Schwyz,  Unter- 
walden,  Lucerne  and  Zug — ally- 
ing themselves  against  the 
forces  of  Protestantism.  In  the 
hostilities  that  ensued  the  Catho- 
lic troops  were  victorious, 
Zwingli  was  slain  (1531),  and 
a  truce  was  arranged  whereby 
each  canton  was  left  free  to  de- 
termine its  own  religion.  In 
1536,  some  five  years  after 
Zwingli's  death,  John  Calvin 
(q.  V.)  took  up  his  residence  at 
Geneva,  which  became  the  cen- 
ter of  Protestantism  in  Europe. 

During  the  16th  and  17th  cen- 
turies in  Switzerland  the  spirit 
of  aristocracy  gradually  gained 
the  ascendancy,  especially  in  the 
cities  and  in  the  territories  ac- 


quired by  conquest  by  the  vari- 
ous cantons.  A  serious  revolt — 
known  as  the  Peasants'  War — 
broke  out  in  1656,  but  the  rebels, 
poorly  equipped  and  unprepared, 
suffered  a  severe  defeat. 

The  French  alliance  mean- 
while involved  the  confederation 
in  numerous  conflicts  and  drained 
it  of  its  men,  who  as  mercenary 
troops  took  a  large  part  in  the 
wars  of  Louis  xiv.  Popular  ris- 
ings were  of  frecjuent  occurrence 
from  the  early  part  of  the  18th 
century,  and  in  1798  the  old  po- 
litical and  social  state  of  affairs 
came  to  an  end,  when  the  French 
armies  (as  protectors  of  liberty) 
entered  Switzerland,  overturned 
the  old  confederation,  and  es- 
tablished the  Helvetic  Republic, 
a  highly  centralized  state  made 
up  of  twenty-three  cantons. 
Five  years  of  warfare  followed, 
in  which  Switzerland  found  her- 
self the  battleground  for  the  op- 
posing forces  of  Napoleon  and 
the  Allies.  In  1802  the  Helvetic 
Republic  came  to  an  end.  By 
the  Act  of  Mediation,  Napoleon 
revived  the  thirteen  old  can- 
tons, adding  to  them  six  others 
— St.  Gall,  Grisons,  Aargau, 
Thurgau,  Tessin  and  Vaud  ;  the 
old  Diet  was  supplemented  by 
a  central  government  held  in 
turn  (for  one  year)  by  each  of 
the  six  great  cantons. 

With  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
there  came  a  strong  movement 
on  the  part  of  some  of  the  can- 
tons to  return  to  the  cantonal 
form  of  government  and  the  old 
league,  while  others  supported 
the  new  constitution.  Civil  War 
seemed  imminent,  but  was 
avoided  by  the  intervention  of 
the  allies.  A  new  Federal  Pact 
was  agreed  upon  and  was  rati- 
fied by  the  great  Powers,  who  by 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815), 
added  three  more  cantons 
(Valais,  Neuchatel,  and  Ge- 
neva), and  guaranteed  the  coun- 
try's neutrality.  Under  the  new 
system  the  cantons  remained 
sovereign,  only  diplomatic  and 
military  affairs  and  intercanton- 
al  disputes  coming  under  the 
Confederation.  The  cantonal 
constitutions  varied,  but  except 
in  the  mountain  cantons  the  prin- 
ciple of  political  equality  was 
largely  disregarded.  Little  by 
little,  however,  especially  after 
1830,  more  liberal  ideas  became 
prevalent  ;  some  of  the  cantons 
revived  their  constitutions,  and 
a  movement  was  instituted  for 
amending  the  federal  pact  of 
1815.  The  crisis  came  on  the 
occasion  of  the  suppression 
(1840—3)  of  various  monasteries 
in  Aargau,  which  caused  the 
seven  Roman  Catholic  cantons 
to  form  a  separate  league  or  Son- 
derbund  (1845).  When  at  last, 
in  May,  1847,  the  Liberals  ol)- 
tained   a   majority   of  cantonal 


votes  in  the  Diet  and  carried  an 
order  dissolving  the  Sonder- 
bund,  civil  war  was  inevitable. 
It  lasted  but  three  weeks  (No- 
vember 1847),  and  ended  in  a 
liberal  victory. 

The  result  was  the  federal 
constitution  of  1848,  by  which 
Switzerland  attained  political 
unity.  It  set  up  a  central  feder- 
al government,  a  central  federal 
legislature — no  longer  a  diet  of 
envoys — and  a  central  federal 
judicial  tribunal.  Various 
rights  were  secured  to  every 
citizen,  and  Bern  was  recognized 
as  the  capital.  This  is  the  basis 
of  the  revised  federal  constitu- 
tion of  1874,  which  introduced 
the  facultative  referendum.  In 
1891  a  constitutional  amendment 
provided  for  the  adoption  of  the 
popular  initiative,  whereby  any 
50,000  voters  have  the  right  to 
propose  amendments  to  the  con- 
stitution. In  1857  the  king  of 
Prussia  renounced  his  heredi- 
tary rights  to  the  principality  of 
Neuchatel. 

During  the  World  War  Swit- 
zerland maintained  her  neutral- 
ity. Many  interned  soldiers 
and  prisoners  were  cared  for  in 
the  country  and  the  Swiss  Red 
Cross  did  valiant  service.  The 
Swiss  army  was  mobilized  to 
guard  the  frontiers,  entailing 
great  expense  which,  added  to 
the  heavy  and  inevitable  loss  to 
the  'industry  of  foreigners,' 
caused  a  tremendous  financial 
burden  to  fall  on  the  Swiss. 

In  1920  the  first  meeting  of 
the  League  of  Nations,  of  which 
Switzerland  became  a  member 
in  May,  1920,  was  held  in  Ge- 
neva. 

About  this  time  arose  the  dis- 
pute between  Switzerland  and 
France  over  the  free  zones  of 
Upper  Savoy  and  the  district  of 
Gex,  which  was  not  finally  de- 
cided until  1932  when  the  Per- 
manent Court  of  International 
Justice  delivered  a  6-to-5  verdict 
in  favor  of  Switzerland.  The 
court  decided  that  the  free  zones, 
created  in  1815-16  and  abol- 
ished by  France  in  1923,  should 
be  maintained,  effective  Jan.  1, 
1934. 

In  1938  efforts  were  success- 
ful in  establishing  Romansch 
(Ladin)  as  the  fourth  legal  na- 
tional language. 

Bibliography, — G.  Baker, 
The  Model  Republic  (1895); 
R.  C.  Brooks,  Govcriinient  and 
Politics  in  Switaerland  (1920)  ; 
W.  D.  McCracken,  The  Rise  of 
the  Szinss  Republic  (1921); 
W.  Oechsli,  History  of  Switzer- 
land (1922);  A.  Hill,  Szvitzer- 
land:  Past  and  Present  (1924)  ; 
I.  Williams,  The  Swiss  Civil 
Code  (1925)  ;  A.  Lunn,  Szmtzer- 
land  (1928)  ;  W.  E.  Rappard, 
The  Government  of  Swit::erland 
(1937). 


Switzerland:  Langugage  and  Literature 


581 


Sword 


Switzerland:  Language  and 
Literature.  At  least  four  lan- 
guages are  current  in  Switzerland. 
Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  popula- 
tion are  German-speaking;  most 
of  the  remaining  third  speak 
French,  but  some  Italian  is  used 
and  some  Romansch  or  Ladin. 

Swiss  literature  proper  dates 
from  the  16th  century,  and  is 
written  in  many  tongues.  In 
that  age  its  chief  glories  were 
Conrad  Gesner,  philologist  and 
naturalist;  ^gidius  Tschudi,  the 
founder  of  Swiss  history  and  of 
the  Tell  legend;  Josias  Simler 
and  Ulrich  Campbell,  both  his- 
torians and  topographers;  the 
chroniclers  Stumpf,  Valerius  An- 
shelm,  and  Cysat;  Nicholas  Man- 
uel and  Johann  v.  Travers  rep- 
resenting drama  and  poetry  as 
well  as  (in  the  Suisse  Romande) 
Beza  the  theologian  and  Viret. 
In  the  17th  century  the  most 
prominent  names  are  those  of  the 
historians  and  topographers, 
Stettler,  Merian,  Plantin;  while 
the  brothers  Cysat  represented 
the  natural  sciences,  and  Agrippa 
d'Aubigne  and  Diodati  the  de- 
partment of  belles-lettres. 

The  great  Swiss  literary  revival 
took  place  in  the  18th  century. 
Bourguet  founded  in  1732  the 
Journal  Helvetique  or  Mercure 
Suisse,  while  Ruchat  and  Crousaz 
devoted  themselves  to  different 
branches  of  literature;  the  'So- 
ciete  Helvetique'  came  into  exist- 
ence in  1760.  At  Zurich  the  chief 
figures  were  Bodmer  and  Breit- 
inger,  who  sought  to  free  German 
literature  from  its  ancient  shack- 
les; Solomon  Gessner,  the  pastoral 
poet;  Lavater,  now  best  remem- 
bered by  his  writings  on  physiog- 
nomy; and  J.  J.  Scheuchzer,  emi- 
nent in  the  physical  sciences  and 
a  member  of  the  English  Royal 
Society.  Bern  boasted  of  Albert 
Haller,  poet  and  much  else  be- 
sides, and  Wyttenbach  the  nat- 
uralist; while  at  Basel  was  the 
philosopher  Isaac  Iselin,  as  well 
as  the  mathematicians  Euler  and 
the  Bernoullis. 

In  the  later  18th  century  the 
literary  centre  of  Switzerland  was 
Geneva,  rendered  illustrious  by 
the  Genevese  Rousseau  and  the 
stranger  Voltaire,  and  boasting 
also  of  the  Alpine  naturalists  and 
explorers,  Saussure,  Bourrit,  and 
the  De  Lues,  besides  Necker 
and  Mallet  du  Pan,  both  mainly 
publicists.  Madame  de  Stael  and 
Benjamin  Constant  were  both  of 
Swiss  origin,  but  belong  to  Euro- 
pean literature. 

In  the  early  19th  century  we 
have  the  philosophers  P.  A. 
Stapfer,  A  Vinet,  and  Ch.  Sec- 
retan;  Bridel,  who  popularized 
the  works  of  others;  Pestalozzi 
the  educator;  the  historians  J. 
von  Muller,  Zschokke,  Vulliemin, 
and  Kopp;  and  F.  Keller,  the 
discoverer  of  the  lake  dwellings. 
In  German-speaking  Switzerland, 


Jeremais  Gotthelf  (Bitzius),  the 
describer  of  peasant  life,  with  the 
novelists  and  poets,  Gottfried 
Keller  and  C.  F.  Meyer,  are  par- 
ticularly prominent.  Other  well- 
known  men  were  Amiel,  the  mor- 
alizer;  J.  R.  von  Wyss  and  Juste 
Olivier,   poets;    Topffer,  Ram- 


bert,  and  Javelle,  describers  of 
the  Alps;  the  scientists  Agassiz 
and  Desor;  the  novelists  Cher- 
buliez,  'T.  Combe';  E.  Rod;  the 
literary  critic  J.  V.  Widmann; 
Scartazzini,  the  expounder  of 
Dante;  and  many  historians, 
such  as  G.  von  Wyss,  Dandliker, 
CEschli,  Dierauer,  Meyer  v.  Kno- 
nau,  Daguet,  Vaucher,  J.  Gre- 


maud,  and  Motta.  In  Romansch 
literature  there  are  Ballioppi  the 
philologist,  and  the  poets  Caderas 
and  Flugi;  but  this  revival  is 
purely  literary. 

For  a  general  view  of  past 
Swiss  literature,  consult  the  His- 
tories  of    Dandliker   and  Van 


Muyden,  and  for  that  of  the 
19th  century,  ch.  iv.  of  vol.  ii.  of 
La  Suisse  au  18^^  Siecle.  De- 
tails are  given  in  Bachtold's  Ge- 
schichte  of  German-Swiss  litera- 
ture, in  those  of  Godet  and  Ros- 
sel,  relating  to  French  Switzer- 
land, and  in  the  work  of  Rausch 
as  to  Romansch  literature. 

Sword,  a  blade  of  metal,  flat 


Swords 

1.  Sword  blade  from  Mycenae.  -2.  Persian.  3.  Egyptian.  4,  5.  Leaf-shaped  swords, 
Bronze  Age.  6.  Hilt  of  a  Bronze  Age  sword.  7.  Greek.  8.  Ancient  Irish  wooden  sword. 
9.  Roman.  10.  13th  century.  11.  14th  to  15th  century.  12.  16th  century.  13.  Sword  of 
James  iv.  of  Scotland.  14.  Two-handed  sword.  15-17.  Basket-hilted  rapiers,  17th  cen- 
tury. 18.  Claymore.  19,  20.  Scimitars.  21.  Hilt  of  rapier,  18th  century.  22.  Jewelled 
hilt  of  Indian  sword.    23.  Hilt  of  French  sword,  17th  century. 


Vol.  XL— Oct.  '24 


Sword 


582 


Sycamore 


and  sharp-edged,  used  both  in 
striking  and  in  thrusting,  and  set 
in  a  hilt.  The  earliest  swords 
were  probably  made  of  bronze. 
Beautiful  bronze  leaf-shaped 
swords  have  been  found  occasion- 
ally in  barrows  in  Scandinavia, 
and  frequently  (but  not  with  in- 
terments) in  the  British  area. 
These  leaf-shaped  swords  range 
in  length  from  sixteen  inches  to 
over  thirty  inches,  a  few  speci- 
mens having  large  rounded  pom- 
mels. Swords  of  bronze  with 
portions  of  cetacean  bone  handles 
still  in  situ  have  been  found  in 
Ireland,  and  in  one  or  two  speci- 
mens gold  ornamentation  can  be 
traced.  Double-edged  bronze 
swords,  with  gold-decorated  hilts 
and  scabbards,  were  found  at 
Mycenae.  The  bronze  sword 
form  was  perpetuated  into  the 
late  Celtic  period  in  blades  of 
iron,  a  large  number  of  these  hav- 
ing been  recovered  in  Britain  and 
in  France  and  Belgium. 

The  Roman  sword  was  straight, 
two-edged,  and  of  nearly  equal 
width  throughout,  occasionally 
measuring  about  three  feet  in 
length.  The  Greeks,  prior  to 
about  400  B.C.,  used  a  very  short 
sword,  slighter  in  make  than  the 
Roman.  The  Britons  outdid 
even  the  Rornans  in  the  size  and 
weight  of  their  swords.  The  vi- 
king sword  was  of  iron,  long, 
straight,  broad,  and  weighty. 
The  hilts  were  but  rarely  of 
bronze,  and  then  decorated  very 
richly  with  silver.  Iron  swords 
with  bronze  sheaths  have  been 
found  in  England,  and  the  Swiss 
lake  dwellings  have  also  yielded 
a  considerable  number.  The 
type,  therefore,  is  widely  dis- 
tributed; its  period  has  been 
computed  to  be  from  about  300 
B.C.  to  100  A.D. 

The  swords  belonging  to  the 
middle  ages,  and  to  more  recent 
times,  may  be  grouped  under  sev- 
eral heads:  (1)  the  scimitar,  a 
highly  tempered  curved  blade, 
with  the  cutting  edge  on  the  con- 
vex side.  It  is  one  of  the  chief 
weapons  used  by  Eastern  nations. 

(2)  The  sabre,  the  heavy  sword 
of  the  dragoons,  thick  at  the 
back,  and  meant  for  thrusting  as 
well   as   for   a  cutting  stroke. 

(3)  The  rapier,  in  its  recent  form 
a  light,  highly  tempered  thrust- 
ing weapon — the  weapon  of  the 
duellist;  it  is  now  worn  only  in 
court  ceremonies.  (4)  The  cut- 
lass, a  broad  and  straight-edged 
sword,  about  three  feet  in  length, 
used  by  sailors  when  boarding  an 
enemy's  ship.  (5)  Broadswords, 
now  obsolete.  The  Highland 
claymore,  which  may  be  grouped 
here,  frequently  measured  in 
length  of  blade  alone  over  3  ft.  6 
in.,  the  grip  being  12  in.,  usually 
having  a  globular  pommel,  and  the 
quillons  of  the  guard  ornamented 
in  various  ways.  (6)  Basket- 
hilted  swords  with  long  tapering 

Vol.  XI. — Oct.  '24 


blades,  often  slightly  ribbed  and 
fluted,  with  the  famous  name  of 
Andrea  Ferrara  inscribed  on  the 
broadest  portion,  sometimes  ac- 
companied by  the  figure  of  a  run- 
ning fox.  The  blades  are  occa- 
sionally thirty-five  inches  in 
length,  and  the  hilt-work  dis- 
plays richly  designed  openwork. 
The  fact  that  a  blade  is  inscribed 
Ferrara  is  not  a  proof  that  the 
sword  dates  from  the  time  of 
that  maker,  as  the  name  was 
doubtless  long  used  to  designate 
any  well-tempered  blade  of  this 
type. 

Modern  military  swords  are 
constructed  so  as  to  combine  the 
advantages  of  cutting  and  thrust- 
ing. While  thrusting  is  undoubt- 
edly the  most  effective  attack,  it 
demands  more  skill  and  coolness 
than  can  be  counted  upon  from 
the  average  soldier  recently  re- 
cruited from  civil  life  whose  nat- 
ural tendency  is  to  use  the  cut. 
For  this  reason  modern  service 
swords  are  made  on  a  compro- 
mise combination  plan.  In  the 
United  States  army  the  straight 
sword  is  no  longer  in  use,  a  single 
form  of  slightly  curved  sabre 
being  carried  by  all  officers.  The 
sabre  carried  by  mounted  en- 
listed men  is  somewhat  heavier 
than  that  used  by  officers. 

Consult  Sir  R.  Burton's  Book 
of  the  Sword. 

Swordflsh,  a  pelagic  bony 
fish,  constituting  a  special  family 
(xiphiidae),  characterized  by  the 


prolongation  of  the  upper  jaw 
into  a  long  sword-like  weapon. 
This  is  formed  by  the  united 
maxillary  and  intermaxillary 
bones,  and  is  rough  on  its  under 
surface  owing  to  the  presence  of 
minute  teeth.  The  lateral  saw- 
like teeth  seen  in  the  sawfish  are 
entirely  absent  in  the  swordfish. 
Swordfish  attain  a  length  of  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  feet,  and  are  ex- 
ceedingly powerful  and  savage. 
They  prey  upon  other  large  fish, 
as  cod  and  tunny,  transfixing 
them  with  the  sword,  and  even 
attack  boats  and  canoes.  The 
body  of  the  swordfish  is  elong- 
ated and  compressed,  the  eyes 
lateral,  the  mouth  deeply  cleft. 
The  dorsal  fin  is  either  single  or 
divided,  and  is  frequently  much 
elongated,  so  that  when  erected 
it  projects  above  the  water  as  the 
fish  swims  near  the  surface. 

The  common  swordfish,  Xi- 
phias  gladius,  occurs  in  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Atlantic,  and  is 
constantly  taken  along  the  Ameri- 


can coasts  in  midsummer,  as  far 
north  as  New  England.  An 
average  specimen  measures  about 
7  feet  and  weighs  250  lbs.  The 
flesh  is  valued  for  food. 

Swynnerton,  Annie L.  (1845- 
/fi3),  British  artist,  was  born  in 
Manchester.  She  studied  art  in 
her  native  city  and  in  Rome  and 
for  many  years  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy.  She  was  elected 
an  Associate  of  the  British  Royal 
Society,  the  first  woman  for  over 
a  hundred  years  to  be  so  honored, 
but  it  was  later  found  that  she 
had  passed  the  age  limit  per- 
mitted to  members  and  after  a 
few  days  the  honor  was  of  neces- 
sity withdrawn.  Among  her 
best-known  paintings  are  The 
Dryads,  Cupid  and  Psyche,  and 
St.  Marten's  Summer. 

Sybaris,  sib'ar-is,  ancient 
Greek  colony  in  Southern  Italy, 
on  the  west  side  of  the  Gulf  of 
Tarentum.  It  was  founded  by 
emigrants  from  Achaea  and 
Troezen  about  720  B.C.,  and  be- 
came proverbial  for  its  wealth 
and  luxury.  The  people  of  the 
neighboring  Croton  destroyed  it 
thoroughly  in  510  B.C. 

Sybel,  ze'hel,  Heinrich  von 
(1817-95),  German  historian,  was 
born  in  Diisseldorf .  He  was  suc- 
cessively professor  of-  history  at 
Bonn  (1844),  Marburg  (1846), 
Munich  (1856),  and  again  at 
Bonn  (1861),  where  he  remained 
till  1875,  when  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  state  archives  at 


Berlin.  He  was  a  keen  politician, 

occupying  seats  in  succession  in 
the  Hessian  Diet,  the  Erfurt  Par- 
liament, the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly, and  the  Prussian  Lower 
House.  His  principal  works  are 
Geschichte  des  ersten  Kreuzzugs 
(1841-58;  Eng.  trans.  1861);  Die 
Entstehung  des  deutschen  Konig- 
stums  (1844) ;  Geschichte  der  Revo- 
lutionszeit  von  1789  bis  1795 
(1855-77);  Die  Begriindung  des 
deutschen  Reichs  (1889-94;  Eng. 
trans,  by  Perrin,  1890-97).  His 
minor  works  have  appeared  as 
Kleine  historische  Schriften  (1863- 
80),  also  Vortrdge  und  Ahhand- 
lungen  (1897).  He  also  initiated 
the  issue  of  Puhlikationen  aus  den 
preussischen  Staatsarchiven  and 
Politische  Korrespondenz  Fried- 
richs  des  Grossen,  helped  to  edit 
Monumenta  Germanics  Historica, 
and  founded  and  edited  Die  His- 
torische Zeitschrift. 

Sycamore,  a  European  tree, 
Acer  pseudo-platanus,  with  a 
straight,   erect,   smooth  trunk. 


Swordfish 


Sycamore 


KR 


583 


Syenite 


brge.  spreading,  symmetrical 
branches,  and  large,  five-lobed 
leaves.  In  early  spring  the 
greenish  flowers  appear  in  long, 
drooping  clusters,  and  are  fol- 
lowed by  winged  seeds  of  a  red- 
dish-green color.  The  timber 
is  highly  esteemed  by  turners, 
cabinet-makers,  carvers,  and  toy- 
makers,  the  figured  wood  being 
used  for  violins.    Large  wood  is 


Sycamore 
L  Flower.   2.  Pistil.   3.  Fruit. 


sought  after  for  calico-printing 
rollers,  and  when  quartered  for 
those  of  washing-machines.  It 
is  superior  to  beech  both  as  fuel 
and  for  charcoal. 

The  American  sycamore  is  a 
large  deciduous  tree  belonging  to 
the  family  Plantanaceae.  It  is 
characterized  by  smooth  brittle 
bark,  broad-lobed  leaves  ar.d 
hanging  seed  balls.  Among  the 
commonest  species  are  Plantanus 
occidentalis,  known  as  the  Syca- 
more, Buttonwood  or  Plane-tree, 
a  tall  stately  tree,  75  to  150  feet 
in  height,  with  light  reddish- 
brown  bark.  It  is  much  used  as 
an  ornamental  and  shade  tree, 
and  the  wood  is  useful  for  furni- 
ture and  interior  woodwork;  the 
California  Sycamore  (P.  race- 
mosa),  similar  in  habit  and  ap- 
pearance but  exhibiting  a  some- 
what different  leaf  and  fruit; 
and  the  Arizona  Sycamore  (P. 
wrightii),  a  strikingly  beautiful 
tree  growing  on  canyon  sides  and 
on  the  borders  of  streams. 

The  original  sycamore  was  the 
fig  tree  of  the  ancients  {Ficus 
sykomorus,)  occurring  in  Egypt. 

Syca  more,  city ,  Illinois.county 
seat  of  De  Kalb  county,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Kishwaukee  River 
and  on  the  Chicago  Great  West- 
ern and  the  Chicago  and  North 


Western  railroads;  57  miles 
N.vv.  of  Chicago.  It  has  can- 
neries and  manufactures  of  brass, 
hardware  specialties,  insulated 
wire,  and  electrical  equipment. 
Pop.  (1930)  4,021;  (1940)  4,702. 

Sycophant,  sik'o-fant,  in 
ancient  Greece,  primarily  an 
informer  who  gave  notice  of 
non-payment  of  dues  owed  to 
the  state,  in  the  hope  of  being 
rewarded  by  the  state  or  bought 
off  by  his  victims;  hence,  in  a 
secondary  sense,  a  'blackmailer.' 
By  the  Attic  orators  it  was  used 
as  a  general  term  of  abuse,  the 
main  idea  being  that  of  dishonest 
truckling  to  the  people;  hence 
its  modern  use  as  a  base  flat- 
terer. 

Syco'sis,  an  inflammatory 
disease  of  the  hair  follicles,  espe- 
cially of  the  beard,  characterized 
by  pustule  formation.  It  is  due 
to  general  debility  and  constitu- 
tional disturbances. 

Sydenham,  sid'm-am,  resi- 
dential district,  England,  in  Sur- 
rey, 63^  miles  south  of  London. 
It  is  famous  as  the  site  of  the 
Crystal  Palace,  which,  after  its 
use  during  the  first  International 
Exhibition  (1851)  held  in  Hyde 
Park,  was  removed  to  Syden- 
ham in  1854. 

Sydenham,  Thomas  (1624- 
89),  English  physician,  was  born 
in  Wynford  Eagle,  Dorset.  He 
entered  Oxford  in  1642,  but  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War, 
a  few  months  later,  he  served 
with  the  parliamentary  forces. 
After  the  war  he  finished  his 
education  at  Oxford  and  in 
France,  and  about  1660  com- 
menced the  practice  of  mediicne 
in  London,  early  gaining  a  repu- 
tation as  one  of  the  foremost 
physicians  of  the  day.  His  chief 
contributions  to  medicine  are 
his  observations  on  epidemic  dis- 
eases; his  differentiation  of  cer- 
tain special  diseases  such  as 
chorea  and  hysteria,  and  scarla- 
tina and  measles;  his  use  of 
cinchona  in  the  treatment  of 
agues,  and  his  cooling  method  of 
treating  smallpox.  His  Opera 
Omnia  Medica  appeared  in  1685 
and  were  republished  in  1846 
(in  Latin)  and  1848  (in  English) 
by  the  Sydenham  Society,  which 
bears  his  name. 

Sydney,  city,  Australia,  capi- 
tal and  chief  port  of  New  South 
Wales,  is  beautifully  situated  in 
the  eastern  part,  on  the  south 
share  of  Port  Jackson,  about  5 
miles  from  the  sea.  The  waters 
of  Port  Jackson  form  a  mag- 
nificent and  picturesque  har- 
bor aff"ording  anchorage  for  the 
largest  vessels.  Many  bays, 
amoi\g  them  Watson's.  Taylor's, 
Elizabeth,  Rushcutters,  Rose, 
Vauctise,  and  Double  indent 
the  skores,  and  several  islands 
are  found  within  its  limits. 
Cockatoo  Island,  at  the  mouth 
of   PaJamatta   River,   has  two 


government  dry  docks,  and  there 
are  nearly  25  miles  of  quays  and 
wharves  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  immense  sea-going  traffic. 
(See  illustration  on  page  584). 

The  climate  is  exceptionally 
fine,  bright  sunshine  and  clear 
blue  sky  prevailing  throughout 
the  year.  There  are  a  number  of 
fine  parks,  notable  among  which 
are  the  Botanic  Gardens,  the 
Public  Domain,  Hyde  Park,  Cen- 
tennial Park,  and  Toronga  Park 
Zoo,  and  several  attractive  sub- 
urbs along  the  northern  side  of 
the  harbor.  The  city  itself  has 
broad,  well  paved  streets  and 
fine  buildings,  though  in  the 
older  parts  some  of  the  streets 
are  narrow  and  tortuous.  Feat- 
ures of  interest  are  the  Univer- 
sity, the  National  Art  Gallery, 
Government  House,  St.  Andrew's 
Cathedral,  St.  Mary's  Cathedral 
(R.C.),  the  public  library,  the 
town  hall,  and  the  post-office. 

The  chief  industries  are  cloth 
making,  brewing,  distilling, 
foundry  works,  and  tobacco  and 
leather  manufactures.  The  ex- 
port and  import  trade  is  of  great 
volume  and  importance.  Sydney 
was  founded  in  1788  and  in- 
corporated in  1842.  Pop.  (1943), 
with  suburbs,  1,398,170. 

Sydney,  city,  Canada,  in 
Nova  Scotia,  the  county  seat  of 
Cape  Breton  county,  on  the 
northeastern  coast  of  Cape  Bre- 
ton Island  and  on  the  Canadian 
National  and  the  Sydney  and 
Louisburg  railways;  19  miles 
northwest  of  Louisburg.  It  has 
an  excellent  harbor  and  there 
are  rich  coal  mines  in  the  vicinity. 
Features  of  interest  are  Holy 
Angels'  Convent,  St.  Anthony's 
Home  for  Orphans,  several  hos- 
pitals, a  public  library,  city  hall, 
and  county  court  house.  It  is 
the  home  of  the  Dominion  Iron 
and  Steel  Company,  which  pro- 
duces steel  products  from  rails 
to  nails.  The  mines  produce 
nearly  20,000  tons  of  coal  per 
day.  Tar,  pitch,  and  creosote 
are  also  produced.  The  country 
about  is  well  adapted  to  farming. 
The  town  was  settled  in  1785  and 
incorporated  in  1886,  and  grant- 
ed a  city  charter  in  1904.  Pop. 
(1941)  28,081. 

Sydney,  Algernon.  See  Sid- 
ney, Algernon. 

Sydney  Mines,  town,  Cana- 
da, Nova  Scotia,  in  Cape  Breton 
county,  on  the  northern  shore  of 
Sydney  harbor  and  on  the  Cana- 
dian National  Railway;  7  miles 
northwest  of  Sydney.  It  is  in  a 
rich  coal  mining  district  and  has 
large  collieries  and  blast  furnaces 
and  an  important  export  trade 
in  coal.    Pop.  (1941)  8,157. 

Syene,  si-e'ng.  ancient  name 
for  Assouan,  Egypt. 

Sy'enlte,  a  granitoid,  crystal- 
line, igneous  rock,  consisting  of 
orthoclase  feldspar,  with  horn- 
blende, augite,  or  mica,  differing 


Sykes 


585 


Sylvius 


from  granite  chiefly  in  the  lack  of 
quartz.  The  name  is  derived  from 
Syene  in  Egypt.  Typical  repre- 
sentatives of  this  group  are  of  con- 
siderable importance  in  Saxony, 
Norway,  Sutherlandshire  (Scot- 
land), the  W.  Alps,  and  Canada. 
The  Norwegian  augite  syenites 
(known  as  Laurvikites)  are  used  as 
ornamental  building  stones  and 
for  monumental  purposes.  The 
augite  syenites  of  Tyrol  are  known 
as  Monzonites.  In  Norway,  Fin- 
land, Portugal,  Canada,  Arkansas, 
Brazil,  Madagascar,  S.  India,  and 
Greenland,  nepheline  syenites 
occur. 

S  y  k  e  s  ,  George  (1822-80), 
American  soldier,  born  in  Dover, 
Del.  He  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1842;  served  in  the  Mexican 
War  and  was  brevetted  captain 
for  'gallant  and  meritorious  con- 
duct' in  the  battle  of  Cerro  Gordo; 
and  afterwards  had  much  service 
on  the  frontier.  He  fought  in  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run;  was  commis- 
sioned brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers to  date  from  September 

28,  1861 ;  served  with  distinction 
in  the  Peninsula  campaign  and 
at  Manassas  and  Antietam;  and 
was  promoted  major-general  of 
volunteers  to  date  from  November 

29,  1862.  He  afterwards  fought 
at  Fredericksburg,  Chancellors- 
ville,  Gettysburg,  and  Rappa- 
hannock Station,  but  in  April, 
1864,  was  transferred  to  the  de- 

Eartment   of   Kansas.     In  1868 
e  was  appointed  colonel  of  the 
20th  infantry. 

Sylhet,  chief  tn.  of  Sylhet 
dist.,  in  the  Surma  valley,  Assam, 
India,  50  m.  s.  of  Shillong.  Pop. 
(1901)  about  15,000. 
Sylla.  See  Sulla. 
Syllabus  Errorum  ('List  of 
Errors'),  a  document  appended 
to  the  encyclical  Quanta  Cura,  is- 
sued by  Pope  Pius  ix.  on  Dec.  8, 
1864.  It  contains  a  list  of  eighty 
heresies  and  religious  errors,  and 
the  corresponding  truths  as  their 
antidote.  It  is  divided  into  ten 
sections,  which  condemn  (1)  ra- 
tionalism, pantheism,  and  natur- 
alism; (2)  free  thought  of  any  kind; 
(3)  latitudinarianism;  (4)  secret 
societies,  such  as  freemasonry, 
together  with  communism  and 
socialism;  (5)  opposition  to  the 
rights  of  the  church;  (6)  errors 
on  the  condition  of  society;  (7) 
on  ethics;  (8)  on  the  law  of  mar- 
riage; (9)  errors  as  to  the  tem- 
poral power  of  the  pope;  (10) 
the  errors  of  liberalism.  The 
infallibility  of  the  pope  is  as- 
sumed, as  is  also  the  inalienable 
right  of  the  church  to  control 
education,  the  issue  of  literature 
from  the  press,  and  the  conclu- 
sions of  the  scientific.  There 
has  been  some  discussion  among 
Roman  Catholics  as  to  whether 
the  syllabus  is  to  be  considered 
as  uttered  ex  cathedrd,  and  to  be 
regarded  as  de  fide.    See  Schaff's 


Creeds  of  Christendom,  vol.  ii. 
(1877),  pp.  213-233;  W.  E. 
Gladstone's  Vatican  Decrees  in 
their  Bearing  on  Civil  Allegiance 
(1874),  and  Vaticanism  (1875); 
John  Henry  Newman's  Letters 
to  the  Duke  oJ  Norfolk  (1875). 

Syllogism,  the  type  or  general 
form,  which  Aristotle  was  the  first 
to  analyze,  of  those  elernentary 
processes  of  ^  reasoning  into  a 
series  of  which  more  complex 
reasonings  can  be  resolved.  Each 
such  unit-process  or  syllogism 
must  consist  of  two  premises,  to- 
gether with  the  conclusion  which 
they  prove.  For,  to  prove  a  pred- 
icate of  a  subject,  we  must  have 
some  connecting  notion  or  'mid- 
dle term'  within  which  both  are  re- 
lated: for  example,  we  may  argue 
that  a  man  is  responsible  for  his 
actions  on  the  ground  that  he  is 
a  free  agent.  Here  the  premises 
are  'Free  agents  are  responsible 
for  their  actions,'  and  'Man  is  a 
free  agent,'  and  the  conclusion 
follows,  'Man  is  responsible,'  etc. 
Free  agency  is  our  middle  term 
for  connecting  man's  action  with 
responsibility. 

Sylph,  in  old  poetic  mythol- 
ogy, an  elemental  spirit  of  the  air, 
holding  an  intermediate  place 
between  material  and  immaterial 
beings,  according  to  the  system 
of  Paracelsus.  Sylphs  are  of 
both  sexes,  with  many  human 
characteristics,  and  are  mortal, 
but  do  not  possess  a  soul. 

Sylt,  largest  isl.  of  N.  Frisian 

group,  belonging  to  Prussian  prov. 
chleswig  -  Holstein;  visited  in 
summer  (May  to  September)  for 
sea-bathing,  the  principal  resort 
being  Westerland,  on  w.  coast. 
Area,  38  sq.  m.   Pop.  3,000. 

Sylva,  Carmen.  See  Eliza- 
beth (Queen  of  Roumania). 

Sylvester  T.,  bishop  of  Rome, 
314-335,  the  principal  event  of 
whose  pontificate  was  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nicaea  (325),  which  defined 
the  articles  of  the  Christian  faith, 
and  also  determined  the  order 
of  the  hierarchy  in  the  various 
provinces  of  the  empire.  The 
epistles  and  decretals  attributed 
to  Sylvester  are  now  considered 
apocryphal.  See  DoUinger's  Fable 
Respecting  the  Popes  in  the 
Middle  Ages  {^ng.  trans.,  1872). — ■ 
Sylvester  ii.,  pope,  999-1003, 
whose  original  name  was  Gerbert, 
was  born  at  Aurillac  in  Auvergne 
about  950;  became  the  head  of  the 
abbey  of  Bobbio  (970),  and  after- 
wards archbishop  of  Ravenna. 
He  is  said  to  nave  introduced 
Arabic  numerals,  and  to  have  in- 
vented clocks. — Sylvester  hi., 
antipope,  1044,  bishop  of  Sabina, 
was  proclaimed  pope  in  opposi- 
tion to  Benedict  ix.  He  reigned 
only  about  three  months. 

S'ylvester,  James  Joseph 
(1814-97),  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent of  English  mathematicians, 
was  born  in  London,  September 


3,  1814.  As  a  Jew  he  was  unable 
to  take  his  baccalaureate  degree 
in  the  University  of  Cambridge, 
where  he  won  high  honors  as  an 
undergraduate  student  of  St. 
Tohns  College.  In  later  life 
honors  were  awarded  him  by 
many  universities  and  learned 
societies  of  Great  Britain  and  the 
Continent.  He  had  also  the  dis- 
tinction of  becoming,  in  1883, 
Savilian  Professor  of  Mathemat- 
ics in  the  University  of  Oxford  in 
succession  to  Professor  Henry 
Smith.  Twice  he  held  academic 
posts  in  the  U.  S.,  first  in  1841,  as 
professor  in  the  University  of 
Virginia,  where  his  stay  was 
brief  but  memorable;  and  next, 
from  1876  onward,  as  professor 
in  the  Johns  Hopkins  University 
of  Baltimore,  where  for  seven 
years  he  was  a  fertile  contributor 
to  mathematical  science.  Here 
he  established  the  American  Jour- 
nal o}  Mathematics,  which  at  once 
became  the  leading  repository  of 
American  contributions  to  mathe- 
matical science.  Only  one  inde- 
pendent volume  bears  his  name 
as  author.  The  Laws  of  Verse,  in 
which,  with  learning  and  wit,  he 
considers  the  mathematics  of 
poetical  forms.  For  the  Balti- 
more period  of  his  life,  see  Gil- 
man's  Launching  of  a  University. 
The  summary  in  the  Diction- 
ary of  National  Biography  is 
especially  commendable. 

Sylvester,  Joshua  (1563-1618), 
English  translator,  was  born  in 
Kent,  and  became  known  by  his 
translations  from  the  French  of 
Du  Bartas  and  others,  and  Prince 
Henry  made  him  (c.  1606)  a  groom 
of  his  chamber.  In  1613  he  be- 
came secretary  to  the  Merchant 
Adventurers.  See  Du  Bartas,  his 
Divine  Weekes  and  Works  (1598; 
1641,  with  Posthumi),  a  work  very 
popular  with  the  New  England 
Puritans  as  well  as  those  of  Old 
England.  Collected  Works,  ed. 
A.  B.  Grosart  (1878). 

Sylviculture.  See  Fores- 
try. 

Sylviidae,  a  family  erected  for 
the  warblers,  now  frequently  in- 
cluded with  the  thrushes  in  the 
Turdidae. 

Sylvin,  or  Sylvite,  a  naturally 
occurring  form  of  potassium 
chloride,  KCl,  found  at  Stassfurt 
in  Prussia,  and  forming  one  of  the 
principal  sources  of  potassium 
compounds.  It  crystallizes  in 
cubes  (h.'=  2,  sp.  gr.  1.9),  is  brittle, 
soluble  in  water,  and  has  a  bitter, 
saline  taste. 

Sylvius,  ^NEAS.     See  Pius  ii. 

Sylvius,  or  Jacques  Dubois 
(1478-1555),  French  physician, 
born  at  Amiens;  lectured  till  his 
death  on  medicine  at  the  College 
Royal,  Paris.  His  Opera  Medica 
were  published  in  1630.  His 
name  has  been  given  to  the 
Sylvian  fissure,  the  Sylvian  aque- 
duct and  the  Sylvian  artery.  See 


Symbiosis 


586 


Symbols 


Rene  Moreau's  Vita  Sylvii  pre- 
fixed to  the  Opera. 

Symbiosis,  a  term  first  em- 
ployed by  De  Bary  for  the  very 
intimate  and  mutually  beneficial 
partnerships  which  often  occur 
between  organisms,  especially 
between  plants  and  animals,  or 
between  two  kinds  of  plants.  In 
commensalism  the  union  is  much 
less  intimate.  The  historic  case 
of  symbiosis  is  that  of  the  lichens, 
but  quite  as  well  defined  is  the 
partnership  between  radiolarians 
and  the  so-called  'yellow  cells,' 
which  are  really  symbiotic  algae. 
Here  the  host  gains  starch  from 
the  algae,  which  in  their  turn 
receive  carbon  dioxide,  and  ni- 
trogenous waste  products.  Among 
plants  one  of  the  most  interesting 
cases  of  symbiosis  discovered  in 
recent  years  is  that  of  the  bacteria 
which  form  nodules  or  tubercles 
on  the  roots  of  leguminous  plants 
and  enable  these  to  utilize  the 
free  nitrogen  of  the  soil. 

Symbolism.  A  symbol  is  a 
sign,  and  differs  from  an  antctype, 
which  is  a  prefigurement  of  some- 
thing or  some  one  to  come  after- 
wards;^ and  from  an  allegory, 
which  is  a  figurative  description. 
The  symbol  is  always  an  object, 
and  suggests  something  higher 
than  appears  to  the  eye.  The 
American-Indian  totem-pole  is  an 
example  of  the  symbolic  treatment 
of  tribal  and  family  descent.  All 
writing  is  symbolic.  Symbolism 
is  the  language  of  heraldry;  but  it 
has  had  its  widest  range  in  con- 
nection with  religion.  It  is  to  be 
found  in  its  rudest  form  in  Africa 
and  the  islands  of  the  Australian 
archipelago.  Elaborate  symbolic 
designs  are  carved  on  the  monu- 
ments of  Central  America.  The 
phallus  as  a  symbol  of  reproduc- 
tive powers  has  wide  use,  while  the 
swastika  is  found  in  all  quarters  of 
the  world  as  a  religious  symbol, 
though  its  meaning  is  as  yet  unde- 
termined, and  it  is  often  regarded 
as  one  form  of  the  cross.  Sym- 
bolism played  a  great  part  in  the 
worship  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
in  the  structure  of  the  Jewish 
temple.  The  early  Christians  no 
doubt  used  symbolic  designs  on 
rings  and  seals,  as  the  fish,  the 
dove,  the  palm  branch,  the  anchor, 
and  were  thus  enabled  to  know 
one  another  without  betraying 
themselves  to  their  persecutors. 
From  the  3d  to  the  8th  century  the 
carvings  and  frescoes  of  the  cate- 
combs  supply  abundant  examples 
of  early  Christian  imagery.  Nearly 
every  dejail  in  Christian  archi- 
tecture, and  every  article  of  church 
furniture  and  ecclesiastical  vest- 
ment is  symbolically  significant. 
Christ  is  depicted  as  the  Good 
Shepherd,  and  a  unicorn  stands 
for  purity  and  strength,  or  from 
its  solitary  habits  it  is  the  symbol 
of  monastic  life.  The  Virgin  has 
no  symbol  in  early  monuments; 


nor  is  the  crucifix  to  be  found  until 
the  5th  century.  Until  the  1 1th  cen- 
tury any  representation  of  Christ  on 
the  cross  was  wholly  symbolic,  be- 
ing always  clothed,  and  probably 
robed  and  crowned  as  high  priest 
and  king.  Later  still  the  robe 
was  removed,  but  the  kingly 
crown  remained.  The  present 
realistic  form  of  the  crucifix  is  of 
quite  late  date.  The  Holy  Spirit 
was  sometimes  depicted  in  human 
form,  from  the  10th  century  till 
the  17th,  when  Urban  viii.  for- 
bade the  practice,  and  the  dove 
has  since  been  used  as  the  appro- 
priate symbol.  The  First  Person 
in  the  Trinity,  often  treated  as  a 
man  by  the  later  painters,  has  no 
symbol,  though  the  triangle  often 
represents  the  trinity  and  the 
circle  deity.  See  Clement's  Hand- 
book of  Legendary  and  Mytholog- 
ical Art  (1881);  Knight's  Symbolic 
Language  of  Ancient  Art  and 
Mythology  {\S76);  Evans's  Animal 
Symbolism  in  Ecclesiastical  Archi- 
tecture (1896);  H.  D.  M.  Spence, 
White  Robe  of  Churches  (1900); 
and  W.  Durandus,  Symbolism  of 
Churches  (1906). 

Symbols.  (1.)  Chemical  sym- 
bols, as  a  means  of  expressing 
briefly  the  facts  of  chemical 
composition  and  action,  were 
introduced  by  Dalton.  The 
atoms  of  each  element  were  rep- 
resented by  a  circle,  with  some 
distinguishing  mark,  such  as  a 
cross,  dot,  or  letter,  while  com- 
pounds were  denoted  by  a  cluster 
of  these  circles  representing  the 
atoms  present:  thus  hydrogen 
was  0 ;  carbon,  ;  sulphur  di- 
oxide, O  ©  O.  These  devices  were 
soon  superseded  by  a  simpler 
method  initiated  by  Berzelius, 
which  has  remained  practically 
unchanged  till  to-day.  Accord- 
ing to  this  system  the  atoms 
of  the  elements  are  symbolized 
by  the  initial  letter  or  letters 
of  the  English  or  Latin  name, 
these  being  combined  to  make 
the  formulae  for  the  compounds, 
and  provided  with  suffixes  to 
show  the  number  of  atoms  pres- 
ent. Thus  N  represents  1  atom 
of  nitrogen,  Ag  (argentum)  1  atom 
of  silver,  AgCl  the  composition 
of  silver  chloride,  and  A!2(S04)3 
that  of  aluminium  sulphate. 
(See  Elements  for  a  full  list.) 
AgCl  states  not  only  that  sil- 
ver chloride  contains  silver  and 
chlorine,  but  that  they  are 
united  in  the  proportion  of  107.9 
parts  by  weight  of  silver  to  35.45 

Earts  of  chlorine,  and  so  on.  Sym- 
ols  for  molecules  also  express 
the  volume  relations  of  the  sub- 
stances when  in  the  state  of  gas, 
as,  in  accordance  with  Avogadro's 
hypothesis,  equal  volumes  of  gases 
contain  equal  numbers  of  mole- 
cules, whatever  their  kind.  For 
example,  if  the  relative  weights 
are  expressed  in  gram  propor- 
tions, each  gram  molecule  occu- 


pies 22.22  liters  when  at  standard 
temperature  and  pressure:  thus 
N2,  HCl,  NH3,  if  taken  in  grams 
— i.e.  28  grams  of  nitrogen,  36.45 
grams  of  hydrogen  chloride,  and 
17  grams  of  ammonia — all  occupy 
22.22  liters.  To  express  chemical 
actions,  symbols  are  combined 
into  equations  in  which  the  sym- 
bols of  the  substances  taken  are 
written  on  the  left-hand  side  and 
the  symbols  of  the  products  on 
the  right.  Thus,  Zn  -f  H2SO4 
=ZnS04  +  H2  represents  the  fact 
that  on  putting  zinc  with  sul- 
phuric acid  they  react  in  the 
proportion  of  65.4  parts  by  weight 
of  the  former  to  98  of  the  latter, 
yielding  161.4  parts  of  zinc  sul- 
phate and  2  parts  by  weight  of 
hydrogen,  and  that  for  every  65.4 
grams  of  zinc  a  volume  of  22.22 
liters  of  hydrogen  is  obtained. 
In  any  case  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  symbols  may  only  be 
arranged  to  represent  facts,  and 
that  compounds  must  not  be  ex- 
pected to  exist  or  actions  to 
happen  in  accordance  with  the 
infinite  number  of  arrangements 
into  which  chemical  symbols  may 
be  manipulated. 

(3.)  Arithmetical  and  Alge- 
braic. +  plus,  addition;  positive, 
of  direction,  rotation,  electricity, 
magnetism,  etc.,  or  of  quantity  in 
general;  compressive,  of  stresses. 
-|-^«  positive.  —  minus,  subtrac- 
tion; negative  of  direction,  rota- 
tion, electricity,  magnetism,  or 
of  quantity  in  general;  tensile  of 
stresses.  — negative.  =  equal- 
ity; a  =  a  is  equal  to  b.  =  is 
identically  equal  to.  X  mult., 
multiplied  by.  ~  div.,  divided  by; 
a 

a/b  or  ^  means  a  divided  by  b. 

.'.therefore,   '.'because.   :  is  to. 
::  as.   li  a:b::  c:  d,  or  a/b  =  c/d, 
then  ad  =  be.     -\J   square  root, 
cube  root,  '^a  («">  root  of  a) 

=  a]_a~^  =—'y  a<'=  1.    «  varies 
n.  a" 

as;  .'.  y  «  i  means  'therefore  y 

X 

varies  inversely  as  x.^  In  such  a 
case  y=  m/x,  where  m  is  a  con- 
stant. (  )  I  }  [  ]  brackets.  vin- 
culum, denoting  that  the  included 
quantities  are  to  be  taken  to- 
gether, a  >  b,  a  IS  greater  than 
b.  a  <i  b,ais  less  than  b.  a  b, 
a  is  not  equal  to  b.  a  y>  b,  a  is 
not  greater  than  b.  a  <^  b,  a  is 
not  less  than  b.  a  ^  b,  the  differ- 
ence between  a  and  b.  a  6,  a  is 
similar  to  b.  a  —  b,  a  is  equal 
and  similar  to  b.  |^  or  «!  =  (fac- 
torial n)  n{n  -  1)  («  -  2)  .  .  .  1. 
^Pr,  permutations  •  of  n  things  r 
at  a  time.  "^Cr,  combinations  of 
n  things  r  at  a  time.  J"dl,  ehmi- 
nant  or.  determinant  =  {ad  -  be). 
□  ,  square;  as  □  cm.,  square  cen- 
timeters,   c.c,  cubic  centimeters. 


Syiumachu^ 

cm.,  centimeters,  mm.,  millime- 
ters, gni.,  grams.  2  7  X  1  /  , 
of  dimensions,  means  two  teet 
seven  inches  by  one  foot  four 
inches,  oo,  infinity;  a  quantity 
greater  than  any  assignable  quan- 
tity. 0,  zero;  a  quantity  less  than 
any  assignable  positive  quantity, 
however  small.  2,  algebraic  sum 
oi—i.e.,  taking  account  of  signs, 
log,  logarithm,  a,  b,  c,  etc.,  let- 
ters at  beginning  of  alphabet, 
usually  denote  constants,  x,  y,  z, 
letters  at  end  of  alphabet,  usually 
denote  variables.    %,  per  cent. 

(3.)  Geometrical.  L  ABC  or 
ABC,  the  angle  ABC.  \Jl,  right 
angle;  at  at  right  angles  to. 
1',  perpendicular  to.   1|,  parallel. 

not  parallel,  H"",  parallelo- 
gram. llP^P"'',  parallelepiped. 
|"«*,  or  □,  rectangle.  A.  tri- 
angle, circle.  Q'^  semicircle. 
PN,  quadrant.  arc.  n",- parab- 
ola. 0''.  ellipse.  hyper- 
bola. R.H.,  rectangular  hyper- 
bola. □  ,  square— as  □  square 
inches;  □ ',  square  feet.  L, 
length.  A,  a,  area.  V,  volume. 
R,  r,  radius  or  radius  vector. 
D,  d,  diameter,  p,  radius  of  curv- 
ature. P  {x,  y),  the  co-ordinates 
of  the  point  P  are  (x,  y) . 

(4.)  Trigonometrical.  60°  27' 
13"  means  sixty  degrees  twenty- 
seven  minutes  and  thirteen  sec- 
onds, sin,  cos,  tan,  etc.,  abbre- 
viations of  the  circular  functions 
sine,  cosine,  tangent,  etc.  (See 
Trigonometry.)  tt,  ratio  of  cir- 
cumference of  a  circle  to  the 
diameter,  or  the  value  of  two 
right  angles  in  radians  or  circular 
measure,  equals  S' 14159  approxi- 
mately. It  has  been  computed  to 
707  places  of  decimals.  Sin  ^x, 
the  inverse  sine  of  x.  This  is  an 
angle  d  such  that  6  =  sin  -^x  or 
sin  d  =  X — i.e.,  the  angle  whose 
sine  is  X.  Thus  0  =  cos  ^/l 
The  other  circular  functions  may 
be  treated  similarly.  If  ABC 
denote  the  angles  of  a  triangle, 
then  the  sides  opposite  each  angle 
respectively  are  a,  I,  c.  ^,  0,  'A, 
a,  ^,  used  to  denote  angles.  X, 
latitude,  e,  the  base  of  the  Na- 
pierian or  hyperbolic  logarithms. 
Symmachus,  sim'a-kus,  Quin- 

TUS  AURELIUS  {C.  .34.5-40.5  A.D.), 

ancient  Roman  statesman  and 
orator,  was  a  native  of  Gaul.  He 
held  the  offices  of  proconsul  of 
Africa,  prefect  of  Rome  (384  a.d.)  , 
and  consul  (391).  He  was  an  ar- 
dent advocate  of  the  ancient 
pagan  religion.  His  extant  writ- 
ings consist  of  ten  books  of  Let- 
ters, three  panegyrics  on  Valen- 
tinian  i.  and  Gratian,  and  frag- 
ments of  six  senatorial  orations. 

Symmes,  simz,  John  Cleves 
(1780-1829),  was  born  in  New 
Jersey.  Entering  the  United 
States  army  as  an  ensign,  he  rose 
to  the  rank  of  captain  (1812),  and 
distinguished  himself  at  Niagara 
and  Fort  Erie,   Settling  at  New- 


587 

port,  Ky.,  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  exposition  of  his  theory  that 
the  earth  was  hollow  and  con- 
sisted of  six  or  seven  concentric 
hollow  spheres,  which  might  be 
reached  at  the  North  Pole — jocu- 
larly termed  'Symmes'  Hole.' 
He  published  Theory  of  Concen- 
tric Spheres  (1826). 

Symmetry,  in  Zoology.  A 
primitive  organism,  floating  free- 
ly in  a  uniform  medium,  would 
tend  to  display  the  symmetry  of 
a  sphere,  for  each  part  of  the  sur- 
face would  have  the  same  relation 
to  the  uniform  environment,  and 
therefore  no  one  region  would 
tend  to  develop  more  than  an- 
other. Such  a  primitive  type  of 
symmetry  is  displayed,  for  exam- 
ple, by  the  protozoon  Volvox,  and 
by  certain  of  the  cells  of  higher 
organisms:  ova,  for  example,  are 
typically  spherical. 

If  we  contrast  with  Volvox 
such  a  sedentary  organism  as  a 
sea  anemone,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  fixed  base  has  here  a  different 
relation  to  the  environment 
from  the  free  disc,  and  has  a  cor- 
respondingly different  structure. 
But  if  we  consider  the  disc  alone 
with  its  circle  of  tentacles,  then 
we  find  that  each  portion  of  its 
margin  has  the  same  f-elation  to 
the  surrounding  sea  water,  and 
has  the  same  structure.  There- 
fore the  disc  could  be  divided 
into  approximately  equal  halves 
along  many  lines  of  division. 
This  is  radial  symmetry,  and  is 
characteristic  of  the  Coelentera 
generally,  as  well  as  of  Echino- 
dermata.  Radially  symmetrical 
animals  are  frequently  sedentary, 
and  when  they  possess  the  power 
of  locomotion,  as  in  jellyfish  and 
starfish,  the  direction  of  move- 
ment is  not  fixed— that  is,  there 
is  no  one  region  of  the  body  which 
is  always  directed  forward. 

On  the  other  hand,  most  swift- 
ly moving  organisms  have  a  dis- 
tinction between  head  and  pos- 
terior portion.  The  head  region 
is  specially  rich  in  nerve  cells 
and  sense  organs,  and  is  typically 
directed  forward  during  loco- 
motion. At  the  same  time  there 
is  a  distinction  between  right  and 
left  halves  of  the  body,  which  is 
symmetrical  only  about  a  median 
line.  This  is  bilateral  symmetry, 
and  is  the  most  frequent  type 
among  animals. 

Finally ,  in  some  modified  forms, 
especially  those  which,  though 
descended  from  rapidly  moving 
ancestors,  have  become  stationary 
or  sluggish  in  their  movements, 
bilateral  symmetry  may  be  al- 
together lost.  The  snail,  for  in- 
stance, is  an  asymmetrical  animal. 

Symmetry,  in  Mathematics. 
In  complicated  mathematical 
equations  or  operations  it  is  often 
possible  to  put  the  quantities 
dealt  with  in  a  symmetrical  form. 
They  are  thus  most  easily  treated, 


Sympathy 

and  errors  may  be  detected  by 
lack  of  symmetry.  Other  results 
may  often  then  be  written  down 
by  analogy. 

Symonds,  sim'unz,  John  Ad- 
DiNGTON  (1840-93),  English  man 
of  letters,  was  born  in  Bristol, 
and  at  Oxford  came  under  the 
influence  of  Conington  and  Jow- 
ett.    He  won  in  1862  a  fellowship 
at  Magdalen.   Symptoms  of  con- 
sumption and  a  nervous  break- 
down sent  him  to  Switzerland 
and  Italy,  and  in  1878  he  settled 
at  Davos  Platz.    His  first  book, 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Dante 
(1872),  was  a  sort  of  commentary 
on  the  great  Italian's  poem;  it 
was  followed  by  Studies  of  the 
Greek  Poets  (187.3-7<3).    His  most 
notable  achievement  is  The  Re- 
naissance   in    Italy  (1875-86), 
which  embraces  four  parts  and  a 
couple  of  supplementary  volumes 
— The  Age  of  the  Despots,  The  Re- 
vival of  Learning,  The  Fine  Arts, 
Italian  Literature,  and  The  Cath- 
olic Reaction.  Shakespeare's  Pred- 
ecessors in  the  English  Drama, 
published  in  1884,  contains  the 
results  of  thoughtful  study  in 
English    literature.  Symonds 
wrote  numerous  other  books,  in- 
cluding: Wine,  Women,  and  Song; 
Life  of  Shelley  (1878);  Life  of 
Sidney  (1886) ;  Life  of  Ben  Jonson 
(1886);  Autobiography  of  Benve- 
nuto    Cellini;    Life   of  Michael 
Angelo   (1892);    Walt  Whitman 
(1893) .   Consult  his  Miscellanies; 
Brown's  Life. 

Symons,  sim'unz,  Arthur 
(1865),  English  essayist  and  poet, 
was  born  in  Wales.  His  literary 
criticism  is  graceful  in  style,  and 
marked  by  insight  and  sym- 
pathy; his  later  poems  show  the 
influence  of  Baudelaire  and  Ver- 
laine.  Among  his  works  are:  An 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Browning  (1886);  London  Nights 
(1895);  Studies  in  Two  Litera- 
tures (1897) ;  The  Symbolist  Move- 
ment in  Literature  (1899);  Col- 
lected Poems  (1901);  Studies  in 
Prose  and  Verse  (1904);  Spiritual 
Adventures  (1905) ;  The  Fool  of  the 
World,  and  Other  Poems  (1906); 
Cities  of  Italy  (1907) ;  The  Roman- 
tic Movement  in  English  Poetry 
(1909).  ^  ^ 

Sympathetic  Inks.  See  Inks 
AND  Stains. 

Sympathetic  Strikes.  See 
Strikes  and  Lockouts. 

Sympatlietic  System.  See 
Nervous  System. 

Sympathy,  or  Fellow  Feel- 
ing, as  commonly  understood,  is 
the  emotional  state,  painful  or 
pleasant,  induced  by  the  sight 
or  thought  of  pain  or  pleasure 
in  others.  The  essential  fact 
is  that  suffering  or  pleasure  be 
somehow  suggested,  and  this  may 
occur  with  fictitious  persons  or 
objects  as  readily  as  with  real. 
Bain  regards  sympathy  as  of  the 
nature  of  a  fixed  idea,  a  primi- 


Symphon}^ 


588 


tive  emotional  endowment,  the 
basis  of  altruistic  conduct,  of 
social  emotions  generally.  It  is 
thus  presupposed  in  society  it- 
self, and  is  the  condition  of  eth- 
ical growth.  On  this  psychologi- 
cal ground,  egoism  and  altruism 
are  ultimate,  and  not  directly  rec- 
oncilable; hence  one  of  the  pri- 
mary problems  of  individualistic 
ethics,  utilitarian  or  Kantian. 

Baldwin,  Stout,  and  Sorley, 
however,  suggest  that  sympathy 
is  rather  an  'ejection'  of  our  feel- 
ings into  the  self-form  of  another, 
and  thus  egoism  and  altruism  are 
reconciled,  as  it  were,  in  a  larger 
egoism.  Adam  Smith  made  sym- 
pathy the  basis  of  his  Theory  of 
the  Moral  Sentiments.  In  esthet- 
ics, sympathy  is  extended  to  in- 
clude the  artist's  or  spectator's 
acceptance  of  form  and  color  as 
the  expressed  essence  of  beautiful 
things.  From  the  evolution 
standpoint,  sympathy  is  an  evi- 
dence of  human  sociality,  actual 
or  potential.  It  is  the  emotion  of 
social  unity.    See  Emotions. 

Symphony,  in  Music,  the  high- 
est form  of  orchestral  composi- 
tion. The  name  was  originally 
applied  to  the  purely  instrumen- 
tal portions  of  works  primarily 
vocal,  under  it  being  included 
overtures  to  operas  and  oratorios, 
as  well  as  ritornelli  and  the  intro- 
ductions to  choruses  and  arias. 
With  the  liberation  of  the  sym- 
phony from  its  operatic  surround- 
ings its  development  as  an  ab- 
stract form  of  art  may  be  said  to 
have  begun.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, until  1788,  the  year  in  which 
Mozart  wrote  his  greatest  ex- 
amples, that  the  symphony  at- 
tained the  rank  of  an  important 
work  of  art.  In  these  three 
works,  the  E  fiat,  G  minor,  and 
C  major  symphonies,  an  extraor- 
dinary advance  is  visible  both  in 
expression  and  in  richness  of 
instrumental  effect.  Haydn, 
though  born  nearly  twenty  years 
before  Mozart,  wrote  his  most 
important  symphonies  during 
the  eighteen  years  he  survived 
his  younger  contemporary. 

The  symphony  was  brought  to 
its  most  perfect  stage  of  develop- 
ment by  Beethoven  (q.v.).  Not 
only  did  he  determine  the  consti- 
tution of  the  orchestra,  and  ex- 
pand and  elaborate  the  existing 
features  of  the  different  move- 
ments, but  to  all  this  he  added  in 
his  subject  matter  a  depth  of 
human  emotion  such  as  hitherto 
had  never  come  within  the  scope 
of  musical  expression.  The  essen- 
tial qualities  of  his  music  are 
nobility  of  thought  allied  to  per- 
fection of  detail,  and  a  true  bal- 
ance between  material  and  form. 
His  Eroica,  C  minor,  and  A  major 
stand  as  the  most  perfect  ex- 
amples of  the  classical  symphony, 
and  also  mark  the  close  of  the 
classical  period. 


Succeeding  writers  have  most- 
ly aimed  at  a  compromise  be- 
tween their  poetical  instincts  and 
their  regard  for  conventional 
rule.  Among  such  may  be  men- 
tioned Schubert,  Spohr,  Berlioz, 
Raff,  and  Schumann,  the  work  of 
the  last  being  the  most  impor- 
tant. Mendelssohn  was  content 
with  the  true  classical  form.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  Brahms, 
who,  however,  has  enriched  it 
with  so  many  interesting  and 
characteristic  features  as  to  con- 
stitute an  important  departure. 
Among  other  important  modern 
writers  in  symphonic  form  are 
Dvorak,  Elgar,  and  Tschaikow- 
sky. 

The  form  of  the  symphony  is 
analogous  to  that  of  the  sonata 
(q.v.),  and  usually  consists  of 
four  movements,  frequently  ar- 
ranged as  follows:  allegro;  largo 
or  adagio  or  andante;  scherzo,  or 
minuet  and  trio;  allegro. 

Sym'phoricar'pus,  a  genus  of 
shrubs  of  the  honeysuckle  family 
(Caprifoliacece)  having  oval,  short 
petioled,  downy  leaves,  and  short 
clusters  of  white  or  rose-colored 
flowers  followed  by  fleshy  white 
or  red  berries.  The  best  known 
are  the  Coralberry  {Symphori- 
carpus  vulgaris),  the  Wolf  berry 
{S.  occidentalis),  and  the  widely 
cultivated  Snowberry  {S.  race- 
tnosus) . 

Symplegades,  sim-pleg'a-dez. 
See  Cyane^  Rupes. 

Symposium  was  with  the 
ancient  Greeks  a  drinking  to- 
gether, a  conversational  feast  or 
banquet,  characterized  by  the 
drinking  of  wine  mixed  with 
water,  by  intellectual  or  enter- 
taining conversation,  and  by 
music,  dancing,  and  other  amuse- 
ments. Since  both  Plato  and 
Xenophon  used  the  word  as  the 
title  of  a  work  describing  the 
conversation  of  Socrates  and 
others,  it  has  come  to  mean  a 
social  discussion  of  philosophical 
and  other  topics. 

Symptoms.  See  Diagnosis. 

Synagogue,  the  Jewish  place 
of  religious  worship.  The  origin 
of  this  institution  is  veiled  in 
obscurity,  but  is  probably  to  be 
traced  to  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity, when  the  need  for  a  com- 
mon place  of  prayer  and  instruc- 
tion became  urgent.  From  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees  syna- 
gogues are  found  even  in  the 
villages;  and  Josephus,  Philo,  the 
New  Testament,  the  Mishna,  and 
the  Talmud  constantly  allude  to 
them.  Synagogues  appear  to 
have  been  originally  erected  in 
the  fields,  usually  near  waters,  for 
the  sake  of  ablution;  but  they 
were  soon  introduced  into  the 
towns,  where  they  were  built  on 
the  most  elevated  spots,  rising 
above  the  surrounding  structures. 

Architecturally,  the  synagogue, 
rectangular  or  octagonal  in  shape, 


has  iisuaily  conformed  to  the 
type  of  structure  prevailing  in 
the  country  in  which  it  has  been 
built.  In  Europe  and  America 
the  entrance  is  generally  toward 
the  west,  and  the  congregation 
worship  with  their  faces  toward 
the  east,  in  the  general  direction 
of  Jerusalem.  Directly  opposite 
the  entrance,  at  the  eastern  end 
of  the  synagogue,  upon  a  slightly 
raised  platform  reached  by  three 
or  more  steps,  stands  the  Ark,  a 
box  or  chest  containing  the 
scrolls  of  the  Pentateuch.  Before 
the  Ark  hang  a  heavy  curtain  and 
the  perpetually  burning  lamp, 
the  symbol  of  immortality.  In 
the  older  type  of  synagogue  there 
is  a  raised  platform  in  the  centre 
of  the  building  from  which  the 
reading  of  the  Scripture  is  con- 
ducted— the  almemar.  In  the 
later  synagogues  this  is  often 
placed  directly  before  the  Ark, 
and  in  many  instances  is  com- 
bined with  the  pulpit.  In  either 
case  it  is  approached  by  steps, 
and  is  surrounded  by  a  railing. 

In  the  orthodox  congregations 
the  women  sit  in  a  separate  room 
or  latticed  gallery,  and  the  men 
keep  their  heads  covered.  In 
the  United  States  there  is  a 
strong  reform  movement  that 
dispenses  with  these  and  many 
other  ancient  usages. 

The  synagogue  service  con- 
sisted originally  of  the  recitation 
of  the  Shema  (Deut.  vi.  4-9,  xi. 
13-21;  Num.  xv.  37-41),  the 
reading  of  the  Law  and  the 
Prophets,  with  translations  into 
Aramaic,  and  the  priestly  blessing. , 
To  this  was  added  the  exposition 
of  the  laws,  and,  later,  various 
prayers  and  benedictions.  In  the 
reform  synagogues  of  the  United 
States  the  tendency  has  been  to 
curtail  the  ritual  and  to  lay  spe- 
cial emphasis  upon  the  sermon. 

The  administration  of  the  syn- 
agogue formerly  rested  with  a 
body  of  elders  appointed  for  the 
purpose,  these  ofhcers  being  a 
ruler  who  directed  the  worship 
and  an  attendant  who  exercised 
functions  similar  to  those  of  a 
beadle.  The  service  was  read  by 
a  chosen  member  of  the  congre- 
gation. To-day  there  is  usually 
a  regularly  •  employed  reader 
{hazzan)  and  a  sexton  {sham- 
mash).  The  temporal  adminis- 
tration of  affairs  rests  with  the 
parnas,  or  president  and  board  of 
trustees. 

Consult  Schiirer's  History  of 
the  Jewish  People  (vol.  ii.) ;  Dem- 
bitz's  Jewish  Services  in  Syna- 
gogue and  Home;  The  Jewish 
Encyclopedia  (1905). 

Synaptase.    See  Emulsin. 

Syncline.  The  strata  of  the 
earth's  crust  generally  lie  in 
folds  or  undulations,  and  when 
the  dip  is  toward  a  common  cen- 
tral line  or  plane,  forming  a 
trough-like  structure,  the  strata 


Syncope 


589 


SynoTlal  Membrane 


are  said  lo  lie  in  a  syncline.  See 
Anticline. 

Syncope.  (1)  The  elision  of  a 
letter  or  syllable  in  a  word,  as 
'ne'er'  for  never,  'fo'c'sle'  for 
forecastle.  (2)  See  Fainting; 
Death. 

Syncretism,  a  tendency  to 
reconcile  and  unite  various  sys- 
tems of  philosophy  or  religious 
opinions  on  the  basis  of  tenets 
common  to  all.  In  church  his- 
tory the  term  is  applied  to  a 
movement  in  the  17th  century, 
promoted  by  Calixtus,  which  ad- 
vocated the  union  of  the  various 
churches — Protestants  and  Ro- 
man Catholics,  Lutherans  and 
the  Reformed  or  Calvinistic  sects 
— and  the  reconcilement  of  both 
.with  the  Tridentine  doctrine. 
See  Eclecticism. 

Syndic  is  an  old  term  for  a 
civil  magistrate  or  officer  repre- 
senting a  government  or  a  com- 
munity, with  various  powers  in 
different  countries.  The  term 
was  also  used  collectively  for  a 
body  of  officers  or  a  council — e.g., 
the  syndics  of  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity, England,  where  the  term 
is  still  used.  In  the  Middle  Ages 
it  frequently  denoted  the  accents 
appointed  by  municipalities  to 
watch  over  their  interest  at  law. 
Sindaco  is  Italian  for  mayor. 

Syndicalism,  a  revolutionary 
working-class  movement  having 
for  its  aim  the  ownership  and 
control  by  industrial  organiza- 
tions of  the  means  of  production 
and  distribution,  thus  making 
the  workingman  his  own  em- 
ployer, and  securing  to  him  the 
entire  product  of  his  labor.  Syn- 
dicalism differs  from  socialism 
(q.  V.)  in  its  uncompromising  de- 
nunciation of  the  theory  of  the 
collectivist  state,  in  its  rejection 
of  every  form  of  political  organi- 
zation, and  in  its  attitude  toward 
all  measures  of  social  reform  as 
merely  palliative.  It  advocates 
uncompromising  hostility  be- 
tween capitalist  and  workman, 
and  seeks  the  absolute  supremacy 
of  labor. 

In  order  to  effect  its  ends  Syn- 
dicalism pursues  a  policy  of  'di- 
rect action,'  the  principal  forms 
of  which  are  the  General  Strike 
and  Sabotage.  The  general  strike 
is  the  culminating  feature  of  the 
campaign  of  direct  action,  and 
aims  at  the  complete  overthrow 
of  the  existing  order  by  the  simul- 
taneous cessation  of  all  activity 
on  the  part  of  workingmen. 
Sabotage  includes  a  variety  of 
measures  directed  against  em- 
ployers, with  the  object  of  ren- 
dering industry  unprofitable  (see 
Sabotage). 

The  Syndicalist  movement  had 
its  origin  in  France.  The  Con- 
federation Generate  du  Travail, 
the  instrument  of  Syndicalism  in 
that  country,  was  organized  in 
189.5  by  various  trade  unions 
which  had  declared  in  favor  of  the 
general  strike  as  a  revolutionary 


measure.  The  Federation  ex- 
tended and  elaborated  its  pro- 
gramme at  successive  confer- 
ences, and  in  1902  was  joined  by 
the  federation  of  Bourses  du 
Travail,  or  Labor  Exchanges. 
The  chief  intellectual  leaders 
were  G.  Sorel  and  E.  Berth,  both 
of  whom  have  written  largely  on 
the  subject.  The  movement  ap- 
peared next  in  Italy,  where  it 
spread  rapidly  among  the  anar- 
chistic portion  of  the  population. 

In  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States,  where  Syndicalism 
has  also  become  prominent,  spe- 
cial emphasis  is  placed  upon  the 
organization  of  labor  by  indus- 
tries rather  than  by  crafts.  The 
movement  first  made  its  appear- 
ance in  Great  Britain  in  1910  and 
1911,  with  the  publication  of  the 
Industrial  Syndicalist  conducted 
by  Tom  Mann,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  the  'Industrial  Syndicalist 
Education  League'  at  Manches- 
ter. One  evidence  of  its  activity 
is  the  Transport  Workefs'  Fed- 
eration, which,  however,  failed 
completely  in  the  London  trans- 
port and  coal  strikes  of  1911  and 
1912. 

In  the  United  States,  Syndical- 
ism appeared  as  early  as  1896 
in  a  revolt  against  the  old  trade 
union  movement.  Its  principal 
exponent  is  the  Industrial  Work- 
ers of  the  World  (I.  W.  W.),  or- 
ganized in  1905  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Eugene  V.  Debs  and  W. 
D.  Haywood.  The  movement 
did  not  become  generally  known 
till  1912  and  1913,  however, 
when  its  strength  was  evidenced 
in  the  strikes  of  the  textile  work- 
ers at  Lawrence,  Mass.,  and  of 
the  silk  mill  operatives  at  Pater- 
son,  N.  J.  See  Labor  Organi- 
zations. 

Consult  Clay's  Syndicalism 
and  Labor  (1911);  Levine's  The 
Labor  Movement  in  France  (1912) ; 
Harley's  Syndicalism  (1912); 
Boyle's  Minimum  Wage  and  Syn- 
dicalism (1913);  Brooke's  Amer- 
ican Syndicalism:  The  I.  W.  W. 
(1913);  Hunter's  Violence  and  the 
Labor  Movement  (1914);  J.  Ram- 
say MacDonald's  Syndicalism 
(1913);  P.  Snowden's  Socialism 
and  Syndicalism  (1913);  Bris- 
senden's  History  of  the  I.  W.  W. 
(2ded.,  1920);  J.  A.  R.  Marriott's 
Syndicalism  (1921). 

Syndicate  is  a  general  com- 
mercial term  denoting  a  com- 
pany or  association  of  companies 
organized  on  an  extensive  scale 
for  the  promotion  of  some  im- 
portant scheme,  or  for  the  pur- 
pose of  establishing  a  monopoly. 
In  the  United  States  associations 
of  this  kind  are  also  formed  of 
newspapers  to  'syndicate'  arti- 
cles and  illustrations.  See  Trust. 

Synergism,  the  co-operation 
of  human  effort  with  divine  grace 
in  the  salvation  of  the  soul,  the 
term  being  specifically  used  to 
describe  a  type  of  semi-Pelagian- 
ism  (see  Pelagius)  in  Germany 


in  the  sixteenth  century.  Its 
chief  supporters  were  Erasmus 
and  Melanchthon. 

Synesius,  si-ne'shi-us  (c.  370- 
c.  414),  bishop  of  Ptolemais  in 
Cyrenaica,  North  Africa,  was  the 
pupil  and  friend  of  Hypatia  at 
Alexandria.  He  came  upon  the 
public  stage  by  leading  an  em- 
bassy (c.  398)  from  Cyrenaica 
to  the  emperor  at  Constanti- 
nople, where  he  remained  three 
years,  and  wrote  Concerning 
Providence  {Peri  Pronoias) .  After 
his  return  he  wrote  on  Dreams, 
The  Praise  of  Baldness,  Self- 
discipline  (a  supplement  to  Peri 
Pronoias),  and  several  hymns, 
redolent  of  the  spirit  of  neo- 
Platonism.  Having  become  a 
Christian,  he  was  called  to  the 
see  of  Ptolemais.  Some  one 
hundred  and  fifty-six  of  his  letters 
have  been  preserved.  Some  have 
attributed  to  him  the  writings  of 
(pseudo-)  Dionysius  the  Areop- 
agite.  Consult  Lives  by  Gard- 
ner, Crawford,  and  Griitzmacher. 

Synge,  John  Millington 
(1871-1909),  Irish  dramatist,  was 
born  near  Dublin,  Ireland,  and 
became  one  of  the  leaders  in  the 
movement  for  the  revival  of  the 
ancient  language  and  legends  of 
Ireland.  He  was  chiefly  identi- 
fied with  the  national  drama  of 
the  Abbey  Theatre,  Dublin,  and 
wrote  Riders  to  the  Sea,  The 
Shadow  of  the  Glen,  and  The  Well 
of  the  Saints  (1905),  The  Playboy 
of  the  Western  World  (1906),  and 
The  Tinkers  Wedding  (1908); 
Poems  and  Translations  (1909). 
Deirdre  of  the  Sorrows  (1910)  was 
left  unfinished.  He  was  regarded 
as  the  most  promising  poet  of  the 
Irish  Celtic  school. 

Consult  M.  Bourgeois,  John 
Millington  Synge  and  the  Irish 
Theatre  (1912);  J.  Masefield, 
John  M.  Synge:  A  Few  Personal 
Recollections  (1915) ;  W.  B.  Yeats, 
Synge  and  the  Ireland  of  His 
Time  (1911);  P.  P.  Howe,  M. 
Synge,  A  Critical  Study  (1912) ;  J, 
Thorning,    J.  M.  Synge  (1921). 

Synod.  See  Councils,  Eccle- 
siastical; Presbyterianism. 

Synod  of  Elvira,  an  ecclesias- 
tical synod  held  somewhere  be- 
tween 300  and  314  a.d.  at  Elvira, 
in  Spain,  near  the  modern  Gra- 
nada. Bishops  from  all  parts  of 
Spain  assembled,  and  adopted 
eighty-one  canons  regulating  ex- 
ternal and  internal  affairs.  Mar- 
riage with  Jews,  pagans,  and 
heretics  was  forbidden,  and  vice 
of  all  kinds  was  sternly  de- 
nounced. 

Synoptic,  name  applied  to  the 
first  three  of  the  four  Gospels  of 
the  New  Testament,  because 
they  contain  parts  which  may  be 
examined  side  by  side,  being  vir- 
tually identical.  They  present  a 
general  and  harmonized  view  of 
the  life  of  the  Saviour. 

Synovial  Membrane,  a  thin, 
delicate  membrane,  secreting  a 
thick,  viscid,  and  glairy  fluid  like 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Syntax 


589  A 


Syphilis 


white  of  egg.  Synovial  mem- 
branes are  arranged  in  the  form 
of  short,  wide  tubes  around 
joints,  as  the  Hnings  of  synovial 
bursae,  and  as  sheaths  for  ten- 
dons. 

For  inflammation  of  the  syno- 
vial membrane,  or  Synovitis,  see 
Joints. 

Syntax  is  that  part  ofgrammar 
which  treats  of  the  rules  for  the 
formation  of  the  sentence.  It 
considers  the  collocation  of  words 
and  sentences  in  connected 
speech,  treating  of  their  arrange- 
ment and  relative  positions  as  re- 
quired by  grammatical  connec- 
tion, euphony,  and  clearness  and 
energy  of  expression. 

Syn'thesis,  the  combination 
of  separate  elements  or  thoughts 
into  a  whole;  also  a  process  of 
reasoning  from  propositions  al- 
ready proved  to  the  conclusion — 
the  opposite  of  analysis  (see 
Analysis)  . 

In  Chemistry,  in  its  most  gen- 
eral sense,  synthesis  is  the  process 
of  building  up  complex  com- 
pounds from  their  elements  or 
simpler  compounds,  but  is  s®me- 
times  restricted  to  the  prepara- 
tion by  laboratory  methods,  and 
from  unorganized  material,  of 
the  compounds  naturally  formed 
in  the  life  processes  of  animals 
and  plants.  Syntheses  of  new 
organic  compounds  are  frequent- 
ly the  result  of  chance  discoveries 
of  new  reactions,  but  a  very  large 
number  of  such  reactions  of  more 
»  or  less  general  applicability  have 
been  studied  and  classified.  See 
Chemistry;  Analysis,  Chem- 
ical. 

Synthetic  Rubber.  See  India 
Rubber. 

Syn'tonin,  or  Acid  Albumin, 
is  an  intermediate  product  of  the 
gastric  digestion  of  albuminates 
or  proteids,  which  are  eventually 
transformed  into  peptones.  vSyn- 
tonin  may  be  produced  outside 
the  body  by  the  prolonged  action 
of  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  upon 
minced  muscle.  It  is  precipi- 
tated by  sodium  chloride  and 
many  other  salts,  as  well  as  by 
neutralization  with  alkalis,  but 
not  by  heat.    See  Albumin. 

Syphax,  si'faks,  king  of  the 
Massylians,  a  Numidian  tribe. 
He  first  appears  at  war  with  Car- 
thage, in  213  B.C.,  but  was  com- 
pletely defeated,  and  apparently 
made  peace.  Hasdrubal  Gisco 
attached  him  to  the  side  of  Car- 
thage by  marrying  him  to  his 
daughter  Sophonisba.  Soon  af- 
terward he  expelled  Masinissa 
from  the  Massylian  kingdom. 
Later  he  joined  Hasdrubal  in 
fighting  against  Scipio;  but  he 
was  three  times  defeated  (203 
B.C.),  and  finally  captured  by  the 
Romans.  He  adorned  Scipio's 
triumph,  and  died  in  imprison- 
ment. 

Syphilis,  a  specific,  highly 
contagious  disease,  communi- 
cated by  contact  or  transmitted 


hereditarily.  In  the  hereditary 
form  of  the  disease  a  distinction 
is  sometimes  drawn  between  con- 
genital syphilis,  in  which  the 
ovum  or  spermatozoon  is  syphi- 
litic, and  inherited  syphilis,  in 
which  the  fcetus  acquires  the  dis- 
ease through  the  mother  con- 
tracting it  during  her  pregnancy. 
The  origin  of  syphilis  is  unknown, 
but  many  believe  that  the  com- 
panions of  Columbus  on  his  first 
voyage  to  Haiti  introduced  the 
disease  into  Europe  on  their  re- 
turn in  1493.  By  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century  it  had  spread  in 
severe  and  epidemic  form  through 
the  greater  part  of  the  civilized 
world;  and  although  no  longer  so 
violent  as  at  that  time,  the  dis- 
ease has  never  been  eradicated. 

While  no  human  being  is  im- 
mune from  the  disease  unless  pro- 
tected by  a  previous  attack,  no 
animal,  with  the  exception  of  the 
higher  primates,  has  been  shown 
to  be  susceptible  to  it.  In  the 
majority  of  cases  the  abrasion  by 
which  the  virus  enters  the  system 
is  situated  on  the  genital  organs, 
but  numerous  instances  are  re- 
corded in  which  scratches  or 
sores  on  the  lips,  the  hands,  and 
elsewhere  have  admitted  the 
infection. 

The  Parasite. — The  germ  of 
syphilis  is  the  Treponema  palli- 
dum, a  parasite  belonging  to  the 
group  of  the  spirochaeta,  first 
cultivated  ,  in  pure  culture  by 
Noguchi  in  1911.  The  presence 
of  this  parasite,  and  hence  of  the 
disease,  may  be  established  by 
the  detection  of  the  spirochaete 
under  the  microscope,  by  the 
skin  immunity  reaction,  the 
luetin  test,  or  by  a  complex  im- 
munity reaction  known  as  the 
complement-fixation  (or  Wasser- 
mann)  test. 

Course  of  the  Disease. — ■ 
According  to  recent  conceptions, 
the  course  of  acquired  syphilis 
may  be  divided  into  four  stages. 
Following  infection,  there  ensues 
a  period  of  incubation,  the  aver- 
age length  of  which  is  about 
twenty  days.  Then  appears  the 
first  symptom  of  the  disease,  a 
sore  known  as  a  chancre,  located 
at  the  site  of  contagion,  usually 
the  lip,  tongue  or  genitals.  This 
lesion  is  hard  or  indurated  and,  as 
a  rule,  painless.  Spirochaetes  are 
present.  The  chancre  persists 
for  approximately  five  weeks. 

The  secondary  stage,  which 
begins  about  six  weeks  after  the 
appearance  of  the  chancre,  is 
characterized  by  general  rather 
than  local  symptoms,  such  as 
anemia,  fatigue,  headache,  men- 
tal depression,  swelling  of  the 
lymph  glands,  pains  in  bones 
and  joints,  fever,  and  skin 
eruptions — any  or  all  of  these 
may  be  present.  The  most 
characteristic  symptoms  are  the 
swollen  lymph  glands  and  the 
skin  eruptions,  centred  chiefly 
on  the  face,  the  soles  of  the  feet, 


the  palms  of  the  hands,  and  in  the 
genital  region.  The  eruptions, 
usually  bright  red  in  color,  sel- 
dom cause  pain  or  itching.  The 
secondary  stage  persists  for  a 
variable  period,  usually  three  to 
five  years,  often  many  years 
longer. 

In  tertiary  syphilis  skin  ulcera- 
tions known  as  gummata  are 
generally  found,  occurring  most- 
ly on  the  legs,  although  the  scalp, 
sternum,  and  other  parts  of  the 
body  may  be  affected.  The 
gumma  is  usually  painless;  in- 
fection may  pass  from  it  to  the 
underlying  bones. 

The  fourth  stage  of  the  disease 
ushers  in  the  parasyphilitic  in- 
vasions of  the  nervous  system. 
The  commonest  of  these  are  gen-- 
eral  paresis  and  tabes  dorsalis 
(locomotor  ataxia).  The  first 
symptom  of  general  paresis  may 
be  an  epileptiform  or  apoplecti- 
form attack.  A  change  in  per- 
sonality soon  becomes  manifest. 
The  paretic  becomes  careless  in 
conduct  and  dress;  apathy  or 
memory  defects  rriay  be  shown, 
as  well  as  delusions  and  quick 
loss  of  temper. 

Tabes  dorsalis  is  a  relatively 
common  organic  disease  of  the 
spinal  cord,  characterized  by 
lancinating  pains  or  localized  ab- 
sence of  sensation.  Ataxia,  or 
incoordination  of  movement,  the 
chief  motor  symptom,  usually 
develops  slowly. 

Treatment. — Though  in  some 
cases  syphiUs  runs  a  rapid,  malig- 
nant, intractable,  and  fatal  course, 
the  disease  is  generally  amenable 
to  treatment,  which,  however, 
must  be  begun  early  and  per- 
sisted in  for  two  years  or  more. 
General  measures  are  the  main- 
tenance of  the  general  health, 
special  diet,  and  the  cautious  but 
continued  administration  of  mer- 
cury salts,  which  have  a  definite 
specific  effect  upon  the  course  of 
the  disease. 

After  the  discovery  of  the 
spirochaete  of  syphilis,  the  Ger- 
man chemist  and  pathologist 
Ehrlich  set  on  foot  one  of  the 
most  elaborate  scientific  cam- 
paigns ever  planned  with  a  view 
to  the  discovery  of  a  specific 
drug  which  would  exert  a  strong- 
er poisonous  effect  than  mercury 
upon  the  parasite  of  syphilis, 
while  at  the  same  time  being  no 
more  toxic  to  the  tissues  of  the 
human  body.  Starting  with 
atoxyl,  which  had  been  found  by 
Uhlenhuth  to  be  a  promising 
possibility,  Ehrlich  and  his  asso- 
ciates systematically  studied  one 
after  the  other  of  its  possible 
modifications,  and  at  last  dis- 
covered Salvarsan,  or  No.  606 
(di-chlor-di-amido-di-oxy-arseno- 
benzol),  and  later  Neosalvar- 
san,  or  914.  These  compounds, 
known  in  the  United  States  as 
arsphenamine  and  neoarsphena- 
mine,  contain  arsenic  in  a  form 
which  is  not  highly  toxic  to  the 


Vol.  XI.— 31-0. 


Syphilis 


589  B 


Syracuse 


body,  but  which  unites  readily 
with  the  protoplasm  of  the  spiro- 
chaetes. 

The  hopes,  at  first  entertained, 
that  a  single  injection  of  sal- 
varsan  would  produce  a  perma- 
nent cure  of  syphilis  have  not 
been  realized.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  has  been  amply  demon- 
strated that  a  therapeutic  course 
of  intravenous  injections  of  sal- 
varsan  simultaneously  with,  or 
followed  by  intensive  treatment 
with  mercury,  are  highly  success- 
ful in  a  large  proportion  of  cases, 
including  many  which  are  un- 
affected by  mercury  alone.  In 
most  cases,  insufficient  injections 
of  salvarsan  may  cause  a  tem- 


Public  Control  of  Syphilis. — 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid 
on  the  contagious  nature  of  a 
syphilitic  patient.  His  blood, 
secretions,  and  discharges  may 
communicate  the  disease  to  those 
around  him.  Razors,  pipes,  tum- 
blers, spoons,  handkerchiefs,  and 
clothes  are  contaminated  by  his 
use  of  them,  and  his  kiss  is  more 
dangerous  than  a  leper's.  Syphilis 
contracted  during  pregnancy  of- 
ten leads  to  miscarriage.  Should 
the  labor  be  a  full  time,  the  in- 
fant is  generally  pury,  mal- 
formed, and  the  victim  of  specific 
affections,  such  as  'snuffles,'  and 
of  diverse  diseases  of  the  bones 
and  skin. 


trates  the  magnitude  of  the  prob- 
lem involved. 

Consult  Engman's  Syphilis  in 
Nelson  Loose  Leaf  Living  Medi- 
cine (Vol.  ii) ;  also  Churchman's 
Prevention  of  Venereal  Disease  in 
the  same  work  (Vol.  vii). 

Sy'ra  (Greek  Syros),  the  most 
important,  though  not  the  larg- 
est, of  that  group  of  islands  in 
the^gean  Sea  known  as  the  Cyc- 
lades.  It  is  about  10  miles  long 
by  5  broad,  has  an  area  of  50 
square  miles,  and  is  bare,  rocky, 
and  not  very  fertile.  Pop.  (1928), 
33,700.  The  capital,  Syra,  or 
Hermoupolis  (pop.  21,156),  is 
situated  on  a  bay  on  the  east  side 
of  the  island.  It  exports  sponges, 


Syracuse. — General  View,  and  Greek  Theatre 


porary  disappearance  of  the 
spirochaetes  followed  by  a  sub- 
sequent relapse,  and  the  exact 
dosage  necessary  to  prevent  such 
recurrence  has  not  yet  been  ac- 
curately determined.  There  is 
no  doubt,  however,  that  salvar- 
san is  an  exceedingly  valuable 
weapon  in  combating  syphilis. 
(See  Salvarsan.) 

Several  new  preparations  of 
arsphenamine  have  recently  been 
employed  in  the  treatment 
of  syphilis,  such  as  bismuth 
arsphenamine  sulphonate  (bis- 
marsen),  sulpharsphenamine,  and 
others,  with  successful  results. 
Bismuth  alone  has  also  proved 
valuable.  Tellurium  is  effective, 
though  its  application  is  still  ex- 
perimental; the  same  is  true  of 
sodium  thiosulphate. 


From  the  standpoint  of  public 
health,  syphilis  must  be  consid- 
ered and  treated  as  a  communi- 
cable disease.  The  action  of  the 
New  York  City  Department  "of 
Health  in  1912  in  requiring  of 
hospitals  and  other  institutions, 
and  in  requesting  of  private  phy- 
sicians, the  reporting  of  cases  of 
venereal  disease,  and  in  offering 
the  services  of  its  laboratories  in 
the  diagnosis  of  such  disease, 
marks  a  long  move  forward  in 
the  acquisition  of  the  knowledge 
necessary  for  a  wise  handling  of 
syphilis  and  gonorrhoea.  The 
fact  that  even  in  the  first  year  of 
operation  of  the  new  law  11,573 
cases  of  venereal  disease  were  re- 
ported, and  that  a  circular  letter 
to  physicians  elicited  a  report  of 
42,665  case.5  during  1912,  illus- 


tobacco,  citrons  in  brine,  and 
emery.  During  1910  the  dock- 
yard at  Syra  arsenal  was  equipped 
with  modern  British  machinery. 

Syr'acuse,  the  most  important 
of  the  ancient  Greek  colonies  in 
Sicily,  situated  on  the  southeast 
coast  of  the  island,  was  founded 
about  734  B.C.  by  emigrants  from 
Corinth.  The  original  settlement 
was  on  a  small  island,  Ortygia,  at 
the  north  of  the  Great  Harbor, 
and  was  later  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  a  bridge.  On  the 
north  side  of  the  island,  between 
it  and  the  mainland,  was  a  deep 
inlet,  called  the  Lesser  Harbor. 
Beyond  it  the  mainland  rises 
rapidly  into  the  tableland  of 
Achradina,  from  200  to  400  feet 
above  sea  level.  The  city  soon 
spread  from  Ortygia  to  the  level 

Vol.  XI.— 31-0. 


Syracuse 


590 


Syracuse 


ground  south  of  Achradina,  and 
by  the  fifth  century  it  covered 
practically  the  whole  of  Achra- 
dina; both  the  island  and  Achra- 
dina were  separately  fortified. 
During  the  following  century  two 
new  quarters  were  added  on  the 
triangular  plateau  of  Epipolae, 
which  stretched  west  of  Achra- 
dina— viz.,  the  suburb  of  Tycha 
on  the  north,  and  that  of  Neap- 
olis  on  the  south.  The  complete 
circuit  of  the  walls  at  their  great- 
est extent  was  14  miles. 

Syracuse  herself  founded  the 
colonies  of  Acrae  in  664  B.C.,  Cas- 
menae  in  644  B.C.,  and  Camarina 
in  599  B.C.  Up  to  this  time  and 
down  to  486  B.C.  the  government 
of  the  city  was  oligarchic;  but  in 
that  year  the  people  e.xpelled  the 
governing  class,  called  Gamori. 
They  appealed  to  Gelon,  the 
tyrant  of  Gela,  to  restore  them. 
He  did  so,  but  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  the  city,  and  removed  to  it 
half  of  the  inhabitants  of  Gela, 
all  those  of  Camarina,  and  others 
from  Megara  and  Euboea.  Thus 
he  made  Syracuse  the  first  city 
in  Sicily.  In  480  B.C.  he  de- 
feated a  Carthaginian  army  at 
Himera.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Hiero,  who  defeated 
the  Etruscans  at  sea  in  474  B.C. 
and  he  by  Thrasybulus;  but  in 
467  B.C.  the  citizens  of  Syracuse 
rose  against  him  and  expelled 
him. 

After  some  civil  strife  a  de- 
mocracy was  established,  and  it 
overcame  the  Athenian  expedi- 
tion which  besieged  the  city  be- 
tween 415  B.C.  and  413  B.C.;  but 
in  405  B.C.  Dionysius  made  him- 
self tyrant  of  the  city.  In  his 
reign,  which  lasted  until  367  B.C., 
there  were  wars  with  Carthage; 
but  Dionysius  extended  the 
power  of  Syracuse  over  all  East- 
ern Sicily  and  much  of  Southern 
Italy.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Dionysius  ii,  who  was  ex- 
pelled by  Dion  in  356  B.C.;  but 
Dion  was  murdered  in  354  B.C. 
Dionysius  ii  recovered  his  power 
in  346  B.C.,  but  was  driven  out 
again  in  344  B.C.  by  Timoleon, 
who  freed  the  Syracusans  from 
tyranny,  destroyed  the  tyrant's 
great  fortress  in  Ortygia,  liber- 
ated other  Sicilian  towns,  and 
decisively  defeated  the  Cartha- 
ginians at  the  Crimisus  in  339 
B.C.  In  317  B.C.  another  tyrant, 
Agathocles,  arose,  who  ruled  un- 
til 289  B.C. 

The  city  was  then  held  by  a 
succession  of  military  adven- 
turers, until  275  B.C.,  when  Hiero 
gained  supreme  powe;;.  He  ruled 
until  216  B.C.,  and  was  allied  with 
the  Romans;  but  his  grandson 
Hieronymus,  who  succeeded  him, 
took  the  side  of  Carthage  in  the 
Second  Punic  War,  and  Syracuse 
was  taken  by  the  Romans  after  a 
two  years'  siege  (214-212  B.C.), 
famous  for  the  inventions  in  mili- 
tary engines  of  Archimedes.  To- 
ward the  end  of  the  fifth  century 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


A.D.  the  Goths  conquered  it;  but 
in  A.D.  535  it  was  restored  by 
Belisarius  to  the  Eastern  empire. 
It  was  captured  by  the  Saracens 
in  A.D.  878  and  then  by  the  Nor- 
mans some  two  centuries  later. 
See  Sicily. 

Modern  Syracuse  is  practically 
confined  to  the  old  island  of  Or- 
tygia, now  joined  to  the  mainland. 
The  columns  of  the  Temple  of 
Athena  are  built  into  the  walls 
of  the  Cathedral,  and  the  foun- 
tain of  Arethusa  still  exists  on 
the  sea  front.  In  Neapolis  the 
Greek  theatre  remains  in  fairly 
perfect  preservation;  near  it  are 
the  base  of  a  colossal  altar,  built 
by  King  Hiero,  and  the  Roman 
amphitheatre.  At  the  extreme 
end  of  Epipolae  the  ancient  forti- 
fications still  remain  to  some  ex- 
tent; the  subterranean  galleries 
are  in  perfect  condition.  The 
local  museum  contains  valuable 
antiquities.  A  remarkable  fea- 
ture of  the  place  are  the  huge 
quarries  in  Achradina  and  Neap- 
olis, which  were  used  as  prisons. 
There  is  also  a  vast  extent  of 
catacombs  at  the  south  end  of 
Achradina;  they  were  largely 
used  for  Christian  burials.  Chem- 
icals, salt,  wine,  and  pottery  are 
produced.  Olive  oil,  almonds, 
lemons,  oranges,  and  asphalt  are 
exported.  Pop.  (1928)  est.  55,780. 

Consult  E.  A.  Freeman,  His- 
tory of  Sicily  (1894);  B.  Lupus, 
Die  Sladt  Syrakus  im  Alter Ihum 
(1887);  Gregorovius,  Wander- 
jahre  in  Italien,  Siciliana  (1872); 
E.  Mauceri,  Siracusa  (1904); 
G.  E.  Rizzo,  II  Teatro  Greco  di 
Siracusa  (1923). 

Syracuse,  city.  New  York, 
county  seat  of  Onondaga  county, 
is  situated  in  the  beautiful  Onon- 
daga Valley,  on  the  Erie  Canal, 
at  the  terminus  of  the  Oswego 
Canal,  and  on  the  Delaware, 
Lackawanna,  and  Western,  the 
New  York  Central,  and  the  West 
Shore  Railroads;  76  miles  east  of 
Rochester,  and  148  miles  west  of 
Albany.  It  is  the  starting  point 
for  an  extensive  system  of  elec- 
tric railways  that  reach  the  sur- 
rounding towns  and  district. 
The  mean  temperature  varies 
from  67°  F.  in  July  to  25°  F.  in 
January,  and  the  city  is  one  of 
the  most  healthful  in  the  United 
States. 

Syracuse  covers  an  area  of  25 
square  miles  and  is  situated  at  an 
altitude  of  397  feet.  There  are 
more  than  35,000  dwellings,  and 
37  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants 
own  their  homes.  The  city  has 
over  100  apartment  houses,  14 
hotels,  35  theatres,  and  more 
than  a  hundred  churches  of  vari- 
ous denominations;  here  are  the 
See  of  a  Roman  Catholic  diocese, 
the  business  offices  of  the  Episco- 
pal diocese,  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal area,  and  the  State  head- 
quarters of  the  Baptists  and 
Congregationalists;  also  nine  hos- 
pitals. 


The  main  thoroughfares  radi- 
ate from  a  common  centre,  and 
at  their  intersection  with  the 
cross  streets  are  numerous  small 
parks.  Altogether  there  are  76 
city  parks,  two  public  golf 
courses,  and  eight  country  clubs. 
The  total  street  mileage  is  about 
400,  with  100  miles  of  electric 
street  railway.  The  city  has 
numerous  fine  buildings;  the 
grounds  of  Syracuse  University 
(q.  V.)  occupy  a  hill  commanding 
a  splendid  view  of  the  city  and 
the  lake,  and  its  buildings  are 
among  the  chief  architectural 
attractions.  The  University 
Stadium  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
the  world,  seating  25,000. 

The  school  system  of  Syracuse 
includes  48  public  schools,  of 
which  four  are  senior  high,  a 
normal  school,  and  17  parochial 
schools.  In  1931  there  were  34,- 
200  pupils  and  1,247  teachers. 
Value  of  public  school  property 
exceeded  $10,000,000.  In  addi- 
tion, there  are  several  nationally 
known  private  schools. 

In  1929  Syracuse  had  441  in- 
dustrial establishments  with  26,- 
413  wage  earners,  receiving 
$39,076,091  in  wages,  with  an 
annual  production  valued  at 
$181,103,115.  The  leading  indus- 
try is  the  manufacture  of  motor 
vehicle  bodies  and  parts.  The 
city  enjoys  a  world-wide  renown 
as  a  leading  centre  in  the  manu- 
facture of  steel  tools,  soda  ash 
and  by-products,  fine  wax  can- 
dles, agricultural  implements, 
china  ware,  mince  meat  and 
powdered  milk,  quality  shoes, 
typewriters,  electrical  appliances, 
washing  machines,  steam  clothes 
pressing  machines,  cash  carrying 
and  conveying  instruments,  foun- 
dry and  machine  shop  products, 
boilers  and  radiators. 

Transportation  facilities  are 
extremely  favorable;  the  Erie 
and  Oswego  Canals  and  the 
chain  of  railroads  of  the  New 
York  Central  system  provide  di- 
rect connection  with  the  bitu- 
minous coal  fields  of  Pennsylvania 
and  West  Virginia  and  insure 
unlimited  supply  of  cheap  fuel. 
Niagara  Falls  and  the  Salmon 
River  provide  most  of  the  elec- 
trical power.  As  a  loading  and 
distributing  centre  for  cities 
within  trucking  distance,  Syra- 
cuse lies  but  a  night's  run  from 
Chicago,  Philadelphia,  Pitts- 
burgh, New  York,  Washington, 
Montreal  and  Boston. 

No  fewer  than  200  nationally- 
known  concerns  maintain  branch 
offices  in  the  city;  wholesale  dis- 
tributors' net  sales  reached 
$175,186,406  in  1929.  The  num- 
ber of  retail  stores  (1929)  num- 
bered 3,128,  and  net  sales 
amounted  to  $28,105,600. 

The  population  of  Syracuse  in 
1930  was  209,326,  an  increase 
of  37,609  over  1920.  In  1850  it 
was  22,271;  in  1900,  198,374. 
The  city  ranks  fourth  in  the 


JAN  1  4  '^^2 


Syphilis  KFK  589  B  Syracuse 


body,  but  which  unites  readily 
with  the  protoplasm  of  the  spiro- 
chetes. It  is  the  most  ideal  of  all 
the  parasiticidal  remedies  and 
has  a  most  rapid  and  fulminating 
effect  upon  all  the  lesions  of 
syphilis.  It  will  render  an  ini- 
tial lesion  more  rapidly  noninfec- 
tious than  any  other  remedy,  pro- 
ducing a  great  alteration  in  its 
spirochetical  content  in  24  hours. 
It  is  a  most  valuable  agent  in 
rendering  an  infectious  person 
noninfectious  in  the  shortest 
possible  time.  Its  use  is  indi- 
cated in  nearly  all  forms  of  syph- 
ilis, and  it  has  relatively  few 
contraindications  except  in  the 
matter  of  careful  regulation  of 
the  dosage  and  care  in  injection. 
N eoarsphenamine,  the  later 
product,  has  proved  less  effec- 
tive than  the  older  form,  al- 
though its  use  is  similar  to  that 
of  arsphenamine.  It  is  largely 
used  on  account  of  the  ease  with 
which  it  can  be  administered. 
The  discomfort  following  its  in- 
jection is  less,  and  it  causes  less 
immediate  reaction.  But  these 
advantages  are  more  than  offset 
by  its  lower  spirochetical  effect. 

The  use  of  these  arsenic  com- 
pounds is  accompanied  by  a 
mercury  or  bismuth  treatment. 
Since  bismuth  was  introduced 
into  syphilis  therapy  in  1921  by 
Sazerac  and  Levaditi  it  has  gen- 
erally replaced  the  use  of  mer- 
cury. It  has  been  shown  that  it 
possesses  a  higher  spirocheti- 
cidal  activity  than  mercury,  and 
the  relative  toxicity  is  low,  ex- 
cept when  given  by  the  intra- 
venous route,  which  now  is  not 
used. 

The  standard  treatment  of 
syphilis  less  than  four  years  old 
consists  of  thirty  injections  of 
an  arsenic  compound  in  the  arm, 
overlapped  with  forty  injections 
of  bismuth  or  mercury  in  the 
hip.  They  are  given  at  the  rate 
of  one  a  week  for  seventy  weeks, 
with  no  break  permitted  in  the 
regularity  of  treatment. 

In  1939  a  new  treatment  in- 
volving the  use  of  mapharsen 
was  evolved.  Mapharsen  was 
one  of  the  earlier  of  the  more 
than  900  arsenic  compounds  with 
which  Dr.  Ehrlich  experimented. 
It  is  less  toxic  than  arsphena- 
mine, and  a  technique  of  injec- 
tion has  been  worked  out  to  les- 
sen the  shock  of  injection,  and 
yet  to  shorten  radically  the  time 
of  treatment  from  seventy  weeks 
to  five  days.  Mapharsen  is  in- 
jected into  the  vein  by  use  of  the 
Murphy  drip  system  whereby  the 
solution  is  allowed  to  seep  very 
slowly  into  the  vein  of  the  pa- 
tient for  a  period  of  eight  hours. 
With  mapharsen  applied  in  this 
way  a  complete  and  effective 
treatment  may  be  possible  in  five 
continuous  days  of  hospitaliza- 
tion at  a  cost  much  lower  than 


for  any  other  effective  treatment. 
Its  chief  drawback  as  a  standard 
treatment  for  use  in  a  Public 
Health  program  is  that  it  cannot 
be  effectively  administered  in  the 
ordinary  doctor's  office,  but  re- 
quires hospitalization. 

Public  Control  of  Syphilis, 
— Syphilis  is  perhaps  the  most 
dangerous  of  all  diseases  in 
America  today.  It  is  highly  con- 
tagious. It  is  spread  from  one 
person  to  another  during  sexual 
intercourse  ;  but  it  may  be  caught 
in  rare  cases  by  kissing,  using 
infected  drinking  cups,  towels, 
and  similar  personal  articles. 
Over  100,000  persons  die  in  the 
United  States  each  year  from 
syphilis ;  over  one  million  per- 
sons are  newly  infected  by  it 
each  year.  In  1940  it  was  esti- 
mated that  ten  million  persons 
in  the  United  States  have  or 
have  had  syphilis. 

One  of  the  greatest  hindrances 
in  the  intelligent  attempts  to  con- 
trol this  disease  has  been  the 
prevalent  social  attitude  which 
demanded  that  syphilis  must  not 
be  talked  about ;  that  secrecy 
and  shame  must  shroud  the  pa- 
tient's condition.  Up  to  nearly 
the  mid-thirties,  the  word  'syphi- 
lis' was  taboo  in  general  conver- 
sation and  in  popular  periodicals 
and  newspapers.  It  was  not 
known  who  and  how  many  had 
the  disease,  and  consequently 
efforts  to  control  the  spread  of 
infection  could  not  succeed. 

As  early  as  1912  the  New 
York  City  Department  of  Health 
took  steps  to  try  to  obtain 
knowledge  which  would  help 
them  control  the  disease  locally. 
All  hospitals  and  similar  institu- 
tions were  required  by  law,  and 
all  private  physicians  requested, 
to  report  cases  of  venereal  dis- 
ease. But  although  some  other 
centers  also  adopted  this  prac- 
tice, it  was  not  until  the  late 
twenties  that  scientists,  social 
workers,  and  public-spirited  per- 
sons undertook  a  vast  country- 
wide educational  and  clinical 
program.  The  campaign  di- 
rected itself  towards  creating 
adequate  facilities  for  diagnosing 
and  treating  syphilis  ;  by  seeing 
that  the  facilities  were  used  ;  by 
advocating  that  all  persons  take 
blood  tests  as  a  matter  of 
course  ;  by  bringing  to  treatment 
those  who  were  infected ;  and  by 
keeping  infected  persons  under 
treatment  until  cured.  Clinics 
were  set  up  in  a  great  many 
places,  and  gave  their  services 
free  or  at  a  nominal  charge. 
The  location  and  use  of  such 
clinics  was  widely  advertised  in 
public  places.  A  number  of 
States  instituted  laws  requiring 
that  persons  satisfactorily  pass 
blood  tests  before  they  be 
granted  marriage  certificates. 
Federal  and  State  governments 


appropriated  large  sums  of 
money  to  further  and  direct  their 
Federal  and  State  organizations 
for  control  of  venereal  diseases. 

Consult  pamphlets  of  the  U.  S. 
Public  Health  Service,  including 
'Progress  in  Venereal  Disease 
Control  in  the  States.' 

Sy'ra,  (Greek  Syros),  the 
most  important,  though  not  the 
largest,  of  that  group  of  islands 
in  the  Aegean  Sea  known  as  the 
Cyclades.  It  is  about  10  miles 
long  by  5  broad,  has  an  area  of 
50  square  miles,  and  is  bare, 
rocky,  and  not  very  fertile.  Pop. 
(1928),  about  34,000.  The  cap- 
ital, Syra,  or  Hcrmonpolis,  is 
situated  on  a  bay  on  the  east  side 
of  the  island.  It  exports 
sponges,  tobacco,  citrons  in 
brine,  and  emery.  During  1910 
the  dockyard  at  Syra  arsenal  was 
equipped  with  modern  British 
machinery. 

Syr'acuse,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  ancient  Greek  colo- 
nies in  Sicily,  situated  on  the 
southeast  coast  of  the  island, 
was  founded  about  734  B.C.  by 
emigrants  from  Corinth.  The 
original  settlement  was  on  a 
small  island,  Ortygia,  at  the 
north  of  the  Great  Harbor,  and 
was  later  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  a  bridge.  On  the 
north  side  of  the  island,  between 
it  and  the  mainland,  was  a  deep 
inlet,  called  the  Lesser  Harbor. 
Beyond  it  the  mainland  rises 
rapidly  into  the  tableland  of 
Achradina,  from  200  to  400  feet 
above  sea  level.  The  city  soon 
spread  from  Ortygia  to  the  level 
ground  south  of  Achradina,  and 
by  the  fifth  century  it  covered 
practically  the  whole  of  Achra- 
dina ;  both  the  island  and  Achra- 
dina were  separately  fortified. 
During  the  following  century 
two  new  quarters  were  added  on 
the  triangular  plateau  of  Epip- 
olse,  which  stretched  west  of 
Achradina — vis.,  the  suburb  of 
Tycha  on  the  north,  and  that  of 
Neapolis  on  the  south.  The 
complete  circuit  of  the  walls  at 
their  greatest  extent  was  ^4 
miles. 

Syracuse  herself  founded  the 
colonies  of  Acrse  in  664  B.C., 
Casmenae  in  644  B.C.,  and  Cama- 
rina  in  599  b.c.  Up  to  this  time 
and  down  to  486  B.C.  the  govern- 
ment of  the  city  was  oligarchic  ; 
but  in  that  year  the  people  ex- 
pelled the  governing  class,  called 
Gamori.  They  appealed  to  Ge- 
lon,  the  tyrant  of  Gela,  to  restore 
them.  He  did  so,  but  made  him- 
self master  of  the  city,  and  re- 
moved to  it  half  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Gela,  all  those  of  Cama- 
rina,  and  others  from  Megara 
and  Euboea.  Thus  he  made 
Syracuse  the  first  city  in  Sicily. 
In  480  B.C.  he  defeated  a  Cartha- 
ginian army  at  Himera.  He 
was   succeeded  by  his  brother 


Syracuse 


KFK 


590  Syracuse  University 


Hiero,  who  defeated  the  Etrus- 
cans at  sea  in  474  B.C.,  and  he  by 
Thrasybulus ;  but  in  467  b.c. 
the  citizens  of  Syracuse  rose 
against  him  and  expelled  him. 

After  some  civil  strife  a  de- 
mocracy was  established,  and  it 
overcame  the  Athenian  expedi- 
tion which  besieged  the  city  be- 
tween 415  B.C.  and  413  B.C.;  but 
in  405  B.C.  Dionysius  made  him- 
self tyrant  of  the  city.  In  his 
reign,  which  lasted  until  367 
B.c.^  there  were  wars  with  Car- 
thage ;  but  Dionysius  extended 
the  power  of  Syracuse  over  all 
Eastern  Sicily  and  much  of 
Southern  Italy.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Dionysius  ii, 
who  was  expelled  by  Dion  in  356 
B.C. ;  but  Dion  was  murdered  in 
354  B.C.  Dionysius  ii  recovered 
his  power  in  346  B.C.,  but  was 
driven  out  again  in  344  B.C.  by 
Timoleon,  who  freed  the  Syra- 
cusans  from  tyranny,  destroyed 
the  tyrant's  great  fortress  in 
Ortygia,  liberated  other  Sicilian 
towns,  and  decisively  defeated 
the  Carthaginians  at  the  Crimi- 
sus  in  339  b.c.  In  317  b.c.  an- 
other tyrant,  Agathocles,  arose, 
who  ruled  until  289  B.C. 

The  city  was  then  held  by  a 
succession  of  military  adven- 
turers, until  275  B.C.,  when 
Hiero  gained  supreme  power. 
He  ruled  until  216  B.C.,  and  was 
allied  with  the  Romans  ;  but  his 
grandson  Hieronymus,  who  suc- 
ceeded him,  took  the  side  of 
Carthage  in  the  Second  Punic 
War,  and  Syracuse  was  taken  by 
the  Romans  after  a  two  years' 
siege  (214-212  B.C.),  famous  for 
the  inventions  in  military  en- 
gines of  Archimedes.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century  a.d. 
the  Goths  conquered  it ;  but  in 
A.D.  535  it  was  restored  by  Beli- 
sarius  to  the  Eastern  empire.  It 
was  captured  by  the  Saracens  in 
A.D.  878  and  then  by  the  Nor- 
mans some  two  centuries  later. 
See  Sicily. 

Modern  Syracuse  is  practi- 
cally confined  to  the  old  island 
of,  Ortygia,  now  joined  to  the 
mainland.  The  columns  of  the 
Temple  of  Athena  are  built  into 
the  walls  of  the  Cathedral,  and 
the  fountain  of  Arethusa  still 
exists  on  the  sea  front.  In 
Neapolis  the  Greek  theatre  re- 
mains in  fairly  perfect  preserva- 
tion ;  near  it  are  the  base  of  a 
colossal  altar,  built  by  King 
Hiero,  and  the  Roman  amphi- 
theatre. At  the  extreme  end  of 
Epipolae  the  ancient  fortifica- 
tions still  remain  to  some  ex- 
tent ;  the  subterranean  galleries 
are  in  perfect  condition.  The 
local  museum  contains  valuable 
antiquities.  A  remarkable  fea- 
ture of  the  place  are  the  huge 
quarries  in  Achradina  and  Neap- 
olis, which  were  used  as  prisons. 
There  is  also  a  vast  extent  of 


catacombs  at  the  south  end  of 
Achradina ;  they  were  largely 
used  for  Christian  burials. 
Chemicals,  salt,  wine,  and  pot- 
tery are  produced.  Olive  oil, 
almonds,  lemons,  oranges,  and 
asphalt  are  exported.  Pop. 
(1936)  53,166. 

Syracuse,  city.  New  York, 
county  seat  of  Onondaga  coun- 
ty, is  situated  in  the  beautiful 
(Dnondaga  Valley,  on  the  Erie 
Canal,  at  the  terminus  of  the 
Oswego  Canal,  and  on  the  Dela- 
ware, Lackawanna,  and  West- 
ern, the  New  York  Central,  and 
the  West  Shore  Railroads ;  76 
miles  east  of  Rochester,  and  148 
miles  west  of  Albany.  It  is  the 
starting  point  for  an  extensive 
system  of  interurban  bus  lines 
that  reach  the  surrounding  towns 
and  district.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture varies  from  67°  f.  in  July 
to  25°  F.  in  January,  and  the  city 
is  one  of  the  most  healthful  in 
the  United  States. 

Syracuse  covers  an  area  of  25 
square  miles  and  is  situated  at 
an  altitude  of  397  feet.  There 
are  more  than  35,000  dwellings, 
and  37  per  cent  of  the  inhabit- 
ants own  their  homes.  The  city 
has  over  100  apartment  houses, 
14  hotels,  35  theatres,  and  more 
than  a  hundred  churches  of  vari- 
ous denominations  ;  here  are  the 
See  of  a  Roman  Catholic  diocese, 
the  business  offices  of  the  Episco- 
pal diocese,  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal area,  and  the  State  head- 
quarters of  the  Baptists  and 
Congregationalists ;  also  nine 
hospitals. 

The  main  thoroughfares  radi- 
ate from  a  common  center,  and 
at  their  intersection  with  the 
cross  streets  are  numerous  small 
parks.  Altogether  there  are  76 
city  parks,  four  public  golf 
courses,  and  eight  country 
clubs.  The  total  street  mileage 
is  about  400,  with  100  miles  of 
bus  lines.  The  city  has  numer- 
ous fine  buildings ;  the  grounds 
of  Syracuse  University  (q.  v.) 
occupy  a  hill  commanding  a 
splendid  view  of  the  city  and 
the  lake,  and  its  buildings  are 
among  the  chief  architectural  at- 
tractions. The  University  Sta- 
dium is  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
world,  seating  27,000. 

The  school  system  of  Syracuse 
includes  48  public  schools,  of 
which  four  are  senior  high,  a 
normal  school,  and  17  parochial 
schools.  In  1940  there  were  40,- 
075  pupils  and  1,700  teachers. 
In  addition,  there  are  several 
nationally  known  private  schools. 

The  leading  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  motor  vehicle 
bodies  and  parts.  The  city  en- 
joys a  world-wide  renown  as  a 
leading  center  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  steel  tools,  soda  ash  and 
by-products,  fine  wax  candles, 
agricultural    implements,  china 


ware,  mince  meat  and  powdered 
milk,  quality  shoes,  typewriters, 
electrical  appliances,  washing 
machines,  steam  clothes  pressing 
machines,  cash  carrying  and 
conveying  instruments,  foundry 
and  machine  shop  products,  boil- 
ers, radiators  and  air  condition- 
ing apparatus. 

Transportation  facilities  are 
extremely  favorable ;  the  Erie 
and  Oswego  Canals  and  the 
chain  of  railroads  of  the  New 
York  Central  system  provide  di- 
rect connection  with  the  bitu- 
minous coal  fields  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  West  Virginia  and  in- 
sure unlimited  supply  of  cheap 
fuel.  Niagara  Falls  and  the 
Salmon  River  provide  most  of 
the  electrical  power.  As  a  load- 
ing and  distributing  center  for 
cities  within  trucking  distance, 
Syracuse  lies  but  a  night's  run 
from  Chicago,  Philadelphia, 
Pittsburgh,  New  York,  Wash- 
ington, Montreal  and  Boston. 

The  population  of  Syracuse  in 
1940  was  205,637,  a  decrease  of 
3,689  from  1930.  In  1850  it 
was  22,271  ;  in  1900,  198,374. 
The  city  ranks  fourth  in  the 
State — after  New  York,  Buffalo 
and  Rochester. 

History* — The  site  of  Syra- 
cuse was  originally  occupied  by 
a  village  of  Onondaga  Indians. 
In  1654  Father  Le  Moyne,  a 
Jesuit  missionary,  discovered  ex- 
tensive salt  deposits  in  the  vi- 
cinity, and  in  1778  and  1795  the 
State  purchased  the  tract  of  land 
containing  these  deposits,  and 
formed  the  Onondaga  Salt 
Springs  Reservation.  The  origi- 
nal hollowed-log  salt-pipe  line, 
now  over  100  years  old,  is  still 
being  used.  Certain  sections 
were  also  purchased  by  individu- 
als, and  settlement  began  in 
1800.  The  name  of  the  place 
was  changed  successively  to  Mi- 
lan, South  Salina,  Cossitt's  Cor- 
ners, and  Corinth,  and  in  1819 
became  Syracuse.  After  the 
completion  of  the  Erie  Canal  its 
growth  was  rapid.  The  village 
was  incorporated  in  1825.  Sa- 
lina was  annexed  in  1847,  and 
Geddes  and  Danforth  in  1887. 
Parts  of  DeWitt  town,  Eastwood 
village,  Geddes  town,  Onondaga 
town,  and  Salina  town  were  an- 
nexed between  1920  and  1928. 
Consult  Bruce's  Memorial  His- 
tory of  Syracuse. 

Syracuse  University,  a  non- 
sectarian  co-educational  institu- 
tion, founded  in  1870  at  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  as  a  continuation  of 
Genesee  College,  founded  in 
1849.  Its  College  of  Medicine 
is  the  successor  of  the  Geneva 
Medical  College,  founded  in 
1834.  It  consists  of  eight  col- 
leges and  nine  schools  including 
the  College  of  Applied  Science, 
College  of  Business  Administra- 
tion, Maxwell  Graduate  School 


4  '9^2 


Syr  Daria 


KFK 


591 


Syria 


of  Citizenship  and  Public  Af- 
fairs, School  of  Education, 
School  of  Extension  Teaching 
and  Adult  Education,  College  of 
Fine  Arts,  New  York  State  Col- 
lege of  Forestry,  Graduate 
School,  College  of  Home  Eco- 
nomics, School  of  Journalism, 
College  of  Law,  College  of  Lib- 
eral Arts,  School  of  Library 
Science,  College  of  Medicine, 
School  of  Nursing,  School  of 
Public  Speech  and  Dramatic 
Art,  and  the  Summer  Sessions. 
The  latter  division  draws  an  en- 
rolment of  some  2,000  each  sum- 
mer from  all  parts  of  the  nation. 


western  slope  of  the  Tian  Shan 
Mountains,  at  14,530  feet  above 
sea  level.  Its  total  length  is 
about  1,200  miles  as  it  flows 
northwest  and  enters  the  Aral 
Sea.  The  area  of  its  drain- 
age basin  is  320,000  square 
miles. 

Syria,  a  republic  in  Western 
Asia,  formerly  under  a  French 
mandate,  was  proclaimed  inde- 
pendent on  Sept.  16,  1941.  It 
stretches  north  to  Turkey,  east 
to  Iraq,  south  to  Palestine  and 
west  to  the  Mediterranean.  The 
population  in  1939  was  3,630,- 
000,  mostly  Moslems,  the  rest  be- 


are  the  most  important  manufac- 
tured products. 

History, — The  earliest  his- 
torical records  that  treat  of 
Syria  are  those  which  relate  the 
histories  of  the  Hittites,  the 
Phoenicians,  and  the  Hebrews 
(see  Jews).  Syria  was  con- 
quered during  the  eighth  century 
B.C.  by  the  kings  of  Assyria;  the 
Jewish  kingdoms  experienced  the 
same  fate  at  the  hands  of  the 
Babylonian  kings  in  the  seventh 
and  sixth  centuries.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  sixth  century  B.C. 
Syria  fell  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Persian  empire  ;  and  two  cen- 


Courtesy  The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago 

MOSQUE  IN  DAMASCUS,  SYRIA 


The  College  of  Fine  Arts  and 
the  Maxwell  School  of  Citizen- 
ship were  the  first  institutions  of 
their  respective  types  to  be  es- 
tablished in  the  United  States. 

Syr  Daria,  a  district  in  the 
southwest  part  of  the  Union  of 
the  Soviet  Socialist  Republics  in 
Asia.  It  consists  of  194,850 
square  miles,  the  greater  portion 
of  which  is  made  up  of  sand  and 
wasteland.  Most  of  the  popula- 
tion is  found  at  the  foot  of  the 
Tian  Shan  Mountains  in  the 
southeastern  region  where 
streams  are  used  for  irrigation, 
and  wheat,  silk,  and  cotton  are 
the  main  products.  Extensive 
herds  of  cattle  and  sheep  are 
kept  by  the  nomads  who  produce 
large  quantities  of  wool  for  Rus- 
sia. Russians  make  up  about 
four  per  cent  of  the  population 
with  Kirghiz  and  Sarts  the  prin- 
cipal residents.    Pop.  1,174,800. 

Syr  Darya,  Jaxartes,  or  Si- 
HUN,  a  large  river  of  Russian 
Central  Asia,  called  the  'Nile  of 
Turkestan,'    beginning    on  the 


ing  Christians  and  Druses.  The 
area  is  57,900  square  miles;  the 
chief  language  is  Arabic. 

Along  the  Mediterranean  in 
the  west  there  is  a  range  of 
mountains  which  splits  into  two 
parallel  chains,  the  Lebanon  and 
the  Anti-Lebanon ;  they  run 
north  and  south,  and  range  in 
height  from  6,000  feet  in  the 
north  to  10,000  feet  in  the  cen- 
tral parts.  East  of  these  moun- 
tains is  a  tableland  which  merges 
into  the  Euphrates  Valley  and 
the  Syrian  Desert.  The  princi- 
pal towns  of  Syria  are  Damas- 
cus, Aleppo,  Beirut,  Homs, 
Hama,  Tripolis,  and  Antioch. 
Beirut  is  the  main  port. 

Most  of  Syria's  population  is 
engaged  in  agriculture.  The 
principal  products  are  wheat, 
barley,  maize,  sorghum,  tobacco, 
hemp,  and  cotton.  Fruits,  in- 
cluding apricots,  grapes  and 
oranges  are  also  raised.  Iron 
and  lignite  are  found,  but  are 
not  mined  very  extensively. 
Flour,  oil,  soap,  and  silk  thread 


turies  later  it  was  conquered  by 
Alexander  of  Macedon.  When 
his  empire  broke  to  pieces  the 
Seleucidae  made  Antioch  the 
capital  of  their  empire  of  Syria. 
From  the  Seleucidae  it  passed, 
through  the  hands  of  Tigranes 
of  Armenia,  to  the  Romans,  for 
whom  it  was  won  by  Pompey  in 
64  B.C.  On  the  division  of  the 
Roman  world  Syria  became  part 
of  the  Byzantine  empire,  and  it 
remained  a  province  until  its 
conquest  by  the  Mohammedan 
Arabs  in  636.  It  still  continued 
to  be  prosperous  under  the  Arabs 
and  their  successors,  the  Egyp- 
tian sovereigns,  in  spite  of  the 
unsettled  period  of  the  Crusades. 
The  first  severe  blow  it  suffered 
came  from  the  Mongols  in  1260, 
and  its  ruin  was  completed  when 
in  1516  it  passed  from  the  Egyp- 
tians to  the  Ottoman  Turks,  in 
whose  possession  it  was  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Great  War 
(q.  v.).  In  1915,  when  Ger- 
man-Turkish forces  threatened 
Egypt,  England  succeeded  in  se- 


Syria 


KFK 


592 


Syriac 


curing  the  co-operation  of  the 
Syrian  Arabs  on  condition  that 
she  favor  the  constitution  of  an 
Arab  State  or  confederation  of 
States  in  the  interior  of  Syria, 
with  certain  reservations  in  fa- 
vor of  France  and  Great  Britain. 
The  following  year  an  agreement 
was  reached  between  Great  Brit- 
ain and  France,  whereby  Pales- 
tine came  under  British,  and  the 
rest  of  Syria — i.e.,  Syria  proper 
— under  French  protection. 

In  1930  the  French  created  the 
Syrian  Republic,  which  was  to 
have  a  legislature  of  69  mem- 


country  was  seething  with  re- 
volt ;  several  cabinet  shake-ups 
failed  to  allay  the  turmoil  and 
dissatisfaction.  There  was  no 
government  in  office  when  France 
ceded  the  Hatay  Republic  to 
Turkey.  This  was  the  former 
vilayet  of  Alexandretta,  an  inte- 
gral part  of  Syria.  The  cession 
included  the  city  of  Antioch,  a 
famous  Syrian  city.  Public  dis- 
pleasure loudly  proclaimed  itself. 

In  July,  1939,  the  native 
President  resigned,  which 
prompted  the  French  High  Com- 
missioner, Gabriel  Puaux,  to  sus- 


Consult  Gertrude  Bell,  Syria 
(1919)  ;  B.  H.  Springett,  Secret 
Sects  of  Syria  and  the  Lebanon 
(1922)  ;  Sir  H.  Luke,  Prophets, 
Priests  and  Patriarchs  (1927)  ; 
H.  Armstrong,  Turkey  and 
Syria  Reborn  (1929);  B.  A. 
Faris,  Electric  Power  in  Syria 
and  Palestine  (1936);  C.  P. 
Grant,  The  Syrian  Desert 
(1937)  ;  Sa'id  B.  Himadeh  (edi- 
tor). Economic  Organi::ation  of 
Syria  (1936);  H.  C.  Gordon, 
Syria  As  It  Is  (1939). 

Syriac  Language  and  Lit- 
erature.   The  Aramaic  branch 


Courtesy  The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago 

THE  EAST  GATE  OF  DAMASCUS,  SYRIA 


bers,  serving  four  years,  and 
was  to  elect  a  president  for  five 
years.  A  treaty  of  friendship 
and  alliance  was  made  between 
France  and  Syria  in  1936,  which 
was  to  substitute  Syrian  au- 
tonomy for  the  French  mandate. 
The  agreement  specified  that  in- 
dependence would  be  reached  in 
1939,  when  France  would  move 
before  the  League  of  Nations 
and  ask  that  Syria  be  given  rec- 
ognition as  a  sovereign  state. 
In  1939  it  had  been  announced 
that  France  proposed  to  create 
Syria  a  kingdom,  with  the  Emir 
Abdullah,  ruler  of  Transjordan, 
to  ascend  the  throne.  The  idea 
behind  this  plan  was  to  ensure 
stability  together  with  independ- 
ence. Ibn  Saud,  of  Saudi  Ara- 
bia, expressed  his  strong  oppo- 
sition to  the  proposal,  which  was 
subsequently  abandoned.  Dur- 
ing the  summer   of   1939  the 


pend  the  Syrian  Constitution  and 
place  the  administration  of  the 
country  in  the  hands  of  a  group 
of  councillors.  The  war  which 
began  in  Europe  in  1939,  and  the 
defeat  of  France  in  1940,  fur- 
ther halted  Syrian  independence 
ambitions.  Tragedy  developed 
in  Syria  on  June  8,  1941,  when 
a  British  army  and  De  Gaulle's 
('Free  French')  troops  invaded 
the  country  to  safeguard  it  from 
German  occupation.  The  invad- 
ers came  by  land,  sea  and  air. 
The  French  defenders,  by  order 
of  Marshal  Petain,  put  up  a  gal- 
lant fight.  Nazis  were  reported 
at  the  time  enlarging  the  port  of 
Latakia  to  receive  troops.  The 
Allies  forged  ahead  against  stub- 
born resistance  and  reached  Da- 
mascus, which  fell  to  them  on 
June  21,  1941,  when  the  French 
garrison  withdrew.  See  Tur- 
key ;  Phoenicia. 


of  the  Semitic  linguistic  family, 
which  comprises  two  distinct  di- 
visions— East  Aramaic  and  West 
Aramaic,  to  the  former  of 
which  the  Syriac  belongs — holds 
an  intermediate  position  between 
the  Assyrian  of  the  cuneiform 
writings  and  the  Canaanitish 
(Hebrew  and  Phoenician)  of 
Palestine.  It  was  spoken  by  the 
nomads  who  ranged  the  great 
Arabian  desert,  and  by  the  set- 
tlers on  its  edge.  The  western 
branch  included  the  Biblical  and 
Talmudic  Aramaic,  Samaritan, 
Palmyrene,  and  Nabataean. 
The  eastern  branch  included 
Syriac  and  Mandaean.  The 
Syriac  language  was  spoken  in 
Mesopotamia  above  Bagdad,  and 
extended  to  about  Damascus. 

Western  Aramaic  presents  a 
more  Semitic  vocabulary  ;  Syriac 
betrays  greater  Hellenic  influ- 
ence,   yet    they    use    the  same 


Syrlae  Language 


KR 


593 


Syssltla 


alphabet  of  twenty-two  letters 
as  the  Hebrew,  but  the  forms 
differ,  Aramaic  presenting  several 
varieties,  such  as  the  graceful 
Palmyrene,  the  monumental  Es- 
trangelo,  and  the  more  cursive 
later  Syriac,  with  a  great  poverty 
of  vocalic  marks,  or  else  signs 
modified  from  the  Greek  vowels. 

From  the  literary  standpoint 
Aramaic  forms  three  separate 
groups — (1)  Aramaic  proper, 
which  is  essentially  a  Biblical 
literature,  all  its  extant  remains 
being  either  actual  Scriptural 
texts  (much  of  Daniel  and  Ezra) 
or  paraphrases  and  explanations 
of  the  texts  (the  Targums)  and 
commentaries  on  the  texts  (the 
Talmud,  parts  of  which  are  as 
old  as  the  Targums,  but  none  was 
committed  to  writing  till  about 
400-430  A.D.).  This  traditional 
Aramaic  literature  was  super- 
seded early  in  the  new  era  by  (2) 
Syriac,  a  Christian  literature  in  a 
pre-eminent  sense,  all  original 
documents  dealing  exclusively 
with  Christian  subjects.  The 
earliest  and  most  important  is 
the  Peshito  ('pure'  or  'simple') 
a  Syriac  version  of  the  Bible 
made  about  200  a.d.,  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  Old  Testament  from 
the  Hebrew,  and  all  the  New 
Testament,  except  the  2d  and  .3d 
Epistles  of  John,  the  2d  of  Peter, 
Jude,  and  Revelation,  from  the 
Greek  texts.  Then  was  devel- 
oped an  extensive  Syriac  litera- 
ture, which  flourished  from  the 
4th  to  the  10th  century,  and  is 
associated  with  the  names  of 
Bardesanes,  Isaiah  of  Arzun, 
Jacob  of  Nisibis,  and.  above  all, 
Ephraem  the  Syrian,  besides 
Narses  of  Edessa,  Jacob  of  Serug, 
Xenaias,  Philoxenus,  Thomas  of 
Harkel,  Jacob  of  Edessa,  Moses 
Bar  Cepha,  Bar  Hebraeus,  and 
others  mentioned  and  often 
carelessly  edited  by  Assemani  in 
his  Bihliotheca  Orientalis.  This 
literature  consisted  largely  of 
early  translations  of  the  Greek 
fathers  and  of  some  classic  au- 
thors, and  from  these  Syriac 
translations,  and  not  from  the 
original  texts,  most  of  the  Arabic 
versions  of  the  Greek  works  were 
made  by  Syrian  writers,  the 
Syriac  literature  thus  merging 
in  the  Arabic,  by  which  it  was 
replaced  about  the  10th  century. 
After  the  Council  of  Ephesus 
(431  A.D.)  the  Syrian  mission- 
aries, who  adhered  to  the  heresy 
of  Nestorius,  carried  their  teach- 
ings and  their  language  into  the 
Kurdistan  highlands,  into  south- 
ern India  (Malabar) — where  the 
Nestorian  ritual  still  survives — 
and  into  the  heart  of  China,  as 
attested  by  the  bilingual  (Syro- 
Chinese)  inscription  (781  a.d.), 
preserved  in  a  Buddhist  temple 
at  Si-ngan-fu,  former  capital  of 
the  Middle  Kingdom.  Syriac 
survives    among    the  Catholic 


Maronites  of  the  Lebanon,  not 
as  the  vernacular,  for  all  speak 
Arabic,  but  as  the  liturgical  lan- 
guage in  which,  by  papal  dispen- 
sation, they  are  permitted  to  cele- 
brate mass  according  to  the 
Latin  rite.  There  are  or  were 
three  variants,  as  specified  by 
Gregory  Bar  Hebraeus — the 
standard  Syriac  of  Edessa  and 
Mesopotamia,  that  of  Damascus 
and  the  Lebanon,  and  the  cor- 
rupt variety  of  the  Kurdistan 
and  Lake  Urmia  districts,  the  last 
written  in  a  locally  modified  form 
of  the  Estrangelo  script.  More 
distinct  and  more  debased  are  the 
dialects  of  group  (3),  which  may 
be  described  as  pagan  or  semi- 
pagan  literature.  There  are  two 
marked  varieties — Nabatean, 
which  inclines  more  to  Western 
Aramaic,  and  is  represented  by  a 
treatise  on  agriculture  of  un- 
known date  with  an  Arabic  ver- 
sion of  the  10th  century;  and 
Mandaic,  in  which  is  written  the 
post- Islamic  Book  of  Adam. 
Mandaic  confuses  the  character- 
istic Semitic  gutturals,  which  are 
often  elided,  interchanges  surds 
and  sonants,  and  shows  numer- 
ous contracted  forms.  See 
Brockelmann's  Lexicon  Syriacum 
(1895);  J.  Payne  Smith,  Com- 
pendious Syriac  Dictionary  (1903) 
Duval,  Traite  de  grammaire  syria- 
que  (1881);  Nestle,  Syriac  Gram- 
mar (1889);  Maclean,  Grammar 
of  the  Dialects  of  Vernacular  Sy- 
riac (1898);  and  Dictionary  of  the 
Dialects  of  Vernacular  Syriac 
(1901);  W.  Wright,  Short 
History  of  Syriac  Literature 
(1894);  E.  Renan,  Hist,  des 
Langues  Semitiques  (3d  ed. 
1863) ;  Noeldeke,  Semitische 
Sprachen  (1887). 

Syrian  Protestant  College. 
An  undenominational  institution 
at  Beirut,  Syria,  opened  in  1866 
and  incorporated  in  1869,  for  the 
higher  education  of  young  men  of 
Syria  and  other  countries.  It  has 
seven  departments:  preparatory, 
collegiate,  commerce,  medicine 
and  pharmacy,  biblical  archae- 
ology and  philology,  and  a  train- 
ing school  for  nurses  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Maria  De  Witt 
Jesup  Hospitals.  The  degrees 
conferred  are  bachelor  of  arts, 
bachelor  of  commerce,  doctor  of 
medicine  and  master  of  phar- 
macy. The  college  is  controlled 
by  a  board  of  twelve  trustees  in 
New  York,  by  which  state  it  is 
chartered.  AH  instruction  is 
given  in  the  English  language, 
except  in  the  departments  of 
Arabic,  Turkish,  and  French, 
The  students  in  1943  numbered 
800,  mainly  Syrians,  but  includ- 
ing 100  Egyptians,  84  Armen- 
ians, and  75  Greeks.  The  college 
had  60  officers  of  administration 
and  instruction,  a  library  of 
15,000  volumes,  buildings  and 
grounds  valued  at  $500,000,  an 


endowment  of  $600,000.  and  an 
income  of  $720,000. 

Syringa,  a  genus  of  hardy 
deciduous  shrubs  belonging  to 
the  order  Oleaceae.  They  bear 
terminal  panicles  of  flowers  with 
cylindrical  corollas,  often  of 
much  beauty.  They  are  of  very 
easy  cultivation.  Among  the 
species  is  5.  vulgaris,  the  com- 
mon lilac.  The  mock-orange 
(Philadelphus),  is  also  commonly 
called  'syringa.' 

Syringe,  an  instrument  of 
the  pump  kind,  consists  of  a 
cylindrical  tube,  with  a  per- 
forated nozzle  at  one  end,  and 
a  piston,  to  the  rod  of  which  a 
handle  is  attached.  When  the 
nozzle  is  immersed  in  water  and 
the  piston  drawn  to  the  upper 
end  of  the  tube,  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  upon  the  surface 
of  the  water  causes  it  to  follow 
the  piston,  and  so  fill  the  syringe; 
then,  by  pushing  the  piston  back 
toward  the  nozzle,  its  contents 
may  be  ejected. 

Syrinx,  in  ancient  Greek 
legend,  a  nymph  of  Arcadia, 
whom  Pan  pursued.  She  took 
refuge  in  the  River  Ladon  and 
prayed  to  be  changed  into  a  reed, 
of  which  Pan  made  his  pipe. 

Syrlin,  Jorg,  German  wood- 
carver  of  the  15th  century.  He 
is  known  as  the  Elder,  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  his  son  of  the 
same  name,  who  also  attained 
eminence  as  a  carver.  He  exe- 
cuted the  fine  carvings  on  the 
stalls  of  Ulm  Cathedral  (1469-74) , 
and  the  antiquarian  society  of 
that  city  possesses  a  singing-chair 
made  by  him  (1458).  He  also  exe- 
cuted the  carving  on  the  fountain 
in  the  market-place  at  Ulm. 

Syros.  See  Syra. 

Syrtes,  two  deep  and  broad 
gulfs  on  the  N.  coast  of  Africa, 
famous  in  antiquity  for  their 
dangerous  shallows  and  sunken 
rocks.  The  E.  or  greater  Syrtis 
is  now  called  the  Gulf  of  Sidra 
(e.  of  Tripoli),  the  w.  or  smaller 
the  Gulf  of  Cabes  (e.  of  Tunis). 

Syrup,  a  term  applied  to  con- 
centrated sugar  solutions  of  a 
more  or  less  viscous  character, 
and  by  analogy  to  other  liquids 
of  a  similar  consistency.  In 
pharmacy  the  name  is  given  to 
watery  solutions  of  drugs  flav- 
ored with  sugar.    See  Sugar. 

Syrus.  See  Publilius  Syrus. 

Syrus,  Ephraem.  See  Eph- 
raem Syrus. 

Syssitia,  at  ancient  Sparta, 
the  common  meal  at  which  every 
citizen  had  to  attend.  Each  man 
had  to  pay  his  own  share  of  the 
expenses;  those  who  could  not 
do  so  lost  the  full  privileges  of 
citizenship.  The  company  was 
divided  into  tables  of  fifteen 
persons,  election  to  which  was 
by  ballot;  one  adverse  vote  ex- 
cluded. The  principal  dish  was 
black  broth.    A  similar  system 


Syzlgy 


KR 


594 


Szolnok 


obtained  in  Crete,  where  the 
meals  were  called  andreia. 

Syzlgy,  the  position  of  the 
moon  at  conjunction  or  opposi- 
tion. The  line  of  the  syzigies  is 
the  diameter  of  the  lunar  orbit 
connecting  these  points.  At  new 
and  at  full  moon  the  sun,  earth, 
and  moon  are  approximately 
ranged  along  it. 

Syzran,  town  and  episcopal 
see,  Russia,  Simbirsk  gov.,  on 
the  Volga,  78  m.  s.  of  Simbirsk. 
The  cathedral  dates  from  the 
18th  century.  There  are  tanner- 
ies, iron  and  tallow  foundries, 
distilleries,  breweries,  dye  works, 
brick  works,  and  agricultural 
machinery.    Pop.  (1939)  77,679. 

Szabadka,  Ger.  Maria- 
Theresiopel,  or  simply  There- 
SIOPEL,  tn.,  Hungary,  Bacs- 
Bodrog  CO.,  109  m.  by  rail  s.s.E. 
of  Budapest.  Great  numbers  of 
live-stock  are  raised  in  the  dis- 
trict. The  place  has  consider- 
able trade  and  is  noted  for  the 
breeding  of  turkeys.  Lake  Pal- 
ics,  in  the  vicinity,  is  a  popular 
summer  resort.    Pop.  82,122. 

Szalay,  Laszlo,  or  Ladislas 
(1813-64),  Hungarian  historian, 
was  born  at  Budapest.  His  par- 
ticipation in  the  revolution  of 
1848-9  compelled  him  to  take 
refuge  in  Switzerland,  where  he 
wrote  History  of  Hungary  (6  vols. 
1850-60) ;  The  Book  of  Statesmen 
(1847-52),  containing  studies  of 
Pitt,  Fox,  Mirabeau,  and  others; 
and  a  Life  of  Count  Nicholas 
Esterhazy  (1862-6).  See  memoir, 
in  German,  by  Flegler  (1866). 

Szarvas,  commune,  Hungary, 
Bekas  county,  on  the  Koros, 
13  m.  by  rail  s.  of  Mezotur.  It 


is  famed  for  its  horse  fairs.  Pop. 
27,000. 

Szatmar-Nemetl,  town  in 
Hungary,  co.  Szatmar,  on  the 
Szamos,  38  m.  by  rail  w.n.w. 
of  Nagybanya;  is  a  Roman 
Catholic  bishopric,  manufactures 
pottery,  and  has  weaving.  Pop. 
(1900)  26,881. 

Sze-chuen,  prov.,  W.  China, 
lying  N.  of  the  Yang-tse-kiang. 
The  eastern  portion  is  one  of 
the  richest  and  most  productive 
in  China;  from  the  color  of  its 
soil  it  has  been  named  by  Richt- 
hofen  the  Red  Basin.  The  capi- 
tal, Ching-tu,  is  the  center  of  a 
vast  scheme  of  irrigation  formed 
about  250  B.C.  Distribution  of 
produce  is  facilitated  by  numer- 
ous navigable  rivers.  Rice,  wheat, 
pulse,  tobacco,  Indian  corn,  and 
sugar  are  the  chief  crops.  Opium, 
silk,  white  wax,  wood  oil,  saf- 
fiower,  rhubarb,  and  musk  are 
the  principal  exports.  Iron  and 
coal  are  widely  distributed;  salt 
wells  in  some  places  are  bored  to 
a  depth  of  over  2,000  ft.  Gold 
washings  in  the  w.  are  numerous. 
Except  in  cotton,  the  province  is 
self-sufficing.  Access  to  it  is  only 
obtained  up  the  Yang-tse-kiang 
rapids  or  through  the  Min  Mts. 
by  a  road  cut  from  Shen-si  (on 
the  N.).  The  Lolo  people  are  al- 
most entirely  independent,  and 
the  Man-nya-ka,  Solos,  and 
others  are  little  interfered  with. 
Area,  144,996  sq.  m.  Pop.(1947) 
45,846,000. 

Szegedin,  town,  Hungary, 
capital  of  co.  Csongrad,  at  the  in- 
flux of  the  Maros  into  the  Theiss, 
74  m.  by  rail  s.s.E.  of  Budapest. 
Since  the  disastrous  floods  of 


1879,  when  2,000  people  lost  their 
lives,  the  rebuilt  town  has  been 
protected  by  a  circular  dam.  Sze- 
gedin  manufactures  soap  and 
cloth  and  builds  ships.  Pop. 
(1941)  136,752. 

Szentes,  town,  Hungary,  co. 
Csongrad,  on  a  branch  of  the 
Theiss,  30  m.  n.e.  of  Szegedin. 
Pop.  33,000. 

Szold,  Henrietta  (1860- 
1945),  Zionist  leader,  was  born 
in  Baltimore,  Md.  and  was  edu- 
cated in  the  public  schools  of 
that  city.  After  teaching  in  a 
private  school  in  Baltimore,  she 
became  editorial  secretary  of  the 
publication  committee  of  the 
Jewish  Publishing  Society  of 
America  (1892-1916),  and  after 
1916  she  became  actively  asso- 
ciated with  the  Zionist  move- 
ment both  in  the  United  States 
and  in  Palestine.  In  1912  she 
founded  Hadassah  (Women's 
Zionist  Organization  in  the  Uni- 
ted States),  and  from  that  year 
to  1926  was  its  president.  From 
1927  she  was  a  member  of  the 
Palestine  Zionist  Executive  (to 
1930)  and  a  member  of  the  Jew- 
ish General  Council  (1931-33). 
At  the  time  of  her  death  she  was 
head  of  the  Youth  Immigration 
Bureau  of  the  Jewish  Agency 
for  Palestine.  For  many  years 
she  made  her  home  in  Jerusalem 
and  maintained  an  office  there. 

Szolnok,  town,  Hungary,  co. 
Szolnok,  on  the  Theiss,  58  miles 
E.s.E.  of  Budapest.  It  manu- 
factures linen  thread  and  ma- 
chinery. It  was  the  scene  of 
a  victory  by  the  Hungarians  over 
the  Austrians  on  March  5,  1849. 
Pop.  39,000. 


T 


T  is  the  voiceless  point  stop : 
the  breath  is  stopped  by  the  point 
of  the  tongue.  The  tongue  may 
occupy  a  whole  series  of  positions 
— e.g.  interdental  (French),  post- 
dental  (English),  or  still  higher 
up  (Semitic  t)  ;  a  whole  series  of 
t  sounds  is  in  this  way  possible. 
The  early  Semitic  alphabet  dis- 
tinguished two  of  the  series  ;  the 
Greeks  took  one  to  represent 
their  t,  and  transferred  the  other, 
6,  to  denote  th. 

Th  in  English  is  commonly 
used  to  denote  two  different 
sounds — spirant  t  ('think,'  'thigh') 
and  spirant  d  ('thee,'  'thy').  As 
a  phonetic  symbol  th  should  rep- 
resent spirant  t  only ;  dh  may  be 
employed  for  spirant  d.  Dh  is  a 
voiced  th,  as  J  is  a  voiced  t,  and 
the  sound  th  often  passes  into  dh 
('path,'  'paths'). 

T  combined  with  i  shows  a  gen- 
eral tendency  to  become  a  sibi- 
lant ;  tion  in  English  has  become 
shon  ('motion').  In  such  words 
as  'nature,'  m  is  a  diphthong  com- 
mencing with  i,  and  t  is  apt  to 
pass  into  tsh. 

Semitic  taw,  Greek  tau,  means 
'mark.'  The  early  form  X,  a 
cross,  is  apparently  connected 
with  the  name ;  T  is  a  simple 
modification  of  it ;  the  modern 
written  forms  provide  the  student 
of  writing  with  instructive  varia- 
tions, n  retains  the  lower  part 
of  X.  The  early  form  of  Semitic 
teth  is  a  cross  surrounded  by  a 
circle,  hence  d.  It  is  probably  a 
modification  of  taw;  the  mean- 
ing of  the  name  is  unknown. 

Taaffe,  Eduard  Franz  Jo- 
seph, Count  (1833-95),  Aus- 
trian statesman,  was  born  at 
Prague.  In  1867  he  became  min- 
ister of  the  interior  and  the 
mouthpiece  of  the  court  party. 
He  was  president  of  the  cabinet 
(1868-70).  Afterward  Taaffe 
was  repeatedly  in  and  out  of  pow- 
er ;  he  steadily  aimed  at  gaining 
the  confidence  of  the  Slav  na- 
tionalities, and  succeeded  during 
several  years  in  holding_  together 
for  his  purposes  a  majority  of  the 
Austrian  parliament.  He  showed 
great  tact  in  dealing  with  men, 
and  a  geniality  of  manner  pos- 
sibly inherited  from  his  Irish 
ancestry.  In  1893  he  resigned. 
See  Memoirs  of  the  Family  of 
Taaffe  (1856). 

Taal,  pueblo,  Batangas  prov- 
ince, Luzon,  Philippines,  13  miles 
N.w.  of  Batangas.  There  are  ex- 
tensive sulphur  deposits  in  the 
district.    Pop.  21,155. 

Taal,  volcano.  Central  Luzon, 
Philippines,  situated  in  lake  of 
same  name,  on  Bombon  I.  It  is 
composed  of  volcanic  rock  and 


lava,  has  an  oval  crater,  greatest 
diameter  7,667  ft.,  height  1,067 
ft.  above  the  lake.  Six  eruptions 
occurring  in  the  18th  century  are 
recorded.  The  last  two  were  in 
1808  and  1873. 

Taal,  the  name  given  to  the 
patois  spoken  by  the  Dutch  in 
South  Africa ;  it  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  degenerate  form  of 
the  language  of  the  first  settlers 
from  Holland.  The  alphabet  pos- 
sesses only  twenty  letters,  and 
there  are  few  grammatical  rules  ; 
the  vocabulary  also  is  small.  A 
purer  form  of  Dutch,  often  also 
called  Taal,  is  spoken  by  the  edu- 
cated classes,  and  an  attempt  is 
being  made  to  have  it  generally 
taught  in  the  schools. 

Tabaco,  pueblo,  Albay  prov- 
ince, Luzon,  Philippines,  on  Ta- 
baco Bay,  E.  coast.  An  important 
trade  with  Manila  is  carried  on. 
Pop.  24,812. 

Tabard,  a  garment  of  rough 
material  formerly  worn  by  the 
poorest  persons.  The  name  was 
also  applied  to  an  outer  garment, 
loose  and  sleeveless,  worn  by 
knights  above  their  armor.  Tab- 
ard is  now  a  coat  worn  only  by 
heralds.  The  Tabard  inn  was  a 
famous  hostelry  in  old  London, 
situated  in  High  Street,  South- 
wark.  Its  sign  was  a  tabard.  It 
was  from  this  inn  that  Chaucer 
describes  his  pilgrims  as  setting 
out  for  the  shrine  of  Thomas  a 
Becket  at  Canterbury. 

Tabari,  Abu  Ja'far  Moham- 
med BEN  Jarir  at-Tabari  (838- 
922),  Persian  historian,  author  of 
a  most  valuable  chronicle,  An- 
nales  qtios  scripsit  at-Tabari  (ed. 
De  Goeje,  1879-92).  A  German 
translation  of  that  part  of  the 
chronicle  which  affects  the  Sas- 
sanian  period  of  Persian  history 
has  been  published  by  Noldeke 
(1879)  as  Geschichte  der  Pcrser 
und  Araher  zur  Zeit  der  Sas- 
saniden.  Tabari  also  wrote  a 
commentary  on  the  Koran.  His 
chronicle  was  continued  by  Arib 
ben  Sa'd  of  Cordova. 

Tabasco,  state,  Mex.,  on  the 
s.  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
bounded  on  the  e.,  s.,  and  w.  by 
Campeche,  Chiapas,  and  Santa 
Cruz.  Area  9,782  sq.  m.  It  is  a 
low,  flat  region  subject  to  floods, 
and  considerable  tracts  are  cov- 
ered with  forests.  The  staples 
are  coffee,  cacao,  rice,  maize, 
sugar  cane,  and  vanilla.  The 
capital  is  San  Juan  de  Bautista. 
Frontera  is  also  an  important 
town.    Pop.  (1940)  285,659. 

Tabashir,  or  Tabasheer,  a 
white,  siliceous  secretion  found 
in  the  joints  of  certain  bamboos 
and  grasses.    It  is  used  in  the  E. 


Indies  as  a  tonic  and  astringent 
medicine.  By  fusion  it  is  con- 
vertible into  a  transparent  glass. 

Tabb,  John  Banister  (1845- 
1909),  American  clergyman  and 
poet,  was  born  in  Amelia  co.,  Va., 
was  educated  privately,  and  took 
service  on  a  blockade  runner  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War.  He  was  cap- 
tured, and  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Sidney  Lanier,  while  a  pris- 
oner, gaining  from  him  his  in- 
clination for  metrical  composi- 
tion. After  the  war  he  became 
a  Roman  Catholic,  graduated 
(1875)  at  St.  Charles  College, 
Ellicott  City,  Md.,  and  after  sev- 
eral years  of  teaching  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1884,  remaining 
on  the  teaching  staff  of  the  col- 
lege. His  lyrical  verse  has  been 
collected  as  Poems  (1884),  An 
Octave  to  Mary  (1893),  Lyrics 
(1897),  Poems  Grave  and  Gay 
(1899),  and  Later  Lyrics  (1906). 

Tabernacle,  the  movable  sanc- 
tuary of  the  Israelites  in  the  wil- 
derness, according  to  the  'priest- 
ly' source  of  the  Hexateuch  ;  it 
was  made  according  to  a  divine 
pattern  given  to  Moses  (Exod. 
25  ff.).  It  was  an  oblong  tent, 
thirty  cubits  long,  ten  in  breadth 
and  height,  having  a  wooden 
framework  and  a  covering  of  tap- 
estry and  skins,  and  was  divided 
into  the  Holy  of  Holies,  a  cube  of 
ten  cubits,  containing  the  ark, 
and  the  Holy  Place,  in  which 
stood  the  table  of  shewbread,  the 
golden  candlestick,  and  the  altar 
of  incense.  Round  the  whole  was 
the  court  of  the  tabernacle,  a 
hundred  cubits  by  fifty,  contain- 
ing the  altar  of  burnt  offering  and 
the  laver.  The  purely  ideal  char- 
acter of  this  structure  has  been 
fully  proved  (1)  from  the  fact 
that  the  materials  could  not  have 
been  obtained  or  transported 
under  the  circumstances ;  (2) 
the  other  earlier  Hexateuchal 
sources,  E  and  J,  know  no  such 
structure;  (3)  the  historians  be- 
fore the  chronicler  knew  nothing 
of  it.  The  tabernacle  of  Roman 
Catholic  churches  is  a  receptacle 
used  for  the  reservation  of  the 
eucharistic  elements.  See  Well- 
hausen.  Prolegomena,  pp.  405  sq. 
(1885)  ;  I.  Benzinger  in  Has- 
ting's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible, 
Caldecott,  The  Tabernacle,  its 
History  and  Structure  (1904). 
For  feast  of  tabernacles,  see 
Feast. 

Tabes  Dorsalis.  See  Loco- 
motor Ataxia. 

Tablature,  the  system  of  mu- 
sical notation  used  for  the  lute. 
In  the  usual  method  the  six  high- 
er strings  of  the  instrument  were 
represented    by    six  horizontal 


Tableaux  Vlvants 


KFN 


596 


Tabriz 


lines,  each  named  after  the  note 
to  which  the  corresponding  string 
was  tuned.  Letters  or  Arabic 
numerals  placed  on  the  lines  in- 
dicated the  frets  to  be  used  in 
the  production  of  the  notes,  .the 


the  gods.  So  strong,  indeed,  is 
this  Delief  that  there  are  many- 
instances  of  Maoris  dying  from 
sheer  fright  on  realizing  that 
they  had  touched  a  tabooed  ar- 
ticle or  had  eaten  food  from  a 


is  golden  locks  rime  hath    to    filuer  turpd^ 

r    I  r  rp    r  p.p  p 


a  a  a. 


^-a— q — ..a.  i 


 T_      _T.^  ♦  ^  ^  ^ 


Music  with  Voice  Part  and  Tablature  for  the  Lute. 


duration  of  the  latter  being  shown 
by  minims,  crotchets,  etc.,  placed 
over  the  signs. 

Tableaux  Vivants  ('living 
pictures'),  the  representation  by 
means  of  living  persons  of  scenes 
from  history  or  fiction,  and  of 
works  of  painting  and  sculpture. 
Their  invention  is  ascribed  to 
Madame  de  Genlis. 

Table-land.    See  Plateau. 

Table  Mountain,  or  Tafel- 
BfRG  (3,550  ft.),  rises  to  the  S. 
of  Cape  Town,  Cape  Colony,  with 
an  abrupt  ascent  from  the  S.  side 
of  Table  Bay,  and  sloping  to- 
ward the  s.  The  level  nature  of 
the  strata  gives  it  its  table-Uke 
appearance,  fancifully  increased 
wTien  the  dense  white  clouds  (the 
'tablecloth')  hang  over  it,  espe- 
cially in  summer. 

Table-turning,  the  turning  of 
a  table  under  the  finger-tips, 
ranged  round  its  edge,  of  persons 
surrounding  it,  the  movement 
being  formerly  ascribed  to  the 
agency  of  spirits.  The  name  is 
used  also  to  cover  the  kindred 
phenomena  of  spirit-rapping — i.e. 
the  rapping  by  alleged  spirits  on 
furniture,  walls,  ceiling.  Begin- 
ning in  the  U.  S.  about  1848,  table- 
turning  was  often  practised  as  a 
social  pastime.  By  Faraday,  in 
England,  and  other  scientific  in- 
vestigators, the  phenomenon  has 
been  accounted  for  by  the  in- 
voluntary mechanical  muscular 
action  of  the  performers.  See 
Spiritualism. 

Tabley,  Baron.  See  De  Tab- 
ley. 

Taboo,  Tabu,  Tambu,  or  Tapu 
(the  last  being  the  most  correct 
spelling),  a  complicated  Polyne- 
sian system  of  prohibitions,  for- 
mulated by  the  priesthood.  In 
many  instances  the  dominant 
motive  is  purification;  in  others 
the  taboo  is  nothing  more  than 
an  enactment  for  preyenting  the 
extinction  of  a  certain  animal. 
Among  the  Maoris  any  infringe- 
ment of  the  laws  of  taboo  is  be- 
lieved to  be  followed  by  the  death 
of  the  transgressor  at  the  hands  of 


tabooed  place.  Naturally  and 
logically,  such  deaths  are  held 
by  the  Maoris  to  substantiate 
their  belief.  The  custom  of  taboo 
is,  however,  world-wide.  It  was 
fully  recognized  by  the  ancient 
Greeks.  Thus,  in  the  Eleusinian 
mysteries  the  pomegranate  was 
tabooed;  and  in  the  banquet 
which  concluded  the  haloa,  or 
festival  of  the  threshing-floor,  the 
following  articles  of  food  were 
strictly  prohibited  —  pomegran- 
ates, apples,  domestic  fowls,  eggs, 
red  mullet,  crayfish,  blacktail,  and 
shark. 

Taboo  results  also  from  a  feel- 
ing of  reverence  for  the  dead. 
The  Zulus,  for  example,  always 
use  descriptive  names  in  speaking 
of  their  dead  kings.  The  actual 
name  is  tabooed  (hlonipa).  'Then 
there  is  the  Gypsy  system  of 
tabu,'  remarks  F.  H.  Groome 
(Gypsy  Folk-Tales,  p.  Ixxiii.),  'by 
which  wife  and  child  renounce 
forever  the  favorite  food  or  drink 
of  the  dead  husband  or  father, 
or  the  name  of  the  deceased  is 
dropped  clean  out  of  use,  any 
survivors  who  happen  to  bear  it 
adopting  another.'  The  many 
forms  of  taboo  recognized  by  the 
Jews  are  given  in  detail  in  the 
Mosaic  law.  There,  again,  the 
reasons  were  various.  The  tem- 
porary taboo  laid  by  the  priest 
upon  a  man  suspected  of  incipient 
leprosy  (Lev.  13)  was  a  purely 
medical  precaution.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  taboo  laid  upon  a 
woman  who  had  just  borne  a 
child,  the  particulars  of  which 
varied  according  to  the  sex  of  the 
child  (Lev.  12),  was  based  upon 
the  belief,  common  to  many  races, 
that  childbirth  rendered  a  woman 
'unclean.'  The  'network  of  pro- 
hibitions and  observances'  with 
which  kings  frequently  used  to  be 
surrounded  owes  its  origin  to  the 
fact  that  kings  were  believed  to  be 
supernatural  beings,  whose  every 
action  affected  the  lives  and  wel- 
fare of  their  people.  This  ques- 
tion of  'royal  taboos'  is  examined 
by  Dr.  J.  G.  Frazer  in  his  Golden 


Bough  (ed.  1900),  vol.  i.,  at  the  end 
of  which  volume  there  is  a  long 
and  instructive  note  on  'Taboos 
on  Common  Words.'  See  Van 
Gennep's  Tabou  et  Totemisme  a 
Madagascar  (1904). 

Tabor,  a  small  drum,  usually 
played  with  one  stick,  in  accom- 


Tabor  and  Pipe. 


paniment  to  the  pipe,  both  in- 
struments being  often  played  by 
the  same  performer. 

Tabor,  town,  Czecho-Slovakia, 
65  miles  by  rail  s.  of  Prague,  the 
former  stronghold  of  the  Hus- 
sites. It  is  still  in  part  sur- 
rounded by  the  walls  which  Zizka 
built  in  1420.  Tobacco,  beer, 
and  flour  are  produced.  Pop. 
13,000. 

Tabor,  mountain  in  Galilee 
(1,800  ft.),  the  traditional  scene 
of  the  transfiguration  of  Christ, 
and  an  object  of  pious  pilgrimage. 

Tabora,  town,  East  Africa, 
Tanganyika  Territory  in  the 
heart  of  Unyamwezi,  220  miles 
E.  of  Ujiji  (Lake  Tanganyika), 
an  ivory  emporium.  Pop.  about 
25,000. 

Tabor  College.  A  non-sec- 
tarian men's  college  at  Ta- 
bor, Iowa,  first  opened  as  an 
academy  in  1857  and  incorpo- 
rated as  a  college  in  1866.  En- 
rolment is  limited  to  200.  It 
was  modelled  on  Oberlin  Col- 
lege, and  was  founded  by  a 
company  of  missionaries  who 
moved  to  western  Iowa  in  1852. 
The  college  courses  are  arranged 
in  classical,  modern  language, 
Latin,  mathematics,  preparatory 
legal,  and  preparatory  medical 
groups,  all  leading  to  the  b.a.  de- 
gree. There  are  in  addition  an 
academy,  a  conservatory  of  mu- 
sic, and  an  art  department. 

Taborites.    See  Hussites. 

Tabriz,  town,  province  Azer- 
baijan, N.w.  Iran,  40  miles  e. 
of  Lake  Urmia.  It  was  built 
(791)  by  the  wife  of  Haroun-al- 
Raschid,  and  is  the  most  impor- 
tant commercial  center  of  n.w. 
Persia.  Exports  are  dry  fruit, 
raisins,  cotton,  carpets.  Two  im- 
portant features  are  the  blue 
mosque  and  a  famous  tower  built 
by  Greeks.    Pop.  214,000. 


Tabulating  Machines 


KFN 


597  Tacna-Arica  Question 


Tabulating  Machines.  See 

Calculating  Machines. 

Tac'amahac',  or  Tacama- 
HACA,  a  fragrant,  bitter  resin 
chiefly  obtained  from  various 
tropical  trees,  especially  Calo- 
phyllum inophyllum  (East  Indies), 
C.  calaba  (West  Indies),  and 
Elapharium  tomentosum  (South 
America).  It  is  employed  as  in- 
cense and  as  an  ingredient  in 
ointments.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  the  American  Balsam 
Poplar  (see  Poplar).  _ 

Taccaceae,  ta-ka'si-e,  an  order 
of  monocotyledonous  plants,  the 
Taccad  family,  having  large  tu- 
berous roots,  large  radical  pet- 
ioled  leaves,  and  greenish  flowers 
borne  in  a  dense  umbel  at  the  top 
of  a  leafless  scape.  Tacca  is  a 
typical  genus  which  furnishes 
starch  and  arrowroot.  See 
Starch. 

Tache,  ta-sha',  Alexandre 
Antonin  (1823-94),  Canadian 
ecclesiastic,  was  born  in  Riviere- 
du-Loup,  Quebec.  Becoming  a 
monk  of  the  Oblate  order,  he  vol- 
unteered for  service  in  the  Red 
River  district,  and  was  the  pio- 
neer missionary  in  that  region 
(1846).  His  unexampled  exer- 
tions secured  his  appointment  as 
coadjutor  bishop  of  St.  Boniface 
(1850).  After  his  consecration, 
he  labored  to  attain  his  ideal  of 
a  French-Canadian  Northwest, 
founding  colleges,  chapels,  and 
schools,  and  securing  such  con- 
trol over  the  Indians  that  on  a 
threatened  insurrection  of  the 
Metis  (1870)  he  was  deputed  to 
act  as  imperial  commissioner  to 
allay  the  discontent.  He  became 
bishop  (1853)  and  archbishop  of 
St.  Boniface  (1871).  He  wrote 
Vingl  annees  des  missions  dans  le 
nord-ouesl  de  I'Amcrique  (1866) 
and  Esquisse  sur  le  nord-ouest  de 
I'Amerique  (1869). 

Tache,  Sir  Etienne  Paschal 
(1795-1865),  Canadian  states- 
man, was  born  in  St.  Thomas, 
Lower  Canada.  He  served  in 
the  War  of  1812,  and  at  its  ces- 
sation began  the  study  of  medi- 
cine, a  profession  he  continued  to 
practise  until  1841,  when  he 
entered  active  political  life. 
After  filling  several  lesser  po- 
sitions, in  1856  he  became 
premier,  retiring  in  1857,  but 
forming  another  government  in 
1864.  _ 

Ta-chien-lu,  ta'chen'loo',  or 
Ta-tsien-lu,  town,  China,  in 
Sze-chuen  province;  65  miles 
southwest  of  Tshing-tu,  on  the 
route  to  Tibet. 

Tachina,  ta-ki'na,  a  fly  be- 
longing to  the  family  Tachinidae. 
It  resembles  the  common  house 
fly  (q.v.),  is  usually  gray  in  color, 
and  occasionally  striped.  It  is 
parasitic  on  caterpillars,  and  the 
maggots  sometimes  penetrate  the 
body  of  their  host. 

Tachom'eter,  or  Speed  Indi- 
cator, a  device  for  measuring 


velocity.  Various  forms  are  em- 
ployed, as  for  measuring  the 
swiftness  of  a  river  current,  and 
for  ascertaining  the  speed  and 
variations  in  the  rotation  of  a 
wheel  or  shaft. 

Tachylite,  tak'i-lit,  a  black, 
opaque  natural  glass  which  re- 
sults from  the  rapid  cooling  of 
molten  basalt.  It  occurs  as  a 
thin  selvage  to  dikes  and  veins 
of  intrusive  basalt— the  latter 
having  cooled  rapidly  from  con- 
tact with  the  adjacent  rock.  It 
occurs  abundantly  in  the  west  of 
Scotland.    See  Basalt. 

Tacitus,  tas'i-tus,  Marcus 
Claudius  (c.  205-276  a.d.), 
Roman  ruler  was  born  in  Umbria 
and  was  chosen  Emperor  at 
Rome  (275)  after  the  murder  of 
Aurelianus  (q.v.).  He  was 
famous  for  his  great  wealth,  de- 
votion to  literature,  and  upright 
character.  His  short  reign  was 
marked  by  laws  for  the  improve- 
ment of  public  morals,  and  by 
the  expulsion  from  Asia  Minor  of 
a  body  of  Goths. 

Tacitus,  PuBLius  (Gaius) 
Cornelius  (c.  55-120  a.d.), 
Roman  historian  about  whose 
Hfe  comparatively  little  is  known. 
He  was  quaestor  (79),  praetor 
(88),  and  consul  (97).  In 
78  he  married  the  daughter  of 
the  great  Agricola.  He  was 
famous  as  an  orator,  a  fact 
learned  from  the  letters  of  his 
friend,  the  Younger  Pliny.  After 
his  consulship  he  was  chiefly  oc- 
cupied with  his  literary  works. 
These  are  Dialogue  on  Orators; 
Agricola,  a  biography  of  his 
father-in-law,  published  in  98 
A.D.;  Germania,  based  partly  on 
Caesar  and  other  authorities, 
partly  perhaps  on  the  writer's 
own  knowledge  (it  also  was  writ- 
ten about  98  A.D.) ;  Histories,  a 
narrative  of  the  reigns  of  the 
Emperors  from  Galba  to  Do- 
mitian  inclusive,  now  incomplete; 
Annals,  a  history  of  the  empire 
from  the  death  of  Augustus  to 
that  of  Nero  (14  to  68  a.d.).  Of 
the  sixteen  books  of  the  Annals, 
only  eight  have  come  down  to  us 
entire,  four  are  fragmentary,  and 
the  others  lost. 

Tacitus'  style  is  the  most 
strongly  marked  of  antiquity;  it 
is  sometimes  obscure  from  sheer 
condensation,  a  single  word 
often  conveying  the  chief  effect 
of  a  sentence.  As  a  delineator  of 
character  he  is  unequalled. 

Tack,  a  nautical  term  meaning 
to  change  the  course  of  a  sailing 
vessel  so  as  to  bring  the  wind 
round,  by  the  head,  to  the  other 
side  of  the  vessel,  as  opposed  to 
wear  (q.v.).  As  a  noun  tack  has 
many  meanings,  including  (1)  a 
rope  or  purchase  for  hauling 
down  and  fastening  the  corners 
of  certain  sails;  (2)  the  corner  of 
a  sail  to  which  such  a  rope  is 
fastened;  (3)  the  direction  in 
which  a  vessel  sails,  considered 


m  relation  to  the  position  of  her 
sails;  and  (4)  the  distance  run  at 
one  time  in  such  direction. 

Tackle.    See  Block. 

Tacloban,  tak'lo-ban,  town, 
Philippine  Islands,  capital  of 
Leyte  province,  on  San  Juanico 
Strait,  between  Leyte  and  Samar; 
370  miles  southeast  of  Manila. 
Pop.  15,787. 

Tacna,  tac'na,  province,  Peru, 
situated  in  the  south  near  the 
Chilean  border.  Area  4,930 
square  miles.  Much  of  the  in- 
terior is  arid  and  unfruitful  and 
the  climate  is  hot  and  unhealth- 
ful.  Nitrate  and  some  copper 
and  silver  are  mined.  Pop. 
(1940)  36,349. 

Tacna,  city,  Peru,  capital  of 
Tacna  province,  on  the  River 
Tacna ;  40  miles  north  of  its 
port,  Arica  (q.  v.),  Chile.  It 
has  greatly  declined  since  Bo- 
livian trade  has  been  diverted 
through  Antofagasta.  Pop.  15,- 
000. 

Tacna-Arica  Question.  Fol- 
lowing the  war  between  Chile 
and  Peru  (1879-83),  which  was 
terminated  by  the  Treaty  of 
Ancon,  the  province  of  Tacna- 
Arica  was  ceded  to  Chile  by 
Peru  for  ten  years,  after  which  a 
plebiscite  was  to  be  taken  to 
determine  the  ultimate  owner- 
ship of  the  provinces  of  Arica 
and  Tacna.  But  at  the  end 
of  that  time  disagreement  as  to 
the  manner  of  taking  this  plebis- 
cite prevented  its  being  carried 
out,  and  after  many  attempts  at 
a  settlement,  a  protocol  was 
signed  at  Washington,  on  July 
21,  1922,  by  which  the  solution 
of  the  question  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  United  States  for 
arbitration.  A  plebiscitary  com- 
mission consisting  of  three  mem- 
bers, one  each  from  Chile  and 
Peru  and  the  third  from  the 
United  States,  was  appointed  to 
regulate  and  supervise  the  pleb- 
iscite. This  commission  met  in 
1925  and  drew  up  rules  of 
procedure  but  so  much  objection 
was  raised  and  so  many  questions 
arose  that  the  commission  de- 
cided that  a  fair  and  free 
plebiscite  could  not  be  held  and 
it  therefore  terminated  its  work. 
In  1928  the  U.  S.  Secretary  of 
State  suggested  to  the  Govern- 
ments of  Chile  and  Peru  that 
they  resume  diplomatic  rela- 
tions, which  was  done  in  October 
of  that  year.  Negotiations  for  a 
settlement  of  the  question  were 
soon  begun  and  in  May,  1929,  the 
President  of  the  United  States 
offered  to  the  two  countries  a 
basis  of  solution  which  provided 
that  Tacna  should  be  assigned  to 
Peru  and  Arica  to  Chile.  Chile 
should  construct  for  Peru  a 
station,  wharf,  and  customhouse 
for  the  railway  from  Tacna  to 
Arica,  and  should  pay  to  Peru 
six  million  dollars  and  deliver  all 
public  works  and  all  government 


Tacoma 


KFN 


598 


Taft 


owned  property  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Tacna.  Private  property 
legally  acquired  should  be  re- 
spected by  both  governments, 
Peruvian  children  born  in  Arica 
should  be  considered  Peruvians 
until  they  are  21  when  they  may 
choose  their  own  nationality  and 
Chilean  children  born  in  Tacna 
should  have  the  same  right. 
Chile  agreed  to  this  proposal  on 
May  15,  and  Peru  on  May  16, 
1929. 

Tacoma,  ta-ko'ma,  city, 
Washington,  county  seat  of 
Pierce  county,  is  situated  on 
Commencement  Bay,  an  arm  of 
Puget  Sound,  and  on  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul,  the 
Great  Northern,  the  Northern 
Pacific,  and  the  Union  Pacific 
railroads  ;  32  miles  south  of  Se- 
attle, with  which  it  has  bus  and 
train  connection.  Its  fine  deep- 
water  harbor  and  extensive,  area 
of  -tide-level  lands,  extending  in- 
land for  miles  along  the  valley  of 
the  Puyallup  River,  and  afford- 
ing advantageous  site  for  docks, 
warehouses,  and  factories,  re- 
quiring both  water  and  rail 
facilities,  have  made  it  one  of 
the  leading  ports  of  the  Pacific 
Coast.  The  Northern  Pacific  and 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St. 
Paul  have  their  chief  freight 
terminals  here,  while  the  Great 
Northern  and  Union  Pacific  also 
have  extensive  terminal  facilities. 
Steamship  connection  is  main- 
tained with  other  points  on  Puget 
Sound  and  the  Pacific  Coast, 
Hawaii,  and  Oriental,  European^ 
Atlantic  Coast,  Australian  and 
South  American  ports. 

Tacoma  is  built  upon  a  series 
of  terraces  rising  from  the  south- 
ern shore  of  Commencement  Bay, 
and  commanding  a  splendid 
view  of  the  Sound,  the  Cascade 
Mountains,  including  Mount 
Rainier  (q.  v.),  and  the  Olympic 
Mountains.  The  industrial  dis- 
trict is  situated  on  the  tidal  flats, 
extending  inland  along  the  east 
of  the  Puyallup  River^  while  the 
business  and  residential  sections 
occupy  the  higher  land. 

The  park  system  includes  23 
parks  covering  an  area  of  1,134 
acres,  the  most  notable  being 
Point  Defiance  (638  acres),  a 
beautiful  tract  fronting  on  the 
Sound,  largely  covered  with 
virgin  forests  of  giant  fir,  and 
containing  a  fine  zoological  gar- 
den and  aquarium. 

Notable  edifices  are  the  Coun- 
ty Court  House,  City  Hall, 
Public  Library,  Federal  Build- 
ing, Tacoma  Building,  Union 
Station,  new  Masonic  Temple, 
Scottish  Rite  Cathedral  and  a 
number  of  fine  churches.  The 
public  school  system  comprises  46 
buildings,  and  two  finely  equipped 
high  schools,  adjoining  one  of 
which  is  the  splendid  stadium 
completed  in   1910  and  seating 


30,000.  Other  educational  insti- 
tutions are  the  College  of  Puget 
Sound  (Methodist-Episcopal), 
Annie  Wright  Seminary,  Pacific 
Lutheran  College  and  Bellarmine 
College.  The  State  Historical 
Museum  containing  an  interest- 
ing Indian  and  early  pioneer  col- 
lection, is  located  here.  Hospi- 
tals are  the  Tacoma  General,  St. 
Joseph's,  Pierce  County,  U.  S. 
Indian,  U.  S.  Veterans,  Western 
State  (insane),  and  Northern  Pa- 
cific Railroad,  and  the  Lakeview 
(county)  Tuberculosis  Sanitar- 
ium. 

Industries. — Exceptional  wa- 
ter and  rail  facilities,  cheap  elec- 
tric power,  and  an  abundance  of 
inexpensive  fuel  from  the  coal 
mines  of  the  region  and  the  waste 
of  the  lumber  mills  have  com- 
bined to  make  Tacoma  an  im- 
portant industrial  center.  Taco- 
ma is  situated  in  the  heart  of  the 
Douglas  fir  belt  between  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains  and  the  sea,  and 
adjacent  to  a  rich  agricultural 
territory ;  and  the  leading  indus- 
tries are  forest  products,  ship- 
building, electro-chemicals,  light 
metals,  copper  smelting,  flour 
milling,  foundry  and  machine 
shop  products  ;  bread  and  other 
bakery  products  ;  furniture  ;  con- 
fectionery. 

Coastwise  and  foreign  com- 
merce is  extensive.  The  chief 
articles  of  shipment  are  lumber 
products,  wheat  and  other  ce- 
reals, canned  and  boxed  fruits 
and  vegetables,  and  ores  of  cop- 
per, silver,  and  gold. 

Since  1909  Tacoma  has  had 
the  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment with  a  mayor  and  five  com- 
missioners. The  first  settlement 
at  Commencement  Bay  dates 
from  the  establishment  of  a  saw- 
mill in  1868.  In  1873  the  site 
was  selected  for  the  terminal  of 
the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad, 
and  in  1887  the  main  trans- 
continental line  entered  Tacoma. 
The  city  was  chartered  in  1874. 
Pop.  (1930)  106,837;  (1940) 
109,408. 

Tacon'ic  Mountains,  or  Tag- 
HANic  Mountains,  a  range  of 
hills  lying  on  the  borders  of  New 
York  and  Massachusetts,  and 
extending  into  the  southwest 
corner  of  Vermont.  It  is  com- 
posed of  greatly  metamorphosed 
sedimentary  rocks,  and  gave  the 
name  to  the  Taconic  System  in 
geology. 

Tactics,  Military  and  Naval. 
See  Strategy  and  Tactics. 

Tacuarembo,  ta-kwa-rem-bo', 
department,  northern  Uruguay, 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Rio 
Negro;  area,  8,112  square  miles. 
The  capital  is  San  Fructuoso. 
The  chief  occupation  is  stock 
raising.    Pop.  (1926)  80,192. 

Tacubaya,  ta-ko6-ba'ya,  town, 
Mexico ;  5  miles  southwest  of 
Mexico   City.     A   national  ob- 


servatory is  situated  here.  Pop. 
18,350. 

Tadema.  See  Alma-Tadema. 

Tadmor.   See  Palmyra. 

Tadorna.    See  Sheldrake. 

Tadpole.    See  Frogs. 

Tael,  tal,  a  unit  of  value  in 
China,  representing  a  Hang  of 
silver  bullion.  Its  value  varies 
at  different  places.  A  haikwan 
{i.e.,  customs)  tael  was  one  tael 
weight  of  pure  silver ;  it  was 
abolished  in  1933. 

Taenia.   See  Tapeworms. 

Taffeta,  a  name  once  applied 
to  plain  woven  silks,  and  more 
recently  to  a  light,  thin  silk  of  a 
high  degree  of  luster  or  gloss,  and 
to  various  mixtures  of  silk  and 
wool. 

Tafilalt,  ta-fi-lelt',  or  Tafilet, 
oasis  (500  square  miles  in  area) 
in  northwest  Sahara,  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Atlas  Mountains  ;  220 
miles  south  of  Fez.  It  is  a  cara- 
van center,  and  noted  for  its 
dates,  and  leather.  It  is  under 
the  government  of  Morocco, 
Pop.  150,000. 

Taft,  Lorado  (1860-1936), 
American  sculptor,  was  born  in 
Elmwood,  111.  He  was  graduated 
from  the  University  of  Illinois 
(1879)  and  studied  at  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris  (1880-3). 
In  1886  he  became  instructor  at 
the  Chicago  Art  Institute,  lectur- 
ing there,  at  the  University  of 
Chicago,  and  elsewhere  in  the 
United  States.  In  1919  he  be- 
came non-resident  professor  of 
art  at  the  University  of  Illinois. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Design  and  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Letters.  Among  his  works 
are  Washington  (Seattle)  ;  Grant 
(Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans.)  ;  the 
sculpture  of  the  Columbus  Me- 
morial Fountain  (Washington, 
D.  C.)  ;  Blackhawk  (Oregon, 
111.)  ;  The  Solitude  of  the  Soul 
and  The  Blind  (Art  Institute, 
Chicago)  ;  The  Eternal  Silence ; 
Fountain  of  the  Great  Lakes  and 
The  Fountain  of  Time  (Chicago). 
He  was  the  author  of  an  authori- 
tative History  of  American 
Sculpture  (1903,  new  ed.  1924) 
and  of  Modern  Tendencies  in 
Sculpture  (1921). 

Taft,  William  Howard 
(1  85  7-1  9  3  0),  twenty-seventh 
President  of  the  United  States, 
was  born  in  Cincinnati,  O.  He 
received  his  preparatory  educa- 
tion in  the  public  schools  of 
Cincinnati ;  entered  Yale  Uni- 
versity at  seventeen ;  and  was 
graduated  in  1878,  second  in  a 
class  of  121.  After  a  two-years 
course  in  the  law  department  of 
Cincinnati  College,  he  was  grad- 
uated with  honors  in  1880,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  and  took  up 
work  as  a  legal  reporter  on  local 
papers. 

He  was  assistant  prosecuting 
attorney   of    Hamilton  County, 


VIEWS  OF  TACOMA,  WASH. 


1.  The  City,  with  Mount  Tacoma  (Rainier)  in  the  Background  2.  Stadium  and  Stadium  High  School. 
Vol.  XL— Mar  '17  Vol.  XI.— at  Page  598 


TACOMA.  WASHIN(JTON,  WITH  MT.  RAINIER  IX  THE  BACKGROUND 


Photos  Courtesy  Tacoma  Chamber  of  Commerce 

TACOMA  IS  A  LUMBER  EXPORT  CENTER  FOR  NORTHWEST  FORESTS 

Vol.  XL— Page  598  A 


Taft 


KFN 


599 


Tagbilaran 


Ohio,  in  1881-2,  and  collector  of 
internal  revenue  for  the  first  Ohio 
customs  district  in  1882-3,  when 
he  resigned  to  practice  law.  In 
1885  he  became  assistant  county 
solicitor  for  Hamilton  County, 
and  in  1887  was  appointed  to  fill 
an  unexpired  term  as  judge  of  the 
superior  court  of  Ohio.  He  was 
re-elected  by  popular  vote  for  a 
period  of  five  years  in  1888,  but 
resigned  in  1890  to  become  Solic- 
itor General  of  the  United  States. 
From  1892  to  1900  he  served  as 
U.  S.  circuit  judge  for  the  Sixth 
Judicial  Circuit,  and  from  1896 
to  1900  he  was  dean  and  profes- 
sor of  law  at  the  University  of 
Cincinnati. 

In  March,  1900,  President  Mc- 
Kinley  appointed  W.  H.  Taft 
president  of  the  U.  S.  Philippine 
Commission,  and  in  July,  1901, 
he  assumed  the  additional  duties 
of  the  first  civil  governor  of  the 
Philippine  Archipelago.  In  this 
office  he  reorganized  the  govern- 
ment, introducing  much-needed 
sanitary  reforms,  establishing  a 
system  of  schools,  and  by  his  tact 
winning  the  good  will  of  the  na- 
tives and  gaining  a  wide  reputa- 
tion as  an  able  and  just  adminis- 
trator. In  1902  he  visited  Rome 
and  conferred  with  the  Vatican 
concerning  the  appraisal  of  lands 
in  the  Philippines  belonging  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  orders,  sub- 
sequently arranging  for  the  pur- 
chase of  these  lands  by  the  U.  S. 
Government  and  their  sale  to  the 
inhabitants  on  easy  terms. 

In  1903  Governor  Taft  was 
called  by  President  Roosevelt  to 
become  Secretary  of  War.  He 
was  assigned  to  the  duty  of  su- 
pervising the  construction  of  the 
Panama  Canal ;  was  sent  to 
Cuba  in  1906,  where  he  served 
temporarily  as  civil  governor  ;  in 
1907  he  investigated  conditions 
in  Cuba,  Puerto  Rico,  and  the 
Canal  Zone ;  revisited  the  Phil- 
ippines to  assist  in  opening  the 
first  Filipino  legislative  assem- 
bly ;  delivered  a  speech  in  Tokyo 
that  did  much  to  allay  Japanese 
jingoism  ;  conducted  important 
negotiations  in  China  regarding 
the  boycott  of  American  goods 
in  that  country  ;  returning  to  the 
United  States  by  way  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway.  He  also 
personally  promoted  the  reorgan- 
ization of  the  Red  Cross  Associa- 
tion, and  was  its  president  from 
1906  to  1913. 

Long  before  the  National  Con- 
vention of  1908  it  was  evident 
that  Secretary  Taft  would  be  the 
choice  of  a  majority  of  the  Re- 
publican delegates  for  the  Presi- 
dential nomination  to  succeed 
Theodore  Roosevelt,  his  staunch 
supporter.  He  was  nominated  on 
the  first  ballot,  and  was  elected 
in  November  by  an  electoral  vote 
of  321  to  162  and  a  popular  ma- 
jority of  1,370,000. 


Immediately  after  his  inaugu- 
ration (March  4,  1909),  President 
Taft  called  Congress  in  extra  ses- 
sion to  revise  the  tariff ;  and  his 
signature  to  the  Payne-Aldrich 
bill  made  it  a  law  on  Aug.  5, 
1909.  In  September  he  started 
on  a  speech-making  tour  which 
included  the  Pacific  Coast,  and 
the  Southwest. 

The  failure  of  the  Republicans 
to  carry  out  their  pledge  of  sub- 
stantial tariff  revision  led  to  wide 
dissatisfaction  ;  and  the  Congres- 
sional elections  of  1910  placed 
the  House  of  Representatives  in 
control  of  the  Democrats.  With 
the  balance  of  power  in  the  Sen- 
ate wielded  by  a  dissatisfied  wing 
of  his  own  party,  the  President, 
unable  to  agree  with  Congress  on 
the  tariff,  furthered  chiefly  non- 
partisan measures.  Among  these 
were  a  treaty  with  Japan  (1911) ; 
employers'  liability  measures ; 
the  establishment  of  a  parcels 
post  and  postal  savings  banks ; 
the  creation  of  the  Bureau  of 
Mines,  the  Commerce  Court,  the 
Court  of  Customs  Appeals,  the 
Federal  Children's  Bureau,  and 
the  Federal  Industrial  Commis- 
sion ;  and  laws  requiring  the 
publication  of  campaign  funds 
and  regulating  Panama  Canal 
tolls. 

In  the  handling  of  foreign  re- 
lations. President  Taft's  record 
included  the  settlement  of  the 
Atlantic  Fisheries  Arbitration 
(q.  v.),  the  Mexican  boundary 
dispute  (see  Texas),  and  the 
Bering  Sea  Controversy  (q.  v.). 
He  was  unsuccessful,  however,  in 
securing  the  ratification  of  gen- 
eral arbitration  treaties  with 
Great  Britain  and  France  by  the 
Senate,  as  well  as  of  a  reciprocity 
treaty  with  Canada  by  the  Do- 
minion Government.  (See  Unit- 
ed States,  History). 

In  1912,  after  stormy  conven- 
tion proceedings  which  resulted 
in  the  withdrawal  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  delegates  and  the  for- 
mation of  the  Progressive  Party 
(q.  v.),  the  President  was  re- 
nominated by  the  Republicans. 
Opposed  by  Theodore  Roosevelt, 
the  leader  of  the  new  party,  and 
by  Woodrow  Wilson  (q.  v.),  Taft 
was  badly  defeated. 

In  1913  Taft  became  Kent 
professor  of  law  at  Yale  Univer- 
sity, a  position  which  he  con- 
tinued to  fill  until  1921,  when  he 
was  nominated  by  President 
Harding  (June  30)  as  Chief  Jus- 
tice of  the  United  States,  to  suc- 
ceed Edward  Douglass  White, 
deceased.  His  nomination  was 
confirmed  by  the  Senate  on  the 
same  day  and  he  took  the  oath  of 
office  on  July  11.  Early  in  the 
year  1930  owing  to  serious  ill 
health  Taft  resigned  his  position 
as  Chief  Justice  of  the  United 
States  and  after  several  weeks 
of  illness  he  died  on  March  15, 


1930,  and  was  buried  in  Arling- 
ton Cemetery. 

Taft  enjoyed  to  an  unusual 
degree  not  only  the  respect  and 
esteem  of  the  American  people 
but  their  real  affection.  Genial, 
witty,  warm  hearted  and  honest 
he  held  a  place  in  the  hearts  of 
his  countrymen  perhaps  unlike 
that  of  any  other  man  in  public 
life.  He  was  the  only  man  in  the 
history  of  the  United  States  to 
hold  both  the  office  of  President 
and  of  Chief  Justice  of  the  Su- 
preme Court.  He  was  president 
of  the  American  Bar  Association 
in  1913,  first  president  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Jurispru- 
dence in  1914,  and  one  of  the 
chairmen  of  the  National  War 
Labor  Conference  Board  in  1918. 
He  published  Four  Aspects  of 
Civic  Duty  (1906)  ;  Prcscnt-Day 
Problems  (1908);  Political  Is- 
sues and  Outlooks  (1909);  The 
Anti-Trust  Act  and  the  Supreme 
Court  (1914)  ;  The  United  States 
and  Peace  (1914)  ;  Popular  Gov- 
ernment (1915)  ;  Ethics  in  Serv- 
ice (1915)  ;  The  Presidency :  Its 
Duties,  Opportunities,  and  Limi- 
tations (1916). 

Tagabili,  ta-ga-be'le,  or  Ta- 
GABELiES,  an  uncivilized  tribe  in 
southern  Mindanao,  Philippine 
Islands. 

Tagals,  ta-gals',  Tagalas,  or 
Tagalogs,  one  of  the  most  nu- 
merous and  important  of  the 
native  tribes  of  the  Philippines, 
found  chiefly  in  central  Luzon. 
Like  other  Philippine  tribes,  they 
were  originally  of  Malay  stock, 
and  they  offer  today  the  purest 
type  to  be  found  in  the  islands. 
They  are  of  a  brownish-yellow 
color  and  moderate  stature,  and 
are  characterized  by  prominent 
cheek  bones,  narrow  eyes,  straight 
black  hair,  and  rather  large 
mouths  with  full  lips.  They  had 
attained  a  considerable  degree  of 
civilization  even  in  pre-Spanish 
days,  devoting  themselves  to  ag- 
riculture, and  to  commerce  in  the 
Far  Eastern  seas.  Their  reli- 
gion was  a  nature  worship  which 
gave  way  to  Christianity  taught 
by  Spanish  missionaries. 

Taganrog-,  tag-an-rdx',  town 
and  port.  North  Caucasian  area, 
southern  Russia,  on  the  Sea  of 
Azov  ;  35  miles  west  of  Rostov- 
on-Don.  It  is  an  episcopal  see 
and  is  the  site  of  the  famous 
Chekhov  museum.  There  are 
tanneries,  macaroni  and  tobacco 
factories,  tallow  factories,  fisher- 
ies, and  salting  industries.  The 
principal  article  of  export  is 
grain.    Pop.  (1939)  188,808. 

Tagbanuas,  tag-bii'noo-as,  an 
uncivilized  hill  people  of  the  in- 
terior of  Palawan,  and  the  Cala- 
mianes  Islands  included  in  the 
Philippine  group. 

Tagbilaran,  tag-be-la-riin' 
pueblo,  Philippine  Islands,  capi- 
tal of   Bohol  province,  on  the 


Taffgart 


KFN 


600 


Tailor  Bird 


s.w.  coast  of  Bohol  Island ;  400 
miles  southeast  of  Manila.  Its 
chief  industries  are  agricul- 
ture and  turtle  fishing.  Pop. 
10,000. 

Taggart,  Thomas  (1856- 
1929),  American  political  leader 
and  legislator,  was  born  in  Coun- 
ty Monyhan,  Ireland.  In  1861  he 
was  taken  to  the  United  States, 
his  family  settling  at  Garrett,  In- 
diana. He  removed  to  Indianap- 
olis in  1877,  and  became  prom- 
inent in  state  and  national  poli- 
tics. He  was  mayor  of  Indian- 
apolis in  1895-1901  ;  and  in  1904, 
as  chairman  of  the  Democratic 
National  Committee,  managed 
the  presidential  campaign  of 
Alton  B.  Parker.  In  1916  he  was 
appointed  U.  S.  Senator  to  fill  the 
vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of 
B.  F.  Shively. 

Tagliacozzo,  tal'ya-kot'so, 
commvme,  Italy,  in  Abruzzi  e 
Molise,  Aquila  province ;  22 
miles  s.w.  of  Aquila.  It  has 
several  old  churches  and  a  palace 
of  the  Orsini.  Pop.  (1936)  10,- 
327. 

Tagliamento,  river,  Udine, 
Italy,  rises  14  miles  west  of  Am- 
pezzo,  flows  eastward  to  Ven- 
zone,  thence  southwest  and  south- 
east, entering  the  Adriatic  after 
a  course  of  100  miles.  During 
the  First  World  War  the  Ital- 
ians retreated  to  the  line  of  the 
Tagliamento  after  the  disaster  of 
Caporetto  (October,  1917),  and 
there  fought  a  rearguard  action 
before  resuming  their  withdrawal 
to  the  Piave  (see  Europe,  Great 
War  of.  Battles  for  Trieste  and 
Venice).  Italian  cavalry  reached 
the  Tagliamento  shortly  before 
the  Austrian  collapse  (Oct.  30, 
1918). 

Taglioni,  tal-yo'ne,  Maria 
(1804--84),  Italian  dancer,  was 
born  in  Stockholm.  She  was 
trained  by  her  father,  a  ballet 
master,  and  made  her  debut  in 
Vienna  (1822).  Her  appearance 
in  Paris  in  1827  created  a  great 
sensation  ;  and  wherever  she  ap- 
peared she  was  recognized  as  past 
mistress  of  the  ballet. 

Tagore,  ta-gor'.  Sir  Rabin- 
dranath  (1861-1941),  Hindu 
poet  and  dramatist,  was  born  in 
Calcutta  of  a  family  noted  for 
generations  for  its  learning  and 
culture.  He  began  his  literary 
career  while  still  a  boy,  and  be- 
fore the  age  of  twenty-three  had 
produced  a  novel  and  two  series 
of  romantic  poems  in  Bengali. 
He  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
nationalist  movement  in  Bengal, 
writing  national  songs  and  nu- 
merous political  treatises,  but 
retired  from  political  activity 
about  1907.  He  then  undertook 
successfully  to  work  out  his  own 
educational  ideals  at  a  school  for 
boys  at  Bolpur  (opened  1902). 

The  songs  of  Tagore  are  char- 
acterized  by   deep   insight  and 


rare  lyric  beauty ;  and  in  later 
years  by  a  spiritual  and  idealistic 
tone.  They  had  won  a  wide 
vogue  among  all  classes  in  India 
long  before  their  introduction  in- 
to England  and  America,  where 
their  popularity  dates  from  1913, 
when  Tagore  was  awarded  the 
Nobel  Prize  for  Literature.  He 
was  knighted  by  the  king  of  Eng- 
land in  1913.  He  several  times 
visited  America. 

The  following  works  were 
translated  into  English  by  the 
author :     Tlic    Crescent  Moon 

(1913)  ;  The  Gardener  (1913); 
Gitanj  ali  {Song  Offerings, 
1913)  ;  Sadhana  (essays,  1913); 
The  King  of  the  Dark  Chamber 

(1914)  ;  The  Post  Office  (1914)  ; 
Short  Stories  (1915)  ;  The  Hun- 
gry Stones,  and  Other  Stories 

(1916)  ;  Fruit  Gathering  (1916); 
The  Lover's  Gift  and  Crossing 

(1917)  ;  Lectures  on  Personality 

(1917)  ;   The  Parrot's  Training 

(1918)  ;  The  Home  and  the 
World  (1919);  Red  Oleander 
(a  play)  (1924);  Broken  Ties 
(1925);  Fire-Flies  (1928);  and 
The  Religion  of  Man  (1931). 

Taguan,  ta'gwan,  a  large  fly- 
ing squirrel  of  the  genus  Ptero- 
mys,  found  in  Asia  and  the  East 
Indies.     See  Flying  Squirrel. 

Ta'gus  (Spanish  Tajo),  chief 
river  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula, 
rises  in  Sierra  Albarracin,  south- 
west of  Teruel  province,  Spain, 
and  flows  566  miles  mainly  south- 
west, at  first  rapidly,  and  then 
more  quietly  and  with  a  more 
southwesterly  course  throvigh 
Portugal.  At  Villafranca  it  be- 
gins to  widen  out  into  a  magnifi- 
cent estuary,  which  passes  Lis- 
bon to  the  Atlantic.  Navigation 
is  possible  for  large  vessels  to 
Santarem,  and  for  small  ones  to 
Abrentes  ;  rapids  impede  naviga- 
tion through  Spain. 

Tahiti,  ta'he-te,  or  Otaheite, 
the  largest  of  the  Society  Islands 
(q.  v.),  eastern  Pacific  Ocean,  in 
17°  35' s.  and  149°  30'  w.  ;  about 
3,400  miles  southwest  of  San 
Francisco ;  area,  600  square 
miles.  The  center  is  movmtain- 
ous,  of  volcanic  origin,  and  cov- 
ered with  luxuriant  vegetation ; 
the  coast  lands  are  extremely  fer- 
tile. The  highest  point  is  Mount 
Orohena,  7,345  feet.  Tahiti  is 
always  pleasantly  warm,  but  be- 
ing mountainous,  with  no  swamp 
lands,  and  lying  in  the  mid- 
Pacific,  it  has  few  of  the  tropical 
disadvantages  and  dangers.  The 
rainy  season,  occurring  between 
October  and  April,  with  its  tor- 
rential downpour  and  cyclonic 
winds,  often  works  great  havoc. 
The  Isthmus  of  Taravas  divides 
it  into  Great  and  Little  Tahiti. 
Cocoanuts,  oranges,  bananas, 
sugar  cane  and  vanilla  are  raised  ; 
sugar,  and  rum  are  manufac- 
tured ;  and  copra,  mother-of- 
pearl,  and  vanilla  are  exported. 


Trade  is  chiefly  with  the  United 
States.  Tahiti  has  been  a  French 
possession  since  1888.  The  capi- 
tal is  Papeete.    Pop.  8,456. 

Tahiti  Apple.  See  Hog 
Plum. 

Tahlequah,  ta-le-kwa',  city, 
Oklahoma,  county  seat  of  Chero- 
kee county,  on  the  Illinois  River, 
75  miles_  n.w.  of  Fort  Smith, 
Ark.  It  is  a  trade  center  and  the 
site  of  Northeastern  State  Teach- 
ers College.  Pop.  (1930)  2,495: 
(1940)  3,027. 

Tahoe,  Lake,  ta'ho  or  ta'ho, 
a  large  lake  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
beautifully  situated  on  the  bound- 
aries of  Placer  and  Eldorado 
counties,  California,  and  Ormsby 
and  Douglas  counties,  Nevada. 
It  is  22  miles  long  by  10  miles 
wide  and  its  waters  are  remark- 
ably clear. 

Taichu,  town,  Formosa,  Ja- 
pan ;  81  miles  s.w.  of  Tai-peh-fu. 
It  has  a  large  and  beautiful  park 
and  the  leading  industries  are  the 
production  of  camphor,  rice,  and 
sugar.    Pop.  11,000. 

Taignaufu,  or  Tai-ngan, 
town,  China,  in  Shantung  prov- 
ince, at  the  foot  of  the  sacred 
mountain  Taishan ;  200  miles 
south  of  Tientsin.  It  is  the  re- 
sort of  thousands  of  pilgrims  an- 
nually.   Pop.  75,000. 

Taihoku,  or  Tai-peh-fu, 
town,  capital  of  Formosa,  Japan, 
situated  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  island,  10  miles  from  its  port 
of  Tamsui.  Pop.  (1935)  274,- 
157. 

Tail.    See  Entail;  Estates. 

Taillandier,  ta-yan-dya', 
Saint-Rene  (1817-79),  French 
man  of  letters,  whose  real  name 
was  Rene  Gaspard  Ernest,  was 
born  in  Paris.  He  studied  law 
but  gave  it  up  for  literature  and 
philosophy.  He  was  professor  of 
literature  at  Strassburg  (1841), 
Montpellier  (  1843),  and  the  Sor- 
bonne,  Paris  (1863),  becoming 
an  Academician  in  1873.  His 
works  include  Histoire  de  la 
jeune  Alleniagne  (1849)  ;  Etudes 
sur  la  revolution  en  Allenvagnc 
(1853);  Alleniagne  et  Russie 
(1856)  ;  Scot  Erigenc  et  la  phi- 
losophic scholastiqiie  (1843)  ; 
Histoire  et  la  philosoph  :  reli- 
gieuse  (1860)  ;  Dramas  et  ro- 
mans  dc  la  vie  littcraire  (1870); 
Etudes  litteraircs  (1881). 

Taille,  tl'y',  in  pre-revolution- 
ary  France,  a  sort  of  income  tax 
levied  upon  the  land  and  houses 
of  the  unprivileged  classes,  but 
especially  the  peasant  farmers. 

Taillefer,  ta-y'-far',  a  Nor- 
man minstrel,  who  at  the  Battle 
of  Hastings  is  said  to  have  rid- 
den forth  singing  of  Roland  and 
Charlemagne. 

Tailless  Hare.   See  Pika. 

Tailor  Bird  (Orthotomus  su- 
torius),  a  small  Asiatic  thru.sh  or 
warbler,  belonging  to  the  Sylviinse. 
To  make  its  nest,  two  or  three 


WILLIAM  H.  TAFT. 


Tainan 


KR 


601 


Tajiks 


leaves  are  stitched  together  with 
silk,  wool,  or  vegetable  fiber  and 
within  the  space  so  formed  the 
nest  is  properly  constructed  of 


Tailor-bird. 


cotton,  grass,  and  hair.  The  bird 
is  colored  in  greenish-brown, 
and  the  two  central  feathers  of 
the  tail  are  greatlj^  elongated. 

Tainan,  formerly  Taiv^an- 
FU,  town,  Formosa,  3  m.  e.s.e. 
of  Anping.  It  has  rice  and 
suear  mills.    Pop.  90,000. 

Taine,  Hippolyte  Adolphe 
(1828-93),  French  literary  and 
political  historian  and  critic, 
born  at  Vouziers  department, 
Ardennes.  He  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  philosophy  at 
Nevers  (18.51).  After  the  coup 
d'etat  he  resigned  his  chair  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature 
(18.52).  His  Histoire  de  la  Lit- 
ter ature  Anglaise  appeared  in 
1863,  being  preceded  (1857)  by  a 
volume  on  the  French  philoso- 
phers, in  which  he  adversely  crit- 
icized Victor  Cousin.  He  was  ap- 
pointed (1864)  professor  of  the 
history  of  art  and  aesthetics 
at  the  ficole  des  Beaux-Arts. 
He  lectured  at  Oxford  in  1871, 
and  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  in  1878.  The  last 
thirty-two  years  of  his  life  were 
devoted  to  Les  Origines  de  la 
France  Contemporaine,  of  which 
he  lived  to  complete  only  a  part. 
Most  important  of  his  other 
books  are:  Essais  de  Critique  et 
d' Histoire  (1858);  La  Fontaine  et 
ses  Fables  (I860);  La  Philosophie 
de  I' Art  (1865);  Nouveaux  Essais 
de  Critique  et  d' Histoire  (186.5); 
La  Vie  Parisienne  (1863-5); 
L' I  deal  dans  I' Art  (1867) ;  Theorie 
de  V Intelligence  (1870);  Philoso- 
phie de  I'Art  (in  Italy,  Greece, 
and  the  Netherlands)  (1868-70); 
L'Ancien  Regime  (1875);  La 
Revolution  (1878-85);  Le  Regime 
Moderne  (1890);  Dernier s  Essais 
de  Critique  et  d' Histoire  (1894). 
His  Litter  ature  A  nglaise  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  H.  Van 
Laun  (1871),  and  has  had  great 
vogue  both  in  Britain  and  in 
the  U.  S.   See  G.  Monod,  Renan, 


Taine  et  Michelet  (1898);  A.  de 
Margerie,  H.  Taine  (1894);  E. 
Boutmy,  H.  Taine  (1897);  and 
Giraud,  Essai  sur  Taine  (1901). 

Talnter,  Charles  Sumner 
(1854-1940),  American  inventor, 
was  born  in  Watertown,  Mass. 
and  received  a  public  school  edu- 
cation there.  He  was  the  inven- 
tor of  the  graphophone  as  well  as 
the  dictaphone,  and  an  associate 
inventor  of  the  radiophone,  an 
instrument  for  transmitting 
sounds  to  a  distance  through  the 
agency  of  light.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  United  States  expedi- 
tion sent  to  the  South  Pacific  in 
1874  to  observe  the  transit  of 
Venus.  In  1881  he  was  awarded 
a  gold  medal  at  the  Electrical 
Exhibition  in  Paris  for  his  inven- 
tions in  connection  with  the 
radiophone.  In  1915  he  was 
awarded  a  gold  medal  at  the 
Panama  Pacific  Exposition  for 
his  work  in  connection  with  the 
development  of  the  talking 
machine. 

Taiping  Rebellion,  an  up- 
rising in  China,  started  in  1851 
to  expel  the  Manchus  from 
China.  From  1853  China's  fair- 
est provinces  passed  beneath  the 
sway  of  the  rebels.  In  1862  the 
Taipings  advanced  upon  Shang- 
hai in  overwhelming  force.  It 
was  then  that  Major  (afterward 
GeneraD  Charles  Gordon  ('Chi- 
nese' Gordon)  of  the  British 
army  took  command  of  the  Chi- 
nese army,  remodelled  the  force, 
and  led  it  through  a  series  of  vic- 
tories to  the  gates  of  Nanking, 
which  was  wrested  from  the 
rebels  on  July  19,  1864,  and  a 
final  blow  dealt  to  the  rebellion. 
See  Brine,  The  Tai-Ping  Rebel- 
lion in  China  (1862);  Wilson, 
Cordon  s  Chinese  Campaign  and 
the  Tai-Ping  Rebellion  (1868), 
and  Hake,  Events  of  the  Tai- 
Ping  Rebellion  (1892). 

Talt,  Archibald  Campbell 
(1811-82),  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, born  in  Edinburgh.  He 
was  elected  a  fellow  of  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  in  1834,  and 
succeeded  Arnold  at  Rugby  in 
1842.  He  became  dean  of  Car- 
lisle in  1849,  and  bishop  of  Lon- 
don in  1856.  He  was  made  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  1869. 
See  Life  by  Davidson  and  Ben- 
ham  (1891). 

Talt,  John  Robinson  (1834- 
1909),  American  painter  and 
author,  born  in  Cincinnati.  He 
graduated  at  Bethany  College, 
Va.,  in  1852,  studied  art  in  Flor- 
ence, Italy,  and  in  Diisseldorf  and 
Munich,  Germany,  and  returned 
to  the  United  States  in  1875.  His 
pictures  are  chiefly  scenes  in  the 
Bavarian  Tyrol.  For  several 
years  he  was  the  art  critic  of  the 
New  York  Mail  and  Express. 
Besides  several  magazine  articles, 
he  was  the  author  of  European 
Life,  Legend,  and  Landscape 
(1859),  and  Dolce  far  Niente 
(poems,  1859). 


Talt,  Sir  Melbourne  Mc- 
Taggart  (1842-1917),  Canadian 
jurist,  born  at  Melbourne,  Aus- 
tralia, and  educated  privately 
and  at  McGill  University.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1863, 
created  a  Q.c.  in  1882,  and  raised 
to  the  bench  as  a  puisne  judge  of 
the  superior  court  in  1887.  In 
1894  he  was  appointed  acting 
chief  justice  of  Quebec. 

Talt,  Peter  Guthrie  (1831- 
1901),  Scottish  physicist  and  ma- 
thematician, was  born  at  Dal- 
keith. He  graduated  as  senior 
wrangler  and  first  Smith's  prize- 
man at  Cambridge  in  1852,  and 
in  18.54  became  professor  of 
mathematics  in  Belfast.  In 
1860  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
and  there  remained  till  his 
death.  Besides  experimental  re- 
searches on  thermal  conductivity 
thermo-electricity,  the  effect  of 
pressure  on  the  readings  of  ther- 
mometers, on  the  maximum 
density  of  water,  and  on  the 
flight  of  golf  balls,  Tait's  prin- 
cipal work  was  in  the  domain  of 
pure  mathematics  and  mathe- 
matical physics,  and  includes 
memoirs  on  quaternions,  the 
kinetic  theory  of  gases,  theory  of 
knots,  and  other  subjects,  his 
papers  having  been  collected  and 
reprinted  by  the  University  of 
Cambridge  (1898).  He  also  pub- 
lished treatises  on  Light  (1884), 
Heal  (1884),  Properties  of  Mat- 
ter (1885),  Dynamics  (1895),  and, 
in  collaboration  with  Lord  Kel- 
vin, wrote  the  first  volume  of 
Treatise  on  Natural  Philosophy 
(1867).  With  W.  J.  Steele  he  pub- 
lished The  Dynamics  of  a  Particle 
(1856);  and  with  Balfour  Stew- 
art, The  Unseen  Universe  (1875). 
Tait  was  secretary  of  the  Edin- 
burgh Royal  Society  from  1879. 

Tait,  Robert  Lawson  (1845- 
99),  vScottish  surgeon,  was  born 
in  Edinburgh.  He  was  asso- 
ciated with  Sir  James  Y.  Simp- 
son as  assistant,  and  early  man- 
ifested great  powers  of  observa- 
tion and  great  surgical  skill.  In 
1870  he  settled  in  Birmingham, 
where  he  became  a  professor  of 
gynaecology  and  one  of  the  fore- 
most exponents  of  abdominal 
surgery.  He  was  the  first  to  in- 
sist on  the  importance  of  the 
'toilet  of  the  peritoneum,'  and 
was  a  pioneer  of  asepticism  as  a 
corollary  of  Listerism. 

Tai-yuen-fu,  China,  capital 
of  province,  Shan-si.  On  July  9, 
1900,  all  the  resident  mission- 
aries, with  their  wives  and  chil- 
dren, were  put  to  death  in  the 
governor's  yamen. 

Tajiks,  the  settled  Persian- 
speaking  populations  of  central 
Asia.  They  represent  the  domi- 
nant cultured  element  under  the 
Persian  empire  before  its  over- 
throw by  the  Mongolo-Turki 
hordes,  and  are  still  numerous  in 
the  towns  and  settled  districts. 


Taj-Mahal 


KR 


602 


Taliaferro 


Taj-Mahal,  a  magnificent 
mausoleum,  regarded  as  the  most 
beautiful  monument  of  Moham- 
medan art,  rising  from  a  marble 
platform  on  the  bank  of  the 
Jumna,  at  Agra  in  India.  It  is 
built  entirely  of  white  marble, 
and  the  interior  is  adorned  with 
mosaics  of  camelian,  lapis  lazuli, 
and  jasper,  arabesques,  and 
Koran  texts  in  black  marble  on 
columns  and  ceilings.  It  was 
erected  (1629-49)  by  the  em- 
peror Shah-Jehan  as  a  memorial 
to  his  favorite  queen. 

Takla-makan  Desert,  west- 
ern section  of  the  Gobi  desert, 
occupying  the  interior  of  E. 
Turkestan,  with  an  extreme 
length  (e.  to  w.)  of  about  600  m., 
an  extreme  breadth  (n.  to  s.)  of 
about  250  m.,  and  an  area  of 
about  100,000  sq.  m.  It  is  bor- 
dered on  the  w,.  n.,  and  n.e.  by 
the  Tarim;  on  the  E.  by  the  Lob 
Nor  depression  and  the  prolon- 
gation of  the  desert  into  the 
Central  Gobi;  on  the  s.  by  the 
Kuenlun  and  Altyn-tagh.  Sven 
Hedin's  explorations  show  that 
two  thousand  years  ago  it  was 
a  fertile  region,  center  of  a  great 
Buddhist  civilization.  See 
Keane's  Asia  (1906). 

Takow,  treaty  port,  Japan, 
in  s.s.w.  of  Formosa,  20  miles  by 
rail  s.  of  Tainan;  exports  rice 
and  sugar.    Pop.  7,000. 

Taku  Forts,  Chi-li,  China,  at 
mouth  of  Pei-ho.  Taken  by  an 
Anglo-French  force.  May  1858; 
unsuccessfully  attacked,  June 
1859;  captured,  August  1860; 
taken  by  European  allied  forces 
June  1900.  The  water  on  the 
bar  is  14  feet  at  spring  tides. 

Talamancans,  Central  Amer- 
ican Indians,  formerly  domi- 
nant in  Costa  Rica  and  the  Pan- 
ama peninsula.  Nearly  all  are 
still  in  the  tribal  state.  Physi- 
cally they  closely  resemble  the 
Mayas  of  Yucatan,  and,  like 
them,  are  a  guileless,  peaceable 
people.  Their  language  seems 
to  belong  to  the  Chibcha  stock. 
See  Chibchas. 

Talayera  de  la  Relna,  city, 
Spain,  province  Toledo,  40  m. 
w.N.w.  of  Toledo;  site  of  the  bat- 
tle in  which  Wellington  defeated 
Joseph  Bonaparte  (July  28, 1809). 
There  are  silk-weaving  and  pot- 
tery industries.    Pop.  14,876. 

Talbot,  Catherine  (1721- 
70),  English  author,  was  the 
granddaughter  of  the  bishop  of 
Durham.  She  wrote  Reflections 
on  the  Seven  Days  of  the  Week 
(1770);  Essays  on  Various  Sub- 
jects (1772) ;  Dialogues,  Pastorals 
and  Poems.  See  Elwood's  Liter- 
ary Ladies,  127-43  (1843). 

Talbot,  Charles.  See 
Shrewsbury,  Duke  of. 

Talbot.  Ethelbert  (1848- 
1928),  American  bishop,  was 
born  at  Fayette,  Mo.,  and  grad- 
uated (1870)  at  Dartmouth,  and 
at  the  N.  Y.  General  Theological 


Seminary  in  1873.  He  was  or- 
dered deacon  in  1873  and  or- 
dained priest  the  same  year,  and 
was  from  that  time  rector  of  St. 
James'  Church  at  Macon,  Mo., 
until  his  consecration  as  mission- 
ary bishop  of  Wyoming  and 
Idaho  in  1887.  In  1897  he  be- 
came bishop  of  Central  Penn- 
sylvania. 

Talbot,  John.  See  Shrews- 
bury, Earl  of. 

Talbot,  Richard.  See  Tyr- 
coNNEL,  Duke  of. 

Talbot,  Silas  (1751-1813), 
American  naval  officer,  born  at 
Dighton,  Mass.  He  was  ap- 
pointed a  lieutenant  in  the  Mass. 
line  in  1775,  became  captain  in 
1776,  major  in  1777,  and  lieuten- 
ant colonel  in  1778,  and  rendered 
gallant  service  at  Fort  Mifflin  and 
in  the  Rhode  Island  campaign  of 
1778.  One  of  his  exploits  was  the 
capture  of  a  British  schooner  off 
Newport.  This  and  his  previous 
acquaintance  with  the  sea  led  to 
his  appointment  as  a  captain  in 
the  navy  in  1779.  He  was  as- 
signed to  duty  in  Long  Island 
Sound  and  did  good  service  in 
annoying  the  enemy  and  captur- 
ing several  of  their  smaller  ves- 
sels. He  was  becalmed  and  cap- 
tured while  in  command  of  the 
privateer  George  Washington  in 
1780,  and  imprisoned  for  a  year, 
being  treated  with  great  harsh- 
ness. After  the  war  he  settled 
in  the  Mohawk  valley,  was  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1793-94, 
in  1798  again  received  a  commis- 
sion as  captain  in  the  navy,  and 
served  throughout  the  hostilities 
with  France.  He  resigned  in 
1801.  See  Tucker  man's  r^e  Li/e 
of  Silas  Talbot  (1850). 

Talbot,  William  Henry  Fox 
(1800-77),  English  pioneer  of 
photography,  born  in  Chippen- 
ham, Wiltshire.  In  1833  he  dis- 
covered the  process  of  photog- 
raphy, but  did  not  announce  it 
till  1839.  Daguerre  announced 
a  similar  discovery  in  January, 
1839,  but  the  Talbotype  even- 
tually took  the  lead.  Talbot's 
writings  include  The  Pencil  of 
Nature  (1844-46);  Legendary 
Tales  (1830). 

Talc,  a  magnesium  silicate, 
H2M3(Si03)4,  is  a  silvery  white, 
very  soft  mineral  (h.  =  l,  sp.  gr. 
2.7).  It  is  easily  cut,  has  a  greasy 
feel,  and  is  also  known  as  steatite, 
or  'soapstone,'  and  when  pow- 
dered yields  French  chalk.  It  is 
used  as  a  lubricant,  as  a  filler  for 
paper,  and  for  tailor's  chalk.  It 
is  heat-resisting,  non-conducting, 
and  resists  disintegration  by 
violent  temperature  changes  or 
chemical  reagents  with  great 
success.    See  Soapstone. 

Talca,  province  Chile.  Area, 
3.721  sq.  m.  It  extends  from 
the  Pacific  to  Argentina,  and  is 
situated  just  below  lat.  35°  s. 
It  is  fertile,  and  raises  wheat  and 
cattle.    Pop.  (1940)  157,141. 


Talca,  town,  Civile,  capital 
of  Talca  province,  140  m.  s.s.w. 
of  Santiago.  It  is  an  important 
trade  center.  Pop.  (1940)  56,- 
735. 

Talcahuano.  See  Concep- 
cion. 

Talegalla  (Talegallus),  a  gen- 
us of  mound-birds.  The  name  is 
sometimes  applied  to  the  brush- 
turkey  of  Australia  (Catheturus 
Lathami),  which  is  now  referred 
to  a  different  genus. 

Talent,  a  definite  weight,  and 
then  a  certain  sum  of  money,  the 
value  of  the  given  weight  in  silver 
or  gold;  probably  adopted  by  the 
Greeks  from  the  Babylonians  or 
Assyrians.  In  the  6th  century 
B.C.  two  talents  were  in  use — the 
Babylonian  or  Aeginetan,  and 
the  Euboic;  the  former  for  weigh- 
ing silver,  the  latter  for  gold.  The 
former  silver  talent  was  used  by 
most  Greek  states;  Solon,  how- 
ever, reduced  the  Attic  weights 
and  coinage  by  making  the 
standard  a  silver  talent  equal  in 
weight  to  the  one  previously 
used  for  gold,  the  Euboic.  The 
Attic  talent  weighed  about  57.- 
75  lbs.  avoirdupois;  its  value  is 
equal  to  about  1 1,200.  See 
Ridgeway's  Origin  of  Metallic 
Currency  and  Weight  Standards 
(1892). 

Tale -Sap,  or  Tonle-Sap,  lake, 
Indo-China,  partly  in  Cambodia, 
partly  in  Siam.  In  the  dry  season 
its  area  shrinks  to  100  sq.  m.,  and 
its  depth  from  6  to  2  ft.  During 
the  annual  overflow  of  the  river 
the  lake  expands  to  800  sq.  m., 
and  a  depth  of  50  ft.  Tale-Sap 
supports  a  fishing  population  of 
about  30,000. 

Talfourd,  Sir  Thomas  Noon 
(1795-1854),  English  judge  and 
author,  born  at  Reading.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1821. 
Among  his  works  are  Memorials 
of  Charles  Lamb  (1848);  Ion,  a 
tragedy  (1836);  and  dramas.  See 
the  Tragedies  (Routledge's  Pock- 
et Library,  1889),  and  Critical 
and  Miscellaneous  Writings 
(1842). 

Talgarth,  town,  Wales,  Bre- 
conshire,  in  the  northwest  sec- 
tion of  the  Black  mountains,  on 
the  Great  Western  Railway.  The 
region  has  associations  with  the 
nonconformity  movement.  How- 
el  Harris,  one  of  the  founders  of 
Welsh  Methodism,  was  born 
near  here  and  in  1752  established 
a  religious  'family'  at  Talgarth. 

Taliaferro,  William  Booth 
(1822-98),  American  soldier,  born 
at  Belleville,  Va.  He  graduated 
at  William  and  Mv.ry  College  in 
1841,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
and  practiced  until  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  War.  He  entered  the 
Confederate  army  with  the  rank 
of  colonel  in  1861,  and  became 
major  general  in  1865.  He  com- 
manded a  division  in  the  Penin- 
sula, Manassas,  and  Fredericks- 
burg campaigns. 


Talienwan 


KR 


603 


Talleyrand 


Talienwan,  bay  on  E.  side 
of  the  Liao-tung  peninsula,  Man- 
churia, China;  leased,  along  with 
Port  Arthur,  by  Russia  from 
China,  in  1898,  for  twenty-five 
years,  but  acquired  by  Japan 
after  the  Russo-Japanese  War. 
It  is  roomy,  well  protected,  and 
free  from  ice.   See  also  Dalny. 

Tallesin  (fi.  560),  bard  of  the 
Cymri,  is  held  by  many  scholars, 
including  Professor  Rhys,  to  be 
a  purely  mythic  personage.  Most 
of  the  poems  included  in  the 
'Book  of  Taliesin'  (printed  by 
Skene  in  the  Four  Ancient  Books 
of  Wales,  1868)  are  of  much  later 
date  than  the  6th  century.  The 
poems  are  of  the  prophetic  and 
occult  class.  See  Lady  Charlotte 
Guest,  Mahinogion  (1849)  and 
Stephens,  Literature  of  the  Kymry 
(1849). 

Tall-fu,  city,  China,  province 
Yiin-nan,  between  Lake  Erh-hai 
and  the  snow-capped  Tsang-shan 
(alt.  6,670  ft.).  On  the  surrender 
of  the  Mohammedan  rebels  in 
1873,  the  population  was  almost 
exterminated  by  Chinese  troops. 
Pop.  25,000. 

Talisay,  pueblo,  Philippines, 
Cebu,  5  m.  s.w.  of  Cebu.  Pop. 
15,000. 

Talisman.  See  Amulet. 

Talking  Machines.  See  Pho- 
nograph. 

Talladega,  city,  Alabama,  co. 
seat  of  Talladega  co.,  60  m.  e,  of 
Birmingham,  on  the  Louisville 
and  Nashville,  Southern,  and 
Atlantic  Coastline  railroads.  The 
leading  manufactures  are  cot- 
ton, flour,  cottonseed  oil,  fer- 
tilizers, furniture,  ice,  brick, 
marble  products,  etc.  The  dis- 
trict contains  depOvSits  of  marble, 
limestone,  and  coal.  The  state 
institutions  for  the  deaf,  dumb, 
and  blind  are  situated  here. 
Other  institutions  are  the  Car- 
negie Library,  the  state  Presby- 
terian School  for  Girls,  and  the 
Mothers'  American  Missionary 
Negro  School.  Features  of  inter- 
est of  the  neighborhood  are  the 
springs,  including  Jenkins,  Clair- 
mont.  Chandlers,  Chambers, 
Shocco,  and  Talladega.  The 
place  was  settled  in  1833  and 
first  incorporated  in  1835.  Pop. 
(1930)  7,596;   (1940)  9,208. 

Talladega,  Battle  of.  A  bat- 
tle fought  November  9,  1813,  on 
the  site  of  the  present  town 
of  Talladega,  Ala.,  between 
Creek  Indians  and  a  force  of 
Americans  under  General  An- 
drew Jackson.  On  the  7th  of 
November  General  Jackson,  who 
was  then  engaged  in  constructing 
Fort  Strother  on  the  Talladega 
river,  received  news  that  a  party 
of  154  friendly  Indians  were  be- 
sieged by  more  than  a  thousand 
of  the  hostiles  in  a  small  fort  at 
Talladega,  thirty  miles  distant. 
With  a  force  of  about  1,200  men 
he  hastened  to  the  relief  of  the 
place,  and  managed  to  surprise 


the  enemy  on  the  early  mornmg 
of  the  9th.  Two  hundred  and 
ninety  of  the  hostiles  were  left 
dead,  and  other  bodies  were 
probably  carried  off  or  concealed. 
The  whites  lost  fifteen  killed 
and  eighty-five  wounded,  of 
whom  a  few  afterward  died.  See 
James  Parton's  Life  of  Andrew 
Jackson  (3  vols.  1860). 

Talladega  College.  A  coedu- 
cational college  of  arts  and 
sciences  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Congregational  Church, 
opened  as  an  elementary  school 
in  1867  by  the  American  Mission- 
ary Association,  and  chartered  as 
a  college  in  1869.  It  has  prepara- 
tory, collegiate,  normal,  music, 
and  theological  departments, 
courses  for  the  training  of  nurses, 
and  a  night  school.  The  college 
has  an  endowment  of  $3,499,577 
and  an  income  of  about  $332,800 
and  owns  property  to  the  value  of 
$1,659,649.  The  library  con- 
tains 32,000  volumes. 

Tallage,  a  tax  imposed  on  the 
towns  and  demesne  lands  of  the 
crown  under  the  Norman  kings 
of  England.  Last  levied  in  1332, 
the  impost  was  abolished  in  1340. 

Tallahassee,  city,  Florida, 
capital  of  the  state  and  co.  seat  of 
Leon  CO.,  165  m.  w.  of  Jackson- 
ville, and  20  m.  s.  of  the  Georgia 
boundary,  on  the  Seaboard  Air 
Line  R.  R.  It  is  a  winter  resort. 
It  ships  cotton,  cottonseed  and 
cottonseed  oil,  tobacco,  fruit,  etc. 
It  has  3  hospitals,  and  the  Florida 
State  University  and  the  Florida 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col- 
lege are  situated  here.  Features 
of  interest  include  the  state 
capitol,  the  court  house,  and  the 
tomb  of  Prince  and  Princess 
Murat.  Tallahassee  was  settled 
in  1824.  Pop.  (1930)  10,700; 
(1940)  16,240. 

Tallapoosa,  city,  Georgia, 
Haralson  co.,  50  m.  w^.  of  Atlanta, 
on  the  Southern  R.  R.  Lumber, 
glass,  graphite,  and  iron  are 
manufactured,  and  gold  is  found 
in  the  district.  It  is  important 
as  a  cotton  center  and  a  shipping 
point  for  fruit.  Mineral  springs 
are  found  in  the  vicinity.  Pop. 
(1930)  2,417;  (1940)  2,338. 

Tallapoosa  River,  one  of  the 
two  main  headstreams  of  the  Ala- 
bama R.  It  rises  in  Paulding  co., 
Ga.,  and  flows  in  a  s.w.  direction 
to  its  junction  with  the  Coosa 
near  Montgomery.  Length,  250  m. 

Tallemant  des  Reaux, 
Gedeon  (1619-1701),  French 
man  of  letters,  was  born  at  La 
Rochelle.  His  principal  work,  the 
Historiettes  (c.  1659;  ed.  by  Mon- 
merque,  1840),  gives  a  valuable 
picture  of  contemporary  society, 
his  biting  satire  sparing  nobody. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  academy 
in  1666. 

Talleyrand  de  Perigord, 
Charles  Maurice,  Prince  de 
Benevento  (1754-1838),  French 
statesman   and   diplomat,  was 


born  in  Paris.  He  was  made  an 
abbe  when  twenty-one,  agent- 
general  (financial)  to  the  French 
clergy  five  years  later,  and  bishop 
of  Autun  in  1789.  Becoming 
a  member  of  the  States-general 
in  that  year,  he  was  accepted  as 
a  leader  of  the  advanced  party, 
pronounced  for  amalgamation 
with  the  Third  Estate,  helped 
to  draw  up  the  Declaration  of 
Rights,  and  proposed  the  con- 
fiscation of  the  landed  property 
of  the  church.  Being  in  reality 
either  a  political  sceptic  or  a  be- 
liever in  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy, he  went  all  the  way  with 
the  revolutionists,  suffered  ex- 
communication by  the  papacy, 
and  unfrocked  himself.  But  he 
rendered  notable  service  to 
France  by  his  criticisms  of  the 
finance  of  the  reformed  state, 
and  particularly  by  a  report  on 
public  instruction  which  was 
epoch-making.    In  1792  he  was 


Prince  Talleyrand  de  Perigord. 


sent  to  London  to  win  over  Pitt 
and  his  master  to  the  revolution; 
but  the  September  massacres 
came  between,  and  the  mission 
was  a  failure.  The  ambassador 
came  under  Robespierre's  sus- 
picion and  was  proscribed.  He 
came  to  the  U.  S.  in  1793,  and 
after  the  fall  of  the  Tncorrrp- 
tible'  (1794),  he  returned  to 
France  in  1796.  Then  he  at- 
tached himself  to  Barras,  and 
attained  the  dignity  of  foreign 
minister  under  the  Directory  in 
the  fall  of  1796.  His  contribu- 
tions to  the  defence  of  France 
and  the  consolidation  of  the 
Napoleonic  power  were  of  the 
first  importance.  He  conducted 
the  negotiations  for  the  peace 
of  Luneville  and  the  peace  of 
Amiens,  and  brought  about  the 
Concordat,  in  return  for  which 
the  pope  removed  his  ban  from 
the  ex-bishop.  He  practically 
broke  with  the  emperor,  however, 
after  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  (1807) 


Talllen 


KR 


604 


Talma 


and  came  by  degrees  to  be  the 
leader  of  the  opposition.  It  was 
he  who  dictated  Napoleon's  depo- 
sition to  the  senate,  and  brought 
back  Louis  xviii,  whose  foreign 
minister  he  became.  He  negoti- 
ated the  treaties  which  .saved 
the  territorial  integrity  of  France. 
The  'hundred  days'  forced  him  to 
retire  into  private  life.  The 
revolution  of  1830,  however, 
brought  him  again  to  the  front, 
and  Louis  Philippe  sent  him  to 
London  as  ambassador.  Carlyle 
said  of  Talleyrand  that  he 
was  'a  man  living  in  falsehood 
and  on  falsehood,  yet  not  what 
you  call  a  false  man.'  His  most 
notable  crime  was  compassing 
the  death  of  the  Due  d'Enghien. 
See  The  Talleyrand  Memoires 
(1891-2),  Pullain's  Correspon- 
dance  entre  Talleyrand  et  Louis 
XVIII  (1881),  'Correspondance 
Diplomatique  de  Talleyra.nd 
(1889-90),  Lady  Blennerhasset's 
Talleyrand  (1894). 

Tallien,  Jean  Lambert 
(1769-1820),  French  revolution- 
ist, was  born  at  Paris.  In  1791 
he  became  editor  of  the  Jacobin 
L'Ami  des  Citoyens,  and  was 
secretary  to  the  municipal  coun- 
cil of  Paris.  The  Seine-et-Oise 
department  elected  him  to  the 
Convention.  He  voted  for  the 
execution  of  Louis  xvi.  He  was 
also  a  member  of  the  Committee 
of  General  Security,  and  assisted 
in  the  downfall  of  the  Girondists 
(June  2).  At  Bordeaux  he  earned 
a  reputation  for  pitiless  severity, 
till  a  love  affair  with  the  Com- 
tesse  de  Fontenay  apparently 
effected  a  change  in  his  nature. 
On  March  22,  1794,  he  was 
president  of  the  Convention  at 
Paris.  He  was  for  a  while  second 
to  none  in  influence,  but  his 
power  ended  with  the  Conven- 
tion. He  accompanied  Bona- 
parte to  Egypt  (1798),  and  edited 
the  official  Decade  Egyptienne  at 
Cairo.  Captured  on  the  way  back 
by  an  English  man-of-war,  he 
spent  some  time  in  England, 
where  the  Whigs  used  him  for 
political  purposes. 

Tallis,  Thomas  (1510P-85), 
English  musician,  first  appears  as 
organist  at  Waltham  Abbey  at 
the  time  of  its  dissolution  (1540). 
Some  of  his  compositions  appear 
in  Day's  Psalter  (1560),  and  in 
1576  he  and  a  William  Byrd  were 
granted  by  Queen  Elizabeth  a 
monopoly  of  music-printing  for 
twenty-one  years,  and  in  the 
same  year  was  published  the 
Cantiones  Sacrae.  His  'First  Ser- 
vice' appeared  in  Barnard's  Se- 
lected Church  Musick  (1641),  and 
the  Oxford  movement  led  to  the 
publication  of  many  of  his  works. 
His  gigantic  motet  for  forty 
voices  was  edited  by  Dr.  Mann  in 
1888. 

Tallmadge,  Benjamin  (1754- 
1835),  American  soldier,  born  in 
Brookhaven,  N.  Y.     He  gradu- 


ated at  Yale  in  1773;  served  in 
the  Revolutionary  War  and  at- 
tained the  rank  of  colonel.  He 
fought  at  Brandywine,  German- 
town,  Monmouth,  and  elsewhere. 
In  September,  1779,  he  captured 
500  Tories  at  Lloyd's  Neck,  Long 
Island,  and  in  the  following  year 
captured  Oyster  Bay  and  de- 
stroyed great  quantities  of  Brit- 
ish stores.  He  had  charge  of 
Major  Andre  up  to  the  time  of  his 
execution.  During  1801-17  he 
served  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives as  a  Federalist. 

Tallmadge,  Nathaniel 
Pitcher  (1795-1864),  American 
politician,  born  at  Chatham, 
N.  Y.  He  graduated  at  Union 
College  in  1815,  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He 
represented  Dutchess  county  in 
the  assembly  in  1828,  was  a  state 
senator  in  1830-33,  and  United 
States  senator  in  1833-44.  He 
was  governor  of  the  territory  of 
Wisconsin  in  1844-46. 

Tallow  is  composed  of  the 
glycerol  esters  of  stearic  and 
oleic,  as  well  as  some  palmitic, 
acids,  along  with  more  or  less  of 
the  free  acids  themselves.  It  is 
separated  from  the  connective 
tissue,  principally  of  beef  and 
mutton,  by  melting  or  'render- 
ing,' either  by  fire  heat  in  open 
vessels,  or  by  steam  under  pres- 
sure in  closed  iron  cylinders. 
The  latter  gives  the  greater  yield. 
Tallow  is  in  general  a  white  to 
yellow  stiff  grease,  which  is  al- 
most odorless  when  fresh,  but 
acquires  a  disagreeable  smell 
when  exposed  to  the  air.  It 
melts  at  about  45°  c,  and  is 
hydrolyzed  when  acted  on  by 
either  superheated  steam  or  boil- 
ing solutions  of  acids  or  alkalis, 
fatty  acids  and  glycerol  being 
formed.  Tallow  is  used  as  a 
lubricant  and  in  the  preparation 
of  soap,  and  is  largely  converted 
into  fatty  acids  from  which  stea- 
rine  candles  are  manufactured. 
It  is  often  adulterated  with  the 
fatty  acids  from  cotton  seed  and 
wool  grease,  and  with  mineral 
substances,  such  as  clay,  whiting. 

Tallow  Tree  (Pentadesma 
hutyracea),  a  native  of  tropical 
Africa,  whence  it  was  introduced 
in  1822.  It  belongs  to  the  order 
Guttiferae  and  bears  large,  bril- 
liant red  flovN^ers,  followed  by 
edible  berries.  It  is  occasionally 
cultivated  in  the  stovehouse,  re- 
quiring a  peaty  soil  and  a  strong 
heat.  The  Chinese  tallow  tree 
is  Sapium  sehiferum,  belonging 
to  the  order  Euphorbiaceae. 
The  Chinese  use  its  wood  for  en- 
graving-blocks. A  kind  of  tallow 
is  obtained  from  the  seeds. 

Tally,  a  method  of  recording 
numbers  adopted  in  all  countries, 
used  for  centuries  in  the  Court  of 
Exchequer  of  England,  and  still 
in  use,  it  is  said,  among  fisher- 
men. Let  a  hazel  stick  have  cut 
transversely    into   it   as  many 


notches  as  there  are  figures  to  be 
recorded.  To  distinguish  Id., 
Is.,  £l,  or  any  multiple  thereof, 
the  notches  are  cut  of  different 
breadths.  Let  the  stick  be  then 
split  down  the  middle  through 
all  the  notches.  One  half  of  the 
stick  is  then  held  by  one  party  to 


ExCHt<5UEF\  TALLY 

A  LEN0t:R.5  HALf'^TOCk' 

b.CXCHLQUCB.  HAcF.  COUNTER-STOCK 


Examples  of  Tallies  from  the 
British  Museum. 

the  transaction,  the  correspond- 
ing half  by  the  other.  After  the 
disuse  of  wooden  tallies,  tickets, 
checks,  and  other  documents 
came  to  be  cut  or  torn  by  an  ir- 
regular line  of  separation,  and 
the  fact  of  the  cut  edges  tallying 
was  evidence  of  the  validity  of 
the  claim.  An  act  (1783) 
abolished  tallies  in  the  English 
Exchequer,  but  their  use  lingered 
till  about  1820.  'Teller'  of  the 
Exchequer  was  originally  'tall- 
ier.'  The  conflagration  of  the 
houses  of  Parliament  in  1834 
was  caused  by  the  combustion  of 
tallies  accumulated  for  centuries. 

Talma,  Franqois  Joseph 
(1763-1826),  French  tragic  actor, 
born  at  Paris,  made  his  debut  on 
the  stage  in  1787.  Later,  in  the 
role  of  Proculus  in  Voltaire's 
Brutus,  he  created  a  sensation  by 
appearing  in  a  Roman  toga.  He 
also  corrected  the  bombastic 
style  of  delivery  then  conven- 
tional for  the  tragic  actor.  Sec- 
retary of  the  Theatre  Frangais 
(1789),  he  won  a  brilliant 
triumph  as  Charles  ix  in  Chen- 
ier's  play.  Having  founded  the 
Theatre  de  la  Nation,  Talma 
continued  playing  throughout 
the  reign  of  terror.  To  the  end 
his  career  was  an  uninterrupted 
series  of  triumphs.  See  Mem- 
oires by  Dumas  (1849-50). 


Talmage 


KSH 


605 


Tamaqua 


Talmage,  Thomas  De  Witt 
(1832-1902),  American  clergy- 
man, was  born  in  Bound  Brook, 
N.  J.,  and  graduated  at  the  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Theological 
Seminary.  In  1869  he  became 
pastor  of  the  Central  Presbyte- 
rian Church  in  Brooklyn.  N.  Y., 
where  his  eloquence  and  sensa- 
tionalism attracted  huge  audi- 
ences. From  1895  to  1899  he 
was  associate  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  Toward  the  end 
of  his  life  his  sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  about  3,500  papers  in 
the  U.  S.  and  abroad.  From 
1873  to  1902  he  edited  Christian 
at  IVork,  Advance,  Frank  Les- 
lie's Sunday  Magazine ,  and  the 
Christian  Herald.  He  wrote 
Crumbs  Szvcpt  Up  (1870),  Ser- 
mons (4  vs.,  1872-5),  Old  Wells 
Dug  Out  (1874),  The  Brooklyn 
Tabernacle,  400  sermons  (1884), 
and  The  Pathway  of  Life 
(1895).  Consult  Lives  by  C.  F. 
Adams  (1902),  C.  E.  Banks 
(1902),  and  J.  Rusk  (1902). 

Talmud,  a  collection  of  works 
which  comprise  the  traditional 
law  of  the  Jews  as  distinguished 
from  the  law  of  Moses  (the 
Torah)  and  extensive  commen- 
taries on  the  same.  The  law  con- 
stitutes the  Mishna  ;  the  commen- 
taries the  Gemara.  The  begin- 
ning of  the  collection  was  prob- 
ably in  the  exile,  when  the  law 
became  the  center  of  Jewish  re- 
ligion. Then  the  synagogue 
arose  and  sought  to  interpret  the 
word  of  God,  their  national  in- 
heritance. Such  interpretation 
is  called  Midrash,  and  is  of  two 
kinds.  The  Midrash,  which  af- 
fects conduct,  is  a  Halakha — i.e., 
a  practical  rule  or  a  legal  de- 
cision. All  other  interpretation 
is  Haggada — i.e.,  a  homily  or 
tale,  with  varied  elements  from 
scraps  of  history,  legends,  lives 
of  post-biblical  Jewish  saints, 
disquisitions  on  magic,  and  the 
like.  The  following  schools  were 
active  in  this  task  : — 

(1.)  The  Sopherim  or  scribes, 
from  Ezra  to  the  Maccabees, 
450-100  B.C.,  including  the  men 
of  the  'great  synagogue.'  The 
character  of  the  great  synagogue 
is  uncertain,  if  it  ever  existed, 
which  is  improbable.  The  work 
of  these  men  has  been  so  overlaid 
with  tradition  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  determine  with  certainty 
rules  which  date  from  this  time. 
The  description,  for  example, 
'words  of  the  scribes,'  is  fre- 
quently attached  to  Halakhoth, 
but  the  Halakhoth  so  described 
date  from  different  and  often 
from  later  generations.  The 
phrase  implies,  not  that  the  de- 
cisions so  descril)ed  were  written 
by  the  Sopherim,  but  that  they 
were  supposed  to  have  their  au- 
thority. 

(2.)  The  five  Zugoth  or  pairs, 


during  the  Maccabean  and  Hero- 
dian  periods,  150-30  b.c.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  each  'pair' 
represents  the  president  and  vice- 
president  of  the  Sandhedrin  in 
their  generation.  The  most  im- 
portant were  Hillel  and  Sham- 
mai,  who  became  the  founders  of 
two  schools.  Hillel,  in  particu- 
lar, sought  to  guide  the  process 
of  interpretation. 

(3.)  The  Tannaim  or  teachers, 
10-200  A.D.,  ending  with  Rabbi 
Jehuda,  the  Prince,  a  descendant 
of  Hillel.  One  of  these  founded 
the  Academy  of  Jamnia,  a  cen- 
ter of  Jewish  thought  after  the 
temple  had  been  destroyed. 
With  the  close  of  this  period  a 
definite  stage  in  the  growth  of 
tradition  was  reached,  for  Rabbi 
Jehuda  edited  the  Mishna  as  we 
have  it.  There  are  a  few  later 
elements  added,  but  in  general 
the  preserved  text  sums  up  the 
outcome  of  the  activity  of  the 
Sopherim,  Zugoth,  Tannaim. 
This  became  the  canonical  book 
of  the  traditional  law,  as  the 
Pentateuch  had  become  the  ca- 
nonical book  of  the  written  law. 
And  round  it  in  its  turn  gathered 
the  comments  of  later  scribes. 

(4.)  The  Amoraim  or  debat- 
ers, A.D.  220-500.  These  ex- 
pounded the  Mishna.  Their  la- 
bors form  the  Gemara ;  the 
united  Mishna  and  Gemara  form 
the  Talmud.  By  this  time  and 
even  earlier  the  teachers  of  Juda- 
ism were  working  in  the  schools 
of  Babylonia.  Hence  the  Tal- 
mud exists  in  two  forms — the 
Palestinian  Talmud  or  Talmud 
of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Babylonian 
Talmud.  The  Gemara  thus  de- 
velops the  Mishna,  and  its  ex- 
pansions are  mostly  concerned 
with  civil  law.  But  the  book  is 
much  more  than  a  law  book  ;  it 
is  rather  an  encyclopedia,  into 
which  have  been  poured  all  the 
gathered  knowledge  and  crudi- 
ties of  generations.  Often  the 
text  is  no  subject  for  exposition 
in  any  strict  sense,  but  a  peg  on 
which  to  hang  every  kind  of  leg- 
endary and  historical  material. 
In  this  respect  the  Babylonian 
Tahnud  is  peculiarly  rich. 

Bibliography.  —  Editions  — 
Mishna  ( 1492)  ;  The  Mishna,  by 
W.  H.  Lowe  (1883);  Babylon- 
ian Tahnud  (1520).  The  best 
and  last  is  the  Vilna  edition  (25 
vs.,  1880-86).  Translations— 
M.  L.  Rodkinson,  Babylonian 
Talmud  (abridged  English  tr.  7 
vs.,  1896-1904)  ;  I.  Epstein,  ed., 
Babylonian  Talmud  (English  tr. 
32  vs.,  1935-  ).  M.  Miel- 
ziner.  Introduction  to  the  Talmud 
(1894);  Rodkinson,  History  of 
the  Talmud  (1903);  A.  Cohen, 
Everyman's  Talmud  (1932). 

Talon,  Jean  Baptiste  (1625- 
91),  French  colonial  official.  He 
held  offices  at  Bordeaux  and  Ly- 
ons and  was  intendant  of  Hai- 


nault  1661-63,  in  the  latter  year 
being  appointed  intendant  of 
Canada  and  Newfoundland. 
While  in  Canada  he  effected  a 
reconciliation  between  the  ec- 
clesiastical and  official  parties  ; 
fostered  agriculture;  created 
many  industries,  including  the 
manufacture  of  seal  oil  ;  pro- 
moted immigration,  and  intro- 
duced many  internal  reforms. 
One  of  his  great  ambitions  was 
the  subjugation  of  British  Amer- 
ica. In  1668  he  warned  the  gov- 
ernment against  the  West  India 
Co.,  which  he  said  was  carrying 
on  business  in  a  manner  not  cal- 
culated to  benefit  the  province. 
His  action  in  this  regard  and  his 
stated  intention  of  limiting  the 
civil  powers  of  the  Jesuits 
created  great  opposition  to  him, 
and  in  the  same  year  he  asked 
for  his  recall.  At  the  request  of 
his  government  he  returned 
again  in  1669,  but  remained  only 
three  years.  Subsequently  he 
was  created  Count  d'Orsainville. 

Talos,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
man  of  brass,  wrought  by  He- 
phcTstus,  and  given  by  him  to 
Minos  to  guard  the  island  of 
Crete ;  he  killed  strangers  by 
embracing  them  after  he  had 
made  himself  red  hot  in  the  fire. 
When  the  Argonauts  in  their 
wanderings  came  to  Crete,  and 
he  resisted  their  landing,  Medea 
killed  him. 

Talpidae,  the  mole  family. 
See  Mole. 

Taltal,  town,  Antofagasta 
prov.,  Chile,  a  seaport  and  ship- 
ping point  for  silver  ores  and 
nitrates.    Pop.  (1930)  7,835. 

Talus,  the  accumulation  of 
detached  and  broken  rock  frag- 
ments which  gathers  at  the  base 
of  cliffs  with  precipices,  forming 
a  gentle  slope  below  the  perpen- 
dicular rock  walls. 

Tam,  Jacob  Ben  Meir  (1100- 
71),  a  grandson  of  Rashi  (q.  v.), 
was  the  most  famous  French 
glossator  of  the  text  of  the  Tal- 
mud. Of  great  influence  were 
many  of  his  practical  ordinances 
(Takkanoth)  concerned  with 
marriage  and  divorce,  trade, 
synagogue  ritual,  proselytism, 
and  Jewish  social  relations  with 
Christians. 

Tama,  city,  Tama  co.,  la.,  50 
m.  w.  of  Cedar  Rapids,  on  the 
Iowa  River,  and  on  the  Chicago 
and  North  Western,  and  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee,  St.  Paul  and 
Pacific  RRs.  It  has  paper  mills 
which  make  egg  case  fillers  on  an 
extensive  scale,  and  a  large  ma- 
chine shop.  An  Indian  reserva- 
tion is  in  the  vicinity.  Tama  was 
settled  about  1859.  Pop.  (1930) 
2,626. 

Tamaqua,  town,  Schuylkill 
CO.,  Pa.,  32  m.  n.  of  Reading,  on 
the  Little  Schuylkill  River,  and 
on  the  Lehigh  and  New  England, 
Reading,  and  the  Central  of  New 


Tamar 


KSH 


606 


Tammany  Hall 


Jersey  RRs.  The  leading  manu- 
factures are  shirts,  hosiery, 
foundry  products,  machinery, 
etc.  Anthracite  coal  is  mined  in 
the  district.  The  place  was  set- 
tled in  1799  and  incorporated  in 
1832.  Its  name  is  an  Indian 
word  meaning  'running  water.' 
Pop.  (1930)  12,936. 


Tamarind. 
1,  Gynoecium ;  2,  pod ;  3,  seed. 


Tamar,  river,  Cornwall  and 
Devon  (England),  rises  in  n.e. 
Cornwall,  and  flows  s.  between 
the  two  counties  to  Plymouth 
Sound.  Length,  60  miles  (navi- 
gable to  Launceston). 

Tamarack.    See  Larch. 

Tamarind,  the  fruit  of  a 
tropical  tree,  Tamarindus  indica, 
belonging  to  the  order  Legu- 
minosae.  It  grows  in  the  E.  and 
W.  Indies.  The  flowers,  which 
are  borne  in  loose  racemes,  are 
yellow,  with  red  markings. 

Tamarisk,  or  Tamarix,  a 
genus  of  shrubs  and  small  trees 
belonging  to  the  order  Tamaris- 
cinacese.  The  common  tamarisk 
is  T.  gallica,  a  hardy  shrub  which 
which  is  a  useful  seaside  plant. 
From  a  variety  of  this  plant  the 
saccharine  substance  manna  is 
produced.  It  is  easily  propa- 
gated by  cuttings. 

Tamatave,  chief  port  of  Mad- 
agascar, on  E.  coast,  145  m.  n.e. 
of  Tananarive.  It  is  built  on  a 
sandy  peninsula.  Pop.  (1932) 
22,221. 

Tamaulipas,  maritime  state 
of  Mexico,  on  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  bounded  on  n.  by  Texas, 
with  an  area  of  30,731  sq.  m. 
The  chief  industry  is  agricul- 
ture ;  copper  is  mined  and  exten- 
sive deposits  of  petroleum  and 
asphalt  are  exploited.  The  capi- 
tal is  Ciudad  Victoria.  Pop. 
(1930)  344,039. 

Tambobong,  or  Malabon, 
pueb.,  Rizal  prov.,  Luzon,  Philip- 


pines, 11m.  N.'w.  of  Pasig,  near 
the  shore  of  Manila  Bay.  It  is 
connected  with  Manila  by  steam 
railroad.  Sugar,  cigars,  and 
cloth  are  manufactured,  and  the 
fishing  interests  are  important. 
Pop.  21,695. 

Tambourine,  a  form  of  per- 
cussion instrument.  It  consists 
of  a  wooden  hoop  covered  on  one 
side  by  a  vellum  head,  and  in  the 
hoop  are  several  perforations 
containing  small  brass  plates  or 
bells,  so  adjusted  that  they  jingle 
when  the  instrument  is  held  in 
one  hand  and  struck  by  the  other. 
The  tambourine  was  used  in  mili- 
tary bands  at  one  time,  and  is 
occasionally  employed  in  the  or- 
chestra. 

Tambov.  A  province  of  the 
Russian  S.F.S.R.,  with  an  area 
of  about  18,000  sq.  m.  and  a  pop. 
(1926)  of  2,721,173.  It  is  much 
smaller  than  the  pre-1917  prov- 
ince of  same  name,  part  of  which 
is  now  included  in  the  Central 
Black  Earth  Area.  The  surface 
is  flat,  in  part  undulating,  and 
belongs  to  the  Don  and  Volga 
(Oka)  basins.  Lakes  are  numer- 
ous and  extensive ;  marshes 
cover  a  still  greater  part.  The 


Tamarisk. 

1,  Leaves ;  2,  flowers ;  3,  stamens  and 
pistil. 


chief  mineral  deposits  are  coal, 
gypsum,  potter's  clay,  and  peat. 
Corn,  flax,  hemp,  beet-root,  to- 
bacco, and  potatoes  are  grown. 
The  industries  include  distiller- 
ies, tanneries,  sugar  refineries, 
iron  and  tallow  works,  and  man- 
ufactures of  cloth,  paper,  to- 
bacco, and  cordage. 

Tambov,  chief  town  of  above 
province,  lies  on  the  unnavigable 
Tsna  river.  It  has  flour  mills, 
distilleries,  smelting  works, 
brickyards  and  a  railway  repair 
shop ;  woolen  goods  are  made  at 


home.  The  town  was  founded  in 
1636  for  protection  against  Tatar 
and  Kalmuck  raids.  Pop.  (1933) 
101,700. 

Tamerlane.  See  Timur 
Beg. 

Tamil,  a  Dravidian  language 
spoken  by  over  eighteen  million 
people.  Yerukala  or  Korava, 
Kasuwa,  and  Irula,  which  are 
rude  dialects  of  Tamil,  are 
spoken  by  about  40,000  people. 
The  region  in  which  Tamil  is 
spoken  extends  from  the  north 
of  Ceylon  to  a  little  north  of 
Madras.  Malayalam  is  another 
Dravidian  speech  allied  to  Tamil. 
See  G.  U.  Pope,  Handbook  of 
the  Tamil  Language  (1883)  ; 
P.  S.  Pillai,  Some  Milestones  in 
the  History  of  Tamil  Literature 
(1895). 

Tammany  Hall.  A  power- 
ful political  organization  which, 
with  rare  intermissions,  has 
ruled  New  York  City  from  about 
1800.  It  was  an  outgrowth  of 
the  Society  of  St.  Tammany  or 
Columbian  Order,  founded  May 
12,  1789,  by  William  Mooney, 
an  upholsterer  of  Irish  extrac- 
tion. During  the  Revolution  var- 
ious patriotic  societies,  one  of 
which  was  the  Sons  of  Liberty, 
existed  as  counterbalances  to 
Tory  activity,  especially  in  New 
York  City,  which  was  a  hotbed 
of  the  Tory  element.  Mooney 
was  a  '  Liberty  Boy.'  He  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  forming  a  so- 
ciety which  would  oppose  the  de- 
signs and  encroachments  of  the 
old  aristocratic  families  and 
their  party  led  by  Alexander 
Hamilton,  who  wished  to  create 
a  strong  centralized  government 
for  the  benefit  of  the  propertied 
classes.  In  order  to  emphasize  its 
complete  departure  from  Euro- 
pean social  distinctions  the  new 
Society  adopted  aboriginal  forms 
and  usages.  The  head  or  presi- 
dent, chosen  from  thirteen  Sa- 
chems, corresponding  to  trustees 
and  elected  annually,  was  styled 
the  Grand  Sachem  ;  the  master  of 
ceremonies  was  called  the  Saga- 
more, the  secretary  the  Scribe, 
and  the  doorkeeper  the  Wiskin- 
skie.  The  membership  was  di- 
vided into  tribes,  and  on  special 
occasions  paraded  the  streets  in 
Indian  garb  ;  'long  talks'  and 
'short  talks'  were  features  of  the 
public  meetings,  and  the  name 
Wigwam  was  applied  to  the  head- 
quarters in  Barden's  Tavern. 

Originally  made  up  of  both 
Republicans  and  Federalists,  the 
Society  gradvially  drifted  into  the 
position  of  being  the  chief  sup- 
porter of  the  principles  of  Jeffer- 
son. Toward  the  end  of  Wash- 
ington's administration  it  was 
disrupted  by  violent  party  dis- 
sensions, the  majority  of  the 
Federalist  members  withdrew, 
and  for  a  brief  period  it  seemed 
on  the  verge  of  extinction.  In 


Tammany  Hall 


KSH 


607 


Tammany  Hall 


1798,  however,  Aaron  Burr 
(q.  V.)  assumed  control,  and  un- 
der his  leadership  a  period  of 
rapid  development  along  purely 
partisan  lines  ensued.  Up  to  this 
time  the  Tammany  Soci/sty  \vas 
a  private  political  club  which 
sought  to  influence  elections 
through  speeches,  pamphlets,  and 
social  means  ;  but  under  Burr's 
guidance  it  carried  New  York 
for  Jefferson  in  1800,  and  was 
transformed  into  a  militant  po- 
litical body.  It  increased  rapidly 
in  numbers  and  strength,  in  spite 
of  the  powerful  opposition  for 
many  years  of  DeWitt  Clinton 
(q.  V.)  and  his  followers,  and 
even  of  the  disrepute  brought 
upon  it  by  Burr's  killing  of  Al- 
exander Hamilton  (1804). 

The  Tammany  Hall  political 
organization,  as  apparently  dis- 
tinct from  the  Society,  dates 
from  1805,  when  there  was  ob- 
tained from  the  State  legislature 
a  charter,  still  in  force,  incor- 
porating the  Tammany  Society 
as  a  benevolent  and  charitable 
body  for  the  purpose  of  affording 
relief  to  indigent  and  distressed 
members,  their  widows  and  or- 
phans, and  other  proper  objects 
of  charity.  Thenceforth,  to  all 
outward  appearance,  the  society 
retired  to  the  background  po- 
litically, though  actually  it  con- 
tinued to  be  the  rallying  center 
for  what  was  then  known  as  the 
Republican  (afterward  the  Dem- 
ocratic) party  in  New  York  City 
and  State.  The  first  step  in  the 
reorganization  that  followed  was 
the  formation  of  the  Tammany 
Hall  General  Committee,  consist- 
ing of  three  delegates  chosen  at 
primary  meetings  in  each  of  the 
wards  of  the  city.  A  nominating 
committee  of  ward  delegates  was 
also  created,  other  committees 
were  subsequently  provided  for, 
and  the  whole  city  was  thor- 
oughly organized.  In  1811  the 
Society  erected  a  new  Wigwam 
— later  the  home  of  the  New 
York  Sun — which  both  the  So- 
ciety and  the  Tammany  political 
organization  occupied  until  the 
erection  of  its  building  on  Four- 
teenth Street  in  1868.  By  this 
simple  means  the  Society  has 
always  controlled  the  political 
organization  ;  for  as  owner  of  the 
building  it  could  eject  any  fac- 
tion which  it  opposed,  and  the 
latter,  having  no  headquarters  in 
Tammany  Hall,  would  cease  to 
be  identified  with  the  organiza- 
tion. 

By  the  end  of  the  first  decade 
of  the  nineteenth  century  Tam- 
many men  had  come  to  occupy 
important  national.  State,  and 
municipal  positions,  and  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  many  of  its 
leaders  had  been  declared  guilty 
of  embezzlement,  fraud,  and 
other  crimes,  the  Society  con- 
tinued to  increase  in  power.  The 


establishment  in  1821  of  man- 
hood suffrage,  by  which  property 
qualification  in  voting  was  abol- 
ished, brought  into  its  ranks  a 
new  and  steadfast  addition,  while 
its  shrewd  policy  from  that  time 
on  of  conciliating  and  fathering 
the  vast  number  of  immigrants 
which  poured  into  the  country, 
especially  after  1846,  provided  a 
feature  of  strength  which  made 
it  practically  invincible  for  many 
decades.  Through  the  State  leg- 
islature and  the  common  council 
of  the  city  it  was  instrumental  in 
securing  large  numbers  of  bank 
charters  and  franchises  with  but 
slight  compensation  to  either 
State  or  city ;  while  in  national 
politics  it  was  a  powerful  factor 
in  presidential  contests,  playing 
an  especially  important  part  in 
the  election  of  Andrew  Jackson 
in  the  campaigns  of  1828  and 
1832.  Its  activities  at  the  polls 
were  characterized  by  numerous 
frauds,  though  its  opponents 
were  not  free  from  a  similar 
taint. 

The  first  of  the  great  Tam- 
many leaders  after  Burr  was 
Fernando  Wood,  a  tactician  and 
organizer  of  unusual  ability,  who 
secured  control  of  the  party  in 
1850,  and  who  was  three  times 
elected  mayor  of  New  York. 
During  his  administration  the 
party  was  openly  identified  with 
the  city's  more  vicious  elements. 

The  feasibility  of  the  boss  sys- 
tem having  been  demonstrated 
by  Wood,  its  greatest  develop- 
ment was  brought  about  by  Wil- 
liam H.  Tweed  (q.  v.),  the  most 
notorious  of  the  Tammany  bosses 
and  leader  of  the  famous  'Tweed 
ring,'  under  whose  operations 
the  city  treasury  was  looted  of 
more  than  $80,000,000.  These 
gigantic  thefts  were  exposed  in 
1871  ;  Tweed  was  convicted  and 
imprisoned ;  and  the  power  of 
Tammany  was  greatly  curtailed. 
Under  the  sagacious  leadership 
of  John  Kelly,  Tweed's  succes- 
sor, the  Society  adopted  a  reform 
platform,  won  over  some  of  the 
very  men  who  had  been  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about  the 
downfall  of  its  former  leader, 
and  by  these  and  other  skilful 
tactics,  aided  by  partisan  issues, 
gradually  recovered  its  power. 
Kelly  was  succeeded  in  1886  by 
Richard  Croker  (q.  v.),  and  by 
1894  political  abuses  had  again 
become  so  serious  as  to  bring 
about  _  State  interference.  The 
investigation  of  the  Lexow  Com- 
mittee in  that  year  showed  wide- 
spread corruption  in  the  police 
and  municipal  government,  and 
in  the  ensuing  election  Tammany 
was  overwhelmingly  defeated. 
The  organization  returned  to 
power  in  1897,  and  was  again 
ousted  in  1900,  following  a  State 
investigation  in  1899.  Croker 
retired  from  the  leadership  in 


1902.  He  selected  as  his  suc- 
cessor Lewis  Nixon  (q.  v.),  who 
resigned  after  a  few  months,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Charles  F. 
Murphy  (q.  v.).  Under  the  lat- 
ter the  organization  elected 
(jeorge  B.  McClellan  and  Wil- 
liam Gaynor  ((|.  v.)  to  the  office 
of  mayor,  and  the  party  remained 
in  power  until  1913,  though  with 
serious  curtailment  of  its  pres- 
tige. In  the  latter  year  a  fusion 
ticket  headed  by  John  Purroy 
Mitchel  ((J.  V.)  was  elected.  In 
1917,  however,  MitcTiel  failed  of 
re-election,  and  the  Tammany 
ticket,  headed  by  John  F.  Hylan, 
carried  the  city  by  decisive  ma- 
jorities. In  1921  Hylan  was  re- 
elected by  a  substantial  majority. 
Following  the  death  of  Murphy 
in  1924,  a  new  type  of  boss  and 
district  leader  came  into  power 
with  the  accession  of  Judge  W. 
Olvany,  a  lawyer  and  university 
graduate.  The  controlling  force 
behind  the  'new  Tammany'  was 
Gov.  Alfred  E.  Smith  (q.  v.). 
With  Tammany  backing,  James 
J.  Walker  was  elected  mayor  in 
1925.  After  Smith's  defeat  in 
the  1928  presidential  election  (in 
many  parts  of  the  country  his 
Tammany  affiliations  were  a 
handicap),  Olvany  resigned,  in 
March,  1929,  and  was  succeeded 
by  John  F.  Curry,  a  former  ward 
leader  of  the  old  type.  In  1932 
Mayor  Walker  resigned  during 
removal  proceedings  conducted 
by  Gov.  F.  D.  Roosevelt,  based 
on  charges  of  graft  brought  by 
Samuel  Seabury,  counsel  for  the 
Hofstadter  investigating  com- 
mittee. Unwilling  to  adopt  the 
moderate  reforms  of  Joseph  V. 
McKee,  acting  mayor,  the  Tam- 
many leaders  chose  John  P. 
O'Brien,  of  the  old  political 
school,  to  fill  out  the  unexpired 
term.  The  city  revolted  and  in 
1933  elected  Fiorello  La  Guardia 
mayor  on  a  fusion  ticket  founded 
under  Seabury's  direction. 
Curry,  discredited,  was  replaced 
by  James  J.  Dooling  in  July, 
1934.  After  a  notable  reform 
administration,  La  Guardia  was 
re-elected  in  1937,  the  first  re- 
form mayor  in  the  city's  history 
chosen  to  succeed  himself.  A 
further  heavy  blow  to  Tammany 
was  the  election  as  district  at- 
torney in  Manhattan,  also  with 
fusion  support,  of  Thomas  E. 
Dewey,  who  had  made  a  brilliant 
record  as  special  prosecutor  in 
racket  cases. 

Tammany  Hall  is  the  typical 
example  of  a  perfectly  organized 
political  machine.  The  General 
Committee,  which  ostensibly 
holds  the  power,  is  composed  of 
more  than  five  thousand  dele- 
gates elected  annually  from  the 
assembly  districts  of  the  city. 
The  men  elected  from  each  dis- 
trict form  the  committee  for  the 
district,  with  the  district  leader 


Tammerfors 


KSH 


607  A 


Tancred 


as  chairman.  Each  election  dis- 
trict also  has  its  leader  chosen  by 
the  assembly  district  leader,  and 
each  voting  precinct  its  captain. 
The  various  district  leaders  make 
up  the  executive  committee. 
Over  all  is  the  boss  of  the  organi- 
zation, who  attains  and  holds  his 
position  by  sheer  force  of  his 
ability  to  rule.  Consult  G.  M. 
Myers,  History  of  Tammany 
Hall  (1917);  M.  R.  Werner, 
Tammany  Hall  (1928);  W.  B. 
and  J.  B.  Northrop,  Insolence  of 
Office  (193^);  N.  M.  Thomas 
and  P.  Blanshard,  What's  the 
Matter  with  Neiv  York?  (1932)  ; 
J.  E.  Finnegan,  Tammany  at  Bay 
(1933). 

Tammerfors.    See  Tampejje. 

Tammuz,  ta'mdbz,  or  Tham- 
Muz,  the  sun  god,  husband  of  Ish- 
tar,  both  alike  worshiped  by  the 
Akkadians,  Babylonians,  Assyri- 
ans, and  Phoenicians.  Called 
Adoni  ('lord'),  Tammuz  became 
the  Adonis  of  the  Greeks.  At 
the  festival  of  his  winter  decline 
female  devotees  abandoned  them- 
selves to  licentious  frenzy. 

Tam'pa,  city,  Florida,  county 
seat  of  Hillsboro  co.,  at  the  head 
of  Tampa  Bay  and  the  movith  of 
the  Hillsboro  R.,  on  the  Atlan- 
tic Coast  Line  and  the  Seaboard 
Air  Line  RRs. ;  212  m.  s.w.  of 
Jacksonville  and  30  m.  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Steamship  lines 
operate  to  the  American  coasts 
and  foreign  ports  ;  there  are  two 
airports.  Tampa  is  a  well  known 
winter  resort,  noted  for  its  fine 
beaches  and  hotels,  fruit  groves, 
and  tarpon  fishing.  Features  of 
interest  are  the  Federal  Build- 
ing, County  Court  House,  Public 
Library,  Sacred  Heart  Church, 
Elks'  Home,  De  Soto,  Tampa 
Bay,  and  Ballast  Point  Parks, 
and  Sulphur  Springs.  The  city 
is  a  port  of  entry  and  a  shipping 
point  for  citrus  fruits,  vegetables, 
lumber,  fish,  fuller's  earth,  and 
is  the  world's  largest  phosphate 
shipping  port.  The  manufacture 
of  clear  Havana  cigars  is  the 
leading  industry,  and  there  are 
manufactures  of  foundry  prod- 
ucts and  machinery,  steel  and 
wooden  shipbuilding,  wagons  and 
motor  car  tops,  fertilizers,  jew- 
elry, furniture,  locks  and  safes, 
brick  and  tile,  brooms,  mattress- 
es, paints  and  varnishes,  monu- 
ments, showcases,  and  awnings. 
Pop.  (1920)  51,608;  (1930,  aft- 
er annex,  of  territ.  inc.  West 
Tampa)  101,161. 

Tampa  Bay,  an  inlet  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  west  coast 
of  Florida,  40  miles  long.  It  di- 
vides in  its  upper  part  into  two 
arms,  the  eastern  of  which  is 
Tampa  Bay  proper,  and  the 
western  Hillsboro  Bay. 

Tam'pan,  a  poisonous  tick 
found  in  Sotith  Africa,  which 
usually  bites  its  victims  between 
the  fingers  or  toes. 


Tampere,  tam'pa-ra,  Swed. 
Tammerfors,  city,  Hame  co., 
s.w.  Finland,  125  m.  N.w.  of 
Helsingfors,  on  the  rapids  con- 
necting lakes  Nasijarvi  and 
Pyhajarvi,  which  supply  power 
to  industry.  The  chief  manu- 
facturing city  of  Finland,  it  has 
large  textile  mills,  paper  mills, 
tanneries,  shoe  factories,  loco- 
motive and  iron  works,  and  is  a 
railroad  center.  It  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1779.  Pop.  (1935) 
59,832. 

Tampico,  tam-pe'ko,  seaport, 
Mexico,  Tamaulipas  State,  on  the 
Panuco  River,  9  miles  from  its 
mouth  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
210  miles  n.e.  of  Mexico  City. 
Features  of  interest  are  the  pa- 
rochial church,  the  fish  market, 
and  the  Plaza  de  la  Constitucion. 
The  city's  importance  arose  from 
the  development  of  oil  fields  in 
the  vicinity.  The  harbor  and 
harbor  facilities  are  excellent, 
and  the  town  is  a  regular  port  of 
call  for  sea-going  vessels.  Ex- 
ports include  rubber,  ixtle  fiber, 
asphalt,  guayule  and  chicle,  and 
for  some  years  the  city  ranked  as 
the  greatest  oil  port  in  the  world. 
Tarpon  abound  in  the  river,  and 
the  city  is  a  favorite  resort  of 
fishermen  from  the  first  of  De- 
cember until  the  end  of  May. 

_  Tampico,  an  ancient  Aztec 
city,  was  destroyed  in  1683,  and 
rebuilt  in  1834.  Pop.  (1930) 
70,183. 

Tamsui,  tam'soTj'e,  treaty 
port,  Japan,  on  the  north  coast  of 
Formosa.  Tea,  rice,  sugar,  cam- 
phor, and  coal  are  exported. 
Pop.  (1934)  25,666. 

Ta'mus.    See  Bryony. 

Tarn  worth,  market  town, 
England,  Staffordshire  and  War- 
wickshire, on  the  Tame  River ; 
13  miles  n.e.  of  Birmingham.  It 
contains  the  church  of  St.  Editha 
and  a  castle.  Manufactures  are 
bricks,  dyeing,  tape,  paper,  and 
small  wares.    Pop.  (1931)  7,510. 

Tana,  ta'na,  river,  British 
East  Africa,  rises  near  Mount 
Kenia,  flows  east  and  then  s.e.  to 
the  Indian  Ocean,  which  it  en- 
ters 110  miles  n.e.  of  Mombasa. 
Length,  over  500  miles. 

Tanager,  ta.n'a-]er  (Tanagri- 
dce) ,  a  family  of  American  pas- 
serine birds,  closely  allied  to  the 
finches.  The  bill  is  visually  con- 
ical, sometimes  depressed  or  at- 
tenuated, more  or  less  triangular 
at  the  base,  with  the  cutting 
edges  not  much  inflected,  and 
frequently  notched  near  the  tip 
of  the  upper  mandible.  Tana- 
gers  are  usually  beautifully  col- 
ored, the  female  being  duller  in 
tint  than  her  mate.  They  are  of 
small  size,  4  to  8  inches  long. 
The  diet  consists  largely  of  in- 
sects and  fruits.  The  song  is 
sweet. 

The  Scarlet  Tanagcr,  or  Red 
Bird  (Pyranga  rubra),  winters 


in  tropical  America,  and  is  found 
in  the  northern  and  eastern 
United  States  and  Southern  Can- 
ada in  spring  and  summer.  The 
male  is  bright  scarlet,  with  black 
wings  apd  tail.  In  the  Southern 
States  is  found  the  Summer  Tan- 
ager  {P.  crstiva),  closely  resem- 
bling the  Scarlet  Tanager,  and 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  the 
Louisiana  or  Western  Tanager 
(P.  ludoviciana) ,  yellow  and 
black,  with  the  head  red. 

Tan'agra,  a  city  of  Boeotia 
in  ancient  Greece,  on  the  River 
Asopus,  not  far  from  the  Attic 
frontier.  In  history  it  is  famous 
chiefly  for  a  victory  gained  near 
it  in  457  B.C.  by  the  Spartans 
over  the  Athenians.  It  belonged 
to  the  Boeotian  League,  and 
shared  the  fortunes  of  Thebes. 
Excavations  were  begun  on  the 
site  in  1874;  and  the  ancient 
walls,  towers,  and  gates  can  be 
recognized ;  also  the  theatre. 
Numbers  of  Tanagra  figurines  in 
painted  terra  cotta  were  found 
in  the  necropolis.  These  grace- 
ful little  statues,  representing 
goddesses,  muses,  nymphs,  cupids 
and  mortals  throw  much  light  on 
the  costumes  of  the  period. 

Tanais,  tan'a-is,  ancient 
Greek  name  of  the  River  Don 
(q.  v.). 

Tanana  River,  ta-na-na', 
Alaska,  rises  in  the  northwest 
extremity  of  the  St.  Elias  range, 
and  follows  a  northwesterly 
course  to  the  Yukon,  of  which 
it  is  the  chief  southern  tributary. 
It  is  open  to  navigation  from 
May  to  October  as  far  as  Fair- 
banks, a  distance  of  200  miles. 

Tananarive,  ta-na'na-rev',  or 
Antananarivo,  capital  of  Mad- 
agascar, 145  miles  s.w.  of  Ta- 
matave  and  90  miles  from  the  e. 
coast.  It  stands  on  a  rocky  ridge, 
from  500  to  600  feet  above  the 
adjacent  valleys,  in  the  interior 
of  the  island.  Pop.  (1932) 
98,580. 

Tanauan,  ta-nou-an',  town, 
Batangas  province,  Luzon,  Phil- 
ippines ;  27  miles  north  of  Batan- 
gas. The  town  was  founded  in 
1584,  and  destroyed  in  1754  by  a 
volcanic  eruption.    Pop.  22,470. 

Tanauan,  town,  Leyte  prov- 
ince, Philippines,  on  the  east 
coast  of  Levte  Island;  10  miles 
south  of  Tacloban.    Pop.  19,074. 

Tan  Bark,  or  Tanner's  Ooze, 
is  the  spent  bark  of  oak,  larch, 
and  other  trees,  from  which  the 
tannin  (q.  v.)  has  been  largely 
removed  in  the  process  of  tanning 
leather.  It  is  used  as  a  manure 
and  as  a  fermenting  material  in 
hotbeds.  It  decays  very  slowly, 
and  should  not  be  employed 
alone  if  much  heat  is  required. 

Tan'cred  (1078-1112).  one 
of  the  chiefs  of  the  first  crusade, 
was  a  son  of  the  Palgrave  Otho 
the  Good,  and  Emma,  sister  of 
Robert  (iuiscard.    He  joined  his 


Tandy 


KSH 


607  P. 


Tanjore 


cousin,  Bohemund  of  Tarentum, 
Guiscard's  son,  in  the  first  cru- 
sade, and-  distinguished  himself 
in  the  sieges  of  Nicsea,  Antioch, 
and  Jerusalem.  His  reward  was 
the  principality  of  Tiberias. 
Tancred  figures  in  the  contem- 
porary chronicles  as  the  bean- 
ideal  of  the  crusading  chivalry. 
He  is  the  hero  of  Tasso's  epic. 

Tan'dy,  James  Napper 
(1740-1803),  Irish  agitator,  was 
born  in  Dublin,  and  became  first 
secretary  to  the  Dublin  United 
Irishmen.  At  the  time  of  the 
American  Revolution  his  sym- 
pathies were  with  the  colonies, 
and  in  1779  he  exerted  himself 
to  prevent  Irishmen  from  using 
English  goods.  On  account  of  a 
pamphlet  distributed  against  the 
Beresfords  in  1793  he  fled  to  the 
United  States,  where  he  lived 
for  five  years  ;  then  he  went  to 
France,  and  took  part  in  the  in- 
vasion of  Ireland.  At  Hamburg 
he  was  handed  over  to  the  Brit- 
ish government.  He  was  tried, 
and  was  sentenced  to  death,  but 
was  permitted  to  escape  to 
France. 

Taneiev,  ta'na-yef,  Sergei 
IvANOviTCH  (1856-1915),  Rus- 
sian composer.  He  was  taken  at 
an  early  age  to  Moscow,  where 
he  studied  at  the  Conservatory 
under  Langer,  Nicholas  Rubin- 
stein, Hubert,  and  Tschaikovsky. 
He  visited  Paris  in  1877-8,  went 
on  a  concert  tour  of  the  Baltic 
provinces,  and  subsequently  re- 
turned to  Moscow,  where  he  suc- 
ceeded Tschaikovsky  as  profes- 
sor of  instrumentation.  After 
the  death  of  Rubinstein  he  be- 
came chief  professor  of  piano- 
forte, and  was  director  (1885— 
9).  Besides  his  opera  Orestes, 
a  trilogy  in  eight  acts,  first  pro- 
duced at  St.  Petersburg  in  1895, 
he  composed  the  sacred  cantatas 
John  of  Damascus  and  On  Read- 
ing a  Fsalm,  besides  numerous 
choruses,  symphonies  and  quar- 
tets. 

Taney,  to'ni,  Roger  Brooke 
(1777-1864),  American  jurist, 
Chief  Justice  of  the  U.  S.  Su- 
preme Court,  was  born  in  Cal- 
vert county.  Md.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  Dickinson  College, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1799, 
and  practised  at  Annapolis  and 
Frederick  until  1823,  when  he 
removed  to  Baltimore,  and  grad- 
ually won  his  way  to  the  leader- 
ship in  his  profession  in  the 
State.  In  1816  he  was  elected 
to  the  State  senate,  and  he  was 
attorney-general  of  Maryland 
1827-31.  Originally  a  Federal- 
ist, he  became  a  Democrat  and 
a  follower  of  Andrew  Jackson 
(q.  v.),  and  in  1831  was  appoint- 
ed attorney-general  in  President 
Jackson's  Cabinet.  He  was  one 
of  the  two  Cabinet  officers  who 
approved  of  the  removal  of  the 
Ciovernment   deposits   from  the 


U.  S.  Bank,  and  on  the  refusal 
of  William  J.  Duane,  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  to  take  such  ac- 
tion, Taney  was  appointed  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury  in  his 
stead.  Taney  promptly  removed 
the  deposits,  although  his  nomi- 
nation had  not  been  confirmed  by 
the  Senate.  A  subsequent  nom- 
ination as  Associate  Justice  of 
the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  was 
also  rejected,  but  in  1836  he  was 
nominated  and  confirmed  as 
Chief  Justice,  in  succession  to 
John  Marshall. 

In  this  high  office  Taney  sus- 
tained his  reputation  for  legal 
ability,  although  the  strong  sec- 
tional feeling  between  the  North 
and  the  South  led  to  criticism  of 
some  of  his  decisions,  notably 
in  the  famous  Dred  Scott  Case. 
(See  Dred  Scott  Case.)  He 
was  a  firm  upholder  of  the  doc- 
trine of  State  Rights  (q.  v.). 
During  the  Civil  War  he  took  a 
strong  position  against  arbitrary 
executive  acts,  and  denied  the 
right  of  the  President  to  suspend 
the  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  Con- 
sult C.  B.  Swisher,  Roger  B. 
Taney  (1935). 

Tanganyika,  tan'gan-ye'ka,  a 
lake  in  Eastern  Central  Africa, 
southwest  of  Victoria  Nyanza, 
extending  from  lat.  3°  16'  to  8° 
48'  s.,  and  from  long.  29°  20'  to 
31°  20'  E.,  over  400  miles  long  by 
30  to  45  miles  broad.  Estimated 
area,  nearly  13,000  square  miles. 
The  shores  belong  politically,  the  » 
eastern  to  Germany,  the  southern 
to  Great  Britain,  and  the  western 
to  the  Belgian  Congo.  The  lake 
(alt.  2,700  feet)  is  enclosed  by 
steep  mountain  chains  rising  to 
7,000  feet.  The  only  outlet  is 
the  Lukuja,  which,  flowing  out 
on  the  west  side  at  6°  s.,  makes 
its  way  to  the  Congo.  Floating 
islands  of  vegetation  occasionally 
cover  large  areas.  The  lake  at- 
tains a  depth  of  over  2,000  feet 
in  certain  portions.  The  largest 
town  on  its  shores  is  Ujiji  (c|.  v.). 
Tanganyika  was  discovered  by 
Burton  and  Speke  in  1858,  and 
was  later  explored  by  Living- 
stone, Stanley,  and  others. 

Tanganyika  Territory.  See 
German  East  Africa. 

Tangelo,  tan-je'l6,  a  hybrid 
fruit  derived  from  the  tangerine 
and  the  pomelo,  in  which  the  bit- 
ter acid  flavor  of  the  pomelo  is 
pleasantly  modified. 

Tangent,  a  line  which  cuts  a 
curve  at  coincident  points.  See 
Trigonometry. 

Tan'ghin,  a  tree  (Cerbera 
Tanghin)  of  Madagascar,  where 
its  supposedly  poisonous  fruit 
kernels  were  used  in  ordeals  to 
determine  the  guilt  of  a  supposed 
criminal. 

Tangier,  tiin-jer',  or  Tan- 
GiERS  (Latin  Tingis,  Arabian 
Tanja),  fortified  seaport,  Moroc- 
co, on  the  Bay  of  Tangier,  an  in- 


let of  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar;  35 
miles  southwest  of  Gibraltar.  It 
is  the  chief  seaport  of  Morocco, 
an  important  commercial  center, 
and  the  diplomatic  head(|uarters. 
The  city  rises  gradually  from  the 
shore  in  the  form  of  an  amphi- 
theatre, has  (juaint  Oriental 
streets  and  houses,  and  its  pleas- 
ant, healthful  climate  attracts 
thousands  of  visitors  annually. 
Buildings  of  interest  are  the 
Great  Mo-stiue,  the  Kasba  or 
castle,  the  Sultan's  Palace,  and 
the  Governor's  Residence.  Mod- 
ern hotels  and  shops  have  been 
erected  for  the  accommodation 
of  tourists. 

Tangier  was  taken  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1471  ;  was  ceded 
to  England  in  1662  as  part  of  the 
dowry  of  Catherine  of  Braganza, 
wife  of  Charles  ii  ;  and  was  given 
back  to  Morocco  in  1684.  The 
treaty  concluded  between  France 
and  Spain  in  1912  provided  that 
Tangier  and  its  district  (about 
225  square  miles)  should  become 
a  special  international  zone,  and 
that  a  railway  should  be  con- 
structed between  Tangier  and 
Fez.  Pop.  (1934)  about  60,000 
of  whom  36,500  were  native  Mos- 
lems, 16,500  Europeans  and 
7,000  native  Jews.  Consult 
G.  H.  Stuart,  The  International 
City  of  Tangier  (1932). 

Tangle  Seaweed,  a  name 
commonly  applied  in  Europe  to 
an  edible  seaweed.  See  Carra- 
geen ;  Laminaria. 

Tango.    See  Dancing. 

Tanguts,  tan-gobs',  a  people 
of  Tibetan  stock,  inhabiting  a 
great  part  of  Kan-su  province  in 
China  and  the  Koko-nor  and 
Kham  districts  of  Tibet.  They 
are  pastoral  nomads,  who  pay 
tribute  to  China. 

Tanis,  ta'nis,  or  Zoan,  an- 
cient Egyptian  city  in  the  Nile 
delta  ;  32  miles  southwest  of  Port 
Said.  It  was  probably  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Hyksos  kings  (fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  dynasties), 
and  capital  of  Egypt  during  the 
nineteenth  dynasty.  It  was  the 
residence  of  Rameses  ii,  who 
greatly  beautified  it.  Prior  to 
the  silting  up  of  the  Tanitic  Nile 
and  the  founding  of  Alexandria, 
Tanis  was  the  chief  commercial 
city  of  Egypt,  but  was  gradu- 
ally reduced  to  ruins.  It  was 
founded  seven  years  after  He- 
bron (Num.  xiii.  22),  and  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the  city  of 
Ramases  mentioned  in  Exod.  i. 
11.  The  explorations  of  Flin- 
ders Petrie  have  brought  to  light 
much  of  its  history.  Consult 
Works  by  Petrie  and  by  E.  A. 
Budge. 

Tanjay,  tiin-hi',  or  Tanay, 
town,  Negros  Oriental  province, 
Philippines;  15  miles  northwest 
of  Dumaguete.    Pop.  12,000. 

Tanjore,  tan-jor',  municipal 
town,  capital  of  Tanjore  district, 


Tankage 


KSH 


608 


Tank,  Military 


Madras  Presidency,  British  In- 
dia; 31  miles  southeast  of 
Trichinopoli.  It  has  a  Hindu 
temple,  a  dismantled  fort,  and 
a  palace.  The  manufactures  in- 
clude silks,  carpets,  jewelry,  cop- 
per, and  inlaid  metal  work.  Pop. 
(1931)  59,913.  Area  of  district, 
3,727  scjuare  miles;  pop.  2,326,- 
265. 

.Tankage,  the  residue  from 
the  offal  of  abattoirs  after  treat- 
ment, used  principally  as  a  fer- 
tilizer.   See  Fertilizers. 

Tank,  Military.  A  self-pro- 
pelled, armored  vehicle  of  the 
track-laying  type,  combining  the 
powers  of  mobility,  fire  power, 
shock  action,  and  crew  protec- 
tion. Tanks  are  the  basic  ele- 
ment in  a  modern  mechanized 
fighting  force.  The  modern 
light,  fast  tank  is  the  most  effec- 
tive existing  weapon  against 
light  machine  guns,  but  a  direct 
hit  by  an  artillery  shell,  the  pene- 
tration of  a  vital  portion  of  the 
tank  by  heavy  machine  gun  fire, 
unfavorable  terrain,  or  severe 
damage  by  an  antitank  mine  may 
put  it  out  of  action. 

Tanks  find  their  principal  em- 
ployment in  offensive  combat. 
Their  normal  use  in  defensive 
battle  is  as  an  element  in  the 
counterattack.  They  are  essen- 
tially an  infantry  weapon  and 
their  basic  mission  is  to  give  close 
support  to  the  advance  of  that 
arm  by  breaking  down  obstacles 
in  its  path  and  by  overcoming 
or  neutralizing  resistance  to  its 
progress. 

The  protective  armor  of  the 
modern  tank  permits  it  to  close 
quickly  with  entrenched  defen- 
sive groups  protected  against  the 
effects  of  ordinary  infantry  and 
artillery  fire.  Its  mobility  en- 
ables it  to  enter  combat  in  criti- 
cal areas  at  a  decisive  phase  of 
the  action.  All  tanks  are,  how- 
ever, limited  by  the  nature  of  the 
ground  over  which  they  must 
advance,  and  their  use  may  be 
prevented  by  thick  woods,  steep 
slopes,  deep  mud,  water  deep 
enough  to  affect  the  carburetor, 
and  by  effective  tank  traps. 
They  require  constant  automo- 
tive maintenance  in  order  to  in- 
sure continuity  of  operation. 

The  tank  is  distinctly  a  prod- 
uct of  the  World  War,  in  which, 
for  the  first  time,  the  conditions 
of  trench  warfare  best  suited  to 
its  effective  use  existed.  Ar- 
mored automobiles  had  been  test- 
ed by  most  European  countries 
prior  to  1914,  and  had  been  used 
with  some  success  by  the  British 
in  Egypt.  These  armored  cars 
were,  however,  restricted  in  op- 
eration to  hard-surfaced  roads, 
and  principally  to  distant  cav- 
alry reconnaissance.  The  idea 
of  a  self-propelled,  cross  country 
vehicle  to  support  the  infantry 
was  conceived  late  in  1914,  and 


its  distinctive  feature,  the  long 
belt,  was  derived  from  the  Holt 
agricultural  tractor,  built  in  the 
United  States.  This  belt  had 
steel  lugs  or  spurs  projecting 
from  its  outer  surface  that  were 
forced  into  the  earth  as  the 
weight  of  the  machine  passed 
over  them.  The  belt,  therefore, 
acted  as  a  non-skid  track  on 
which  the  bearing  wheels  of  the 
car  travelled.  As  adapted  to  the 
tank  the  shape  of  the  tractor  was 
considerably  changed  and  its 
power  much  increased. 

The  modification  of  the  tractor 
to  a  military  weapon  was  evolved 
independently  by  the  French  and 
British  armies  during  1915  and 
1916.  The  first  British  vehicles 
were  suggested  by  Lieut.  Col. 
Ernest  Swinton,  Royal  Engi- 
neers, who  after  unsuccessful 
presentations  of  his  project  to 
the  British  Prime  Minister  and 
to  Lord  Kitchener,  finally  inter- 
ested Winston  S.  Churchill,  a 
member  of  the  Committee  of  Im- 
perial Defense,  in  his  machine. 
Experimental  models  were  test- 
ed between  September  1915  and 
February  1916,  and  in  the  latter 
month  a  satisfactory  car  was 
completed  and  production  begun 
under  extreme  secrecy.  On  Sep- 
tember 15,  1916,  fifty  of  these 
tanks  went  into  action  at  the 
Battle  of  the  Somme,  and  their 
efficiency  as  a  new  weapon  of 
war  was  fully  demonstrated. 
Not  only  did  they  make  a  pas- 
sage for  the  infantry  through 
the  enemy  wire,  but  they  pene- 
trated the  German  front 
lines,  crossed  trenches,  and  de- 
molished concrete  machine  gun 
shelters. 

The  tanks  used  by  the  British 
in  that  battle  were  known  as  the 
Mark  I  tank.  They  weighed 
about  28  tons,  were  26  feet  long, 
and  carried  two  six-pounder  guns 
in  the  'male'  tank  and  four  ma- 
chine guns  in  the  'female'  tank. 
Each  tank  was  manned  by  a  crew 
of  eight.  It  could  cross  a  trench 
ten  feet  wide  and  had  a  cruising 
speed  of  four  miles  an  hour.  The 
German  defense  against  the  new 
tank,  the  armor-piercing  bullet, 
forced  the  modification  of  the 
Mark  I  tank  by  the  addition  of 
heavier  armor  with  a  resultant 
increase  made  necessary  in  mo- 
tor power.  By  the  end  of  the 
war  the  newest  tanks  in  use,  the 
Mark  V  type,  were  considerably 
heavier,  though  not  much  faster 
or  more  powerful  than  the  first 
models.  It  was  not  until  the  last 
few  months  of  the  war  that  Brit- 
ish production  was  sufficient  to 
permit  the  employment  of  tanks 
in  mass  formations,  and  in  the 
Amiens  battle,  in  August  1918, 
when  400  tanks  were  used  in  a 
surprise  attack  without  the  cus- 
tomary preparation  of  artillery 
fire,  tank  mass  tactics  reached 


the  peak  of  effectiveness.  Gen- 
eral Ludendorff  characterized 
the  results  of  this  great  tank  sur- 
prise as  'the  black  day  of  the 
German  Army  in  the  history  of 
the  war' ;  and  General  von  Zwehl 
declared  that  it  was  'General 
Tank'  and  not  the  genius  of 
Marshal  Foch  that  defeated  the 
Germans. 

Early  tank  experiments  in  the 
French  Army  proceeded  simul- 
taneously with  those  of  the  Brit- 
ish during  1915  and  1916,  and 
resulted  in  the  development  of 
three  tank  types  ;  the  light  tank, 
typified  by  the  6^/^  ton  Renault; 
the  medium  St.  Chamond,  and 
Schneider  type  of  between  10 
and  30  tons  ;  and  the  heavy  tanks, 
of  over  30  tons.  The  Renault 
type  proved  to  be  the  most  satis- 
factory, and  by  the  end  of  the 
war  this  type  was  being  pro- 
duced in  large  quantities.  As 
finally  developed  it  was  about 
four  meters  long,  had  a  crew  of 
two  men,  and  was  armed  either 
with  two  machine  guns  or  with 
one  light  cannon.  It  was  consid- 
erably faster  than  the  British 
Mark  y  tank  but,  in  general, 
mechanically  inferior  to  it. 

The  French  used  tanks  for  the 
first  time  in  the  Aisne-Marne 
battle,  April  1917.  Their  attack 
lacked  the  surprise  that  had 
characterized  the  initial  British 
attack  and  the  support  that  they 
gave  was  unimportant.  In  May 
1918,  and  again,  in  the  great  of- 
fensive of  July  1918,  the  work 
of  the  French  tanks  contributed 
greatly  to  the  Allied  victory.  By 
the  end  of  the  war  the  develop- 
ment of  the  French  tank  approx- 
imated that  of  the  British. 

The  tanks  used  by  the  Ameri- 
can Expeditionary  Forces  in 
France  were  furnished  entirely 
by  the  French  and  the  British. 
No  heavy  tanks  and  only  64  light 
tanks  were  produced  in  the 
United  States.  The  French  fur- 
nished the  American  Army  with 
227  Renault  tanks  and  the  Brit- 
ish furnished  64  heavy  tanks  of 
various  types  during  1918. 

The  Germans  began  the  con- 
struction of  tanks  late  in  1917, 
patterning  their  models  after 
some  British  tanks  captured  at 
Cambrai.  These  tanks  were  re- 
conditioned and  a  small  number 
of  German  tanks  built,  but  lack 
of  materials  prevented  their  im- 
portant use  in  battle  prior  to  the 
end  of  the  war.  The  Treaty  of 
Versailles  forbade  Germany  the 
manufacture  of  tanks,  and  until 
the  rearmament  of  the  German 
Army  under  the  Nazi  regime  that 
army  had  no  tanks  and  conducted 
experiments  in  tank  construction 
outside  of  Germany,  principally 
in  Sweden  and  Russia. 

Since  the  World  War  the  tank 
has  held  the  center  of  the  mili- 
tary stage.    Increasing  use  has 


Tank,  Military 


KSH 


609 


Tannenberg 


been  made  of  it  in  most  major 
military  operations  since  1918 
under  a  variety  of  circumstances, 
in  the  French  campaigns  in  Mo- 
rocco and  Syria,  by  Bolivia  in 
the  Chaco  war,  by  Japan  in 
China  and  Manchukuo,  by  the 
Italians  in  Ethiopia,  and  by  both 
sides  in  the  Spanish  Civil  War. 

In  the  United  States,  at  the 
Tank  School,  an  adjunct  of  the 
Army  Infantry  School,  at  Fort 
Benning,  Ga.,  selected  officers 
and  enlisted  men  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  Army  are  given  in- 
struction in  tank  maintenance 
and  tactics,  and  service 
tests  are  given  new  tank 
equipment. 

Both  France  and  Britain  have 


numerous  other  tanks  of  all 
types  that  combine  features  of 
French,  British,  and  American 
design. 

Great  development  has  been 
made  since  the  World  War  in 
producing  armor  plate  which 
gives  additional  protection  with 
little  increase  in  weight  ;  in  en- 
gineering design,  and  in  radio 
equipment.  Visibility  during 
combat,  protection  against  gas 
and  against  armor  piercing  am- 
munition are  problems  that  have 
not  yet  been  completely  solved  in 
tank  construction. 

Carlisle  Allan, 
Captain,  U.S.A. 

Tannu-Tuva,  or  Tanu- 
TuvA,   an   independent  republic 


ians  (a  Turki  race),  some  13,- 
000  Russians,  and  the  remainder 
Chinese  and  Mongols. 

Tannenberg,  Battle  of 
(Aug.  27-30,  1914),  sometimes 
called  Ostcrodc,  but  named  by 
the  victors  after  the  village  near 
which  the  Teutonic  Knights 
were  defeated  by  Poles  and  Lith- 
uanians in  1410.  Less  than  a 
month  after  the  World  War 
broke  over  Europe  the  Russian 
Army  of  the  Niemen  under  Ren- 
nenkampf,  after  the  defeat  of 
the  Germans  at  Gumbinnen, 
East  Prussia,  proceeded  to  in- 
vest the  fortress  of  Konigsberg, 
while  the  army  of  the  Narev 
(about  200,000  strong)  under 
Samsonov  (q.  v.),  marched  con- 


Light,  fast  tank  by  U.  S.  War  Dept. 


Courtesy  of  Signal  Corps,  U.  S.  Army. 

-35-50  MPH. 


amphibian  tanks  and  tankettes, 
small  machine  gun  carriers. 
Russian  and  Polish  tank  doc- 
trine follows  British  rather  than 
French  thought.  The  tanks  that 
the  Italian  Army  found  most 
successful  in  Ethiopia  were  light 
and  fast,  patterned  after  British 
vehicles. 

Japan's  tanks  are  more  varied 
as  to  types  and  mostly  foreign - 
built.  A  three-ton  tank  which 
cruised  at  over  thirty  miles  an 
hour  was  used  with  great  success 
in  Manchukvio  and  in  the  Yang- 
tze campaigns. 

Germany  patterns  her  tanks 
after  the  Swedish  Landsverk 
models  which  they  resemble  in 
appearance,  but  has,  in  addition, 


of  Eastern  Siberia,  under  Soviet 
protection.  This  territory,  area 
about  64,000  S(|.  miles,  and 
known  as  Uryankhai,  was  con- 
sidered, if  not  actually,  part  of 
Outer  Mongolia  until  the  JMon- 
golian  insurrection  of  1911, 
when  it  was  claimed  by  Imperial 
Russia  on  account  of  a  large 
Russian  pioneer  population.  It 
was  proclaimed  a  Russian  pro- 
tectorate in  1914  ;  came  again 
under  Chinese  rule  for  a  time, 
then  declared  its  independence 
and  finally  became  a  Soviet  re- 
public under  its  new  name.  It 
has  a  modern  constitution  and 
universal  suffrage.  The  entire 
population  is  about  65,000,  of 
whom  some  50,000  are  Tuvin- 


fidently  on  Allenstein.  This 
brief  and  ill-fated  invasion  of 
East  Prussia  was  the  only  oc- 
casion during  the  war  that  Al- 
lied troops  trod  German  soil  in 
Europe. 

Hindenburg  and  Ludendorff 
decided  that  the  separation  of  the 
two  Russian  armies  offered  an 
opportunity  of  surrounding  and 
destroying  Samsonov,  who,  evi- 
dently thinking  that  the  Ger- 
mans were  incapable  of  further 
resistance,  attempted  to  drive 
them  back  across  the  Vistula. 
Rennenkampf  was  held  up  by  the 
Konigsberg  defences,  and  the 
Germans  were  able  quickly  to 
withdraw  troops  from  that  front 
and,  with  other  reinforcements. 


Tanner 


KSH 


610 


Tantalum 


made  up  a  force  almost  equal  to 
Samsonov's. 

The  region  abounded  in  lakes 
(Masurian)  and  forests  and  was 
unknown  to  the  Russians.  More- 
over, the  advancing  Russian  col- 
umns were  necessarily  separated 
by  more  or  less  impassable  ter- 
rain. They  were  strung  out  in 
a  bow  from  the  frontier  west  of 
Soldau  to  the  north  of  Allen- 
stein.  On  the  26th  Samsonov 
found  himself  suddenly  checked, 
and  realized  that  the  Germans 
had  decided  to  stand  and  fight. 
After  some  local  attacks  by  the 
Russians,  Hindenburg,  who  had 
studied  and  conducted  maneuvers 
over  this  whole  region  during 
many  years  in  anticipation  of  ex- 
actly what  confronted  him,  began 
to  put  his  plan  in  operation. 

The  battle  proper  opened  on 
the  27th  with  a  German  thrust 
in  a  s.E.  direction  towards  Usdau, 
which  compelled  the  Russian  1st 
Corps  to  withdraw  sovxthwards. 
Then  the  thrust  was  directed  east 
towards  Neidenburg,  and  after 
confused  fighting  the  Russian 
front  broke  and  Hindenburg  ef- 
fected a  turning  movement.  In 
the  next  two  days  the  attack 
spread  northwards  and  over- 
lapped Samsonov's  right  flank. 
The  bulk  of  the  Russian  army 
was  thus  encircled  and  cut  off 
from  any  assistance  from  Ren- 
nenkampf.  They  were  com- 
pelled to  surrender  or  perish  ; 
barely  a  corps  escaped  by  forced 
marching.  Between  80,000  and 
90,000  prisoners  fell  to  the 
Germans  and  thousands  were 
drowned.  The  28  days'  invasion 
of  East  Prussia  cost  the  Rus- 
sians 300,000  of  their  best  troops, 
and  they  lost  100,000  more  dur- 
ing the  ensuing  winter  campaign 
until  February,  1915.  See  Eu- 
rope, Great  War  of.  Consult 
Ludendorff,  My  War  Memories 
(1922);  Sir  W.  E.  Ironside, 
Tannenherg :  The  First  Thirty 
Days  in  East  Prussia  (1925). 

Tanner,  Henry  Ossawa 
(1859-1937),  American  painter. 
He  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 
Scriptural  subjects  with  Oriental 
surroundings,  depicted  with 
much  religious  feeling.  In  1909 
he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the 
National  Academy.  Examples 
of  his  pictures  are :  The  Rais- 
ing  of  Lazarus  (Luxembourg, 
Paris)  ;  Nicodemiis  Coming  to 
Christ  (Penn.  Academy)  ;  The 
Annunciation  (Wilstach  (Collec- 
tion, Philadelphia)  ;  Christ  at  the 
Home  of  Mary  and  Martha  (Car- 
negie Institute,  Pittsburgh), 
Christ  in  the  Temple ;  The  Jews' 
Wailing  Place. 

Tannhauser,  tan'hoi-z^'r,  a 
legendary  knight,  who,  after  be- 
ing enticed  into  the  Venusberg, 
or  the  abode  of  earthly  love,  at 
length  repents,  and  sets  off  on  a 
pilgrimage  to  Rome  to  confess 


his  sins  to  Pope  Urban  iv.  But 
the  Pope,  when  he  hears  his 
story,  tells  him  that  he  can  as  lit- 
tle obtain  God's  mercy  as  the  rod 
in  his  hand  can  become  green 
again.  Thereupon  Tannhauser 
departs  in  despair,  and  returns 
to  the  Lady  Venus  in  the  moun- 
tain. Three  days  after  he  has 
gone  the  dry  rod  begins  to  sprout 
and  bear  green  leaves  ;  and  the 
Pope  immediately  sends  out  mes- 
sengers to  every  country,  but  the 
knight  can  nowhere  be  found. 

The  Venusberg  is  localized  as 
Horselberg,  near  Eisenach,  seat 
of  the  old  German  goddess  Hulda 
(modern  German,  Holle).  The 
legend  has  been  used  in  Wagner's 
opera,  which  identifies  Tann- 
hauser with  Heinrich  von  Ofter- 
dingen.  The  historic  Tannhauser 
was  a  Minnesinger  of  the  thir- 
teenth century. 

Tannin,  a  name  applied  to  a 
number  of  astringent  substances 
of  somewhat  diverse  constitution 
that  are  formed  in  many  plants, 
being  produced  there  naturally 
or  as  the  result  of  injuries  in- 
flicted by  insects.  Tannins  are 
soluble  in  water,  yield  black,  blue 
or  green  precipitates  with  ferric 
salts,  and  possess  the  property  of 
converting  substances  containing 
gelatin — as  animal  hides — into 
leather.  They  occur  most  abun- 
dantly in  galls  on  various  species 
of  oak  (see  Galls  ;  Oak)  ;  in  the 
bark  or  wood  of  oaks,  acacias, 
chestnuts,  and  the  eucalyptus ; 
and  in  the  bark  of  mangroves, 
the  roots  of  the  canaigre,  and  the 
leaves  of  the  sumach.  They  are 
found  in  lesser  quantities  in 
other  woods  and  leaves,  in  unripe 
frtiits,  and  in  some  buds  and 
flowers.  They  have  also  been 
prepared  synthetically. 

The  tannins  have  been  vari- 
ously classified.  The  three 
groups  usually  recognized  are  the 
Gallotannins,  which  yield  gallic 
acid  upon  treatment  with  boiling 
dilute  sulfuric  acid  ;  the  Ellagi- 
tannins,  which  on  similar  treat- 
ment yield  ellagic  acid  ;  and  the 
Catecholtannins  or  Phlobatan- 
nins,  which  yield  a  reddish  pre- 
cipitate known  as  a  phlobaphene. 

The  principal  gallotannin,  and 
the  typical  tannin,  is  that  occur- 
ring in  oak  galls,  known  as  Tan- 
nic, Digallic,  or  Gallotannic 
Acid,  or  simply  as  Gallotannin  or 
Tannin,  and  having  the  formula 
C14H10O9+2H0O.  It  is  derived 
chiefly  from  Turkish  or  Aleppo 
galls,  produced  by  the  insect 
Cynips  gallcc  on  a  variety  of  oak, 
and  from  Chinese  galls,  due  to 
the  activities  of  Aphis  chinensis 
on  an  Oriental  tree  of  the  same 
family  as  the  sumach.  Gallotan- 
nin prepared  from  the  water  ex- 
tract consists  of  70  to  90  per 
cent  gallotannic  acid,  together 
with  some  gallic  acid,  glucose, 
water     and     other  impurities. 


which  may  be  removed  by  vari- 
ous methods.  It  is  a  colorless  or 
faint  yellow  amorphous  powder, 
soluble  in  water,  and  possessing 
a  sharp  astringent  taste.  It  is 
acid  to  litmus,  gives  a  blue  black 
color  with  ferric  salts,  precipi- 
tates gelatin,  and  yields  pyrogal- 
lol  on  sublimation. 

Ellagitannin,  or  Ellagitannic 
Acid,  is  commonly  found  with 
gallotannic  acid,  and  is  of  im- 
portance as  the  mother  substance 
of  ellagic  acid.  It  occurs  most 
abundantly  in  divi-divi.  The 
Catecholtannins  include  Catechu 
Tannic  Acid,  obtained  from 
gambier  and  Bombay  catechu  or 
cutch  (see  Catechu  ;  Gambier), 
Quercitannic  Acid  or  the  tannin 
of  oak  bark,  and  the  tannins  of 
the  bark  of  hemlock,  the  acacias, 
mimosas,  cassia,  and  mangroves. 

Industrially,  tannin  is  of 
great  importance  in  the  tanning 
of  leather  (q.  v.).  It  is  also  em- 
ployed as  a  mordant  in  calico 
printing,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  inks  (see  Inks  and  Stains). 
In  medicine,  it  is  used  in  the 
treatment  of  eruptions,  hemor- 
rhage, diarrhea,  and  for  coagu- 
lating an  albuminous  or  mucous 
discharge. 

Consult  Dumesny  and  Noyer, 
Wood  Products,  Distillates  and 
Extracts  (1921)  ;  Harvey,  Tan- 
ning Materials  (1921)  ;  Nieren- 
stein.  The  Natural  Organic  Tan- 
nins (1934). 

Tanning.    See  Leather. 

Tansillo,  tan-sel'lo,  Luigi 
(1510-68),  Italian  poet.  Among 
his  Poemetti  the  Balia  and  Po- 
dere  are  specially  admired,  and 
have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish. The  youthful  and  erotic 
Vendcmmiatore  was  put  on  the 
index  by  Paul  iv. 

Tansy,  tan'zi  or  Tanacetum, 
a  genus  of  mostly  hardy  herba- 
ceous plants  belonging  to  the 
order  Compositae.  They  bear 
usually  small,  corymbose,  yellow 
flower  heads,  and  are  all  of  the 
easiest  culture.  Much  the  most 
interesting  is  the  naturalized 
tansy  or  Buttons  {Tanacetum 
vulgarc),  whose  feathery  leaves 
and  yellow  flower  heads  are  con- 
spicuous in  autumn.  The  most 
desirable  species  for  decoration 
is  the  silvery-leaved  T.  lenco- 
phyllum,  from  Turkestan. 

Tantah,  tan'ta,  or  Tanta, 
town,  capital  of  Gharbiyeh  prov- 
ince. Lower  Egypt,  between  the 
Rosetta  and  Damietta  branches 
of  the  Nile:  76  miles  s.e.  of  Al- 
exandria.   Pop.  90,016. 

Tan'talum,  Ta,  (atomic  num- 
ber 73,  atomic  weight  180.88) 
is  a  rare  metallic  element,  oc- 
curring principally  in  the  min- 
eral Tantalite,  ferrous  tantalate, 
FeTa-Od.  It  is  prepared  by  the 
reduction  of  potassium  fluorotan- 
talate,  K-TapT,  by  hydrogen,  fol- 
lowed by  fusion  in  a  vacuum, 


Tantalus 


611 


Tapeworms 


and  is  a  white  metal  of  specific 
gravity  16.8,  that  can  be  drawn 
into  wire  of  great  tenacity  and  very 
high  fusing-point  (225°  c).  This 
wire  has  been  used  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  filaments  of 
certain  new  incandescent  electric 
lamps.  The  chief  compounds  of 
tantalum  are  its  acidic  oxide, 
Ta205,  and  its  compound  with 
potassium  and  fluorine,  K2TaF7. 
See  Electrical  Review,  vol.  Ivi. 
(1905),  p.  157. 

Tantalus,  in  Greek  mythology, 
a  son  of  Zeus,  and  father  of  Pe- 
lops,  Broteas,  and  Niobe.  Tradi- 
tion places  his  kingdom  in  Lydia, 
in  Phrygia,  at  Argos,  or  at  Corinth. 
He  was  punished  in  Hades, 
standing  in  the  midst  of  a  lake, 
whose  waters  ever  receded  when 
he  tried  to  drink,  while  fruit- 
laden  trees,  hanging  over  his 
head,  withdrew  their  branches  if 
he  tried  to  pluck  their  fruit;  in 
addition,  a  huge  rock,  threaten- 
ing to  crush  him,  was  suspended 
over  his  head.  From  his  name 
and  fate  the  English  word  'tan- 
talize' is  derived. 

Tantaliis,  or  Wood-ibis,  a 
genus  of  birds  of  the  stork  family, 
which  connects  the  storks  with 
the  true  ibises.  Their  habits  are 
stork-like,  but  the  birds  are  more 
gregarious,  and  build  smaller 
nests.  In  the  warmer  parts  of 
America  is  found  Tantalus  locii- 
lator,  the  American  wood-ibis,  a 
white  bird  with  greenish-black 
wings  and  tail,  the  head  and 
upper  part  of  the  neck  being 
naked  and  dark-colored. 

Tantras,  'rules,  rituals,'  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Sakta  sect  of 
Hindus.  Tantrik  words  are  full 
of  doubtful  symbolisms — for  the 
rnost  part  impure — and  myste- 
rious rites  and  utterances  for  the 
invocation  and  expulsion  of  evil 
spirits.  Their  acceptance  as 
sacred  literature  marks  the  in- 
fluence on  Hinduism  of  the  later 
emphasis  upon  the  female  principle 
in  deity.  The  Panchatantra  is  a 
celebrated  Sanskrit  book  of  fables, 
from  which  have  come  manv  of 
the  fables  known  throughout 
Europe  as  those  of  Pilpay  or 
Bidpai.  Consult  Frazer's  Z,«7emrjy 
History  of  India  (1898). 

Tantum  Ergo.  See  Pange 
Lingua. 

Taoism.    See  Lao-tse. 

Tap,  an  instrument  used  for 
cutting  a  female  screw  in  a  drilled 
hole.  It  consists  of  a  male  screw 
of  hard  steel  with  a  square  head, 
which  is  gripped  and  turned  by  a 
wrench. 

Tapajos  River,  Brazil,  forms 
near  the  Bolivian  frontier,  and 
flows  in  a  general  n.n.e.  direction, 
through  a  course  of  1,100  m., 
to  its  confluence  with  the  Amazon 
near  Santerem.  Little  of  it  is 
navigable. 

Tapestry  has  been  defined  as 
'painting  by  the  weaving  of  col- 


ored threads,  intertwined  on  lines 
stretched  vertically  {haute  lisse  = 
high  warp)  or  horizontally  (basse 
lisse  =  low  warp),  which  become 
one  substance  or  web  combining 
lines  and  tones.'  The  skilled 
'tapissier,'  himself  an  artist,  inter- 
prets and  embodies  designs,  called 
cartoons,  the  very  soul  of  the 
work.  Much  is  left  to  his  taste 
and  workmanship,  and  servile 
copying  is  fatal  to  success.  The 
low-warp  loom  is  one-third  quicker 
than  the  high-warp,  which  pro- 
duces the  most  perfect  cloths. 
A  Gobelins  (high- warp)  workman 
turns  out  on  an  average  rather 
less  than  a  square  yard  in  three 
hundred  workmg  days,  which  cost 
the  state,  for  wages  only,  from 
2,000  to  2,100  francs.  The  great- 
est technical  difficulty  is  to  avoid 
mosaic  work  in  passing  from  tone 
to  tone  and  from  light  to  shade; 
and  this  is  done  by  'hatching,' 
or  graduating  the  tints,  now  over 
fourteen  thousand  in  number, 
though  in  the  best  age  of  tapestry 
(1450-1550)  there  were  but  from 
twenty  to  sixty.  'Painted  tapes- 
try from  Egypt'  figures  in  Prov- 
erbs. Penelope's  web,  the  .warp 
vertical  with  weighted  ends,  is 
seen  on  the  vase  of  Chiusi  (400 
B.C.).  Tapestry  terms  are  found  in 
Homer  (//.  iii.  125),  Herodotus, 
and  Euripides.  In  Ovid  the  loose 
ends  of  the  warp  are  attached 
as  at  present,  and  the  flowered 
border  of  the  15th  century  {ver- 
dures) anticipated.  From  Egypt 
the  art  was  reintroduced  into 
W.  Europe  by  the  Saracens  and 
made  at  St.  Florent  (Saumur 
Abbey)  in  985.  It  continued 
to  flourish  in  France  till  the 
Hundred  Years'  War,  when  it 
passed  to  Flanders,  and  became 
known  as  arras  till  Spanish  per- 
secution drove  it  back  again  to 
France,  to  thrive  in  the  manu- 
factories of  the  Gobehns  (1667), 
Beauvais,  and  Aubusson.  William 
Sheldon  wove  maps  of  Yorkshire 
at  Burcheston  (Warwick)  in  1570. 
A  factory,  established  by  James 
I.  at  Mortlake,  under  Sir  Francis 
Crane,  existed  from  1619-88  at 
least.  Low-warp  looms  existed 
at  Windsor  (1876-87),  followed 
by  the  present  high-warp  looms 
at  Merton  Abbey.  Surrey,  es- 
tablished (1880)  by  William 
Morris,  for  whom  Sir  Edward 
Burne-Jones  supplied  cartoons 
for  The  Star  of  Bethlehem  and 
The  Legend  of  Arthur.  The 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  woven  (1515- 
19)  for  Leo  x.,  for  the  Sistine 
chapel,  cost  1,000  for  each  of 
the  ten  cartoons  to  Raphael  and 
$150,000    to    the  manufacturer. 

In  1893  the  late  WiUiam  .Baum- 
garten  persuaded  M.  Foussadier, 
the  former  master  workman  of 
the  Royal  Windsor  Tapestrv 
Works,  to  come  to  New  York 
and  set  up  a  small  loom  in  the 
Baumgarten  decorative  shop  in 


Fifth  Avenue.  The  first  com- 
pleted work  from  the  loom  was 
a  chair  seat,  'the  first  piece  of 
tapestry  produced  in  America,' 
accordmg  to  Mr.  Baumgarten. 
The  second  piece,  exactly  the 
same,  is  now  in  the  Field  Museum 
in  Chicago.  Other  weavers  soon 
followed  M.  Foussadier  across 
the  Atlantic,  and  the  tapestry 
atelier  was  moved  to  Williams- 
bridge  on  the  Bronx.  Later  an 
apprentice  system  was  adopted, 
and  there  are  now  employed 
from  40  to  60  weavers,  besides 
the  employees  who  attend  to  the 
rentraiture  (sewing  up  the  slits 
left  by  the  method  of»' -Raving) 
and  to  repairing  injured  and 
antique  tapestries.  At  the  St. 
Louis  Exposition  in  1903  the 
exhibit  of  Baumgarten  tapestries 
received  a  Grand  Prize.  At  the 
Paris  Exposition  in  1900  were 
exhibited  modern  tapestries  from 
nearly  every  country  in  Europe, 
as  well  as  a  remarkable  selection 
from  the  incomparable  collection 
of  the  ancient  Flemish  tapestries 
belonging  to  the  Spanish  crown. 
Tapestries  woven  by  Scandina- 
vian residents  in  the  United 
States  were  exhibited  in  New 
York  city  at  the  National  Arts 
Club  in  1904.  Of  particular  in- 
terest also  to  Americans  are  the 
ancient  Peruvian  tapestries  now 
in  the  National  Museum  in  Wash- 
ington and  in  the  Boston  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts.  See  Muntz's  Tapes- 
try (1885);  Baumgarten's  Tapes- 
try (1897);  South  Kensington 
catalogues.  For  bibliography  see 
South  Kensington  List  of  Books 
and  Pamphlets  Illustrating  Tex- 
tile Fabrics  (1888);  and  Jules 
Guiffrey's  La  Tapisseries  (1904), 
containing  1,083  titles. 

Tapeworms,  or  Cestoda,  a 
class  of  flatworms,  which  includes 
some  important  parasites.  A 
tapeworm  consists  of  a  head  or 
scolex,  furnished  with  suckers 
and  hooks,  and  a  chain  of  pro- 
glottides. The  head  is  embedded 
in  the  intestinal  wall  of  the 
host,  and  the  chain  of  proglot- 
tides floats  freely  in  the  lumen 
of  the  intestine.  Each  pro- 
glottis contains  a  complete  set 
of  reproductive  organs,  male  and 
female,  and  the  ova  of  each  are 
self-fertilized.  Ultimately  the 
proglottis  becomes  a  mere  bag 
of  eggs,  each  of  which  is  invested 
in  a  firm  shell.  Such  ripe  pro- 
glottides break  off  from  the  chain, 
and  pass  out  with  the  fieces  of  the 
host.  The  formation  of  fresh  pro- 
glottides is  continually  taking 
place  in  the  anterior  region  of 
the  worm  to  replace  those  which 
are  being  lost.  Some  of  the  sim- 
pler forms  are  very  small,  while 
the  Tcenia  solium  of  man  may 
reach  a  length  of  nine  _  feet. 
T.  echinococci.s  is  specially  inter- 
esting becau.se  its  larval  stages 
occur  in  man,  and  are  known  as 


Tapioca 

hydrated  cysts.  The  life-history 
of  tapeworms  is  discussed  in  the 
article  Bladder  -  worms.  The 
most  frequent  tapeworms  of  man 
are  Tama  solium,  whose  bladder- 
worm  stage  is  found  in  the  pig; 


Tapeworm. 

A.  Tapeworm  {Tcenia  solium\  B.  Head, 
c.  A  proglottis.  D.  Egg.  E.  Bladder-worm 
stage.  1,  liead ;  2,  proglottides  from 
various  sections  of  body ;  3,  hooks ;  4, 
suckers ;  5,  reproductive  organs. 

and  T.  saginata,  whose  bladder- 
worm  is  found  in  the  ox.  Tape- 
worm is  likely  to  be  acquired  only 
where  meat  is  habitually  eaten 
raw,  or  in  an  imperfectly  cooked 
state.    See  Parasites. 

Tapioca.    See  Cassava. 

Tapir  (Tapirus),  a  genus  of 
perissodactyle  ungulates.  In  all 
the  species  the  cheek  teeth  are 
short-crowned,  and  bear  two 
simple  ridges,  while  there  are  four 
toes  on  the  fore  limb  and  three  on 
the  hind.  The  body  is  bulky  and 
clumsy,  the  legs  are  short,  the 
nose  and  upper  lip  are  prolonged 
into  a  short  and  flexible  probos- 
cis, bearing  the  nostrils  at  its  ex- 
tremity; the  ears  are  not  large, 
and  are  ovate  and  erect,  the  tail 
is  .short  and  the  thick  skin  is 
scantily  covered  with  hair.  The 


Tapir. 


animals  are  alwaj^s  found  in  forest 
region.s,  in  the  vicinity  of  water, 
are  nocturnal  in  habit,  and  shy 


612 

and  inoffensive.  The  lood  con- 
sists of  buds,  leaves,  and  shoots. 
Except  in  the  Malayan  tapir  {T. 
indicus),  the  adults  are  uniformly 
dark  brown,  but  the  young  forms 
are  marked  with  spots  and  stripes 
of  pale  color  on  a  darker  ground. 
Four  species  occur  in  America,  the 
best  known  being  T.  americanus, 
the  common  tapir  of  Brazil  and 
Paraguay;  another  species  (7". 
Rouhni)  is  found  in  the  high 
Andes,  while  the  remaining  two 
occur  in  Central  America.  The 
American  tapirs  are  hunted  both 
for  their  skin  and  their  flesh.  The 
tapirs  afford  an  example  of  a 
primitive  type  of  perissodactyle 
structure,  as  cornpared,  for  ex- 
ample, with  the  highly  specialized 
horse.  The  evidence  goes  to  show 
that  they  originated  in  Europe, 
whence  they  spread  to  America 
and  S.  Asia. 

Tappan  Bay,  or  Tappan  Zee, 
an  expansion  of  the  Hudson  R., 
10  m.  long  and  3  m.  wide.  Rock- 
land CO.,  N.  Y.,  lies  on  the  w. 
and  Westchester  co.  on  the  E. 
The  chief  places  on  its  shores  are 
Nyack,  Tarrytown,  and  Ossining. 

Tappan,  Arthur  (1786-1865), 
American  merchant,  born  at 
Northampton,  Mass.  In  1814 
he  entered  the  importing  business 
in  New  York  city,  and  thereafter 
amassed  a  fortune.  He  was 
widely  known  as  a  philanthropist 
and  abolitionist;  assisted  in  found- 
ing the  American  Tract  Society  and 
Oberlin  College;  established  The 
Emancipator  in  1833;  was  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Anti-Slavery 
Society-  and  was  active  in  many 
other  directions  in  fighting  the 
slave  power.  See  The  Life  of 
Arthur  Tappan  (1871)  by  his 
brother  Lewis. 

Tappan,  Lewis  (1788-1873), 
American  merchant  and  journal- 
ist, born  in  Northampton,  Mass. 
After  engaging  in  cotton  manufac- 
ture in  Boston,  he  went  to  New 
York  (1827),  where,  with  his 
brother  Arthur  (q.v.)  he  estab- 
lished (1828)  the  Journal  of  Com- 
merce, which  remains  one  of  the 
ablest  of  American  newspapers 
devoted  to  financial  questions. 
He  was  an  organizer  of  the  New 
York  Anti-Slavery  Society,  and 
in  1834  his  house  was  damaged, 
and  he  and  his  brother  injured 
by  a  mob  of  slavery  sympa- 
thizers. 

Tappen,  Frederick  D.  (1829- 
1902),  American  financier,  born 
in  New  York  cit)'.  He  grad- 
uated at  New  York  University 
in  1849;  became  a  clerk  in  the 
National  Bank  of  New  York  in 
the  following  year;  and  was 
made  president  of  that  institu- 
tion in  1868.  In  this  position  he 
was  connected  with  the  floating 
of  numerous  government  loans, 
and  with  many  other  great 
financial  undertakings. 

Tappet,  in  engineering,  a  pin 


Taral 

projecting  from  a  moving  shaft, 
which  strikes  or  taps  some  mov- 
ing piece  at  regular  intervals. 
The  valves  of  some  slow-moving 
engines,  such  as  beam  engines,  are 
worked  in  this  way. 

Tapping,  in  surgery,  the  opera- 
tion resorted  to  for  giving  vent  to 
fluid  which  has  collected  in  some 
space,  as  that  of  the  pleura  or 
peritoneum.  It  is  sometimes  per- 
formed by  introducing  one  end 
of  a  small  tube  into  the  cavity 
and  withdrawing  the  fluid  by 
suction.  This  is  termed  a.spira- 
tion. 

Tapti,  riv.,  W.  India,  rises  in 
Central  provinces,  flows  w.,  and 
falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Cambay. 
Length,  450  m.  Drainage  area, 
26,163  sq.  m. 

Tar  is  the  complex  mixture 
of  hydrocarbons  ana  hydrocarbon 
derivatives,  obtained  when  wood, 
shale,  or  coal  is  destructively  dis- 
tilled. It  is  in  general  a  black 
or  very  dark  brown  viscous  liquid 
with  a  distinctive  smell.  The 
principal  kind  of  tar  is  described 
under  Coal  Tar.  The  wood  tar 
collected  in  cavities  below  the 
heaps  in  which  charcoal  is  burned 
is  very  thick,  with  a  strong  empy- 
reumatic  odor.  It  is  acid,  from 
the  presence  of  acetic  acid,  and 
contains  paraffins,  resins,  and 
particularly  the  higher  phenols 
and  aromatic  ethers.  Retort 
wood  tar  is  thinner,  and  contains 
a  greater  proportion  of  paraffins. 
Wood  tar  is  distilled  to  obtain 
creosote.  Paraffin  and  pitch  are 
also  produced.  Wood  tar  is  used 
for  preserving  wood,  rope,  and 
felt,  in  the  preparation  of  an 
ointment  for  skin  diseases,  and  is 
used  internally  for  bronchitis. 
Blast-furnace  tar  yields  anilines, 
phenols,  hydrocarbon  oils,  and 
some  paraffin  wax.  The  oils  ob- 
tained are,  however,  of  little 
value  for  burning  or  lubrication. 
Coke-oven  tar  varies,  according  to 
the  temperature  of  the  process  and 
kind  of  coal  used,  from  a  product 
resembling  blast-furnace  tar  to 
one  very  similar  to  and  as  valu- 
able as  coal  tar. 

Tara.    See  Taro. 

Tara,  hill,  Co.  Meath,  Ireland, 
6  m.  s.E.  of  Navan  ;  site  of  the 
capital  and  palace  of  the  early 
Irish  kings,  and  a  noted  seat  of 
learning. 

Tara  Fern,  the  name  given  to 
the  common  bracken  in  New  Zea- 
land, where  the  rootstock  used  to 
be  a  staple  article  of  food. 

Tarai,  a  dist.  in  the  Kumaun 
division  of  the  United  Provinces, 
India,  having  an  area  of  938  sq. 
m.  It  consists  of  a  narrow  strip 
of  country,  running  for  about  90 
m.  east  and  west  along  the  base 
of  the  Himalayas,  and  covered 
with  dense  jungle  and  pestilential 
swamps — the  haunt  of  elephants, 
tigers,  bears,  and  wolves.  Chief 
town,  Kasipur. 


Taranakl 


613 


Tarde 


Taranaki,  ta'ra-na'ke,  district 
of  New  Zealand,  on  the  west 
coast  of  North  Island.  Butter 
and  cheese  are  its  principal  prod- 
ucts. New  Plymouth  is  practi- 
cally its  only  port.  Pop.  (1926) 
65,569. 

Tarantella,  ta'ran-tel'a,  a  pic- 
turesque Neapolitan  dance  writ- 
ten in  Vs  time,  continually  in- 
creasing in  speed,  with  alternat- 
ing major  and  minor  modes.  It 
was  formerly  regarded  as  a  cure 
for  the  bite  of  the  tarantula  (q. 
V.)  and  for  the  hysterical  affec- 
tion known  as  tarantism  (q.v.). 
The  tarantellas  of  modern  com- 
posers are  popular  as  solos. 

Tar'antism,  or  Tarantulism, 
an  epidemic  dancing  mania  which 
prevailed  in  Italy  during  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries, 
and  which  originated  in  exagger- 
ated dread  of  the  tarantula  (q.v.), 
whose  bite  was  supposed  to  cause 
spasmodic  movements  of  the 
limbs.  It  gradually  died  out  in 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  but  modern  epidemics 
are  not  unknown. 

Taranto,  ta-ran't5  (ancient 
Tarentum),  fortified  seaport',  It- 
aly, in  the  province  of  Lecce,  at 
the  northern  end  of  the  Gulf  of 
Taranto.  It  has  a  naval  arsenal 
and  two  harbors.  The  cathedral, 
the  episcopal  palace  and  the  an- 
cient citadel  now  in  ruins  are 
among  the  principal  buildings. 
Oysters  and  mussel  fisheries  are 
the  chief  industries,  with  manu- 
factures of  superphosphates,  car- 
bonic acid,  barrels,  soap,  oil,  vel- 
vets, and  cottons.  Pop.  55,000. 
See  Tarentum. 

Taran'tula,  a  species  of  ven- 
omous spider.  The  true  taran- 
tula {Lycosa  tarantula),  a  native 
of  the  south  of  Europe,  is  one  of 
the  largest  of  spiders,  an  inch  or 
more  in  length,  and  a  swift  hunt- 
er. Its  bite  is  much  dreaded,  and 
was  long  supposed  to  cause  tar- 
antism (q.v.)  but  as  a  matter  of 
fact  the  bite  is  painful  but  not 
dangerous.  The  American  tar- 
antula is  Eurypelma  hentzi,  a 
large  hairy  mygaloid  spider, much 
dreaded  in  the  Southwestern 
United  States.  See  Bird-Catch- 
ing Spider. 

Tarapaca,  ta'ra-pa-ka',  mari- 
time province  of  Northern  Chile, 
south  of  Tacna.  Much  of  it  is  in  a 
rainless,  desert  region  and  the 
only  habitable  portions  are  along 
the  rivers,  which  are  few  in  num- 
ber and  scant  in  volume.  It  has 
large  deposits  of  nitrate  of  soda; 
silver,  copper,  nickel,  and  gold 
are  mined.  The  capital  is  Iqui- 
que.  The  province  was  taken 
from  Peru  in  1879,  and  ceded  to 
Chile  in  1884.  Pop.  (1920)  100,- 
553. 

Tarapoto,  town,  Peru,  depart- 
ment Loreto;  53  miles  southeast 
of  Moyobamba.  Pop.  9,000. 

Tarare,  ta-riir',  town,  France, 
in  the  department  Rhone,  at  the 


base  of  Mount  Tarare;  20  miles 
northwest  of  Lyons.  It  is  a  centre 
for  the  manufacture  of  muslins, 
velvets  and  silk  plush.  Pop. 
(1926)  11,206. 

Taras'cans,  or  Tarasco,  a 
middle- American  linguistic  stock, 
who,  like  the  Aztecs,  seem  to 
have  migrated  from  the  north. 
Their  kingdom  was  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Michoacan,  and  their  cap- 
ital Tzintzuntzan.  Their  civiliza- 
tion in  some  respects  excelled 
that  of  the  Aztecs,  to  which  the 
ruins  of  their  buildings,  still  large- 
ly unexplored,  their  work  in  gold 
and  silver,  and  their  beautiful 
armor  work  bear  witness.  They 
now  form  the  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  province  of  Michoacan, 
Mexico,  and  were  the  first  of 
the  tribes  to  revolt  against  Span- 
ish rule  (1810). 

Tarascon,  ta-ra-skon'  (ancient 
Tarasco),  commune,  France,  de- 
partment of  Bouches-du-Rhone, 
on  the  Rhone;  10  miles  north  of 
Aries.  It  has  silk  spinning  and 
hat  manufactures.  The  Church 
of  St.  Martha  dates  from  the 
twelfth  century.    Pop.  5,000. 

Tarashcha,  ta-rash'cha,  town, 
Russia,  in  Kiev  government,  58 
miles  south  of  Kiev  city.  There 
are  breweries.  Pop.  15,000. 

Tarawera,  Mount,  tii'ra-wa'- 
ra,  volcanic  mountain  peak  in  the 
Hot  Lake  District  of  North  Is- 
land of  New  Zealand,  which 
burst  into  violent  eruption  on 
June  10,  1886. 

Tarax'acum.  See  Dandelion. 

Tarazona,  ta-ra-tho'na,  city 
and  episcopal  see,  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Saragossa;  46  miles 
northwest  of  Saragossa.  It  is  an 
ancient  Roman  city  (Turiaso), 
and  has  an  interesting  Gothic 
cathedral.  Pop.  9,000. 

T^r'bell,  Edmund  C.  (1862- 
/f3i)<  American  figure  painter, 
was  born  in  West  Groton,  Mass. 
He  studied  at  the  Boston  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts  and  under  Boulanger 
and  Lefebvre  in  Paris  and  after 
1889  for  twenty-three  years  was 
instructor  of  drawing  and  painting 
at  the  Boston  Art  Museum.  He 
was  awarded  the  first  Hallgarten 
Prize  of  the  National  Academy 

(1894)  ,  the  Temple  gold  medal 

(1895)  ,  a  bronze  medal  at  the 
Paris  Exposition  (1900),  the  gold 
medal  of  the  Pennsylvania  Acad- 
emy- (1895,  1908),  and  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Design  (1908, 
1929),  and  many  others.  He  is  a 
member  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy, of  the  National  Institute  of 
Arts  and  Letters,  and  other  simi- 
lar organizations.  He  has  made  a 
specialty  of  outdoor  sunlight 
scenes,  notable  for  their  grace 
and  vigor.  Among  his  paintings 
are  Josephine  and  Mercie  (Cor- 
coran Art  Gallery) ;  Girl  Reading 
(Cincinnati  Museum);  The  Gold- 
en Screen  (Pennsylvania  Acad- 
emy) ;  My  Children  in  the  Woods 
(Boston  Museum).^-^^'^^^''/ 


Tarbell,  Ida  Minerva  (1857- 
j  |,  American  author,  was 
born  in  Erie  County,  Pa.  She 
was  graduated  from  Allegheny 
College,  and  devoting  herself  to 
literary  work,  was  associate  edi- 
tor of  The  Chautauquan  in  1883- 
91.  She  was  associate  editor  of 
McClure's  Magazine  from  1894  to 
1906  and  in  1906-15  was  on  the 
staff  of  The  American  Magazine. 
In  her  historical  and  investiga- 
tional writings  she  adopted  a 
system  of  seeking  her  material, 
as  far  as  possible,  from  first-hand 
sources,  and  gathering  personal 
reminiscences  and  explanations 
from  men  still  living.  Among  her 
published  works  are  A  Short 
Life  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  (1895) ; 
Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln  (2  vols. 
1900) ;  History  of  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  (2  vols.  1904),  a  strong 
indictment  of  the  business  meth- 
ods of  that  concern;  He  Knew 
Lincoln  (1907);  Father  Abraham 
(1909);  The  Tariff  in  Our  Own 
Times  (1911);  The  Business  of 
Being  a  Woman  (1912) ;  The  Ways 
of  Women  (1915);  New  Ideals  in 
Business  (1916);  The  Rising  of 
the  Tide  (1919);  In  the  Footsteps 
of  Lincoln  (1924);  Life  of  Judge 
Gary  (1925);  A  Reporter  fqr 
Lincoln  (1927).  ^  .  j  _  ■ 

Tarbes,  tarb,  town,  France, 
capital  of  department  Hautes- 
Pyrenees,  on  the  Adour;  22  miles 
southeast  of  Pau.  It  has  tan- 
neries, potteries,  paper  mills  and 
sawmills,  and  the  district  is  noted 
tor  its  fine  horses.  The  Cathedral 
dates  from  the  twelfth  century 
and  has  an  interesting  rose  win- 
dow. Pop.  (1921)  26,745. 

Tarboro,  town,  North  Caro- 
lina, county  seat  of  Edgecombe 
County,  on  the  Tar  River,  and 
the  Atlantic  Coast  Line  Railroad ; 
65  miles  east  of  Raleigh.  Pitt- 
man  Hospital  and  Tarboro  Acad- 
emy are  situated  here.  It  has 
cotton  and  knitting  mills,  saw 
and  planing  mills,  cottonseed-oil 
mills,  fertilizer  factories,  and 
municipal  light  and  water  plants. 
Pop.  (1920)  4,568;  (1930)  6,381. 

Tarde,  tiird,  Gabriel  (1843- 
1904),  French  sociologist  and 
criminologist,  was  born  in  Sarlat, 
and  entered  the  legal  profession. 
He  early  contributed  to  the  Revue 
Philosophique,  and  in  1890  pub- 
lished his  great  work  Lois  de  I' 
imitation  (Eng.  trans.,  1908),  in 
which  he  set  forth  his  psycho- 
logical theory  of  society  as  a 
round  of  invention  —  i.e.,  a  new 
thought  or  act  of  any  kind — and 
imitation.  This  idea  he  elabo- 
rated five  years  later  in  his  Log- 
ique  Sociale.  Other  works  are 
La  criminalite  comparee  (1886); 
La  philosophic  penale  (1890,  Eng. 
trans.  1912);  Etudes  penales  et 
sociale s  (1892);  Les  transforma- 
tions du  droit  (1893);  Essais  et 
melanges  sociologiques  (1895); 
L' opposition  universelle  (1897); 
Etudes    de    psychologie  sociale 

Vol.  XL— 030 


Tardieu 


614 


Targum 


(1898);  Les  transformations  du 
pouvoir  (1899);  L' opinion  et  la 
foule  (1901);  Psychologic  econ- 
omique  (2  vols.,  1901);  Under- 
ground Man  (1905). 

Tardieu,  Andre  (1876-  ), 
French  public  official,  was  born  in 
Paris.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Ecole  Normale  Superieure  and  as 
a  young  man  was  Attache  at  the 
Berlin  Embassy.  Later  he  was 
one  of  the  editors  of  Le  Temps 
and  in  1917-18  was  French 
Special  Commissioner  to  the 
United  States.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Peace  Conference  where  he 
was  closely  associated  with  M. 
Clemenceau,  whose  policy  he 
ardently  defended  then  and  later. 
He  was  Minister  of  Public  Works 
of  the  Liberated  Regions  in  1926, 
Minister  of  the  Interior  in  the 
Briand  cabinet,  and  in  1929  was 
chosen  Premier  of  France. 

Tardigra'da,  Bear  Animal- 
cules, or  Sloth  Animalcules, 
an  obscure  order  of  arachnids,  in- 
cluding microscopic  forms  found 
in  standing  water.  The  animah, 
or  in  some  instances  the  eggs  only, 
are  capable  of  being  completely 
dried  without  injury. 

Tare.    See  Vetch. 

Tarentum,  ta-ren'tum  (Greek 
Tar  as),  ancient  Greek  colony  in 
Southern  Italy,  at  the  extreme 
northern  point  of  the  Gulf  of 
Tarentum,  the  only  colony  ever 
founded  (707  B.C.)  by  Spartans. 
It  became  very  prosperous, 
chiefly  owing  to  its  trade  in 
woollen  fabrics.  It  was  taken  by 
Rome  in  272  B.C.  In  the  Second 
Punic  War  it  revolted  in  212,  and 
was  recaptured  in  207  and  severe- 
ly punished;  thenceforward  it  was 
an  ally  of  Rome,  and  afterward 
a  Roman  colony.  It  lost  its  com- 
mercial prosperity,  but  retained 
its  reputation  for  luxury.  See 
Taranto. 

Tarentum,  borough,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  Allegheny  County, 
on  the  Allegheny  River,  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad;  21  miles 
northeast  of  Pittsburgh.  It  has 
plate  glass  factories,  glass  and 
bottle  works,  steel  mills,  and 
manufactures  paper,  tableware, 
tools,  brick,  and  foundry  prod- 
ucts. Pop.  (1920)  8,925;  (193J) 
9,534. 

Target,  any  object  at  which  a 
gun  or  other  weapon  may  be 
aimed,  fired,  or  discharged.  In 
actual  war,  the  target  may  be  a 
man,  troops,  a  fortification  (or 
part  of  one),  a  ship,  or  a  boat. 
For  the  training  of  men  in  marks- 
manship, either  with  small  ar  ns 
or  heavy  guns,  targets  of  man/ 
kinds  are  used.  For  small-arm 
firing  the  recruit  is  tested  in  aim- 
ing at  a  point,  and  then  in  firing 
at  a  target  which  consists  of 
paper  or  cloth  stretched  over  a 
framework,  and  having  a  central 
bull's  eye  and  surrounding  circles 
or  ellipses.  For  further  instruc- 
tion, special  targets  shaped  to 


represent  the  silhouettes  of  men 
lying  down,  kneeling,  or  standing 
are  used;  also  moving  targets. 

Targets  for  field  artillery  are  of 
cloth  stretched  on  frames,  either 
rectangular  or  in  the  shape  of  sil- 
houettes of  men  in  various  posi- 
tions or  groups.  Naval  heavy 
gun  targets  consist  of  large  rect- 
angles of  cloth  (stretched  by 
ropes  to  small  masts),  slat  frame- 
work, and  wire  mesh,  mounted  on 
rafts  towed  at  a  rate  of  speed 
which  is  known  where  individual 
training  is  in  progress,  but  un- 
known for  battle  target  practice. 

For  certain  experimental  work, 
special  targets  are  used.  For 
testing  armor,  the  target  is  made 
to  represent  a  portion  of  a  ship's 
side.  In  investigating  the  effect 
of  gun  fire,  old  vessels  are  some- 
times used.  Torpedo  targets  may 
consist  of  submerged  nets,  but 
for  ordinary  practice  they  consist 
of  two  boats  or  rafts  between 
which  the  torpedo  must  pass  to 
score  a  hit. 

Target  Practice  is  the  culmina- 
tion of  the  training  of  gun  point- 
ers. This  begins  with  instruction 
in  handling  the  piece,  heavy  gun 
or  small  arm.  In  preparing  for 
target  practice  with  the  heavy 
guns  of  naval  vessels  or  fortifica- 
tions using  direct  fire,  the  gun 
pointer  is  trained  at  pointing  at 
a  miniature  target.  This  target 
is  connected  to  a  boom  or  struc- 
ture supported  on  the  gun  mount, 
and  is  susceptible  of  motion  in 
any  direction  across  the  line  of 
sight.  On  a  second  small  target, 
by  means  of  mechanism,  a  hinged 
pencil  makes  a  dot  which  shows 
the  direction  of  the  line  of  sight  at 
the  moment  of  firing,  and  reveals 
any  errors  of  aim.  This  variety 
of  aiming  instrument  was  devised 
by  Captain  Scott  of  the  British 
navy,  and  is  called  a  'dotter'  on 
account  of  the  pencil  dot  it 
makes  on  the  target.  When  exer- 
cising with  the  dotter,  the  gun 
pointer  uses  the  regular  sights  of 
the  gun,  training  and  elevating  it 
to  bring  the  cross  fires  of  the  tele- 
scope sight  on  the  miniature  tar- 
get in  the  same  manner  as  when 
firing  at  a  distant  target. 

The  next  step  in  the  training 
is  sub-calibre  practice.  A  rifle  or 
small  rapid-fire  gun  is  clamped  to 
the  big  gun,  with  the  axes  of  both 
pieces  parallel.  The  training  and 
elevating  gear  and  sights  of  the 
big  gun  are  used,  but  the  small 
one  alone  is  fired.  The  target  is 
placed  at  various  distances,  de- 
pending upon  the  character  of  the 
sub-calibre  piece.  In  the  final 
parts  of  sub-calibre  practice  the 
target  is  towed  at  a  fair  rate  of 
speed,  and  the  ship  which  fires 
is  also  under  way.  Coast  artillery- 
target  practice  is  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  the  navy  practice. 

The  details  of  naval  target 
practice  are  not  published,  and 
change  from  year  to  year  in  near- 


ly all  navies.  The  main  target^ 
are  usually  large — 10  to  30  feet 
high  and  20  to  90  feet  long,  de- 
pending upon  the  calibre  of  the 
gun,  the  character  of  the  practice, 
and  the  particular  navy  using  it. 
Most  of  the  targets  are  of  light 
canvas,  but  netting  and  lattice 
work  are  used.  The  ranges  are 
fairly  long,  3,000  to  10,000  yards, 
with  special  practices  at  greater 
ranges.  Certain  practices  are  de- 
signed to  simulate  battle  condi- 
tions, and  are  called  battle  prac- 
tices. 

Small-arm  practice  is  first  giv- 
en with  short-range  target  am- 
munition, and  this  is  followed  by 
firing  at  regular  ranges  with  full- 
power  ammunition — first  at  tar- 
gets with  bull's  eyes  and  concen- 
tric circles  or  ellipses,  and  after- 
ward at  targets  in  the  field  which 
are  in  the  form  of  silhouettes  of 
men  lying  down,  kneeling,  stand- 
ing, and  mounted;  finally  at 
moving  targets. 

As  artillery  is  used  chiefly 
against  troops,  many  of  its  tar- 
gets are  similar  to  those  for  small 
arms  and  machine  guns,  while 
others  resemble  those  for  heavy 
guns. 

Torpedoes  are  fired  from  ves- 
sels at  high  speed.  The  target 
consists  of  the  space  between  two 
boats  or  rafts  at  anchor  or  towed 
by  another  ship.  The  torpedoes 
carry  the  'exercise'  head,  which 
has  no  explosive  charge,  and  are 
fitted  to  float  for  some  time  after 
discharge,  in  order  to  facilitate 
recovery.    See  Shooting. 

Targoviste,  or  Tergovishte, 
chief  town  of  Dimbovitsa  Coun- 
ty, Roumania,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Carpathians;  47  miles  northwest 
of  Bucharest.  It  has  an  ancient 
cathedral  (founded  1515),  ruins 
of  a  fourteenth-century  palace, 
and  an  arsenal.  In  the  vicinity 
there  are  rich  deposits  of  coal, 
salt,  and  petroleum.    Pop.  16,800. 

Tar'gura,  the  Aramaic  trans- 
lation, or  rather  paraphrase,  of 
the  Old  Testament.  When  He- 
brew, in  post-exilic  times,  had 
become  disused,  translations  into 
the  current  Aramaic  became  nec- 
essary. These  versions  were  com- 
mitted to  writing  (by  the  first 
century  a.d.),  but  those  now  ex- 
tant are  probably  revisions  dat- 
ing from  the  fourth  or  fifth  cen- 
tury A.D. 

The  most  important  of  the 
three  Pentateuch  Targums  is  that 
which  is  named  after  Onkelos, 
probably  a  corruption  of  Akylas 
(Aquila,  a  proselyte,  one  of  Ga- 
maliel's pupils) .  Two  other  Tar- 
gums on  the  Pentateuch  are 
known  as  Targum  Jonathan  ben 
Uzziel  and  Targum  Jerushalmi. 
Joseph  the  Blind,  to  whom  the 
foregoing  Targum  is  ascribed,  is 
the  reputed  author  of  Targums 
on  the  Hagiographa.  Their  date 
is  approximately  between  800 
and  1000  A.D,   The  Targums  on 


Vol.  XL— 030 


Tarifa 


KFF 


615 


Tariff 


Psalms,  Job,  and  Proverbs  were 
probably  contemporaneous  com- 
positions due  to  private  enter- 
prise in  Syria.  The  Targum  on 
the  Book  of  Chronicles  was  prob- 
ably composed  in  Palestine.  By 
900  in  Africa  and  Spain  the  Tar- 
gum had  begun  to  be  disused  in 
public,  Arabic  or  the  national 
language  being  substituted. 

Tarifa,  ta-re'fa,  seaport, 
Spain,  province  of  Cadiz,  at  the 
extreme  south  point  of  the  penin- 
sula ;  21  miles  southwest  of  Gi- 
braltar. There  is  an  ancient 
castle,  besides  a  strong  fortress 
on  an  adjacent  island.  It  carries 
on  tunny  fishing,  and  trades  in 
oranges,  wine,  and  cereals.  Pop. 
13,000. 

Tariff.— In  general  tariff 
means  a  scale  of  charges,  but  in 
the  United  States  it  usually  sig- 
nifies the  schedule  of  duties 
charged  on  the  importation  of 
merchandise  into  a  country. 
These  duties  are  also  called  cus- 
toms duties  and  sometimes  simply 
the  customs.  A  tariff  on  foreign 
goods  may  be  levied  for  three 
chief  purposes:  (1)  to  furnish 
revenue  for  the  government, 
when  it  becomes  simply  a  form 
of  taxation  (see  Taxation  ; 
Free  Trade)  ;  (2)  to  retaliate 
on  other  governments  for  similar 
restrictions,  when  it  becomes  an 
instrument  of  commercial  war- 
fare (see  Commercial  Trea- 
ties ;  Reciprocity)  ;  (3)  to 
foster  home  industries  by  pro- 
tecting them  from  foreign  com- 
petition (see  Protection). 

Tariffs  of  the  first  type,  levied 
on  both  imports  and  exports, 
were  customary  in  the  independ- 
ent political  divisions  of  ancient 
Greece,  and  in  Rome  and  its 
provinces.  Under  the  feudal 
system  of  the  Middle  Ages  the 
imposts  levied  by  each  lord  at  the 
frontiers  of  his  domains  became 
exceedingly  burdensome.  The 
monarchical  government  that 
succeeded  feudalism  reduced  the 
number  of  customs  lines  ;  but  on 
the  Continent  goods  were  still 
subject  to  duty,  not  only  at  na- 
tional, but  at  provincial  and 
sometimes  at  municipal  frontiers. 
In  France  these  local  customs, 
with  the  hardships  entailed  by 
their  imposition  upon  the  neces- 
sities of  life,  formed  a  part  of 
the  economic  and  social  regime 
that  brought  about  and  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Revolution. 

The  tariff  history  of  England 
begins  in  the  tenth  century,  when 
King  Ethelred^  ordered  the  col- 
lection of  duties  on  both  mer- 
chandise and  ships.  Ordinary 
duties,  granted  by  Parliament, 
and  certain  hereditary  duties  of 
the  Crown,  with  some  protective 
duties,  were  levied  by  Edward  i. 
Duties  were  thereafter  granted 
to  the  king  by  Parliament  for  a 
stated  period  or  for  life.  This 


function  of  Parliament  was  dis- 
puted by  Charles  i ;  but  the 
practice  was  continued,  and  in 
the  reign  of  William  and  Mary 
the  grant  was  made  perpetual. 
The  special  tariffs  known  as  Ton- 
nage and  Poundage  (q.  v.)  were 
introduced  in  1347.  The  assign- 
ment of  the  duties  collected  to 
numerous  separate  funds  was 
not  done  away  with  until  the 
passage  of  the  Customs  Consoli- 
dation Act  of  1787. 

United  States. — The  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  (q. 
V.)  was  adopted  at  the  Conven- 
tion of  1787,  resulting  from  the 
Annapolis  Convention  (q.  v.)  of 
1786,  which  was  called  to  con- 
sider questions  of  trade  at  a  time 
when  the  separate  States  levied 
import  duties  ;  and  the  Constitu- 
tion granted  to  the  Federal  Con- 
gress the  right  to  levy  uniform 
duties  and  taxes,  and  to  regulate 
commerce  with  foreign  nations. 

European  practice  and  Hamil- 
ton's theory  made  the  first  tariff 
(1789;  the  first  bill  passed  by 
the  new  Congress)  protective  in 
intent,  though  duties  were  low  in 
comparison  with  modern  protec- 
tive measures.  It  was  amended 
in  1790,  when  the  5-per-cent  rate 
was  increased  in  many  cases  to 
7^  per  cent,  or  on  manufactured 
articles  to  10  per  cent,  and  rates 
on  some  raw  materials  were  re- 
duced. Supplementary  acts,  to 
increase  revenue,  were  passed  in 
1792  and  1794;  and  twenty-two 
more  before  1816,  when  the  first 
period  of  American  tariff  history 
may  be  said  to  end.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  protection  had  begun, 
at  least  in  theory,  and  that  in 
the  years  immediately  before  the 
War  of  1812  the  Embargo  Act, 
the  Non-Intercourse  Act,  and 
other  measures  called  out  by 
British  and  French  'orders'  mark 
the  adoption  of  a  policy  of  re- 
taliation. 

The  close  of  the  War  of  1812 
drove  American  capital  from 
commerce  to  manufactures  ;  and 
the  Act  of  1816,  of  which  the 
main  purpose  was  to  secure  rev- 
enue, seems  to  have  had  a  pro- 
tective intention  also.  A  supple- 
mentary bill  of  1818  was  frankly 
protective.  The  crisis  of  1819, 
and  the  increased  representation 
in  Congress  of  the  Middle  States 
after  1820,  resulted  in  the  adop- 
tion in  1824  of  a  new  law,  rais- 
ing rates — notably  on  raw  wool, 
which  was  to  be  taxed  25  per 
cent  for  one  year,  30  per  cent  for 
the  next,  40  per  cent  in  1826-27, 
and  then  50  per  cent.  The  law 
protected  iron,  wool,  hemp,  and 
sugar,  and  it  marked  the  begin- 
ning of  Henry  Gay's  'American 
system.' 

After  the  crisis  of  1825  the 
protectionists  urged  the  increase 
of  duties  on  wool  to  encourage 
the  woollen  industry.     In  July, 


1827,  wool  growers  and  woollen 
and  other  manufacturers  met  in 
Harrisburg,  Pa.,  to  promote  pro- 
tection. New  England  was  com- 
ing to  favor  protection,  the 
South  to  object  to  it.  The  par- 
tial vote  of  New  England  with 
the  entire  vote  of  the  Middle 
States  and  of  the  West  secured 
in  1828  the  passage  of  the  'Tariff 
of  Abominations'  drawn  up  by 
Silas  Wright  of  New  York, 
which  increased  duties  on  iron, 
hemp,  flax,  and  wool  (the  first 
mixed  duty :  4  cents  per  lb.  with 
additional  40  per  cent  in  1828, 
45  per  cent  in  1829,  and  then  50 
per  cent),  and  which  had  no  real 
economic  basis,  but  was  dis- 
tinctly sectional. 

The  tariff  of  1828  was  super- 
seded by  the  Act  of  1832,  when 
the  minimum  system  was  abol- 
ished and  many  rates  were  re- 
stored to  the  basis  of  the  law  of 
1824.  The  change  did  not 
placate  the  South,  however,  and 
South  Carolina  attempted  to 
remedy  the  'unconstitutional'  ac- 
tion of  Congress  by  'nullifica- 
tion.' The  outcome  was  the 
Compromise  Tariff  of  1833, 
which  provided  for  a  general  re- 
duction of  all  duties  more  than 
20  per  cent,  so  that  they  should 
be  only  20  per  cent  in  1842,  and 
for  the  abolition  of  some  duties. 
But  immediately  after  this  mini- 
mum was  reached  the  Whigs, 
who  were  in  power,  passed  a  new 
protective  act  (Aug.  30,  1842) 
with  a  scale  of  duties  compara- 
ble to  that  of  1832  ;  the  average 
duty  rate  was  33  per  cent. 

Walker  Act. — When  the  Dem- 
ocrats came  into  ofiice  in  1845, 
Robert  J.  Walker,  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  prepared  an  able 
tariff  report,  arguing :  for  the 
collection  of  no  more  taxes  than 
were  required  for  government 
expenses ;  for  no  duties  above 
such  rate  as  would  yield  the 
highest  revenue  ;  that  below  this 
rate  there  be  discrimination,  or, 
'for  imperative  reasons,'  no  duty  ; 
for  a  maximum  revenue  duty  on 
luxuries ;  for  the  abolition  of 
minima  and  specific  duties,  and 
for  the  substitution  of  ad 
valorem  duties ;  and  for  duties 
discriminating  against  no  class 
or  section.  The  Walker  Tariff 
of  1846  provided  for  eight  sched- 
ules ranging  from  one  hundred 
per  cent  (brandy,  other  spirits, 
and  cordials)  through  30  per 
cent  (manufactures  of  iron,  cot- 
ton, wool,  worsted,  etc.)  and  25 
per  cent  (wool,  woollen,  and 
worsted  yarn,  etc.),  down  to  5 
per  cent  (raw  materials),  after 
first  allowing  a  warehouse  priv- 
ilege. This  was  a  real  revenue 
measure,  producing  $46,000,000 
annually,  whereas  the  Act  of 
1842  produced  only  about  $26.- 
000,000  with  very  incidental 
protection.      With    two  slight 


Tariff 


KFF 


616 


Tariff 


modifications  the  Walker  Act 
remained  in  force  until  1857, 
when  it  was  superseded  by  a 
measure  lowering  duties  to  re- 
duce the  revenue. 

In  1861,  with  the  ascendency 
of  the  Republican  Party,  the 
Morrill  Act  attempted  to  restore 
the  duties  of  1846;  but  by  sub- 
stituting specific  for  ad  valorem 
duties,  and  by  increasing  duties 
on  iron  and  wool,  it  was  a  higher 
tariff  than  that  of  1846.  The 
Civil  War  forced  the  adoption 
for  purposes  of  revenue  of  con- 
tinually higher  import  duties ; 
and  tariff  increases  were  also 
made  to  offset  increases  in  the 
internal  revenue,  and  in  part  to 
protect  manufactures. 

Even  before  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War,  Congress  planned  to 
reduce  the  war  tariff,  and  in 
March,  1865,  authorized  the  ap- 
pointment of  three  commission- 
ers to  report  on  a  revision  of  the 
tax  scheme.  Instead  of  reduc- 
ing duties,  Congress,  heeding  the 
popular  dislike  for  the  direct 
tax,  abolished  (between  1866  and 
1872)  all  the  internal  revenue 
taxes  which  in  theory  had  so 
burdened  the  manufacturer  as  to 
make  protective  duties  necessary 
to  compensate.  There  were 
some  redvictions  in  the  Act  of 
1870,  principally  in  raw  materials 
(some  were  put  on  the  free  list), 
and  in  foods — tea,  coffee,  and 
sugar  being  reduced  from  40  per 
cent ;  but  it  raised  the  rates  on 
marble  and  on  steel  rails  by  sub- 
stituting ad  valorem  for  specific 
duties.  The  only  protective  duty 
reduced  was  that  on  pig  iron. 

The  panic  of  1873  furnished 
the  excuse  of  rapidly  decreasing 
revenues  for  a  new  tariff  in 
1875,  which  repealed  the  10-per- 
cent reduction  of  1872,  and  added 
25  per  cent  to  the  duty  on  mo- 
lasses, sugar,  etc.,  and  which 
may  be  said  to  mark  the  close  of 
the  fifteen-year  period  (1860-75) 
in  which  the  Republican  Party 
held  complete  control,  and  pre- 
served with  slight  change  the 
tariffs  of  the  actual  war  period. 

The  unsuccessful  Liberal  Re- 
publican movement  of  1872  had 
its  origin  largely  in  tariff  re- 
form, and  the  Democratic  Partv 
from  time  to  time  made  tariff 
reform  a  party  cry.  In  1877  the 
Democrats  in  the  lower  House 
voted  for  a  resolution  instruct- 
ing the  Committee  on  Ways  and 
Means  to  make  the  tariff  'purely 
and  solely  for  revenue,  and  not 
for  protecting  one  class  of  citi- 
zens by  plundering  another* ;  and 
in  1880  the  Democratic  platform 
declared  for  a  tariff  for  revenue 
only. 

Largely  because  tariff  revenue 
enormously  increased  between 
1878  and  1880,  a  special  tariff 
commission  was  created  in  1882 
by  a  Republican  Congress,  all  of 


the  commission's  members  being 
protectionists.  On  its  report 
(December,  1882)  was  based  the 
general  revision  of  1883,  which 
did  not  change  the  rates  on  most 
agricultural  products.  The  cam- 
paign of  1888  resulted  in  a  vic- 
tory for  the  Republicans,  who  in 
1890  passed  the  act  called,  from 
the  chairman  of  the  Ways  and 
Means  Committee,  the  McKinley 
Act,  but  more  truly  the  work  of 
Nelson  W.  Aldrich,  Senator  from 
Rhode  Island.  This  tariff  no- 
tably reduced  the  revenue.  The 
Republicans  who  had  passed  it 
suffered  a  severe  defeat  in  the 
Congressional  elections  of  1890, 
and  again  in  the  Presidential 
campaign  of  1892,  in  which  the 
tariff  was  a  paramount  issue. 

In  1894  the  Democrats  passed 
the  Wilson  Act,  which  put  wool 
on  the  free  list,  but  not  other 
raw  materials,  as  the  House  and 
the  President  had  planned ;  re- 
duced rates  on  nearly  all  textiles, 
leaving  only  the  ad  valorem  du- 
ties, but  not  reducing  these 
greatly  in  the  case  of  more  ex- 
pensive goods  ;  reduced  the  rates 
on  pig  iron  and  steel ;  and  to 
raise  sufficient  revenue  put  sugar 
on  the  dutiable  list. 

The  Republican  victory  in 
1896,  though  not  on  the  tariff 
issue,  brought  about  the  passage 
(July,  1897)  of  the  Dingley  Act. 
This  reimposed  duties  on  wool, 
and  for  woollen  goods  re-enacted 
in  general  the  rates  of  1890  ;  put 
a  duty  on  hides,  free  since  1872  ; 
lowered  that  on  cotton  goods  be- 
low what  it  had  been  in  1890  ; 
protected  silks  and  linens  by  high 
duties ;  increased  the  duty  on 
sugar,  and  made  it  specific  ;  did 
not  greatly  change  the  metal 
schedules ;  and  made  provision 
for  Reciprocity  (q.  v.). 

The  Dingley  Tariff  remained 
in  force  for  twelve  years,  through 
a  period  of  complete  Republican 
control.  Bvxt  in  the  campaign  of 
1908  the  Republican  Party  was 
driven  to  promise  tariff  revision 
— principally  by  the  popular  no- 
tion that  the  high  tariff  minis- 
tered to  the  great  corporations, 
trusts,  and  monopolies — and  the 
Republican  platform  adopted  a 
new  theory  of  protection :  for 
'the  imposition  of  such  duties  as 
will  equal  the  difference  between 
the  cost  of  production  at  home 
and  abroad,  together  with  a  rea- 
sonable profit  to  American  indus- 
tries.' 

Payne- Aldrich  Tariff. — T  h  e 
Act  passed  by  Congress  in  Au- 
gust. 1909,  was  distinctly  a  high 
tariff  and  a  protective  measure. 
Hides  were  again  put  on  the  free 
list ;  but  this  was  not  done  with 
other  raw  materials,  though 
duties  on  many  were  reduced,  as 
they  were  on  leather,  shoes,  har- 
ness, and  saddlery,  petroleum 
and  mechanically  ground  wood 


pulp.  The  rates  were  increased 
on  the  lower-priced  silks,  on 
mercerized  cotton  (by  a  surtax 
for  mercerization)  and  other  cot- 
tons, on  silk,  on  hemp,  oats,  and 
hops  ;  and  they  were  reduced  on 
many  chemicals,  window  glass, 
fire  brick,  lumber,  coal,  fresh 
meat,  cheap  carpets  and  rugs, 
oilcloth  and  linoleum.  All  Phil- 
ippine products  except  rice, 
sugar,  and  tobacco  were  admit- 
ted free.  Sugar  not  in  excess  of 
300,000  tons  per  annum,  and  to- 
bacco not  in  excess  of  300,000 
pounds  of  wrapper,  1,000,000 
pounds  of  filler,  and  150,000,000 
cigars,  coming  from  the  Philip- 
pines, were  also  admitted  free. 
For  countries  showing  undue  dis- 
crimination, 25  per  cent  ad  va- 
lorem was  to  be  added  to  the 
stated  rates.  Previous  commer- 
cial and  reciprocity  treaties  were 
terminated. 

The  U nderzvood-Simmons  Tar- 
iff Law  of  iPi 5. —With  the  in- 
auguration of  President  Wood- 
row  Wilson  in  1913,  the  Demo- 
crats came  into  full  control  for 
the  second  time  since  the  Civil 
War,  and  on  Oct.  3,  1913,  a  new 
Tariff  Act  was  signed — the  first 
in  fifty-six  years  to  give  gen- 
erally and  substantially  lower 
tariff  duties.  The  average  duty 
on  dutiable  goods  was  lowered 
from  40.05  per  cent  in  1913  to 
33.43  per  cent  in  1915. 

Revenue  Act  of  1916. — Fur- 
ther revenue  pressure,  particu- 
larly in  connection  with  pre- 
paredness arising  from  the 
World  War,  led  to  the  passage 
on  Sept.  8,  1916,  of  an  'Act  to 
increase  the  revenue.'  The  tariff 
provisions  of  this  Act  included  : 

(1)  Special  dyestuffs  items 
were  classified  into  three  groups  : 
Group  I,  entering  without  duty ; 
Group  II,  a  duty  of  15  per  cent; 
Group  III,  a  duty  of  30  per  cent. 

(2)  Assessing  a  duty  of  12  per 
cent  on  printing  paper  above  5 
cents  per  pound  in  value,  and  ad- 
ditional countervailing  duties  if 
a  foreign  government  taxed  ex- 
portation of  raw  materials  for 
making  such  paper. 

(3)  Establishing  the  United 
States  Tariff  Commission,  to  con- 
sist of  six  members  appointed 
by  the  President  (not  more  than 
three  to  be  of  the  same  political 
party)  to  investigate  and  report 
upon  tariff  matters  to  Congress 
annually,  and  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States  or  to  the 
Tariff  Committees  of  the  House 
and  Senate  whenever  requested. 

(4)  Legislation  against  unfair 
competition  :  (a)  Making  unlaw- 
ful importation  and  sale  at  prices 
substantially  less  than  those 
charged  in  the  country  of  origin 
plus  transport  expense;  {b)  for- 
bidding factors'  agreements  in 
the  sale  of  imported  articles. 

(5)  The  enactment  of  retalia- 


Tariff 


KFF 


617 


Tariff 


tory  tariff  powers  empowering 
the  President  (a)  to  prohibit  im- 
portations of  goods  of  any  coun- 
try which  prohibits  the  import 
of  a  like  product  of  the  soil  or 
industry  of  the  United  States ; 
and  {b)  in  case,  during  a  war  in 
which  the  United  States  is  not 
engaged,  any  other  country  pre- 
vents import,  of  United  States 
goods  into  its  own  or  other  terri- 
tory, to  make  proclamation  pro- 
hibiting or  restricting  import 
into  the  United  States  of  similar 
or  other  articles.  Other  retali- 
atory measures  were  also  pro- 
vided for. 

In  the  Act  of  May  27,  1921, 
the  Emergency  Tariff  was 
passed.  This  act  imposed  tem- 
porary duties  upon  certain  agri- 
cultural products  _  to  meet  the 
existing  emergencies. 

Fordncy-McCumber  Tariff. — 
This  tariff  law  was  passed  Sept. 
21,  1922.  Its  advocates  looked 
upon  it  as  a  measure  to  'raise 
revenue  and  to  reduce  unemploy- 
ment,' while  its  opponents  called 
it  'a  bill  to  raise  the  cost  of  liv- 
ing, to  hamper  foreign  trade, 
and  to  retard  the  return  of  pros- 
perity.' 

Among  the  special  provisions 
of  the  Act  were  the  following : 

(1)  The  President  was  given  dis- 
cretionary power  to  impose  addi- 
tional duties  or  prohibition  upon 
imports  from  any  country  dis- 
criminating against  the  foreign 
commerce  of  the  United  States. 

(2)  The  duties  of  the  Tariff 
Commission  were  extended  so  as 
to  better  enable  it  to  assist  the 
President  and  Congress.  (3) 
The  'flexible  tariff'  plan  gave  the 
President  authority  to  raise  or 
lower  any  rate,  not  to  exceed  50 
per  cent.  (4)  The  President 
might  substitute  American  for 
foreign  valuation  whenever  nec- 
essary to  equalize  differences  in 
cost  of  production  at  home  and 
abroad. 

Hawley-Smoot  Tariff. — This 
law  was  enacted  June  18,  1930, 
after  a  bitter  struggle  lasting  for 
eighteen  months.  It  was  passed 
in  the  Senate  by  the  narrow 
margin  of  two  votes.  Its  op- 
ponents characterized  it  as  the 
most  vicious  bit  of  tariff  legis- 
lation ever  enacted  and  its  ad- 
vocates hailed  it  as  the  beginning 
of  renewed  prosperity.  Featvires 
of  the  bill  were  the  flexible  pro- 
vision, somewhat  broader  in 
scope  than  in  the  Act  of  1922, 
the  unprecedented  high  level  of 
agricultural  _  rates,  industrial 
rates  which  in  some  instances 
were  at  a  higher  figure  than 
usual,  and  increased  authority 
for  the  Tariff  Commission. 
Some  of  the  notable  changes  in 
items  from  the  rates  of  1922 
were  increases  in  rates  on  sugar, 
boots  and  shoes,  pig  iron,  silk 
clothes,  rag  rugs,  leather,  hides. 


corn,  eggs,  butter,  brick  and 
wool ;  and  decreases  in  auto- 
mobiles, logs,  precious  stones  and 
carillons. 

Revenue  Acts  of  1932  and 
1934, — The  advent  of  a  Demo- 
cratic administration  in  1932  did 
not  once  again  start  a  reversal 
of  •  the  traditional  Republican 
high  tariff  policy.  The  depres- 
sion made  such  a  move  unpopu- 
lar. Section  3c  of  the  National 
Industrial  Recovery  Act  was  a 
protective  measure  for  industries 
operating  under  codes  of  fair 
practice,  giving  the  President 
power  to  regulate  imports  if  they 
rendered  ineffective  or  threat- 
ened the  maintenance  of  the 
NIRA  codes.  The  Revenue  Acts 
of  1932  and  1934  imposed  taxes 
on  importation  of  certain  items 
which  were  on  the  free  list  of 
the  Hawley-Smoot  tariff  of  1930. 
A  special  provision  states  that 
such  taxes  are  not  to  be  con- 
sidered a  duty  for  the  purposes 
of  Sec.  336  of  the  Hawley-Smoot 
Tariff  Act  of  1930  (the  so-called 
'flexible  tariff  provision'),  and 
therefore  could  not  be  changed. 

Reciprocal  Trade  Agree- 
ments of  1934-35  gen- 
eral new  foreign  trade  policy 
was  developed  by  President  F.  D. 
Roosevelt  and  Secretary  of  State 
Cordell  Hull ;  a  policy  of  de- 
veloping individual  reciprocal 
trade  agreements.  President 
Roosevelt  in  his  message  to  Con- 
gress March,  1934  pointed  out 
the  startling  drop  in  world  trade. 
Exports  in  1933  were  only  52% 
of  the  1929  volume,  and  only 
32%  of  value.  He  strongly  ad- 
vocated a  policy  of  reciprocal 
negotiation.  In  June,  1934,  an 
amendment  to  the  Tariff  Act  of 
1930  was  passed  authorizing  the 
president  to  enter  into  trade 
agreements  and  proclaim  modi- 
fications of  existing  duties,  but 
not  more  than  50%  increase  or 
decrease,  or  transfer  of  items  be- 
tween dutiable  and  free  list. 
The  trade  agreements  authorized 
were  to  be  subject  to  termina- 
tion in  three  years  if  so  desired  ; 
at  which  time  also  the  president's 
authority  to  negotiate  would 
cease. 

Canadian  Trade  Agree- 
ment, 1935, — The  largest  of 
the  new  negotiated  trade  agree- 
ments was  with  Canada.  It  re- 
duced duties  on  over  700  items. 
The  agreement  bound  the  United 
States  to  keep  on  the  free  list 
pulpwood,  wood  pulp,  newsprint 
paper,  logs,  laths,  posts,  etc.,  tm- 
manufactured  asbestos,  certain 
fisheries  products  including  lob- 
sters ;  certain  furs,  crude  arti- 
ficial abrasives,  nickel  ore,  cer- 
tain fertilizers. 

Reductions  in  duty  for  speci- 
fied quantities  of  cattle,  calves, 
dairy  cattle,  cream,  seed  pota- 
toes,  Douglas    fir    or  Western 


hemlock.  Imports  in  excess  of 
specified  quantities  to  pay  old 
rates. 

Reductions  in  duty  on  other 
timber  and  lumber,  Cheddar 
cheese,  turnips,  apples,  hay, 
maple  sugar,  live  poultry,  hali- 
but and  some  other  fish,  patent 
leather,  harness  leather,  fire 
brick,  lime,  talc,  ferro  man- 
ganese, ferro  silicon,  whiskey, 
pulpboard,  and  a  number  of  other 
items. 

Canadian  concessions  can  be 
classified  under  three  headings  : 

(1)  By  virtue  of  the  inclusion 
in  the  agreement  of  the  un- 
conditional most-favored-nation 
clause,  the  United  States  will  re- 
ceive the  benefit  of  lower  duties 
on  several  hundred  commodities. 
There  is  no  obligation  to  main- 
tain this  lower  rate  on  any  of 
these  commodities.  The  promise 
is  merely  that  the  United  States 
will  receive  as  low  a  rate  of  duty 
as  is  accorded  to  any  country 
outside  of  the  British  Empire. 

(2)  Canada  has  'bound'  for  the 
life  of  the  agreement  the  rates 
on  approximately  180  items  or 
sub-items.  About  half  of  these 
bound  duties  are  at  new  rates 
lower  than  any  Canada  currently 
accords  to  any  cotmtry  outside 
the  British  Empire.  (3)  A 
promise  to  introduce  at  the  next 
session  of  Parliament  measures 
designed  to  modify  the  adminis- 
trative provisions  of  the  Cana- 
dian tariff  act  in  relation  to  valu- 
ation in  such  a  manner  as  to  limit 
arbitrary  valuations. 

Swedish  Trade  Agreement, 
effective  Jan.  1,  1936,  provided 
for  general  most-favored-nation 
treatment ;  no  discrimination  in 
quotas  or  through  control  of  ex- 
change ;  no  discrimination  after 
importation  in  way  of  taxes,  fees, 
etc. ;  no  additional  duties, 
charges,  etc.,  or  change  in  basis 
of  assessment  on  articles  covered 
by  agreement. 

Belgian  Trade  Agreement, 

1935,  reduced  47  duties  on 
goods  entering  the  United  States, 
chief  items  being  glass  sand, 
plate  glass,  cement,  low-price 
iron  and  steel,  linen  fabrics, 
hand-made  lace.  The  United 
States  concessions  involve  25% 
of  imports  ;  Belgian  concessions 
involve  38%  of  exports. 

Latin- American  Pacts  went 
into  effect  or  were  pending  in 

1936.  Prior  to  the  one  with 
Cuba  (1934)  that  republic  en- 
joyed preferential  tariff  rates. 
The  new  agreement  was  of  four 
varieties:  (1)  reduction  in  duty, 
with  margin  of  preference  un- 
changed, as  for  example  lard,  re- 
duced from  21.16  pesos  to  5; 
(2)  reduction  in  duty  with  in- 
creased margin  of  preference,  as 
for  example  sugar  cured  hams, 
24  pesos  to  21,  preferences  in- 
creased 20  to  30%  ;   (3)  duty 


Tariff 


KFF 


618 


Tariff 


bound  at  former  level  with  in- 
creased margin  of  preference, 
as  for  example  auto  bulbs,  1.5 
pesos,  preferences  increased  25 
to  60%  ;  (4)  duty  and  preference 
bound,  as  for  example  tractors, 
4%  ad  valorem,  preference  20%. 

Agreem'ent  with  Colombia 
covered  80%  of  imports,  only 
3  reductions.  Concessions  by 
Colombia  cover  165  items,  half 
of  which  are  reduced  16  to  90%  ; 
on  the  remainder  the  duty  is 
bound.  Duties  are  reduced  on 
balsam,  ipecac  and  castor  bean 
imports. 

Agreement  with  Brazil  (1935) 
reduced  duties  on  balsam,  ipecac, 
mate,  manganese  ore,  brazil  nuts, 
castor  beans.  On  the  free  list 
were  put  crude  ipecac  and  mate, 
cocoa  and  cacao  beans,  coffee, 
balata,  cabinet  woods  in  the  log 
and  other  small  items.  Brazil 
reduced  duties  on  23%  of  im- 
ports into  United  States,  cover- 
ing a  wide  variety  of  manufac- 
tured goods  ;  the  reductions  rang- 
ing from  10  to  59%.  _ 

Agreement  with  Haiti  (1935) 
provided  for  thirteen  duty  re- 
ductions by  Haiti  and  the  bind- 
ing against  increase  of  nineteen 
items ;  including  both  manufac- 
tured and  agricultural  articles. 
The  United  States  granted  re- 
ductions on  molasses  and  sugar, 
rum,  pineapples,  etc.  Cocoa 
beans,  coffee,  logwood,  etc.  were 
bound  on  the  free  list. 

Agreement  with  Nicaragua 
(1936)  set  up  a  new  schedule 
of  rates  on  numerous  articles, 
many  of  them  reductions ;  ma- 
chinery and  electrical  equipment 
going  on  the  free  list.  The 
United  States  set  up  a  5%  ad 
valorem  rate  on  balsam,  and  pvit 
all  other  items  of  import  into 
the  United  States  on  the  free 
list — bananas,  ipecac,  coffee,  dye- 
ing woods,  skins  and  cabinet  logs, 
etc. 

In  the  trade  agreement  with 
Switzerland  (1936)  the  most 
important  item  was  Swiss 
watches.  It  set  up  a  system  of 
regulation  of  export  of  watches 
and  watch  movements,  using  ex- 
port permits  which  are  viseed  by 
Swiss  customs  authorities,  in  an 
effort  to  suppress  widespread 
smuggling  into  the  United  States. 
By  such  carefully  audited  system 
this  long-standing  evil  is  to  be 
eradicated.  The  rate  on  watches 
and  watch  movements  imported 
into  the  United  States  is  reduced 
to  90^  to  1.80  each.  Reductions 
on  various  manufactured  and 
agricultural  articles  are  granted 
by  Switzerland. 

The  policy  of  negotiated  trade 
agreements  has  been  continuously 
developed,  with  negotiations 
pending  in  1936  with  several  Eu- 
ropean and  Latin  American 
countries.  The  concessions 
granted  in  the  agreement  with 


Cuba  apply  only  to  imports,  from 
Cuba,  whereas  in  every  other 
trade  agreement  the  concessions 
granted  are  extended  to  all  coun- 
tries of  the  world  except  Ger- 
many. 

Foreign     Trade    Zones, — 

After  years  of  discussion,  and 
a  favorable  report  made  by  the 
United  States  Tariff  Commis- 
sion in  1919,  a  foreign  trade  zone 
plan  was  authorized  by  Con- 
gress in  June,  1934.  The  plan 
calls  for  setting  up  designated 
zones  on  United  States  soil  to 
which  foreign  goods  may  be 
brought  for  manipulation,  but 
not  for  manufacture  or  exhibi- 
tion, and  for  shipment  to  foreign 
countries,  without  payment  of 
duties — or  for  consumption  in 
the  United  States  upon  payment 
of  duties.  The  Secretaries  of 
War,  Treasury  and  Commerce 
constitute  a  board  to  carry  out 
this  act.  The  first  foreign  trade 
zone  was  authorized  in  1936  on 
Staten  Island,  New  York. 

Great  Britain, — At  the  close 
of  the  Napoleonic  wars  heavy 
duties  existed  on  raw  materials, 
most  articles  of  general  consump- 
tion, and  especially  on  food  prod- 
ucts. From  that  time,  however, 
dates  the  beginning  of  the  change 
from  protectionism  to  free  trade 
in  England  ;  and  it  was  the  ex- 
ample of  England  which  brought 
about  the  lowering  of  interna- 
tional tariffs  in  the  period 
1840-60. 

While  reduction  of  duties  in- 
creased consumption  and  restored 
the  revenues,  the  bulk  of  the 
duties  hampering  commerce  still 
remained.  Of  1,150  different 
dutiable  items  in  1840,  9  items 
yielded  six-sevenths  of  the  total 
receipts,  while  349  items  yielded 
only  $40,000.  Such  facts  led  to 
the  reform  of  1842,  by  which  Sir 
Robert  Peel  lowered  the  duties 
on  750  articles,  independent  of 
later  changes  in  the  Corn  Laws. 
The  result  was  an  improvement 
of  trade  and  a  recovery  of  rev- 
enues. In  1845  a  more  radical 
act  removed  450  items,  chiefly 
raw  materials,  from  the  tariff 
list.  The  law  of  1846  brought 
about  a  simple  registration  duty 
of  1^.  per  quarter  on  wheat,  at 
the  end  of  three  years.  In  1849 
foreign  vessels  were  allowed 
equal  rights  with  British  ships 
in  the  foreign  trade,  and  in  1854 
foreign  ships  in  the  coasting 
trade  of  Great  Britain. 

After  the  final  defeat  of  the 
protectionists  in  1852,  Gladstone 
completed  the  reforms  begun  in 
1827  by  establishing  a  full  free- 
trade  system  of  tariffs.  It  was 
his  policy:  (1)  to  abolish  all  un- 
productive duties  ;  (2)  to  abolish 
duties  on  half-manufactured  ar- 
ticles; (3)  to  reduce  duties  on 
fully  manufactured  goods  to  10 
per  cent;  (4)  to  change  ad  valo- 


rem to  specific  duties;  (5)  to 
abolish  differential  duties ;  and 
(6)  to  lower  duties  on  food. 

In  1860  differential  duties  and 
protective  tariffs  on  manufac- 
tured goods  were  abolished,  only 
the  productive  duties  on  about 
fifty  important  articles  of  con- 
sumption being  retained  for  pur- 
poses of  revenue.  Since  that 
time  the  number  of  dutiable  ar- 
ticles was  reduced. 

On  Aug.  19,  1921,  a  new  tariff 
was  voted  for  the  defense  of  es- 
sential industries  providing  a 
tax  of  33>^  per  cent  ad  valorem 
on  goods  imported  from  any 
country  whose  currency  was  de- 
preciated to  a  specified  degree 
below  the  English  level.  Some 
of  the  duties  were  repealed  in 
1924  but  reenacted  in  1925  and 
the  provisions  of  the  safeguard- 
ing of  essential  industries  were 
given  wider  scope. 

In  1932  Great  Britain  made 
an  historic  change  in  policy, 
abandoning  its  traditional  free- 
trade  or  limited  tariff,  position, 
in  effect  since  the  equally  his- 
toric repeal  of  the  'Corn  Laws' 
in  1846.  Prior  to  the  World 
War  British  revenues  were  ob- 
tained from  about  25  noncom- 
petitive commodities,  chiefly  tea, 
coffee,  sugar,  tobacco  and  spirits 
on  a  revenue  basis  ;  but  in  March 
1932  a  temporary  general  tariff 
of  10%  ad  valorem  was  imposed 
on  all  articles  not  already  duti- 
able, except  certain  staples  and 
raw  materials.  In  April  1932 
an  elaborated  tariff  permanent 
schedule  on  manufacturers  rang- 
ing from  10  to  33^3  per  cent  of 
value  was  adopted,  but  not  to 
apply  to  products  coming  from 
British  colonies.  The  Imperial 
Economic  Conference  at  Ottawa 
in  August  1932  resulted  in  12 
bilateral  trade  agreements  to  run 
until  1937,  aimed  to  increase 
purchases  between  the  British 
commonwealths.  These  govern- 
ments and  the  United  Kingdom 
(except  the  Irish  Free  State)  at 
once  proceeded  to  give  the  in- 
creased tariff  preferences  called 
for.  The  Irish  Free  State  set 
up  a  new  series  of  tariff  duties 
and  increases,  in  some  cases  re- 
fusing to  grant  preference  to 
British  Empire  goods.  Contro- 
versial tariffs  were  set  up  by  the 
United  Kingdom  and  the  Irish 
Free  State.  The  quota  restric- 
tions on  imports  of  meat  rep- 
resented the  first  Empire  use 
of  this  device,  which  was  fairly 
general  on  the  Continent.  The 
Irish  Free  State  introduced  a 
system  of  licenses  on  imports  of 
wheat  flour.  The  British  'wheat 
quota  act'  was  a  measure  for  im- 
proving returns  to  English  wheat 
growers.  With  the  new  tariff 
protection  the  United  Kingdom 
began  a  bargaining  process  with 
other  countries. 


TEMPORARY  PAGES  FOR  NELSON'S  L.  L.  ENCYCLOPiEDIA 


To  replace  the  13  Sheets  on  1922  Tariff  between  pages  618  and  619,  Volume  XI. 

United  States  Tariff  Act  of  1930 


The  United  States  Tariff  Act 
of  1930.  The  Hawley-Smoot 
tariff  bill  was  passed  on  June  14, 
1930,  signed  by  President  Hoover 
on  the  17th  and  came  into  effect 
on  the  following  day.  This  new 
Act  reached  the  highest  protec- 
tive level  of  any  tariff  law  ever 
passed,  with  an  average  rate  of 
about  twenty  per  cent  higher 
than  its  predecessor,  the  Ford- 
ney-McCumber  bill  of  1922.  The 
average  rate  on  agricultural  raw 
materials  was  raised  from  38.10 
to  48.92  per  cent,  while  changes 
were  made  in  1,122  rates — 34  per 
cent  of  the  total.  More  than 
thirty  foreign  countries  protested 
against  the  severity  of  the  tariff 
and  threats  of  retaliation  were 
freely  made.  President  Hoover 
insisted  that  the  'flexible'  pro- 
vision of  the  Fordney-McCumber 
Tariff  be  retained;  the  President's 
power  to  proclaim  higher  and 
lower  rates  was  somewhat  re- 
stricted, and  the  Tariff  Commis- 
sion was  reorganized. 

Part  II. — United  States 
Tariff  Commission: 

Sec.  330.  Organization  of  the 
Commission: 

(a)  Membership. — The  United 
States  Tariff  Commission  (re- 
ferred to  in  this  title  as  the 
'commission')  shall  be  composed 
of  six  commissioners  to  be  here- 
after appointed  by  the  President 
by  and  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  Senate,  but  each 
member  now  in  office  shall  con- 
tinue to  serve  until  his  successor 
(as  designated  by  the  President 
at  the  time  of  nomination)  takes 
office,  but  in  no  event  for  longer 
than  ninety  days  after  the  effec- 
tive date  of  this  Act.  No  person 
shall  be  eligible  for  appointment 
as  a  commissioner  unless  he  is  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  and, 
in  the  judgment  of  the  President, 
is  possessed  of  qualifications 
requisite  for  developing  expert 
knowledge  of  tariff  problems  and 
efficiency  in  administering  the 
provisions  of  Part  U  of  this  title. 
Not  more  than  three  of  the  com- 
missioners shall  be  members  of 
the  same  political  party,  and  in 
making  appointments  members 
of  different  political  parties  shall 
be  appointed  alternately  as  near- 
ly as  may  be  practicable. 

(b)  Terms  of  Office. — Terms  of 
office  of  the  commissioners  first 
taking  office  after  the  date  of  the 
enactment  of  this  Act,  shall  ex- 
pire, as  designated  by  the  Presi- 
dent at  the  time  of  nomination, 
one  at  the  end  of  each  of  the 
first  six  years  after  the  date  of  the 
enactment  of  this  Act.  The  term 
of  office  of  a  successor  to  any 
such  commissioner  shall  expire 
six  years  from  the  date  of  the  ex- 


piration of  the  term  for  which  his 
predecessor  was  appointed,  ex- 
cept that  any  commissioner  ap- 
pointed to  fill  a  vacancy  occur- 
ring prior  to  the  expiration  of  the 
term  for  which  his  predecessor 
was  appointed,  shall  be  appoint- 
ed for  the  remainder  of  such 
term. 

(c)  Chairman,  Vice  Chairman, 
and  Salary. — The  President  shall 
annually  designate  one  of  the 
commissioners  as  chairman  and 
one  as  vice  chairman  of  the  com- 
mission. The  vice  chairman  shall 
act  as  chairman  in  case  of  the 
absence  or  disability  of  the 
chairman.  A  majority  of  the 
commissioners  in  office  shall  con- 
stitute a  quorum,  but  the  com- 
mission may  function  notwith- 
standing vacancies.  Each  com- 
missioner (including  members  in 
office  on  the  date  of  the  enact- 
ment of  this  Act)  shall  receive  a 
salary  of  $11,000  a  year.  No 
commissioner  shall  actively  en- 
gage in  any  other  business,  voca- 
tion, or  employment  than  that  of 
serving  as  a  commissioner. 

Sec.  331.    General  Powers. 

(a)  Personnel. — The  commis- 
sion shall  appoint  a  secretary, 
who  shall  receive  a  salary  of 
$7,500  per  year,  and  the  com- 
mission shall  have  authority  to 
employ  and  fix  the  compensa- 
tions of  such  special  experts,  ex- 
aminers, clerks,  and  other  em- 
ployees as  the  commission  may 
from  time  to  time  find  necessary 
for  the  proper  performance  of  its 
duties. 

(b)  A  pplication  of  Civil  Service 
Law. — With  the  exception  of  the 
secretary,  a  clerk  to  each  com- 
missioner, and  such  special  ex- 
perts as  the  commisvsion  may 
from  time  to  time  find  necessary 
for  the  conduct  of  its  work,  all 
employees  of  the  commission 
shall  be  appointed  from  lists  of 
eligibles  to  be  supplied  by  the 
Civil  Service  Commission  and  in 
accordance  with  the  civil  service 
law. 

(c)  Expenses. — All  of  the  ex- 
penses of  the  commission,  in- 
cluding all  necessary  expenses 
for  transportation  incurred  by 
the  commissioners  or  by  their 
employees  under  their  orders  in 
making  any  investigation  or  upon 
official  business  in  any  other 
places  than  at  their  respective 
headquarters,  shall  be  allowed 
and  paid  on  the  presentation  of 
itemized  vouchers  therefor  ap- 
proved by  the  commission. 

(d)  Offices  and  Supplies. — Un- 
less otherwise  provided  by  law, 
the  commission  may  rent  suitable 
offices  for  its  use,  and  purchase 
such  furniture,  equipment,  and 
supplies  as  may  be  necessary. 


(e)  Principal  Office  at  Wash- 
ington.— The  principal  oflfice  of 
the  commission  shall  be  in  the 
city  of  Washington,  but  it  may 
meet  and  exercise  all  its  powers 
at  any  other  place.  The  commis- 
sion may,  by  one  or  more  of  its 
members,  or  by  such  agents  as  it 
may  designate,  prosecute  any  in- 
quiry necessary  to  its  duties  in 
any  part  of  the  United  States  or 
in  any  foreign  country. 

(f)  Office  at  New  York. — The 
commission  is  authorized  to 
establish  and  maintain  an  office 
at  the  port  of  New  York  for  the 
purpose  of  directing  or  carrying 
on  any  investigation,  receiving 
and  compiling  statistics,  select- 
ing, describing,  and  filing  samples 
of  articles,  and  performing  any 
of  the  duties  or  exercising  any  of 
the  powers  imposed  upon  it  by 
law. 

(g)  Official  Seal. — The  com- 
mission is  authorized  to  adopt  an 
ofificial  seal,  which  shall  be  judi- 
cially noticed. 

Section  332.  Investigations. 

(a)  Investigations  and  Reports. 
— It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
commission  to  investigate  the 
administration  and  fiscal  and  in- 
dustrial effects  of  the  customs 
laws  of  this  country  now  in 
force  or  which  may  be  hereafter 
enacted,  the  relations  between 
the  rates  of  duty  on  raw  mate- 
rials and  finished  or  partly  finished 
products,  the  effects  of  ad 
valorem  and  specific  duties  and 
of  compound  specific  and  ad 
valorem  duties,  all  questions  rela- 
tive to  the  arrangement  of 
schedules  and  classification  of 
articles  in  the  several  schedules  of 
the  customs  law,  and,  in  general, 
to  investigate  the  operation  of 
.customs  laws,  including  their  re- 
lation to  the  Federal  revenues, 
their  effect  upon  the  industries 
and  labor  of  the  country,  and  to 
submit  reports  of  its  investiga- 
tions as  hereafter  provided. 

(b)  Investigations  of  Tariff  Re- 
lations.— The  commission  shall 
have  power  to  investigate  the 
tariff  relations  between  the  Unit- 
ed States  and  foreign  countries, 
commercial  treaties,  preferential 
provisions,  economic  alliances, 
the  effect  of  export  bounties  and 
preferential  transportation  rates, 
the  volume  of  importations  com- 
pared with  domestic  production 
and  consumption,  and  conditions, 
causes,  and  effects  relating  to 
competition  of  foreign  industries 
with  those  of  the  United  States, 
including  dumping  and  cost  of 
production. 

(c)  Investigation  of  Paris  Econ- 
omy Pact. — The  commission  shall 
have  power  to  investigate  the 
Paris  Economy  Pact  and  similar 


Tariff 


2 


Tariff 


organizations  and  arrangements 
in  Europe. 

(d)  Information  for  President 
and  Congress. — In  order  that  the 
President  and  the  Congress  may 
secure  information  and  assist- 
ance, it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
commission  to — 

(1)  Ascertain  conversion  costs 
and  costs  of  production  in  the 
principal  growing,  producing, 
or  manufacturing  centres  of 
the  United  States  of  articles  of 
the  United  States,  whenever  in 
the  opinion  of  the  commission 
it  is  practicable; 

(2)  Ascertain  conversion  costs 
and  costs  of  production  in  the 
principal  growing,  producing, 
or  manufacturing  centres  of 
foreign  countries  of  articles  im- 
ported into  the  United  States, 
whenever  in  the  opinion  of  the 
commission  such  conversion 
costs  or  costs  of  production  are 
necessary  for  comparison  with 
conversion  costs  or  costs  of  pro- 
duction in  the  United  States  and 
can  be  reasonably  ascertained ; 

(3)  Select  and  describe  articles 
which  are  representative  of  the 
classes  or  kinds  of  articles  im- 
ported into  the  United  States 
and  which  are  similar  to  or 
comparable  with  articles  of  the 
United  States;  select  and  de- 
scribe articles  of  the  United 
States  similar  to  or  comparable 
with  such  imported  articles; 
and  obtain  and  file  samples  of 
articles  so  selected,  whenever 
the  commission  deems  it  ad- 
visable; 

(4)  Ascertain  import  costs  of 
such  representative  articles  so 
selected ; 

(5)  Ascertain  the  grower's, 
producer's,  or  manufacturer's 
selling  prices  in  the  principal 
growing,  producing,  or  manu- 
facturing centres  of  the  United 
States  of  the  articles  of  the 
United  States  so  selected;  and 

(6)  Ascertain  all  other  facts 
which  will  show  the  differences 
in  or  which  affect  competition 
between  articles  of  the  United 
States  and  imported  articles  in 
the  principal  markets  of  the 
United  States. 

(e)  Definitions. — When  used  in 
this  subdivision  and  in  subdivi- 
sion (d) — 

(1)  The  term  'article'  includes 
any  commodity,  whether 
grown,  produced,  fabricated, 
manipulated,  or  manufactured; 

(2)  The  term  'import  cost' 
means  the  price  at  which  an 
article  is  freely  offered  for  vsale 
in  the  ordinary  course  of  trade 
in  the  usual  wholesale  quan- 
tities for  exportation  to  the 
United  States  plus,  when  not 
included  in  such  price,  all 
necessary  expenses,  exclusive 
of  customs  duties,  of  bringing 
such  imported  article  to  the 
United  States. 

(f)  The  Tariff  Commission  is 
hereby    directed,    within  eight 

Vol.  XI.— 31-M 


months  from  the  passage  of  this 
Act,  to  ascertain  the  approxi- 
mate average  cost  per  barrel  to 
the  oil  refineries  located  on  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  of  crude  petro- 
leum delivered  to  them  from 
the  oil  fields  of  the  United  States 
during  the  three  years  preceding 
1930,  and  the  present  approxi- 
mate average  cost  per  barrel  of 
crude  petroleum  from  Lake  Mar- 
acaibo,  Venezuela,  delivered  to 
the  same  points.  Such  relative 
costs  shall  be  immediately  certi- 
fied to  the  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  and  to  the 
President  of  the  Senate  for  the 
information  of  the  Congress. 

(g)  Reports  to  President  and 
Congress.— Tho:  commission  shall 
put  at  the  disposal  of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  the 
Committee  on  Ways  and  Means 
of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
and  the  Committee  on  Finance  of 
the  Senate,  whenever  requested, 
all  information  at  its  command, 
and  shall  make  such  investiga- 
tions and  reports  as  may  be  re- 
quested by  the  President  or  by 
either  of  said  committees  or  by 
either  branch  of  the  Congress, 
and  shall  report  to  Congress  on 
the  first  Monday  of  December  of 
each  year  hereafter  a  statement 
of  the  methods  adopted  and  all 
expenses  incurred,  and  a  sum- 
mary of  all  reports  made  during 
the  year. 

See.  333.  Testimony  and  Pro- 
duction of  Papers. 

(a)  Authority  to  Obtain  In- 
formation.— For  the  purposes  of 
carrying  Part  II  of  this  title  into 
effect  the  commission  or  its  duly 
authorized  agent  or  agents,  shall 
have  access  to  and  the  right  to 
copy  any  document,  paper,  or 
record,  pertinent  to  the  subject 
matter  under  investigation,  in 
the  possession  of  any  person,  firm, 
copartnership,  corporation,  or  as- 
sociation engaged  in  the  produc- 
tion, importation,  or  distribution 
of  any  article  under  investiga- 
tion, and  shall  have  power  to 
summon  witnesses,  take  testi- 
mony, administer  oaths,  and  to 
require  any  person,  firm,  copart- 
nership, corporation,  or  associa- 
tion to  produce  books  or  papers 
relating  to  any  matter  pertaining 
to  such  investigation.  Any  mem- 
ber of  the  commission  may  sign 
subpoenas,  and  members  and 
agents  of  the  commission,  when 
authorized  by  the  commission, 
may  administer  oaths  and  affir- 
mations, examine  witnesses,  take 
testimony,  and  receive  evidence. 


Sec.  336.  Equalization  of  Costs 
of  Production. 

(a)  Change  of  Classification  or 
Duties. — In  order  to  put  into 
force  and  effect  the  policy  of 
Congress  by  this  Act  intended, 
the  commission  (1)  upon  requesc 
of  the  President,  or  (2)  upon 
resolution    of    either    or  both 


Houses  of  Congress,  or  (3)  upon 
its  own  motion,  or  (4)  when  in  the 
judgment  of  the  commission 
there  is  good  and  sufficient  reason 
therefor,  upon  application  of  any 
interested  party,  shall  investigate 
the  differences  in  the  costs  of  pro- 
duction of  any  domestic  article 
and  of  any  like  or  similar  foreign 
article.  In  the  course  of  the  in- 
vestigation the  commission  shall 
hold  hearings  and  give  reasonable 
public  notice  thereof,  and  shall 
afford  reasonable  opportunity  for 
parties  interested  to  be  present, 
to  produce  evidence,  and  to  be 
heard  at  such  hearings.  The 
commission  is  authorized  to 
adopt  such  reasonable  procedure 
and  rules  and  regulations  as  it 
deems  necessary  to  execute  its 
functions  under  this  section.  The 
commission  shall  report  to  the 
President  the  results  of  the  in- 
vestigation and  its  findings  with 
respect  to  such  differences  in 
costs  of  production.  If  the  com- 
mission finds  it  shown  by  the 
investigation  that  the  duties  ex- 
pressly fixed  by  statute  do  not 
equalize  the  differences  in  the 
costs  of  production  of  the  domes- 
tic article  and  the  like  or  similar 
foreign  article  when  produced  in 
the  principal  competing  country, 
the  commission  shall  specify  in 
its  report  such  increases  or  de- 
creases in  rates  of.  duty  expressly 
fixed  by  statute  (including  any 
necessary  change  in  classifica- 
tion) as  it  finds  shown  by  the  in- 
vestigation to  be  necessary  to 
equahze  such  differences.  In  no 
case  shall  the  total  increase  or  de- 
crease of  such  rates  of  duty  ex- 
ceed 50  per  centum  of  the  rates 
expressly  fixed  by  statute. 

(b)  Change  to  American  Selling 
Price. — If  the  commission  finds 
upon  any  such  investigation  that 
such  differences  can  not  be  equal- 
ized by  proceeding  as  hereinbe- 
fore provided,  it  shall  so  state  in 
its  report  to  the  President  and 
shall  specify  therein  such  ad 
valorem  rates  of  duty  based  upon 
the  American  selling  price  (as 
defined  in  section  402  (g)  )  of  the 
domestic  article,  as  it  finds  shown 
by  the  investigation  to  be  neces- 
sary to  equalize  such  differences. 
In  no  case  shall  the  total  decrease 
of  such  rates  of  duty  exceed  50 
per  centum  of  the  rates  expressly 
fixed  by  statute,  and  no  such 
rate  shall  be  increased. 

(c)  Proclamation  by  the  Presi- 
dent.— The  President  shall  by 
proclamation  approve  the  rates 
of  duty  and  changes  in  classifica- 
tion and  in  basis  of  value  specified 
in  any  report  of  the  commission 
under  this  section,  if  in  his  judg- 
ment such  rates  of  duty  and 
changes  are  shown  by  such  in- 
vestigation of  the  commission  to 
be  necevssary  to  equalize  such 
differences  in  costs  of  production. 

(d)  Effective  Dale  of  Rates  and 
Changes.  —  Commencing  thirty 
days  after  the  date  of  any  presi- 


Tariff 


3 


Tariff 


dential  proclamation  of  approval 
the  increased  or  decreased  rates 
of  duty  and  changes  in  classifica- 
tion or  in  basis  of  value  specified 
in  the  report  of  the  commission 
shall  take  effect. 

(e)  Ascertainment  of  Differ- 
ences in  Costs  of  Production. — In 
ascertaining  under  this  section 
the  differences  in  costs  of  produc- 
tion, the  commission  shall  take 
into  consideration,  in  so  far  as  it 
finds  it  practicable: 

(1)  In  the  Case  of  a  Domestic 
Article. — (A)  The  cost  of  pro- 
duction as  hereinafter  in  this 
section  defined;  (B)  transpor- 
tation costs  and  other  costs 
incident  to  delivery  to  the 
principal  market  or  markets  of 
the  United  States  for  the  ar- 
ticle; and  (C)  other  relevant 
factors  that  constitute  an  ad- 
vantage or  disadvantage  in 
competition. 

(2)  In  the  Case  of  a  Foreign 
Article. — (A)  The  cost  of  pro- 
duction as  hereinafter  in  this 
section  defined,  or,  if  the  com- 
mission finds  that  such  cost  is 
not  readily  ascertainable,  the 
commission  may  accept  as 
evidence  thereof,  or  as  supple- 
mental thereto,  the  weighted 
average  of  the  invoice  prices  or 
values  for  a  representative 
period  and/or  the  average 
wholesale  selling  price  for  a 
representative  period  (which 
price  shall  be  that  at  which  the 
article  is  freely  offered  for  sale 
to  all  purchasers  in  the  princi- 
pal market  or  markets  of  the 
principal  competing  country  or 
countries  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  trade  and  in  the 
usual  wholesale  quantities  in 
such  market  or  markets) ;  ('B) 
transportation  costs  and  other 
costs  incident  to  delivery  to 
the  principal  market  or  mar- 
kets of  the  United  States  for 
the  article;  (C)  other  relevant 
factors  that  constitute  an  ad- 
vantage or  disadvantage  in 
competition,  including  advan- 
tages granted  to  the  foreign  pro- 
ducers by  a  government,  person, 
partnership,  corporation,  or 
association  in  a  foreign  country. 

(f)  Modification  of  Changes  in 
Duly. — Any  increased  or  de- 
creased rate  of  duty  or  change  in 
classification  or  in  basis  of  value 
which  has  taken  effect  as  above 
provided  may  be  modified  or 
terminated  in  the  same  manner 
and  subject  to  the  same  condi- 
tions and  limitations  (including 
time  of  taking  effect)  as  is  pro- 
vided in  this  section  in  the  case  of 
original  increases,  decreases,  or 
changes. 

(g)  Prohibition  Against  Trans- 
fers from  the  Free  List  to  the 
Dutiable  List  or  from  the  Dutiable 
List  to  the  Free  List. — Nothing  in 
this  section  shall  be  construed  to 
authorize  a  transfer  of  an  article 
from  the  dutiable  list  to  the  free 
list  or  from  the  free  list  to  the 


dutiable  list,  nor  a  change  in  form 
of  duty.  Whenever  it  is  provided 
in  any  paragraph  of  Title  I  of 
this  Act,  or  in  any  amendatory 
Act,  that  the  duty  or  duties  shall 
not  exceed  a  specified  ad  valorem 
rate  upon  the  articles  provided 
for  in  such  paragraph,  no  rate  de- 
termined under  the  provisions  of 
this  section  upon  such  articles 
shall  exceed  the  maximum  ad 
valorem  rate  so  specified. 

(h)  Definitions. — For  the  pur- 
pose of  this  section — 

(1)  The  term  'domestic  article' 
means  an  article  wholly  or  in 
part  the  growth  or  product  of 
the  United  States;  and  the 
term  'foreign  article'  means  an 
article  wholly  or  in  part  the 
growth  or  product  of  a  foreign 
country. 

(2)  The  term  'United  States' 
includes  the  several  States  and 
Territories  and  the  District  of 
Columbia. 

(3)  The  term  'foreign  country' 
means  any  empire,  country, 
dominion,  colony,  or  protecto- 
rate, or  any  subdivision  or  sub- 
divisions thereof  (other  than 
the  United  States  and  its  pos- 
sessions) . 

(4)  The  term  'cost  of  produc- 
tion,' when  applied  with  re- 
spect to  either  a  domestic 
article  or  a  foreign  article,  in- 
cludes, for  a  period  which  is 
representative  of  conditions  in 
production  of  the  article:  (A) 
The  price  or  cost  of  materials, 
labor  costs,  and  other  direct 
charges  incurred  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  article  and  in  the 
processes  or  methods  employed 
in  its  production;  (B)  the 
usual  general  expenses,  includ- 
ing charges  for  depreciation  or 
depletion  which  are  repre- 
sentative of  the  equipment  and 
property  employed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  article  and 
charges  for  rent  or  interest 
which  are  representative  of  the 
cost  of  obtaining  capital  or  in- 
struments of  production;  and 
(C)  the  cost  of  containers  and 
coverings  of  whatever  nature, 
and  other  costs,  charges,  and 
expenses  incident  to  placing 
the  article  in  condition  packed 
ready  for  delivery. 

(i)  Rules  and  Regulations  of 
President. — The  President  is  au- 
thorized to  make  all  needful  rules 
and  regulations  for  carrying  out 
his  functions  under  the  provi- 
sions of  this  section. 

(j)  Rules  and  Regulations  of 
Secretary  of  Treasury. — The  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury  is  author- 
ized to  make  such  rules  and  regu- 
lations as  he  may  deem  necessary 
for  the  entry  and  declaration  of 
foreign  articles  of  the  class  or 
kind  of  articles  with  respect  to 
which  a  change  in  basis  of  value 
has  been  made  under  the  provi- 
sions of  subdivision  (b)  of  this 
section,  and  for  the  form  of  in- 
voice required  at  time  of  entry. 


(k)  Investigations  Prior  to  En- 
actment of  Act. — All  uncompleted 
investigations  instituted  prior  to 
the  approval  of  this  Act  under 
the  provisions  of  section  315  of 
the  Tariff  Act  of  1922,  including 
investigations  in  which  the  Presi- 
dent has  not  proclaimed  changes 
in  classification  or  in  basis  of 
value  or  increases  or  decreases  in 
rates  of  duty,  shall  be  dismissed 
without  prejudice;  but  the  infor- 
mation and  evidence  secured  by 
the  commission  in  any  such  in- 
vestigation may  be  given  due  con- 
sideration in  any  investigation 
instituted  under  the  provisions  of 
this  section. 

Sec.  337.  Unfair  Practices  in 
Import  Trade. 

(a)  Unfair  Methods  of  Compe- 
tition Declared  Unlawful. — Un- 
fair methods  of  competition  and 
unfair  acts  in  the  importation  of 
articles  into  the  United  States,  or 
in  their  sale  by  the  owner,  im- 
porter, consignee,  or  agent  of 
either,  the  effect  or  tendency  of 
which  is  to  destroy  or  substantial- 
ly injure  an  industry,  efficiently 
and  economically  operated,  in  the 
United  States,  or  to  prevent  the 
establishment  of  such  an  industry 
or  to  restrain  or  monopolize 
trade  and  commerce  in  the 
United  States,  are  hereby  declar- 
ed unlawful,  and  when  found  by 
the  President  to  exist  shall  be 
dealt  with,  in  addition  to  any 
other  provisions  of  law,  as  here- 
inafter provided. 

(b)  Investigations  of  Violations 
by  Commission. — To  assist  the 
President  in  making  any  decisions 
under  this  section  the  commission 
is  hereby  authorized  to  investi- 
gate any  alleged  violation  hereof 
on  complaint  under  oath  or  upon 
its  initiative. 

(c)  Hearings  and  Review. — 
The  commission  shall  make  such 
investigation  under  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  such  rules  as  it 
may  promulgate  and  give  such 
notice  and  afford  such  hearing, 
and  when  deemed  proper  by  the 
commission  such  rehearing,  with 
opportunity  to  offer  evidence, 
oral  or  written,  as  it  may  deem 
sufficient  for  a  full  presentation 
of  the  facts  involved  in  such  in- 
vestigation. The  testimony  in 
every  such  investigation  shall  be 
reduced  to  writing,  and  a  trans- 
cript thereof  with  the  findings 
and  recommendation  of  the  com- 
mission shall  be  the  official  record 
of  the  proceedings  and  findings 
in  the  case,  and  in  any  case  where 
the  findings  in  such  investigation 
show  a  violation  of  this  section,  a 
copy  of  the  findings  shall  be 
promptly  mailed  or  delivered  to 
the  importer  or  consignee  of  such 
articles.  Such  findings,  if  sup- 
ported by  evidence,  shall  be  con- 
clusive, except  that  a  rehearing 
may  be  granted  by  the  commis- 
sion and  except  that,  within  such 
time  after  said  findings  are  made 
and  in  such  manner  as  appeals 


Vol.  XI.— 31-M 


Tariff 


4 


Tariff 


may  be  taken  from  decisions  of 
the  United  States  Customs  Court, 
an  appeal  may  be  taken  from  said 
findings  upon  a  question  or  ques- 
tions of  law  only  to  the  United 
States  Court  of  Customs  and 
Patent  Appeals  by  the  importer 
or  consignee  of  such  articles.  If 
it  shall  be  shown  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  said  court  that  further 
evidence  should  be  taken,  and 
that  there  were  reasonable 
grounds  for  the  failure  to  adduce 
such  evidence  in  the  proceedings 
before  the  commission,  said  court 
may  order  such  additional  evi- 
dence to  be  taken  before  the  com- 
mission in  such  manner  and  upon 
such  terms  and  conditions  as  to 
the  court  may  seem  proper.  The 
commission  may  modify  its 
findings  as  to  the  facts  or  make 
new  findings  by  reason  of  addi- 
tional evidence,  which,  if  sup- 
ported by  evidence,  shall  be  con- 
clusive as  to  the  facts  except  that 
within  such  time  and  in  such 
manner  an  appeal  may  be  taken 
as  aforesaid  upon  a  question  or 
questions  of  law  only.  The 
judgment  of  said  court  shall  be 
final. 

(d)  Transmission  of  Findings 
to  President. — The  final  findings 
of  the  commission  shall  be  trans- 
mitted with  the  record  to  the 
President. 

(e)  Exclusion  of  Articles  from 
Entry. — Whenever  the  existence 
of  any  such  unfair  method  or  act 
shall  be  established  to  the  satisfac 
tion  of  the  President  he  shall  di- 
rect that  the  articles  concerned  in 
such  unfair  methods  or  acts,  im- 
ported by  any  person  violating 
the  provisions  of  this  Act,  shall  be 
excluded  from  entry  into  the 
United  States,  and  upon  informa- 
tion of  such  action  by  the  Presi- 
dent, the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury shall,  through  the  proper 
officers,  refuse  such  entry.  The 
decision  of  the  President  shall  be 
conclusive. 

(f)  Entry  Under  Bond. — When- 
ever the  President  has  reason  to 
believe  that  any  article  is  offered 
or  sought  to  be  offered  for  entry 
into  the  United  States  in  viola- 
tion of  this  section  but  has  not  in- 
formation sufficient  to  satisfy 
him  thereof,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  shall,  upon  his  request 
in  writing,  forbid  entry  thereof 
until  such  investigation  as  the 
President  may  deem  necessary 
shall  be  completed;  except  that 
such  articles  shall  be  entitled  to 
entry  under  bond  prescribed  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

(g)  Continuance  of  Exclusion. 
— Any  refusal  of  entry  under  this 
section  shall  continue  in  effect 
until  the  President  shall  find  and 
instruct  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  that  the  conditions 
which  led  to  such  refusal  of  entry 
no  longer  exist. 

(h)  Definition. — When  used  in 
this  section  and  in  sections  338 
and    340,    the    term  'United 

Vol.  XI —31  M 


States'  includes  the  several  State  i 
and  Territories,  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and  all  possessions  of 
the  United  States  except  the 
Philippine  Islands,  the  Virgin 
Islands,  American  Samoa,  and 
the  island  of  Guam. 

Sec.  338.  Discrimination  by 
Foreign  Countries. 

(a)  Additional  Duties. — The 
President  when  he  finds  that  the 
public  interest  will  be  served 
thereby  shall  by  proclamation 
specify  and  declare  new  or  ad- 
ditional duties  as  hereinafter  pro- 
vided upon  articles  wholly  or  in 
part  the  growth  or  product  of,  or 
imported  in  a  vessel  of,  any 
foreign  country  whenever  he 
shall  find  as  a  fact  that  such 
country — 

(1)  Imposes,  directly  or  in- 
directly, upon  the  disposition 
in  or  transportation  in  transit 
through  or  reexportation  from 
such  country  of  any  article 
wholly  or  in  part  the  growth  or 
product  of  the  United  States 
any  unreasonable  charge,  ex- 
action, regulation,  or  limita- 
tion which  is  not  equally  en- 
forced upon  the  like  articles  of 
every  foreign  country;  or 

(2)  Discriminates  in  fact 
against  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States,  directly  or  in- 
directly, by  law  or  administra- 
tive regulation  or  practice,  by 
or  in  respect  to  any  customs, 
tonnage,  or  port  duty,  fee, 
charge,  exaction,  classification, 
regulation,  condition,  restric- 
tion, or  prohibition,  in  such 
manner  as  to  place  the  com- 
merce of  the  United  States  at  a 
disadvantage  compared  with 
the  commerce  of  any  foreign 
country. 

(b)  Exclusion  from  Importa- 
tion.— If  at  any  time  the  Presi- 
dent shall  find  it  to  be  a  fact 
that  any  foreign  country  has  not 
only  discriminated  against  the 
commerce  of  the  United  States, 
as  aforesaid,  but  has,  after  the 
issuance  of  a  proclamation  as 
authorized  in  subdivision  (a)  of 
this  sec^on,  maintained  or  in- 
creased its  said  discriminations 
against  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States,  the  President  is 
hereby  authorized,  if  he  deems  it 
consistent  with  the  interests  of 
the  United  States,  to  issue  a 
further  proclamation  directing 
that  such  products  of  said 
country  or  such  articles  imported 
in  its  vessels  as  he  shall  deem 
consistent  with  the  public  inter- 
ests shall  be  excluded  from  im- 
portation into  the  United  States. 

(c)  Application  of  Proclama- 
tion.— Any  proclamation  issued 
by  the  President  under  the  au- 
thority of  this  section  shall,  if  he 
deems  it  consistent  with  the  in- 
terests of  the  United  States,  ex- 
tend to  the  whole  of  any  foreign 
country  or  may  be  confined  to 
any  subdivision  or  subdivisions 
thereof;  and  the  President  shall, 


whenever  he  deems  the  public  in- 
terests require,  suspend,  revoke, 
supplement,  or  amend  any  such 
proclamation. 

(d)  Duties  to  Offset  Commer- 
cial Disadvantages. — Whenever 
the  President  shall  find  as  a  fact 
that  any  foreign  country  places 
any  burden  or  disadvantage  upon 
the  commerce  of  theUnitedStates 
by  any  of  the  unequal  imposi- 
tions or  discriminations  afore- 
said, he  shall,  when  he  finds  that 
the  public  interest  will  be  served 
thereby,  by  proclamadon  specify 
and  declare  such  new  or  addi- 
tional rate  or  rates  of  duty  as  he 
shall  determine  will  offset  such 
burden  or  disadvantage,  not  to 
exceed  50  per  centum  ad  valorem 
or  its  equivalent,  on  any  prod- 
ucts of,  or  on  articles  imported  in 
a  vessel  of,  such  foreign  country; 
and  thirty  days  after  the  date  of 
such  proclamation  there  shall  be 
levied,  collected,  and  paid  upon 
the  articles  enumerated  in  such 
proclamation  when  imported  into 
the  United  States  from  such 
foreign  country  such  new  or  ad- 
ditional rate  or  rates  of  duty;  or. 
in  case  of  articles  declared  sub- 
ject to  exclusion  from  importa- 
tion into  the  United  States  under 
the  provisions  of  subdivision  (b) 
of  this  section,  such  articles  shall 
be  excluded  from  importation. 

(e)  Duties  to  Offset  Benefits  to 
Third  Country. — -Whenever  the 
President  shall  find  as  a  fact  that 
any  foreign  country  imposes  any 
unequal  imposition  or  discrimina- 
tion as  aforesaid  upon  the  com- 
merce of  the  United  States,  or 
that  any  benefits  accrue  or  are 
likely  to  accrue  to  any  industry 
in  any  foreign  country  by  reason 
of  any  such  imposition  or  dis- 
crimination imposed  by  any 
foreign  country  other  than  the 
foreign  country  in  which  such  in- 
dustry is  located,  and  whenever 
the  President  shall  determine 
that  any  new  or  additional  rate 
or  rates  of  duty  or  any  prohibi- 
tion hereinbefore  provided  for  do 
not  effectively  remove  such  im- 
position or  discrimination  and 
that  any  benefits  from  any  such 
imposition  or  discrimination  ac- 
crue or  are  likely  to  accrue  to  any 
industry  in  any  foreign  country, 
he  shall,  when  he  finds  that  the 
public  interest  will  be  served 
thereby,  by  proclamation  specify 
and  declare  such  new  or  addi- 
tional rate  or  rates  of  duty  upon 
the  articles  wholly  or  in  part  the 
growth  or  product  of  any  such 
industry  as  he  shall  determine 
will  offset  such  benefits,  not  to 
exceed  50  per  centum  ad  valorem 
or  its  equivalent,  upon  importa- 
tion from  any  foreign  country 
into  the  United  States  of  such 
articles;  and  on  and  after  thirty 
days  after  the  date  of  any  such 
proclamation  such  new  or  ad- 
ditional rate  or  rates  of  duty  so 
specified  and  declared  in  such 
proclamation  shall  be  levied,  col- 


Tariff 


5 


Tariff 


lected,  and  paid  upon  such 
articles. 

(f)  Forfeiture  of  Articles. — 'All 
articles  imported  contrary  to  the 
provisions  of  this  section  shall  be 
forfeited  to  the  United  States  and 
shall  be  liable  to  be  seized,  prose- 
cuted, and  condemned  in  like 
manner  and  under  the  same  regu- 
lations, restrictions,  and  provi- 
sions as  may  from  time  to  time  be 
established  for  the  recovery,  col- 
lection, distribution,  and  re- 
mission of  forfeitures  to  the 
United  States  by  the  several 
revenue  laws.  Whenever  the 
provisions  of  this  Act  shall  be 
applicable  to  importations  into 
the  United  States  of  articles 
wholly  or  in  part  the  gro\vth  or 
product  of  any  foreign  country, 
they  shall  be  applicable  thereto 
whether  such  articles  are  im- 
ported directly  or  indirectly. 

(g)  Ascertainment  by  Commis- 
sion of  Discriminations . — It  shall 
be  the  duty  of  the  commission  to 
ascertain  and  at  all  times  to  be 
informed  whether  any  of  the  dis- 
criminations against  the  com- 
merce of  the  United  States 
enumerated  in  subdivisions  (a), 
(b),  and  (e)  of  this  section  are 
practised  by  any  country;  and  if 
and  when  such  discriminatory 
acts  are  disclosed,  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  commission  to  bring 
the  matter  to  the  attention  of  the 
President,  together  with  recom- 
mendations. 

(h)  Rules  and  Regulations  of 
Secretary  of  Treasury. — The  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury  with  the 
approval  of  the  President  shall 
make  such  rules  and  regulations 
as  are  necessary  for  the  execution 
of  such  proclamations  as  the 
President  may  issue  in  accord- 
ance with  the  provisions  of  this 
section. 

(i)  Definition. — When  used  in 
this  section  the  term  'foreign 
country'  means  any  empire, 
country,  dominion,  colony  or  pro- 
tectorate, or  any  subdivision  or 
subdivisions  thereof  (other  than 
the  United  States  and  its  posses- 
sions), within  which  separate 
tariff  rates  or  separate  regula- 
tions of  commerce  are  enforced. 

Sec.  339.  Effect  of  Re-enact- 
ment of  Existing  Law. 

Notwithstanding  the  repeal 
by  section  651  of  the  laws  relating 
to  the  United  States  Tariff  Com- 
mission and  their  re-enactment  in 
sections  330  to  338,  inclusive, 
with  modifications,  the  unex- 
pended balances  of  appropria- 
tions available  for  the  commis- 
sion at  the  time  this  section  takes 
effect  shall  remain  available  for 
the  commission  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  its  functions  under  this 
Act;  and  such  repeal  and  re-en- 
actment shall  not  operate  to 
change  the  status  of  the  officers 
and  employees  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  commission  at  the 
time  this  section  takes  effect.  No 
investigation  or  other  proceeding 


pending  before  the  commission 
at  such  time  (other  than  pro- 
ceedings under  section  315  of  the 
Tariff  Act  of  1922)  shall  abate  by 
reason  of  such  repeal  and  re- 
enactment,  but  shall  continue 
under  the  provisions  of  this  Act. 

Sec.  340.  Domestic  Value — 
Conversion  of  Rates. 

(a)  Conversion  of  Rates  by 
Commission.  —  The  commission 
shall  ascertain,  with  respect  to 
each  of  the  ad  valorem  rates  of 
duty,  and  each  of  the  rates  of 
duty  regulated  by  the  value  of 
the  article,  specified  in  this  Act, 
an  ad  valorem  rate  (or  a  rate 
regulated  by  the  value  of  the 
article,  as  the  case  may  be)  which 
if  applied  upon  the  basis  of  do- 
mestic value  would  have  resulted 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  im- 
position, during  the  period  from 
July  1,  1927,  to  June  30,  1929, 
both  dates  inclusive,  of  amounts 
of  duty  neither  greater  nor  less 
than  would  have  been  collectible 
at  the  rate  specified  in  this  Act 
applied  upon  the  basis  of  value 
defined  in  section  402  of  the 
Tariff  Act  of  1922. 

(b)  Report  to  Congress  by  Com- 
mission.— The  commission  shall, 
as  soon  as  practicable,  but  in  no 
event  later  than  July  1,  1932, 
submit  a  report  to  the  Congress 
setting  forth  the  classes  of  arti- 
cles with  respect  to  which  the 
conversion  ot  rates  has  been 
made,  together  with  the  convert- 
ed rates  applicable  thereto. 

(c)  Data  to  Be  Furnished  by 
Secretary  of  Treasury  and  Sec- 
retary of  Commerce. — To  assist 
the  commission  in  carrying  out 
the  provisions  of  this  section,  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and  the 
Secretary  of  Commerce  are 
authorized  and  directed  to  fur- 
nish to  the  commivssion,  upon 
request,  any  data  or  information 
in  the  possession  or  control  of 
their  respective  departments  re- 
lating to  the  importation,  entry, 
appraisement,  and  classification 
of  merchandise  and  the  collection 
of  duties  thereon. 

(d)  Definitions. — When  used 
in  this  section — • 

(1)  The  term  'domestic  value,' 
applied  with  respect  to  im- 
ported merchandise,  means 
(A)  the  price  at  which  such  or 
similar  imported  merchandise 
is  freely  offered  for  sale,  at  the 
time  of  exportation  of  the  im- 
ported merchandise,  packed 
ready  for  delivery,  in  the  prin- 
cipal market  of  the  United 
States  to  all  purchasers,  in  the 
usual  wholesale  quantities  and 
in  the  ordinary  course  of  trade, 
or  (B)  if  such  or  similar  im- 
ported merchandise  is  not  so 
offered  for  sale  in  the  United 
States,  then  an  estimated 
value,  based  on  the  price  at 
which  merchandise,  whether 
imported  or  domestic,  com- 
parable in  construction  or  use 
with  the  imported  merchan- 


dise, is  so  offered  for  sale,  with 
such  adjustments  as  may  be 
necessary  owing  to  differences 
in  size,  material,  construction, 
texture,  and  other  differences. 
(2)  The  term  'rate  of  duty 
regulated  by  the  value  of  the 
article'  means  a  rate  of  duty 
regulated  in  any  manner  by  the 
value  of  the  article,  and  in- 
cludes the  value  classification 
by  which  such  rate  is  regulated. 
Sec.  341.  Interference  with 
Functions  of  Commission. 

(a)  Interfering  With  or  In- 
fluencing the  Commission  or  Its 
Employees. — It  shall  be  unlawful 
for  any  person  (1)  to  prevent  or 
attempt  to  prevent,  by  force,  in- 
timidation, threat,  or  in  any 
other  manner,  any  member  or 
employee  of  the  commission  from 
exercising  the  functions  imposed 
upon  the  commission  by  this 
title,  or  (2)  to  induce,  or  attempt 
to  induce,  by  like  means  any 
such  member  or  employee  to 
make  any  decision  or  order,  or  to 
take  any  action,  with  respect  to 
any  matter  within  the  authority 
of  the  commission. 

(b)  Penalty. — Any  person  who 
violates  any  of  the  provisions  of 
this  section  shall,  upon  conviction 
thereof,  be  fined  not  more  than 
$1,000  or  imprisonment  for  not 
more  than  one  year,  or  both. 

(c)  Definition. — As  used  in 
this  section  the  term  'person'  in- 
cludes an  individual,  corpora- 
tion, association,  partnership,  or 
any  other  organization  or  group 
of  individuals. 


Sec.  307.  Convict  Made  Goods 
— Importation  Prohibited. 

All  goods,  wares,  articles,  and 
merchandise  mined,  produced  or 
manufactured  wholly  or  in  part 
in  any  foreign  country  by  convict 
labor  or/and  forced  labor  or /and 
indentured  labor  under  penal 
sanctions  shall  not  be  entitled  to 
entry  at  any  of  the  ports  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  importa- 
tion thereof  is  hereby  prohibited 
and  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
is  authorized  and  directed  to  pre- 
scribe such  regulations  as  may 
be  necessary  for  the  enforcement 
of  this  provision.  The  provisions 
of  this  section  relating  to  goods, 
wares,  articles,  and  merchandise 
mined,  produced,  or  manufactur- 
ed by  forced  labor  or /and  in- 
dentured labor,  shall  take  effect 
on  January  1,  1932;  but  in  no 
case  shall  such  provisions  be  ap- 
plicable to  goods,  wares,  articles, 
or  merchandise  so  mined,  pro- 
duced, or  manufactured  which 
are  not  mined,  produced,  or 
manufactured  in  such  quantities 
in  the  United  States  as  to  meet 
the  consumptive  demands  of  the 
United  States. 

'Forced  labor,'  as  herein  used, 
shall  mean  all  work  or  service 
which  is  exacted  from  any  person 
under  the  menace  of  any  penalty 

Vol.  XL— 31-M 


Tariff 


6 


Tarlll 


for  its  nonperformance  and  for 
which  the  worker  does  not  offer 
himself  voluntarily. 


Sec.  516.  Appeal  or  Protest  by 
American  Producers. 

(a)  Value.  —  Whenever  an 
American  manufacturer,  pro- 
ducer, or  wholesaler  believes  that 
the  appraised  value  of  any  im- 
ported merchandise  of  a  class  or 
kind  manufactured,  produced,  or 
sold  at  wholesale  by  him  is  too 
low,  he  may  file  with  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  a  complaint 
setting  forth  the  value  at  which 
he  believes  the  merchandise 
should  be  appraised  and  the 
facts  upon  which  he  bases  his 
belief.  The  Secretary  shall  there- 
upon transmit  a  copy  of  such 
complaint  to  the  appraiser  at 
each  port  of  entry  where  the 
merchandise  is  usually  imported. 
Until  otherwise  directed  by  the 
Secretary,  the  appraiser  shall  re- 
port each  subsequent  importa- 
tion of  the  merchandise  giving 
the  entry  number,  the  name  of 
the  importer,  the  appraised 
value,  and  his  reasons  for  the  ap- 
praisement. If  the  Secretary 
does  not  agree  with  the  action 
of  the  appraiser,  he  shall  instruct 
the  collector  to  file  an  appeal  for 
a  reappraisement  as  provided  in 
section  501  of  this  Act,  and  such 
manufacturer,  producer,  or  whole- 
saler shall  have  the  right  to 
appear  and  to  be  heard  as  a  party 
in  interest  under  such  rules  as  the 
United  States  Customs  Court 
may  prescribe.  The  Secretary 
shall  notify  such  manufacturer, 
producer,  or  wholesaler  of  the 
action  taken  by  such  appraiser, 
giving  the  port  of  entry,  the  entry 
number,  and  the  appraised  value 
of  such  merchandise  and  the  ac- 
tion he  has  taken  thereon.  If  the 
appraiser  advances  the  entered 
value  of  merchandise  upon  the 
information  furnished  by  the 
American  manufacturer,  produc- 
er, or  wholesaler,  and  an  appeal  is 
taken  by  the  consignee,  such 
manufacturer,  producer,  or  whole- 
saler shall  have  the  right  to 
appear  and  to  be  heard  as  a  party 
in  interest,  under  such  rules  as 
the  United  States  Customs 
Court  may  prescribe.  If  the 
American  manufacturer,  produc- 
er, or  wholesaler  is  not  satisfied 
with  the  action  of  the  Secretary, 
or  the  action  of  the  appraiser 
thereon,  he  may  file,  within  thirty 
days  after  the  date  of  the  mailing 
of  the  Secretary's  notice,  an  ap- 
peal for  a  reappraisement  in  the 
same  manner  and  with  the  same 
effect  as  an  appeal  by  a  con- 
signee under  the  '  provisions  of 
section  501  of  this  Act. 

(b)  Classification. — The  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  shall,  upon 
written  request  by  an  American 
manufacturer,  producer,  or  whole- 
saler, furnish  the  clavSsification  of 
and  the  rate  of  duty,  if  any,  im- 

VOL.  XI.— 31  M 


posed  upon  designated  imported 
merchandise  of  a  class  or  kind 
manufactured,  produced,  or  sold 
at  wholesale  by  him.  If  such 
manufacturer,  producer,  or  whole- 
saler believes  that  the  proper 
rate  of  duty  is  not  being  assessed, 
he  may  file  a  complaint  with  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  setting 
forth  a  description  of  the  mer- 
chandise, the  classification,  and 
the  rate  or  rates  of  duty  he  be- 
lieves proper,  and  the  reasons  for 
his  belief.  If  the  Secretary  de- 
cides that  the  classification  of  or 
rate  of  duty  assessed  upon  the 
merchandise  is  not  correct,  he 
shall  notify  the  collectors  as  to 
the  proper  classification  and 
rate  of  duty  and  shall  so  inform 
such  manufacturer,  producer,  or 
wholesaler,  and  such  rate  of  duty 
shall  be  assessed  upon  all  such 
merchandise  imported  or  with- 
drawn from  warehouse  after 
thirty  days  after  the  date  of  such 
notice  to  the  collectors.  If  the 
Secretary  decides  that  the  classi- 
fication and  rate  of  duty  are  cor- 
rect, he  shall  so  inform  such 
manufacturer,  producer,  or  whole- 
saler, and  shall,  under  such  regu- 
lations as  he  may  prescribe,  cause 
publication  to  be  made  of  his 
decision,  together  with  notice 
that  the  classification  of  and  the 
rate  of  duty  on  all  such  merchan- 
dise imported  or  withdrawn  from 
warehouse  after  the  expiration  of 
thirty  days  after  such  publica- 
tion will  be  subject  to  the  deci- 
sion of  the  United  States  Cus- 
toms Court  in  the  event  that  a 
protest  is  filed  under  the  provi- 
sions of  this  subdivision.  If 
dissatisfied  with  the  decision  of 
the  Secretary,  such  manufactur- 
er, producer,  or  wholesaler  may 
file  with  him  a  notice  that  he  de- 
rires  to  protest  the  classification 
so  the  rate  of  duty  imposed  upon 
the  merchandise,  and  upon  re- 
ceipt of  such  notice  the  Secretary 
shall  furnish  him  with  such  in- 
formation as  to  the  entries  and 
consignees  of  such  merchandise, 
entered  after  the  expiration  of 
thirty  days  after  the  publication 
of  the  decision  of  the  Secretary, 
at  the  port  of  entry  designated  by 
the  manufacturer,  producer,  or 
wholesaler  in  his  notice  of  desire 
to  protest,  as  will  enable  him  to 
protest  the  classification  of  or 
the  rate  of  duty  imposed  upon 
such  merchandise  when  liquidat- 
ed at  such  port.  The  Secretary 
shall  direct  the  collector  at  such 
port  to  notify  such  manufacturer, 
producer,  or  wholesaler  imme- 
diately upon  the  liquidation  of 
the  first  of  such  entries  to  be 
liquidated.  Such  manufacturer, 
producer,  or  wholesaler  may  file, 
within  thirty  days  after  the  date 
of  such  liquidation,  with  the  col- 
lector of  such  port  a  protest  in 
writing  setting  forth  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  merchandise  and  the 
classification  and  the  rate  of  duty 
he  believes  proper.  Upon  the  fil- 


ing of  any  such  protest  the  collec- 
tor shall  notify  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  who  shall  order  the 
suspension,  pending  the  decision 
of  the  United  States  Customs 
Court  upon  such  protest,  of  the 
Hquidation,  at  all  ports,  of  all 
unliquidated  entries  of  such 
merchandise  imported  or  with- 
drawn from  warehouse  after  the 
expiration  of  thirty  days  aftet 
the  publication  of  the  Secretary's 
decision.  All  entries  of  such  mer- 
chandise so  imported  or  with- 
drawn shall  be  liquidated,  or  if 
already  liquidated,  shall,  if  neces- 
sary, be  reliquidated,  in  conform- 
ity with  such  decision  of  the 
United  States  Customs  Court. 
If,  upon  appeal  to  the  Court  of 
Customs  and  Patent  Appeals,  the 
decision  of  the  United  States 
Customs  Court  is  reversed,  the 
classification  of  the  merchandise 
and  the  rate  of  duty  imposed 
thereon  shall  be  in  accordance 
with  the  decision  of  the  Court  of 
Customs  and  Patent  Appeals, 
and  any  necessary  reliquidation 
shall  be  made.  The  provisions  of 
this  subdivision  shall  apply  only 
in  the  case  of  complaints  filed 
after  the  effective  date  of  this 
Act. 

(c)  Hearing  and  Determination. 
— A  copy  of  every  appeal  and 
every  protest  filed  by  an  Ameri- 
can manufacturer,  producer,  or 
wholesaler  under  the  provisions 
of  this  section  shall  be  mailed  by 
the  collector  to  the  consignee  or 
his  agent  within  five  days  after 
the  filing  thereof,  and  such  con- 
signee or  his  agent  shall  have  the 
right  to  appear  and  to  be  heard 
as  a  party  in  interest  before  the 
United  vStates  Customs  Court. 
The  collector  shall  transmit  the 
entry  and  all  papers  and  exhibits 
accompanying  or  connected  there- 
with to  the  United  States  Cus- 
toms Court  for  due  assignment 
and  determination  of  the  proper 
value  or  of  the  proper  classifica- 
tion and  rate  of  duty.  The  deci- 
sion of  the  United  States  Cus- 
toms Court  upon  any  such  appeal 
or  protest  shall  be  final  and  con- 
clusive upon  all  parties  unless  an 
appeal  is  taken  by  either  party 
to  the  Court  of  Customs  and 
Patent  Appeals,  as  provided  in 
sections  501  and  515  of  this  Act. 

(d)  Inspection  of  Documents. — 
In  proceedings  instituted  under 
the  provisions  of  this  section  an 
American  manufacturer,  pro- 
ducer, or  wholesaler  shall  not 
have  the  right  to  inspect  any 
documents  or  papers  of  the  con- 
signee or  importer  disclosing  any 
information  which  the  United 
States  Customs  Court  or  any 
judge  or  division  thereof  shall 
deem  unnecessary  or  improper  tc 
be  disclosed  to  him. 

Sec.  517.  Frivolous  Protest  oi 
Appeal. 

The  United  States  Custom? 
Court  shall,  upon  motion  ol 
counsel  for  the  Government,  an(j 


Tariff 


7 


Tariff 


may.  upon  its  own  motion,  de- 
cide whether  any  appeal  for  re- 
appraisement  or  protest  filed 
under  the  provisions  of  section 
501.  514,  515,  or  516  of  this  Act 
is  frivolous,  and,  if  said  court 
shall  decide  that  such  appeal  or 
protest  is  frivolous,  a  penalty  of 
not  less  than  $5  nor  more  than 
$250  shall  be  assessed  against  the 
person  filing  such  appeal  or  pro- 
test: Provided,  That  all  appeals 
for  reappraisement  or  protests 
filed  by  the  same  person  and 
raising  the  same  issue  shall,  if 
held  frivolous  by  said  court,  be 
consolidated  and  deemed  one 
proceeding  for  the  purpose  of  im- 
posing the  penalty  provided  in 
this  section:  Provided  further. 
That  the  person  against  whom 
such  penalty  is  assessed  may 
have  a  review  by  the  Court  of 
Customs  and  Patent  Appeals  of 
the  decision  of  the  United  States 
Customs  Court  by  filing  an  ap- 
peal within  the  time  and  in  the 
manner  provided  by  section  198 
of  the  Judicial  Code,  as  amended. 

Sec.  518.  United  States  Cus- 
toms Court. 

The  United  States  Customs 
Court  shall  continue  as  now  con- 
stituted, except  that  the  chief 
justice  and  the  associate  justices 
of  such  court  now  in  office  and 
their  successors  shall  hereafter 
be  known  as  the  judges  of  such 
court.  All  vacancies  in  such 
court  shall  be  filled  by  appoint- 
ment by  the  President,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Senate.  Not  more  than  five 
of  the  judges  of  such  court  shall 
be  appointed  from  the  same 
political  party  and  each  of  such 
judges  shall  receive  a  salary  of 
$10,000  a  year.  They  shall  not 
engage  in  any  other  business,  vo- 
cation, or  employment,  and  shall 
hold  their  office  during  good  be- 
havior. The  offices  of  such  court 
shall  be  at  the  port  of  New  York. 
The  court  and  each  judge  thereof 
shall  have  and  possess  all  the 
powers  of  a  district  court  of  the 
United  States  for  preserving 
order,  compelling  the  attendance 
of  witnesses  and  the  production 
of  evidence,  and  in  punishing  for 
contempt.  The  court  shall  have 
power  to  establish  from  time  to 
time  such  rules  of  evidence, 
practice,  and  procedure,  not  in- 
consistent with  law,  as  may  be 
deemed  necessary  for  the  conduct 
of  its  proceedings,  in  securing  uni- 
formity in  its  decisions  and  in  the 
proceedings  and  decisions  of  the 
judges  thereof,  and  for  the  pro- 
duction, care,  and  custody  of 
samples  and  of  the  records  of 
such  court.  Under  such  rules  as 
the  United  States  Customs  Court 
may  prescribe,  and  in  its  dis- 
cretion, the  court  may  permit  the 
amendment  of  a  protest,  appeal, 
or  application  for  review.  One  of 
the  judges  of  such  court,  desig- 
nated for  that  purpose  by  the 
President  of  the  United  vStates, 


shall  act  as  presiding  judge,  and 
in  his  absence  the  judge  then 
present  who  is  senior  as  to  the 
date  of  his  commission  shall  act 
as  presiding  judge;  and  until  any 
such  designation  is  made  the 
chief  justice  of  the  United  States 
Customs  Court  now  in  office  shall 
act  as  presiding  judge.  The  pre- 
siding judge,  or  the  acting  pre- 
siding judge  in  his  absence,  shall 
have  control  of  the  fiscal  affairs 
and  of  the  clerical  force  of  the 
court,  making  all  recommenda- 
tions for  appointment,  promo- 
tions, or  otherwise  affecting  such 
clerical  force;  he  may  at  an}'- 
time  before  trial,  under  the  rules 
of  the  court,  assign  or  reassign 
any  case  for  hearing  or  determi- 
nation, or  both,  and  shall  desig- 
nate a  judge  or  division  of  three 
judges  and  such  clerical  assist- 
ants as  may  be  necessary  to  pro- 
ceed to  any  port  within  the  juris- 
diction of  the  United  States  for 
the  purpose  of  hearing  or  of  hear- 
ing and  determining  cases  as- 
signed for  hearing  at  such  "port, 
and  shall  cause  to  be  prepared  and 
promulgated  dockets  therefor. 
Judges  of  the  court,  stenographic 
clerks,  and  Government  counsel 
shall  each  be  allowed  and  paid  his 
necessary  expenses  of  travel  and 
his  reasonable  expenses,  not  to  ex- 
ceed $10  per  day  in  the  case  of  the 
judges  of  the  court  and  Govern- 
ment counsel,  and  $8  per  day  in 
the  case  of  stenographic  clerks, 
actually  incurred  for  mainte- 
nance while  absent  from  New 
York  on  official  business.  The 
judges  of  said  court  shall  be 
divided  into  three  divisions  of 
three  judges  each  for  the  purpose 
of  hearing  and  deciding  appeals 
for  the  review  of  reappraise- 
ments  of  merchandise,  and  of 
hearing  and  deciding  protests 
against  decisions  of  collectors. 
A  division  of  three  judges  or  a 
single  judge  shall  have  power  to 
order  an  analysis  of  imported 
merchandise  and  reports  thereon 
by  laboratories  or  bureaus  of  the 
United  States.  The  presiding 
judge  shall  assign  three  judges  to 
each  of  said  divisions  and  shall 
designate  one  of  such  three  judges 
to  preside.  The  presiding  judge 
of  the  court  shall  be  competent  to 
sit  as  a  judge  of  any  division  or 
to  assign  one  or  two  other  judges 
to  any  of  such  divisions  in  the 
absence  or  disability  of  any  one 
or  two  judges  of  such  division. 
A  majority  of  the  judges  of  any 
division  shall  have  full  power  to 
hear  and  decide  all  cases  and 
questions  arising  therein  or  as- 
signed thereto.  A  division  of  the 
court  deciding  a  case  or  a  single 
judge  deciding  an  appeal  for  a 
reappraisement  may,  upon  the 
motion  of  either  party  made 
within  thirty  days  next  after 
such  decision,  grant  a  rehearing 
or  retrial  of  such  case  when  in  the 
opinion  of  such  division  or  single 
judge  the  ends  of  justice  so  require. 


The  judges  of  the  United 
States  Customs  Court  are  hereby 
exempted  from  so  much  of  vSec- 
tion  1790  of  the  Revised  Statutes 
as  relates  to  their  salaries. 

When  any  judge  of  the  United 
States  Customs  Court  resigns  his 
office  after  having  held  a  com- 
mission as  judge  or  justice  of 
such  court  or  member  of  the 
Board  of  General  Appraisers  at 
least  ten  years  continuously,  or 
otherwise,  and  having  attained 
the  age  of  seventy  years,  he  shall, 
during  the  residue  of  his  natural 
life,  receive  the  salary  which  is 
payable  to  a  judge  of  such  court 
at  the  time  of  his  resignation. 
Any  such  judge,  who  is  qualified 
to  resign  under  the  foregoing  pro- 
visions, may  retire,  upon  the 
salary  of  which  he  is  then  in  re- 
ceipt, from  regular  active  service 
as  a  judge  of  such  court  and  upon 
such  retirement  the  President 
may  appoint  a  successor;  but 
such  retired  judge  may,  with  his 
consent,  be  assigned  by  the  pre- 
siding judge  of  such  court  to 
serve  upon  such  court  and  while 
so  serving  shall  have  all  the 
powers  of  a  judge  of  such  court. 

All  functions  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  with  respect  to 
the  appointment  and  fixing  of  the 
compensation  of  the  clerks  and 
other  employees  of  the  United 
States  Customs  Court,  and  with 
respect  to  the  official  records, 
papers,  office  equipment,  and 
other  property  of  such  court,  are 
hereby  transferred  to  the  Attor- 
ney General.  All  unexpended 
amounts  allotted  from  any  ap- 
propriation for  collecting  the 
revenue  from  customs,  available 
for  expenditure  by  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  for  the  payment 
of  the  salaries  of  the  judges  of 
the  United  States  Customs  Court, 
including  judges  retired  under 
the  provisions  of  section  518  of 
the  Tariff  Act  of  1922,  and  for  the 
expenses  of  operation  of  the 
United  States  Customs  Court, 
are  hereby  transferred  to  the  De- 
partment of  Justice,  to  be  avail- 
able for  expenditure  by  the  De- 
partment of  Justice  for  the  same 
purposes  for  which  such  allot- 
ments were  made. 

Sec.  519.  Publication  of  De- 
cisions of  Customs  Court. 

All  decisions  of  the  United 
States  Customs  Court  shall  be 
preserved  and  filed  and  shall  be 
open  to  inspection,  and  it  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  court  to  forward 
a  copy  of  each  decision  to  the 
collector  of  customs  for  the  dis- 
trict in  which  the  merchandise 
affected  thereby  was  imported 
and  to  forward  an  additional 
copy  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  who  shall  cause  such 
decisions  as  he  or  the  court  shall 
deem  sufficiently  important  to  be 
published  in  full,  or,  if  neither  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  nor  the 
court  deems  a  full  publication 
thereof  necessary,  then  the  court 

Vol.  XI.— ,31-M 


Tariff 


8 


Tariff 


shall  cause  abstracts  of  such  de- 
cisions to  be  made  for  pubUca- 
tion,  and  such  decisions  and  ab- 
stracts thereof  shall  be  published 
from  time  to  time  and  at  least 
once  each  week  for  the  informa- 
tion of  customs  officers  and  the 
public. 

Sec.  520.  Refunds  by  Secre- 
tary of  Treasury. 

(a)  A  uthorized. — The  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  is  hereby 
authorized  to  refund  duties  and 
correct  errors  in  liquidation  of 
entries  in  the  following  cases: 

(1)  Excess  deposit. — Whenever 
it  is  ascertained  on  final  liquid- 
ation or  reliquidation  of  an 
entry  that  more  money  has 
been  deposited  or  paid  than 
was  required  by  law  to  be  so 
deposited  or  paid; 

(2)  Erroneous  charges. — When- 
ever it  is  determined  in  the 
manner  required  by  law  that 
any  fees,  charges,  or  exactions, 
other  than  duties,  have  been 
erroneously  collected; 

(3)  Clerical  error. — Whenever  a 
clerical  error  is  discovered  in 
any  entry  or  liquidation  within 
one  year  after  the  date  of 
entry,  or  within  sixty  days 
after  liquidation  when  liquida- 
tion is  made  more  than  ten 
months  after  the  date  of  entry; 
and 

(4)  Household  goods. — When- 
ever duties  have  been  paid  on 
household  or  personal  effects 
which  by  law  were  not  sub- 
ject to  duty,  notwithstanding  a 
protest  was  not  filed  within  the 
time  and  in  the  manner  pre- 
scribed by  law. 

(b)  Appropriation. — The  neces- 
sary moneys  to  make  such  re- 
funds are  hereby  appropriated, 
and  this  appropriation  shall  be 
deemed  a  permanent  and  in- 
definite appropriation. 

Sec.  521.  Reliquidation  on  Ac- 
count of  Fraud. 

If  the  collector  finds  probable 
cause  to  believe  there  is  fraud  in 
the  case,  he  may  reliquidate  an 
entry  within  two  years  (ex- 
clusive of  the  time  during  which 
a  protest  is  pending)  after  the 
date  of  liquidation  or  last  re- 
liquidation. 

Sec.  522.  Conversion  of  Cur- 
rency. 

(a)  Value  of  Foreign  Coin  Pro- 
claimed by  Secretary  of  Treasury. 
— Section  25  of  the  Act  of  August 
27,  1894,  entitled  'An  Act  to  re- 
duce taxation,  to  provide  revenue 
for  the  Government,  and  for 
other  purposes,'  as  amended,  is 
re-enacted  without  change  as  fol- 
lows : 

'Sec.  25.  That  the  value  of 
foreign  coin  as  expressed  in  the 
money  of  account  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  that  of  the  pure 
metal  of  such  coin  of  vStandard 
value;  and  the  values  of  the 
standard  coins  in  circulation  of 
the  various  nations  of  the  world 


shall  be  estimated  quarterly  by 
the  Director  of  the  Mint  and  be 
proclaimed  by  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  quarterly  on  the 
1st  day  of  January,  April,  July, 
and  October  in  each  year.' 

(b)  Proclaimed  Value  Basis  of 
Conversion. — For  the  purpose  of 
the  assessment  and  collection  of 
duties  upon  merchandise  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  on 
or  after  the  day  of  the  enactment 
of  this  Act,  wherever  it  is  neces- 
sary to  convert  foreign  currency 
into  currency  of  the  United 
States,  such  conversion,  except 
as  provided  in  subdivision  (c), 
shall  be  made  at  the  values  pro- 
claimed by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  under  the  provisions  of 
section  25  of  such  Act  of  August 
27,  1894,  as  amended,  for  the 
quarter  in  which  the  merchan- 
dise was  exported. 

(c)  Market  Rate  When  no 
Proclamation. — If  no  such  value 
has  been  proclaimed,  or  if  the 
value  so  proclaimed  varies  by  5 
per  centum  or  more  from  a  value 
measured  by  the  buying  rate  in 
the  New  York  market  at  noon  on 
the  day  of  exportation,  conver- 
sion shall  be  made  at  a  value 
measured  by  such  buying  rate. 
If  the  date  of  exportation  falls 
upon  a  Sunday  or  holiday,  then 
the  buying  rate  at  noon  on  the 
last  preceding  business  day  shall 
be  used.  For  the  purposes  of  this 
subdivision  such  buying  rate 
shall  be  the 'buying  rate  for  cable 
transfers  payable  in  the  foreign 
currency  so  to  be  converted;  and 
shall  be  determined  by  the 
Federal  Reserve  Bank  of  New 
York  and  certified  daily  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  who 
shall  make  it  public  at  such 
times  and  to  such  extent  as  he 
deems  necessary.  In  ascertaining 
such  buying  rate  such  Federal 
reserve  bank  may  in  its  discretion 
(1)  take  into  consideration  the 
last  ascertainable  transactions 
and  quotations,  whether  direct 
or  through  exchange  of  other 
currencies,  and  (2)  if  there  is  no 
market  buying  rate  for  such 
cable  transfers,  calculate  such 
rate  from  actual  transactions 
and  quotations  in  demand  or 
time  bills  of  exchange. 


Sec.  527.  Importation  of  Wild 
Mammals  and  Birds  in  Violation 
of  Foreign  Law. 

(a)  Importation  Prohibited. — 
If  the  laws  or  regulations  of  any 
country,  dependency,  province, 
or  other  subdivision  of  govern- 
ment restrict  the  taking,  killing, 
possession,  or  exportation  to  the 
United  States,  of  any  wild  mam- 
mal or  bird,  alive  or  dead,  or  re- 
strict the  exportation  to  the 
United  States  of  any  part  or 
product  of  any  wild  mammal  or 
bird,  whether  raw  or  manufac- 
tured, no  such  mammal  or  bird, 
or  part  or  product  thereof,  shall, 


after  the  expiration  of  ninety 
days  after  the  enactment  of  this 
Act,  be  imported  into  the  United 
States  from  such  country,  de- 
pendency, province,  or  other  sub- 
division of  governmemt,  directly 
or  indirectly,  unless  accompanied 
by  a  certification  of  the  United 
States  consul,  for  the  consular 
district  in  which  is  located  the 
port  or  place  from  which  such 
mammal  or  bird,  or  part  or  prod- 
uct thereof,  was  exported  from 
such  country,  dependency,  prov- 
ince, or  other  subdivision  of 
government,  that  such  mammal 
or  bird,  or  part  or  product  there- 
of, has  not  been  acquired  or 
exported  in  violation  of  the  laws 
or  regulations  of  such  country, 
dependency,  province,  or  other 
subdivision  of  government. 

(b)  Forfeiture. — Any  mammal 
or  bird,  alive  or  dead,  or  any  part 
or  product  thereof,  whether  raw 
or  manufactured,  imported  into 
the  United  States  in  violation  of 
the  provisions  of  the  preceding 
subdivision  shall  be  subject  to 
seizure  and  forfeiture  under  the 
customs  laws.  Any  such  article 
so  forfeited  may,  in  the  discretion 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
and  under  such  regulations  as  he 
may  prescribe,  be  placed  with  the 
departments  or  bureaus  of  the 
Federal  or  State  Governments,  or 
with  societies  or  museums,  for 
exhibition  or  scientific  or  educa- 
tional purposes,  or  destroyed,  or 
(except  in  the  case  of  heads  or 
horns  of  wild  animals)  sold  in  the 
manner  provided  by  law. 

(c)  Section  Not  to  Apply  in 
Certain  Cases. — The  provisions  of 
this  section  shall  not  apply  in  the 
case  of — 

(1)  Prohibited  importations. — 
Articles  the  importation  of 
which  is  prohibited  under  the 
provisions  of  this  Act,  or  of 
section  241  of  the  Criminal 
Code,  or  of  any  other  law; 

(2)  Scientific  or  educational 
purposes. — Wild  mammals  or 
birds,  alive  or  dead,  or  parts  or 
products  thereof,  whether  raw 
or  manufactured,  imported  for 
scientific  or  educational  pur- 
poses ; 

(3)  Certain  migratory  game 
birds. — Migratory  game  birds 
(for  which  an  open  season  is 
provided  by  the  laws  of  the 
United  States  and  any  foreign 
country  which  is  a  party  to  a 
treaty  with  the  United  States, 
in  effect  on  the  date  of  im- 
portation, relating  to  the  pro- 
tection of  such  migratory  game 
birds)  brought  into  the  United 
States  by  bona  fide  sportsmen 
returning  from  hunting  trips 
in  such  country,  if  at  the  time 
of  importation  the  possession 
of  such  birds  is  not  prohibited 
by  the  laws  of  such  country  or 
of  the  United  States. 

A  number  of  important  duties 
were  modified  as  shown  on  p.  9. 


Vol.  XL— 31-M 


Tariff 


9 


Tariff 


The  first  item  excludes  motor 
trucks  and  busses,  which  remain 
25%. 

Fordney-  Smoot- 

McCumber  Hawley 

Bill  Bill. 

Automobiles                  25%  10% 

Aluminum,  crude  (lb.)         5c  4c 

Cattle  (lb.)                       2c  2Hc 

Cement                        Free  6c 

Cream  (gal.)                    20c*  56.6c 

Timber  (1,000ft.)....     Free  $1.00 

Milk  (gal.)                    2Hc**  mc 

Sugar  cane  (ton)                 $1  $2.50 

Sugar,  Cuban  (lb.) ....      1.76c  2c 

Sugar,  world  (lb.) ....     2.20c  2.50c 

Wool  rags  (lb.)               7Hc  18c 

*Raised  by  Presidential  proclamation  in 
1929  to  30c. 

**Raised  by  Presidential  proclamation  in 
1929  to  3Mc. 

THE  FREE  LIST 
SCHEDULE  16 
Acids  and  acid  anhydrides:  Hydrofluoric 
acid,  hydrochloric  (muriatic)  acid,  nit- 
ric acid,  sulphuric  acid  and  mixtures 
of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  valer- 
ianic acid 

Aconite,  aloes,  asafetida,  buchu  leaves,  coc- 
culus  indicas,  ipecac,  jalap,  licorice 
root,  manna;  marshmallow,  mate,  and 
pyrethrum  or  insect  flowers,  all  natural 
and  uncompounded.  No  article  con- 
taining alcohol  shall  be  admitted  free 
of  duty  under  this  paragraph 

Agates,  unmanufactured 

Agricultural  implements:  Plows,  tooth  or 
disk  harrows,  headers,  harvesters, 
reapers,  agricultural  drills  and  plan- 
ters, mowers,  horserakes,  cultivators, 
thrashing  machines,  cotton  gins,  ma- 
chinery for  use  in  the  manufacture  of 
sugar,  wagons  and  carts,  cream  sepa- 
rators valued  at  not  more  than  $50 
each,  and  all  others,  except  articles 
specified  in  dutiable  list 

Albumen,  not  specially  provided  for 

Animals  for  breeding  purposes,  if  pure  bred 
and  duly  registered  in  record  books  of 
recognized  breeds,  if  certified  by  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  and  imported 
by  a  citizen  of  the  United  States 
domestic  animals,  strayed  or  temporarily 
pastured  on  foreign  territory,  with 
their  offspring 
exhibition  animals,  for  competition  for 
prizes  offered  by  any  agricultural,  polo, 
or  racing  association 
team  animals  of  immigrants 
wild  animals,  for  scientific  or  educational 
purposes 

Antimony  ore 

Annatto,  archil,  cochineal,  cudbear,  gam- 
bier,  litmus,  not  containing  alcohol 

Antitoxins,  vaccines,  viruses,  serums,  and 
bacterins 

Argols,  tartar,  and  wine  lees,  crude  or 
partly  refined,  calcium  tartrate,  crude 

Arrowroot,  crude  or  manufactured 

Sulphide  of  arsenic 

Arsenious  acid  or  white  arsenic 

Articles  grown,  produced  or  made  in 
in  United  States,  when  returned  after 
having  been  exported,  without  having 
been  advanced  in  value  or  improved 
in  condition 

Asbastos,  unmanufactured,  asbestos  crudes, 
fibers,  stucco 

Waste  bagging,  and  waste  sugar  sack  cloth 

Bananas  and  plantains 

Barks,  cinchona  or  other,  for  extracting 
quinine 

Bells,  broken,  and  bell  metal 

Bibles,  bound  or  unbound 

All  binding  twine  made  from  New  Zealand 
hemp,  henequen,  manila,  istle  or  Tam- 
pico  fiber,  si-sal  grass,  or  sunn,  not  ex- 
ceeding 750  ft.  to  the  pound 

Bread:  Not  free  unless  leavened  with  yeast 

P'ish  sounds 

Blood,  dried 


Bolting  cloths  of  silk,  expressly  for  milling 
purposes 

Bones  and  animal  carbon  only  for  fertilizers 

Books,  engravings,  photographs,  etchings, 
maps  and  charts  imported  for  Gov- 
ernment use  or  the  Library  of  Congress 

Hydrographic  charts  and  publications  for 
subscribers  or  exchanges  by  scientific 
or  literary  associations  and  publica- 
tions for  gratuitous  private  circula- 
tion, and  public  documents  by  foreign 
Governments;  books,  maps,  music,  en- 
gravings, photographs,  etchings,  litho- 
•graphic  prints,  bound  or  unbound,  and 
charts,  more  than  20  years  old,  unless 
rebound  in  leather 

Books  and  pamphlets  in  languages  other 
than  English;  books,  pamphlets,  and 
music,  in  raised  print,  used  for  the 
blind,  and  printing  apparatus  there- 
for 

Institutions  established  solely  for  religious, 
philosophical,  educational,  scientific, 
or  literary  purposes,  or  educational  in- 
stitutions in  the  United  States,  or  any 
public  library,  may  import  free  any 
book,  map,  music,  engraving,  photo- 
graph, etching,  lithographic  print,  or 
chart,  for  its  own  use  or  for  the  en- 
couragement of  the  fine  arts 

Books,  libraries,  furniture,  and  household 
effects  of  persons  from  foreign  coun- 
tries if  actually  used  abroad  by  them 
not  less  than  one  year 

Borax,  crude  or  unmanufactured,  borate  of 
lime,  borate  of  soda,  and  other  borates 

Brass,  old  brass,  or  Dutch  metal,  fit  only 
for  remanufacture 

Brazilian  or  pichurim  beans 

Brazilian  pebble,  unmanufactured 

Bristles,  crude,  not  sorted,  bunched,  or 
prepared 

Bullion,  gold  or  silver 

Burgundy  pitch 

Burrstones,  manufactured  or  bound  up  into 
millstones 

Calcium:  Chloride,   crude;   nitrate,  and 

cyanamid  or  lime  nitrogen 
Calcium  arsenate 

Linotype  and  all  typesetting  machines,  shoe 
machinery,  sand-blast  machines,  sludge 
machines,  and  tar  and  oil  spreading 
machines,  including  repair  parts 

Cerite  or  cerium  ore 

Chalk,  crude,  not  manufactured 

Chestnuts  (including  marrons),  crude, 
dried,  or  baked 

Chromite  or  chrome  ore 

Chip  and  chip  roping 

Citrons  and  citron  peel,  crude,  dried,  or  in 
brine 

Coal,  anthracite  and  bituminous;  coke; 
compositions  in  which  coal  or  coal  dust 
is  used 

Coal-tar  products  which  on  distillation 
yield  less  than  5  per  cent  of  the  original 
distillate 

Cobalt  and  cobalt  ore 

Cocoa  or  cacao  beans,  and  shells  thereof 

Coffee,  except  coffee  imported  into  Porto 
Rico,  where  the  Legislature  is  author- 
ized to  impose  duties  upon  coffee 

Coins  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  or  other  metal 

Coir,  and  coir  yarn 

Composition  metal  containing  copper 

Copper  ore;  regulus  of,  and  black  or  coarse 
copper,  cement  copper;  old  copper,  fit 
only  for  remanufacture,  and  copper 
in  plates,  bars,  ingots,  or  pigs,  not 
manufactured 

Copper  sulphate  or  blue  vitriol;  copper 
acetate  and  subacetate  or  verdigris 

Coral,  marine,  uncut,  unmanufactured 

Cork  wood,  or  cork  bark,  unmanufactured, 
and  cork  refuse  of  all  kinds 

Cotton,  not  specially  provided  for,  and 
cotton  waste 

Cryolite,  or  kryolith 

Metallic  mineral  substances  in  crude  state 
Curling  stones 
Cuttlefish  bone 

Cyanide:  All  cyanide  salts  and  cyanide 
mixtures  (not  including  sulphocyanides 
or  thiocyanides,  thiocyanates,  nitro- 


prussides,  ferrocyanidcs,  ferricyanides, 
and  cyanates) 
Diamonds  and  other  precious  stones,  rough 
or  uncut 

Drugs  such  as  barks,  beans,  berries,  buds, 
bulbs,  bulbous  roots,  excrescences, 
fruits,  flowers,  dried  fibers,  dried  in- 
sects, grains,  herbs,  leaves,  lichens, 
mosses, logs,  roots,  stems,  vegetables, 
seeds  (aromatic,  not  garden  seeds), 
seeds  of  morbid  growth,  weeds,  and 
all  other  drugs  of  vegetable  or  animal 
origin;  all  the  foregoing  which  are 
natural  and  uncompounded  drugs  and 
not  edible,  and  not  specially  provided 
for,  and  are  in  a  crude  state.  No  article 
containing  alcohol  shall  be  admitted 
free  of  duty  under  this  paragraph 
Dyeing  or  tanning  materials:  Fustic  wood, 
hemlock  bark,  logwood,  mangrove 
bark,  oak  bark,  quebracho  wood, 
wattle  bark,  divi-divi,  myrobalans 
fruit,  sumac,  calonia,  nutgalls  or  gall 
nuts,  and  all  articles  of  vegetable 
origin  used  for  dyeing,  coloring,  stain- 
ing, or  tanning  not  containing  alcohol 
Eggs  of  birds,  fish,  and  insects  (except  fish 
roe  for  food  purposes),  and  specimens 
imported  for  scientific  collections 
Emery  ore  and  corundum  ore 
Enfleurage   greases,   floral   essences  and 

floral  concretes 
Fans,  common  pahn-leaf,  plain  and  not 

ornamented  or  manufactured 
Ferrous  sulphate  or  copperas 
Fibrin,  in  all  forms 
Fish  imported  not  for  human  food 
Fishskins,  raw  or  salted 
Natural  flint  and  natural  flint  stones,  un- 
ground 


Furs  and  fur  skins,  undressed 

Live  game  anima  s  and  birds,  for  stocking 
purposes,  and  game  animals  and  birds 
killed  abroad  by  residents  of  the 
United  States  and  imported  for  non 
commercial  purposes 

Goldbeaters'  molds  and  goldbeaters'  skins 

Grasses  and  fibers:  Henequen,  sisal,  manila, 
jute,  jute  butts,  kapok,  istle  or  Tam- 
pico  fiber,  etc.,  not  manufactured 

Guano,  basic  slag  (ground  or  unground), 
manures;  and  fertilizers 

Gums  and  resins:  Damar,  kauri,  copal, 
chicle,  and  other  natural  gums  and 


Gunpowder,  sporting  powder,  and  all  other 
explosive  substances,  not  specially 
provided  for 

Hair  of  horse,  cattle,  and  other  animals, 
unmanufactured 

Hide  cuttings,  raw,  and  all  other  glue  stock 

Rope  made  of  rawhide 

Hides  and  skins  of  the  Indian  water  buffalo 

Hones,  whetstones,  and  grindstones 

Hoofs,  unmanufactured 

Horns  and  parts  of,  unmanufactured 

Horses  or  mules  for  immediate  slaughter 

Ice 

India  rubber  and  gutta-percha,  crude  or 

refuse,  fit  only  for  remanufacture 
Iodine,  crude,  and  copper  iodide,  crude 
Iridium,  osmium,  palladium,  rhodium,  and 

ruthenium,  and  native  combinations 

thereof  or  with  platinum 
Iron  ore,  including  manganiferpus  iron  ore, 

and  the  dross  or  residuum  from  burnt 

pyrites 

Ivory  tusks  in  their  natural  state  or  cut 
vertically  across  the  grain  only,  with 
the  bark  left  intact 

Jet,  unmanufactured 

Joss  stick  or  joss  light 

Waste  rope 

Kelp 

Kieserite 

Lac:  Crude,  seed,  button,  stick,  or  shell 

Lava,  unmanufactured 

Leeches 

Limestone-rock  asphalt;  asphaltum  and 
bitumen 

Lifeboats  and  life-saving  apparatus  spe- 
cially imported  by  institutions  esta- 
lished  to  encourage  life  saving 

Vol.  XI.— 31-M 


Tariff 

Lithographic  stones,  not  engraved 
Loadstones 

Manuscripts,  not  specially  provided  for 
Marrow,  crude 

Mechanically  ground  wood  pulp,  chemical 
wood  pulp 

Medals  of  gold,  silver,  or  copper,  and  other 
metallic  articles  actually  received  and 
accepted  as  honorary  distinctions 

Mineral  salts  obtained  by  evaporation 
from  mineral  waters 

Minerals,  crude,  or  not  advanced  in  value 
by  manufacture 

Models  of  inventions  incapable  of  any 
other  use 

Monazite  sand  and  other  thorium  ores 
Moss,  seaweeds,  and  vegetable  substances, 
crude 

Muzzle-loading  muskets,  shotguns,  rifles, 
and  parts 

Needles,  hand  sewing  or  darning 

Nets  or  finished  sections  of  nets  for  use  in 
otter  trawl  fishing,  if  composed  in 
chief  value  of  manila 

Newspapers,  undeveloped  negative  mov- 
ing-picture film  of  American  manufac- 
ture exposed  abroad  for  silent  or  sound 
news  reel,  and  periodicals,  only  un- 
bound or  paper-covered  publications 
devoted  to  current  literature 

Oil-bearing  seeds  and  nuts  when  the  oils 
derived  therefrom  are  free  of  duty 

Nux  vomica,  gentian,  sarsaparilla  root, 
belladonna,  henbane,  stramonium,  and 
ergot 

Oakum 

(a)  All  products  of  American  fisheries  (ex- 
cept cod,  haddock,  hake,  pollock, 
cusk,  mackeral,  and  swordfish)  landed 
in  a  foreign  country  and  there  not 
further  advanced  than  beheaded,  evis- 
cerated, packed  in  ice,  frozen  and  with, 
fins  removed;  products  of  American 
fisheries,  prepared  or  preserved  by  an 
American  fishery,  on  the  treaty  coasts 
of  Newfoundland,  Magdalen  Islands, 
and  Labrador,  as  defined  in  the  Con- 
vention of  1818  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  (b)  Eula- 
chon  oil,  cod  oil,  and  cod-liver  oil 

Oils,  distilled  or  essential  not  containing 
alcohol 

Oils,  expressed  or  extracted,  rendered  unfit 
for  use  as  food  or  for  any  but  mechani- 
cal or  manufacturing  purposes 

Oils,  mineral:  Petroleum,  crude,  fuel,  or 
refined,  and  all  distillates  obtained 
from  petroleum 

Ores  of  gold,  silver,  or  nickel;  nickel  matte; 
nickel  oxide;  ores  of  the  platinum 
metals;  sweepings  of  gold  and  silver 

Duplex  decalcomania  paper  not  printed 

Parchment  and  vellum 

Paris  green  and  London  purple 

Pearl,  mother  of,  and  shells,  not  manufac- 
tured 

Personal  effects,  not  merchandise,  of  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  dying  in  for- 
eign countries 

Phosphates,  crude,  and  apatite 

Pigeons,  fancy  or  racing 

Plants,  trees,  shrubs,  roots,  and  other 
material  for  planting,  imported  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  or  the 
United  States  Botanic  Garden 

Plaster  rock  or  gypsum,  crude 

Platinum,  unmanufactured  or  in  ingots, 
bars,  sheets,  or  plates  not  less  than 
one-eighth  of  one  inch  in  thickness 

Potassium  chloride,  potassium  sulphate, 
kainate,  wood  a^hes  and  beet-root 
ashes,  and  all  crude  potash  salts 

Potassium  nitrate  or  saltpeter,  crude 

Professional  books,  implements,  instru- 
ments, and  tools  of  trade,  occupation, 
or  employment  in  the  actual  possession 
of  persons  emigrating  to  the  United 
States  owned  and  used  by  them 
abroad;  excluding  machinery  or  other 
articles  imported  for  use  in  any  manu- 
facturing establishment,  or  for  any 
other  persons,  or  for  sale,  excluding 
also  theatrical  scenery,  properties,  and 
apparel;  but  such  articles  brought  by 

Vol.  XI  — 31-M 


10 

theatrical  exhibitions  from  abroad,  for 
temporary  use  and  not  for  sale,  shall 
enter  free  of  duty;  but  bonds  shall  be 
given  for  the  payment  to  the  United 
States  of  such  duties  as  may  be  im- 
posed upon  such  articles  as  shall  not 
be  exported  within  six  months  after 
importation:  Provided,  That  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  may  extend  such 
period  for  a  further  term  of  six  months 
in  case  application  shall  be  made 
therefor 

Quinine  sulphate  and  all  alkaloids  and  salts 
of  alkaloids  derived  from  cinchona 
bark 

Radium,  and  salts  of,  and  radioactive  sub- 
stitutes 

Rag  pulp;  paper  stock,  crude,  of  every 
descrfption,  including  all  grasses,  fibers, 
rags,  waste 

Rennet,  raw  or  prepared 

Patna  rice  cleaned  for  use  in  canned  soups 

Sago,  crude,  and  sago  flour 

Santonin,  and  salts  of 

Sausage  casings,  weasands,  intestines,  blad- 
ders, etc. 

Sea  herring,  smelts,  and  tuna  fish,  fresh  or 
frozen 

Cowpeas  and  sugar  beet  seed 
Selenium,  and  salts  of 
Sheep  dip 
Shingles  of  wood 

Shrimps,  lobsters,  and  other  shellfish,  fresh 

or  frozen 
Silk  cocoons  and  silk  waste 
Silk,  raw,  in  skeins  reeled  from  the  cocoon, 
or  rereeled,  but  not  manufactured  in  any 

way 

Skeletons  and  other  preparations  of  ana- 
tomy 

Skins  of  all  kinds,  raw,  and  hides 
Sodium:  Nitrate,  crude  or  refined;  sul- 
phate, crude,  or  crude  salt  cake,  and 
niter  cake;  bicarbonate  or  baking  soda 
Specimens  of  natural  history,  botany,  and 
mineralogy,  when  imported  for  scien- 
tific public  collections,  and  not  for 
sale 

Spices  and  spice  seeds:  (1)  Cassia,  cassia 
buds,  and  cassia  vera;  cloves;  clove 
stems;  cinnamon  and  cinnamon  chips; 
ginger  root,  not  preserved  or  candied; 
mace;  nutmegs;  black  or  white  pepper; 
and  pimento  (allspice);  all  the  fore- 
going, if  unground;  (2)  anise;  cara- 
way; cardamom;  coriander;  cummin; 
and  fennel 

Spunk 

Spurs  and  stilts  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  earthenware,  stoneware,  or  porce- 
lain 

Stamps:  Postage  or  revenue  stamps,  can- 
celed or  uncanceled,  and  government 
stamped  envelopes  or  post  cards  bear- 
ing no  other  printing  than  the  official 
imprint  thereon 

Standard  newsprint  paper 

Statuary  and  casts  of  sculpture  for  use  as 
models  or  for  art  educational  purposes 
only;  regalia  and  gems,  where  specially 
imported  in  good  faith  for  the  use  and 
by  order  of  any  society  established 
solely  for  regligious,  philosophical,  edu- 
cational, scientific,  or  literary  purposes 
or  for  the  encouragement  of  the  fine 
arts,  or  for  the  use  and  by  order  of 
any  educational  institution,  or  public 
hospital  in  the  United  States,  or  any 
State  or  public  library,  and  not  for 
sale 

Altars,  pulpits,  communion  tables,  baptis- 
mal fonts,  shrines,  and  statuary  (ex- 
cept casts  of  plaster  of  Paris,  or  of 
papier-mache),  imported  for  presenta- 
tion (without  charge)  to,  and  for  the 
use  of,  any  corporation  or  association 
organized  exclusively  for  religious  pur- 
poses 

Stone  and  sand;  Burrstone  in  blocks,  rough 
or  unmanufactured;  quartzite;  trap- 
rock;  rottenstone,  tripoli,  and  sand, 
crude  or  manufactured;  silica;  cliff 
stone,  freestone,  granite,  and  sand- 
stone, unmanufactured  and  not  sui- 


Tariff 

table  for  monumental,   paving,  or 

building  stone 
Strontianite  and  celestite 
Sulphur  in  any  form,  and  sulphur  ore 
Tagua  nuts 
Tamarinds 

Tankage,  fish  scrap,  fish  meal,  cod-liver  oil 
cake,  and  cod-liver  oil  cake  meal,  all 
unfit  for  human  food 
Tapioca,  tapioca  flour,  and  cassava 
Locust  or  carob  beans,  and  pods  and  seeds 
Tea  not  specially  provided  for,  and  tea 
plants:  Provided,  That  all  cans,  boxes, 
and  other  wrappings  of  tea  in  pack- 
ages of  less  than  five  pounds  each, 
shall  be  dutiable  at  the  rate  charge- 
able thereon  if  imported  empty 
Teeth,  natural,  or  unmanufactured 
Tin  ore  or  cassiterite,  and  black  oxide  of 
tin:  Provided,  That  there  shall  be  im- 
posed and  paid  upon  cassiterite,  or 
black  oxide  of  tin,  a  duty  of  4  cents 
per  pound,  and  upon  bar,  block,  pig 
tin  and  grain  or  granulated,  a  duty  of  6 
cents  per  pound  when  it  is  made  to 
appear  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
President  of  the  United  States  that  the 
mines  of  the  United  States  are  pro- 
ducing one  thousand  five  hundred 
tons  of  cassiterite  and  bar,  block,  and 
pig  tin  per  year.  The  President  shall 
make  known  this  fact  by  proclamma- 
tion,  and  thereafter  said  duties  shall 
go  into  effect 
tin  in  bars,  blocks  or  pigs,  alloys  in  chief 
.  value  of  tin  not  specially  provided 
for,  and  grain  or  granulated  and  scrap 
tin,  including  scrap  tin  plate 
Tobacco  stems  not  cut,  ground,  or  pulver- 
ized; Truffles,  prepared  or  preserved; 
Turmeric;  Turtles;  Typewriters;  Ura- 
nium, oxide  and  salts  of;  Urea;  Vege- 
table tallow;  Wafers,  not  edible;  Wax: 
Animal,  vegetable,  or  mmeral.  Disks 
of  soft  wax,  commonly  known  as  mas- 
ter records,  or  metal  matrices  obtained 
therefrom,  for  use  in  the  manufacture 
of  sound  records  for  export  purposes 
Wearing  apparel,  articles  of  personal  adorn- 
ment, toilet  articles,  and  similar  per- 
sonal effects  of  persons  arriving  in  the 
United  States;  but  this  exemption 
shall  include  only  such  articles  as  were 
actually  owned  by  them  and  in  their 
possession  abroad  at  the  time  of  or 
prior  to  their  departure  from  a  foreign 
country,  and  as  are  necessary  and 
appropriate  for  the  wear  and  use  of 
such  persons  and  are  intended  for 
such  wear  and  use,  and  shall  not  be 
held  to  apply  to  merchandise  or  ar- 
ticles intended  for  other  persons  or 
for  sale:  Provided,  That  all  jewelry 
and  similar  articles  of  personal  adorn- 
ment having  a  value  of  $300  or  more, 
brought  in  by  a  nonresident  of  the 
United  States,  shall,  if  sold  within 
three  years  after  the  date  of  the 
arrival  of  such  person  in 'the  United 
States,  be  liable  to  duty  at  the  rate 
or  rates  in  force  at  the  time  of  such 
sale,  to  be  paid  by  such  person:  Pro- 
vided further,  That  in  case  of  residents 
of  the  United  States  returning  from 
abroad  all  wearing  apparel,  personal 
and  household  effects,  and  in  the  case 
of  individuals  returning  from  abroad, 
all  professional  books,  implements,  in- 
struments, and  tools  of  trade,  occu- 
pation, or  employment,  taken  by 
them  out  of  the  United  States  to  for- 
eign countries  shall  be  admitted  free 
of  duty,  without  regard  to  their  value, 
upon  their  identity  being  established 
under  appropriate  rules  and  regula- 
tions to  be  prescribed  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury:  Provided  further. 
That  up  to  but  not  exceedmg  $100 
in  value  of  articles  acquired  abroad 
by  such  residents  of  the  United  States 
for  personal  or  household  use  or  as 
souvenirs  or  curios,  but  not  bought 
on  commission  or  intended  for  sale, 
shall  be  admitted  free  of  duty:  Pro- 


Tariff 


11 


Tariff 


tided  further,  That  a  resident  of  the 
United  States  shall  not  take  advan- 
tage of  the  exemption  herein  granted 
within  a  period  of  thirty  days  from 
the  last  exemption  claimed 
Whalebone,  unmanufactured;  All  barbed 
wire,  whether  plain  or  galvanized; 
Witherite,  crude,  unground;  Wood 
charcoal;  Wood:  (1)  Timber  hewn, 
sided,  or  squared,  otherwise  than 
by  sawing,  and  round  timber  used 
for  spars  or  in  building  wharves; 
sawed  lumber  and  timber,  not  further 
manufactured  than  planed,  and  ton- 
gued  and  grooved;  all  the  foregoing 
not  specially  provided  for.  (2)  Logs; 
timber,  round,  unmanufactured;  pulp 
woods;  firewood,  handle  bolts,  single 
bolts;  gun  blocks  for  gunstocks,  rough 
hewn  or  sawed  or  plained  on  one  side 
and  laths 

Posts,  railroad  ties,  and  telephone,  trolley, 
electric-light,  and  telegraph  poles 

Pickets,  palings,  hoops,  and  staves  of 
wood  of  all  kinds 

Woods:  Sticks  of  partridge,  hair  wood, 
pimento,  orange,  mjTtle,  bamboo, 
rattan,  india  malacca  ioints,  and  other 
woods  not  specially  provided  for,  in 
the  rough,  or  not  further  advanced  than 


cut  into  lengths  suitable  for  sticks 
for  umbrellas,  parasols,  sunshades, 
whips,  fishing  rods.'or  walking  canes 

Original  paintings  in  oil,  mineraJ,  water,  or 
other  colors,  pastels,  original  draw- 
ings and  sketches  in  pen,  ink,  pencil, 
or  water  colors,  artists'  proof  etchings 
unbound,  and  engravings  and  wood- 
cuts unbound,  original  sculptures  or 
statuary,  including  not  more  than  two 
replicas  or  reproductions  of  the  same 

Works  of  art,  drawings,  engravings,  photo- 
graphic pictures,  and  philosophical  and 
scientific  apparatus  brought  by  pro- 
fessional artists,  lecturers,  or  scientists 
arriving  from  abroad  for  use  by  them 
temporarily  for  exhibition  and  in  illus- 
tration, promotion,  and  encourage- 
ment of  art,  science,  or  industry  in 
the  United  States,  and  not  for  sale 

Works  of  art,  collections  in  illustration  of 
the  progress  of  the  arts,  sciences,  agri- 
culture, or  manufactures,  photographs, 
works  in  terra  cotta,  parian,  pottery, 
or  porcelain,  antiquities  and  artistic 
copies  thereof  in  metal  or  other  mater- 
ial, imported  in  good  faith  for  exhibi- 
tion at  a  fixed  place  by  any  State  or 
by  any  society  or  institution  esta- 
blished for  the  encouragement  of  the 


arts,  science,  agriculture,  or  educa- 
tion, or  for  a  municipal  corporation 

Works  of  art,  productions  of  American 
artists  residing  temporarily  abroad,  or 
other  works  of  art,  including  pictorial 
paintings  on  glass,  imported  expressly 
for  presentation  to  a  national  insti- 
tution or  to  any  State  or  municipal 
corporation  or  incorporated  religious 
society,  college,  or  other  public  insti- 
tution, including  stained  or  painted 
window  glass  or  stained  or  painted 
glass  windows  which  are  works  of  art 
when  imported  to  be  used  in  houses 
of  worship,  valued  at  $15  or  more  per 
square  foot 

Works  of  art  (except  rugs  and  carpets 
made  after  the  year  1700),  collections 
in  illustration  of  the  progress  of  the 
arts,  works  in  bronze,  marble,  terra 
cotta,  parian,  pottery,  or  porcelain, 
artistic  antiquities,  and  objects  of  art 
of  ornamental  character  or  educational 
value  which  shall  have  been  produced 
prior  to  the  year  1830.  Violins,  violas, 
violoncellos,  and  double  basses,  of  all 
sizes,  made  in  the  year  1800  or  prior 
year 

Gobelin  tapestries;  Worm  gut,  unmanufac- 
tured; Zaffer 


THE  DUTIABLE  LIST 


With  Comparison  of  Duties  Under  the  Fordney-McCumber  Act  of  1922 

('Old  Tariff') 


(All  ad  valorem  percentages  are  based  on  dutiable  values. 

Ton  2,240  pounds.) 


All  weights  avoirdupois  standard. 


SCHEDULE  I 

Chemicals,  Oils  and  Paints 

New  Tariff  Old  Tariff 

Acetic  acid                                          Ifclb  fc  lb 

Alcohol, — amyl   6c  lb 

wood                                               18c  gal  12c  gal 

Baking  soda                                          free  jc  lb 

Cocoanut  oil                                          2c  lb  2c  lb 

Camphor,  crude,  natural                           Ic  lb  Ic  lb 

refined,  natural  and  synthetic                  gC  lb  Jc  lb 

Cottonseed  oil                                        3c  lb  3c  lb 

Citric  acid                                         17c  lb  17c  lb 

Dyes,  medicinal  synthetic  products  of 

coal  tar                                        7c  lb  &  45%  7c  lb  &  40% 

ad  valorem  ad  valorem 

Ink  and  ink  powders                             10%  ad  val  20%  ad  val 

Linseed  oil                                          4|c  lb  3i''(sC  lb 

Intermediate  coal-tar  products                 7c  lb  &  40%  7c  lb  &  40% 

ad  valorem  ad  valorem 

Perfumery  40c  lb  &  75%,  40c  lb  &  75%, 

ad  valorem  ad  valorem 

Peanut  oil                                             4c  lb  4c  lb 

Menthol                                             50c  lb  50c  lb 

Olive  oil                                           9iclb  7^c  lb 

Soap,  castile                                          15%  15% 

perfume  toilet                                     30%  30% 

all  other  soap  and  powder                      15%  15% 

Spirit  varnishes                                     $2.20  gal  $2.20  gal 

25%,  ad  val  2h%  ad  val 

Soya  bean  oil                                       3|c  lb  2^c  lb 

Starch,  potato                                      2§c  lb  Ifclb 

SCHEDULE  II 

Earths,  Earthenware  and  Glassware 

New  Tariff  Old  Tariff 

Brick,  enameled  $1.25  per  M  free 

China,  porcelain,  etc.,  plain   60%  &  10c  50%  or  60% 

per  doz  ad  valorem 

decorated   70%  &  10c  55%  or  70% 

per  doz  ad  valorem 

Common,  earthenware   15%  ad  val  15%  ad  val 

Incandescent  electric  light  bulbs  20%  to  30%  20% 

Illuminating  articles  of  glass  55%  to  70%  60% 

Plain  glass  bottles.   Ic  lb  Ic  lb 

Roman,  Portland  cement  6c  per  100  lbs  free 

Spectacles,  etc   20c  doz  &  20c  doz  & 

15%  to  40%  15%  to  40%, 

»d  valorem  ad  valorem 


New  Tariff  Old  Tariff 

White  granite  and  semi-precious  earthen- 
ware                                             45%  &  10c  45%, 

per  doz  pes 

decorated                                        50%,  &  10c  50% 

per  doz  pes 

Table  and  kitchen  articles  and  utensils 
of  glass  50%  to  60%  50%  to  60% 

SCHEDULE  III 

Metals  and  Manufactures  of 

New  Tariff  Old  Tariff 

Table,  kitchen,  butchers  and  hunting 
knives  with  shell  or  ivory,  horn  or 

silver  1 6c  ea&45%)  1 6c  ea&45% 

hard  rubber,  bone  or  celluloid               8c  ea&45%  8c  ea&45% 

Zinc,  blocks  or  pigs                                Ifc  lb  Ijc  lb 

Pocket  and  other  knives  IJc  ea&,50%  Ic  ea  &  50% 

to  35c&55%,  to  35c&55% 

Pistols                                             $2  00  ea&  $1.25  ea  & 

55%  to  55%  to 

$3.50  ea  &  $3.50  ea  & 

55%  55% 

Safety  razors  10c  ea&30%  10c  ea&30% 

straight  razors  18c  ea&30%,  18c  ea&45% 

Screws                                                   25%,  25% 

Scissors  and  Shears  3ic  ea&45%  Z\c  ea&45% 

Sewing  machines  15%  or  30%,  15%  or  30% 

Shovels,  scythes,  sickles                             30%  30% 

Shotguns  and  rifles  $1.50  &  45%  $1.25  &  55% 

to  65%,  to  $3.50 
&  55%, 

Steel  rails                                            I'oC  lb  ic  lb 

Steel  wire                                         fc  to  lie  lb  f  to  Uc  lb 

or  25%  ad  val  or  25%  ad  val 

Steel  wool  10c  lb&30%  10c  lb&30%, 

Table,  household  and  hospital  utensils. . .  5c  lb&30%  5c  lb&30% 

aluminum  8ic  lb&40%,  11c  lb&55%, 

brass                                                  40%,  40%, 

Airplanes,  hydroplanes,  motor  boats,  and 

parts                                                 30%  30% 

Aluminum,  crude                                    4c  lb  5c  lb 

Automobiles  and  motorcycles  and  parts.  10%  or  25%  25%  or  duty 

or  duty  up  up  to  50% 
to  50% 

Bicycles  30%,  or  duty  30%  or  duty 

up  to  50%,  up  to  50%, 

Cash  registers                                        25%  25% 

Cream  separators                                     25%  25% 

valued  not  over  $50                               free  free 


Tariff 


12 


Tariff 


New  Tariff 

Hair,  safety,  hat  and  other  pins   35% 

Horseshoes   J  to  Ic  lb 

Lead  bullion   2^0  lb 

Magnesite,  crude   Jic  lb 

caustic   i  §c  lb 

burned  and  grain   ti>c  lb 

Nails   I'oc  lb 

Pig  iron   $1.12non 


SCHEDULE  IV 
Wood  and  Manufactures  of 


Old  Tart, 
35% 
i  to  Ic  lb 
2iclb 
Ac  lb 
|c  lb 
2— c  lb 
i*oC  lb 
75c  ton 


New  Tariff      Old  Tariff 


Furniture  

Furniture  of  wood  

Logs,  of  fir,  spruce,  cedar  or  western 
hemlock  

Toothpicks  


25% 
40% 

free 

25% 


25% 
33J% 

$1  a  1,000 
bd.  ft. 
25% 


New  Tariff 

Milled  rice   25c  lb 

Marmalades   35%  ad  val 

Oats   16c  bu 

Oatmeal  80c  100  Ib^ 

Onions   25c  lb 

Olives  20  or  30c  gal 

Peanuts   i^c  lb 

shelled   7c  lb 

Peas   3clb 

Peaches  and  pears   §c  lb 

Poultry   8clb 

dead   10c  lb 

Pineapples   50c  crate 

Rye   15c  bu 

Raisins   2c  lb 

Tomatoes   3c  lb 

Turnips   25cl00 lbs 

Wheat   42c  bu 

Wheat  flour  $1.04  100  lbs 


SCHEDULE  VHI 


Old  TarijS 
2c  lb 
35%  ad  val 
15c  bu 
80c  100  lbs 
Ic  lb 
20c  gal 
3c  lb 
4c  lb 
Ic  lb 
lb 
3c  lb 
6c  lb 
22k  crate 
15c  bu 
2c  lb 
h  lb 
12c  100  lbs 
30c  bu 
78c  100  lbs 


SCHEDULE  V 

Sugars  and  Manufactures  of 

New  Tariff  Old  Tariff 

Maple  syrup                                         5jC  lb  4c  lb 

Maple  sugar                                          8c  lb  4c  !b 

Sugar,  raw                                           2^c\h  2.206c  lb 

Cuban,  raw                                        2c  lb  1.7648c  lb 

Sugar,  candy,  confectionery                       40%  40% 


SCHEDULE  VI 
Tobacco  and  Manufactures  of 

New  Tariff      Old  Tariff 

Cigars  and  cigarettes   $4.50  lb  $4.50  lb 

&  25%  &  25% 

Fillers  tobacco   35clb  35c  lb 

stemmed   50c  lb  50c  lb 

Wrapper  tobacco   $2.27^  lb  $2.10  lb 

stemmed   $2.92J  lb  $2.75  lb 


SCHEDULE  VLI 

Agricultural  Products  and  Provisions 

New  Tariff  Old  Tariff 

Almonds   5ic  lb  4|c  lb 

shelled   16ic  lb  14c  lb 

Apples   25c  bu  25c  bu 

Apricots   ic  lb  ^c  lb 

dried   2c  lb  §clb 

Barley   20c  bu  2c  lb 

Brazil  nuts   IJc  lb  Ic  lb 

shelled   45c  lb  Ic  lb 

Bacon  and  hams   3jc  lb  2c  lb 

Butter  and  oleomargarine   14c  lb  8c  lb 

Cattle   2§  or  3c  lb  U  or  2c  lb 

Cheese   7c  lb  5c  lb 

Cherries   5|c  lb  O^c  lb 

Corn   25c  bu  15c  bu 

cornmeal   50c  bu  30c  bu 

Cider   5c  gal  5c  gal 

Chocolate  and  cocoa   3c  lb  17^%  ad  val 

Cocoanut  meat   3|c  lb  3ic  lb 

Eggs   10c  doz  8c  doz 

Figs   5c  lb  2c  lb 

Flaxseed   65c  bu  40c  bu 

Fresh  Iamb   7c  lb  4c  lb 

Fresh  or  frozen  salmon,  mackerel  and 

halibut   2c  lb  2c  lb 

Hay   $5.00  ton  $4.00  ton 

Honey   3clb  3c  lb 

Herring  and  mackerel,  pickled  or  salted  Ic  lb  Ic  lb 

Horses  and  mules   $30.00  ea  $30.00  ea 

value  over  $150   20%  ad  val  20%  ad  val 

Hogs   2c  lb  ic  lb 

Irish  potatoes   75c  100  lbs  50c  100  lbs 

Lard  ,   3c  lb  Ic  lb 

Lemons   2^c  lb  2c  lb 

Limes   2c  lb  Ic  lb 

Oranges   Ic  lb  Ic  lb 

Grapefruit   l§c  lb  Ic  lb 

Macaroni  and  noodles   2c  lb  2c  lb 

Milk   6ic  gal  2lc  gal 

Cream   56,'v,c  gal  20c  gal 

Condensed   lioclb  IJclb 


Spirits,  Wines  and  Other 


Ale,  porter  and  beer  

Brandy  

Champagne  

Grapejuice   70c  gal 

Ginger  ale   15c  gal 

Still  wines   $1.25  gal 


Beverages 

Old  Tariff 
$1  gal 


New  Tariff 
$1  gal 
$5  gal 
$6  gal 


$5  ga 
$6  gal 
70c 
15c  gal 
$1.25  gal 


SCHEDULE  IX 

Cotton  Manufactures 

New  Tariff  Old  Tariff 

Cotton  sewing  thread   5c  100  yds  fc  100  yds 

Countable  cotton  cloth   10  to  60%  10^  to  45% 

ad  val  ad  val 

Hose  and  half  hose   30  to  50%  30  to  50% 

ad  val  ad  val 

Knit  gloves   50  to  60%,  40  to  75% 

ad  val  ad  val 

Knit  underwear  and  outerwear  45%  ad  val  45%  ad  val 

Lace  curtains  60%  ad  val  60%  ad  val 

Quilts  or  bedspreads   25  to  40%  25  to  40% 

ad  val  ad  val 

Table  and  bureau  covers   30%  ad  val  30%  ad  val 

Table  damask   30%  ad  val  30%  ad  val 

Wearing  apparel   37^%  ad  val  35%  ad  val 


SCHEDULE  X 

Flax,  Hemp,  Jute,  and  Manufactures  of 

New  Tariff    Old  Tariff 

Jute  bagging   /oc  sq  yd      I'bc  sq  yd 

Jute  burlap   Ic  lb  Ic  lb 

Linen  cloth   35%  to  55%  35%  to  55%, 

ad  val  ad  val 

Linen  handkerchiefs   35%  ad  val   35%  ad  val 

Table  damask   45%  ad  val   40%  ad  val 

Tailors'  paddings   55%  ad  val   55%  ad  val 

Towels  and  napkins  40%  to  55%   40%  to  55% 

ad  val  ad  val 

Wearing  apparel   35%  ad  val   35%  ad  val 


SCHEDULE  XI 

Wool  and  Manufactures  of 

New  Tariff      Old  Tariff 

Blankets  30c  lb  &  36%  18c  lb  &  30% 

ad  val  ad  val 

Chenille  Axminster  carpets  and  rugs. .  . .  60%  ad  val   55%  ad  val 

Hose,  half  hose  and  gloves  40c  lb  &  35%  36c  lb&35% 

ad  val  ad  val 

Knit  underwear  40c  lb  &  30%  36  lbs  &  30% 

ad  val  ad  val 

sweaters  44c  lb  &  45%  36c  lb  &  40% 

ad  val  ad  val 

Oriental  carpets,  rugs   50c  sq  ft      55%  ad  val 

Raw  wool   34c  lb         31c  lb 

Spool  Axminster,  Wilton,  Brussels,  velvet 

and  tapestry  carpets  and  rugs          40%  or  60%   40%  ad  val 

ad  val 

Wearing  apparel   33c  lb  &   24c  lb  &  40% 

45%  ad  val      ad  val 


Tariff 


13 


Tariff 


Woven  fabrics 
womens .... 


Neiv  Tariff  Old  Tariff 

.    50c  lb  &  36c  lb 

50%  ad  val  50%  ad  vai 

.    50c  lb  &  24c  lb  & 

50%  ad  val  40%  ad  val 


SCHEDULE  XII 

Silk  Manufactures 

New  Tariff     Old  Tariff 

Broad  silks   55  to  60%  55% 

ad  val 

Handkerchiefs  and  mufflers   55%  ad  val    55%  ad  val 

Knit  goods   60%  ad  val    60%  ad  val 

Sewing  silk   40%  ad  val 

Velvet   60%  ad  val   60%  ad  val 


SCHEDULE  XIII 

Manufactures  of  Rayon  or  Other  Synthetic 
Textile 

New  Tariff  Old  Tariff 

Clothing  and  wearing  apparel                   45c  lb  &  45c  lb  & 

65%  ad  val  60%  ad  val 

Knit  articles                                      45c  lb  &  45c  lb.  & 

65%  ad  val  60%  ad  val 

Rayon  yarns                                        45  to  50%  45c  lb 

ad  val 

Spun  yarns  12|c  lb  &  25c  lb  & 

45%  ad  val  45%  ad  val 

Woven  fabrics                                      45c  lb  &  45c  lb  & 

60%  ad  val  60%  ad  val 


SCHEDULE  XIV 

Papers  and  Books 

New  Tariff  Old  Tariff 

Books                                             15%  ad  val  15%  ad  val 

Paper  envelopes                               5%  ad  val  &  5%  ad  val  & 

paper  rate  paper  rate 

Playing  cards                                  10c  pack  &  10c  pack  & 

20%  ad  val  20%  ad  val 

Printing  paper                                 ic  lb  &  10%  ic  lb  &  10% 

ad  val  ad  val 

Writing,  letter  and  note  paper               3c  lb  &  15%  3c  lb  & 

ad  val  15%  ad  val 


SCHEDULE  XV 
Sundries 

New  Tariff  Old  Tariff 

Bags,  satchels  and  pocketbooks                 35%  ad  val  30%  ad  va' 

Boxing  gloves  and  athletic  goods               30%  ad  val  30%  ad  val 

Brooms                                            25%  ad  val  15%  ad  val 

Clocks                                              55c  ea.  &  $1  ea  &  45% 

65%  ad  val  ad  val  to 

to  $4.50  ea&  $4ea&45% 

65%  ad  val  ad  val 

Diamonds                                                free  10%  ad  val 

precious  stones                                       free  10%  ad  val 

Dice,  chips,  billiard  balls                         50%  ad  val  50%  ad  val 

Dolls  and  toys                                    70%  ad  val  70%  ad  val 

to  Ic  ea  &  60% 
ad  val 

Embroideries                                       90%  ad  val  75%  ad  val 

Furs                                                  25%  ad  val  25%  ad  val 

dyed   30%  ad  val 

Hats,  bonnets,  etc                                $3.50  doz  &  50%  ad  val 

50%  ad  val 

Ice  and  roller  skates                              20%  ad  val  20%  ad  val 

Lace  and  lace  curtains                            90%  ad  val  90%  ad  val 

Leather  gloves: 

Men's,  not  over  12  ins                             $6  doz  $5  doz 

Women's  and  children's                       $5.50  doz  $4  doz 

For  each  inch  or  fraction  thereof  in 

excess  of  12  ins                                  50c  doz  50c  doz 

Manufactures  of  furs                              35%  ad  val  40%  ad  val 

dyed   40%  ad  val 

Men's  straw  hats                                 $4  doz  &  60%  ad  val 

60%  ad  val 

Musical  instruments                              40%  ad  val  40%  ad  val 

Pearls                                                 10%  ad  val  20%  ad  val 

Pencils  25  to  50c  gross  45c  gross  & 

&  30%  ad  val  25%  ad  val 

Photographic  cameras                            20%  ad  val  20%  ad  val 

Photographic  films   A  of  Ic  linear  25%  ad  val 

foot 

not  developed  2c  linear  ft  2c  linear  ft 

Rosaries  15  or  30%  15  or  ^0%, 

ad  val  ad  va! 

Shoes,  leather                                       20%  ad  val  free 

Uppers  of  wool                                  35%  ad  val  35%  ad  val 

Silver  and  black  fox  skins                        50%  ad  val  50%  ad  val 

Thermostatic  bottles                             15c  &  45%  15c  &  45% 

ad  val  ad  val 

Toothbrushes   Ic  ea  &   45%  or  60% 

50%  ad  val  ad  val 

Umbrellas                                         40%  ad  val  40%  ad  val 

Watch  movements                               75c  ea  to  75c  ea  to 

$10.75  ea  $10.75  ea 

cases                                             20c  ea  &  45%  ad  val 

45%  ad  val 

Wearing  apparel                                  50%  ad  val  50%  ad  val 


Tariff 


KFF 


619 


Tariff 


Canada, — Power  over  duties 
was  granted  in  1840  to  the  united 
provinces  of  Quebec  and  On- 
tario. The  tariff  of  1859  im- 
posed duties  on  manufactures, 
chiefly  for  revenue,  to  average 
20  per  cent,  lowered  in  1868  to 
15  per  cent.  After  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Dominion,  the  effect 
of  American  competition  and 
other  causes  led  to  a  larger  in- 
crease of  duties  by  1879.  There- 
after almost  yearly  increases 
were  made  in  the  tariff ;  but  the 
Liberals,  who  came  into  power 
in  1896,  gave  differential  duties 
of  SSVs  per  cent  (afterward  low- 
ered in  the  case  of  textiles)  to 
Great  Britain. 

The  preference  granted  to 
British  goods  started  in  1903  a 
tariff  war  with  Germany,  which 
demanded  an  equal  reduction. 
It  was  brought  to  an  end  in  1910, 
when  Germany  agreed  to  admit 
practically  all  Canadian  goods 
under  conventional  tariff  duties, 
while  Canada  agreed  to  repeal 
the  3314  per  cent  surtax  on  Ger- 
man goods.  Conventions  with 
France  (1907-10)  and  with  Italy 
(1910)  grant  to  those  countries  a 
part  of  the  intermediate  tariff 
schedule.  The  United  States 
failed  in  an  attempt  to  obtain  the 
same  terms  as  France,  but  se- 
cured other  concessions  (1910). 
In  1911  a  reciprocity  agreement 
was  passed  by  the  United  States, 
but  was  rejected  by  Canada  (see 
Reciprocity).  In  1912  a  reci- 
procity agreement  was  concluded 
with  the  British  West  Indies. 
On  Jan.  29,  1921,  a  reciprocity 
agreement  was  signed  with 
France. 

Since  1917  strong  agitation 
has  occurred  for  lowering  of 
tariffs.  A  commission  held  hear- 
ings in  1920  but  decided  to  wait 
upon  the  United  States.  In 
1923-4  preferences  accorded  im- 
ports of  British  origin  were  in- 
creased, and  a  few  reductions 
made  on  United  States  agricul- 
tural and  industrial  machinery 
items.  The  1923  act  provided 
for  reciprocal  reductions  if  the 
United  States  reduced  duties  on 
cattle,  wheat,  flour,  oats,  barley, 
potatoes,  hay,  fish.  As  a  result 
of  the  Ottawa  Conference,  re- 
visions were  made  by  reducing 
or  removing  existing  British 
preferential  duties  on  57  items, 
76  were  made  free,  while  on 
about  an  equal  number  of  others 
advantages  to  British  goods  were 
increased.  Sales,  excise  and 
anti-dumping  taxes  were  also  im- 
posed. 

In  1935  the  negotiated  trade 
agreement  with  the  United  States 
took  effect  and  a  new  era  in 
United  States-Canadian  tariffs 
was  begun  (see  details  under 
United  States  tariff). 

Germany, — Before  the  for- 
mation of  the  Empire,  the  vari- 


ous German  States  organized  a 
Zollverein,  or  Customs  Union 
(1824-34),  which,  on  the  basis  of 
the  Prussian  tariff  of  1818,  lim- 
ited duties  on  manufactured  ar- 
ticles to  10  per  cent,  and  placed 
a  uniform  duty  on  all  goods.  A 
treaty  with  Austria  (in  force 
1853-62)  extended  practical 
freedom  of  commerce  to  all  Ger- 
man-speaking lands.  In  1861 
both  export  and  transit  duties 
were  abolished.  Treaties  with 
France  and  England  were  con- 
cluded in  1865,  and  were  fol- 
lowed by  a  large  reduction  of 
duties. 

With  the  depression  of  1873-9 
Germany  felt  the  general  reac- 
tion to  protection ;  and  the  pro- 
tective tariff  of  1879  was  suc- 
ceeded by  various  increases  until 
1891,  when  the  single  tariff  sys- 
tem was  abolished.  The  tariff 
of  1879  was  then  retained  as  the 
general  tariff,  serving  as  the  basis 
for  the  negotiation  of  special 
treaties  granting  reciprocal  con- 
cessions. The  aggregate  of  such 
concessions,  enjoyed  by  all  coun- 
tries entitled  to  most-favored- 
nation  treatment,  formed  the 
'conventional'  tariff. 

The  tariff  effective  in  1906 
greatly  increased  the  protective 
duties,  especially  those  on  agri- 
cultural products  ;  and  the  finance 
law  of  1909  advanced  the  inter- 
nal revenue  taxes  and  the  duties 
on  tea,  coffee,  alcoholic  liquors, 
tobacco,  and  matches. 

With  the  United  States  Ger- 
many had  several  treaties,  made 
with  individual  states  before  the 
Empire  was  founded,  but  still 
valid.  The  most  important  was 
the  conditional  most-favored- 
nation  agreement  with  Prussia. 
Special  agreements  between  the 
two  countries  were  made  in  1900, 
1907,  and  1910.  (See  Ger- 
many). 

On  June  28,  1919,  Germany 
and  the  Allied  and  Associated 
Powers  signed  commercial  trea- 
ties, to  be  effective  from  Jan.  10, 
1920.  Germany  pledged  most- 
favored-nation  treatment  to  the 
Allied  and  Associated  Powers. 
It  was  also  agreed  that  until  Jan. 
10,  1925,  products  originating  in 
and  coming  from  Alsace  and 
Lorraine  be  exempt  from  cus- 
toms duties  to  an  amount  equal 
to  the  average  amounts  of  prod- 
ucts sent  annually  in  the  years 
1911-13.  The  League  of  Na- 
tions was  given  the  power  to  de- 
cide whether  this  exemption 
should  be  extended  beyond  1925. 

Until  Jan.  10,  1923,  products 
originating  in  the  coming  from 
Polish  territories  which  before 
the  war  were  part  of  Germany 
are  exempt  from  customs  duties. 
Germany  unconditionally  pledged 
national  and  most-favored-nation 
treatment  to  all  the  Allied  and 
Associated  Powers  in  regard  to 


ports,  waterways,  and  railways, 
international  waterways,  use  of 
railways,  and  the  Kiel  Canal. 
On  Sept.  1,  1920,  Germany  and 
Austria  signed  a  commercial 
treaty. 

In  April  1922  the  Reichstag 
increased  import  dutieS  on  a 
large  number  of  commodities,  as 
a  rule  doubling  previous  duties. 
In  May  1923  a  system  of  export 
price  control,  export  duties  and 
licensing  were  abolished,  and  a 
proviso  adopted  that  export  prices 
be  quoted  in  high  exchange  cur- 
rency, surrendering  at  least  40% 
of  the  credit  of  the  Reichsbank, 
which  then  reimbursed  exporters 
with  paper  marks  at  the  current 
rate.  An  active  policy  of  agra- 
rian protection  led  Germany  in 
1929-30  to  denounce  some  com- 
mercial treaties  and  expand  her 
import  certificate  system,  also  to 
set  up  a  corn  monopoly. 

The  March,  1933,  enabling  act 
made  it  possible  for  the  cabinet 
to  enact  any  kind  of  law.  A 
President's  decree  enables  it  to 
change  import  or  export  duties 
and  to  put  into  effect  provisional 
bilateral  commercial  agreements. 
During  1931-33  a  quantitative 
limitation  of  import  trade, 
through  rigid  foreign  exchange 
transactions  control,  was  in 
effect;  but  late  in  1933  import 
quotas  were  adopted,  restric- 
tions being  placed  on  imports 
from  countries  maintaining  non- 
negotiated  restrictions  against 
German  products.  All  foreign 
exchange  transactions  continue 
vmder  rigid  control ;  import 
houses  being  limited  to  about 
one  quarter  the  imports  of  1930— 
31.  In  1935  the  long-standing 
tariff  war  between  Germany  and 
Poland  was  ended  by  granting 
each  other  most-favored-nation 
terms  plus  reciprocal  advantages 
of  interest  to  each.  The  Franco- 
German  commercial  treaty  of 
1927  was  terminated  in  1935, 
both  abolishing  the  duty  reduc- 
tions therein  provided  for. 

France, — Although  the  con- 
stituent Assembly  in  1791 
granted  a  liberal  tariff,  the  wars 
of  1792-1815  necessitated  heavy 
taxation,  and  the  prohibitions  on 
commerce  enormously  stimulated 
contraband  trade.  With  the 
Restoration  of  the  Royalists  came 
a  strong  protectionist  feeling, 
which  appeared  in  the  Acts  of 
1819,  1821,  and  1822,  caused 
by  the  industrial  depression. 
This  was  further  manifested  in 
1826,  when  duties  on  wool  were 
raised  to  30  per  cent,  and  on 
steel  to  100  per  cent.  Under  the 
Orleanist  family,  although  some 
duties  were  reduced^  a  system  of 
high  protection,  with  even  some 
instances  of  prohibition,  was 
maintained.  From  1840  to  1850 
duties  were  increased ;  but  the 
next  decade  saw  the  initiation  of 


Tariff 


KFF 


620 


Tariff 


the  free  trade  tendency  which  in 
1860  brought  about  the  famous 
treaty  between  France  and  Eng- 
land negotiated  by  Cobden, 
Chevalier,  Rouher,  and  Napo- 
leon III.  It  was  extensively  used 
by  other  countries  as  a  basis  for 
commercial  agreements.  Be- 
tween 1860  and  1867  France  con- 
cluded fourteen  liberal  treaties 
with  other  states. 

After  the  Franco-Prvissian 
War  (1870-71),  the  fall  of  Na- 
poleon III,  and  the  depression 
following  1873,  came  the  protec- 
tionist reaction.  The  commercial 
treaties  were  denounced ;  but 
they  were  retained  until  1877, 
and  until  then  raw  materials 
were  secured.  In  1872,  differ- 
ential duties  were  imposed  on 
goods  imported  in  foreign  ships. 
In  1881  bounties  were  estab- 
lished. 

In  1882  general  revision  of  the 
tariff  went  into  effect.  The  tariff 
of  1892  introduced  the  principle 
of  general  and  minimum  tariffs, 
both  fixed  by  the  Legislature. 
The  tariff  adopted  in  1910  repre- 
sented a  thorough  revision.  The 
changes  made  were  for  the  most 
part  advances,  especially  in  the 
duties  on  manufactured  goods ; 
the  difference  between  the  gen- 
eral and  the  minimum  tariff  was 
increased  from  25  to  50  per  cent ; 
while  the  government  was  au- 
thorized; at  its  discretion,  to  ex- 
tend the  general  rates  previously 
in  force,  as  an  intermediate  tariff. 
In  1920  France  announced  the 
termination  of  the  commercial 
treaties  with  Spain  and  Italy,  the 
latter  to  take  effect  Feb.  1.  1921. 
Since  the  World  War  France, 
as  one  of  the  Allied  and  Asso- 
ciated Powers,  made  new  agree- 
ments with  Germany,  Austria, 
and  Hungary. 

The  French  colonial  tariff  of 
1928  is  controlled  by  the  Gov- 
ernment by  decree.  A  presiden- 
tial decree  in  1931  established 
the  principle  of  customs  surtaxes 
to  compensate  for  advantages 
accruing  to  foreign  countries 
whose  exchange  rates  have  de- 
preciated. Executive  decrees  to 
set  up  import  quotas  have  been 
issued  freely  since  1931  ;  France 
being  the  first  to  use  the  import 
quota  device.  During  1934-35 
a  great  many  changes  in  quotas 
exchange  allocations,  etc.,  were 
made,  and  many  agreements  with 
other  countries  made  and  un- 
made. Like  other  Continental 
countries  France  had  no  set 
policy,  the  impulse  being  strong 
to  increase  import  restrictions  by 
various  devices.  Import  license 
taxes,  monopolies  and  similar 
surtaxes  exceeding  in  amount 
the  regular  duties  have  been  set 
up  in  France,  and  some  reduced 
or  abolished,  such  as  an  import 
turnover  tax  of  4  and  6%,  now 
reduced   to   2%.     A  technical 


committee  was  set  up  in  1935 
to  study  the  advisability  of  re- 
placing quotas  with  regular 
duties,  at  higher  rates. 

Italy, — When  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  was  established,  the  liberal 
policy  previously  followed  by 
Sardinia  was  generally  contin- 
ued. The  tariff  of  1861  and  the 
commercial  treaties  of  1863  to 
1875  disclosed  the  influence  of  the 
downward  tendency  inaugurated 
by  France  ;  but  the  year  follow- 
ing involved  the  country  in  the 
general  protectionist  revival  after 
the  panic  of  1873.  The  tariff 
of  1877  imposed  a  higher  range 
of  duties  on  the  principal  arti- 
cles of  import.  Later  the  pro- 
tectionist party,  strengthened  by 
the  continued  depression,  abol- 
ished the  commercial  treaties, 
and  in  1887  passed  a  still  higher 
schedule.  During  the  war  with 
Turkey,  in  1911-12,  a  special 
schedule  of  high  duties  was  im- 
posed against  imports  of  Turk- 
ish origin. 

In  1921  Italy  and  Soviet  Rus- 
sia signed  a  commercial  treaty, 
which  provided  among  other 
things :  free  import  and  export 
by  both  powers  and  use  of  ports ; 
renewal  of  trade  with  the  excep- 
tion of  prohibition  of  alcoholic 
liquors  into  Russia ;  termination 
of  all  forms  of  blockade  and  boy- 
cott. 

The  first  important  tariff  law 
since  the  war  was  put  in  effect 
July  1921.  Higher  protection  to 
motor  vehicles  and  tractors  was 
granted,  and  depreciation  of  the 
lira  was  met  by  arbitrary  sur- 
taxes at  rates  proclaimed  from 
time  to  time.  The  new  tariff 
contained  twice  as  many  dutiable 
items,  and  the  tariff  was  divided 
into  basic,  or  minimum  rates,  and 
the  'coefficients  of  increase.'  In 
1923  a  number  of  modifications 
were  made.  In  1922  general  in- 
creases were  put  into  effect  by 
decree  on  commodities  from  coun- 
tries which  do  not  have  most- 
favored-nation  arrangements  with 
Italy.  In  1931  a  striking  tariff 
advance  of  an  additional  15%  ad 
valorem  sujrtax  on  most  commod- 
ities, whether  dutiable  or  free, 
was  imposed,  in  all  instances  ex- 
cept when  bound  by  agreement. 
This  was  for  the  declared  pur- 
pose of  raising  more  government 
revenue. 

Russia, — This  country  has 
long  been  a  type  of  extreme  pro- 
tection. The  old  mercantilist 
point  of  view  was  closely  allied 
with  protectionism,  as  shown  in 
the  act  of  1823.  The  liberalizing 
forces  of  about  1850  produced  a 
relatively  slight  impression  upon 
the  tariff  system  of  Russia.  Some 
concessions  were  made  in  1851 
and  1855  to  the  needs  of  foreign 
trade,  and  the  tariffs  of  1857  and 
1868  were  comparatively  mod- 
erate.   In  the  war  with  Turkey, 


when  the  Russian  inconvertible 
paper  was  greatly  depreciated, 
the  decree  making  customs  duties 
payable  in  gold  (1877)  was  equiv- 
alent to  an  increase  of  duties 
varying  from  30  to  50  per  cent. 
In  _  1880,  1882,  and  1885  the 
duties  were  successively  raised. 
In  1890  there  was  a  general  tariff 
increase  of  20  per  cent.  The 
tariff  of  1891  extended  protec- 
tion, before  restricted  to  manu- 
factures, to  include  partly  manu- 
factured goods  and  raw  materials. 

The  general  (maximum)  and 
minimum  tariff  system  was 
adopted  in  1893  ;  but  a  tariff  war 
with  Germany  forced  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  minimum  rates.  In 
1903  a  new  general  tariff  (effec- 
tive in  1906)  was  made  the  basis 
for  the  negotiation  of  commer- 
cial treaties  to  fix  conventional 
rates. 

Due  to  the  unsettled  state  of 
Russia,  it  was  not  until  recently 
that  other  nations  negotiated 
commercial  treaties  with  her. 
In  1921,  however.  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  Canada,  and  Norway 
entered  into  negotiations.  The 
trade  agreement  between  Soviet 
Russia  and  Great  Britain  was 
signed  March  16,  1921.  It  is 
effective  until  it  is  replaced  by  a 
general  peace  treaty,  but  is  ter- 
minable after  one  year  by  either 
party  on  six  months'  notice. 

The  Soviet  tariff  of  1922  fol- 
lowed fairly  closely  the  Russian 
tariff  of  1906,  but  increased 
duties  were  imposed,  only  a  few 
articles  being  on  the  free  list. 
The  tariff  applied  only  to  coun- 
tries having  commercial  agree- 
ments. An  export  schedule  of 
duties  was  also  set  up  in  1922 
and  revised  in  1923,  imposed 
largely  for  revenue,  on  78  items, 
including  hides,  skins  and  furs. 
Complete  prohibition  of  export  on 
some  items  was  set  up.  Import 
and  export  are  state  monopolies 
under  the  Soviet  system. 

In  October  1930  a  decree  was 
issued  to  retaliate  against  coun- 
tries which  impede  normal  im- 
portation of  Soviet  goods,  hy 
means  of  suspension  of  limita- 
tion of  export,  discontinuance  of 
use  of  commercial  vessels,  re- 
striction of  transport  through 
country,  or  use  of  ports,  etc.  In 
April  1932  maximum  and  mini- 
mum rates  were  set  up  for  a 
specified  list  of  items.  Special 
provisions  were  also  made  for 
imports  consigned  to  foreigners 
working  in  Russia  by  arrange- 
ment. In  1935  import  rules  were 
modified  to  permit  certain  Soviet 
industries  to  buy  abroad. 

In  1935  was  negotiated  a  one- 
year  trade  agreement  by  which 
the  United  States  extended  the 
most-favored-nation  treatment  to 
the  Soviet  Union,  which  agreed 
to  double  its  purchases  in  the 
United  States  in  a  year.  Ger- 


Tariff 


KFF 


620  A 


Tariff 


many,  England  and  Italy  also 
made  similar  trade  agreements, 
also  some  with  long-term  credits 
guaranteed  by  the  governments. 

Spain, — A  system  of  tariffs 
that  was  practically  prohibitive 
was  slightly  reduced  in  1849  ;  but 
the  liberal  movement  was  unable 
to  affect  Spain  until  1868.  Once 
started,  the  liberal  tendency  held 
on  longer  in  Spain  than  else- 
where, and  in  1882  further  re- 
ductions were  made.  However, 
the  strong  protectionist  feeling 
of  the  country,  together  with  the 
need  of  revenue,  forced  the  in- 
auguration of  the  general  and 
minimum  tariff  system,  later 
adopted  by  France  and  other 
countries.  In  practice  the  sys- 
tem is  modified  by  treaties  grant- 
ing rates  lower  than  the  mini- 
mum, as  those  with  the  Nether- 
lands (1892),  Norway  (1904), 
and  Portugal  (1893  ;  abrogated 
1912).  By  the  treaty  of  1894 
Great  Britain  gets  a  minimum 
tariff.  The  tariff  of  1906  prac- 
tically raised  the  rates  by  re- 
quiring that  duties  be  collected 
in  gold. 

In  August  1906  Spain  con- 
cluded a  commercial  agreement 
with  the  United  States,  to  be 
revised  every  five  years.  It  was 
revised  in  1912,  continuing  a 
minimum  and  a  maximum  tariff ; 
but  some  treaties  with  European 
states,  for  lower  rates,  remained 
in  force,  even  until  1921,  most- 
favored-nation  agreements  also 
enjoying  these  rates.  The  next 
revision  was  February  1922,  set- 
ting up  two  scales  of  tariffs,  a 
'first'  which  is  three  times  as 
high  as  a  'second,'  and  doubling 
the  number  of  classifications. 
All  duties  were  specific  and  pay- 
able in  paper  pesetas,  plus  a  sur- 
tax. 'Second'  tariffs  apply  to 
countries  having  no  reciprocal 
agreements.  Agreements  were 
made  with  Switzerland,  France, 
Norway,  Great  Britain.  Italy, 
with  concessions  below  the  'sec- 
ond' tariff.  A  conventional 
schedule  of  400  items  was  es- 
tablished. In  1923  existing  ad 
valorem  rates  were  converted 
into  specific  rates. 

The  new  Republican  govern- 
ment accepted  this  tariff,  but 
various  decrees  have  been  issued, 
changing  duty  rates.  In  1931 
import  quotas  were  set  up  by  de- 
cree, with  an  additional  pro- 
viso against  most-favored-nation 
clauses,  except  for  certain  speci- 
fied articles.  A  1933  decree  au- 
thorized a  preferential  rebate 
system  as  a  measure  of  recipro- 
cal tariff  adjustment  with  coun- 
tries having  trade  balances  favor- 
able to  Spain  and  who  buy  quar- 
terly at  least  35%  of  any  basic 
Spanish  farm  export  product. 
Another  1933  decree  set  up  a 
new  quota  program,  especially 
for  countries  buying  less  from 


Spain  than  Spain  does  from 
them.  An  official  registry  of  im- 
porters and  exporters  was  set  up. 
A  1934  decree  authorized  anti- 
dumping measures. 

Japan, — When  the  country 
was  opened  to  foreign  trade  the 
duties  imposed  were  prescribed 
by  treaty,  and  were  adminis- 
tered under  foreign  supervision. 
The  first  wholly  Japanese  tariff, 
in  effect  1899,  established  the 
general  and  conventional  system. 
Increases  imposed  as  war  duties 
in  1904  were  incorporated  in  the 
general  tariff  in  1906;  and  fur- 
ther advances,  averaging  50  per 
cent,  were  made  in  the  new  pro- 
tective tariff  of  1 9 1 1 .  The  higher 
rates  were  levied  chiefly  on  the 
products  of  industries  which  are 
either  established  or  projected  in 
Japan.  Commercial  treaties  on 
the  basis  of  the  new  tariff  have 
been  concluded  with  the  United 
States,  the  United  Kingdom, 
Germany  and  France  (1911), 
Austria-Hungary  and  Italy 
(1913),  and  other  countries. 

In  response  to  pressing  de- 
mands, July,  1920,  Japan  revised 
her  tariff  so  as  to  protect  the 
younger  industries  during  the 
economic  depression  and  the 
primary  industries  against  dump- 
ing of  low-priced  Western  goods. 

Agitation  for  higher  protective 
tariffs  has  proceeded  for  years. 
A  tariff  law  with  higher  duties 
was  passed  in  1926.  A  trade- 
control  law  April  1934  empow- 
ered the  administration  to  in- 
crease or  decrease  duties  or 
restrict  importation.  The  anti- 
dumping features  were  continued 
and  reinforced.  Tariff  investi- 
gation committees  have  been  at 
work  for  a  period  of  years,  the 
depreciation  of  the  yen  and  the 
Chinese-Manchukuan  situation 
delaying  action. 

China, — The  customs  tariff  of 
China  originated  in  the  Treaty 
of  Nanking,  1842.  This  pro- 
vided for  a  5  per  cent  duty.  Re- 
visions were  subsequently  made. 
Japan,  in  1896,  and  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  United  States,  in 
1902,  promised  China  a  tariff 
revision  every  ten  years.  In 
1918  the  Allied  Powers  and  the 
Neutral  Powers  had  a  conference 
at  Shanghai  to  revise  the  tariff. 
Just  preceding  the  conference  the 
foreign  Ministers  at  Peking  at- 
tempted to  reach  an  agreement 
with  China  as  to  the  basis  of  val- 
uation. It  was  finally  agreed 
that  a  tariff  be  prepared  on  the 
basis  of  an  effective  5  per  cent 
of  the  average  values  of  mer- 
chandise during  the  years  1912- 
1916,  the  determination  of  these 
values  being  left  to  the  Confer- 
ence. Here,  after  much  discus- 
sion, it  was  finally  decided  to 
accept  China's  compromise  pro- 
viding for  a  surtax  of  40  per 
cent  for  piece  goods  and  metals 


and  30  per  cent  for  sundries, 
with  the  option  that  merchants 
might  pay  5  per  cent  ad  valorem 
duty  on  the  current  market 
value.  All  the  delegations  voted 
for  the  proposal  but  Japan. 

At  the  Peace  Conference  of 
1918,  China  presented  a  claim 
for  tariff  autonomy,  claiming  that 
the  existing  tariff  was  unfair  and 
unscientific.  The  reasons  given 
were :  no  reciprocity,  no  differ- 
entiation, insufficiency  of  rev- 
enue, no  real  revision  for  more 
than  half  a  century. 

^  As  one  of  Allied  and  Asso- 
ciated Powers  China  signed  a 
commercial  agreement  with  Aus- 
tria in  1919,  and  a  treaty  to  re- 
store relations  of  friendship  and 
commerce  was  signed  May  20, 
1921,  with  Germany,  effective  in- 
definitely after  July   1,  1921. 

In  1921  the  Washington  Limi- 
tation of  Arms  Conference  pro- 
vided for  a  commission  to  revise 
custom  rates  to  make  them  an 
effective  5%,  and  for  a  confer- 
ence to  abolish  'likin,'  giving  also 
the  conference  power  to  apply  a 
surtax  of  23^  to  5%.  After 
various  delays  and  slight  changes 
the  new  tariff  went  into  effect 
in  1923.  In  1931  a  new  tariff 
was  drafted,  for  the  first  time 
serving  the  purpose  of  fostering 
industry  as  well  as  producing 
revenue.  The  new  tariff  made  a 
number  of  reductions,  but  most 
changes  were  vipward,  especially 
on  luxuries.  A  flood-relief  sur- 
tax was  also  added  in  1931.  A 
beginning  was  also  made  at  aboli- 
tion of  'likin,'  (taxes  levied  at 
internal  points),  by  enforcement 
of  special  excise  taxes  on  a 
limited  list.  In  1931  also  an 
anti-dumping  measure  was  de- 
creed, a  tax  being  levied  on  goods 
whose  wholesale  price  in  China 
is  lower  than  in  the  exporting 
country,  or  when  price  is  below 
cost  of  production,  or  when  com- 
modity receives  a  bounty.  Ap- 
plication of  this  law  has  been 
lax. 

China's  treaty  with  Japan 
limits  duties  that  China  may  im- 
pose on  cotton  goods,  flour,  sugar 
and  other  commodities.  Boycott 
of  Japanese  goods  in  recent  years 
has  had  serious  repercussions. 

Other  Countries, — Australia 
in  1935  set  up  a  policy  that 
duties  should  not  exceed  what  is 
reasonable  and  adequate  under 
existing  conditions  of  exchange, 
protection  being  limited  to  goods 
economically  manufactured  in 
Australia.  This  resulted  in 
downward  revisions.  A  lower 
'intermediate'  schedule  was  au- 
thorized _  for  tariff  bargaining. 
The  Union  of  South  Africa  es- 
tablished in  1935  a  three-column 
tariff,  with  maximum  rates  for 
non-treaty  countries.  Subsidies 
were  reduced.  Multiple  tariff 
systems  were  adopted  in  1934  by 


Tariff 


KFF 


620  B 


Tarim  River 


Cuba,  Guatemala,  Haiti  and 
Ecuador.  Differential  alloca- 
tion of  foreign  exchange  was 
adopted  by  Argentina  and 
Uruguay.  Import  restrictions 
or  quantitative  controls  have  be- 
come almost  universal  through- 
out the  world  as  a  result  of  in- 
tense nationalism  and  depression. 

Tariff  Theories, — In  the 
United  States  there  are  two 
radically  opposed  schools  of 
thought  on  the  problem  of  tar- 
iffs. In  1934  the  Foreign  Policy 
Association  of  New  York  City 
sent  out  two  brochures,  one  en- 
titled Recommendations  of  the 
Committee  on  Commercial  Pol- 
icy, and  the  other  Memorandum 
on  America  Self -Contained,  sub- 
mitted by  the  Committee  for 
'America  Self-Contained/  also 
of  New  York  City. 

In  the  first-mentioned  publica- 
tion, tariff  revision  is  emphasized 
as  an  essential  contribution  to 
domestic  recovery.  'In  many 
instances  the  present  tariff  con- 
stitutes a  tax  upon  the  American 
people  as  a  whole  for  the  protec- 
tion of  specially  favored  groups. 
Dr.  Mordecai  Ezekiel,  economic 
adviser  to  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  recently  stated  that 
only  eight  million  out  of  the  fifty 
million  gainfully  occupied  work- 
ers in  1929  had  been  employed 
in  industries  which  received  any 
direct  benefit  from  the  existing 
tariff. 

'Ostensibly  the  tariff  is  to 
"protect"  American  industries. 
But  a  form  of  protection  which 
requires  the  exclusion  of  foreign 
goods  needed  to  pay  for  our  ex- 
ports defeats  its  own  end  by 
penalizing  efficient  industries  in 
order  to  maintain  inefficient 
tmits.  As  a  consequence  the 
American  people  have  been 
forced  to  reduce  their  standard 
of  living  to  protect  groups  which 
should  be  more  profitably  oc- 
cupied elsewhere.  The  present 
Administration  has  made  a  de- 
termined effort  to  correct  those 
aspects  of  our  economic  and  fi- 
nancial system  under  which  cer- 
tain groups  have  profited  at  the 
expense  of  the  American  public. 
This  task  will  not  be  completed 
until  the  tariff  is  revised  so  as  to 
make  it  a  truly  national  instru- 
ment for  the  general  welfare 
rather  than  for  sectional  or  spe- 
cial privilege. 

'The  Committee  cannot  rec- 
ommend the  adoption  of  free 
trade  or  even  a  wholesale  and 
indiscriminate  slash  in  American 
tariff  schedules.  The  economic 
structure  of  the  United  States 
has  been  developed  under  an  in- 
creasingly protective  system,  and 
there  is  great  danger  that  the 
immediate  and  general  removal 
of  such  protection  would  pro- 
duce industrial  chaos.  Neither 
can  the  Committee  recommend 


the  continuance  of  the  compara- 
tive cost-of-production  princi- 
ple. .  .  .  This  principle  is  un- 
sound for  four  reasons:  (1)  It 
erects  no  standard  of  protection 
as  to  what  industries  should  be 
protected  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  national  interest.  (2)  It 
results  in  protecting  the  pro- 
ducer no  matter  how  inefficient 
he  may  be.  ...  It  is  a  striking 
fact  that  today  some  of  our  most 
highly  protected  industries,  such 
as  the  production  of  sugar  beets, 
pay  the  lowest  wages  and  have 
the  poorest  working  conditions. 
(3)  The  literal  application  of 
the  principle  as  between  Ameri- 
can and  foreign  producers  would 
mean  the  virtual  cessation  of  all 
international  trade.  (4)  It  is 
impossible  in  practice  accurately 
to  determine  differences  in  costs 
of  production.  ...  A  tariff 
rate,  moreover,  which  is  based 
on  the  so-called  average  cost  of 
production  enables  the  low  cost 
tmits  to  make  an  excessive 
profit.  .  .  . 

'The  country  must  frankly 
face  the  fact  that  its  foreign 
loans  cannot  be  paid  except  by 
goods  and  services,  and  that,  if 
the  United  States  does  not  wish 
to  accept  such  goods  and  serv- 
ices, it  must  be  prepared  to  wipe 
out  its  foreign  investments.' 

America  Self -Contained, 
—  'The  Committee  .  .  .  does 
not  propose  that  imports  and  ex- 
ports should  be  completely  elimi- 
nated. Nor  does  it  propose  that 
we  inconvenience  ourselves  by 
striving  too  rapidly  for  self-con- 
tainment. It  is  proposed  that 
we  import  only  commodities 
which  at  present  we  cannot  or 
that  it  does  not  pay  us  to  manu- 
facture or  grow,  or  that  our 
chemistry  cannot  produce.  It  is 
proposed  that  we  buy  from  na- 
tions who  buy  from  us,  and  in 
that  connection,  that  dealings 
with  every  nation  be  perfectly 
balanced  on  a  bookkeeping  basis, 
passing  through  and  controlled  by 
the  Federal  Reserve  Banks.  Also 
it  is  proposed  that  we  reserve 
for  American  labor  the  manu- 
facture of  our  raw  materials. 

'Had  we  kept  bookkeeping  ac- 
counts of  these  [foreign  loan] 
transactions,  we  might  have 
asked  ourselves  if  our  debtors 
had  the  capacity  to  pay  these 
thirty-six  billions — and  if  they 
were  to  be  repaid  in  goods,  how 
this  could  be  done  without  de- 
stroying certain  home  industries, 
creating  unemployment,  throwing 
our  economic  machine  out  of 
balance  and  lowering  our-  stand- 
ard of  living.  ,  .  .  The  net  re- 
sult is  that  if  our  debtors  pay  in 
goods  we  shall  have  to  lower  our 
tariffs,  which  will  kill  certain 
home  industries  and  create  un- 
employment. The  more  we  ex- 
port, the  more  we  must  import ; 


and  every  product  we  import 
which  America  can  produce,  de- 
prives our  labor  of  so  much 
work.  ...  On  the  other  hand, 
if  our  debtors  default,  or  debts 
are  cancelled,  Americans  will 
have  to  meet  these  obligations  in 
some  form  or  other.  For  it  is 
the  public  in  the  end  who 
pays.  .  .  .  Such  is  the  situation 
which  confronts  us.  But  let  us 
profit  from  our  costly  lessons 
and — it  cannot  be  said  too  often 
—place  our  international  deal- 
ings on  a  sound  bookkeeping 
basis.  .  .  . 

'Within  our  nearly  three  mil- 
lion square  miles,  we  possess 
materials,  skill  and  machinery  to 
make  America  fully  self-con- 
tained. ,  . 

See  Taxation  ;  Free  Trade  ; 
Protection;  Reciprocity; 
Public  Revenue. 

Consult  C.  F.  Bastable,  Com- 
merce of  Nations  (1904-1923); 
W.  Cunningham,  Rise  and  De- 
cline of  Free  Trade  Movement 
(1912);  T.  E.  Gregory,  Tariffs, 
A  Study  in  Method  (1921);  G. 
M.  Fisk,  International  Commer- 
cial Policies  (1923)  ;  G.  Cromp- 
ton.  The  Tariff,  An  Interpreta- 
tion (1927);  O.  Delle-Donne, 
European  Tariff  Policies  Since 
the  World  War  (1928);  Toan- 
nou  and  Wakefield,  Export 
Duties  of  World  (League  of  Na- 
tions 1927)  ;  W.  Grotkopp, 
Breaking  Down  the  Tariff  Walls 
(1930)  ;  Sir  C.  M.  Bell,  Tariff 
Walls,    A    European  Crusade 

(1930)  ;  F.  W.  Taussig,  Tariff 
History  of  U.  5.  (1931)  ;  C. 
Brook,    This    Tariff  Question 

(1931)  ;  M.  R.  Eiselen,  Rise  of 
Protectionism  (1932);  R.  A. 
Hodgson,  Introduction  to  Inter- 
national    Trade     and  Tariffs 

(1932)  ;  Sir  W.  H.  Beveridge, 
Tariffs  (by  committee  of  econo- 
mists, London  1932)  ;  Tariffs 
and  Trade  Barriers  (Academy 
Political  Sciences,  1933)  ;  U.  S. 
Tariff  Commission,  The  Tariff 
and  Its  History,  and  The  Tariff 
—  a  Bibliography  (1934),  also 
Colonial  Tariff  Policies  (1932) 
and  Reciprocity  and  Commercial 
Treaties  (1922);  C.  A.  Beard, 
The  National  Interest  (1935)  ; 
F.  B.  Say  re,  America  Must  Act 
(1936). 

J.  George  Frederick. 

Tarija,  ta-re'ha,  department, 
Bolivia,  occupying  the  southeast 
corner  of  the  country,  contiguous 
to  Brazil,  Paraguay,  and  Ar- 
gentina. Area,  31,567  square 
miles.  The  west  portion  is 
mountainous,  but  is  fertile  and 
populous.  Stock  raising  is  the 
chief  industry.    Pop.  165,000. 

Tarik.    See  Gibraltar. 

Tarim  River,  ta-rem',  in  East- 
ern Turkestan,  Asia,  rises  as  the 
Yarkand-Daria  in  the  glaciers  of 
the  Karakoram  Mountains,  in 
the  north  of  Kashmir.    It  flows 


Tarkington 


KFN 


621 


Taro 


north  through  the  Kuenlun  Moun- 
tains, then  skirts  the  northern 
edge  of  the  Turkestan  desert  and 
finally  turns  toward  the  Lob  Nor 
region,  which  it  reaches  after  a 
1,000-mile  course. 

Tarkington,  tar'king-t'n, 
(Newton)  Booth  (1869-  ), 
American  author,  was  born  in 
Indianapolis,  Ind.  He  was  grad- 
uated (1893)  from  Princeton 
University  and  after  a  few  years 
of  commercial  life  he  began  writ- 
ing, and  won  considerable  success 
with  his  first  novel,  The  Gentle- 
man from  Indiana  (1899),  a 
realistic  story  of  the  Middle 
West.  His  second  book,  a  novel- 
ette. Monsieur  Beaucairc  (1900), 
won  admiration  for  its  romantic 
qualities,  and  was  produced  as  a 
play  by  Richard  Mansfield.  His 
other  published  works,  all  of 
which  are  characterized  by  a  keen 
sense  of  humor  and  several  of 
which  display  a  clever  knowledge 
of  youth  and  adolescence,  include 
The  Two  Vanrevels,  Cherry,  In 
the  Arena :  Stories  of  Political 
Life,  The  Beautiful  Lady,  Pen- 
rod,  Seventeen,  The  Turmoil, 
Growth,  Alice  Adams,  The  Pluto- 
crat, Penrod  Jashber,  Presenting 
Lily  Mars,  Little  Orvie,  Mr. 
White,  The  Lorenzo  Bunch, 
Rumbin  Galleries,  Some  Old  Por- 
traits, The  Heritage  of  Hatcher 
Ide,  The  Fighting  Littles ;  and 
the  plays  Beauty  and  the  Jacobin, 
Mister  Antonio,  The  Man  from 
Home,  Up  from  Nowhere,  Clar- 
ence, The  Intimate  Strangers, 
and  Colonel  Satan. 

Tarkio  College,  a  United 
Presbyterian  coeducational  insti- 
tution at  Tarkio,  Missouri,  or- 
ganized in  1883  at  the  Tarkio 
Valley  College  and  Normal  In- 
stitute and  chartered  under  its 
present  title  in  1885.  In  addition 
to  the  usual  liberal  arts  curricu- 
lum, courses  are  offered  in  music, 
commerce,  and  teacher  training. 

Tarlac,  tar'lak,  province  of 
Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  in  the 
central  part  of  the  island.  It  is 
rich  in  timber.  The  chief  crops 
are  rice  and  sugar  cane.  Pop. 
135,000.  The  capital  is  Tarlac, 
70  miles  N.w.  of  Manila.  Pop. 
23,888. 

Tarleton,  tarl'tun,  Sir  Ban- 
ASTRE  (1754-1833),  British  sol- 
dier, was  born  in  Liverpool.  He 
went  to  America  in  1776  and 
served  under  Howe,  Clinton, 
Cornwallis,  and  other  British 
commanders  throughout  the 
American  Revolutionary  War. 
He  took  part  in  the  capture  of 
New  York  in  1776,  ahso  in  the 
battle  of  White  Plains  ;  and  the 
next  year,  under  Howe,  fought  at 
the  Brandywine,  and  at  German- 
town.  In  1779,  when  he  became 
lieutenant  colonel  of  the  'British 
Legion,'  he  was  sent  to  the  Caro- 
linas,  and  in  the  campaigns  of  the 
South  during  the  remaining  years 


of  the  war  acted  with  such  bru- 
tality that  'Tarleton's  quarter' 
was  but  another  name  for  whole- 
sale butchery.  He  served  at 
Camden  :  defeated  General  Sum- 
ter at  Catawba  Fords  in  1780, 
was  in  turn  defeated  by  him  the 
same  year,  and  in  January,  1781, 
was  defeated  by  General  Morgan 
at  the  battle  of  Cowpens.  He 
was  with  Cornwallis  when  he 
surrendered  at  Yorktown.  On 
his  return  to  England  he  entered 
Parliament  as  member  for  Liver- 
pool (1790),  acting  with  the  Whig 
opposition.  He  published  a  His- 
tory of  the  Campaigns  of  1780 


Tarn-et-Garonne,  tarn'a-ga- 
ron',  department  of  southern 
France.  Cereals,  fruits,  and 
grapes  are  the  chief  agricultural 
products.  Manufactures  include 
coarse  woolens,  leather,  silk,  and 
beet  sugar.  It  remained  in  the 
unoccupied  section  of  France, 
after  the  German  invasion  of 
1940.  Montauban  is  the  capital. 
Pop.  (1936)  164,629. 

Tarnopol,  tar-n6'p6l-y',  town, 
Poland,  on  the  Sereth,  75  miles 
s.E.  of  Lemberg.  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  brewing,  spirit- 
refining,  and  corn-milling.  Fol- 
lowing the  Russo-German  inva- 


BOOTH  TARKINGTON 


and  1781  in  the  Southern  Prov- 
inces of  North  America  (1787). 

Tarlton,  Richard  (d.  1588), 
English  actor,  was  born  in  Shrop- 
shire. He  was  a  wit  and  a  come- 
dian and  was  a  favorite  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  He  was  the  contriver 
and  arranger  of  the  play  The 
Seven  Deadly  Sins.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  Shakespeare's  Yorick 
in  Hamlet. 

Tarn  (part  of  ancient  Langue- 
doc),  department  of  southern 
France,  south  of  Aveyron,  with 
an  area  of  2,231  square  miles.  It 
has  deposits  of  iron,  coal,  and 
copper.  Wheat  and  grapes  are 
grown.  There  are  manufactures 
of  coarse  woolens,  steel  and  iron 
goods,  hosiery,  silks,  and  glass. 
After  the  German  invasion  of 
France  in  1940,  it  remained  part 
of  unoccupied  France.  Pop. 
(1936)  297,871. 


sion  of  Poland,  and  the  treaty  of 
Sept.  29,  1939,  it  was  ceded  to 
Russia.    Pop.  (1931  )  35.831. 

Tarnow,  tar'nof,  town,  Po- 
land ;  46  miles  east  of  Cracow. 
It  has  manufactures  of  agricul- 
tural implements,  and  glass.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Germans  after 
the  invasion  of  Poland  in  1939. 
Pop.  (1931)  45,235. 

Taro,  ta'ro,  Tara,  or  Kalo,  a 
name  sometimes  given  to  certain 
herbs  belonging  to  the  genus 
Colocasia,  belonging  to  the 
family  Araceae.  They  are  grown 
in  the  Pacific  tropics  for  their 
large,  starchy  roots,  which  are 
edible  and  nutritious.  The  poi  of 
Hawaii  is  made  from  the  tubers 
of  the  taro  (kalo)  which  are 
boiled  and  mashed  with  water 
into  a  paste  which  is  sometimes 
fermented.  The  young  leaves 
are  used  like  spinach. 


Tarots 


KFN 


622 


Tarsus 


Tarots.   See  Cards. 

Tarpaulin,  tar-p6'lin,  canvas 
rendered  waterproof  with  a  coat- 
ing of  tar,  or  any  waterproof 
cloth  used  for  protection  against 
damp,  as  for  covering  hatchways 
or  goods  in  a  burning  building 
likely  to  be  damaged  by  water. 

Tarpeia,  tar-pe'ya,  in  ancient 
Roman  legend,  a  daughter  of  the 
governor  of  the  Capitol,  who, 
when  the  Sabines  were  besieging 
the  fortress,  was  bribed  by  'what 
they  wore  on  their  left  arms,' 
meaning  their  bracelets,  to  open 
one  of  the  gates  to  them  ;  but  on 
entering,  they  cast  their  shields, 
which  they  also  wore  on  their 
left  arms,  on  her,  and  killed  her. 
Her  name  was  given  to  the  Tar- 
peian  rock,  a  cliff  on  the  Capitol, 
over  which  malefactors  were 
thrown. 

Tarpon  (Megalops  atlanticiis), 
a  fish  related  to  the  herring, 
found  off  the  southeastern  coasts 
of  North  America  and  the  West 
Indies  and  southward  to  Brazil. 
It  is  of  some  food  value  but  is 
chiefly  noted  as  furnishing  ex- 
cellent sport  for  fishermen.  It 
is  caught  with  rod  and  line  and  it 
requires  no  little  skill  to  land  one, 
as  they  have  great  power  in 
swimming  and  leaping.  The  best 
tarpon  fishing  is  along  the  west 
coast  of  Florida,  around  Key 
West,  and  near  Galveston,  Texas. 
The  tarpon,  which  is  also  known 
as  silver  king,  reaches  a  length  of 
6  feet  and  a  weight  of  over  100 
pounds.  Its  most  notable  pe- 
culiarities are  the  large  scales, 
which  are  more  than  two  inches 
in  diameter,  and  the  curious  pro- 
longation of  the  last  ray  of  the 
dorsal  fin.  Another  species  oc- 
curs in  Indian  waters. 

Tarquinii,  tarkwin'i-T,  an 
ancient  Etrurian  city,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Italy ;  62  miles 
N.w.  of  Rome.  It  was  one  of  the 
league  of  twelve  Etrurian  cities, 
and  was  probably  the  head  of  the 
confederacy.  Afterwards  the  city 
became  a  Roman  colony ;  but 
about  A.D.  800  its  inhabitants 
founded  a  new  town  on  the  oppo- 
site hill — the  modern  Corneto. 
It  has  mediaeval  fortifications,  an 
old  castle  and  several  Roman- 
esque churches.  The  necropolis, 
situated  to  the  sotitheast  of  the 
town,  cfmtains  tombs  of  great 
archaeological  interest. 

Tarquins,  tar'kwinz.  The,  an 
ancient  Roman  family,  two 
members  of  which  were  included 
among  the  early  kings  of  Rome. 
— (1)  Lucius  Tarquinius  Pris- 
cus  (616-578  B.C.),  succeeded 
Ancus  Martius.  His  reign  was 
marked  by  victories  over  the 
Latins,  Sabines,  and  Etruscans, 
and  by  the  construction  of  the 
sewers,  the  Circus  Maximus,  the 
Forum,  and  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
on  the  Capitol.  Finally  he  was 
murdered  at  the  instigation  of 


the  sons  of  Ancus  Martius. — (2) 
Lucius  Tarouinius  Superbus 
(534-510  B.C.),  the  last  king  of 
Rome,  oppressed  both  the  people 
and  nobles.  Abroad  he  made 
Rome  head  of  the  Latin  confed- 
eracy ;  conquered  the  Volscians 
and  people  of  Gabii ;  but  his  son 
Sextus'  rape  of  Lucretia  (q.  v.) 
roused  the  Romans,  led  by 
Brutus  and  Valerius,  to  expel  the 
king  and  his  family. 

Tarr,  Ralph  Stockman 
(1864-1912),  American  geophys- 
icist  and  geologist,  was  born  in 
Gloucester,  Mass.  He  was  grad- 
uated (1891)  from  the  Lawrence 
Scientific  School,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, and  from  1882  to  1891  he 
was  associated  for  varying  peri- 
ods with  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commis- 
sion, Smithsonian  Institution, 
Texas  Geological  Survey,  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey,  and  Harvard 
University.  He  was  assistant 
professor  of  geology  at  Cornell 
from  1892  to  1897,  when  he  be- 
came professor  of  dynamic  geol- 
ogy and  physical  geography  at 
the  same  institution.  He  pub- 
lished elementary  textbooks  in 
geology  and  physiography,  and 
Economic  Geology  of  the  United 
States  (1893),  Physical  Geogra- 
phy of  New  York  State  (1902), 
New  Physical  Geography  (1904), 
Geography  of  Science  (1905). 

Tar'ragon,  a  perennial  herba- 
ceous plant  (Artemisia  dracnn- 
cnhis),  native  of  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  Caspian  Sea. 
In  western  Europe  it  has  long 
been  cultivated  as  a  flavoring 
herb,  especially  for  vinegar, 
pickles  and  salads.  It  is  easily 
propagated  by  cuttings  or  root 
division  in  the  spring. 

Tarragona,  tar-ra-g5'na,  prov- 
ince of  northeastern  Spain.  It 
forms  a  mountainous  district  on 
the  Mediterranean  and  has  a  fine 
climate  ;  area,  2,505  square  miles. 
The  slopes  produce  vast  quanti- 
ties of  fruit,  wine,  grain,  and  oil, 
and  the  higher  altitudes,  timber 
and  cereals.  The  leading  in- 
dustries are  the  manufacture  of 
various  fabrics  and  leather  goods, 
paper  mills,  potteries,  and  distil- 
leries.   Pop.  (1940)  346,433. 

Tarragona,  city,  Spain,  cap- 
ital of  Tarragona  province,  on 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Francoli  River  ;  50 
miles  s.w.  of  Barcelona.  It  is 
one  of  the  best  ports  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, with  large  exports  of 
wine  and  fruit.  Its  manufac- 
tures include  soap,  liqueurs,  salt- 
ed fish,  chocolate  and  flour.  It 
is  an  ancient  Graeco-Roman  city, 
capital  of  Roman  Eastern  Spain 
(Tarraco)  and  there  are  impor- 
tant remains — Cyclopean  walls, 
palace  of  Augustus,  and  a  fine 
aqueduct.    Pop.  30,747. 

Tarrasa,  tar-ra'sa,  city,  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Barcelona;  15 
miles  N.w.  of  the  city  of  Barce- 


lona. Features  of  interest  are 
the  churches  of  San  Pedro  and 
San  Miguel,  and  the  royal  col- 
lege. It  is  famous  for  its  fine 
cloth,  serges,  tweeds,  flannels. 
Pop.  39,975. 

Tarrytown,  village.  New 
York,  in  Westchester  county,  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson 
River,  and  on  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral Railroad;  25  miles  north  of 
New  York  City.  It  is  connected 
with  White  Plains  by  bus.  It 
is  picturesquely  situated  on  the 
shore  of  Tappan  Bay,  an  expan- 
sion of  the  river,  3  miles  wide. 
Many  fine  residences  are  in  the 
vicinity,  among  which  is  John  D. 
Rockefeller's  estate,  with  5,000 
acres,  and  30  miles  of  driveways. 
The  old  Dutch  Church  built  of 
bricks  brought  from  Holland 
was  erected  prior  to  1699. 
Sleepy  Hollow  cemetery  is  the 
burial  place  of  Washington 
Irving,  Carl  Schurz,  Samuel 
Gompers,  Whitelaw  Reid,  and 
Robert  G.  Ingersoll.  Other  fea- 
tures of  historic  interest  are  the 
Philipse  Manor  House  (1683); 
Sunnyside,  the  home  of  Irving ; 
the  monument  to  the  captors  of 
Major  Andre,  erected  on  the 
spot  where  he  was  taken,  Sept. 
23,  1780;  and  the  Battle  Monu- 
ment surmounting  the  Revolu- 
tionary redoubt.  Among  the 
institutions  are  the  Tarrytown 
Hospital,  the  Lyceum,  Warner 
library,  and  the  Tarrytown 
Historical  Society  library  (now 
housed  in  Philipse  Castle).  The 
name  of  the  place  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  tcrwen  (wheat  town),  its 
original  appellation.  Tarrytown 
was  settled  in  1645,  and  was  in- 
corporated in  1870.  Pop.  (1930) 
6,841  ;  (1940)  6,874. 

Tar'shish,  an  Old  Testament 
region,  perhaps  to  be  identified 
with  the  Phoenician  town  and 
district  of  Tartessus,  round  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Guadal- 
quivir. It  was  an  entrepot  for 
metals  and  marine  products. 
Consult_Ezek.  xxvii.  12. 

Tarsipes,  tar'se-pez  (Tarsipes 
rostratus),  known  as  the  long- 
snouted  phalanger,  a  small  Aus- 
tralian mammal  about  the  size  of 
a  mouse,  arboreal  in  habit,  and 
feeding  upon  honey  and  insects. 
It  has  a  long,  pointed  muzzle, 
the  female  has  a  pouch  for  its 
young,  and  the  tail  is  prehensile. 
The  animal  belongs  to  a  subfam- 
ily of  the  phalangers. 

Tar'sus,  the  chief  city  of  Cili- 
cia  in  Asia  Minor,  on  the  river 
Cydnus,  about  12  miles  above 
its  mouth.  Its  position  made 
it  strategically  important  as  it 
commanded  the  route  to  Syria 
and  Asia  Minor.  It  was  included 
in  the  Persian  empire  down  to  the 
time  of  Alexander's  conquests 
(333  B.C.)  ;  afterwards  it  was  an 
important  city  in  the  Syrian 
kingdom,  and  in  66  B.C.  Pompey 


-fartan 


KFN 


623 


Tartaric  Acid 


made  it  the  capital  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Cilicia.  About  the 
sixteenth  century  it  passed  under 
Turkish  control.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  the  apostle  Paul. 

Tar'tan,  a  woollen  fabric  of 
checkered  pattern,  generally- 
many  colored,  worn  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland  as  kilt  or  shawl. 
Each  clan  wears  a  particularly 
colored  pattern  as  its  distinctive 
dress.  In  the  Scottish  Lowlands, 
a  black  and  white  checkered 
plaid,  known  as  the  'shepherd's 
tartan,'  is  worn. 


or  Krim  Tartars,  Osmanli  Turks, 
and  many  others).  Ethnically 
they  hold  a  somewhat  interme- 
diate position  between  the  true 
Mongols  and  the  Europeans,  the 
types  showing  everywhere  grad- 
ual transitions  from  the  yellow, 
lank-haired,  flat-featured,  ob- 
lique-eyed, round-headed,  under- 
sized Tunguses,  Kalmucks,  Man- 
chus,  Gilyaks,  of  the  Far  East, 
to  the  normal  physical  char- 
acters of  the  Western  peoples. 
All  speak  dialects  of  the  Turki 
tongue,  which  differs  greatly  from 


poison  if  taken  in  greater  than 
medicinal  doses. 

Tartaric  Acid,  tar-tar'ik,  is 
dihydroxysuccinic  acid  [CH(OH) 
COOH]2,  which,  on  account  of 
its  containing  two  asymmetric 
carbon  atoms,  exists  in  four 
stereo-isomeric  forms — viz.  dex- 
tro-  or  ordinary  tartaric  acid, 
levo-tartaric  acid,  meso-  or  in- 
active tartaric  acid,  and  racemic 
acid,  the  latter  being  a  mixture 
of  the  two  first-named  varieties. 
Ordinary  tartaric  acid  occurs  in 
many   plants,    particularly  the 


I'holo.  by  The  Horlon  Studio 


Old  Dutch  Chi4rch  {Sleepy  Hollow),  Tarrytown,  N.  Y. 


Tar'tar,  or  more  correctly, 
Tatar,  a  term  collectively  ap- 
plied by  European  writers  to 
all  the  Mongolo-Turki  peoples. 
The  original  Tartar  tribe  occu- 
pied the  valleys  of  the  In-shan 
range.  In  Europe  the  form  Tar- 
tar, due  to  a  confusion  with  the 
Tartarus  of  classic  mythology, 
occurs  in  John  de  Piano  Carpini. 
The  Tartar  (properly  Turki)  peo- 
ples range  from  the  Lena  basin 
(Yakutsk)  through  Siberia  west- 
wards to  Central  Russia  (Kasan 
Tartars,  Chuvashes) ,  and  through 
Central  Asia  (Turkomans,  Uz- 
begs,  Kipchaks,  Kirghiz)  south- 
westward  to  Asia  Minor,  Cau- 
casia, and  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
(Aderbaijans,  Alans,  and  Avfars 
— i.e.  the  present  Kabards,  Nogai 


the  Mongol  branch  of  the  com- 
mon stock  language;  and  while 
the  Mongols  are  all  either  nomi- 
nal Buddhists  or  Shamanists,  the 
Tartars  are  exclusively  Moham- 
medans. Consult  Keane's  Man 
Past  and  Present. 

Tar'tar  Emet'ic,  potassium 
antimonyl  tartrate,  K(SbO)- 
C4H4O6MH2O,  is  obtained  by 
boiling  antimony  oxide  with 
solution  of  cream  of  tartar.  It 
forms  rhombic  efflorescent  crys- 
tals, is  fairly  soluble  in  water,  and 
has  an  unpleasant  taste.  In 
doses  up  to  one-eighth  of  a  grain 
it  causes  profuse  sweating,  while 
in  greater  amounts  it  acts  as  an 
emetic.  On  account  of  its  great 
irritant  effect  on  the  stomach  and 
intestines,  it  acts  as  a  violent 


grape;  from  the  tartar  or  argol, 
which  is  the  deposit  obtained  on 
the  fermentation  of  wine,  it  is 
principally  obtained.  The  prep- 
aration is  carried  out  by  crystal- 
lizing the  tartar,  which  is  then 
neutralized  and  precipitated  as 
calcium  tartrate,  from  which  the 
tartaric  acid  is  set  free  by  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  and  purified  by 
recrystallization.  It  occurs  in 
large  monoclinic  crystals,  which 
easily  dissolve  in  water,  and  have 
a  clean,  sour  taste.  It  is  decom- 
posed on  heating,  and  behaves  as 
a  dibasic  acid,  the  principal  salts 
of  which  are  the  acid  potassium 
tartrate,  or  cream  of  tartar;  po- 
tassium sodium  tartrate,  or  Ro- 
chelle  salt;  and  tartar  emetic. 
Its    solution    rotates  polarized 


Tartarus 


KFN 


624 


Tasman 


light  to  the  right.  Ordinary  tar- 
taric acid  is  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  effervescing  mixtures  and 
baking  powder,  and  in  dyeing. 

Tartarus,  tar'ta-rus,  in  an- 
cient Greek  mythology,  a  son  of 
^ther  and  Ge,  the  father  of  the 
giants.  In  Homer  and  later 
poets  Tartarus  is  the  place  of 
torment  for  the  wicked,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  Hades,  the 
abode  of  the  dead  in  general. 

Tarte,  Joseph  Israel  (1848- 
1907),  Canadian  statesman,  was 


in  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier's  cabinet,  a 
position  he  resigned  in  1902. 

Tartini,  tar-te'ne,  Giuseppe 
(1692-1770),  Italian  vioHnist  and 
musical  composer,  was  born  in 
Pirano,  near  Trieste.  He  did  not 
adopt  music  as  a  profession  until 
1721,  when  he  settled  in  Padua, 
becoming  solo  violinist  at  Sant' 
Antonio.  In  1728  he  founded  a 
violin  school  and  acquired  a  great 
reputation  as  a  performer  and 
teacher,  doing  more  to  develop 
the  art  of  violin  playing  than 


Black  Star  Photo  by  Van  De  Poll 


SCOTCH  HIGHLANDER 
born  in  Lornarie,  Que.  He  was 
educated  at  L'Assumption  Col- 
lege, and  in  1873  became  editor  of 
L' Evenement,  Quebec,  and  sub- 
sequently editor  of  La  Patrie,  at 
Montreal.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Quebec  Assembly  for  Bonaven- 
ture  as  a  Conservative  in  1877 
and  1881,  and  to  the  Federal 
Parliament  in  1891,  for  Mont- 
morency. A  year  afterwards  he 
was  unseated  on  petition,  but 
was  returned  almost  immediately 
for  L' Islet.  Upon  his  re-election 
he  began  a  vigorous  campaign 
against  his  party,  charging  it 
with  corruption,  and  was  un- 
questionably responsible  for  its 
downfall  in  1896.  In  the  last- 
named  year,  on  the  return  of  the 
Liberal  party  to  power,  he  was 
chosen  Minister  of  Public  Works 


IN  TARTAN  PLAIDS 

any  man  of  his  time.  Perhaps  his 
best  known  composition  is  his 
//  Trillo  del  Diavolo.  He  is  the 
author  of  several  important 
treatises  on  musical  acoustics, 
and  the  discoverer  of  'resultant 
or  differential  tones.' 

Tarudant,  ta-rdo-dant',  wall- 
ed town,  Morocco,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Sus,  120  miles  south- 
west of  Morocco.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  copper  goods,  and 
leather.    Pop.  8,500. 

Tar  Wood.    See  Tar. 

Taschereau,  tash-ro',  Elzear 
Alexandre  (1820-98),  Canadian 
ecclesiastic,  was  born  in  Ste. 
Marie  de  la  Beauce,  Que.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Quebec 
Seminary,  was  ordained  priest  in 
1842,  and  subsequently  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  faculty  where  he 


remained  as  professor  and  di- 
rector for  twenty-nine  years. 
In  1847  he  especially  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  heroic 
services  during  the  historic  out- 
break of  ship-fever  among  the 
Irish  immigrants  at  Grosse  Isle, 
and  was  himself  seriously  pros- 
trated by  the  disease.  In  1860  he 
was  appointed  superintendent  of 
the  Montreal  Seminary,  and  ex- 
officio  dean  of  Laval  University. 
He  was  appointed  archbishop  of 
Quebec  in  1870,  and  was  created 
cardinal-priest  in  1886.  He  is 
best  remembered  as  the  founder 
of  the  Hotel  Dieu  du  Sacre 
Cceur,  one  of  the  best  hospitals 
in  the  province,  and  as  the  re- 
constructor  of  the  shrine  at  Ste. 
Anne  de  Beaupre.  He  was  a 
vigorous  opponent  of  the  Mani- 
toba School  Act  in  1896. 

Taschereau,  Sir  Henri  El- 
zear (1836-1911),  Canadian  jur- 
ist, was  born  in  Ste.  Marie  de  La 
Beauce,  Que.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Quebec  Seminary  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1857, 
being  created  a  Q.c.  in  1867.  In 
1861-67  he  represented  Beauce 
County  in  the  Quebec  Legislative 
Assembly.  In  1871  he  was 
raised  to  the  bench  as  puisne 
judge  of  the  Quebec  Superior 
Court,  and  seven  years  after- 
ward was  made  a  Supreme  Court 
judge.  He  was  chief  justice  of 
Canada  from  1902-6,  and  in  1902 
was  knighted. 

T  a  s  g  a  o  n  ,  tas-goun',  town, 
India,  in  Satara  district,  Bombay 
Presidency,  74  miles  northwest 
of  Bijapur.     Pop.  12,000. 

Tashi  Lama,  ta'she-la'ma,  or 
Teshu  Lama,  the  second  in 
dignity  of  the  great  Lamas.  (See 
Lamaism,  Lhassa,  and  Tibet.) 

Tashkend,  tash-kent',  town, 
Asiatic  Russia,  in  the  Soviet 
Republic  of  Uzbek;  170  miles 
northeast  of  Samarkand.  There 
are  two  cities,  the  old  native  city, 
now  almost  deserted,  and  the  new 
Russian  city  with  fine  broad 
streets  and  modern  buildings. 
The  vicinity  produces  excellent 
fruit  and  vegetables  and  the 
town  has  flourishing  industries  of 
tobacco,  silk,  cotton,  leather  and 
metal  goods.  Pop.  585,005. 

Tasma,  the  pseudonym  of 
Jessie  H.  Couvreur  (1850-97), 
Australasian  writer,  was  born  in 
London.  Her  father  emigrated 
to  Tasmania  when  she  was  quite 
young.  She  went  to  Europe 
(1879),  and  delivered  lectures  on 
Australian  subjects  for  the  Geo- 
graphical Society  of  Paris  (1880- 
2).  In  1885  she  married  M. 
Auguste  Couvreur.  Her  pub- 
lished works  include  Uncle  Piper 
of  Piper  s  Hill,  In  her  Earliest 
Youth  (1889),  A  Sydney  Sovereign, 
a  collection  of  short  stories. 

Tasman,  tas'man,  Abel  Jans- 
zooN  (1602-59),  Dutch  explorer, 
was  born  in  Lutgegast.  In  1642 
he  was  sent  on  a  voyage  of  dis- 
covery by  Van  Diemen,  governor 


Tasman  Glacier 


KFN 


625 


Tasso 


general  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies,  and  discovered  the  island 
of  Tasmania  which  he  called  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  New  Zealand, 
which  he  named  Staaten  Land, 
the  Friendly  Islands,  and  the 
Fijis.  He  made  a  second  expedi- 
tion, in  1644,  for  the  purpose  of 
charting  the  coasts  of  Australia. 

Tasman  Glacier,  a  glacier 
in  the  Southern  Alps  of  South 
Island,  New  Zealand,  nearly  18 
miles  long  and  2  miles  wide. 
Mount  Cook  and  the  highest 
mountains  of  the  range  tower 
above  it.  Sir  Julius  von  Haast 
discovered  it  in  1862. 

Tasmania,  taz-ma'ni-a,  for- 
merly Van  Diemen's  Land,  a 
large  island  off  the  southern  coast 
of  Australia,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  Bass  Strait;  area, 
26,215  square  miles.  The  island 
is  irregularly  heart  shaped,  about 
200  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and  250  miles  from  east  to  west. 
The  west  coast  is  bold,  rocky,  and 
inhospitable,  but  there  are  three 
accessible  harbors — Port  Davey, 
Pieman  River,  and  Macquarie 
Harbor.  The  other  coasts  of  the 
island  contain  many  safe  bays 
and  anchorages.  Tasmania  is 
covered  by  a  network  of  ridges, 
locally  termed  tiers,  which  en- 
close a  multitude  of  small  plains 
and  valleys.  In  two  or  three 
places  an  altitude  of  5,000  feet  is 
reached.  Volcanic  action  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  island  is  strongly 
marked.  The  island  abounds  in 
rivers,  rivulets,  and  creeks,  the 
principal  being  the  Derwent, 
navigable  to  about  twenty  miles 
above  Hobart,  the  capital;  the 
Huon,  about  100  miles  in  length, 
navigable,  and  running  through 
a  fertile,  fruit-growing  country; 
the  Gordon,  falling  into  Mac- 
quarie Harbor;  the  Pieman  far- 
ther up  the  west  coast;  and  the 
Tamar,  formed  by  the  confluence 
of  the  North  and  South  Esk  at 
Launceton,  navigable  for  40 
miles  for  vessels  drawing  16  feet. 
Brown  trout  are  abundant  in 
many  of  the  rivers  and  lakes,  and 
salmon  have  been  introduced. 
The  lakes  are  numerous  and  ex- 
tensive, the  largest  being  the 
Great  Lake,  in  the  centre  (area, 
44  square  miles). 

The  climate  is  fine  and  salubri- 
ous. The  average  temperature 
of  January,  the  hottest  month, 
is  63°,  and  of  July,  midwinter, 
45°;  mean  for  the  year,  55°  1', 
The  rainfall  varies  from  25 
inches  in  the  east  to  40  inches 
in  the  west  and  sometimes  even 
100  inches  in  the  northwest. 
Snow  rarely  falls,  except  in  the 
mountains.  All  the  grains,  fruit, 
and  vegetables  which  grow  in 
Great  Britain  flourish  here.  The 
native  animals  are  for  the  most 
part  of  the  same  genera  as  those 
of  the  Australian  mainland,  with 
the  addition  of  the  Tasmanian 
wolf  and  the  Tasmanian  devil. 
The  forest  trees  include  those 


found  in  Victoria,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  the  Huon  and  King 
William  pines.  The  people  are 
for  the  most  part  of  British 
descent. 

The  principal  industries  are 
agriculture,  mining,  and  stock- 
raising,  special  attention  being 
given  to  the  raising  of  stud  sheep 
for  the  Australian  market.  There 
are  also  smelting  works,  brew- 
eries, jam  factories,  flour  mills, 
sawmills,  soap  and  candle  works, 
and  manufactures  of  cloth.  The 
principal  ports  are  Hobart  (the 
capital),  Launceston,  Strahan, 
Burnie  (Emu  Bay),  Devonport 
(Mersey),  Georgetown,  Stanley, 
Swansea,  and  Ulverstone.  The 
exports  are  wool,  timber,  gold, 
silver,  tin,  copper,  jam,  and 
fresh  fruits,  principally  apples. 

Tasmania  is  a  state  in  the 
Commonwealth  of  Australia.  It 
has  a  governor  appointed  by  the 
Crown,  aided  by  a  cabinet  of  five 
responsible  ministers.  The  Ro- 
man Catholics  have  an  arch- 
bishop and  the  Anglicans  a 
bishop.  Primary  education  is 
free,  compulsory  and  non-sec- 
tarian. The  defensive  forces  con- 
sist of  about  1,700  volunteers  and 
a  small  militia  staff. 

Tasmania  was  discovered  on 
December  1,  1642,  by  the  Dutch 
navigator  Tasman  (q.v.).  In 
1798  Dr.  Bass  explored  the  island, 
discovered  the  strait  which  bears 
his  name,  and  proved  that 
Tasmania  was  an  island.  It  was 
colonized  in  1803  by  Lieutenant 
Bowen  and  a  party  of  soldiers  and 
convicts.  At  the  date  of  the  first 
British  occupation  the  natives 
numbered  5,000.  The  last  pure- 
blooded  Tasmanian  died  in  1876. 
The  abolition  of  the  importation 
of  convict  labor  took  place  in 
1853.  In  the  same  year  repre- 
sentative institutions  were  in- 
troduced, and  these  were  followed 
in  1856  by  responsible  govern- 
ment. In  1901  the  colony  be- 
came a  part  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Australia.  Parliament 
consists  of  a  Legislative  Council, 
which  has  18  members  who  sit 
for  six  years,  and  a  House  of 
Assembly,  composed  of  30  mem- 
bers who  are  elected  for  five 
years.  There  is  proportional  rep- 
resentation and  woman  sufTrage. 
In  1939  the  population  of  Hobart, 
the  capital,  was  estimated  at  64,- 
950,  while  Launceston,  the  next 
largest  city,  had  33,100  inhabit- 
ants. Pop.  (est.  1941)  241,171. 
See  R.  W.  Giblin,  The  Early 
History  of  Tasmania ;  Statistics 
of  Tasmania  (annual). 

Tasmanian  Devil  {Sarcoph- 
ilus  ursinus) ,  a  strongly  built 
nocturnal  mammal,  closely  re- 
lated to  the  thylacine,  and  like 
it  confined  to  the  island  of  Tas- 
mania. The  head  is  dispropor- 
tionately large,  and  the  planti- 
grade feet  and  general  build  give 
the  animal  a  resemblance  to  a 
small  bear.    It  is  black,  with  a 


white  collar  around  the  throat 
and  white  patches  on  the  neck 
and  rump.  Carnivorous  in 
habit,  the  Tasmanian  devil  will 
attack  any  kind  of  animal,  and 
can  easily  overpower  a  sheep. 

Tasmanian  Wolf.  See  Thy- 
lacine. 

Tasman  Sea,  the  name 
adopted  in  1891  by  the  British 
admiralty  for  that  part  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  separating  New 
Zealand  and  its  northwest  out- 
liers from  Australia  and  Tas- 
mania. 

Tassie,  James  (1735-99), 
Scottish  gem  engraver,  was  born 
in  Pollokshaws.  He  settled  in 
London  in  1766,  and  soon  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  the  beauty 
and  finish  of  his  reproductions  of 
antique  gems.  He  also  executed 
medallion  portraits,  chiefly  from 
life.  Among  his  sitters  were 
Dugald  Stewart,  Sir  Henry 
Raeburn,  Adam  Smith,  and 
David  Hume.  In  1775  he  pub- 
lished a  Catalogue  of  Impres- 
sions of  Antique  and  Modern 
Gems,  which  was  followed  by  a 
second  in  1791. 

Tassie,  William  (1777-1860), 
nephew  of  James  Tassie  (q.v.), 
succeeded  to  his  uncle's  business 
and  added  to  it.  Some  150  of  his 
medallions  are  now  in  the 
Scottish  National  Portrait  Gal- 
lery, which  also  possesses  J. 
Tassie's  portrait  by  J.  Paxton. 

Tasso,  tas'so,  Bernardo 
(1493-1569),  ItaHan  poet,  father 
of  Torquato  Tasso  (q.v.),  was 
born  in  Venice.  He  spent  his 
life  in  the  service  of  Count 
Guido  Rangone,  Duchess  Renata 
d'Este,  Sanseverino,  Prince  of 
Salerno  (whose  secretary  he  be- 
came in  1532,  and  whose  for- 
tunes he  shared),  and  Duke  Wil- 
liam of  Mantua  (1563).  In  1560 
he  published  his  huge  romantic 
epic,  L'Amadigi,  a  poor  and 
bombastic  imitation  of  Ariosto. 
His  Lettere  are  valuable  for  the 
history  of  the  time. 

Tasso,  Torquato  (1544-95), 
Italian  poet,  was  born  in  Sor- 
rento. He  was  educated  by  the 
Jesuits  and  studied  law  but  soon 
gave  it  up  to  devote  himself  to 
poetry  and  philosophy.  In  1562 
he  published  at  Siena  his  youth- 
ful epic  of  Rinaldo,  combining 
the  classical  traditions  of  an- 
tiquity with  the  romantic  ele- 
ments of  the  Renaissance.  In 
1565  he  proceeded  to  the  court 
of  Ferrara,  and  was  at  first  at- 
tached to  Count  Luigi  of  Este 
(whom  he  accompanied  to  France 
in  1570),  and  then  to  Duke 
Alfonso  II.,  with  whom  he  went 
to  Rome  and  Florence  (1573-4). 
About  this  time  Tasso  first 
showed  signs  of  that  insanity,  due 
to  religious  scruples  and  aesthetic 
sensitiveness,  from  which  there- 
after he  was  never  entirely  free. 
In  1576  it  was  necessary  to  put 
him  under  restraint,  but  he  fled 
to  Sorrento  and  to  Piemonte,  re- 


irasso 


KFN 


626 


Tatta 


turning  to  Ferrara  in  1579.  He 

was  next  placed  in  the  hospital  of 
St.  Anna,  whence  he  was  re- 
leased at  the  intercession  of  the 
Gonzaga  in  1586.  The  unhappy 
poet  was  now  a  wanderer  from 
place  to  place — Mantua,  Rome, 
and  Naples — but  found  a  final 
refuge  with  the  Aldobrandini  at 
Rome,  where  he  died. 

Tasso's  lyrics,  plays,  dialogues, 
and  letters  are  full  of  beauty; 
but  the  poet  owes  his  immortality 
to  two  works  alone — the  epic 


Torquato  Tasso 


Gerusalemme  Liberata  and  the 
pastoral  play  Aminta.  On  his 
masterpiece,  Gerusalemme  Liber- 
ata he  was  engaged  between  1563 
and  1575.  The  central  theme  of 
the  work  is  the  first  crusade  under 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  Tasso's 
models  were  Virgil  and  Ariosto, 
and  the  fusion  of  the  classical  and 
romantic  elements  is  managed 
with  far  more  skill  than  in  Rin- 
aldo.  The  style  is  on  the  whole 
dignified,  though  not  free  from 
certain  affectations  and  exaggera- 
tions. A  heated  controversy 
sprang  up  around  this  great 
poem,  both  its  manner  and  mat- 
ter being  subjected  to  severe 
criticism.  The  Gerusalemme  Con- 
quistata,  which  Tasso  wrote  to 
meet  these  views,  was  not  suc- 
cessful. The  plot  of  the  Aminta 
(1573)  is  so  simple,  and  the  poe- 
try so  exquisite,  that  it  excited 
rivalry,  but  no  opposition. 

The  prose  works  were  edited  by 
Guasti  (1853-75).  All  the  edi- 
tions of  the  Gerusalemme  were 
supplanted  by  that  of  Solerti  and 
his  co-operators  and  all  the 
biographies  by  Solerti's  monu- 
mental work  (3  vols.),  which 
contains  a  bibliography.  The 
Gerusalemme  was  translated  by 
Fairfax,  Hoole,  with  Life;  Doyne, 
with  Life  by  Layng;  Hunt,  with 
Life;  Wiffen,  Broadhead,  Smith, 
Robertson,  Bent,  and  James. 
There  are  versions  of  the  Aminta 
by  Leigh  Hunt  and  Whitmore. 


Tassoni,  tas-so'ne,  Alessan- 
DRO  (1565-1635),  Italian  writer, 
was  born  in  Modena,  and  in  1597 
went  to  Rome.  He  spent  much 
of  his  life  in  the  service  of  various 
cardinals  (Ascanio  Colonna,  Mau- 
rice of  Savoy,  and  Ludovisi). 
Tassoni's  chief  title  to  fame  is 
the  mock-heroic  poem  La  seccia 
rapita  (written  in  1614),  dealing 
with  an  incident  that  occurred 
between  Modena  and  Bologna; 
by  reason  of  its  unflagging  spirit 
and  humor  and  of  its  style,  it 
ranks  with  the  Lutrin  and  Rape 
of  the  Lock.  The  Filippiche 
(1615)  are  as  passionate  as  the 
title  implies,  and  form  a  valuable 
historical  document.  The  Con- 
sider azioni  on  Petrarch  (1609) 
mark  an  epoch  in  criticism,  and 
forestall  much  that  has  been 
urged  against  that  poet  in  recent 
times. 

Taste,  one  of  the  five  senses  of 
man.  The  taste  organs  are 
located  chiefly  in  the  tip  and  root 
of  the  tongue,  in  the  lateral  part 
of  the  soft  palate,  and  in  the 
glosso-palatine  arch.  Four  dis- 
tinct gustatory  qualities  are  ap- 
preciated by  the  sense  of  taste — 
sweetness,  bitterness,  acidity, 
and  salinity.  The  intensity  of  the 
sensation  of  taste  varies  with  (1) 
the  area  of  the  surface  stimulated, 
(2)  the  concentration  of  the  stim- 
ulant, (3)  the  length  of  the  period 
of  application,  and  (4)  the  tem- 
perature of  the  substance  tasted. 
The  most  favorable  temperature 
is  between  50°  and  95°  F.  Taste 
is  greatly  aided  by  the  sense  of 
smell,  with  which  it  is  often  con- 
founded. Many  tactile  impres- 
sions, such  as  harshness,  coolness, 
and  astringency,  are  erroneously 
attributed  to  taste.  Derange- 
ments of  taste  may  be  due  to 
hysteria,  to  alterations  in  the 
mucous  membranes  of  the  gusta- 
tory surfaces,  and  to  lesions  of 
nerve  trunks,  filaments,  and  end 
organs.  Local  measures  may  be 
adopted  for  affections  of  the 
mucous  membrane;  electrical 
stimulation  of  the  lingual  nerves 
sometimes  restores  the  functions 
after  paralysis. 

Tatar-Bazardjik,  ta-tar'-ba- 
zar-jek',  town,  Bulgaria,  in  East 
Roumelia,  on  the  upper  Maritza, 
22  miles  west  of  Philippopolis. 
Pop.  19,450. 

Tate,  Sir  Henry  (1819-99), 
English  art  patron,  donor  of 
the  Tate  collection  and  picture 
gallery  to  the  British  nation,  was 
born  in  Chorley,  Lancashire. 
He  was  a  sugar  refiner  of  Liver- 
pool and  Mincing  Lane,  London, 
by  which  he  amassed  a  large 
fortune.  He  devoted  his  lei- 
sure to  the  fine  arts  and  in 
addition  to  the  National  Gal- 
lery of  British  Art  he  was  the 
chief  patron  of  Liverpool  Uni- 
versity. 

Tate,  Nahum  (1652-1715), 
Irish  poet  and  dramatist,  was 


born  in  Dublin.  He  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  in 
1692  succeeded  Shad  well  as  poet 
laureate.  He  composed  several 
plays  and  adapted  one  or  two  of 
Shakespeare  and  other  Eliza- 
bethan dramatists,  among  them 
King  Lear  and  Richard  II,  wrote 
the  poem  Panacea  (1700),  and  the 
New  Version  of  the  Psalms,  in 
conjunction  with  Nicholas  Brady 
(1696-98). 

Tatian,  ta'shan.  Christian 
apologist,  was  born  in  Meso- 
potamia early  in  the  2d  cent,  a.d., 
probably  of  Syrian  parents.  For 
the  first  half  of  his  life  he 
travelled  widely,  learning  and 
teaching  in  the  schools  of  heathen 
philosophy;  but,  going  to  Rome, 
he  attached  himself  to  Justin, 
and,  having  embraced  Christian- 
ity, commenced  his  own  apolo- 
getic labors.  His  first  work  was 
the  Discourse  to  the  Greeks,  in 
which  he  justifies  his  acceptance 
of  Christianity.  He  takes  up  a 
position  of  strict  asceticism  (re- 
jection of  marriage,  and  of  the 
use  of  flesh  and  wine),  and  set? 
forth  a  theory  of  dualism,  which 
inclines  to  Gnosticism.  His  Book 
of  Problems,  dealing  with  difficult 
passages  of  Scripture,  likewise 
shows  strong  traces  of  Gnosti- 
cism; while  his  views  on  marriage 
are  fully  developed  in  a  treatise 
on  Christian  perfection.  The 
work,  however,  to  which  Tatian 
owes  his  permanent  place  in 
church  history  is  his  Diatessaron, 
a  kind  of  amalgamation  of  the 
four  gospels,  founded  on  the  old 
Syriac  version.  It  is  in  no  sense 
a  'harmony,'  being  quite  un- 
critical, its  ruling  principle  being 
the  rejection  of  all  that  seemed 
to  connect  our  Lord  with  human 
nature  (birth,  genealogy,  etc.). 
It  is  disputed  whether  the  Dia- 
tessaron was  first  written  in 
Greek  (Harnack),  and  then  trans- 
lated into  Syriac,  or  originally 
in  the  latter  tongue  (Zahn  and 
most  scholars),  in  which  it  had 
certainly  a  great  vogue  among 
the  Syrian  churches  at  an  early 
date.  A  commentary,  also  in 
Syriac,  was  composed  by  Ephra- 
em  Syrus.  Consult  Hill's  The 
Earliest  Life  of  Christ;  The  Dia- 
tessaron of  Tatian  (translation 
and  notes);  the  summary  of  the 
history  of  the  Diatessaron  and 
all  the  facts  relating  to  it  by 
Professor  Samuel  Hemphill. 

Tatius,  ta'shi-us,  Achilles 
(called  Achilles  Statins  by  Sui- 
das),  Greek  romance  writer,  was 
a  rhetorician  of  Alexandria,  and 
flourished  about  a.d.  500.  His 
romance,  entitled  The  Adventures 
of  Clitophon  and  Leucippe, 
abounds  in  digressions,  and  the 
style  is  disfigured  by  imitations 
of  classical  writers,  and  an  ex- 
cessive use  of  rhetorical  embel- 
lishment. There  is  an  English 
translation  by  R.  Smith. 

Tatta,  town,  Karachi  district, 


Tattersall 


KFN 


627 


Taunton 


Sindh,  Bombay  Presidency,  In- 
dia, near  the  Indus;  58  miles 
southeast  of  Karachi;  once  the 
capital  of  Sindh.  It  manufac- 
tures silk  and  cotton  shawls. 
Pop.  8,500. 

Tat'tersall,  Richard  (1724- 
95),  founder  of  Tattersall's  horse 
market,  was  born  in  Lancashire, 
and  entered  the  service  of  the 
duke  of  Kingston.  In  1766  he 
set  up  as  a  horse  auctioneer  at 
Hyde  Park  Corner,  London.  In 
1779  he  bought  from  Lord  Bol- 
ingbroke  the  famous  racer  'High- 
flyer' for  SI 2, 500,  and  set  up  a 
stud  farm,  out  of  which  he  made 
a  fortune.  In  1788  he  became 
proprietor  of  the  Morning  Post, 
in  which  the  Prince  of  Wales  was 
associated  with  him. 

Tattoo'ing,  the  practice  of  dec- 
orating the  human  body  by  punc- 
turing or  cutting  the  skin  accord- 
ing to  certain  designs,  and  rub- 


FORMS  OF  TATTOOING 

bing  or  injecting  coloring  matter 
into  the  incisions  to  render  the 
designs  permanent.  The  origin 
of  tattooing  is  lost  in  obscurity, 
but  its  early  use  seems  to  have 
been  chiefly  for  self-adornment, 
after  which  it  came  to  be  em- 
ployed for  religious  or  other  cere- 
monial purposes,  tribal  distinc- 
tion, and  as  a  mark  of  prestige  or 
rank. 

The  custom  was  formerly  wide- 
spread, especially  among  primi- 
tive peoples.  It  is  still  practised 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  the 
Polynesians,  the  Japanese,  Chi- 
nese, Burmese,  and  Filipinos,  the 
Indians  of  North  and  South 
America,  the  Fijians,  Eskimos, 
and  certain  Australian  and  Afri- 
can tribes.  Under  the  influence 
of  civilization  the  custom  tends 
to  disappear. 

Tattooing  as  an  art  probably 
attains  its  highest  development 
among  the  Polynesians.  With 
them  the  practice  is  usually  at- 


tended with  a  certain  amount  of 
ceremony,  and  the  figures  repre- 
sented are  often  of  religious  sig- 
nificance or  symbolic  of  rank, 
such  as  the  totem  (q.  v.)  or  the 
special  tribal  badge.  The  Mao- 
ris have  been  especially  noted  for 
their  elaborate  tattooing  of  the 
face;  but  the  custom  is  dying  out 
among  them. 

In  Japan  the  practice  is  found 
among  the  lower  classes  only; 
seldom  among  women;  and  the 
head,  neck,  hands,  and  feet  are 
never  marked.  Among  the  Ainu 
the  practice  is  confined  to  the 
women,  and  to  the  exposed  parts 
of  the  body.  The  Igorotes  of 
Luzon,  Philippines,  tattoo  elabo- 
rately in  lines  and  curves. 

The  American  Indians  consider 
tattooing  of  both  religious  and 
tribal  significance,  the  young  In- 
dian being  marked  with  the  per- 
sonal or  tribal  totem  at  puberty. 
The  Fijians  and  Eskimos  believe 
the  practice  to  be  essential  to 
their  happiness  in  the  future  life. 
The  Kaffirs  look  upon  it  as  a 
mark  of  courage,  and  limit  its  use 
to  successful  warriors. 

The  rudest  form  of  tattooing  is 
the  scarification  employed  by  cer- 
tain Australian  and  negro  tribes, 
who  cut  deep  gashes  in  the  skin, 
and  fill  them  with  clay  to  produce 
raised  scars. 

Consult  H.  G.  Robley's  Moko, 
or  Maori  Tattooing;  C.  Partridge's 
Cross  River  Natives  (1905) ;  J.  F. 
Eraser's  Quaint  Subjects  of  the 
King  (1909) ;  Customs  of  the  World 
(2  vols.,  1913). 

Taubate,  tou-ba'ta,  town,  state 
of  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil;  150  miles 
southwest  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It 
is  the  centre  of  an  important 
rice-producing  district.  Pop.  (dis- 
trict) 15,000. 

Tau  Beta  Pi  Association,  tou 
ba'ta  pi,  an  honorary  Greek- 
letter  fraternity  founded  at 
Lehigh  University  in  1885,  and 
confined  to  technical  and  scien- 
tific schools.  Its  aim  is  to  mark 
in  a  fitting  manner  those  who 
have  conferred  honor  upon  their 
alma  mater  by  a  high  grade  of 
scholarship  as  under-graduates, 
or  by  their  professional  attain- 
ments as  alumni.  The  badge  is 
a  watch  key  of  gold  shaped  like 
the  bent  of  a  trestle;  the  frater- 
nity colors  are  seal  brown  and 
white.  Each  chapter  has  con- 
trol of  its  own  affairs;  and  the  as- 
sociation as  a  whole  is  governed 
by  a  convention  that  meets  an- 
nually, and  is  composed  of  dele- 
gates from  the  various  chapters. 
The  Bent  of  Tau  Beta  Pi  is  issued 
quarterly. 

Taucha,  tou'Ko,  town.  Saxony, 
Germany,  on  the  River  Parthe;  5 
miles  northeast  of  Leipzig.  Pop. 
6,000. 

Tauchnitz,  touK'nits,  the  name 
of  a  well-known  publishing  house 
in  Leipzig,  Germany. 

(1.)  Karl  Christoph  Tauch- 


nitz (1761-1834),  was  born  near 
Grimma,  Saxony.  In  1796  he  set 
up  in  business  at  Leipzig  as  a 
printer,  and  became  also  a  pub- 
lisher and  type  founder.  He  was 
the  first  to  introduce  stereotyping 
into  Germany;  and  he  made  a 
reputation  for  the  accuracy  and 
cheapness  of  his  editions  of  the 
Bible,  Greek  and  Roman  classics, 
and  musical  compositions. 

(3.)  Christian  Bernhard, 
Baron  von  Tauchnitz  (1816- 
95),  nephew  of  the  above,  also 
founded  in  1837  a  printing  and 
publishing  house  in  Leipzig.  In 
1841  he  began  his  well-known 
collection  of  British  and  Ameri- 
can authors,  of  which  about  4,500 
volumes  have  appeared. 

Taulche,  river.    See  Cubango. 

Taung-ngu,  toung'n'gob',  can- 
tonment town  in  Taung-ngu  dis- 
trict. Lower  Burma,  74  miles 
northeast  of  Prome.  It  was  for- 
merly the  seat  of  an  independent 
king.  It  was  taken  by  the  Brit- 
ish in  1852.    Pop.  about  20,000. 

Taunton,  city,  Massachusetts, 
county  seat  of  Bristol  county,  at 
the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Taunton  River,  and  on  the  New 
York,  New  Haven,  and  Hart- 
ford Railroad,  and  several  inter- 
urban  electric  lines;  35  miles 
south  of  Boston.  Important 
buildings  and  institutions  in- 
clude, besides  many  handsome 
churches  and  schools,  the  City 
Hall,  County  Court  House,  Post 
Office,  Morton  Hospital,  Histori- 
cal Hall,  Public  Library,  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association,  the 
Boy's  Club,  Taunton  Boat  Club, 
and  Taunton  Yacht  Club.  Parks 
include  the  Green,  in  the  centre 
of  the  city ;  Church  Green,  at  the 
junction  of  Summer  and  Dean 
Streets  ;  Woodward  Springs,  and 
the  Davol  playgrounds.  Thou- 
sands of  people  visit  the  city  to 
see  the  widely  known  'herring 
run,'  which  occurs  every  spring. 

Leading  products  are  silver- 
ware, cotton  yarn  and  cotton 
goods,  stoves  and  heating  appa- 
ratus, cotton,  printing,  and  other 
machinery,  aluminum  and  cop- 
per articles,  oilcloth,  twist 
drill,  wire  nails,  shoe  buttons, 
carriages,  nickel  plate,  and 
brick. 

Taunton  was  settled  as  Co- 
hannet  in  1638,  and  the  present 
name  was  adopted  in  1639.  It 
was  incorporated  as  a  town  in 
1746;  chartered  as  a  city,  1864. 
It  was  one  of  the  first  cities  in 
the  United  States  to  operate  its 
own  electric  lighting  plant, 
which  it  acquired  in  1897. 
Pop.  (1930)  37,355;  (1940) 
37,395. 

Taunton,  tan'ton,  municipal 
borough,  Somersetshire,  Eng- 
land. The  fifteenth  century 
Church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene 
has  a  beautiful  tower,  rebuilt  in 
the  nineteenth  century.  There  are 


Taunus  Mountains 


KFN 


628 


Tavistock 


remains  of  a  Norman  and  later 
castle  (which  replaced  a  Saxon 
fortress  of  wood)  and  a  large 
Museum ;  the  Grammar  School 
was  founded  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury ;  St.  Margaret's  Hospital 
represents  a  twelfth-century  leper 
house  ;  and  there  are  Church  of 
England,  Wesleyan  Methodist, 
and  Congregational  colleges.  The 
town  is  noted  for  its  apples  and 
cider.  Collars  and  cuffs,  gloves, 
silk,  and  agricultural  implements 
are  manufactured.  Taunton  was 
occupied  by  Perkin  Warbeck  in 
1497;  during  the  Civil  Wars  it 
was  bravely  held  by  Blake  for 
the  Parliament;  in  1685  Mon- 
mouth was  here  proclaimed  king  ; 
and  thereafter  it  was  the  scene 
of  barbarities  by  Colonel  Kirke's 
'Lambs"  and  of  Jeffreys'  'Bloody 
Assize.'  A.  W.  Kinglake,  his- 
torian of  the  Crimean  War,  and 
Samuel  Daniel,  poet  laureate 
(b.  1562),  were  natives.  Pop. 
(1931)  25,177. 

Taunus  Mountains,  tou' 
noos,  a  well-wooded  mountain 
range  of  Germany,  stretching  55 
miles  northeast  from  the  Rhine, 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Main. 
The  average  elevation  is  1,500 
feet,  the  highest  summits  being 
the  Grosser  Feldberg  (2,890  feet) . 
Kleiner  Feldberg  (2,715  feet), 
and  Altkonig  (2,620  feet).  The 
lower  slopes  are  occupied  by 
vineyards,  which  yield  wines  that 
have  a  world-wide  fame,  such 
as  Johannisberger,  Riidesheimer, 
and  Hochheimer.  The  mineral 
springs  of  Homburg,  Wiesbaden, 
Ems,  and  Nauheim  areas  famous. 
Among  the  conspicuous  features 
are  the  ancient  Saalburg,  con- 
verted into  a  national  museum  in 
1901  ;  and  the  national  monu- 
ment, commemorative  of  the 
War  of  1870-71 — the  statue  of 
Germania. 

Taupo,  tou'po,  the  largest  lake 
in  New  Zealand,  in  the  centre  of 
North  Island,  with  an  area  of  230 
square  miles.  The  Waikato  flows 
through  it.  A  large  area  adja- 
cent to  the  lake  is  at  present 
worthless  pumice  country.  There 
are  numerous  geysers,  mud  vol- 
canoes, and  hot  springs  in  the 
district. 

Taurida,  former  government, 
Southern  Russia,  including  the 
Crimea  (q.  v.),  and  bounded  on 
the  east,  south,  and  southwest  by 
the  Sea  of  Azov  and  the  Black 
Sea,  and  on  the  north  and  north- 
west by  the  River  Dnieper.  The 
surface  belongs  mainly  to  the 
steppe  zone  ;  the  soil  is  the  'black 
earth.'  In  the  south  of  the 
Crimea  the  Yaila  Mountains,  a 
western  continuation  of  the  Cau- 
casus, offer  some  of  the  finest  hill 
scenery  of  European  Russia. 
Cereals,  potatoes,  fruit  and  to- 
bacco are  grown.  The  chief  m.in- 
eral  deposit  is  salt.    The  princi- 


pal industries  are  flour  mills,  tan- 
neries, brick  and  tile  works, 
agricultural  machinery,  tallow 
and  tobacco.  Old  capital,  Sim- 
feropol. Area,  24,500  square 
miles.  The  territory  is  now  in- 
cluded in  the  Ukrainian  and 
Crimean  Soviet  Republics. 

Taurus,  to'rus,  or  the  Bull,  the 
second  sign  of  the  zodiac  (symbol 

8  ),  entered  by  the  sun  about 
April  22.  In  the  earliest  calen- 
dars it  marked  the  opening  of 
the  year.  Aldebaran  is  its  chief 
star,  with  which  are  grouped  the 
Hyades.  Boss  has  shown  that 
39  of  the  bright  stars  in  this 
region  form  a  globular  cluster 
15°  in  diameter  at  a  distance 
from  the  sun  of  140  light-years. 
These  stars  are  moving  in  paral- 
lel lines  with  a  common  velocity. 
The  Pleiades  are  situated  in  the 
neck  of  Taurus.  At  the  tips  of 
the  horns  are  /3,  of  1.8  magni- 
tude (Arabic  El  Nath,  the  'But- 
ting One'),  and  f  Tauri,  a  spec- 
troscopic binary,  with  a  period 
of  138  days,  showing  a  helium 
spectrum.  R  and  S  Tauri  are 
variables  of  the  Mira  type ;  X 
Tauri  is  an  eclipsing  star  with  a 
period  of  3.9  days.  The  'Crab' 
nebula  was  discovered  near  f 
Tauri  by  Bevis  in  1731.  Adja- 
cent to  it  are  the  two  variable 
nebulae,  N.G.O.  1554  and  1555. 

Taurus,  Ala-dagh,  or  Bul- 
GHARDAGH,  mountain  range  on 
the  southern  border  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, stretching  along  the  Medi- 
terranean from  the  Euphrates  to 
the  Aegean  Sea.  The  great  high- 
way between  Asia  Minor  and 
Syria  crosses  at  the  pass  of  the 
Cilician  Gates.    General  altitude, 

9  000  to  10,000  feet.  The  Anti- 
Taunis  is  a  northern  extension 
from  near  the  eastern  end.  See 
Asia  Minor. 

TaussifiT,  to'sig,  Frank  Wil- 
liam (1859-1940),  American 
educator,  was  born  in  St.  Louis, 
Mo.  He  was  graduated  from 
Harvard  University  and  was 
associated  with  the  university 
as  instructor,  assistant  professor, 
professor  (1892-1901),  and  Hen- 
ry Lee,  professor  of  political 
economy.  In  1917—19  he  was 
chairman  of  the  United  States 
Tariff  Commission,  and  in  1919 
was  attached  as  economic  ad- 
viser to  the  American  Delegation 
in  the  negotiation  of  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles.  He  edited  the 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics 
many  years.  His  works  entitle 
him  to  high  rank  among  Ameri- 
can economists.  They  include  : 
The  Tariff  History  of  the  United 
States  (1888 ;  7th  ed.,  1922)  ; 
The  Silver  Situation  in  the 
United  States  (1892);  Wages 
and  Capital  (1896);  Principles 
of  Economics  (1911;  3d  ed., 
1922);  Inventors  and  Money 
Makers  (1915);  Some  Aspects 


of  the  Tariff  Question  (1915); 
Free  Trade,  the  Tariff  and  Reci- 
procity (1919);  International 
Trade  (1927). 

Tautog,  to'tog,  or  Blackfisii 
(Tautoga  onitis),  a  member  of 
the  family  of  Wrasses  (q.  v.)  or 
Labridae,  abundant  on  the  North 
Atlantic  Coast  from  Maine  to 
South  Carolina.  It  is  a  desir- 
able food  fish,  varying  in  weight 
from  10  to  20  lbs.  Its  color  is 
black  on  the  back  and  sides ;  the 
belly  is  whitish  ;  each  jaw  has 
a  double  row  of  strong  conical 
teeth. 

Tavastehus,  ta-vas't£?-hus, 
town,  capital  of  Tavastehus  gov- 
ernjnent,  Finland  ;  70  miles 
norlhwest  of  Helsingfors.  Tt 
contains  Kronoborg  Castle  (thir- 
teenth century ) ,  now  used  as  a 
prison.  Pop.  town  5,545,  gov- 
ernment (1929)  385,952. 

Ta vernier,  ta-var-nya',  Jean 
Baptiste,  Baron  d'Aubonne 
(1605-89),  celebrated  French 
traveller,  was  born  in  Paris.  His 
first  journey  to  the  East  lasted 
from  about  the  beginning  of  1631 
to  the  summer  of  1633,  by  Con- 
stantinople to  Persia,  thence  by 
Aleppo  and  Malta  to  Italy.  The 
second  journey  (1638-43)  was 
from  Marseilles  to  Alexandretta, 
across  Syria  to  Ispahan,  thence 
to  Dacca.  Agra,  Surat,  Goa,  and 
Golconda;  the  third  (1643-9), 
through  Ispahan,  much  of  Hin- 
dustan. Batavia,  and  Bantam., 
whence  to  Holland  by  the  Cape 
and  St.  Helena.  In  the  fourth 
(1651-5).  fifth  (1657-62),  and 
sixth  (1663—8)  many  districts  of 
Persia  and  India  were  visited, 
the  outward  route  being  generally 
by  way  of  Syria  and  the  Arabian 
Desert,  and  the  return  one  by 
Asia  Minor.  Tavernier  invari- 
ably travelled  as  a  dealer  in 
precious  stones.  His  Six  Voy- 
ages was  published  in  1676  \  the 
comnlementary  Recucil  in  1679. 

Tavira,  ta-ve'ra,  seaport  town. 
Faro  district,  Portugal ;  37  miles 
southwest  of  Huelva.  It  has 
fisheries  and  trade  in  white  wine, 
fruit,  locust  beans,  and  mineral 
waters.    Pop.  13,000. 

Tav'istock,town,  Devonshire, 
England,  on  the  Tavy  ;  15  miles 
north  of  Plymouth.  The  prin- 
cipal buildings  are  the  Parish 
Church  (restored  1846).  with  in- 
teresting monuments.  Guild  Hall 
(1848).  Market  (1858).  New 
Hall.  Kelly  College,  and  statue 
of  Sir  Francis  Drake  (born  here 
in  1540).  A  tenth  century  Bene- 
dictine abbey,  subsequently  re- 
built, was  granted  by  Henry  viii. 
to  Lord  John  Russell,  his  wife 
Ann,  and  their  heirs  male,  from 
whom  it  has  descended  to  the 
present  duke  of  Bedford.  Some 
remains  still  exist.  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  copper,  lead,  and  tin 


Tavoy 


KSF 


629 


Taxation 


mining,  and  the  extraction  of  ar- 
senic.   Pop.  (1931)  4,453. 

Tavoy,  ta-voi',  seaport,  capital 
of  Tavoy  district,  in  Tenasserim, 
Lower  Burma  ;  30  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Tavoy  River.  The 
town  lies  low,  and  is  subject  to 
floods.    Pop.  about  28,000. 

Tavoy  District  has  an  area  of 
5,308  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  156.786.  The  chief  prod- 
ucts are  silk,  rice,  and  timber. 

Taw,  river,  Devonshire,  Eng- 
land, rises  on  Dartmoor,  flows  50 
miles  northeast  and  northwest, 
passing  Barnstaple,  and  forming 
as  its  estuary  Biddeford  Bay. 

Tawakoni,  ta- wa'ko-ni ,  a  tribe 
of  North  American  Indians  of 
the  Wichita  group. 

Tawing-.    See  Leather. 

Tawny,  or  Tenne,  in  herald- 
ry, the  term  for  orange  color, 
represented  by  lines  in  bend  sin- 
ister crossed  by  other  bar  ways. 
See  Heraldry. 

Taxaceae,  a  family  of  ever- 
green trees  and  shrubs  commonly 
known  as  Yew  (q.  v.). 

Taxation.  Taxation  has  had 
a  long  history  and  the  meaning 
of  taxation  has  undergone  shifts 
as  taxation  itself  has  changed. 
Taxation  meant  one  thing  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury when  the  French  econo- 
mists, called  the  Physiocrats,  and 
Adam  Smith  gathered  together 
scattered  ideas  from  many 
sources  and  rounded  them  out 
into  a  separate  branch  of  knowl- 
edge then  called  Political  Econo- 
my and  later,  Economics.  Taxa- 
tion, during  the  entire  history  of 
the  United  States  and  especially 
during  the  past  generation,  has 
undergone  a  constant  evolution 
and  means  something  different 
from  what  it  signified  in  1860 
just  before  the  Civil  War,  and 
in  1914  before  the  World  War 
which  gave  us  a  new  economic 
world  and  a  new  taxation. 

In  brief  one  cannot  go  into  the 
revenues  that  supported  early 
systems  in  which  taxation,  as  we 
know  it,  played  a  subordinate 
role.  Tribute  in  Greece  and 
Rome  was  an  exaction  laid  by 
the  conqueror  upon  the  defeated 
and  was  one  of  the  chief  sources 
of  supporting  both  Greece  and 
Rome.  Cicero  in  one  of  his 
writings  spoke  of  taxation  with 
horror  as  something  that  might 
take  place  in  Rome  if  things  kept 
on  going  from  bad  to  worse.  But 
tribute  in  one  form  or  another 
lingered  on  until  in  the  modern 
state  it  gradually  made  way  for 
taxation  of  free  peoples  imposed 
upon  themselves  to  carry  on 
public  activities  of  various  sorts. 
Careful  study  of  taxation  shows 
gradual  evolution  through  the 
centuries  from  the  idea  of  trib- 
ute into  the  modern  idea  of 
taxation. 


Eighteenth  century  writers 
and  even  the  Classic  economists 
of  England  in  the  19th  century 
regarded  taxation  merely  as  a 
cost  which  had  to  be  deducted 
from  gross  national  income  be- 
fore the  actual  net  national  in- 
come could  be  ascertained.  Tax- 
ation, as  a  cost,  reflects  the  ac- 
tual economic  situation  in  France 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. The  revenues  largely  went 
to  the  support  of  the  favored  few 
of  whom  the  chief  was  the  royal 
court ;  they  were  exempt  very 
largely  from  taxation  but  re- 
ceived the  benefits  of  it.  Taxa- 
tion to-day  is  a  means  of  segre- 
gating out  an  ever  increasing 
proportion  of  the  national  in- 
come for  the  support  of  services 
in  the  public  interest. 

Illuminating  is  the  dictum  of 
the  French  philosopher,  Montes- 
quieu, from  whom  the  founders 
of  our  republic  learned  so  much. 
In  his  Spirit  of  the  Laws  he  says 
that  taxation  increases  with  lib- 
erty and  that  this  is  a  universal 
law  and  knows  no  exception.  If 
one  studies  the  history  of  taxa- 
tion from  his  time  up  to  the  pres- 
ent, it  might  be  difficult  to  find 
exceptions  to  this  law. 

To  this  the  present  writer 
would  add  another  law  which  at 
first  seems  equally  paradoxical : 
Good  administration  inevitably 
in  the  long  run  increases  public 
expenditures  and  consequently 
increases  taxes.  This  also  is 
universal  law.  Naturally,  it  is 
not  good  administration  in  itself 
that  increases  public  expenditure 
and  taxes.  The  first  effect  of 
improvement  in  public  adminis- 
tration is  a  reduction  in  taxes. 
But  there  are  always  things  of  a 
public  nature  to  be  done  and  for 
which  there  is  constant  pressure. 
Good  administration  increases 
the  pressure  for  widening  the 
scope  of  public  activities.  Cor- 
rupt, inefficient  administration  is, 
in  the  minds  of  good  citizens, 
a  deterrent  to  public  activity ; 
good  government  an  encourage- 
ment. 

Public  services  constantly  ex- 
tend as  society  evolves.  It  was 
a  great  step  forward  in  the  19th 
century  when  education  was 
made  a  public  function  supported 
by  taxation.  At  first  the  idea 
was  that  tax-supported  education 
should  be  confined  to  elementary 
schools,  but  gradually  extended 
to  the  support  of  universities  and 
then  to  adult  education  outside 
of  schools  and  universities.  Pub- 
lic services  gradually  extended 
to  public  health  and  recreation. 
If  the  revenues  of  taxation  are 
used  to  benefit  a  few  for  their 
own  selfish  interests  and  if  in 
any  way  they  help  to  keep  a 
venal  group  in  power,  then  it  is 
to  that  extent  a  cost — not  a  seg- 


regation of  part  of  the  national 
income  for  the  services  of  all. 

Taxation  in  a  modern  state  is 
an  exaction  of  sovereign  au- 
thority ;  it  takes  from  the  reve- 
nues of  individuals  a  certain 
portion  of  their  income  for  com- 
mon purposes.  It  is  not  a  price 
paid  for  something  that  is  pur- 
chased, as  there  is  an  absence  of 
agreement  between  buyer  and 
seller.  It  is  a  one-sided  transfer 
of  wealth  taken  from  individuals, 
but  the  individual  cannot  deter- 
mine himself  whether  he  gets  a 
fair  return  in  services.  He  can- 
not avoid  the  payment  by  argu- 
ing that  he  gets  less  for  what  he 
pays  than  somebody  else  gets. 

Taxation  in  itself  knows  no 
limit  and  the  late  Justice  Cooley, 
one  of  the  great  authorities  of 
the  last  century,  said,  as  the 
courts  have  also  said  :  Taxation 
involves  the  power  to  destroy. 
This  power  has  been  exercised 
in  many  cases  and  is  now  being 
exercised  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  destruction,  for  example, 
Federal  taxation  in  the  United 
States  upon  the  issue  of  paper 
currency  by  State  banks.  As 
taxation  continually  grows,  so 
does  the  amount  of  all  the 
wealth  taken  by  taxation  in- 
crease. This  is  a  statement  of 
fact  and  sounds  dangerous.  It 
is,  in  fact,  dangerous.  The  situ- 
ation suggests  what  Thucydides, 
the  Greek  historian,  said,  name- 
ly :  That  citizen  is  most  danger- 
ous who  gives  no  attention  to 
politics.  It  can  now  safely  be 
said  that  that  citizen  is  danger- 
ous who  gives  no  attention  to  the 
principles  and  practice  of  taxa- 
tion. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  guard  against  the  dangers  in- 
volved in  taxation.  Various 
States  have  constitutional  limits 
upon  State  indebtedness  and  taxa- 
tion and  they  have  imposed  strict 
debt  limits  upon  local  taxing 
jurisdictions.  The  1930's  have 
witnessed  a  broad  movement  in 
favor  of  an  over-all  limitation 
for  taxes  levied  upon  real  estate. 
The  actual  situation,  however, 
again  suggests  that  tax  and  debt 
limitation  is  a  two-edged,  dan- 
gerous tool.  Such  limitations  are 
evaded  by  creation  of  new  tax- 
ing and  debt  incurring  units 
which  lay  taxes  upon  the  same 
citizens  and  render  almost  inef- 
fective constitutional  limitations. 
In  the  same  direction  real  estate 
tax  limitations  may  be  vitiated 
by  taxing  jurisdictions  resorting 
to  the  practice  of  appraising  val- 
ues high  enough  to  support  in- 
flated budgets. 

Canons  of  Taxation, — 
Writers  on  taxation  and  the 
framers  of  American  Constitu- 
tions have  laid  down  certain 
canons  to  help  us  reach  sound 


Taxation 


KSF 


629  A 


Taxation 


decisions  in  regard  to  taxation. 
Possibly  no  passages  from  Adam 
Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations  have 
been  more  widely  quoted  during 
the  past  hundred  and  fifty  years 
than  those  in  which  he  lays  down 
certain  general  guiding  princi- 
ples, The  Four  Maxims  of  Taxa- 
tion, briefly,  as  follows  : 

'I.  The  subjects  of  every  state 
ought  to  contribute  towards  the 
support  of  the  government  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  proportion 
to  their  respective  abilities  ;  that 
is,  in  "proportion  to  the  revenue 
which  they  respectively  enjoy  un- 
der the  protection  of  the  state. 
[Ability  is  only  one  of  the  guid- 
ing principles  in  taxation  as  it 
exists  today.  To  this  day  ovir 
courts  do  not  recognize  ability  as 
a  basis  for  payment  of  taxes  ;  the 
concept  is  one  which  has  been 
developed  by  economists.] 

'II.  The  tax  each  individual 
is  bound  to  pay  ought  to  be  cer- 
tain and  not  arbitrary.  The 
time  of  payment  and  the  manner 
of  payment  and  the  quantity  to 
be  paid  ought  all  to  be  clear  and 
plain. 

TII.  Every  tax  ought  to  be 
levied  at  the  time,  or  in  the  man- 
ner, in  which  it  is  most  likely  to 
be  convenient  for  the  contributor 
to  pay  it. 

TV.  Every  tax  ought  to  be  so 
contrived  as  both  to  take  out  and 
keep  out  of  the  pockets  of  the 
people  as  little  as  possible  over 
and  above  what  it  brings  into  the 
public  treasury  of  the  state.' 

No  one  can  question  the  sound- 
ness of  the  last  three  canons,  yet 
we  depart  widely  from  them, 
both  in  the  United  States  and 
other  countries.  We  may  also 
add  two  more  canons,  stability 
and  productivity.  Stability  in 
taxation  is  closely  related  to  cer- 
tainty as  to  payment,  referred  to 
above.  A  new  tax  disturbs  eco- 
nomic relations  and  for  the  time 
being  is  likely  to  work  harm, 
even  if  in  the  end  a  good  tax. 
Moreover,  every  new  tax  meets 
with  strong  resistance  from  in- 
terested groups,  for  example,  in- 
creases in  taxes  on  gasoline,  mo- 
tor cars,  tobacco,  etc.  Further- 
more, the  arguments  against  new 
taxes  have  force  from  the  point 
of  view  of  public  welfare  at  the 
time  when  businesses  are  totter- 
ing on  the  brink  of  bankruptcy 
and  when  a  little  additional  Ijur- 
den  will  often  push  them  over. 
In  the  case  of  an  old  tax,  as  a 
general  rule,  adjustments  have 
been  made  in  prices  between 
buyer  and  seller.  An  old  tax, 
however,  may  be  one  which  can- 
not be  adjusted  in  price  relations 
and  to  continue  it  means  to  per- 
petuate injustice.  Such  is  the 
case  with  the  general  property 
tax  in  the  United  States,  as  it 
applies  to  real  estate.  Having 
already  confiscated  real  estate  in 


hundreds  of  thousands  of  cases, 
the  longer  the  present  system  of 
taxation  of  real  estate  continues, 
the  more  harm  it  works. 

The  importance  of  productiv- 
ity is  especially  emphasized  in 
time  of  war  when  it  is  often  the 
chief  test  applied.  The  very  ob- 
ject for  which  the  revenue  sys- 
tem exists,  says  Gladstone,  is  to 
provide  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  State,  and  therefore  the  min- 
ister in  charge  of  finances  natu- 
rally estimates  the  merits  of  a 
tax  by  the  amount  of  its  yield. 

No  better  canon  on  taxation 
has  ever  been  formulated  as  a 
guide  than  is  found  in  the  Con- 
stitution of  Pennsylvania  of 
1776.  It  reads:  'Sec.  41  :  No 
public  tax,  custom  or  contribu- 
tion shall  be  imposed  upon,  or 
paid  by,  the  people  of  this  state, 
except  by  a  law  for  that  pur- 
pose :  And  before  any  law  be 
made  for  raising  it,  the  purpose 
for  which  any  tax  is  to  be  raised 
ought  to  appear  clearly  to  the 
legislature  to  be  of  more  service 
to  the  community  than  the  money 
would  be,  if  not  collected  ;  which 
being  well  observed,  taxes  can 
never  be  burthens.'  This  simply 
means  that  no  tax  should  be 
levied  unless  the  money  raised 
thereby  can  be  better  employed 
by  public  authorities  than  by_  in- 
dividuals. This  sets  a  true  liiriit 
to  taxes  and  should  be  a  guid- 
ing principle. 

Justice  in  Taxation,— Tayi- 
ation  must  be  just.  The  idea  of 
justice  is  basic  and  fundamen- 
tal in  all  free  societies.  Legis- 
lation first  determines  what  js 
justice  in  taxation  and  then,  in 
the  United  States,  the  final  word 
remains  with  the  various  courts 
at  the  head  of  which  stands  the 
Supreme  Court.  Nothing  is 
more  striking  in  the  financial 
history  of  all  modern  states,  the 
United  States  included,  than  the 
changes  in  the  idea  of  justice 
in  taxation.  It  is  a  slow  and 
continuous  growth,  but  in  recent 
years  it  has  been  relatively  rap- 
id. One  idea  of  justice  in  taxa- 
tion regularly  found  in  Ameri- 
can State  constitutions  is  that  it 
must  be  equal  and  uniform.  But 
what  is  equal  and  uniform  f  A 
typical  instance  is  provided  in  the 
Constitution  of  West  Virginia : 
'Taxation  shall  be  equal  and  uni- 
form throughout  this  State,  and 
all  property,  real  and  personal, 
shall  be  taxed  in  proportion  to 
its  value,  to  be  ascertained  as  di- 
rected by  law.'  The  interpreta- 
tion of  this  requirement  very 
often  means  simply  that  taxation 
shall  not  be  arbitrary,  capricious, 
or  violate  the  ideas  existing  at 
the  particular  time  of  what  is 
reasonable.^  For  a  long  time  in 
our  States  it  was  thought  justice 
demanded  that  all  property,  real 
and  personal,  should  be  assessed 


at  its  selling  value  and  that  taxes 
should  be  a  certain  percentage  of 
this  selling  value.  Recognized 
authorities  agree  that  this  meth- 
od of  taxation,  called  the  general 
property  tax,  as  it  now  exists  in 
the  United  States,  does  not  give 
us  even  an  approximation  of  jus- 
tice. It  is  in  the  case  of  personal 
property  that  we  find  the  most 
serious  defects  in  the  general 
property  tax.  Personal  property 
very  largely  escapes  taxation  and 
particularly  the  intangible  kinds 
of  personal  property.  It  is  not 
rnerely  that  personal  property  is 
difficult  to  discover,  but  a  large 
proportion  of  it  is  so  mobile  that 
it  can  move  from  a  place  where 
taxation  is  relatively  high  to  one 
where  it  is  relatively  low.  Com- 
petition reduces  the  returns  upon 
securities  to  such  an  extent  that 
if  they  are  taxed  like  real  estate, 
taxation  will  very  frequently  ab- 
sorb the  entire  income  and,  in- 
deed, at  times  something  more 
than  the  income.  Income  yield- 
ed by  real  property,  however, 
even  when  it  is  as  heavy  as  it 
is  in  the  United  States,  may  still 
leave  an  income  on  well  located 
and  well  improved  real  estate. 
Personal  property  is  under  this 
situation  generally  not  put  on  a 
tax  roll,  or  tax  duplicate,  as  it 
is  sometimes  called.  When  tax- 
payers are  legally  required  to 
make  a  list  of  all  kinds  of  per- 
sonal property  to  the  full  value, 
they  seldom  do  this.  However, 
it  happens  at  times  that  when  an 
estate  is  probated,  all  the  items 
of  personal  property  become 
known  and  all  is  taxed  at  its  full 
value.  Instances  could  be  cited 
when  the  tax  absorbed  the  entire 
income  and  more. 

A  widely  accepted  idea  of  jus- 
tice in  taxation  is  that  taxes 
should  be  in  proportion  to  bene- 
fits derived  from  the  government. 
It  has  been  argued  that  property- 
owners  receive  special  benefits 
from  the  government  in  propor- 
tion to  the  value  of  property  they 
own,  and  that  equity  is  secured 
by  a  tax  in  proportion  to  the  cap- 
ital or  income  value  of  property. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  has  also 
been  argued  that  poor  people 
particularly  need  the  services  of 
government  in  order  that  they 
may  have  the  benefits  of  rnodern 
civilization.  If  this  view  is  cor- 
rect, taxes  cannot  be  levied  in 
proportion  to  benefits  received  if 
justice  is  to  be  done.  Because 
the  benefits  of  good  government 
are  so  widely  diffused  in  modern 
times,  it  is  increasingly  recog- 
nized that  all  those  who  are  not 
paupers  should  make  some  con- 
tribution to  public  expenses. 

In  the  case  of  exactions  of  a 
particular  kind  called  special  as- 
sessments, the  aim  is  to  secure 
proportionality  between  benefit 
and  payment.    Improvement  of 


Taxation 


KSF 


629  B 


Taxation 


a  highway  by  special  assessments 
affords  illustration.  It  is  as- 
sumed that  the  new  or  improved 
highway  will  add  at  least  as 
much  value  to  the  property  pay- 
ing for  it  as  the  cost  of  the  new 
or  improved  highway.  Special 
assessments  yield  large  sums,  but 
with  evolution  of  modern  eco- 
nomic society,  they  become  in- 
creasingly unsatisfactory.  At 
times  the  improvement  made  is 
even  a  disadvantage  to  the  prop- 
erty which  pays  for  it.  The  idea 
of  special  assessments  has  value, 
but  the  practice  has  to  be 
changed  a  great  deal  before  it 
secures  justice. 

Another  widely  accepted  idea 
of  justice  is  ability  to  pay  and 
this  is  interpreted  by  many  lead- 
ers of  economic  thought  like 
John  Stuart  Mill  as  proportion- 
ality of  sacrifice.  A  rich  man 
must  pay  more  than  a  poor  man 
if  payment  is  to  be  determined 
by  sacrifice.  Taxation  might 
take  from  the  poor  man  the  ne- 
cessities, while  with  the  rich 
man  it  would  simply  take  expen- 
ditures for  things  beyond  neces- 
sities in  the  order  of  comforts, 
conveniences  and  luxuries.  As 
interpreted  in  our  day  by  nearly 
if  not  all  governments,  ability  to 
pay  means  that  in  some  of  its 
features  taxation  must  be  pro- 
gressive as,  for  example,  in  the 
modern  income  tax. 

Increase  in  Taxation, — The 
study  of  taxation  reveals  such 
enormous  increases,  especially 
during  the  present  century,  that 
the  general  public  is  truly 
alarmed  at  the  distress  of  the 
present  and  the  menace  for  the 
future.  In  the  United  States, 
Federal,  State  and  local  taxes 
have  increased  from  875  millions 
of  dollars  in  1890  to  over  10  bil- 
lions in  the  1930's,  or  from 
approximately  $14  to  $84  per 
capita.  While  it  is  obvious  from 
the  study  of  budgets  both  in  the 
United  States  and  other  coun- 
tries, that  expenditures  have  in- 
creased tremendously  over  this 
period,  a  comparison  of  budgets 
by  size  alone  may  lead  into  many 
fallacies.  In  the  first  place,  the 
purchasing  power  of  the  dollar 
has  changed  considerably  and 
population  and  wealth  have  in- 
creased. We  are  impressed  with 
the  increasing  burden  of  taxa- 
tion, however,  when  we  consider 
that  Federal,  State  and  local  tax- 
es absorbed  7.2  per  cent  of  the 
national  income  in  1890,  14.4  per 
cent  in  1930,  and  about  22  per 
cent  in  1934-35. 

Causes  of  the  Growth  in 
Taxation. — All  statistical  data 
in  regard  to  national  budgets 
covering  the  last  two  hundred 
years  show  on  examination  that 
war,  and  all  that  goes  with  war, 
plays  a  major  role  in  all  national 
budgets.     Professor  E.   R.  A. 


Seligman  referred  to  the  influ- 
ence of  war  on  national  budgets 
as  follows :  'The  influence  of 
war  is  obvious.  The  expenses 
of  war  and  of  the  aftermath 
of  war  are  looming  continually 
larger  in  the  history  of  society. 
In  the  United  States  where  there 
have  been  six  wars  in  the  cen- 
tury and  a  half  of  the  country's 
national  life,  there  has  scarcely 
been  a  single  year  when  a  large 
part  of  the  expenditures  has  not 
been  ascribable  either  to  prepa- 
ration for  the  next  war,  or  to 
pensions,  or  to  interest  on  the 
debt  for  the  preceding  war.' 
(A^.  Y.  Times,  Feh.  1,  1932.) 

A  few  striking  figures  on  the 
cost  of  war  follow  :  'Fiscal  out- 
lays for  the  World  War  during 
the  period  1917-21,  inclusive, 
come  to  perhaps  35^  billions, 
with  some  4  billions  more  spent 
for  general  war  purposes  not 
traceable  to  this  particular  war. 
And  ultimate  probable  fiscal  out- 
lays traceable  to  the  World  War, 
on  the  assumption  of  full  pay- 
ment of  foreign  debt  settlements, 
may  amount  to  nearly  48  bil- 
lions ;  while  they  are  fairly  cer- 
tain to  exceed  53  billions  by  1947 
or  1950,  before  the  foreign  debt 
settlements  begin  to  exceed  our 
own  post-war  outlays  and  afford 
a  postponed  rebate.  The  ulti- 
mate net  social  cost  may  be  esti- 
mated at  anything  from  the  orig- 
inal 32  billions  up  to  50  billions 
or  more,  according  as  one  does 
or  does  not  believe  that  the  for- 
eign debt  settlements  will  consti- 
tute a  real  net  addition  to  our 
available  national  income  of 
ultimate  goods  and  services.' — 
T.  M.  Clark,  Costs  of  the  World 
War  to  the  American  People 
(1931).  President  Coolidge  in 
his  Armistice  Day  Speech  of 
1928  suggested  that:  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  final  cost  will  run 
well  toward  100  billions. 

After  the  World  War,  we  ex- 
perienced a  new  kind  of  war — 
the  war  on  depression.  The 
gross  increase  in  the  total  Fed- 
eral debt  during  the  fiscal  years 
of  1934  and  1935  was  $6,200,- 
000,000.  An  all-time  high  for 
the  Federal  debt  was  broken  dur- 
ing 1935,  the  debt  having 
mounted  to  more  than  $30,000,- 
000,000. 

The  State  debt  totalled  $512,- 
192,000  in  1915  and  $2,534,296.- 
555  for  1931  which  is  an  in- 
crease of  395  per  cent.  State 
indebtedness  has  not  increased 
with  the  depression  like  the  Fed- 
eral debt.  This  type  of  indebt- 
edness is  incurred  principally 
for  long-time  public  improve- 
ments. In  1915  40.4  per  cent  of 
the  total  State  debt  was  for  high- 
ways, which  increased  to  56.3 
per  cent  in  1931. 

All  local  units  of  government 
in  the  United  States  in  1912  had 


a  net  debt  of  $3,476,000,000, 
which  increased  to  $15,223,000,- 
000  in  1932. 

Disregarding  war  and  other 
emergencies  as  causes  of  taxa- 
tion and  inquiring  into  other 
main  causes  for  its  increase  in 
modern  times,  we  find  those 
causes  due  to  increasing  social- 
ization of  economic  life :  'We 
are  living  in  a  period  of  increas- 
ing public  cooperation.  We 
think  we  find  it  more  advanta- 
geous to  satisfy  certain  wants, 
growing  in  number  and  signifi- 
cance, through  public  coopera- 
tion than  through  individual 
effort  or  private  cooperation. 
This  is  the  chief  significance  of 
the  increasing  governmental 
budgets  throughout  the  civilized 
world.  Expenditures  for  educa- 
tion, police  protection,  public 
lighting  and  sanitation  are  things 
which,  so  far  as  outlays  of  mag- 
nitude are  concerned,  belong  to 
the  19th  and  20th  centuries. 
The  scope  of  the  police  power  is 
expanding  in  the  United  States, 
and  this  means  expansion  both 
of  public  revenues  and  public  ex- 
penditures. 

'The  discussion  of  public  ex- 
penditures reveals,  as  few  other 
subjects  do,  the  nature  of  our 
civilization.  Educational  expen- 
ditures afford  perhaps  the  best 
illustration  of  the  general  tend- 
ency. They  run  up  into  hun- 
dreds of  millions  in  the  modern 
nation,  whereas  previous  to  the 
19th  century  they  w^ere  insignifi- 
cant.'— Richard  T.  Ely,  Outlines 
of  Economics  (1930). 

We  may  add  other  causes:  1. 
Technological  changes  in  our 
economic  life  due  to  inventions 
of  all  sorts  and  to  discoveries. 
2.  Increasing  humanitarianism 
of  the  age.  3.  Growing  interde- 
pendence in  economic  life,  in 
other  words,  the  growth  of  eco- 
nomic relations. 

Let  us  consider  simply  the 
automobile  and  what  it  has 
brought  about  in  the  way  of 
necessary  increases  in  public  ex- 
penditures. The  cost  of  control- 
ling traffic  is  only  one  of  the 
items  and  a  minor  item  in  the 
growth  of  expenditures.  Better 
pavements  and  far  more  expen- 
sive ones  were  necessitated  by 
the  change  from  carriages  and 
horses  to  motor  cars.  In  many 
places  the  streets  have  had  to  be 
widened  by  taking  part  of  the 
sidewalk  for  the  street  and  often 
taking  part  of  what  was  former- 
ly little  yards  or  open  spaces  in 
front  of  the  houses.  If  one  thinks 
about  other  agencies  of  transport 
like  the  railway  and  aviation,  one 
finds  enormous  growth  of  public 
expenditures  that  by  no  possibil- 
ity could  be  obviated  without  a 
loss  far  exceeding  the  growth  in 
public  expenditures  due  to  these 
causes. 


Taxation 


KSF 


629  C 


Taxation 


The  humanitarianism  of  the 
age  could  be  illustrated  by  num- 
berless examples.  In  addition 
to  the  democratic  ideas  of  edu- 
cation, we  have  increasing  ex- 
penditures for  public  health  and 
for  relief  to  those  who  suffer 
accidents  and  disabilities  of  va- 
rious sorts  on  account  of  their 
participation  in  our  economic 
life ;  for  example,  workmen's 
compensation ;  aid  of  various 
sorts  to  needy  mothers  ;  widows' 
pensions  ;  care  of  infants  at  pub- 
lic expense,  including  pure  milk 
and  other  items  giving  us  pure 
foods  and  drugs,  and  relief  of  the 
distress  on  account  of  drought  or 
depression.  Now  we  have  un- 
employment insurance  of  one 
kind  or  another,  especially  in 
England  and  Germany,  and 
strong  pressure  for  such  meas- 
ures in  the  United  States  that  in 
August,  1935  following  a  few 
State  enactments,  the  President 
signed  the  Federal  Social  Secur- 
ity Act,  which  in  addition  to  pro- 
visions for  old-age  security,  im- 
posed a  tax  upon  employers  to 
finance  job  insurance.  As  ac- 
celerating the  growth  of  expen- 
ditures due  to  humanitarianism, 
great  emphasis  must  be  placed  on 
the  growing  influence  of  woman 
upon  our  civic  life. 

The  third  reason  for  growing 
expenditures  and  taxation  is  our 
growing  interdependence.  This 
is  closely  related  to  the  other  two 
causes.  As  our  life  becomes 
more  and  more  one  of  relations 
in  growing  interdependence,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  regulate 
these  relations  increasingly  in 
order  to  coordinate  our  activities 
as  well  as  to  repress  wrongdoing. 
It  is  on  accovmt  of  the  evolution 
of  economic  society  with  the  re- 
sulting increasing  proportion  of 
our  national  wealth  devoted  to 
public  and  common  purposes  that 
makes  taxation  now,  and  that 
will  make  it  still  more  in  the 
future,  the  battleground  of  con- 
flicting social  forces.  If  taxa- 
tion absorbs  a  sufficiently  large 
proportion  of  our  national  reve- 
nues, it  means  socialism.  If 
capitalism  is  to  be  maintained, 
then  there  must  be  some  kind  of 
an  adjustment  between  private 
and  public  expenditures  which 
makes  this  possible. 

Progressive  Taxation , — 
Proportional  taxation  means  tax- 
ation in  direct  proportion  to 
income  or  value  of  property.  If 
the  rate  increases  as  the  amount 
of  income  or  property  increases, 
then  we  have  progressive  taxa- 
tion. Regressive  taxation  means 
a  rate  decreasing  more  rapidly 
than  the  income  or  property 
taxed.  Degressive  taxation 
means  progression  up  to  a  cer- 
tain point  at  which  the  progres- 
sion stops.  If  the  rate  of  taxa- 
tion on  incomes  goes  on  increas- 


ing up  to,  say,  a  million  dollars, 
then  the  progression  stops — this 
is  degressive  taxation.  But  if 
we  have  progressive  taxation, 
what  are  the  rates  upon  various 
incomes  to  be  ?  Because  it  is 
impossible  to  determine  any  fixed 
limit  of  progression,  many  are 
opposed  to  the  idea  of  progres- 
sion at  all,  fearing  that  in  the 
conflict  of  social  forces  it  may 
not  stop  until  confiscation  is 
reached. 

Taxation  in  the  United 
States, — The  United  States  is 
a  federation  of  sovereign  States, 
each  controlling  the  policies  of 
the  subordinate  local  units  in  the 
State,  such  as  counties,  cities, 
villages,  school  districts,  etc.,  etc. 
Germany  was  also  a  federation 
of  states  ;  for  example,  Prussia, 
the  largest  of  all  the  German 
States,  Bavaria,  Baden,  etc.,  un- 
til the  Unification  Act  of  1933 
abolished  the  independent  juris- 
diction of  these  several  states. 
England  and  France,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  unitary  States, 
one  central  government  having 
sovereign  control  over  all  par- 
ticular units  in  the  nation.  It  is 
obviovxs  that  taxation  in  a  federa- 
tion must  be  much  more  compli- 
cated than  in  unitary  States,  but 
of  all  countries  the  United  States, 
on  account  of  its  written  Con- 
stitudon  and  the  written  Consti- 
tutions of  its  separate  States, 
presents  the  most  intricate  and 
difficult  problems  in  taxation. 
The  original  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  enumerates  cer- 
tain powers  which  belong  to  it, 
either  expressly  or  by  necessary 
implication,  and  all  other  rights 
belong  to  the  separate  States 
which  are  sovereign  in  their  own 
sphere.  Then,  in  the  United 
States  there  is  the  complexity 
due  to  the  courts  which  under 
the  written  Constitution  have  the 
ultimate  and  final  authority  in 
taxation  as  in  other  matters. 

The  aim  of  the  Constitution, 
as  interpreted  by  the  courts,  is 
to  secure  justice  in  taxation  and 
there  are  general  provisions 
which  determine  what  justice  is 
at  a  particvilar  time  and  place. 
Due  process  of  lazv  holds 
throughout  the  United  States.  It 
means  that  the  taxpayer  must 
have  his  day  in  court.  He  must 
have  a  chance  to  be  heard  and 
taxation  must  not  be  arbitrary 
and  oppressive.  A  tax  levied  by 
any  authority  in  the  United 
States  upon  an  individual,  say, 
Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr., 
which  would  order  Mr.  Rocke- 
feller to  pay  so  many  millions  of 
dollars  in  taxes  would  unques- 
tionably be  regarded  as  unconsti- 
tutional. On  the  other  hand, 
there  might  be  a  system  of  classi- 
fication whereby  it  would  be 
possible  to  have  in  one  class  only 


one  person,  and  in  some  cases 
this  might  possibly  be  held  con- 
stitutional, but  that  would  be 
doubtful. 

Of  special  significance  in 
United  States  history  is  the  pro- 
vision about  direct  taxes  levied 
by  the  Federal  government.  A 
Federal  tax  on  land  is  unques- 
tionably a  direct  tax,  and  must 
be  apportioned  among  the  States 
according  to  their  respective 
numbers.  The  value  of  land  and 
of  property  does  not  vary  with 
numbers.  Some  States  have  ac- 
quired far  greater  wealth  in  pro- 
portion to  numbers  than  others. 
At  the  present  time  the  distribu- 
tion of  Federal  taxes  in  propor- 
tion to  numbers,  especially  with 
reference  to  a  Federal  land  tax, 
is  so  glaringly  unjust  that  no  tax 
of  this  kind  is  now  under  serious 
consideration. 

The  Supreme  Court  held  at 
the  time  of  the  Civil  War  that 
an  income  tax  was  not  a  direct 
tax  within  the  meaning  of  the 
Constitution.  The  decision  was 
reversed,  however,  in  1895,  and 
income  taxation  was  declared  un- 
constitutional. The  sixteenth 
amendment  to  the  federal  consti- 
tution adopted  in  1913  made  the 
income  tax  constitutional,  and 
now  the  income  tax  (personal 
and  corporation)  is  the  mainstay 
of  the  Federal  tax  system.  In 
1915,  which  was  the  first  full 
year  of  levying  these  taxes,  this 
source  supplied  11.4  per  cent  of 
the  total.  In  1919  and  1920  the 
two  years  of  extraordinarily 
heavy  collections,  the  figures 
were  58.6  and  59.1  per  cent  re- 
spectively. In  1932  the  source 
of  revenue  next  in  importance 
for  the  Federal  Government  was 
the  excise  tax  upon  tobacco, 
yielding  21  per  cent  of  the  total. 
The  next  important  source  was 
the  inheritance  tax,  which  yield- 
ed only  2.5  per  cent  of  the 
total. 

In  1931,  of  the  complete  total 
of  tax  collections  for  Federal, 
State  and  local  governments,  the 
general  property  tax  yielded  54.8 
per  cent  of  the  more  than  9  bil- 
lions total ;  income  taxes  of  all 
sorts,  21.7  per  cent.  Federal 
and  State  inheritance  taxes  to- 
gether amounted  to  but  2.5  per 
cent  of  the  total. 

The  48  State  governments 
collected  revenue  amounting  to 
$458,000,000  in  1915,  compared 
to  their  collections  in  1931  of 
$2,235,000,000.  In  1915  the 
general  property  tax  was  the 
principal  source  of  revenue, 
yielding  40.6  per  cent  of  the 
total.  Business  and  license  taxes 
yielded  20.4  per  cent.  In_  1931 
the  general  property  tax  yielded 
but  16  per  cent  of  the  total.  The 
gasoline  tax  and  the  automobile 
tax  were  large  sources  of  rev- 


Taxation 


KSF 


629  D 


Taxation 


enue,  yielding  18  per  cent  and  12 
per  cent  respectively. 

The  idea  of  segregation  of 
sources  of  revenue  is  one  that 
suggests  itself  and  one  that,  in 
a  rough  way,  was  carried  out 
for  a  long  time  between  States 
and  Federal  government  and  in 
some  cases  between  the  States 
and  local  political  units.  For 
a  long  time  our  Federal  Gov- 
ernment derived  its  chief  income 
from  customs  duties  (See  Cus- 
toms Duties)  levied  upon  arti- 
cles brought  in  from  abroad  and 
from  indirect  taxes,  often  called 
excise  (see  Excise)  upon  a  few 
articles  of  consumption,  chief 
among  them  being  tobacco  and 
alcoholic  beverages  manufactured 
or  sold  in  the  United  States. 

But  as  governmental  expendi- 
tures have  increased,  the  segre- 
gation of  sources  of  revenue  has 
become  increasingly  difficult  and 
has  been  largely  abandoned.  The 
Federal  Government,  as  just 
stated,  derives  a  large  percent- 
age of  its  revenues  from  the  in- 
come tax,  but  more  than  half  of 
the  States  had  either  or  both  a 
personal  and  corporation  income 
tax  in  1935. 

Formerly,  taxes  on  luxuries 
and  other  articles  included  under 
excise  were  almost  entirely  re- 
served to  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment, but  now  the  separate 
States  are  using  taxes  of  this 
kind  which  involve  a  double  bur- 
den upon  those  who  are  affected 
thereby.  The  national  govern- 
ment, for  example,  derives  large 
revenue  from  the  taxation  of  to- 
bacco in  various  forms,  but  the 
States  are  more  and  more  taxing 
tobacco  for  State  purposes.  Dur- 
ing 1934  there  were  19  States 
using  the  general  sales  tax  and 
there  were  13  other  States  levy- 
ing selected  sales  taxes  in  addi- 
tion to  the  universal  gasoline  tax 
and  the  quite  general  liquor 
taxes.  This  use  of  the  same 
sources  to  raise  necessary  rev- 
enue is  not  only  inevitable,  but 
may  be,  as  it  often  is,  entirely 
wholesome.  What  the  Ameri- 
can citizen  has  to  consider  is  not 
his  Federal  taxes  alone,  but 
whether  or  not  the  total  amount 
of  his  Federal,  State  and  local 
taxes  is  fair  and  eqviitable.  In 
1931  State  and  local  taxes  ac- 
counted for  about  80  per  cent  of 
all  taxes  so  that  only  20  per  cent 
of  the  nation's  tax  bill  was  Fed- 
eral. The  local  units  of  govern- 
ment were  accountable  for  about 
one-half  of  the  tax  increase  from 
1913  to  1930,  and  their  tax  re- 
ceipts in  1931  were  45  per  cent 
of  the  total  for  the  nation. 

A  comparison  of  the  revenue 
collections  in  cities  having  a 
population  over  30,000  shows 
that  in  1915  the  per  capita  rev- 
enue collections  of  such  units  of 
government  amounted  to  $30.17, 


while  in  1930  the  revenue  collec- 
tions amounted  to  $72.07  per 
capita  for  a  greatly  increased 
population  base. 

In  the  United  States  the  sepa- 
rate States  and  cities  have  relied 
mainly  upon  the  taxation  of 
property  for  revenue,  and  in  the 
past  as  a  general  rule  upon  one 
uniform  tax  on  property  of  every 
kind,  real  and  personal. 

'The  Financial  Statistics  of 
States  for  the  year  1928  show 
that  taxes  yielded  77.9  per  cent 
of  the  revenue  receipts  of  all  the 
states,  while  the  general  prop- 
erty tax  yielded  25  per  cent  of 
the  taxes  collected,  or  19.7  per 
cent  of  the  total  revenue.  Real 
property  represented  77  per  cent 
of  the  general  property  tax  base, 
so  that  this  form  of  property 
supplied  approximately  15  per 
cent  of  the  taxes  levied,  or  17 
per  cent  of  the  total  revenue  re- 
ceived by  the  states.  In  general, 
the  burden  of  taxes  levied  for 
state  purposes  upon  property  in 
these  cities  is  completely  over- 
shadowed by  the  burden  of  the 
taxes  levied  for  local  purposes. 
.  .  .  In  1928  the  general  prop- 
erty tax  yielded  64  per  cent  of 
the  total  revenue  receipts  of 
American  cities  over  30,000 
population.' — Financial  Statistics 
of  Cities  (1928).  'Taxes,  as 
usually  considered,  yielded  69.5 
per  cent  of  the  total  revenue,  and 
the  general  property  tax  amount- 
ed to  92  per  cent  of  the  total 
taxes.  The  base  for  the  general 
property  tax  was  made  up  of 
83  per  cent  of  real  property,  16 
per  cent  of  personal  property, 
and  1  per  cent  of  property  that 
was  not  classified  which  means 
that  53  per  cent  of  the  total  reve- 
nue, or  72  per  cent  of  the  total 
taxes  of  these  cities  came  from 
real  property.' — The  President's 
Conference  on  Home  Building 
and  Home  Ownership  Commit- 
tee on  Taxation,  Appendix  I. 
The  General  Property  Tax  as  a 
Real  Estate  Tax,  by  John  E. 
Burton. 

Tn  1915,  78.9  per  cent  of  the 
assessment  base  of  the  general 
property  tax  was  real  estate,  the 
general  property  tax  produced  62 
per  cent  of  the  total  revenue,  so 
48.9  per  cent  of  all  revenue  came 
from  real  estate.  In  1930  the 
real  estate  part  of  the  general 
property  tax  had  increased  to 
82.2  per  cent,  the  general  prop- 
erty tax  was  63.8  per  cent  of  the 
total  revenue,  so  real  estate  had 
to  pay  an  average  of  52.4  per 
cent  of  all  the  revenue — 7  per 
cent  higher  in  1930  than  in  1915. 
The  latest  figures,  for  1932,  indi- 
cate that  in  those  cities  with  a 
population  in  excess  of  100,000, 
the  general  property  tax  pro- 
duced 66.2  per  cent  of  the  total 
revenue.  .  .  .  The  States  are 
generally  retreating  from  the  di- 


rect tax  upon  real  estate ;  they 
are  taking  on  services  that  they 
can  administer  better  than  the 
local  imits  of  government  ;  but  in 
few  cases  is  there  a  direct  re- 
turn to  the  local  governments  of 
a  part  of  the  centrally  collected 
taxes.  The  implication  that  the 
States  should  take  over  more 
services,  collect  more  revenue 
and  return  a  greater  share  to  the 
local  government,  seems  to  be  in 
order.' — Modifying  and  Supple- 
menting the  General  Property 
Tax,  by  John  E.  Burton,  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  National  Tax  As- 
sociation, 1934. 

Taxation  and  Uses  of 
Property, — Taxation  must  be 
treated  in  respect  to  the  uses  of 
land  and  be  so  shaped  as  not  to 
interfere  with  desirable  uses  of 
land.  Take  up  the  case  of  forest 
lands.  Taxes  have  been  based 
upon  selling  value  of  the  land, 
although  the  forest  crop  may 
not  be  ready  to  be  harvested  for 
thirty,  forty  or  even  a  hundred 
years.  It  is  the  forest  crop  out 
of  which  income  is  derived  and 
out  of  which  taxes  should  be 
paid.  One  concrete  case  may 
make  this  clear :  In  a  single 
year  on  one  forty  acres  of  forest 
land  a  tax  of  $800  was  laid.  The 
owner  had  to  cut  down  trees  al- 
though they  should  have  stood 
for  a  considerable  number  of 
years  in  order  to  reach  maturity. 
This  land  then  became  cut-over 
land  and  when  the  stumps  were 
at  last  pulled  out,  it  naturally  be- 
came agricultural  land  in  a  re- 
gion not  fitted  particularly  for 
agriculture,  adding  to  an  exist- 
ing and  troublesome  surplus  of 
farm  products.  Moreover,  the 
result  in  cases  of  this  kind  is 
to  diminish  the  timber  supply  of 
the  country,  although  the  con- 
sumption of  lumber  is  taking 
place  far  more  rapidly  than  the 
production.  The  consequence  is 
that  we  increase  supply  where 
it  is  desirable  to  diminish  it, 
and  zve  decrease  supply  where 
additional  supply  is  needed. 

In  and  about  the  cities  land 
that  is  not  needed  for  residences 
is  taxed  as  residential  land  and 
not  as  farm  land.  Consequently, 
the  owner  is  tempted  to  cut  it 
up  into  building  lots  where  the 
existing  supply  of  lots  could  not 
possibly  be  used  up  by  the 
growth  of  the  city  in  fifty  years' 
time.  The  result  is  enormous 
waste  and  loss  to  purchasers  of 
lots  mounting  up  into  hundreds 
of  millions  of  dollars.  Another 
result  of  the  present  taxation  of 
land  upon  its  selling  value  is  a 
tendency  to  congestion  in  our 
cities.  The  land  surrounding 
the  houses  and  giving  desirable 
open  spaces  is  taxed,  not  upon 
the  use  of  the  land  as  open 
spaces,  but  upon  the  potential 
use  of  the  land  for  buildings. 


Taxation 


KSF 


630         Taxation,  Ad  Valorem 


If  taxation  were  in  harmony 
with  desirable  uses  of  land,  and 
which  at  the  same  time  did  not 
become  confiscatory,  the  tax 
would  correspond  with  the  an- 
nual use  value  of  the  land  as  it 
does  in  many  other  countries. 
It  is  desirable,  for  example,  that 
land  should  be  used  for  recrea- 
tional purposes.  This  applies  to 
privately  owned  land  as  well  as 
to  municipally  owned  land.  Now 
there  is  a  tendency  to  tax  the 
land,  not  at  its  recreational 
value,  but  at  its  potential  value 
for  residences.  Thus,  the  recrea- 
tional vises  of  land  are  impaired 
and  we  again  have  a  wasteful 
promoting  of  suburban  land  be- 
yond all  possible  needs. 

It  is  now  recommended  by 
many  thoughtful  people  that  land 
be  taxed  upon  its  annual  use 
value  and  not  upon  its  selling 
value.  If  the  method  were  used 
it  would  tend  to  shift  the  unfair 
burden  on  real  estate  to  other 
sources  of  revenue.  In  the 
United  States  it  is  customary  to 
tax  property  upon  its  capital 
value  instead  of  its  annual  value. 
If  this  practice  is  continued, 
then  the  capital  value  should  be  a 
multiplication  or  capitalization  of 
its  annual  value  over  a  series 
of  years. 

Tax  Reform. — Reduction  _  of 
public  expenditures  to  bring 
about  lower  taxes  has  generally 
been  proposed  as  the  first  of  all 
remedies  in  tax  reform.  Never 
before  was  such  prominence 
given  to  the  slogan  :  Reduce  pub- 
lic expeiiditiires  and  lozver  taxes ! 
Something  has  been  accom- 
plished here  and  there  in  elimi- 
nating expenditures  and  cutting 
down  taxes.  On  the  whole,  the 
results  thus  far  achieved,  both 
in  this  and  other  countries,  are 
relatively  so  small  as  to  be  dis- 
couraging. The  possibilities  of 
lowering  public  expenditures  and 
lessening  the  tax  burden  are, 
generally  speaking,  not  nearly 
so  great  as  one  is  inclined  to 
think.  When  John  Sherman, 
once  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
was  in  the  United  States  Senate, 
he  discussed  the  possibilities  of 
lowering  Federal  expenditures 
and  showed  that  most  of  the 
items  could  not  be  reduced  sub- 
stantially on  account  of  past 
commitments.  Interest  on  the 
public  debt  had  to  be  paid  and 
the  debt  itself  gradually  reduced. 
Pensions  had  to  be  paid  and  also 
salaries.  See  Speech  on  Income 
Tax  in  U.  S.  Senate,  Jan.  25, 
1871,  printed  in  Speeches  &  Re- 
ports on  Finance  and  Taxation 
by  John  Sherman,  N.  Y.,  1879; 
pp.  317-336,  esp.  pp.  321-22. 

The  difficulties  surrounding 
the  reduction  of  Federal  expen- 
ditures are  further  emphasized 
when  we  consider  the  actual 
budget  for  the  United  States  for 


the  fiscal  year  1935.  The  cost  of 
veterans'  pensions  and  benefits, 
aggregating  $605,573,274,  pay- 
ment of  interest  and  principal  of 
the  public  debt  in  amounts  of 
$820,926,353  and  $573,558,250 
respectively,  comprise  approxi- 
mately 64  per  cent  of  the  total 
ordinary  expenditures  which  are 
exclusive  of  the  expenditures  for 
recovery  and  relief.  The  latter 
extraordinary  items  aggregated 
$4,262,257,209,  or  58  per  cent  of 
the  total  budget  for  the  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1935. 

Out  of  the  ordinary  expendi- 
tures of  $3,114,000,000,  17  per 
cent  went  for  national  defense, 
17  per  cent  for  civil  departments 
and  2  per  cent  for  other  items. 
The  three  former  items  above 
may  be  regarded  as  fixed  ex- 
penditures and  for  practical  pur- 
poses beyond  the  control  of  Con- 
gress. The  other  items  of  ex- 
penditure may  be  regarded  as 
movable  and  comparatively  flex- 
ible. The  difference,  however, 
between  these  two  classes  is  very 
largely  theoretical.  Among  these 
flexible  or  movable  items  we 
may  mention  national  defense, 
recovery  and  relief,  which  in- 
cludes public  works,  and  law  en- 
forcement. 

When  we  examine  the  total 
income  of  the  United  States,  it  is 
found  large  enough  so  that  after 
all  our  taxes  are  paid,  the  larger 
proportion  of  the  income  is  still 
enjoyed  personally  and  individu- 
ally. If  taxation  is  even  twenty 
per  cent  of  our  national  income, 
there  remains  eighty  per  cent 
for  private  use.  The  essential 
problem  is  that  of  distribution  of 
the  burden. 

Among  the  proposals  to  cor- 
rect the  tax  situation  in  the  sev- 
eral States,  is  an  income  tax 
large  enough  to  relieve  real  es- 
tate and  to  correct  other  injus- 
tices in  the  distribution  of  the 
burden  of  taxation.  Another 
widely  discussed  proposal  is  an 
enlargement  of  the  taxes  upon 
articles  of  consumption,  espe- 
cially those  which  are  not  neces- 
sities. The  gasoline  tax  which 
has  now  been  adopted  in  all  the 
States  yields  enormotis  revenues. 
There  is  also  a  general  search, 
now  (1936)  that  the  nation  is 
facing  substantial  deficits  in  its 
Federal  Budget  and  generally  in 
the  State  budgets,  for  other  ar- 
ticles of  very  wide  use  that  will 
yield  large  revenues. 

There  are  those  who  advocate 
not  only  a  sales  tax  upon  selected 
articles  like  those  mentioned  but 
upon  all  sales.  The  general  sales 
tax  does  not  arouse  the  enthusi- 
asm on  the  part  of  tax  students 
as  it  does  on  the  part  of  tax  ad- 
ministrators. One  serious  ob- 
jection held  by  the  former  is  the 
maladjustments  which  arise 
through  the  lack  of  uniform  laws 


as  between  States.  This  one  criti- 
cism might  be  cared  for  by  a 
Federal  system  imposed  over  all 
States. 

Proposals  have  also  been  made 
for  a  tax  on  manufactured  prod- 
ucts. 'The  American  Petroleum 
Institute  has  proposed  a  levy  of 
1%  and  by  estimating  the  value 
of  manufactures  at  $60,000,000,- 
000,  has  predicted  that  it  would 
yield  $600,000,000'  (ibid.).  Dif- 
ficulties surrounding  the  admin- 
istration of  the  sales  tax  and  its 
possible  effect  on  the  cost  of  liv- 
ing led  to  considerable  contro- 
versy regarding  the  advisability 
of  adopting  it.  Advocates  of  the 
tax  on  manufactures  claim  less 
difficulty  would  be  met  in  ad- 
ministering this  tax  than  in  the 
case  of  the  sales  tax. 

The  whole  subject  bristles 
with  difficulties  but  a  solution 
must  be  found  for  some  of  the 
injustices  and  inequalities  of  ex- 
isting taxation.  The  necessity 
of  raising  additional  revenue  to 
meet  growing  deficits  further 
complicates  the  matter.  Waste 
and  inefficiency  in  public  admin- 
istration are  serious  hindrances. 
Local  budget  problems  become 
increasingly  difficult  due  to  the 
multiplicity  of  administrative 
units.  There  are  too  many  little 
villages,  cities,  taxing  districts, 
etc.  A  great  economy  could  be 
effected  in  many  places  if  the 
small  villages  and  cities  were 
consolidated  into  larger  units. 
Far  greater  efiiciency  could  be 
secured  and  the  number  of  office 
holders  could  be  reduced. 

Consult  Report  by  the  Com- 
mittee on  Taxation  of  The  Presi- 
dent's Conference  on  Home 
Building  and  Home  Ownership 

(1931)  ;  the  Tax  Research  Foun- 
dation, Tax  Systems  of  the  World 
(1935);  U.  S.  Census  Bureau. 
Financial  Statistics  of  States  and 
Financial    Statistics    of  Cities 

(1932)  ;  H.  C.  Adams,  Public 
Debts  (1887)  ;  idem,  Science  of 
Finance  (1924)  ;  C.  J.  Bullock, 
Selected  Readings  in  Public  Fi- 
nance (1920)  ;  R.  T.  Ely,  Out- 
lines of  Economics  (Bk.  IV), 
and  Public  Finance  (1931)  ; 
E.  R.  A.  Seligman,  Essays  in 
Taxation  (1923),  and  The  Shift- 
ing and  Incidence  of  Taxation 
(1927)  ;  H.  L.  Lutz,  Public  Fi- 
nance ^  (1930);  _W.  ;.  Schultz, 
American  Public  Finance  and 
Taxation  (1931);  Sir  J.  C. 
Stamp,  Fundamental  Principles 
of  Taxation  (1921);  National 
Industrial  Conference  Board, 
State  and  Local  Taxation  of 
Property  (1930). 

Richard  T.  Ely,  Ph.D. 
Taxation,  Ad  valorem,  the 
imposition  of  a  duty  on  com- 
modities in  proportion  to  their 
value.  Its  weakness  lies  in 
the  fact  that  the  actual  value 
is  difficult  to  fix. 


Taxation,  Incidence  of  KSF 


631 


Taxidermy 


Taxation,  Incidence  of,  is 

where  the  tax  ultimately  falls. 
To  discover  the  'incidence'  of 
a  tax  the  final  payer  must  be 
found.  Thus,  duty  is  paid  by 
the  importer ;  this  is  the  'im- 
pact' of  the  tax,  but  the  amount 
is  added  to  the  price  by  him 
and  by  each  successive  dealer 
until  the  consumer  purchases 
the  article  at  retail.  See  also 
Taxation, 

Taxation  of  Land  Values. 
See  Single  Tax. 

Taxicab,  a  motor  cab 
equipped  with  a  Taximeter  (q.v.) . 

Tax'idermy,  the  art  of  pre- 
paring and  preserving  the  skins 
of  birds  and  animals,  and  of  stuff- 
ing and  mounting  them  so  as  to 
reproduce,  as  closely  as  possible, 
the  living  forms.  It  is  prac- 
tically limited  to  back-boned  an- 
imals, the  invertebrate  animals 
being  dried  or  preserved  in  liquid, 
as  a  rule,  and  insects  being 
mounted  by  a  separate  process 
(see  Entomology). 

The  art  of  taxidermy  is  of  com- 
paratively recent  development, 
though  birds  were  mounted  in 
Amsterdam  as  early  as  1517,  and 
there  is  a  stuffed  rhinoceros  in  the 
Royal  Museum  of  Vertebrates  at 
Florence  dating  from  the  six- 
teenth century.  It  was  first  prac- 
tised in  England  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  when  the  Sloane 
collection,  the  nucleus  of  the 
British  Museum  collection,  was 
built  up.  The  art  has  attained  a 
high  standard  in  the  United 
States,  where  the  most  notable 
examples  are  to  be  seen  at  the 
National  Museum  in  Washing- 
ton, the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History  in  New  York 
City,  and  the  Field  Museum  in 
Chicago,  in  all  of  which  places 
groups  of  birds  and  animals,  won- 
derfully reproduced  in  their 
native  habitat,  are  to  be  found. 

In  skinning  a  specimen  for 
taxidermic  treatment,  great  pains 
should  be  taken  not  to  stretch 
the  skin,  and  to  disturb  the  fur, 
hair,  and  feathers  as  little  as 
possible.  The  skin  is  then  care- 
fully cleaned,  and  treated  with  a 
preservative  preparation.  Be- 
coeur's  arsenical  soap  (camphor, 
5  oz. ;  white  arsenic,  2  lbs. ;  white 
soap,  2  lbs.;  salts  of  tartar,  2  oz.; 
chalk,  4  oz.),  or  some  modifica 
tion  thereof,  is  most  commonly 
used  for  birds  and  small  mam- 
mals. Another  preserving  mix- 
ture is  composed  of  1  pound  of 
white  curd  soap,  3  pounds  of 
whiting,  1  ounces  of  chloride  of 
lime,  and  1  ounce  of  tincture  of 
musk.  The  best  dry  preserva- 
tive is  said  to  be  a  pound  of 
burned  alum  and  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  saltpetre,  well  rubbed 
into  the  skin;  or  arsenical  soap 
followed  by  a  mixture  of  fine  salt 
and  powdered  alum  may  be  used. 
Feathers  and  furs  are  cleaned  by 
lightly  applying  benzine;  then 


dusting  on  plaster  of  Paris,  which 
is  afterward  shaken  out. 

In  preparing  birds,  the  skull 
and  larger  wing  and  leg  bones  are 
left  in  place.  When  the  skins  are 
to  be  put  away  in  cabinets,  the 
head,  neck,  and  body  are  filled 
with  tow,  the  skin  is  sewn  up,  and 


after  being  allowed  to  dry,  the 
specimen  is  stored  away  with  in- 
sect powder.  If  the  bird  is  to  be 
mounted,  its  body  measurements 
should  be  taken  before  skinning. 
On  a  piece  of  wire  not  quite  twice 
the  length  of  the  body  and  neck 
an  artificial  body  of  tow  is  con- 
structed, resembling  the  bird's 


body  in  shape  and  size.  The 
protruding  portion  of  the  wire 
serves  as  a  foundation  for  the 
neck.  After  the  inside  of  the  skin 
has  been  painted  with  the  pre- 
serving preparation,  the  false  or 
tow  body  is  enveloped  within  it, 
and  more  tow  or  cotton  is  thrust 


down  the  neck  and  throat  so  as 
to  entirely  fill  the  cavities  there. 
With  the  finest  forceps  the  eyelid 
skins  are  pulled  into  position,  the 
feathers  arranged,  and  cotton 
pulled  up  into  the  orbits,  so  as  to 
plump  out  the  depressions.  A 
wire  is  next  thrust  into  the  ball  of 
the  foot  and  up  alongside  the 


The  Processes  and  Apparatus  of  Taxidermy 

K.  Removing  skin  from  tiger,  b.  Casting  body  of  tiger,  c.  Mannikin  for  tiger,  show- 
ing structure,  d.  Mannikin  for  tiger,  complete,  e.  Pigeon  being  skinned  through  opening 
under  wing.  f.  The  false  body.  g.  Completing  the  removal  of  the  skin.  h.  Set  up  to 
dry,  plumage  bound  down.  Tools:  a.  Skinning  knives;  6,  scalpel;  c,  brain  and  eye  scoop; 
d,  skin  scraper;  e,  steel  comb  for  furs,  etc.;  /,  shears;  g,  blunt-tipped  scissors;  h,  bone  drill; 
j,  pincers;  k,  long-nosed  pliers;  /,  calipers;  m,  stuffers;  n,  brush  for  plumage,  etc.;  o,  tri- 
angular needle;  p,  piercers;  q.  modellers;  r,  triangular  file;  s,  awl;  t,  gouges. 


Taximeter 


632 


Taylor 


thigh  bone,  the  skin  being  turned 
back;  cotton  is  wound  round  the 
wire  and  bone  to  fill  out  the  leg; 
and  the  skin  is  then  returned. 

The  protruding  lower  ends  of 
the  wire  may  be  wound  round  the 
perch  the  bird  is  to  stand  on;  the 
upper  ends  are  pushed  through 
the  body  and  clinched  on  the  top, 
to  hold  the  structure  together. 
The  feathers  of  the  tail  are  spread 
upon  a  wire  which  goes  through 
each  feather;  and  the  wings  are 
also  held  in  position  by  wires,  one 
from  each  side  being  pushed 
from  above  diagonally  down  and 
through  the  skin  of  the  second 
joint.  A  touch  of  glue  to  the  eye- 
lids prepares  them  for  the  eyes, 
which  in  small  birds  may  be  black 
beads.  Before  mounting,  the 
specimen  should  be  left  for  a  day 
or  two  to  dry,  with  thread  wound 
loosely  over  the  whole  body.  In 
mounting  small  mammals,  much 
the  same  method  is  used. 

In  the  case  of  larger  mammals, 
modelling  instead  of  stuffing  is 
now  frequently  employed;  and  it 
is  regarded  as  the  only  proper 
method  for  mounting  large  ani- 
mals in  the  life-like  attitudes  suit- 
able for  museum  illustration  of 
their  habits  and  haunts.  A 
model  or  mannikin  of  the  animal 
is  made,  posed  as  in  life,  and  this 
is  covered  with  the  damp  skin, 
and  furnished  with  jaws,  palate, 
tongue,  and  lips,  exactly  repro- 
duced in  plastic  materials.  This 
method  may  also  be  employed 
for  fish  and  smaller  animals. 

See  Anatomical  Prepara- 
tions. Consult  W.  T.  Horna- 
day's  Taxidermy;  L.  L.  Pray's 
Taxidermy;  Rowley's  Taxidermy 
and  Museum  Exhibition  (1925). 

Tax'!  meter,  an  instrument 
which  mechanically  indicates  and 
registers  the  fare  to  be  paid  by 
persons  using  public  motor  cabs. 
It  is  secured  to  the  vehicle  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  passenger  can 
at  all  times  plainly  see  the 
amount  of  the  fare;  and  it  also 
adds  up  the  number  and  amount 
of  fares  received  by  the  driver 
in  the  course  of  a  day,  thus  serv- 
ing as  a  form  of  cash  register. 

The  registering  mechanism  of 
the  taximeter  is  made  to  corre- 
spond with  the  ordinances  in  ef- 
fect in  the  large  cities,  fixing  the 
rates  of  taxicab  hire.  Generally, 
there  is  an  initial  charge  varying 
in  amount  according  to  local 
ordinances  which  entitles  the 
passenger  to  a  ride  of  a  quarter 
or  half  a  mile.  Attached  to  the 
instrument  is  a  sign  bearing  the 
words  'For  Hire'  or  'Vacant,' 
which  stands  upright  when  the 
cab  is  not  engaged,  but  which  is 
moved  out  of  sight  as  soon  as  the 
cab  is  engaged.  This  movement 
both  records  the  initial  charge 
and  sets  the  mechanism  so  it  will 
begin  to  register  automatically 
when  the  first  amount  of  distance 
has  been  completed.  At  that 
Vol.  XI.— 32-M. 


point  a  driving  mechanism  con- 
nected with  one  of  the  front 
wheels  comes  into  action,  and 
moves  the  register  at  a  rate  cor- 
responding to  the  tariff  fixed. 

When  the  cab  is  engaged  but 
standing  idle,  the  registering 
drums  of  the  taximeter  are  moved 
by  clockwork.  This  clockwork  is 
running  all  the  time,  and  operates 
the  drums  through  a  pawl  and 
ratchet;  but  when  the  cab  is  un- 
der way  the  driving  mechanism 
turns  the  drums  faster  than  the 
clockwork  and  the  latter  is  there- 
fore ineffective.  The  charge  for 
waiting  time  varies  in  different 
cities. 

In  New  York  City,  taximeters 
are  officially  inspected  by  the 
Bureau  of  Taximeter  Inspection. 
As  a  rule,  taximeters  are  not  sold, 
but  are  leased  by  the  manufac- 
turers to  operating  companies. 

Taxodium,  tak-so'di-um,  a 
genus  of  veluable  American  trees 
of  the  Coniferae  (q.v.),  or  pine 
family,  embracing  two  principal 
species,  the  Red  or  Bald  Cypress 
(T.  distichum),  the  timber  of 
which  is  used  for  building  pur- 
poses, and  the  Mexican  Cypress 
{T.  mucronatum).  T.  helero- 
phyllum,  the  Chinese  Embossed 
Cypress,  grows  to  a  height  of  only 
ten  or  twelve  feet. 

Tax' us,  a  genus  of  evergreen 
trees  of  the  Coniferae  (q.v.),  or 
pine  family.  They  bear  dioecious 
flowers,  the  female  catkins  being 
followed  by  solitary,  one-seeded 
fruit.  The  principal  species  is  T. 
haccata,  the  common  Yew.  T. 
minor  is  the  American  Yew  or 
Ground  Hemlock;  T.  cuspidata, 
the  Japanese  Yew;  T.  glohosa,  the 
Mexican  Yew.    See  Yew. 

Tay,  river  and  firth  of  Scot- 
land, flowing  into  the  North  Sea, 
rises  in  Ben  Lui  (3,708  feet)  at 
the  Argyllshire  extremity  of  the 
Grampians,  flows  through  Perth- 
shire, and  as  a  firth  between  For- 
farshire and  Fifeshire.  Its  tribu- 
taries on  the  left  bank  are  the 
Tummel  and  the  Isla,  and  on  the 
right  bank  the  Braan,  Almond, 
and  Earn.  Its  course  is  distin- 
guished by  expansive  lochs — Do- 
chart,  Tay,  Lydoch,  Rannoch, 
and  Tummel.  The  total  length 
is  118  miles,  of  which  the  last  25 
miles  form  the  firth.  At  Dundee 
it  is  crossed  by  the  Tay  Bridge. 
The  basin  covers  2,400  square 
miles.  The  river  is  navigable  to 
Perth  but  navigation  to  Dundee, 
the  chief  port,  is  much  hindered 
by  sandbanks.  The  Tay  is  fa- 
mous for  its  salmon  fishing. 

Tayabas,  ta-ya'bas,  province, 
Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  oc- 
cupying a  peninsula  on  the 
south,  which  is  separated  from 
the  great  southeastern  peninsula 
by  the  Gulf  of  Ragay;  area  2,250 
square  miles;  dependent  islands, 
84  square  miles.  The  province 
is  mountainous,  with  many  small 
streams.  The  cocoanut  is  grown 


over  large  areas.  Forest  products, 
which  include  pitch,  tar,  resin, 
cabo  negro,  and  wax,  are  shipped 
in  large  quantities  to  foreign 
countries  and  the  valleys  pro- 
duce cereals,  rice,  sugar-cane, 
and  coffee.  The  sapote,  papa- 
gat,  mangosteen,  and  mango 
grow  luxuriantly.  Lucena,  the 
capital,  is  64  miles  southeast  of 
Manila.     Pop.    (1918)  212,017. 

Tayabas,  pueblo,  Luzon, 
Philippine  Islands,  in  Tayabas 
province,  65  miles  south  of 
Manila.  It  is  an  important 
centre  for  inland  and  coastwise 
trade.  Native  vessels  of  good 
size  are  built  here.  It  was  for- 
merly the  capital.  Pop.  (1918) 
14,983. 

Tayler,  John  James  (1797- 
1869),  English  Unitarian  divine, 
was  born  in  Newington  Butts, 
Surrey.  He  was  minister  of 
Mosley  Street  Chapel,  Manches- 
ter (1821-53);  and  in  1840  was 
appointed  professor  of  ecclesias- 
tical history  in  Manchester  Col- 
lege, becoming  its  principal  on 
its  removal  to  London  (1853). 
His  publications  include  A  Re- 
trospect of  the  Religious  Life  of 
England  (1845),  Christian  As- 
pects of  Faith  and  Duty  (1851); 
and  many  magazine  articles. 

Taylor,  borough,  Pennsylvania 
in  Lackawanna  County,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Lackawanna  River 
and  on  the  Central  of  New  Jer  - 
sey, the  Delaware,  Lackawanna 
and  Western  and  the  Delaware 
and  Hudson  Railroads;  3  miles 
southwest  of  Scranton.  It  is 
engaged  chiefly  in  the  mining  of 
anthracite  coal  and  the  making  of 
silk.  The  Taylor  Hospital  is  a 
feature  of  the  place.  The  place 
was  first  settled  about  1810.  The 
borough  was  incorporated  in 
1893.  Pop.  (1910)  9,060;  (1920) 
9,876;  (1930)  10,428. 

Taylor,  town,  Texas,  in  Wil- 
liamson County,  on  the  Inter- 
national and  Great  Northern 
and  the  Missouri,  Kansas  and 
Texas  Railroads;  30  miles  north- 
east of  Austin.  Railroad  repair 
shops  of  the  International  and 
Great  Northern  Railroad  are 
situated  here.  The  leading  in- 
dustries are  the  raising  of  live- 
stock, cotton-growing,  and  the 
manufacture  of  cottonseed  oil 
and  ice.  A  new  city  hall,  an 
opera  house,  and  the  Fair  Associ- 
ation buildings  and  grounds  are 
features  of  the  place.  The  first 
settlement  here  was  made  about 
1880.  Pop.  (1910)5,314;  (1920) 
5,965;  (1930)  7,463. 

Taylor,  Alfred  Swaine  (1806- 
80),  English  medical  jurist,  was 
born  in  Northfleet,  Kent.  In 
1831  he  became  professor  of 
medical  jurisprudence  at  Guy's 
Hospital,  holding  the  chair  till 
1877.  His  services  were  much 
in  demand  in  criminal  cases, 
of  which  the  chief  was  the  Palmer 
poisoning  case.     He  published 


TEMPORARY  PAGES  FOR  NELSON'S  L.  L.  ENCYCLOPAEDIA 


Insert  in  Volume  XI,  at  page  630 

REVENUE  ACT  OF  1926 


The  following  is  a  summary  of 
the  main  features  of  the  Revenue 
Act  of  1926,  enacted  by  Congress 
and  approved  by  the  President 
Feb.  26,  1926. 

Individual  Income  Tax. — In 
lieu  of  the  tax  imposed  by  the 
Revenue  Act  of  1924,  there  shall 
be  levied,  collected,  and  paid,  for 
each  taxable  year,  upon  the  net 
income  of  every  individual,  a 
normal  tax  of  5  per  cent,  of  the 
amount  of  the  net  income,  except 
that  in  the  case  of  a  citizen  or 
resident  of  the  United  States  the 
rate  upon  the  first  $4,000  shall 
be  per  cent,  and  upon  the 
next  $4,000  3  per  cent. 

In  addition  to  the  normal  tax 
there  shall  be  paid  for  each  tax- 
able year  a  surtax  of  1  per  cent, 
of  the  amount  by  which  the  net 
income  exceeds  .$10,000  and  does 
not  exceed  $14,000;  $40  upon  net 
incomes  of  $14,000  and  upon  net 
incomes  in  excess  of  $14,000  and 
not  in  excess  of  $16,000  2  per 
cent,  in  addition  of  such  excess; 
$80  upon  net  incomes  of  $16,000 
and  upon  net  incomes  in  excess 
of  $16,000  and  not  in  excess  of 
$18,000  3  per  cent,  in  addition  of 
such  excess;  and  so  on  up  to 
$11,660  upon  net  incomes  of 
$100,000  and  upon  net  incomes  in 
excess  of  $100,000,  in  addition 
20  per  cent,  of  such  excess. 

A  personal  exemption  of  $1,500 
is  allowed  in  the  case  of  a  single 
person,  $3,500  in  the  case  of  the 
head  of  the  family  or  a  married 
person  living  with  husband  or 
wife,  and  $400  for  each  additional 
dependent  (under  18  years  of  age 
or  incapable  of  self  support). 

In  the  case  of  an  individual  the 
tax  shall,  in  addition  to  such 
other  credits  as  are  provided  by 
the  Act,-  be  credited  with  25  per 
cent,  of  the  amount  of  tax  which 
would  be  payable  if  this  earned 
net  income  constituted  his  entire 
net  income;  but  in  no  case  shall 
the  credit  allowed  exceed  25  per 
cent,  of  his  normal  tax  plus  25 
per  cent,  of  the  tax  which  would 
be  payable  under  the  surtax  pro- 
visions if  his  earned  net  income 
constituted  his  entire  net  income. 

The  term  'earned  net  income' 
means  the  excess  of  the  amount 
of  the  earned  income  over  the 
sum  of  the  earned  income  deduc- 
tions. If  the  taxpayer's  net  in- 
come is  not  more  than  $5,000 
his  entire  net  income  shall  be 
considered  to  be  earned  net  in- 
come, and  if  his  net  income  is 
more  than  $5,000,  his  earned  net 
income  shall  not  be  considered  to 
be  less  than  .$5,000.  In  no  case 
shall  the  earned  net  income  be 
considered  more  than  $20,000. 


Individuals  carrying  on  busi- 
ness in  partnership  are  liable  to 
taxation  only  in  their  individual 
capacity. 

The  accompanying  table  shows 
the  total  tax  (normal  and  sur- 
taxes) payable  on  incomes  from 
$1,600  to  $1,000,000. 


mestic  building  and  loan  associa- 
tions and  co-operative  banks; 
cemetery  companies;  education- 
al, religious  or  charitable  corpo- 
rations; business  leagues,  cham- 
bers of  commerce,  or  boards  of 
trade;  civic  leagues  or  organiza- 
tions for  social  welfare;  recrea- 


Tax  Due  on  Individual  Incomes 


Amount  of 
net  income 
before 

Single  person  or  married 
and  not  living  together, 
exemption  $1,500 

Married,  living 
together,  or  head  of 
family,  exemption  $3,500 

deducting 
exemptions 

On  earned 
income 

On  unearned 
income 

Total  on 
earned  income 

Total  on 
unearned  income 

$1,600 
2,000 
2,500 
3  000 
31500 

$1.13 
5.63 
11.25 
16.88 
22.50 

$1.13 
5.63 
11.25 
16.88 
22.50 

4,000 
5,000 
6,000 
7,000 
7,500 

28.13 
39.38 
56.25 
78.75 
90.00 

28.13 
"  39.38 
61.88 
91.88 
106.88 

$5.63 
16.88 
28.13 
39.38 
45.00 

S5.63 
16.88 
31.88 
46.88 
54.38 

8,000 
9,000 
10,000 
12,000 
14,000 

101.25 
123.75 
153.75 
243.75 
333.75 

121.88 
151.88 
191.88 
311.88 
431.88 

56.25 
78.75 
101.25 
168.75 
258.75 

69.38 
99.38 
129.38 
219.38- 
339.88 

16,000 
18.000 
20,000 
30,000 
40,000 

438.75 
558.75 
693.75 
1,853.75 
3,273.75 

571.88 
731.88 
911.88 
2,071.88 
3,491.88 

363.75 
483.75 
618.75 
1,778.75 
3,198.75 

479.38 
639.38 
819.38 
1,979.38 
3,399.38 

50,000 
60,000 
70,000 
80,000 
100,000 

4,953.75 
6,873.75 
9,033.75 
11,333.75 
16,133.75 

5,171.88 
7,091.88 
9,251.88 
11,551.88 
16,351.88 

4,878.75 
6,798.75 
8,958.75 
11,258.75 
16,058.75 

5,079.38 
6,999.38 
9,159.38 
11,459.38 
16,259.38 

200,000 
300,000 
500,000 
1,000,000 

41,133.75 
66,133.75 
116,133.75 
241,133.75 

41,351.88 
66,351.88 
116,351.88 
241,351.88 

41.058.75 
66,058.75 
116,058.75 
241,058.75 

41,259.38 
66,259.38 
116,259.38 
241,259.38 

Corporation  Tax. — There  shall 
be  levied  on  the  net  income  of 
every  corporation  a  tax  of  13  per 
cent,  for  the  calendar  year  1925, 
and  133^  per  cent,  for  each  cal- 
endar year  thereafter.  An  ex- 
emption of  $2,000  is  allowed  in 
case  of  domestic  corporations 
having  a  net  income  of  $25,000 
or  less,  but  if  the  net  income  is 
more  than  $25,000  the  tax  shall 
not  exceed  the  tax  which  would 
be  payable  if  the  $2,000  credit 
were  allowed,  plus  the  amount  of 
the  net  income  in  excess  of  $25,- 
000.  The  following  organiza- 
tions are  exempt  from  this  tax, 
most  of  them  with  provision  that 
they  are  not  operated  for  profit: 
labor,  agricultural,  or  horticul- 
tural organizations;  mutual  sav- 
ings banks,  not  having  a  capital 
stock  represented  by  shares;  fra- 
ternal beneficiary  societies;  do- 


tion  clubs;  local  benevolent  life 
insurance  associations;  mutual 
ditch  or  irrigation  companies; 
mutual  or  co-operative  telephone 
companies,  and  similar  organiza- 
tions; mutual  hail,  cyclone, 
casualty,  and  fire  insurance  com- 
panies; co-operative  marketing 
and  purchasing  associations; 
holding  corporations  for  exempt 
organizations;  federal  land  banks, 
farm-loan  associations,  and  Fed- 
eral intermediate  credit  banks. 

There  shall  be  levied,  collected, 
and  paid  for  each  taxable  year  up- 
on the  net  income  of  every  life  in- 
surance company  a  tax  as  follows: 

(1)  In  the  case  of  a  domestic 
insurance  company,  123^  per 
cent,  of  its  net  income. 

(2)  In  the  case  of  a  foreign  life 
insurance  company,  1214  per 
cent,  of  its  net  income  from 
sources  within  the  United  States. 

Vol.  XL— Mar.  '26 


Revenue  Act,  1936 


2 


Revenue  Act,  1936 


An  exemption  of  $2,000  is  al- 
lowed in  the  case  of  domestic  in- 
surance companies  having  a  net 
income  of  $25,000  or  less. 

Estate  Tax. — In  lieu  of  the  tax 
imposed  by  the  Revenue  Act  of 
1924,  a  tax  equal  to  the  sum  of 
the  following  percentages  of  the 
value  of  the  net  estate  is  imposed 
upon  the  transfer  of  the  net  es- 
tate of  every  decedent  dying 
after  passage  of  this  act,  whether 
a  resident  or  non-resident  of  the 
United  States: 

One  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of 
the  net  estate  not  in  excess  of 
$50,000;  2  per  cent,  of  the  amount 
by  which  the  net  estate  exceeds 
$50,000  and  does  not  exceed 
$100,000;  3  per  cent,  of  the 
amount  by  which  the  net  estate 
exceeds  $100,000  and  does  not 
exceed  $200,000;  4  per  cent,  of 
the  amount  by  which  the  net  es- 
tate exceeds  $200,000  and  does 
not  exceed  $400,000;  5  per  cent, 
of  the  amount  by  which  the  net 
estate  exceeds  $400,000  and  does 
not  exceed  $600,000;  6  per  cent, 
of  the  amount  by  which  the  net 
estate  exceeds  $600,000  and  does 
not  exceed  $800,000;  7  per  cent, 
of  the  amount  by  which  the  net 
estate  exceeds  $800,000  and  does 
not  exceed  $1,000,000;  8  per  cent, 
of  the  amount  by  which  the  net 
estate  exceeds  $1,000,000  and 
does  not  exceed  $1,500,000;  9  per 
cent,  of  the  amount  by  which  the 
net  estate  exceeds  $1,500,000  and 
does  not  exceed  $2,000,000;  10 
per  cent,  of  the  amount  by  which 
the  net  estate  exceeds  $2,000,000 
and  does  not  exceed  $2,500,000; 
11  per  cent,  of  the  amount  by 
which  the  net  estate  exceeds 
$2,500,000  and  does  not  exceed 
$3,000,000;  12  per  cent,  of  the 
amount  by  which  the  net  estate 
exceeds  $3,000,000  and  does  not 
exceed  $3,500,000;  13  per  cent,  of 
the  amount  by  which  the  net  es- 
tate exceeds  $3,500,000  and  does 
not  exceed  $4,000,000;  14  per 
cent,  of  the  amount  by  which  the 
net  estate  exceeds  $4,000,000  and 
does  not  exceed  $5,000,000;  15 
per  cent,  of  the  amount  by  which 
the  net  estate  exceeds  $5,000,000 
and  does  not  exceed  $6,000,000; 
16  per  cent,  of  the  amount  by 
which  the  net  estate  exceeds 
$6,000,000  and  does  not  exceed 
$7,000,000;  17  per  cent,  of  the 
amount  by  which  the  net  estate 
exceeds  .157,000,000  and  does  not 
exceed  $8,000,000;  18  per  cent, 
of  the  amount  by  which  the  net 
estate  exceeds  $8,000,000  and 
does  not  exceed  $9,000,000;  19 
per  cent,  of  the  amount  by  which 
the  net  estate  exceeds  $9,000,000 
and  does  not  exceed  $10,000,000; 
20  per  cent,  of  the  amount  by 
which  the  net  estate  exceeds  $10,- 
000,000. 

The  net  estate  is  determined, 
in  the  case  of  residents,  by  cer- 
tain deductions  from  the  gross 
estate,   including  expenses  and 

Vol.  XL— Mar.  '26 


losses,  property  on  which  an  es- 
tate tax  was  paid  within  five 
prior  years,  public,  charitable,  or 
educational  bequests,  and  an  ex- 
emption of  $100,000. 

The  tax  imposed  is  credited 
with  the  amount  of  any  estate, 
inheritance,  legacy,  or  succession 
taxes  actually  paid  to  any  State 
or  Territory  or  the  District  of 
Columbia,  in  respect  of  any  prop- 
erty included  in  the  gross  estate; 
but  this  credit  may  not  exceed  80 
per  cent,  of  the  tax  imposed  and 
shall  include  only  such  taxes  as 
were  actually  paid  and  credit 
therefor  claimed  within  three 
years  after  the  filing  of  the  return. 

Provision  is  further  made 
whereby  on  all  estates  ordinarily 
taxable  under  the  1924  law,  1921 
rates  (with  a  maximum  of  25  per 
cent.)  are  substituted  for  the 
1924  rates  (which  carry  a  maxi- 
mum of  40  per  cent.) ;  this  clause 
applying  to  all  estates  taxable 
between  June  2,  1924,  and  the 
date  of  the  new  bill.  These  rates 
range  from  1  per  cent,  on  $50,- 
000  to  22  per  cent,  on  $10,000,000 
and  25  per  cent,  on  estates  in 
excess  of  $10,000,000. 

A  similar  retro-active  provision 
is  made  in  the  case  of  gifts  of 
$50,000  and  more,  but  no  gift 
tax  is  imposed  by  the  new  law. 

Tax  on  Cigars,  Tobacco  and 
Manufactures  Thereof.  —  Upon 
cigars  and  cigarettes  manufac- 
tured in  or  imported  into  the 
United  States  and  hereafter  sold 
by  the  manufacturer  or  importer, 
or  removed  for  consumption  or 
sale,  there  shall  be  levied,  col- 
lected, and  paid  under  the  pro- 
visions of  existing  law,  in  lieu  of 
the  internal-revenue  taxes  now 
imposed  thereon  by  the  Revenue 
Act  of  1924,  the  following  taxes, 
to  be  paid  by  the  manufacturer 
or  importer  thereof: 

On  cigars  of  all  descriptions 
made  of  tobacco,  or  any  substi- 
tute therefor,  and  weighing  not 
more  than  three  pounds  per 
thousand,  75  cents  per  thousand. 

On  cigars  made  of  tobacco,  or 
any  substitute  therefor,  and 
weighing  more  than  three  pounds 
per  thousand,  if  manufactured  or 
imported  to  retail  at  not  more 
than  5  cents  each,  $2.00  per  thou- 
sand; if  manufactured  or  im- 
ported to  retail  at  more  than  5 
cents  each  and  not  more  than  8 
cents  each,  $3.00  per  thousand;  if 
manufactured  or  imported  to  re- 
tail at  more  than  8  cents  and  not 
more  than  15  cents  each,  $5.00 
per  thousand;  if  manufactured  or 
imported  to  retail  at  more  than 
15  cents  each  and  not  more  than 
20  cents  each,  $10.50  per  thou- 
sand; if  manufactured  or  im- 
ported to  retail  at  more  than  20 
cents  each,  $13.50  per  thousand. 

On  cigarettes  made  of  tobacco, 
or  any  substitute  therefor,  and 
weighing  not  more  than  three 
pounds   per   thousand,   $3  per 


thousand;  weighing  more  than 
three  pounds  per  thousand,  $7.20 
per  thousand. 

There  are  also  levied :  Upon  all 
tobacco  and  snuflf  manufactured 
in  or  imported  into  the  United 
States,  and  hereafter  sold  by  the 
manufacturer  or  importer,  or  re- 
moved for  consumption  or  sale, 
a  tax  of  18  cents  per  pound,  to  be 
paid  by  the  manufacturer  or 
importer  thereof. 

Upon  cigarette  paper  made  up 
in  or  imported  into  the  United 
States  and  hereafter  sold  by  the 
manufacturer  or  importer  to  any 
person  (other  than  to  a  manu- 
facturer of  cigarettes  for  use  in 
their  manufacture)  the  following 
taxes,  to  be  paid  by  the  manu- 
facturer or  importer:  On  each 
package,  book,  or  set,  containing 
more  than  twenty-five  but  not 
more  than  fifty  papers,  ^  cent; 
containing  more  than  fifty  but 
not  more  than  one  hundred  pa- 
pers, 1  cent;  containing  more 
than  one  hundred  papers,  3^  cent 
for  each  fifty  papers  or  fractional 
part  thereof;  and  upon  tubes,  1 
cent  for  each  fifty  tubes  or  frac- 
tional part  thereof. 

Tax  on  Admission  and  Dues. 
— There  shall  be  levied,  assessed, 
collected,  and  paid,  in  lieu  of  the 
taxes  imposed  by  the  Revenue 
Act  of  1924: 

(1)  A  tax  of  1  cent  for  each  10' 
cents  or  fraction  thereof  of  the 
amount  paid  for  admission  to  any 
place  on  or  after  such  date,  in- 
cluding admission  by  season 
ticket  or  subscription,  to  be  paid 
by  the  person  paying  for  such 
admission;  but  where  the  amount 
paid  for  admission  is  75  cents  or 
less,  no  tax  shall  be  imposed. 

(2)  Upon  tickets  or  cards  of 
admission  to  theatres,  operas, 
and  other  places  of  amusement, 
sold  at  news  stands,  hotels,  and 
places  other  than  the  ticket  of- 
fices of  such  theatres,  operas,  or 
other  places  of  amusement,  at  not 
to  exceed  50  cents  in  excess  of 
the  sum  of  the  established  price 
therefor  at  such  ticket  offices  plus 
the  amount  of  any  tax  imposed 
under  paragraph  (1),  a  tax  equiv- 
alent to  5  per  cent,  of  the  amount 
of  such  excess;  and  if  sold  for 
more  than  50  cents  in  excess  of 
the  sum  of  such  established  price 
plus  the  amount  of  any  tax  im- 
posed under  paragraph  (1),  a  tax 
equivalent  to  50  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  amount  of  such  excess. 

(3)  A  tax  equivalent  to  50  per 
cent,  of  the  amount  for  which  the 
proprietors,  managers,  or  em- 
ployees of  any  opera  house, 
theatre,  or  other  place  of  amuse- 
ment sell  or  dispose  of  tickets  or 
cards  of  admission  in  excess  of  the 
regular  or  established  price  or 
charge  therefor. 

(4)  In  the  case  of  persons  hav- 
ing the  permanent  use  of  boxes  or 
seats  in  an  opera  house,  or  any 
place  of  amusement  6r  a  lease  for 


l&evenue  Act,  1936 


3 


Revenue  Act,  19:36 


the  use  of  such  box  or  seat  in  such 
opera  house  or  place  of  amuse- 
ment, in  heu  of  the  tax  imposed 
by  paragraph  (1),  a  tax  equiva- 
lent to  10  per  cent,  of  the  amount 
for  which  a  similar  box  or  seat  is 
sold  for  each  performance  or  ex- 
hibition at  which  the  box  or  seat 
is  used  or  reserved  by  or  for  the 
lessee  or  holder,  sucla  tax  to  be 
paid  by  the  lessee  or  holder. 

(5)  A  tax  of  Ij^  cents  for  each 
10  cents  or  fraction  thereof  of  the 
amount  paid  for  admission  to  any 
public  performance  for  profit  at 
any  roof  garden,  cabaret,  or  other 
similar  entertainment,  to  which 
the  charge  for  admission  is  wholly 
or  in  part  included  in  the  price 
paid  for  refreshment,  service,  or 
merchandise;  the  amount  paid 
for  such  admission  to  be  deemed 
to  be  20  per  cent,  of  the  amount 
paid  for  refreshment,  service,  and 
merchandise;  such  tax  to  be  paid 
by  the  person  paying  for  such  re- 
freshment, service,  or  merchan- 
dise. Where  the  amount  paid 
for  admission  is  50  cents  or  less, 
no  tax  shall  be  imposed. 

Exemptions  from  this  tax  in- 
clude: 

(1)  Any  admissions,  all  the 
proceeds  of  which  inure  (A)  ex- 
clusively to  the  benefit  of  re- 
ligious, educational,  or  charitable 
institutions,  societies,  or  organ- 
izations, societies  for  the  preven- 
tion of  cruelty  to  children  or  ani- 
mals, or  societies  or  organizations 
conducted  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
maintaining  symphony  orches- 
tras and  receiving  substantial 
support  from  voluntary  contribu- 
tions, or  of  improving  any  city, 
town,  village,  or  other  munici- 
pality, or  of  maintaining  a  co- 
operative or  community  centre 
moving-picture  theatre — if  no 
part  of  the  net  earnings  thereof 
inures  to  the  benefit  of  any  pri- 
vate stockholder  or  individual; 
or  (B)  exclusively  to  the  benefit 
of  persons  in  the  military  or  naval 
forces  of  the  United  States;  or 
(C)  exclusively  to  the  benefit  o^ 
persons  who  have  served  in  such 
forces,  and  are  in  need;  or  (D) 
exclusively  to  the  benefit  of 
National  Guard  organizations, 
Reserve  Officers'  associations  or 
organizations,  posts  or  organiza- 
tions of  war  veterans,  or  auxil- 
iary units  or  societies  of  any  such 
posts  or  organizations,  if  such 
posts,  organizations,  units  or 
societies  are  organized  in  the 
United  States  or  any  of  its  pos- 
sessions, and  if  no  part  of  their 
net  earnings  inures  to  the  benefit 
of  any  private  stockholder  or  in- 
dividual; or  (E)  exclusively  to 
the  benefit  of  members  of  the 
police  or  fire  department  of  any 
city,  town,  village,  or  other  mu- 
nicipality, or  the  dependents  or 
heirs  of  such  members. 

(2)  Any  admissions  to  agri- 
cultural fairs  if  no  part  of  the  net 
earnings  thereof  inures  to  the 


benefit  of  any  stockholders  or 
members  of  the  association  con- 
ducting the  same,  or  admissions 
to  any  exhibit,  entertainment,  or 
other  pay  feature  conducted  by 
such  association  as  part  of  any 
such  fair — if  the  proceeds  there- 
from are  used  exclusively  for  the 
improvement,  maintenance,  and 
operation  of  such  agricultural 
fairs. 

There  shall  be  levied,  assessed, 
collected,  and  paid,  in  lieu  of  the 
taxes  imposed  by  the  Revenue 
Act  of  1924,  a  tax  equivalent  to 
10  per  cent,  of  any  amount  paid, 
(a)  as  dues  or  membership  fees 
(where  the  dues  or  fees  of  an 
active  resident  annual  member 
are  in  excess  of  $10  per  year)  to 
any  social,  athletic,  or  sporting 
club  or  organization;  or  (b)  as 
initiation  fees  to  such  a  club  or 
organization,  if  such  fees  amount 
to  more  than  $10,  or  if  the  dues 
or  membership  fees  (not  includ- 
ing initiation  fees)  of  an  active 
resident  annual  member  are  in 
excess  of  $10  per  year;  such  taxes 
to  be  paid  by  the  person  paying 
such  dues  or  fees:  Provided,  that 
there  shall  be  exempted  from  the 
provisions  of  this  section  all 
amounts  paid  as  dues  or  fees  to  a 
fraternal  society,  order,  or  as- 
sociation operating  under  the 
lodge  system  or  to  any  local  fra- 
ternal organization  among  the 
students  of  a  college  or  univer- 
sity. 

Excise  Taxes. — There  shall  be 
levied,  assessed,  collected,  and 
paid  upon  the  following  articles 
sold  or  leased  by  the  manufac- 
turer, producer,  or  importer,  a 
tax  equivalent  to  the  following 
percentage  of  the  price  for  which 
so  sold  or  leased: 

(1)  Automobile  chasses  and 
bodies  and  motor  cycles  (includ- 
ing tires,  inner  tubes,  parts,  and 
accessories  therefor  sold  on  or  in 
connection  therewith  or  with  the 
sale  thereof),  except  automobile 
truck  chasses  and  bodies,  auto- 
mob  le  wagon  chasses  and  bodies, 
and  tractors,  3  per  cent.  A  sale 
or  lease  of  an  automobile  shall, 
for  the  purposes  of  this  subdivi- 
sion, be  considered  to  be  a  sale 
of  the  chassis  and  of  the  body. 

(2)  Pistols  and  revolvers,  ex- 
cept those  sold  for  the  use  of  the 
United  States,  any  State,  Terri- 
tory, or  possession  of  the  United 
States,  any  political  subdivision 
thereof,  or  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, 10  per  cent. 

If  any  manufacturer,  producer, 
or  importer  of  any  of  the  articles 
enumerated  in  this  section  cus- 
tomarily sells  such  articles  both 
at  wholesale  and  at  retail,  the  tax 
in  the  case  of  any  article  sold  by 
him  at  retail  shall  be  computed 
on  the  price  for  which  like  articles 
are  sold  by  him  at  wholesale. 

Special  Taxes. -^On  and  after 
July  1.  1926,  there  shall  be  levied, 
collected,  and  paid  in  lieu  of  the 


tax  imposed  by  the  Revenue  Act 
of  1924,  a  special  excise  tax  of 
$1,000,  in  the  case  of  every  per- 
son carrying  on  the  business  of  a 
brewer,  distiller,  wholesale  liquor 
dealer,  retail  liquor  dealer,  whole- 
sale dealer  in  malt  liquor,  retail 
dealer  in  malt  liquor,  or  manu- 
facturer of  stills,  as  defined  in 
section  3244  as  amended  and 
section  3247  of  the  Revised 
Statutes,  in  any  State,  Territory, 
or  District  of  the  United  States, 
contrary  to  the  laws  of  such 
State,  Territory,  or  District,  or 
any  place  therein  in  which  carry- 
ing on  such  business  is  prohib- 
ited by  local  or  municipal  law. 
The  payment  of  the  tax  imposed 
by  this  section  shall  not  be  held 
to  exempt  any  person  from  any 
penalty  or  punishment  provided 
for  by  the  laws  of  any  State, 
Territory,  or  District  for  carry- 
ing on  such  business  in  such 
State,  Territory,  or  District,  or 
in  any  manner  to  authorize  the 
commencement  or  continuance 
of  such  business  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  such  State,  Territory,  or 
District,  or  in  places  prohibited 
by  local  or  municipal  law. 

Any  person  who  carries  on  any 
business  or  occupation  for  which 
a  special  tax  is  imposed  by  this 
section,  without  having  paid  such 
special  tax.  shall,  besides  being 
liable  for  the  payment  of  such 
special  tax,  be  subject  to  the 
penalty  of  not  more  than  $1,000 
or  to  imprisonment  for  not  more 
than  one  year,  or  both. 

On  and  after  July  1,  1926,  and 
thereafter  on  July  1  in  each  year, 
and  also  at  the  time  of  the  orig- 
inal purchase  of  a  new  yacht  or 
other  boat  by  a  user,  if  on  any 
other  date  than  July  1,  there 
shall  be  levied,  assessed,  col- 
lected, and  paid,  in  lieu  of  the 
tax  imposed  by  the  Revenue  Act 
of  1924,  upon  the  use  of  yachts, 
pleasure  boats,  power  boats,  sail- 
ing boats,  and  motor  boats  with 
fixed  engines,  if  foreign  built  and 
if  of  over  5  net  tons  and  over  32 
feet  in  length,  not  used  exclu- 
sively for  trade,  fishing,  or  na- 
tional defence,  a  special  excise 
tax  to  be  based  on  each  such 
yacht  or  other  boat,  at  rates  as 
follows:  Yachts,  pleasure  boats, 
power  boats,  motor  boats  with 
fixed  engines,  and  sailing  boats, 
of  over  5  net  tons,  length  over 
32  feet  and  not  over  50  feet,  $2 
for  each  foot;  length  over  50 
feet,  and  not  over  100  feet,  $4 
for  each  foot;  length  over  100 
feet,  $8  for  each  foot. 

The  capital  stock  tax  levied  by 
previous  revenue  acts  was  re- 
pealed. 

On  or  before  July  1  of  each 
year  every  person  who  imports, 
manu^ctures,  produces,  com- 
pounds, sells,  deals  in,  dispenses, 
or  gives  away  opium  or  coca 
leaves,  or  any  compound,  manu- 
facture, salt,  derivative,  or  prep- 


VOL.  XL— Mar.  '26 


BeTenue  Act,  1936 


4 


BeTenue  Act,  1936 


aration  thereof,  shall  register 
with  the  collector  of  internal 
revenue  of  the  district  and  pay 
the  special  taxes  hereinafter  pro- 
vided: 

Importers,  manufacturers,  pro- 
ducers, or  compounders,  $24  per 
annum;  wholesale  dealers,  $12 
per  annum;  retail  dealers,  $6  per 
annum;  physicians,  dentists,  vet- 
erinary surgeons,  and  other  prac- 
titioners lawfully  entitled  to  dis- 
tribute, dispense,  give  away,  or 
administer  any  of  the  aforesaid 
drugs  to  patients  upon  whom 
they  in  the  course  of  their  profes- 
sional practice  are  in  attendance, 
$1  per  annum. 

There  shall  be  levied,  assessed, 
collected,  and  paid  upon  opium, 
coca  leaves,  or  any  compound, 
salt,  derivative,  or  preparation 
thereof,  produced  in  or  imported 
into  the  United  States,  and  sold,  or 
removed  for  consumption  or  sale, 
an  internal-revenue  tax  at  the 
rate  of  1  cent  per  ounce,  and  any 
fraction  of  an  ounce  in  a  package 
shall  be  taxed  as  an  ounce,  such 
tax  to  be  paid  by  the  importer, 
manufacturer,  producer,  or  com- 
pounder. 

Stamp  Taxes. — There  shall  be 
levied,  collected,  and  paid  the 
several  taxes  as  specified: 

(1)  On  bonds,  debentures,  or 
certificates  of  indebtedness  issued 
by  any  corporation,  and  all  in- 
struments issued  by  any  corpora- 
tion with  interest  coupons  or  in 
registered  form,  known  generally 
as  corporate  securities,  for  each 
$100  of  face  value  or  fraction 
thereof  5  cents,  every  renewal 
being  taxed  as  a  new  issue. 

(2)  On  each  original  issue, 
whether  on  organization  or  re- 
organization, of  certificates  of 
stock,  or  of  profits,  or  of  interest 
in  property  or  accumulations,  by 
any  corporation,  on  each  $100  of 
face  value  or  fraction  thereof,  a 
tax  of  5  cents,  provided  that 
where  a  certificate  is  issued  with- 
out face  value,  the  tax  shall  be  5 
cents  per  share,  unless  the  actual 
value  is  in  excess  of  $100  per 
share,  in  which  case  the  tax  shall 
be  5  cents  on  each  $100  of  actual 
value  or  fraction  thereof,  or  un- 
less the  actual  value  is  less  than 
$100  per  share,  in  which  case  the 
tax  shall  be  1  cent  on  each  $20 
of  actual  value,  or  fraction 
thereof. 

(3)  On  sales  or  agreements  to 
sell,  or  memoranda  of  sales  or 
deliveries  of,  or  transfers  of  legal 
title  to  shares  or  certificates  of 
stock,  profits,  interest  in  prop- 
erty, or  accumulations  in  any 
corporation,  or  to  rights  to  sub- 
scribe or  receive  such  shares  or 


certificates,  on  each  $100  of  face 
value  or  fraction  thereof,  a  tax 
of  2  cents;  and  where  such  shares 
of  stock  are  without  par  value,  2 
cents  on  the  transfer  or  sale  or 
agreement  to  sell  on  each  share. 

(4)  On  sales  of  produce  on  ex- 
change for  future  delivery,  for 
each  $100  in  value  of  the  mer- 
chandise covered  by  the  sale  a 
tax  of  1  cent,  and  for  each  addi- 
tional $100  or  fractional  part 
thereof  in  excess  of  $100,  1 
cent. 

(5)  On  passage  ticket,  one  way 
or  round  trip,  for  each  passenger, 
sold  or  issued  in  the  United  States 
for  passage  by  any  vessel  to  a 
port  or  place  not  in  the  United 
States,  Canada,  or  Mexico,  if 
costing  not  exceeding  $30,  $1; 
costing  more  than  $30  and  not 
exceeding  $60,  $3;  costing  more 
than  $60,  $5.  This  subdivision 
does  not  apply  to  passage  tickets 
costing  $10  or  less. 

(6)  On  every  pack  of  playing 
cards  containing  not  more  than 
fifty-four  cards,  manufactured  or 
imported,  and  sold,  or  removed 
for  consumption  or  sale,  a  tax  of 
10  cents  per  pack. 

(7)  On  each  policy  of  insur- 
ance, or  certificate,  binder,  cover- 
ing note,  memorandum,  cable- 
gram, letter,  or  other  instrument 
by  whatever  name  called  where- 
by insurance  is  made  or  renewed 
upon  property  within  the  United 
States  against  peril  by  sea  or  on 
inland  waters  or  in  transit  on 
land  or  by  fire,  lightning,  tor- 
nado, windstorm,  bombardment, 
invasion,  insurrection,  or  riot,  is- 
sued to  or  for  or  in  the  name  of  a 
domestic  corporation  or  partner- 
ship or  an  individual  resident  of 
the  United  States  by  any  foreign 
corporation  or  partnership  or  any 
individual  not  a  resident  of  the 
United  States,  when  such  policy 
or  other  instrument  is  not  signed 
or  countersigned  by  an  officer  or 
agent  of  the  insurer  in  a  State, 
Territory,  or  District  of  the 
United  States  within  which  such 
insurer  is  authorized  to  do  busi- 
ness, a  tax  of  3  cents  on  each 
dollar  or  fractional  part  thereof 
of  the  premium  charged;  policies 
of  re-insurance  shall  be  exempt. 

Tax  on  Distilled  Spirits  and 
Cereal  Beverages. — There  shall  be 
levied  and  collected  on  all  dis- 
tilled spirits  now  in  bond  or  that 
have  been  or  that  may  be  here- 
after produced  in  or  imported 
into  the  United  States,  in  lieu  of 
the  internal  revenue  taxes  now 
imposed  thereon  by  law,  an  in- 
ternal revenue  tax  at  the  follow- 
ing rates,  to  be  paid  by  the  dis- 
tiller or  importer  when  with- 


drawn, and  collected  under  the 
provisions  of  existing  law. 

(1)  Until  Jan.  1,  1927,  $2.20 
on  each  proof  gallon  or  wine  gal- 
lon when  below  proof  and  a  pro- 
portionate tax  at  a  like  rate  on 
all  fractional  parts  of  such  proof 
or  wine  gallon: 

(2)  On  and  after  Jan.  1,  1927, 
and  until  Jan.  1,  1928,  $1.65  on 
each  proof  gallon  or  wine  gallon 
when  below  proof  and  a  propor- 
tionate tax  at  a  like  rate  on  all 
fractional  parts  of  such  proof  or 
wine  gallon. 

(3)  On  and  after  Jan.  1,  1928, 
$1.10  on  each  proof  gallon  or 
wine  gallon  when  below  proof 
and  a  proportionate  tax  at  a  like 
rate  on  all  fractional  parts  of 
such  proof  or  wine  gallon. 

(4)  On  and  after  the  enact- 
ment of  the  Revenue  Act  of 
1926,  on  all  distilled  spirits  which 
are  diverted  to  beverage  pur- 
poses or  for  use  in  the  manufac- 
ture or  production  of  any  article 
used  or  intended  for  use  as  a 
beverage  there  shall  be  levied  and 
collected  a  tax  of  $6.40  on  each 
proof  gallon  or  wine  gallon  when 
below  proof,  and  a  proportionate 
tax  at  a  like  rate  on  all  fractional 
parts  of  such  proof  or  wine  gal- 
lon, to  be  paid  by  the  person  re- 
sponsible for  such  diversion.  If 
a  tax  at  the  rate  of  $2.20,  $1.65, 
or  $1.10  per  proof  or  wine  gallon 
has  been  paid  upon  such  distilled 
spirits,  a  credit  of  the  tax  so  paid 
shall  be  allowed  in  computing  the 
tax  imposed  by  this  paragraph. 

There  shall  be  levied,  assessed^ 
collected,  and  paid  upon  all  bev- 
erages derived  wholly  or  in  part 
from  cereals  or  substitutes  there- 
for, and  containing  less  than  one- 
half  of  1  per  cent,  of  alcohol  by 
volume,  sold  by  the  manufac- 
turer, producer,  or  importer,  a 
tax  of  one-tenth  of  1  cent  per 
gallon  or  fraction  thereof. 

Board  of  Tax  Appeals— The 
Board  of  Tax  Appeals,  composed 
of  16  members,  appointed  by  the 
President,  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate,  is  author- 
ized to  hear  and  decide  cases 
arising  under  the  law.  Its  de- 
cisions are  in  general  subject  to 
review  by  a  Circuit  Court  of 
Appeals  or  by  the  Court  of  Ap- 
peals of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

Publicity — The  provision  of 
the  Act  of  1924  authorizing  pub- 
licity of  tax  returns  is  repealed. 
Such  returns,  however,  constitute 
public  records,  open  to  inspection 
only  upon  order  of  the  President 
and  under  rules  and  regulations 
prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  and  approved  by  the 
President. 


Copyright,  1926,  by  Thomas  Nelson  &  Sons 
Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


Vol.  XI.— Mar.  '26 


Taxation  of  Land  Talues 


631 


Taxidermy 


Seligman,  Essays  in  Taxation 
(1923),  and  The  Shifting  and 
Incidence  of  Taxation  (1927)  ; 
H.  L.  Lutz,  Public  Finance 

(1930)  ;  W.  J.  Schultz,  Ameri- 
can Public  Finance  and  Taxation 

(1931)  ;  Sir  J.  C.  Stamp,  Ftm- 
daniental  Principles  of  Taxation 
(1921);  National  Industrial 
Conference  Board,  State  and 
Local  Taxation  of  Property 
(1930). 

Taxation  of  Land  Values. 

See  Single  Tax. 

Taxicab,  a  motor  cab 
equipped  with  a  Taximeter  (q.v.). 

Tax'idermy,  the  art  of  pre- 
paring and  preserving  the  skins 
of  birds  and  animals,  and  of  stuff- 
ing and  mounting  them  so  as  to 
reproduce,  as  closely  as  possible, 
the  living  forms.  It  is  prac- 
tically limited  to  back-boned  an- 
imals, the  invertebrate  animals 
being  dried  or  preserved  in  liquid, 
as  a  rule,  and  insects  being 
mounted  by  a  separate  process 
(see  Entomology). 

The  art  of  taxidermy  is  of  com- 
paratively recent  development, 
though  birds  were  mounted  in 
Amsterdam  as  early  as  1517,  and 
there  is  a  stuffed  rhinoceros  in  the 
Royal  Museum  of  Vertebrates  at 
Florence  dating  from  the  six- 
teenth century.  It  was  first  prac- 
tised in  England  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  when  the  Sloane 
collection,  the  nucleus  of  the 
British  Museum  collection,  was 
built  up.  The  art  has  attained  a 
high  standard  in  the  United 
States,  where  the  most  notable 
examples  are  to  be  seen  at  the 
National  Museum  in  Washing- 
ton, the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History  in  New  York 
City,  and  the  Field  Museum  in 
Chicago,  in  all  of  which  places 
groups  of  birds  and  animals,  won- 
derfully reproduced  in  their 
native  habitat,  are  to  be  found. 

In  skinning  a  specimen  for 
taxidermic  treatment,  great  pains 
should  be  taken  not  to  stretch 
the  skin,  and  to  disturb  the  fur, 
hair,  and  feathers  as  little  as 
possible.  The  skin  is  then  care- 
fully cleaned,  and  treated  with  a 
preservative  preparation.  Be- 
coeur's  arsenical  soap  (camphor, 
5  oz.;  white  arsenic,  2  lbs.;  white 
soap,  2  lbs.;  salts  of  tartar,  2  oz.; 
chalk,  4  oz.),  or  some  modifica 
tion  thereof,  is  most  commonly 
used  for  birds  and  small  mam- 
mals. Another  preserving  mix- 
ture is  composed  of  1  pound  of 
white  curd  soap,  3  pounds  of 
whiting,  iK  ounces  of  chloride  of 
lime,  and  1  ounce  of  tincture  of 
musk.  The  best  dry  preserva- 
tive is  said  to  be  a  pound  of 
burned  alum  and  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  saltpetre,  well  rubbed 
into  the  skin;  or  arsenical  soap 
followed  by  a  mixture  of  fine  salt 
and  powdered  alum  may  be  used. 
Feathers  and  furs  are  cleaned  by 
lightly  applying  benzine;  then 


dusting  on  plaster  of  Paris,  which 
is  afterward  shaken  out. 

In  preparing  birds,  the  skull 
and  larger  wing  and  leg  bones  are 
left  in  place.  When  the  skins  are 
to  be  put  away  in  cabinets,  the 
head,  neck,  and  body  are  filled 
with  tow,  the  skin  is  sewn  up,  and 


after  being  allowed  to  dry,  the 
specimen  is  stored  away  with  in- 
sect powder.  If  the  bird  is  to  be 
mounted,  its  body  measurements 
should  be  taken  before  skinning. 
On  a  piece  of  wire  not  quite  twice 
the  length  of  the  body  and  neck 
an  artificial  body  of  tow  is  con- 
structed, resembling  the  bird's 


body  in  shape  and  size.  The 
protruding  portion  of  the  wire 
serves  as  a  foundation  for  the 
neck.  After  the  inside  of  the  skin 
has  been  painted  with  the  pre- 
serving preparation,  the  false  or 
tow  body  is  enveloped  within  it, 
and  more  tow  or  cotton  is  thrust 


down  the  neck  and  throat  so  as 
to  entirely  fill  the  cavities  there. 
With  the  finest  forceps  the  eyelid 
skins  are  pulled  into  position,  the 
feathers  arranged,  and  cotton 
pulled  up  into  the  orbits,  so  as  to 
plump  out  the  depressions.  A 
wire  is  next  thrust  into  the  ball  of 
the  foot  and  up  alongside  the 

Vol.  XL— 32-M. 


The  Processes  and  Apparatus  of  Taxidermy 

A.  Removing  skin  from  tiger,  b.  Casting  body  of  tiger,  c.  Mannikin  for  tiger,  show- 
ing structure,  d.  Mannikin  for  tiger,  complete,  e.  Pigeon  being  skinned  through  opening 
under  wing.  f.  The  false  body.  g.  Completing  the  removal  of  the  skin.  h.  Set  up  to 
dry,  plumage  bound  down.  Tools:  o,  Skinning  knives;  6,  scalpel;  c,  brain  and  eye  scoop; 
d,  skin  scraper;  e,  steel  comb  for  furs,  etc.;  /,  shears;  g,  blunt-tipped  scissors;  h,  bone  drill; 
j,  pincers;  k,  long-nosed  pliers;  /,  calipe'-s;  m,  stuffers;  n,  brush  for  plumage,  etc.;  o,  tri- 
angular needle;  p,  piercers;  q.  modellers;  r,  triangular  file;  s,  awl;  t,  gouges. 


Taximeter 


632 


Taylor 


thigh  bone,  the  skin  being  turned 
back;  cotton  is  wound  round  the 
wire  and  bone  to  fill  out  the  leg; 
and  the  skin  is  then  returned. 

The  protruding  lower  ends  of 
the  wire  may  be  wound  round  the 
perch  the  bird  is  to  stand  on;  the 
upper  ends  are  pushed  through 
the  body  and  clinched  on  the  top, 
to  hold  the  structure  together. 
The  feathers  of  the  tail  are  spread 
upon  a  wire  which  goes  through 
each  feather;  and  the  wings  are 
also  held  in  position  by  wires,  one 
from  each  side  being  pushed 
from  above  diagonally  down  and 
through  the  skin  of  the  second 
joint.  A  touch  of  glue  to  the  eye- 
lids prepares  them  for  the  eyes, 
which  in  small  birds  may  be  black 
beads.  Before  mounting,  the 
specimen  should  be  left  for  a  day 
or  two  to  dry,  with  thread  wound 
loosely  over  the  whole  body.  In 
mounting  small  mammals,  much 
the  same  method  is  used. 

In  the  case  of  larger  mammals, 
modelling  instead  of  stuffing  is 
now  frequently  employed;  and  it 
is  regarded  as  the  only  proper 
method  for  mounting  large  ani- 
mals in  the  life-like  attitudes  suit- 
able for  museum  illustration  of 
their  habits  and  haunts.  A 
model  or  mannikin  of  the  animal 
is  made,  posed  as  in  life,  and  this 
is  covered  with  the  damp  skin, 
and  furnished  with  jaws,  palate, 
tongue,  and  lips,  exactly  repro- 
duced in  plastic  materials.  This 
method  may  also  be  employed 
for  fish  and  smaller  animals. 

See  Anatomical  Prepara- 
tions. Consult  W.  T.  Horna- 
day's  Taxidermy;  L.  L.  Pray's 
Taxidermy;  Rowley's  Taxidermy 
and  Museum  Exhibition  (1925). 

Tax'i  meter,  an  instrument 
which  mechanically  indicates  and 
registers  the  fare  to  be  paid  by 
persons  using  public  motor  cabs. 
It  is  secured  to  the  vehicle  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  passenger  can 
at  all  times  plainly  see  the 
amount  of  the  fare;  and  it  also 
adds  up  the  number  and  amount 
of  fares  received  by  the  driver 
in  the  course  of  a  day,  thus  serv- 
ing as  a  form  of  cash  register. 

The  registering  mechanism  of 
the  taximeter  is  made  to  corre- 
spond with  the  ordinances  in  ef- 
fect in  the  large  cities,  fixing  the 
rates  of  taxicab  hire.  Generally, 
there  is  an  initial  charge  varying 
in  amount  according  to  local 
ordinances  which  entitles  the 
passenger  to  a  ride  of  a  quarter 
or  half  a  mile.  Attached  to  the 
instrument  is  a  sign  bearing  the 
words  'For  Hire'  or  'Vacant,' 
which  stands  upright  when  the 
cab  is  not  engaged ,  but  which  is 
moved  out  of  sight  as  soon  as  the 
cab  is  engaged.  This  movement 
both  records  the  initial  charge 
and  sets  the  mechanism  so  it  will 
begin  to  register  automatically 
when  the  first  amount  of  distance 
has  been  completed.  At  that 
Vol.  XI.— 32-M. 


point  a  driving  mechanism  con- 
nected with  one  of  the  front 
wheels  comes  into  action,  and 
moves  the  register  at  a  rate  cor- 
responding to  the  tariff  fixed. 

When  the  cab  is  engaged  but 
standing  idle,  the  registering 
drums  of  the  taximeter  are  moved 
by  clockwork.  This  clockwork  is 
running  all  the  time,  and  operates 
the  drums  through  a  pawl  and 
ratchet;  but  when  the  cab  is  un- 
der way  the  driving  mechanism 
turns  the  drums  faster  than  the 
clockwork  and  the  latter  is  there- 
fore inefi"ective.  The  charge  for 
waiting  time  varies  in  different 
cities. 

In  New  York  City,  taximeters 
are  officially  inspected  by  the 
Bureau  of  Taximeter  Inspection. 
As  a  rule,  taximeters  are  not  sold, 
but  are  leased  by  the  manufac- 
turers to  operating  companies, 

Taxodium,  tak-so'di-um,  a 
genus  of  valuable  American  trees 
of  the  Coniferae  (q.v.),  or  pine 
family,  embracing  two  principal 
species,  the  Red  or  Bald  Cypress 
(T.  distichum),  the  timber  of 
which  is  used  for  building  pur- 
poses, and  the  Mexican  Cypress 
(T.  mucronatum).  T.  hetero- 
phyllum,  the  Chinese  Embossed 
Cypress,  grows  to  a  height  of  only 
ten  or  twelve  feet. 

Tax' us,  a  genus  of  evergreen 
trees  of  the  Coniferae  (q.v.),  or 
pine  family.  They  bear  dioecious 
flowers,  the  female  catkins  being 
followed  by  solitary,  one-seeded 
fruit.  The  principal  species  is  T. 
baccata,  the  common  Yew.  T. 
minor  is  the  American  Yew  or 
Ground  Hemlock;  T.  cuspidata, 
the  Japanese  Yew;  T.  globosa,  the 
Mexican  Yew.    See  Yew. 

Tay,  river  and  firth  of  Scot- 
land, flowing  into  the  North  Sea, 
rises  in  Ben  Lui  (3,708  feet)  at 
the  Argyllshire  extremity  of  the 
Grampians,  flows  through  Perth- 
shire, and  as  a  firth  between  For- 
farshire and  Fifeshire.  Its  tribu- 
taries on  the  left  bank  are  the 
Tummel  and  the  Isla,  and  on  the 
right  bank  the  Braan,  Almond, 
and  Earn.  Its  course  is  distin- 
guished by  expansive  lochs — Do- 
chart,  Tay,  Lydoch,  Rannoch, 
and  Tummel.  The  total  length 
is  118  miles,  of  which  the  last  25 
miles  form  the  firth.  At  Dundee 
it  is  crossed  by  the  Tay  Bridge. 
The  basin  covers  2,400  square 
miles.  The  river  is  navigable  to 
Perth  but  navigation  to  Dundee, 
the  chief  port,  is  much  hindered 
by  sandbanks.  The  Tay  is  fa- 
mous for  its  salmon  fishing. 

Tayabas,  ta-ya'bas,  province, 
Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  oc- 
cupying a  peninsula  on  the 
south,  which  is  separated  from 
the  great  southeastern  peninsula 
by  the  Gulf  of  Ragay;  area  2,250 
square  miles;  dependent  islands, 
84  square  miles.  The  province 
is  mountainous,  with  many  small 
streams.   The  cocoanut  is  grown. 


over  large  areas.  Forest  products, 
which  include  pitch,  tar,  resin, 
cabo  negro,  and  wax,  are  shipped 
in  large  quantities  to  foreign 
countries  and  the  valleys  pro- 
duce cereals,  rice,  sugar-cane, 
and  coffee.  The  sapote,  papa- 
gat,  mangos  teen,  and  mango 
grow  luxuriantly.  Lucena,  the 
capital,  is  64  miles  southeast  of 
Manila.     Pop.   (1918)  212,017. 

Tayabas,  pueblo,  Luzon, 
Philippine  Islands,  in  Tayabas 
province,  65  miles  south  of 
Manila.  It  is  an  important 
centre  for  inland  and  coastwise 
trade.  Native  vessels  of  good 
size  are  built  here.  It  was  for- 
merly the  capital.  Pop.  (1918) 
14,983. 

Tayler,  John  James  (1797- 
1869),  English  Unitarian  divine, 
was  born  in  Newington  Butts, 
Surrey.  He  was  minister  of 
Mosley  Street  Chapel,  Manches- 
ter (1821-53);  and  in  1840  was 
appointed  professor  of  ecclesias- 
tical history  in  Manchester  Col- 
lege, becoming  its  principal  on 
its  removal  to  London  (1853). 
His  publications  include  A  Re- 
trospect of  the  Religious  Life  of 
England  (1845),  Christian  As- 
pects of  Faith  and  Duty  (1851); 
and  many  magazine  articles. 

Taylor,  borough,  Pennsylvania, 
in  Lackawanna  County,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Lackawanna  River 
and  on  the  Central  of  New  Jer- 
sey, the  Delaware,  Lackawanna 
and  Western  and  the  Delaware 
and  Hudson  Railroads;  3  miles 
southwest  of  Scranton.  It  is 
engaged  chiefly  in  the  mining  of 
anthracite  coal  and  the  making  of 
silk.  The  Taylor  Hospital  is  a 
feature  of  the  place.  The  place 
was  first  settled  about  1810.  The 
borough  was  incorporated  in 
1893.  Pop.  (1910)9,060;  (1920) 
9,876;  (1930)  10,428. 

Taylor,  town,  Texas,  in  Wil- 
liamson County,  on  the  Inter- 
national and  Great  Northern 
and  the  Missouri,  Kansas  and 
Texas  Railroads;  30  miles  north- 
east of  Austin.  Railroad  repair 
shops  of  the  International  and 
Great  Northern  Railroad  are 
situated  here.  The  leading  in- 
dustries are  the  raising  of  live- 
stock, cotton-growing,  and  the 
manufacture  of  cottonseed  oil 
and  ice.  A  new  city  hall,  an 
opera  house,  and  the  Fair  Associ- 
ation buildings  and  grounds  are 
features  of  the  place.  The  first 
settlement  here  was  made  about 
1880.  Pop.  (1910)  5,314;  (1920) 
5,965;  (1930)  7,463. 

Taylor,  Alfred  Swaine  (1806- 
80),  English  medical  jurist,  was 
born  in  Northfleet,  Kent.  In 
1831  he  became  professor  of 
medical  jurisprudence  at  Guy's 
Hospital,  holding  the  chair  till 
1877.  His  servicec  were  much 
in  demand  in  criminal  cases, 
of  which  the  chief  was  the  Palmer 
poisoning  case.     He  published 


JAN  1  4  m2 


Taylor 


KFK 


634 


Taylor 


A  Manual  of  Medical  jurispru- 
dence (1844),  The  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Medical  Jurispru- 
dence (1865),  both  of  which  went 
through  many  editions;  Poisons 
in  Relation  to  Medical  Jurispru- 
dence and  Medicine  (1848),  On 
Chemistry  (1863). 

Taylor,  (  James)  ,  Bayard  (1825- 
78),  American  author  and  jour- 
nahst,  was  born  in  Kennett 
Square,  Chester  County,  Pa.,  a 
direct  descendant  of  Robert 
Taylor,  one  of  WilHam  Penn's 
company.  He  was  brought  up 
in  Quaker  behefs  and  was  edu- 
cated at  local,  common,  and  high 
schools.  He  was  a  great  reader 
from  childhood,  had  a  remark- 
able faculty  for  memorizing,  and 
began  to  write  at  the  age  of 
fourteen.  Two  years  afterwards 
his  first  printed  poem  appeared 
in  the  Philadelphia  Saturday 
Evening  Post,  and  in  1842  he  was 
apprenticed  to  a  printer  in  West 
Chester.  Meanwhile,  he  had 
acquired  a  knowledge  of  Latin, 
French,  and  Spanish,  to  which 
he  now  added  German.  His 
contributions  to  the  Post  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Rufus 
W.  Griswold,  who  befriended  the 
young  poet,  and  advised  him  as 
to  the  publication  of  his  first 
book,  Ximena;  or.  The  Battle  of 
the  Sierra  Morena,  and  Other 
Poems  (1844).  In  1844-5  he 
took  a  walking  tour  through 
England,  Germany,  Italy,  and 
France,  which  he  described  and 
published  in  book  form  as  Views 
Afoot;  or,  Europe  Seen  with 
Knapsack  and  Staff  (1846).  He 
next  published  Rhymes  of  Travel 
(1848),  having  meanwhile  se- 
cured a  position  on  the  New  York 
Tribune,  which  paper  commis- 
sioned him  to  describe  the  gold- 
rush  to  California  in  1849.  His 
letters  were  collected  as  Eldorado; 
or,  A  dventures  in  the  Path  of  Em- 
pire (1850).  From  1851  to  1853 
he  was  occupied  in  travelling 
around  the  world  as  correspon- 
dent, accompanying  Commodore 
Perry's  expedition  to  Japan,  and 
in  1855  published  A  Visit  to 
India,  China,  and  Japan.  In 
1862-3  he  was  secretary  of  lega- 
tion, and  for  a  time,  charge 
d'affaires  at  St.  Petersburg,  and 
was  instrumental  in  securing 
Russian  sympathy  for  the  Fed- 
eral government  in  the  Civil  War. 
In  April,  1878,  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  Germany. 

Taylor  was  a  voluminous  and 
versatile  writer.  His  books  of 
travel  include  The  Lands  of  the 
Saracen  (1854),  Northern  Travel 
(1857),  Byways  of  Europe  (1869), 
and  Egypt  and  Iceland  in  the 
Year  187 Jf.  Among  his  books  of 
verse  not  previously  mentioned 
are  Poems  of  Home  and  Travel 
(1855),  The  Poet's  Journal  (1862), 
The  Picture  of  St.  John  (1866), 
The  Masque  of  the  Gods  (1872), 
Lars:    a    Pastoral    of  Norway 


(1873)  ,  The  Prophet:  a  Tragedy 

(1874)  ,  Home  Pastorals  (1875), 
and  Prince  Deukalion;  A  Lyrical 
Drama  (1878).  His  Home  Pas- 
torals contains  a  number  of  his 
favorite  idyls  of  southern  Penn- 
sylvania life  among  the  Quakers. 
He  also  published  four  novels, 
Hannah  Thurston  (1863),  John 
Godfrey's  Fortunes  (1864),  The 
Story  of  Kennett  (1866),  and 
Joseph  and  His  Friend  (1870). 

(Consult  the   following :  Life 


Courtesy  Columbia  Bioiulcasting  S-ystem 
DEEMS  TAYLOR 

and  Letters  of  Bayard  Taylor, 
edited  by  Marie  Hansen-Taylor 
and  Horace  E.  Scudder,  Albert 
H.  Smyth's  Bayard  Taylor,  On 
Two  Continents:  Memories  of 
Half  a  Century,  by  M.  H.  Taylor 
and  Lilian  B.  Taylor  Kiliani; 
Stedman's  Poets  of  America. 

Taylor,  Benjamin  Franklin 
(1819-87),  American  journalist 
and  author,  was  born  in  Low- 
ville,  N.  Y.  He  removed  to 
Chicago  in  1845,  where  for  20 
years  he  was  a  member  of  the 
staflf  of  the  Evening  Journal  for 
which  during  the  Civil  War  he 
wrote  a  series  of  letters  from  the 
front.  In  later  years  he  was  a 
popular  lecturer.  He  published 
a  novel,  Theophilus  Trent  (1887), 
and  many  popular  poems. 

Taylor,  Brook  (1685-1731), 
English  mathematician,  was  born 
in  Edmonton,  Middlesex.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge  and 
in  1712  was  admitted  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  serving  as 
its  first  secretary  (1714-8).  His 
publications  include  Methodus  In- 
crementorum  Directa  et  Inversa 
(1715),  the  first  treatise  to  deal 
definitely  with  the  calculus  of 
finite  differences;  Linear  Per- 
spective (1715);  Contemplatio  Phi- 
losophica  (1793),  published  by 
his  grandson,  Sir  William  Young, 
with  a  biographical  preface. 

Taylor,  Charles  Fayette 
(1827-99),  American  surgeon, 
was  born  in  Williston,  Vt.  He  was 
graduated  m.d.  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  Vermont  in  1856,  visited 
London  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  surgical  methods  known 


as  the  'Swedish  movement'  and 
in  1857  began  to  practise  surgery 
in  New  York  City.  He  special- 
ized in  the  treatment  of  the 
crippled  and  deformed  by  means 
of  the  Swedish  system,  and  meet- 
ing with  great  success  founded 
the  New  York  Orthopedic  Dis- 
pensary. For  many  years  he 
acted  as  managing  surgeon  of 
that  institution,  and  improved 
surgical  methods  for  the  treat- 
ment of  deformities.  His  splint 
method  in  treating  spinal  dis- 
eases has  had  many  beneficial 
results.  His  works  include  The 
Theory  and  Practice  of  the 
Movement  Cure  (1861)  ;  The 
Mechanical  Treatment  of  Pott's 
Disease  (1865)  ;  and  On  the  Me- 
chanical Treatment  of  Diseases 
of  the  Hip  Joint  (1873). 

Taylor,  Charles  Jay  (1855- 
1929),  American  artist  and  il- 
lustrator, was  born  in  New  York 
City,  and  was  a  pupil  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy  and  of  the  Art 
Students'  League.  After  two 
years  in  Paris,  he  settled  in  New 
York  and  devoted  himself  chiefly 
to  illustrations,  doing  the  work 
for  The  Tailor-made  Girl 
(1884),  Runner's  Short  Sixes, 
and  Poems  with  Music,  and 
other  books.  For  many  years  he 
was  head  of  the  Painting  and 
Illustration  Department  of  the 
Carnegie  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy, and  received  various  medals 
for  his  services  in  the  arts.  He 
was  a  prolific  contributor  to 
Puck,  Life,  Judge,  and  London 
Punch. 

Taylor,  (Joseph)  Deems 
(1885-  ),  American  compos- 
er, was  born  in  New  York  City. 
He  was  graduated  from  New 
York  University,  studied  har- 
mony under  Oscar  Coon  and  aft- 
er various  editorial  positions  be- 
came associate  editor  of  Collier's 
Weekly  (1917-9).  Since  1936 
he  has  been  consultant  on  music 
of  the  Columbia  Broadcasting 
System.  His  Siren  Song  won 
the  National  Federation  of  Mu- 
sic Clubs  prize  in  1912  and  his 
cantata  The  Chambered  Nautilus 
was  produced  by  the  Schola 
Cantorum  in  1916.  In  1928  he 
received  a  gift  of  $5,000  from 
the  Julliard  School  of  Music  in 
recognition  of  his  work  as  a 
composer  and  his  efforts  towards 
the  encouragement  of  American 
music.  Other  works  include 
The  Highwaymen,  a  cantata ; 
incidental  music  for  Liliom, 
Will  Shakespeare,  Beggar  on 
Horseback  and  Casanova; 
Through  the  Looking  Glass, 
The  King's  Henchman,  an  opera 
for  which  Edna  St.  Vincent  Mil- 
lay  wrote  the  libretto,  and  Peter 
Ibbctson,  an  opera  based  on  Du 
Maurier's  novel. 

Taylor,  Edward  Thompson 


Taylor 


KFK 


Taylor 


( 1793-1 871),  American  itinerant 
preacher,  was  born  in  Richmond, 
Va.,  and  becoming  an  orphan  in 
infancy,  he  was  led  off  from 
those  in  charge  of  him  by  a  sea- 
captain,  when  seven  years  old, 
and  became  a  sailor.  He  was 
converted  to  the  M.  E.  faith  in 
1811,  while  ashore  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  by  Bishop  Elijah  Red- 
ding, then  in  charge  of  a  small 
chapel  in  that  city.  The  same 
year  he  took  service  in  the 
Black  Hawk,  a  privateer,  was 
captured  by  the  British,  and  con- 
fined at  Halifax  and  afterward 
in  Dartmoor  prison  as  a  prisoner 
of  war.  While  in  prison  he  was 
invited  by  his  shipmates  to  act 
as  their  chaplain,  and  began  his 
preaching,  in  this  way,  before 
he  was  able  to  read.  After  his 
return  he  was  licensed  to  preach 
by  the  quarterly  conference  at 
Boston  in  1814,  and,  after  some 
time  passed  as  a  tin  peddler,  be- 
gan regular  work  as  a  preacher 
at  Saugus,  Mass.,  in  1815,  work- 
ing a  farm  there,  and  holding 
meetings  in  the  house  belonging 
to  it.  Meanwhile  he  was  educat- 
ing himself,  and  he  attracted 
much  attention  in  nearby  towns, 
his  oratorical  effects  being  star- 
tling, even  for  a  shouting  Method- 
ist, and  all  the  more  appreci- 
ated for  the  nautical  similes  he 
was  accustomed  to  use.  In  1817 
he  was  sent  to  Newmarket  Semi- 
nary for  a  few  weeks,  but  he 
found  the  discipline  irksome,  re- 
turned to  Saugus  and  resumed 
his  preaching.  In  1819  he  was 
put  in  charge  of  the  chapel  at 
Marblehead,  joined  the  New 
England  Conference,  and  la- 
bored in  the  Scituate  and  other 
Mass.  and  R.  I.  circuits  until 
1829,  when  he  was  placed  in 
charge  of  a  chapel  assigned  for 
work  among  the  sailors  in  Bos- 
ton. The  Methodists,  not  being 
able  to  afford  the  expense  of  this 
Bethel  Mission,  Father  Taylor, 
as  he  was  called,  raised  money 
in  the  South  for  the  purchase  of 
the  chapel,  and  when  the  increas- 
ing fame  of  its  services  required 
a  larger  edifice,  funds  were  sub- 
scribed by  Unitarian  merchants 
of  Boston,  and  the  Bethel  in 
North  Square  was  built  in  1833. 
The  organizations  in  control  of 
the  work,  the  Boston  Port  and 
Seamen's  Aid  Societies,  also 
erected  a  home  for  seamen  called 
the  Mariners'  House,  in  1847. 
Father  Taylor  remained  in 
charge  until  he  resigned  in  1868. 
He  visited  Europe  in  1832  and 
Palestine  in  1842.  Father  Tay- 
lor was  a  friend  of  Emerson 
from  his  early  days,  and  stopped 
at  his  house  when  preaching  in 
Concord.  See  Life  of  Father 
Taylor,  including  Bishop  Haven 
and  Judge  Russell's  Life,  and 
essays  by  Bartol  and  Walt  Whit- 
man (Boston,  1904)  and  R.  W. 


Emerson  in  Atlantic  Monthly 
(Aug.,  1906). 

Taylor,  George  (1716-81), 
American  manufacturer,  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, born  in  Ireland.  Although 
of  good  family,  he  emigrated  to 
America  as  a  redemptioner  in 
1736,  was  bound  out  to  a  manu- 
facturer at  Durham,  Pa.,  whose 
widow  he  subsequently  married. 
He  became  a  successful  iron 
manufacturer,  was  a  member  of 
the  provincial  assembly  in  1764- 
70  and  member  of  the  Continen- 
tal Congress  in  1776-77. 

Taylor,HANNis  (1851-1922), 
American  lawyer,  born  at  New- 
bern,  N.  C.  He  attended  the 
University  of  North  Carolina. 
In  1892  he  became  professor  of 
constitutional  and  international 
law  at  Columbia  University, 
and  from  1893  to  1897  was  min- 
ister to  Spain.  Among  his  pub- 
lications are  :  Origin  and  Grozuth 
of  the  English  Constitution  (2 
vols.  1889^98),  and  Interna- 
tional Public  Law. 

Taylor,  Sir  Henry  (1800- 
86),  English  dramatist  and  es- 
sayist, was  born  at  Bishop  Mid- 
dleham,  Durham,  and  appointed 
in  1824  to  a  clerkship  in  the  Co- 
lonial Office,  from  which  he  re- 
tired in  1872.  In  1869  he  was 
created  k.c.m.g.  Taylor  wrote 
four  tragedies — Isaac  Comnenus 
(1827);  Philip  van  Artevelde 
(1834),  an  admirable  closet 
drama;  Edwin  the  Fair  (1842)  ; 
St.  demerit's  Eve  (1862).  A 
comedy.  The  Virgin  Widow,  or 
a  Sicilian  Slimmer,  appeared  in 
1850.  Lyrical  Poems  were  pub- 
lished in  1845,  and  The  Eve  of 
the  Conquest  and  Other  Poems  in 
1847.  His  Notes  from  Books 
(1849)  contains  skilful  disserta- 
tions on  the  poetry  of  Words- 
worth and  Aubrey  de  Vere.  An 
edition  of  Taylor's  works  ap- 
peared in  five  volumes  (1878). 
Taylor's  Autobiography  (2  vols. 
1885)  is  charming.  See  also  his 
Correspondence  (1888),  edited 
by  Dowden. 

Taylor,  Henry  Clay  (1845- 
1904),  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  Washington,  D.  C.  He 
graduated  at  Annapolis  in  1863, 
and  had  active  service  in  the 
Civil  War,  taking  part  in  the 
battle  of  Mobile  Bay.  He  be- 
came lieutenant-commander  in 
1868,  commander  in  1879,  cap- 
tain in  1894,  and  in  1898  com- 
manded the  Indiana  during  the 
war  with  Spain,  taking  an  active 
part  in  the  bombardment  of  San 
Juan  and  the  battle  of  Santiago. 

Taylor,  Hobart  C.  Chat- 
field-  (1865-  ),  author,  was 
born  in  Chicago,  and  was  gradu- 
ated from  Cornell  University  in 
1886.  He  travelled  extensively 
and  was  widely  known  in  cul- 
tural circles  in  Europe.  In 
1892-94  he  served  Spain  as  Con- 


sul  at  Chicago.  He  received 
numerous  European  orders,  such 
as  the  Legion  of  Honor  and 
L'Instruction  Publique,  France ; 
Order  of  Saints  Maurice  and 
Lazarus  and  Order  of  the 
Crown,  Italy  ;  and  Order  of  Isa- 
bella the  Catholic,  Spain.  Mr. 
Chatfield-Taylor  was  also  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geograph- 
ical Society,  London.  His  pub- 
lications include  An  American 
Peeress  (1893)  ;  Two  Women 
and  a  Fool  (1895)  ;  The  Land 
of  the  Castanet  (1896)  ;  The 
Vice  of  Fools  (1898);  The 
Crimson  Wing  (1902)  ;  Moliere, 
A  Biography  (1906)  ;  Fame's 
Pathway  (1909)  ;  Goldoni,  A 
Biography  (1913)  ;  Cities  of 
Many  Men  (1925)  ;  Tawny 
Spain  (1927)  ;  and  Charmed 
Circles — A  Pageant  of  the  Ages 
from  Aspasia's  Day  to  Ours 
(1935). 

Taylor,  Isaac  (1759-1829), 
of  Ongar,  English  engraver  and 
author,  was  born  in  London.  He 
worked  as  an  engraver  until 
1796,  when  he  became  an  Inde- 
pendent minister  at  Colchester, 
and  at  Ongar  (1810).  The  As- 
sassination of  Rizzio,  after  Opie, 
is  among  his  best  engravings. 
His  writings  include  Self-Culti- 
vation Recommended  (1817), 
Scenes  in  England,  in  America, 
etc.,  Beginnings  of  British  Bi- 
ography (1824).  See  I.  Tay- 
lor's Memorials  of  the  Taylor 
Family  of  Ongar  (1867). 

Taylor,  Isaac  (1787-1865), 
English  artist,  author,  and  in- 
ventor, was  born  at  Labenham, 
Suffolk.  He  became  an  engrav- 
er, and  designed  many  plates  for 
his  father  and  the  books  of  his 
sister.  His  chief  writings  are 
The  Taylors  of  Ongar  (1867); 
Natural  History  of  Enthusiasm 
(1829,  published  in  the  U.  S. 
in  1830;  10th  ed.,  London, 
1845);  Saturday  Evening 
(1832),  a  devotional  work  that 
went  through  many  editions  in 
the  U.  S.  and  England ;  Hame 
Education  (1838).  He  received 
the  degree  of  ll.d.  from  the 
University  of  the  City  of  New 
York  in  1862.  See  Taylor's 
Personal  Recollections  (1864). 

Taylor,  _  Isaac  (1829-1901), 
English  divine,  was  born  at 
Stanford  Rivers,  Essex,  and 
was  a  son  of  the  author  of  His- 
tory of  Enthusiasm.  He  became 
rector  of  Settrington  (1875)  and 
canon  of  York  (1885).  Among 
his  best  known  works  are  Leaves 
from  an  Egyptian  Note  Book 
(1888),  Domesday  Survivals 
(1888),  The  Plough  Land  and 
the  Plough  (1888),  Wapentakes 
and  Hundreds  (1888),  The  Ori- 
gin of  the  Aryans  (1890), 
Names  and  Their  Histories 
(1896).  Canon  Taylor's  name 
was  much  spoken  of  in  connec- 
tion with  his  controversy  in  the 


Taylor 


KFK 


636 


Taylor 


Times  with  Canon  Maccoll  and 
Professor  Freeman. 

Taylor,  Isaac  Ebenezer 
(1812-89),  American  gynecolo- 
gist, born  in  Philadelphia.  He 
graduated  m.d.  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1834,  began 
practice  in  New  York  in  1839, 
and  in  1841  began  to  specialize 
in  the  diseases  of  women,  and 
became  attending  physician  to 
several  New  York  hospitals  de- 
voted to  that  branch  of  medici- 
nal treatment.  In  1851  he  was 
appointed  physician  to  Bellevue 
Hospital,  in  1861  was  instru- 
mental in  organizing  the  Belle- 
vue Hospital  Medical  School, 
and  became  the  first  professor  of 
obstetrics  in  the  school.  He 
founded  the  New  York  Medical 
Journal  in  1868,  and  for  many 
years  was  its  editor  and  general 
manager.  In  conjunction  with 
James  A.  Washington  he  intro- 
duced the  hypodermic  method  of 
treatment  by  morphia  and 
strychnia,  and  was  the  first 
American  physician  to  use  the 
speculum  in  diseases  of  women. 

Taylor,  Jane  (1783-1824), 
English  writer  for  the  young, 
was  born  in  London.  In  con- 
junction with  her  sister  Ann  she 
composed  Original  Poems 
(1804),  reprinted  in  the  United 
States,  and  Hymns  for  Infant 
Minds  (1810),  also  very  popular 
in  the  U.  S.  The  best  edition  of 
the  joint  works  is  that  of  1877. 
Other  works  are :  Display,  a 
Talc  (1815)  ;  Essays  in  Rhyme 
(1816).  See  I.  Taylor's  Mem- 
oirs and  Correspondence  of  Jane 
Taylor  (1825). 

Taylor,  Jeremy  (1613-67), 
Anglican  divine,  born  at  Cam- 
bridge. Laud  appointed  him  fel- 
low of  All  Souls  College,  Ox- 
ford, and  in  1638  he  was  pre- 
sented to  the  rectory  of  Upping- 
ham, Rutland.  In  1642  he  pub- 
lished Episcopacy  Asserted.  In 
1644  the  Presbyterians,  then 
dominant,  deprived  him  of  his 
living.  He  is  doubtfully  identi- 
fied with  a  Dr.  Taylor,  made 
prisoner  Feb.  4,  1644,  at  the  de- 
feat of  the  royalists  before  Car- 
digan Castle.  It  is  certain  that 
he  was  a  prisoner  in  Wales,  and, 
at  length  released,  became  a 
schoolmaster  in  Carmarthen- 
shire. In  1647,  three  years  aft- 
er Milton's  Areopagitica,  the  An- 
glican divine  published  his  Lib- 
erty of  Prophesying.  In  1649 
appeared  The  Life  of  Christ ;  or, 
The  Great  Exemplar,  which  is 
rather  an  eloquent  devotional 
commentary  than  a  systematized 
history.  Holy  Living  appeared 
in  1650,  and  Holy  Dying  in 
1651.  The  Golden  Grove,  a  de- 
votional book,  published  under 
the  Protectorate,  would  seem  to 
have  landed  Taylor  in  prison, 
probably  on  account  of  an  inju- 
dicious preface.    He  was  again 


imprisoned  in  Chepstow  Castle  ; 
on  what  account  is  uncertain. 
He  suffered  a  third  imprison- 
ment (1657-8)  through  the  in- 
discretion of  his  publisher.  In 
1655  his  Unum  Necessarium,  a 
discourse  on  repentance,  brought 
him  under  the  suspicion  of  Pela- 
gianism.  He  had  long  been  ma- 
turing his  Ductor  Dubitantinm, 
a  famous  work  of  casuistry,  but 
it  did  not  appear  until  1660.  At 
the  Restoration  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  see  of  Down  and 
Connor,  to  which  was  added  that 
of  Dromore.  Perhaps  of  all 
English  prose  writers  he  is  the 
most  poetic.  His  immense  and 
broad  learning  is  employed 
rather  to  illustrate  than  to  con- 
vince ;  his  quick  imagination 
sometimes  carries  him  away. 
The  best  Life  of  him  is  that  by 
Heber  (1822),  prefixed  to  the 
collected  edition  of  his  IV orks. 
A  Life,  by  Gosse,  was  published 
in  1904. 

Taylor,  John  (1580-1653), 
English  writer,  the  'Water-poet,' 
was  born  at  Gloucester.  He  be- 
came a  London  waterman,  but 
was  pressed  into  the  navy,  and 
was  present  at  the  siege  of 
Cadiz  (1596).  He  kept  a  pub- 
lic house  at  Oxford  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War  un- 
til 1645,  when  he  gave  it  up  for 
another  in  London.  Among  his 
works  are  The  Pennyles  Pilgrim- 
age (1618),  describing  a  jour- 
ney on  foot  from  London  to 
Edinburgh  ;  Travels  in  Germanic 
(1617),  The  Praise  of  Hemp- 
seed  (1620).  See  Spenser  So- 
ciety's ed.  of  his  Works  (1868- 
9). 

Taylor,  John  (1750-1824), 
American  legislator,  born  in  Or- 
ange CO.,  Va.  He  graduated  at 
William  and  Mary  College  in 
1770,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1792- 
94,  for  two  months  in  1803,  and 
from  1822  until  his  death.  In 
politics  he  w-as  a  strict  constrvic- 
tionist  and  Jeffersonian  Republi- 
can, and  in  1797  introduced  the 
celebrated  'Virginia  Resolu- 
tions.' Among  his  published 
works  are  :  An  Inquiry  into  the 
Principles  and  Policy  of  the 
Government  of  the  United  States 
(1814)  ;  Arator,  being  a  Series 
of  Agricultural  Essays,  Practi- 
cal and  Political  (6th  ed.  1818)  ; 
Construction  Construed  and  the 
Constitution  Vindicated  (1820); 
and  New  Views  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States  (1823). 

Taylor,  John  (1808-87), 
third  president  of  the  Mormon 
Church,  born  at  Milnthorp,  Eng- 
land. In  1832  he  emigrated  to 
Upper  Canada  ;  in  1836  was  con- 
verted to  Mormonism  by  Parley 
Pratt ;  was  ordained  a  high 
priest  in  1837  and  an  apostle  in 
1838,  and  in  1840  went  on  a  mis- 
sionary journey  to  England  and 


Scotland.  In  1844  he  was  shot 
three  times  by  the  mob  which 
killed  Joseph  Smith  in  the  Car- 
thage jail.  In  1847  he  again  made 
a  visit  to  England.  In  1849  he 
was  chosen  associate  judge  of 
Deseret,  and  in  the  same  year 
went  on  a  missionary  journey  to 
France  and  Germany.  He  was  a 
delegate  to  the  constitutional 
convention  in  1856  ;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  legislature  during 
1857-76,  and  was  speaker  of  the 
house  during  five  successive  ses- 
sions ;  and  in  1880  became  presi- 
dent of  the  church.  He  practised 
polygamy  and  had  seven  wives 
and  thirty-four  children,  and 
when  the  Edmunds  Law  of  1882 
was  passed,  counselled  the  Mor- 
mons not  to  obey  it.  In  1885,  to 
escape  arrest,  he  went  into  hid- 
ing and  remained  there  until  his 
death,  although  he  continued  se- 
cretly to  direct  the  affairs  of  the 
church. 

Taylor,  John  Lewis  (1769- 
1829),  American  jurist,  born  in 
London,  England.  When  twelve 
years  of  age  he  came  to  the 
United  States  ;  studied  for  a  time 
at  William  and  Mary  College ; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  set- 
tled at  Fayetteville,  N.  C.  In 
1798  he  became  a  judge  of  the 
superior  court,  in  1808  was  se- 
lected to  preside  over  the  ses- 
sions of  the  Supreme  Court,  and 
when  the  Supreme  Court  was 
reorganized,  became  chief  jus- 
tice, and  held  that  position  until 
his  death.  During  1817-21  he 
assisted  in  revising  the  laws  of 
the  State.  Among  his  publica- 
tions are  :  Cases  in  the  Superior 
Courts  of  Law  and  Equity  of  the 
State  of  North  Carolina  (1802)  ; 
The  North  Carolina  Repository 
(2  vols.  1814-16)  ;  and  Term 
Reports  (1818). 

Taylor,  Nathaniel  Wil- 
liam (1786-1858),  American 
clergyman,  born  at  New  Milford, 
Conn.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1807,  and  for  several 
years  acted  as  secretary  to  Presi- 
dent Dwight,  with  whom  he 
studied  theology.  He  was  pastor 
of  the  First  Church  of  New 
Haven,  continuing  in  1812-22, 
when  he  was  chosen  Dwight  pro- 
fessor of  didactic  theology  at 
Yale.  He  was  the  originator  and 
head  of  the  'New  Haven  The- 
ology,' which  sought  to  modify 
many  of  the  essential  doctrines 
of  Calvinism,  and  insisted  espe- 
cially on  the  freedom  of  the  will. 
His  views  were  published  in  the 
Christian  Spectator  (1819- 
1839),  and  they  were  opposed  by 
many  of  the  leading  theologians 
of  the  day.  He  was  a  strong, 
logical,  and  eloquent  preacher. 
His  works  were  edited  by  his 
son-in-law.  Dr.  Noah  Porter 
(1858). 

Taylor,  Philip  Meadows 
(1808-76),  Anglo-Indian  admin- 


dm  1 4  mi 


Taylor  KFK  637  Taylor 


istrator  and  novelist,  was  born 
in  Liverpool,  and  in  1826  en- 
tered the  Nizam  of  Hyderabad's 
service.  His  first  novel  was  The 
Confessions  of  a  Thug  (1839), 
and  he  acted  as  Times  corre- 
spondent from  1840  to  1853.  He 
administered  the  native  state  of 
Sherapur  from  1841  to  1853. 
He  returned  to  England  (1860), 
and  wrote  Tara:  a  Mahratta 
Tale  (1863),  Ralph  Darnell 
(1865),  Secta  (1873),  Tippoo 
SultauH  (1840),  and  The  Story 
of  My  Life  (ed.  1881). 

Taylor,  Richard  (Dick) 
(1826-79),  American  Confeder- 
ate soldier,  only  son  of  Zachary 
Taylor,  was  born  near  Louis- 
ville, Ky.  After  attending 
schools  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
and  in  France,  he  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1845  and  served  a  while 
as  secretary  for  his  father,  then 
commanding  the  army  near  the 
Rio  Grande.  He  was  state  sena- 
tor in  La.  from  1856  to  1861, 
and  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Charleston  and  Baltimore  Demo- 
cratic conventions  of  1860.  Aft- 
er the  secession  of  Louisiana  he 
went  to  Richmond  in  command 
of  the  Ninth  Louisiana  regiment 
of  infantry,  was  promoted  to 
brigadier-general,  and  served 
with  distinction  in  the  battles  of 
the  Shenandoah  campaign  under 
'Stonewall'  Jackson,  at  whose 
suggestion  he  was  promoted  to 
major-general  and  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  district  of  Louisi- 
ana, west  of  the  Mississippi. 
Here  he  organized  an  efficient 
army,  which  under  his  leadership 
gained  victory  after  victory,  the 
crowning  one  being  that  gained 
in  conjunction  with  Kirby  Smith 
at  Sabine  Cross  Roads,  April  8, 
1864,  which  achieved  the  defeat 
of  Banks's  formidable  Red  River 
expedition.  Taylor  was  next 
placed  in  command  of  the  De- 
partment of  Alabama  and  Mis- 
sissippi with  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant-general. The  Civil  War  had 
virtually  come  to  a  close  when 
Taylor  capitulated  to  General 
Canby,  at  Citronelle,  Ala.,  on 
May  4,  1865.  During  the  Re- 
construction period  he  was  of 
much  assistance  to  the  South. 
He  published  Destruction  and 
Reconstruction  (1879). 

Taylor,  Robert  (1911-  ), 
film  actor,  was  born  at  Filley, 
Neb.,  and  received  his  education 
at  Doane  College,  Crete,  Neb., 
and  at  Pomono  College,  Clare- 
mont,  Calif.  He  began  his  the- 
atrical career  in  1933  by  play- 
ing in  stock  companies  and  en- 
tered the  motion  picture  field 
with  Metro-Goldwin-Mayer  in 
1934.  He  married  Barbara 
Stanwyck  in  1939.  Among  his 
pictures  are  'A  Yank  at  Oxford' 
and  'Waterloo  Bridge.' 

Taylor,  Rowland  (d.  1  555), 
English  martyr,  born  at  Roth- 


bury,  Northumberland  ;  was  rec- 
tor of  Hadleigh,  Suffolk  (1544), 
archdeacon  of  Exeter  (1552), 
and  canon  of  Rochester  (1547)  ; 
was  imprisoned  as  a  heretic,  and 
burned  at  the  stake. 

Taylor,  Samuel  Coleridge. 
See  Coleridge-Taylor. 

Taylor,  Thomas  (1758- 
1835),  English  classical  scholar, 
called  'the  Platonist,'  was  born 
in  London.  He  held  a  bank 
clerkship,  but  after  1806  devoted 
all  his  time  to  study  and  trans- 
lations. The  latter  include  parts 
of  the  works  of  Plato,  Aristotle, 
Porphyry,  and  the  hymns  of 
Orpheus.    Consult  Life  by  Axon. 

Taylor,  Tom  (1817-80), 
English  dramatist,  was  born  at 
Bishop  Wearmouth.  He  was 
professor  of  English  at  Univer- 
sity College,  London,  in  1845-6, 
when  he  was  called  to  the  bar. 
From  1850  to  1872  he  was  as- 
sistant secretary  and  secretary 
to  the  Board  of  Health.  He  be- 
came editor  of  Punch  in  1874. 
His  best-known  plays  are :  To 
Parents  and  Guardians  (1845)  ; 
Masks  and  Faces  (with  Charles 
Reade,  1852)  ;  Our  American 
Cousin  (1858,  produced  in  New 
York  with  Laura  Keene,  Soth- 
ern,  and  Jefferson)  ;  Still  Wat- 
ers Run  Deep  (1855);  The 
Overland  Route  (1860)  ;  'Twixt 
Axe  and  Cro^vn  (1870);  The 
Ticket-of-Lcave  Man  (1863)  ; 
Joan  of  Arc  (1871);  Anne 
Boleyn  (1875). 

Taylor,  William  (1821- 
1902),  American  bishop,  was 
born  in  Rockbridge  county, 
Virginia.  He  became  an  itiner- 
ant preacher  in  1843,  and  after 
1849  was  a  missionary  in  Cali- 
fornia, Canada,  England  and  Ire- 
land, Palestine,  Australia,  and 
South  Africa.  From  1866  to 
1896  he  was  a  powerful  evange- 
lizing force  in  Ceylon,  India, 
South  America,  and  Central 
Africa.  His  most  important 
publications  are :  Seven  Years' 
Street  Preaching  in  San  Fran- 
cisco;  The  Model  Africa;  Chris- 
tian Adventures  in  South  Af- 
rica; Four  Years'  Campaign  in 
India;  Flaming  Torch  in  Dark- 
est Africa  ;  Story  of  My  Life. 

Taylor,  Zachary  (1784- 
1850),  American  soldier  and 
statesman,  the  twelfth  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born 
in  Orange  county,  Virginia,  on 
Nov.  24,  1784,  son  of  Col.  Rich- 
ard Taylor,  who  served  as  an 
army  officer  in  the  American 
Revolution.  Before  Zachary 
was  a  year  old  his  father  re- 
moved to  Kentucky,  where  he  be- 
came one  of  the  early  settlers  of 
Louisville.  The  boy's  childhood 
and  youth  were  passed  amid  the 
rough  surroundings  of  frontier 
life,  and  his  school  privileges 
were  necessarily  limited.  An 
elder  brother  in  the  army  hav- 


ing died  in  1808,  Zachary  was 
appointed  to  the  vacant  commis- 
sion of  first  lieutenant  of  the 
Seventh  Infantry,  and  served  in 
New  Orleans  until  attacked  by 
yellow  fever.  In  1810  he  be- 
came a  captain,  and  early  in 
1812  successfully  defended  Fort 
Harrison,  on  the  Wabash  River, 
against  a  band  of  hostile  Indians. 

Taylor  was  rewarded  with  a 
major's  commission,  and  during 
the  War  of  1812  he  had  several 
battles  with  the  Indians  on  the 
Western  frontier.  In  1822  he 
built  Fort  Jesup,  on  the  borders 
of  Louisiana;  in  1832  he  was 
promoted  to  colonel,  and  partici- 
pated with  credit  in  the  Black 
Hawk  War.  He  was  sent  to 
Florida  in  1836,  where  he  in- 
flicted a  severe  defeat  on  the 
Seminole  Indians  near  Lake 
Okeechobee.  For  this  service  he 
was  promoted  to  brigadier-gen- 
eral, becoming  commander  of  the 
Department  of  Florida  ;  and  was 
subsequently  transferred  to  the 
Western  Department,  with  head- 
quarters at  Baton  Rouge. 

When  Texas  was  annexed  in 
1845  its  western  boundary  was 
not  defined,  and  Mexico  still 
claimed  the  uninhabited  district 
between  the  Rio  Grande  and  the 
Nueces.  Taylor,  being  ordered 
to  defend  Texas  from  invasion, 
sailed  from  New  Orleans  to  Cor- 
pus Christi,  where  he  gathered 
a  force  of  4,000  regulars.  In 
March,  1846,  orders  came  from 
President  Polk  to  cross  the  Nue- 
ces, and  he  marched  to  the  Rio 
Grande  and  erected  Fort  Brown, 
opposite  the  Mexican  town  of 
Matamoros.  The  Mexicans  or- 
dered him  to  retire,  and  upon  his 
refusal  crossed  the  Rio  Grande 
to  drive  him  out.  The  Battles 
of  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la 
Palma  (qq.  v.)  on  May  8  and  9, 
1846,  drove  the  Mexicans  back, 
and  Taylor  followed  them  across 
the  Rio  Grande,  seizing  Mata- 
moros. Congress  declared  a 
state  of  war  to  exist ;  50,000 
volunteers  were  publicly  called 
for ;  and  Taylor  was  promoted 
to  major-general,  and  ordered  as 
soon  as  reinforced  to  invade  the 
territory  of  Mexico. 

In  September,  1846,  General 
Taylor  with  about  6,500  men  at- 
tacked the  city  of  Monterey, 
which  was  strongly  fortified  and 
defended  by  8,000  Mexican  reg- 
ulars and  3,000  militia  under 
General  Ampudia.  After  a  siege 
of  ten  days  and  three  days'  hard 
fighting  the  city  surrendered  on 
Sept.  24.  Most  of  Taylor's  reg- 
ulars were  then  transferred  to 
the  new  Vera  Cruz  expedition 
under  Gen.  W.  S.  Scott,  and 
Taylor  was  left  with  about  500 
regulars  and  5,000  volunteers  to 
face  an  army  of  21,000  men 
under  the  Mexican  general 
Santa  Anna.    Taylor  fell  back 


Taylor  University 


KFK 


638 


Tchikhatchev 


from  Monterey  until  he  reached 
a  favorable  position  near  the 
mountain  pass  of  Buena  Vista 
(q.  v.).  Availing  himself  of  its 
natural  advantages,  on  Feb.  22, 
1847,  he  completely  repulsed  the 
Mexicans  with  a  loss  thrice  as 
great  as  his  own.  (See  Mexi- 
can War.) 

In  June,  1848,  the  victorious 
and  popular  General  was  nomi- 
nated for  President  by  the  Whig 
Party,  and  he  was  successful  in 
the  ensuing  election,  receiving 
163  electoral  votes  to  127  votes 
for  Lewis  Cass,  the  Democratic 
Party  candidate.  Taylor  took 
the  Presidential  chair  at  a  criti- 
cal period  in  American  history, 
for  the  momentous  struggle  over 
the  extension  of  slavery  (q.  v.) 
had  already  set  in.  The  balance 
of  power  in  Congress  was  held 
by  a  small  but  active  group  of 
Free  Soilers,  and  to  avert  the 
threatened  danger  to  the  Union 
Henry  Clay  introduced  his  fa- 
mous Compromise,  which  called 
forth  a  stormy  discussion.  Tay- 
lor remained  firm  and  impartial, 
though  his  son-in-law,  Jefferson 
Davis,  was  the  leader  of  the  ex- 
treme pro-slavery  faction.  Be- 
fore a  decision  was  reached  in 
Congress,  however,  President 
Taylor  died  suddenly  of  bilious 
fever  on  July  9,  1850,  sixteen 
months  after  his  inauguration. 

Taylor's  qualities  as  a  man 
were  firmness  and  thorough 
honesty ;  he  was  a  father  rather 
than  a  martinet  in  governing  and 
commanding  his  soldiers ;  his 
personal  courage  was  remark- 
able. Consult  Wilcox's  History 
of  the  Mexican  War;  O.  O. 
Howard's  General  Zachary  Tay- 
lor ('Great  Commander  Se- 
ries') ;  J.  G.  Wilson's  Presidents 
of  the  United  States  (Vol.  ii, 
1914). 

Taylor  University,  co-edu- 
cational and  interdenomina- 
tional institution  at  Upland, 
Indiana,  was  founded  in  1846  at 
Fort  Wayne  as  the  Fort  Wayne 
Female  College.  In  1851  the 
Fort  Wayne  Collegiate  Institute 
for  male  students  was  organized. 
In  1855  the  two  schools  were 
united  and  known  as  Fort  Wayne 
College  until  1890  when  the 
name  was  changed  in  honor  of 
Bishop  William  Taylor  (q.  v.), 
the  Methodist  missionary.  The 
University  was  moved  to  Up- 
land in  1893.  In  1933  the  Wil- 
liam Taylor  Foundation  pur- 
chased the  University  and  took 
over  its  operation.  The  Uni- 
versity offers  a  curriculum  lead- 
ing to  the  degrees  of  Bachelor 
of  Arts  and  Bachelor  of  Science 
in  Education,  also  pre-nursing 
and  pre-medical  courses. 

Taylorville,  city,  Illinois, 
county  seat  of  Christian  county, 
on  the  Sangamon  River,  and  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  Southwest- 


ern, the  Wabash,  and  the  Chi- 
cago and  Illinois  Midland  Rail- 
roads ;  26  miles  s.e.  of  Spring- 
field. It  has  large  coal  mines, 
iron  foundry,  meat  canning  es- 
tablishments, paper  and  flour 
mills,  and  manufacturers  of 
chemicals,  and  farm  implements. 
The  first  settlement  here  was 
made  about  1839.  Pop.  (1930) 
7,316;  (1940)  8,313. 

Tayra,  ti'ra,  or  Taira  (Galic- 
tis  harhara) ,  a  weasel-like  mam- 
mal of  Central  and  South  Amer- 
ica, allied  to  the  grison  (q.  v.). 
It  is  three  feet  in  length,  with 
long  bushy  tail,  and  in  color  is 
dark  brown  with  yellowish  tinge. 

Taytay,  ti-ti',  pueblo,  chief 
town  of  Paragua  province,  Phil- 
ippines, on  the  northeast  coast  of 
Palawan  Island.  It  has  a  fort 
with  walls  30  feet  high  and 
quarters  for  700  soldiers.  Pop. 
5,500. 

Tayug,  ta-yoog',  or  Tayud, 
pueblo,  Pangasiman  province, 
Luzon,  Philippines  ;  30  miles  east 
of  Lingayen.    Pop.  11,000. 

Taze'well,  Littleton  Wal- 
ler (1774-1860),  American 
public  official,  was  born  in  Wil- 
liamsburg, Va.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  William  and  Mary 
(1792),  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  practised  at  Richmond  and 
Norfolk.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  State  legislature  in  1796- 
1800  ;  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1800-03  ;  U.  S.  Senator  in  1824- 
33  ;  and  governor  of  Virginia  in 
1834-6.  Tazewell  opposed  both 
Jefferson  and  Jackson  in  impor- 
tant measures  of  their  adminis- 
trations. He  favored  tariff  re- 
duction, denounced  nullification, 
and  was  a  strong  opponent  of 
Jackson's  Bank  of  the  United 
States  policy. 

Tchad,  Lake.    See  Chad. 

Tchelyuskin.  See  Chelyus- 
kin. 

Tcheremisses,  a  Finnish 
people  of  Eastern  Russia,  con- 
sisting of  about  375,000  mem- 
bers, that  live  along  the  River 
Volga  in  Vyatka  and  Kazan 
provinces. 

Tcherkassy,  town,  Russia. 
See  Cherkasi. 

Tcherkesses,  or  Cherkes- 
SES.    See  Circassia. 

Tchernaiev,  cher-na'yef,  or 

TCHERNAYEV,     MiCHAEL  GrEG- 

orovitch  (1828-98),  Russian 
general,  who  first  gained  distinc- 
tion in  the  Crimean  War.  In 
1864  he  was  made  a  major-gen- 
eral and  sent  to  Turkestan, 
where  he  stormed  Chimkend,  and 
next  year  reduced  Tashkend. 
Retiring  in  1874,  he  edited  in  the 
Panslavist  interest  the  journal 
Riiski  Mir.  He  became  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Serbian 
army  in  1876,  and  was  defeated 
by  the  Turks  at  Alexinatz.  In 
1879  he  attempted  to  bring  about 
a  rising  of  the  Bulgarians,  but 


was  arrested  and  sent  back  to 
Russia.  He  was  governor-gen- 
eral of  Turkestan  (1882-4). 

Tcherniffov.  See  Cherni- 
gov. 

Tchernyshevsky,  cher-ni- 
shef'ski,  or  Chernyshevsky, 
Nikolai  Gavrilovitch  (1828- 

89)  ,  Russian  author,  born  at 
Saratov.  He  became  the  editor 
of  a  military  paper,  and  was  one 
of  the  most  active  writers  on  the 
Sovremennik.  In  prison  (1862— 
4)  as  a  revolutionist,  he  wrote 
his  novel,  What  Is  to  he  Done? 
(Eng.  trans,  by  Tucker,  1893). 
Condemned  to  exile  in  Siberia  in 
1864,  he  was  partly  pardoned  in 
1883.  He  translated  into  Rus- 
sian Weber's  History  of  the 
World  and  Adam  Smith's 
Wealth  of  Nations  (1864).  His 
Works  were  published  in  4  vols. 
(1868-70). 

Tchertkov,  chert'kof,  or 
Tchertkoff,  Vladimir  (1854- 
),  Russian  author,  was  born 
in  Moscow.  He  served  as  an 
officer  in  the  Russian  army 
(1874-81),  and  later  managed 
the  family  estates.  He  founded 
the  enterprise  known  as  Posred- 
nik  for  the  publication  and  dis- 
tribution of  high  class  literature 
among  the  people;  and  in  1897 
was  exiled  for  circulating  a  de- 
fense of  the  Doukhobors.  He 
settled  in  England,  where  he 
edited  the  publications  of  the 
Free  Age  Press.  He  has  pub- 
lished :  Christian  Martyrdom  in 
Russia  (2d  ed.  1900)  ;  Short  Bi- 
ography of  William  Lloyd  Gar- 
rison (with  Florence  Holah, 
1904). 

Tchigorin,  chig'o-rin,  Mi- 
chael (1850-1908),  Russian 
chess  expert,  was  born  in  Lenin- 
grad. He  came  into  prominence 
at  the  Berlin  tournament  of 
1881,  when  he  finished  third 
(with  Winawer)  to  Zukertort  and 
Blackburne.  In  1889  ana  1892 
he  challenged  Steinitz  (q.  v.) 
for  the  world's  chess  champion- 
ship, but  was  defeated  on  both 
occasions.  He  tied  for  first 
prize  at  the  New  York  tourna- 
ment of  1889,  was  second  in  the 
Hastings  tournament  of  1895, 
first  at  Budapest  in  1896,  tied 
for  first  prize  at  the  National 
Russian  tournament  of  1900,  and 
tied  for  third  at  Monte  Carlo  in 
1901. 

Tchikhatchev,  che-ka'chef, 
Peter  Alexandrovitch  (1812- 

90)  ,  Russian  scientist,  was  born 
in  Gatchina.  While  attache  to 
the  Russian  embassy  in  Constan- 
tinople in  1842-4  he  travelled 
through  Asia  Minor  to  Egypt. 
In  the  Tsar's  service  he  explored 
the  Altai ;  and  in  the  study  of  its 
geology  he  made  six  journeys  in 
Asia  Minor  (1847-58).  His 
later  travels,  geological  and  bo- 
tanical, included  Algeria  and 
Tunis.    He  wrote :  Voyage  Sci- 


TEA:  CULTIVATION  AND  PREPARATION  IN  THE  DARJILING  DISTRICT,  INDIA. 

1.  A  tea  garden.    2.  Group  of  pluckers.    3.  Leaf  spread  to  wither.    4.  Leaf-rolling  room. 
5.  Spreading  leaf  for  fermentation.    6.  Down-draught  Sirocco  tea  dryer.    7.  Packing  tea. 


Vol.  XL— Mar.  '18 


Vol.  XL— at  Page  638 

1 


Tchistopol  KFK  639  Tea 


entifique  dans  I' Altai  Oriental 
(1845)  ;  Asie  Mincure  (8  vols., 
1853-68)  ;  Lettres  siir  la  Tur- 
quie  (1859)  ;  Etudes  dc  Geogra- 
phic et  d'Histoire  Naturclle 
(1890). 

Tchistopol,  town,  Russia. 
See  Chistopol. 

Tchta,  town,  Siberia.  See 
Chita. 

Tchorlu,  or  Chorlu,  town, 
Turkey  in  Europe ;  20  miles 
northeast  of  Rodosto.  Carpets 
and  woolens  are  manufactured, 
and  wine,  fruit  and  cereal  are 
exported.  An  engagement  be- 
tween the  Bulgars  and  Turks 
took  place  here  in  November, 
1912,  during  the  Balkan  War 
(q.  v.).    Pop.  12,000. 

Tchuktches.      See  Chuk- 

CHES. 

Tchust,  town,  Russia.  See 
Chust. 

Tchuvashes.  See  Chuv- 

ASHES. 

Tea,  a  name  given  to  the  dried 
leaves  and  young  shoots  of  an 


{Tea  Plant  Thea  sinensis). 
1.  Section  of  flower;  2,  fruit;  3,  seed. 


Eastern  tree  or  shrub,  Thea  si- 
nensis {Camellia  theifcra),  be- 
longing to  the  order  Ternstroe- 
miacese.  The  only  part  of  the 
world  where  tea  is  really  known 
to  grow  wild  is  in  the  forests  of 
Assam,  where  it  is  a  tree  of 
vigorous  growth,  attaining  a 
height  of  30  to  40  feet,  with  a 
leaf  from  8  to  10  inches  in 
length.  The  tea  plant  is  culti- 
vated on  an  extensive  scale  in 
China,  Japan,  India,  and  Ceylon. 
The  China  variety  is  a  compara- 
tively stunted  shrub,  though  har- 
dier than  the  Assam  variety, 
growing  to  a  height  of  12  to  15 
feet,  with  a  rounder  leaf  about 
3^  inches  in  length.  A  hybrid 
of  these  two  varieties  is  largely 
cultivated  in  India  and  Ceylon. 

Cultivation. — The  tea  plant 
requires  a  tropical  or  subtropical 
climate  with  heavy  rainfall  (80- 
200  inches).  At  low  elevations 
the  growth  is  more  rapid,  but  in 
time  the  plants  grown  at  higher 
elevations  seem  to  produce  near- 


ly as  much  leaf,  while  the  tea  is 
of  more  delicate  flavor.  The 
plants  are  propagated  from  seeds 
in  shaded  nursery  beds  ;  after  a 
year  or  two  are  transferred  to 
the  fields  ;  and  after  three  years 
from  planting  begin  to  yield, 
continuing  for  fifty  years  or 
more.  Whenever  the  yield  falls 
off,  pruning  is  resorted  to. 

The  tea  plant  succeeds  best 
on  new  forest  land  containing 
plenty  of  humus.  As  is  the  case 
with  cacao,  coffee,  and  other 
economic  plants,  tea  grown  on 
rich  alluvial  soil  is  stronger  than 
tea  grown  on  poorer  land,  though 
the  latter  is  often  of  more  deli- 
cate flavor.  Tea  is  planted  in 
rows  from  3^^  to  5  feet  apart, 
with  a  similar  distance  between 
the  plants.  On  the  rich,  deep 
soils  of  Assam  manuring  is  not 
practised.  In  Ceylon  the  favor- 
ite manures  are  cattle  dung, 
castor  cake,  bones,  nitrogenous 
manures,  and  those  which  con- 
tain potash.  In  China  the  plants 
are  grown  in  small  fields  and  on 
hillsides. 

When  the  plants  have  been 
in  the  ground  about  fifteen  to 
eighteen  months  they  are  cut 
down  to  ten  or  twelve  inches ; 
this  makes  them  spread,  and 
strengthens  the  growth  of  the 
branches.  In  about  two  months 
the  more  vigorous  shoots  are 
nipped  back  below  the  second 
leaf ;  and  at  about  three  years 
the  bush  is  again  cut  down  to 
some  fifteen  inches  flat  across. 

The  plucking  of  the  leaves  is 
done  with  the  thumb  nail,  and 
the  leaf  must  on  no  account  be 
torn  off.  Only  the  youngest  and 
most  tender  leaves  are  picked ; 
and  the  younger  the  leaf,  the  finer 
the  tea.  The  largest  leaves  used 
are  never  more  than  2>4  inches 
long.  The  leaves  are  gathered 
in  Ceylon  every  ten  or  twelve 
days  all  the  year  round ;  in 
China,  from  the  latter  part  of 
April  to  the  end  of  October. 

The  pickings  are  'fine'  when 
the  top  bud  and  the  two  young 
leaves  next  below  it  are  taken  ; 
'medium'  when  three  leaves  are 
taken  ;  'coarse'  when  four  leaves 
are  included  with  the  bud.  From 
the  first,  the  'pekoe'  teas  are 
made — 'flowery  pekoe'  from  the 
youngest  leaf,  'orange  pekoe' 
from  the  next,  'pekoe'  from  the 
third  leaf.  'Souchongs'  and 
'congous'  are  made  from  the 
coarser  leaves.  The  finest  pick- 
ings are  described  as  first  chop, 
the  next  as  second  chop,  and  so 
on. 

Manufacture. — The  leaves 
are  spread  out  on  trays  to  wither, 
which  takes  from  12  to  40  hours 
in  good  weather.  The  withering 
is  assisted  by  fans,  and  if  the 
weather  is  damp,  artificial  heat 
is  used.  The  leaves  then  go  to 
the  rolling  machines,  where  they 


are  twisted  and  crushed.  The 
old  Chinese  system  of  rolling  was 
done  by  hand,  sometimes  assisted 
by  treading.  The  rolled  leaves 
are  piled  in  drawers  or  on  tables 
or  mats,  covered,  and  allowed  to 
ferment  until  they  give  off  a  pe- 
culiar odor,  and  assume  a  bright 
copper  color. 

After  the  fermentation  proc- 
ess the  leaves  go  directly  to  the 
drying  machines  to  be  fired, 
where  they  are  subjected  to  a 
strong  current  of  hot  air  until 
thoroughly  dry  and  brittle.  The 
tea  is  then  taken  to  the  sifting 
machine  and  sifted  into  grades, 
the  larger  leaves  which  do  not 
pass  being  broken  up  and  again 
sifted.  These  are  known  as 
'broken  teas.'  The  dust  is  also 
preserved  and  sold.  In  the  man- 
ufacture of  green  teas  the  fer- 
menting process  is  omitted,  and 
after  being  rolled  the  leaves  go 
directly  to  the  drying  machines. 
The  grades  of  green  tea  resulting 
from  the  sifting  are  'Young 
Hyson,'  'Hyson,'  'Hyson  No.  2/ 
'Gunpowder,'  and  'Dust.' 

Teas  are  usually  packed  in 
lead-lined  chests  or  boxes  for 
shipment.  The  hrick  tea  pre- 
pared at  Hankow  for  overland 
exportation  to  Russia  is  made  of 
tea  dust  steamed  and  pressed 
into  cakes,  which  occupy  only 
one-sixth  of  the  bulk  of  loose 
tea. 

Historical. — De  Candolle 
states  that  tea  was  known  to  the 
Chinese  before  519  a.d.  ;  a  Chi- 
nese legend  says  tea  was  intro- 
duced into  China  by  Djarma,  a 
native  of  India,  about  500  a.d. 
Tea  first  became  known  to  Euro- 
peans about  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  Small  quanti- 
ties were  brought  to  England 
early  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
but  it  was  not  till  about  the  year 
1657  that  it  began  to  be  used  as 
a  beverage.  The  price  then  was 
from  $25  to  $50  per  pound. 
About  1820  the  plant  was  dis- 
covered wild  in  Assam,  British 
India,  and  in  1835  the  first  gar- 
den in  Assam  was  opened  at 
Luckimpore.  Tea  was  intro- 
duced into  Ceylon  in  1839,  but 
it  was  not  till  1874  that  the  cul- 
tivation became  common.  A  tea 
of  fair  quality  is  also  grown  in 
Natal,  South  Africa.  Java  ships 
tea  of  taking  appearance  but 
often  of  weak  liquor.  Black  tea 
for  the  markets  of  Russia  and 
Turkey  is  grown  in  Formosa, 
Japan. 

In  the  United  States,  tea  has 
been  grown  with  success  in 
South  Carolina,  and  experimen- 
tally elsewhere.  At  Pinehurst, 
Summerville,  S.  C..  excellent 
grades  of  Assam  hybrid,  Dar- 
jeeling,  and  Chinese  are  pro- 
duced, which  find  a  ready  mar- 
ket in  the  United  States. 

Chemistry. — As  a  beverage, 


Tea  Caddy 


KFK 


640 


Teak 


the  refreshing  qualities  of  tea 
are  well  known.  It  exhilarates 
the  system,  relieves  fatigue  and 
sleepiness,  and  stimulates  the 
mental  activities.  These  prop- 
erties are  generally  believed  to 
be  due  chiefly  to  the  active  prin- 
ciple caffeine  (thcine).  (See 
Caffeine.)  If  tea  is  used  to 
excess  it  produces  flatulent  indi- 
gestion, increased  pulsations  of 
the  heart,  and  nervousness  ;  the 
imagination  is  excited,  and  sleep- 
lessness follows.  Tannin  is  an 
important  constituent  of  tea, 
which  gives  the  astringent 
properties  and  dark  color  to  the 
infusion.  Tannin  precipitates 
both  albumen  and  peptone,  and 
in  this  way  doubtless  hinders  di- 
gestion. It  also  stops  secretion 
from  the  mucous  membrane,  and 
so  retards  the  pouring  out  of  the 
digestive  products ;  otherwise  it 
probably  has  no  effect,  when 
given  in  small  doses  as  in  infu- 
sions of  tea,  on  normal  persons. 
When  tea  is  allowed  to  stew  a 
long  time,  a  much  larger  per- 
centage of  tannin  is  extracted. 
(See  Tannin.)  In  1911  the 
Federal  Government  forbade  the 
further  importation  of  artifi- 
cially colored  teas. 

In  the  process  of  making  tea 
the  following  are  the  chief  points 
to  observe  :  keep  the  stock  of  tea 
in  an  air-tight  tin  canister.  Al- 
low from  half  to  one  teaspoonful 
of  leaves  to  each  half  pint  of 
water.  Have  ready  two  warm, 
dry  earthenware  teapots,  and 
place  the  tea  leaves  in  one  of 
them.  Directly  the  water  boils 
pour  it  on  to  the  leaves,  allow  to 
stand  thereon  for  from  three  to 
five  minutes,  and  then  decant  the 
clear  infusion  into  the  second 
teapot. 

Bibliography, — Consult  A. 
J.  Wallis-Taylor,  Tea  Machinery 
and  Tea  Factories ;  J.  M.  Walsh, 
Tea:  Its  History  and  Mystery; 
Ibbetson,  Tea  (1910)  ;  E.  A. 
Browne,  Tea  (1912);  G.  F. 
Mitchell,  Home  Grown  Tea  (U. 
S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  301,  1907), 
and  The  Cultivation  and  Manu- 
facture of  Tea  in  the  United 
States  (U.  S.  Plant  Industry 
Bureau,  Bulletin  234,  1912)  ; 
Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Journal, 
Agnes  Repplier,  To  Think  of 
Tea  (1932). 

Tea  Caddy,  a  receptacle  for 
dry  tea  in  the  form  of  box,  jar, 
or  canister,  the  word  caddy  be- 
ing derived  probably  from  catty, 
the  Chinese  pound  which  is  equal 
to  about  a  pound  and  a  third 
avoirdupois.  The  early  exam- 
ples of  the  caddy  available  in 
Europe  were  of  porcelain  in  the 
.shape  of  the  ginger  jar.  They 
were  usually  blue  and  white  and 
had  stoppers  or  lids  of  porce- 
lain. These  were  imitated  at 
first  by  the  English  kilns  but  it 


w^as  not  long  before  various 
forms  were  being  made,  and  in 
a  variety  of  materials  as  well. 

Tea  Ceremony,  a  time-hon- 
ored institution  in  Japan  rooted 
in  the  principles  of  Zen  (a  Bud- 
dhist sect)  and  based  upon  the 
cult  of  beauty  exemplified  in 
the  daily  routine  of  living  in  the 
preparation  of  meals,  furbishing 
the  house  and  garden,  etc.  The 
Japanese  word  for  the  ceremony 
is  Cha-no-yu,  literally  the  hot 
water  of  tea,  and  has  come  to 
mean  the  aesthetics  of  enter- 
taining with  thick  and  weak  tea 
of  the  pulverized  leaf  stirred  in 
hot  water.  Etiquette  calls  for 
the  serving  of  a  meal  in  advance 
of  the  tea  ceremony  proper.  The 
guests  are  few  in  number,  usu- 
ally not  more  than  five.  The 
scene  is  the  cliaseki  (tea-room), 
and  the  guests,  as  a  gesture  of 
humility,  crawl  in  through  an 
opening  about  three  feet  square. 
The  tea  ceremony  is  an  ancient 
custom  started  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  it  is  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  old  spirit  of  Japan 
which  still  continues  to  influence 
the  life  and  the  art  of  the  Japa- 
nese people. 

Teach  (Thach,  Thatch), 
Edward,  a  Welsh  pirate  who  es- 
tablished himself  in  the  Bahamas 
in  1716,  and  for  a  time  ruled 
Nassau  until  dislodged  by  an 
English  fleet.  With  four  ships 
he  went  to  the  coast  of  Georgia 
and  South  Carolina,  making  cap- 
tures even  at  the  entrance  to  the 
harbor  of  Charleston.  The  gov- 
ernor of  South  Carolina  sent  two 
expeditions  against  him,  and  two 
of  his  ships  were  destroyed  and 
the  crews  executed.  Teach  then 
retired  to  Pamlico  Sound,  where, 
having  resumed  his  piracies,  the 
governor  of  Virginia  (in  1718) 
sent  Lieutenant  Maynard  to  cap- 
ture him.  In  the  ensuing  fight 
he  was  killed,  along  with  most 
of  his  men. 

Teachers  College,  an  educa- 
tional institution  founded  in 
New  York  City  in  1888  and 
chartered  in  1889  as  the  New 
York  College  for  the  Training 
of  Teachers,  became  in  1898 
part  of  the  educational  system 
of  Columbia  University  (q.  v.). 
The  president  of  the  University 
is,  cx-officio,  president  of  Teach- 
ers College  which  is  recognized 
as  a  faculty  of  the  University 
under  the  administrative  charge 
of  the  dean.  Both  University 
and  College  courses  are  open  to 
students  in  either  institution. 

The  College  courses  lead  to 
the  degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Sci- 
ence, Master  of  Arts,  Master  of 
Science,  Doctor  of  Education, 
and  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  and 
to  Teachers  College  professional 
diplomas.  The  courses  offer  to 
advanced  students  professional 
and  scientific  training  in  Foun- 


dations of  Education,  Organiza- 
tion and  Administration  of  Edu- 
cation, Guidance,  Curriculum 
and  Principles  of  Teaching, 
methods  of  teaching  and  super- 
vision in  social  science,  natural 
sciences,  mathematics,  English 
and  foreign  languages,  speech, 
fine  and  industrial  arts,  music 
and  music  education,  household 
arts,  business  education,  etc., 
and  Nursing  Education. 

The  Advanced  School  of  Edu- 
cation, established  in  1935,  fixes 
the  requirements  for  admission 
and  conditions  of  graduation  for 
candidates  for  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Education  and,  in 
cooperation  with  the  University, 
administers  in  the  College  the 
requirements  for  the  ph.d.  de- 
gree. 

The  Institute  of  Educational 
Research  was  established  in  1921 
to  promote  scientific  study  of 
education  in  cooperation  with 
other  institutions. 

Teachers'  Pensions.  See 
Pensions. 

Teachers'  Training.  See 
Normal  Schools. 

Teaching  of  the  Apostles. 
See  Didache. 

Teagle,  Walter  Clark 
(1878-  ),  oil  industrialist 
and  leader,  was  born  in  Cleve- 
land, O.  and  received  special 
training  in  the  oil  business  after 
graduating  from  Cornell  Uni- 
versity in  1900.  He  served  at 
various  times  in  various  capaci- 
ties with  the  Republic,  Standard, 
Imperial,  and  International  Pe- 
troleum companies,  and  in  1937 
became  Chairman  of  the  Board 
of  Directors  of  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  of  New  Jersey.  He 
also  served  as  a  director  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  Bank  of  New 
York  from  1933. 

Teague,  teg,  city.  Freestone 
county,  on  the  Burlington-Rock 
Island  Railroad  ;  125  miles  north 
of  Houston.  Industries  include 
cotton  seed  mills,  railway  repair 
shoos,  chair  factories,  steam 
laundry,  and  cotton  gins.  Pop. 
(1940)  3,157. 

Tea  Insects,  the  insects  of 
several  injurious  varieties  which 
attack  the  tea  plant.  The  pests 
include  the  fagot  worm  (Eumeta 
carmcrii),  one  of  the  bagworms 
whose  larva  carries  a  case  made 
up  of  fragments  of  twigs  and 
feeds  upon  the  plant.  The  tea 
borer  (Zencera  coffece)  is  the 
larva  of  the  cossid  moth  which 
bores  into  the  stems  of  both  cof- 
fee and  tea  plants.  Species  of 
bark  lice  also  appear  upon  tea 
and  are  a  serious  enemy  of  the 
growing  plant. 

Teak,  a  tree  of  the  genus 
Tectona,  growing  in  dry,  tropical 
climates.  Next  to  mahogany  it 
is  the  most  valuable  timber,  and 
is  used  for  furniture,  carving, 
shipbuilding,  and  house  building. 


Teal 


641 


Technical  Education 


It  has  a  straight  grain,  is  easily- 
worked,  and  takes  a  high  poUsh. 
Teak  trees  are  found  in  isolated 
clusters  in  forests  of  other  woods. 
They  reach  a  height  of  150  feet 
and  a  girth  of  25  feet  and  the 
leaves  yield  a  purple-red  dye. 
The  chief  commercial  supply 
comes  from  Burma. 

Teal,  one  of  the  smallest  of  the 
fresh-water  ducks,  12  to  15 
inches  in  length — scarcely  larger 
than  a  pigeon.  The  Green- 
Winged  Teal  (Querquedula  caro- 
linensis)  has  a  head  and  neck  of 


Teal 


rich  brown,  with  a  green  patch 
from  the  eye  backward.  Its 
'speculum'  is  a  bright  metallic 
green.  The  Blue-Winged  Teal 
{Q.  discors)  has  a  head  and  neck 
of  deep  purplish  gray,  black  on 
top,  and  a  distinct  white  crescent 
between  the  eye  and  the  bill. 
The  shoulders  are  dull  sky-blue. 
The  females  are  much  alike  and 
dull  in  color.  These  two  species 
breed  principally  north  of  the 
United  States,  though  some  nests 
are  found  south  of  the  boundary 
from  Maine  to  Oregon.  They 
winter  in  the  Gulf  States,  Mex- 
ico, and  the  West  Indies,  and  are 
abundant  in  the  Mississippi  val- 
ley during  the  migrations.  A 
third  variety,  the  Cinnamon 
Teal  {Q.  cyanoptera) ,  is  found 
in  large  numbers  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  Its  under-plumage  is  a 
deep  cinnamon-brown.  The 
common  teal  of  Europe  {Q.  crec- 
ca)  is  occasionally  seen  in  Amer- 
ica. 

Teano,  ta-a'no,  city,  Italy, 
in  the  province  Caserta;  13  miles 
northwest  of  Capua.  It  has  a 
beautiful  cathedral  and  interest- 
ing ruins  of  a  theatre,  baths  and 
tombs.    Pop.  6,000. 

Tears.    See  Eye. 

Tea  Tree.    See  Cajeput. 

Teasdale,  Sara  (1884- 'f33), 
American  poet,  was  born  in  St, 
Louis,  Mo,  She  was  educated  in 
the  private  schools  of  St.  Louis 
and  in  1914  was  married  to 
Ernst  B.  Filsinger.  Her  pub- 
lished works  include  Sonnets  to 
Duse,  and  Other  Poems  (1907); 
Helen  of  Troy  and  Other  Poems 
(1911);  Rivers  to  the  Sea  (1915); 
Love  Songs  (1917);  Flame  and 
Shadow  (1920) ;  Dark  of  the  Moon 
(1926).  She  is  also  the  editor  of 
The  Answering  Voice':  One  Hun- 


dred Love  Lyrics  by  Women  (1917) ; 
Rainbow  Gold  (1922). 

Tea'zel,  or  Teasel,  a  genus  of 
Old-World  plants.  They  are 
stout,  prickly  biennials  one  of 
which  the  so-called  fuller's  teazel, 
is  employed  in  dressing  broad- 
cloth. The  flowers  are  borne  in 
large  heads,  the  receptacles  brist- 
ling with  prickly  awns.  The 
common  wild  teazel  (Dipsacus 
sylvestris)  is  a  weed,  growing 
abundantly  in  the  Ohio  valley, 
some  four  or  five  feet  in  height, 
and  bearing  purple  flowers  in 
July  and  August.  Its  bristles 
are  straight,  not  hooked,  as  are 
those  of  the  fuller's  teazel. 

Teb,  El,  group  of  wells,  Nubia, 
Egypt,  44  miles  southeast  of 
Suakin.  It  was  the  scene  of  the 
defeat  of  the  Mahdists  under 
Osman  Digna  by  General  Graham 
(Feb.  29,  1884), 

Teche,  tesh,  bayou,  Louis- 
iana, rises  in  St.  Landry  parish 
and  flows  in  a  general  southeast 
course  for  about  180  miles  to 
empty  into  Atchafalaya  bayou, 
about  3  miles  northwest  of  Mor- 
gan City.  It  is  navigable  as  far 
as  St.  Martinsville,  100  miles 
from  its  mouth.  The  district 
along  its  banks  is  rich  in  agricul- 
tural produce. 

Technical  Education.  The 
term  technical  education,  prop- 
erly speaking,  includes  the  field 
of  all  instruction  relating  to  the 
arts,  sciences,  professions,  and 
trades;  but  in  common  use  it  is 
restricted  to  the  field  of  the  in- 
dustrial arts,  and  more  particu- 
larly to  that  instruction  in  which 
theory  rather  than  practice  bears 
a  prominent  or  preponderating 
part.  In  this  restricted  sense 
the  field  of  technical  education 
embraces,  first,  institutions  of  a 
college  or  university  grade  de- 
voted to  advanced  instruction 
in  the  various  branches  of  engi- 
neering and  applied  science;  and, 
second,  schools  of  a  secondary 
grade  in  which  the  instruction 
in  practical  methods  receives 
greater  emphasis. 

Schools  of  industrial  art  may 
well  be  included  in  this  second 
category,  as  well  as  evening 
schools  which  afford  instruction 
in  art,  science,  mathematics,  and 
technical  methods  underlying 
industrial  practice.  In  a  broad 
sense,  trade  schools  also  come 
in  this  field,  but  the  tendency  in 
the  United  States  is  rather  to 
classify  such  schools  under  In- 
dustrial Education  (q.v.). 

Engineering  Schools,  Schools 
of  Applied  Science,  Institutes  of 
Technology. — Such  schools  nat- 
urally did  not  appear  until  the 
physical  sciences  obtained  a  con- 
siderable development,  and  their 
application  to  the  arts  and  in- 
dustries became  general.  In  Eu- 
rope, where  these  institutions 
first  came  into  being,  they  have 


often  evolved  from  simple  be- 
ginnings through  successive 
adaptations  to  the  changing  state 
of  scientific  knowledge  and  engi- 
neering practice.  The  earliest 
schools  appeared  in  France  and 
Germany, 

In  France,  the  Ecole  des  Ponts 
et  Chaussees,  opened  in  1747  as 
a  draughting  school,  was  re- 
organized in  1760  for  the  train- 
ing of  engineers  for  the  govern- 
ment service.  In  1794,  the  Ecole 
Polytechnique  was  founded  to 
fit  men  for  the  engineer  and  ar- 
tillery service  of  the  French 
army.  The  standards  of  this 
school  have  always  been  of  the 
highest,  and  some  of  the  most 
prominent  engineers  in  private 
practice,  as  well  as  in  the  govern- 
ment service,  have  received  their 
training  in  its  classes.  In  1829 
the  Ecole  Centrale  was  founded 
as  a  private  institution,  and  has 
continued  to  be  independent  of 
government  aid  up  to  the  pres- 
ent time.  In  this  institution  a 
majority  of  the  French  engineers 
not  employed  in  the  government 
service  have  been  educated.  A 
number  of  high-grade  technical 
schools  partly  supported  by  the 
government  exist  in  important 
centres  outside  of  Paris,  such  as 
the  Ecole  Centrale  at  Lyons, 
Ecole  des  M incurs  at  St,  Eti- 
enne,  and  the  Institut  du  Nord 
at  Lille. 

In  Germany,  the  beginning  of 
the  first  technical  high  schools 
(as  the  higher  technical  schools 
are  now  called)  was  made  in  Ber- 
lin in  1799,  in  the  establishment 
of  an  academy  for  builders  (Bau- 
Akademie).  In  1821  a  trade 
school  (Gewerbeschule)  was  also 
organized;  and  by  the  union  of 
these  two  in  1879  was  created  the 
present  technical  high  school. 
By  1835  a  number  of  other  trade 
and  technical  schools,  with  little 
uniformity  of  organization,  were 
established  at  different  places. 
These  schools  could  only  exact 
low  entrance  requirements  and 
perform  comparatively  elemen- 
tary work,  as  no  schools  existed 
in  which  a  sound  preparation  in 
science  could  be  obtained.  After 
the  incorporation  of  the  'real'  or 
scientific  school  in  the  German 
system,  the  standards  of  certain 
of  these  early  technical  schools 
were  gradually  advanced,  and 
the  principle  of  specialization  was 
introduced;  until,  after  a  century 
of  development,  a  series  of  tech- 
nical schools  has  evolved,  tak- 
ing equal  rank  with  university 
departments  and  requiring  equal, 
preparation  for  admission.  To- 
day, Germany  possesses  nine  of 
these  splendid  institutions — lo- 
cated at  Aix  la  Chapelle,  Berlin, 
Brunswick,  Darmstadt,  Dresden, 
Hanover,  Karlsruhe,  Munich, 
and  Stuttgart — in  which  the  most 
advanced  instruction  in  engineer- 

VOL.  XL— March  '28 


Technical  Education 


641 A 


Technical  Education 


ing,  architecture,  industrial 
chemistry,  and  agriculture  is 
presented. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  influ- 
ence of  these  schools,  together 
with  university  instruction  in 
pure  science,  has  been  one  of  the 
strongest  single  factors  in  the  re- 
markable industrial  develop- 
ment which  has  been  going  on  in 
Germany  since  the  middle  of  the 
last  century,  and  which  has 
brought  her  to  the  front  rank 
among  the  commercial  nations 
of  the  world. 

The  governments  of  Austria, 
Belgium,  Holland,  Italy,  Russia, 
Sweden,  and  Switzerland  also 
maintain  either  independent  en- 
gineering schools  of  advanced 
rank,  or  university  departments 
in  which  such  instruction  is  pro- 
vided. 

In  Great  Britain,  technical  ed- 
ucation was  slow  in  gaining  rec- 
ognition; but  roused  by  the 
evidence  of  industrial  backward- 
ness at  the  various  international 
expositions,  and  by  the  grow- 
ing encroachment  of  Continental 
manufactures  in  both  the  home 
and  foreign  markets,  public  opin- 
ion was  gradually  stirred  to  ac- 
tion; and  at  last,  in  1881,  a  Royal 
Commission  on  Technical  In- 
struction was  appointed  to  inves- 
tigate the  whole  subject,  and  to 
report  upon  measures  for  advanc- 
ing such  instruction  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  One  of  the  results  of 
this  report  was  the  foundation 
of  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London 
Institute,  composed  of  many  of 
the  surviving  old  guilds  of  Lon- 
don, for  the  advancement  of 
technical  education  throughout 
the  kingdom.  The  Institute  not 
only  established  and  maintains 
three  schools  in  the  city  of  Lon- 
don, but  also  directs  a  system  of 
examinations  relating  to  the  work 
of  technical  classes  throughout 
England  and  Wales.  Of  the 
three  schools  of  the  Institute  in 
London,  the  Central  Technical 
College  is  organized  for  advanced 
work  in  the  field  of  engineering. 
The  Institute  donated  a  large 
sum  of  money  toward  buildings 
and  equipment,  and  annually 
contributes  to  its  support. 
Courses  are  provided  in  civil, 
mechanical  and  electrical  engi- 
neering, and  chemistry.  This 
institution  was  in  1907  co-ordi- 
nated by  charter  with  the  Royal 
School  of  Mines  and  the  Royal 
College  of  Science  as  the  Engi- 
neering Section  of  the  Imperial 
College  of  Science  and  Technol- 
ogy. 

Among  other  institutions  of- 
fering advanced  instruction  in 
engineering  and  applied  science 
are  the  Victoria  University  of 
Manchester  (formerly  Owens 
College),  the  University  College 
of  Liverpool,  the  University  of 
Leeds  (formerly  the  Yorkshire 

Vol.  XL— March  '28 


College  of  Science),  the  universi- 
ties of  Birmingham,  Sheffield, 
and  Cambridge,  the  Glasgow 
Technical  College,  and  the  Brad- 
ford Technical  College. 

In  the  United  States,  the  insti- 
tute of  technology  has  received 
far  more  attention  and  attained 
a  much  larger  development  than 
any  other  form  of  technical  or 
industrial  school.  This  devel- 
opment has  resulted  in  a  type 
of  institution  equal  in  practical 
value  to  the  most  advanced 
schools  of  European  countries. 

The  Rensselaer  Polytechnic 
Institute  (q.v.),  the  first  of  such 
schools  established,  was  founded 
in  1824  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  by  Steph- 
en Van  Rensselaer,  the  last  of  the 
patroons,  as  a  school  of  applied 
science.  This  institution  soon 
took  the  form  of  a  school  of  civil 
engineering,  in  which  field  it  has 
retained  a  foremost  rank  to  the 
present  time,  and  its  long  list  of 
graduates  includes  many  of  the 
most  prominent  and  successful 
workers  in  this  profession. 

The  Rensselaer  Institute  re- 
mained the  only  example  of  a 
school  of  applied  science  until 
nearly  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  when,  in  response 
to  the  growing  demand  for  scien- 
tific instruction,  the  Sheffield 
Scientific  School  (1847)  and  the 
Lawrence  Scientific  School  (1848) 
were  founded  in  connection  re- 
spectively with  Yale  and  Har- 
vard Universities.  The  instruc- 
tion in  these  schools  was  at  first 
in  pure  rather  than  applied  sci- 
ence; but  later,  courses  of  a  true 
engineering  type  were  developed. 
It  was  the  period  of  the  Civil 
War,  and  the  years  immediately 
following,  however,  that  wit- 
nessed a  general  movement 
toward  the  establishment  of 
schools  of  technology.  The  en- 
ergy turned  back  at  this  time 
into  industrial  life,  the  increased 
knowledge  of  the  country's  re- 
sources, and  the  growth  of  rail- 
roads all  tended  to  set  in  motion 
a  powerful  current  of  industrial 
expansion.  Technical  training 
was  needed  to  fit  men  to  cope 
with  the  new  problems  presented. 
In  1861,  through  the  efforts  of 
William  Barton  Rogers,  the 
charter  of  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  (q.v.) 
was  granted,  and  in  1865  the  first 
classes  were  organized.  The  his- 
tory of  this  institution  is  illus- 
trative of  the  development  of 
higher  technical  education  in  the 
United  States.  From  a  school 
of  15  students  and  10  instructors 
in  1865,  it  had  grown  in  1927  to 
an  institution  with  an  enrolment 
of  1,900  students  and  a  teaching 
force,  including  lecturers,  of  300. 
Twenty-one  distinct  courses  of 
study  are  represented,  including 
civil  engineering,  mechanical  en- 
gineering,   mining  engineering 


and  metallurgy,  architecture, 
chemistry,  physics,  electrical  en- 
gineering, biology  and  public 
health,  chemical  engineering,  san- 
itary engineering,  naval  archi- 
tecture, geology  and  geodesy, 
electro-chemistry,  and  general 
science. 

The  Worcester  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute (q.v.)  was  founded  by 
John  Boynton,  a  successful  Mas- 
sachusetts merchant,  in  1864,  and 
was  opened  in  1867.  Shop  work 
has  been  one  of  the  prominent 
features  of  the  educational  work 
of  this  institution  since  its  foun- 
dation. In  1864  the  School  of 
Mines  of  Columbia  University 
was  created,  out  of  which  have 
grown  the  several  schools  under 
the  faculty  of  Applied  Science  in 
that  institution.  In  1865  Lehigh 
University  was  founded  by  the 
Hon.  Asa  Packer  of  Mauch 
Chunk,  and  in  1866  courses  in 
several  branches  of  engineering 
were  organized.  In  1871  the 
Stevens  Institute  of  Technology 
opened  its  classes.  The  Sibley 
College  of  Mechanical  Engineer- 
ing and  the  Mechanic  Arts  was 
organized  at  Cornell  University 
in  1872,  and  other  courses  in 
engineering  were  soon  added. 

In  the  next  twenty  years  a 
large  number  of  schools  of  ad- 
vanced rank  were  founded  either 
as  separate  institutions  or  de- 
partments of  universities.  The 
earlier  schools  were  mainly  on 
private  foundations,  but  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Morrill  Act  by  Con- 
gress in  1862,  under  which  large 
land  grants  were  made  to  the 
States  for  the  support  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  agricultural  and  me- 
chanical arts,  resulted  shortly 
in  the  inclusion  of  engineering 
departments  in  most  of  the 
Western  State  colleges  and  uni- 
versities. 

Among  those  of  the  first  group 
are  Purdue  University,  Lafay- 
ette, Ind.;  the  Rose  Polytechnic, 
Terre  Haute,  Ind.;  the  Case 
Schools  of  Applied  Science, 
Cleveland,  O.;  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania;  Washington  Uni- 
versity, St.  Louis,  Mo.;  and  the 
Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University 
of  California.  Of  later  estab- 
lishments are  the  Armour  Insti- 
tute of  Chicago,  the  Carnegie 
Technical  Schools  of  Pittsburgh 
and  others. 

Prominent  State  institutions 
are  the  Ohio  State  University, 
Michigan  College  of  Mines,  Col- 
orado State  School  of  Mines,  the 
Universities  of  Illinois,  Michigan, 
Minnesota,  Missouri,  Nebraska, 
Wisconsin,  and  California,  Penn- 
sylvania State  College,  and  the 
Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture 
and  Mechanical  Arts. 

The  progress  of  these  schools 
has  been  marked  by  the  develop- 
ment of  a  number  of  significant 
features  of  instruction.    To  be- 


TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1 .  General  View  of  the  Grounds  and  Bu'ldings  of  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  Hoboken,  N.J. 
2.  Buildings  of  the  School  of  Applied  Industries,  Carnegie  Technical  Schools,  Schenley  Park,  Pittsburg,  Pa. 


Vol.  XL— Page  641  B 


Vol.  XL— March  '28 


Technical  Education 


642 


Teeoma 


gin  with,  emphasis  has  from  the 
first  been  placed  upon  the  lab- 
oratory method  of  instruction, 
whether  in  the  study  of  pure 
science,  technical  problems,  or 
constructive  processes,  as  op- 
posed to  sole  reliance  upon  text 
books.  This  led  very  early  in 
the  progress  of  the  schools  to  the 
development  of  methods  of  lab- 
oratory instruction  for  large 
classes  in  physics  and  chemistry. 
Following  the  organization  of 
instruction  in  pure  science  came 
that  in  applied  science.  Mining 
and  metallurgical  laboratories 
for  the  treatment  of  ores  in  large 
quantities;  laboratories  of  indus- 
trial chemistry;  architectural  and 
mechanical  draughting  rooms; 
steam,  hydraulic,  and  electrical 
laboratories,  equipped  with  com- 
mercial apparatus;  laboratories 
for  testing  the  strength  of  mate- 
rials, and  for  many  other  pur- 
poses; and,  finally,  workshops  or 
laboratories  for  tool  instruction, 
where  knowledge  of  tools,  mate- 
rials, and  constructive  methods 
is  gained  by  practical  manipula- 
tion— were  successively  devel- 
oped as  instruments  of  instruc- 
tion. 

Another  feature  that  has  char- 
acterized the  instruction  in  many 
of  these  institutions  is  the  degree 
of  specialization  in  the  instruct- 
ing staff  made  possible  by  the 
large  numbers  of  students.  In 
these  larger  schools  professors 
are  found  not  only  at  the  head  of 
the  several  departments,  but  also 
in  charge  of  specialized  subdi- 
visions of  engineering  and  ap- 
plied science,  to  which  they  give 
their  entire  attention.  The 
courses  of  study  of  the  American 
schools  of  technology  almost 
universally  extend  through  four 
years,  and  the  requirements  of 
admission  are  similar,  as  a  rule, 
to  those  of  the  classical  college, 
with  the  exception  that  modern 
languages  are  usually  required 
in  place  of  Latin  or  Greek,  and 
the  requirements  in  science  and 
mathematics  are  more  severe. 

All  of  these  technical  schools, 
with  the  exception  of  those  of  a 
State  character,  are  supported 
by  the  income  of  endowment 
funds,  by  annual  gifts  from  indi- 
viduals or  other  agencies  inter- 
ested in  their  welfare,  and  by  the 
tuition  of  students.  In  several 
cases,  institutions  upon  a  private 
foundation  receive  a  certain 
amount  of  support  from  the 
States  in  which  they  are  located, 
in  consequence  of  which  a  num- 
ber of  free  scholarships  are  main- 
tained for  the  benefit  of  residents. 
In  the  State  universities,  the 
strikingly  liberal  support  which 
has  been  accorded  the  engi- 
neering and  agricultural  depart- 
ments of  late  years  by  certain 
States  of  the  Middle  West  has 
permitted  a  remarkable  exten- 

VOL.  XL— March  '28 


sion  of  buildings  and  equipment, 
and  has  allowed  these  institu- 
tions to  come  in  direct  competi- 
tion with  the  most  advanced 
schools  of  the  East. 

Practically  all  American  en- 
gineering schools  of  high  grade 
require  the  completion  of  a  sec- 
ondary school  for  admission  to 
their  courses.  Considerable  dis- 
cussion has  been  had  as  to  the 
advisability  of  requiring  a  gen- 
eral college  course  precedent  to 
admission  to  such  schools;  but 
the  actual  conditions  of  demand 
and  supply  indicate  that  for 
many  years  the  general  practice 
will  remain  as  at  present;  while 
in  a  few  instances,  under  favora- 
ble conditions,  it  is  probable  that 
distinctly  graduate  schools  of 
engineering  will  arise,  after  the 
example  of  the  Graduate  School 
of  Applied  Science  organized  at 
Harvard  University  in  1906. 

Students  who  successfully  pur- 
sue courses  of  study  in  American 
technical  schools  receive  either 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science 
or  some  one  of  the  professional 
engineering  degrees.  Some  prom- 
inent technical  schools  give  the 
degree  of  bachelor  of  science 
only;  while  others,  like  the  Shef- 
field Scientific  School  or  the 
Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute, 
grant  the  same  degree  at  the  end 
of  three  or  four  years  of  study, 
but  require  additional  work  of 
one  or  two  years  or  more  before 
conferring  the  professional  engi- 
neering degrees. 

According  to  the  report  of  the 
U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion for  1924,  there  were  137  uni- 
versities, colleges,  or  schools  of 
technology  in  the  United  States 
giving  courses  in  engineering. 
There  was  reported  a  total  of 
about  58,000  students  engaged 
in  engineering  studies,  among 
which  were  the  following:  civil 
engineering,  10,024;  chemical 
engineering,  4,141 ;  electrical  engi- 
neering, 14,002;  mechanical  en- 
gineering, 10,637;  mining  engi- 
neering, 2,771. 

Technical  Schools  of  Secondary 
Grade. — The  European  devel- 
opment of  such  schools  is  noted 
under  Industrial  Education 
(q.v.).  Prominent  among  such 
institutions  in  Germany,  France, 
and  England  are  special  schools 
for  the  textile  industry.  In  cer- 
tain of  these  schools  instruction 
of  a  very  high  grade  is  offered. 
Among  such  are  the  famous 
school  at  Crefeld,  Germany,  and 
the  Advanced  School  of  Weaving 
at  Lyons,  France.  Great  Brit- 
ain also  has  a  number  of  such 
schools  in  its  textile  centres,  as 
at  Bradford,  Manchester,  Hud- 
dersfield,  Halifax,  Bolton,  and 
Glasgow. 

Until  recent  years,  schools  of 
this  character  have  formed  the 
only  example  of  true  secondary 


technical  schools  in  the  United 
States.  The  Textile  School  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Museum  at 
Philadelphia,  established  in  1884, 
has  long  been  noted  for  the  high 
grade  of  its  instruction.  Massa- 
chusetts has  a  number  of  State- 
aided  schools.  That  at  Lowell 
has  the  advantage  of  particularly 
extensive  buildings  and  compre- 
hensive equipment.  In  the  South 
the  Textile  Department  of  the 
Georgia  School  of  Technology  at 
Atlanta  is  an  example  of  an  effi- 
cient and  well-equipped  school. 

Of  late  years  other  secondary 
technical  schools  have  appeared, 
such  as  the  day  courses  in  Ma- 
chine Design  and  Applied  Elec- 
tricity of  Pratt  Institute,  Brook- 
lyn, the  Technological  High 
School  of  the  Ohio  Mechanics 
Institute  at  Cincinnati,  and  cer- 
tain courses  in  the  Drexel  In- 
stitute, Philadelphia,  and  in  the 
Lewis  Institute  of  Chicago.  A 
movement  has  also  gained  con- 
siderable prominence  in  the  last 
few  years  toward  the  establish- 
ment of  technical  high  schools 
as  part  of  the  public  school  sys- 
tem. Examples  of  such  schools 
are  the  Technical  High  School 
of  Cleveland,  O.,  and  the  Poly- 
technic of  Baltimore,  Md.  Strong 
arguments  have  been  advanced 
toward  the  conversion  of  the 
manual  training  high  schools  into 
this  type  of  school.  See  separate 
articles  on  the  technical  schools 
mentioned;  Industrial  Educa- 
tion; Manual  Training; 
Schools  of  Engineering.  Con- 
sult Cooley's  Vocational  ^  Edu- 
cation in  Europe  (1912) ;  Roman's 
The  Industrial  and  Commercial 
Schools  of  the  United  States  and 
Germany  (1915);  Proceedings  of 
the  International  Congresses  for 
Technical  Commercial  and  In- 
dustrial Education. 

Teck,  ancient  duchy,  named 
after  a  now  ruined  castle  in 
Swabia  ( Wiirtemberg) .  The 
ducal  title  was  first  assumed  by 
Adalbert,  Duke  of  Zahringen,  in 
1152,  and  granted  by  Maximilian 
I.  (1495)  to  the  Duke  of  Wurtem- 
berg.  In  1863  the  children  of 
Alexander  of  Wiirtemberg  (1804- 
85)  were  raised  to  the  dignity. 
His  son  Francis  (1837-1900) 
married  (1866)  the  Princess  Mary 
of  Cambridge  (died  1897).  Their 
daughter.  Queen  Mary  of  Eng- 
land (q.v.),  was  married  (1893) 
to  George,  then  Prince  of  Wales. 
Queen  Mary's  brother  succeeded 
to  the  title  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  in  1900,  but  renounced  it 
during  the  Great  War  and  was 
created  Marquis  of  Cambridge. 

Tecoma,  te-ko'ma,  Trumpet 
Flower,  or  Trumpet  Creeper, 
a  genus  of  shrubs  belonging  to  the 
order  Bignoniaceae.  The  red  or 
orange  flowers  are  more  or  less 
tubular,  and  are  generally  borne 
in  racemes  or  panicles  at  the  ends 


TEMPORARY  PAGES  FOR  NELSON'S  L.  L.  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Insert  in  Volume  XI  at  page  642 


TECHNOCRACY 

This  article  has  been  prepared 
by  the  Editorial  Staff  and  is 
based  largely  upon  material  sup- 
plied by  Mr.  William  H.  Smyth, 
an  engineer  of  Berkeley,  Cali- 
fornia, who  coined  the  word 
'Technocracy'  about  1912 — seven 
years  earlier  than  the  birthday 
generally  attributed  to  the  age 
of  that  word.  Our  gratitude  is 
due  to  Mr.  Smyth  for  permis- 
sion, readily  granted,  to  repro- 
duce his  own  words. 

THE  PUBLISHERS. 

'Technocracy  might  be  defined 
as  a  theory  of  social  organiza- 
tion and  a  system  of  national  in- 
dustrial management.  It  implies 
scientific  reorganization  of  na- 
tional energy  and  resources,  co- 
ordinating industrial  democracy 
to  effect  the  will  of  the  people. 
That  is  about  as  short  a  defini- 
tion of  Technocracy  as  I  can 
give.  The  history  of  its  incep- 
tion, which  I  published  in  book 
form  under  the  title  Concerning 
Irascible  Strong,  was  written  in 
1912,  but  was  not  published  until 
1926.  In  this  book  I  traced  the 
biological  history  of  the  human 
race  .  .  .  Origins  of  Society ; 
Social  Forces  ;  Modern  Civiliza- 
tion ;  Man  and  Society  ;  Man  and 
the  Universe  ;  Social  Mechanics 
and  Natural  Social  Laws.' 

Mr.  Smyth's  ideal  of  Technoc- 
racy is  'the  ultimate  control  of  all 
the  factors  of  production  and 
distribution  for  the  benefit  of  the 
entire  people  and  through  the 
employment  of  technicians  and 
scientists,  [that]  the  people  can 
through  democracy  state  their 
objective,  or  what  they  desire 
the  State  or  society  to  do  for 
them.  Technocracy  is  not  to 
be  confused  with  Communism,  to 
which  I  am  unequivocally  op- 
posed, since  it  is  counter  to  all 
that  is  either  base  or  good  in 
human  nature  and  which  totally 
ignores  the  biologic  factors 
which  I  have  stressed  in  my 
book  on  the  theory  of  Technoc- 
racy. 

'The  idea  embodied  in  Tech- 
nocracy proved  an  important 
factor  during  the  World  War, 
when  the  War  Industries  Board 
controlled  all  the  factors  of  pro- 
duction. It  contains  the  germ 
of  an  idea  which  should  prove  to 
be  the  solution  of  our  present 
economic  ills,  our  present  un- 


balanced production  and  con- 
sumption. .  .  .  The  lessons  we 
learned  [during  the  War]  might 
be  adapted  to  the  uses  of  peace 
instead  of  war. 

'Technocracy  starts  with  the 
proposition  that  the  United 
States  has  adopted  democracy 
as  its  basic  idea.  The  people 
of  the  United  States  [are] 
thoroughly  convinced  of  the 
fundamental  rightness  of :  (A) 
Private  property;  (B)  equality 
of  opportunity  and  equal  rights  ; 
(C)  personal  liberty  extending 
to  the  boundaries  of  the  equal 
rights  of  others. 

'Technocracy  proposes  a  new 
organization  of  society  which 
shall  include  democracy  and 
which  includes  the  above  ele- 
mentary factors.  It  presupposes 
an  economic  system  appropriate 
to  a  democracy  and  which  is  the 
will  of  the  entire  people,  ex- 
pressed through  a  census.  The 
will  of  the  people  is  to  be  the  na- 
tional objective,  i.e.,  that  which 
is  the  general  summation  of  their 
wants.  Technocracy  assumes 
that  no  organization  of  society 
would  be  possible  until  the  na- 
tional objective  was  named  .  .  . 
but  it  should  be  based  on  demo- 
cratic principles  or  the  rule  of 
the  majority.  Unless  that  is 
done,  then  the  entire  system  of 
democracy  should  be  abandoned. 
If  this  is  impossible,  that  we 
reach  some  true  national  objec- 
tive, then  democracy  is  a  failure. 
If  it  is  possible  to  sum  up  the 
various  wants  of  the  citizens  of 
the  United  States,  then  the  scien- 
tists and  technicians  could  set  up 
the  necessary  machinery  to  con- 
trol production  and  distribution 
of  goods  so  that  the  entire  wants 
of  the  Nation  could  be  sat- 
isfied. .  .  . 

'It  is  time  that  certain  eco- 
nomic theories  accepted  as  law 
be  scrutinized  in  the  face  of  the 
present  starvation  and  unem- 
ployment in  the  United  States, 
which  gives  us  the  weird  picture 
of  10,000,000  unemployed,  with 
crops  rotting  in  the  fields  and  the 
banks  bulging  with  money.  .  .  . 
The  Government  can  control  the 
currency.  It  can  guarantee  the 
people  that  its  money  need  not 
be  lessened  in  buying  power 
when  they  draw  it  from  the 
bank  in  their  old  age  to  support 
themselves.     By   this  constant 


shrinking  and  expansion  of  the 
currency,  much  of  it  done  with 
complete  knowledge  of  the  bank- 
ers, countless  millions  have  been 
made  by  insiders.  But  that 
shrinkage  actually  represents 
cold  cash  to  a  multitude  of  small 
people  whose  savings  have  prac- 
tically disappeared.  .  .  . 

'Through  the  extension  of 
credit,  the  interest  bill  of  the 
United  States  has  grown  so 
enormously  that  it  now  amounts 
to  about  $2  per  day  per  family. 
The  payment  of  that  interest  is 
hidden.  .  .  .  We  have  not  the 
ethical  right  to  mortgage  the 
future  and  say  to  our  unborn 
offspring,  'That's  all  right,  you 
can  pay  the  bill.'  We  are  now 
paying  the  interest  bills  which 
our  gullible  forefathers  left  for 
us  in  Government  bonds  and 
which  is  rolling  up  in  the  fashion 
of  a  snowball.  The  time  has  now 
arrived  when  there  is  actually 
not  enough  cash  in  the  world  to 
meet  the  interest  payments,  and 
hence  they  must  be  met  from 
the  commodities  produced  by 
others.  .  .  .  Our  whole  eco- 
nomic and  financial  system  is  so 
incredibly  unscientific,  so  irra- 
tional and  so  utterly  puerile  that 
were  it  not  for  custom,  its  glar- 
ing absurdities  would  long  ago 
have  sufficed  to  shock  our  moral 
sense  and  intelligence  into  ef- 
fective action.  The  'Wizard  of 
Finance,'  with  his  magic  wand, 
'Credit,'  filches  the  imagined 
products  of  imagined  future  toil 
of  unborn  generations  of  work- 
ers— a  doubly  thievish  process. 

'Our  economic  system  is  essen- 
tially autocratic  in  means,  meth- 
od and  objective.  Being  a 
leftover  from  an  age  of  preda- 
tory autocracy,  its  major  instinct 
is  self-centered  'greed  and  grab.' 
We  have  no  choice  but  to  choose 
freedom  to  pioneer  a  new  trail 
and  establish  a  course  uncharted 
in  history  or  by  the  dead  hand 
of  the  past.  The  scientist  and 
the  technician  have  solved  harder 
riddles  than  the  one  for  which 
we  are  now  seeking  a  solution. 
Is  there  no  solution  for  this  eco- 
nomic problem  under  which  in  a 
country  richest  in  raw  products 
of  mine,  farm  and  forest,  and  the 
cheapest  and  fastest  mass  ma- 
chine production,  there  is  still 
the  picture  of  men  able  and  will- 
ing to  work,  begging  for  enough 
113-D-3 


Technocracy 


2 


Technocracy 


to  sustain  life  ?  With  10,000,000 
unemployed  in  the  midst  of  all 
this  plenty,  there  should  be  in- 
centive enough  to  cause  the  best 
intellects  of  the  world  to  bend 
their  efforts  to  a  solution.  •  .  .  _ 
'Let  us  now  consider  the  gi- 
gantic 'credit'  debt.  Of  a  gross 
income  of  seventy  billion  dollars 
each  year,  the  workers  have  re- 
ceived but  twenty  billions,  the 
other  fifty  having  been  retained 
by  the  financial  interests  as  their 
share  in  profits  and  interest.  In 
addition  there  has  been  placed  a 
mortgage  on  the  future  amount- 
ing to  about  $10,000  for  each 
family.' 

The  author  recommends  for 
the  scrap-heap :  ( 1 )  Usages 
founded  on  the  autocratic  the- 
ories of  'The  State;'  (2)  con- 
ventions resting  upon  the  para- 
sitic idea  that  possession  is 
equivalent  to  production ;  (3) 
institutions  legalizing  'chance' 
as  a  controlling  factor  for  the 
distribution  of  goods;  (4)  'finan- 
cial magic'  practices  resting  upon 
the  fallacy  that  inanimate  ob- 
jects can  be  endowed  with  re- 
productive faculties,  such  as 
interest  on  money;  (5)  the 
mysteries  of  finance,  the  private 
sale  of  public  optimism  for 
gain — selling  'credit ;'  (6)  insti- 
tutions resting  upon  the  erron- 
eous notion  that  conventional 
symbols,  such  as  'bonds,'  'credit,' 
'Capital,'  are  equal  to  and  can 
perform  the  functions  which 
they  represent;  (7)  customs 
based  upon  mystic  symbolism 
and  the  fallacy  that  'money'  can 
perform  the  functions  of  life 
energy  or  the  products  they 
represent;  (8)  business  practices 
based  upon  the  antisocial  dictum 
that  'one  man's  misfortune  is 
another's  opportunity;'  (9)  all 
institutions  and  conventions  fa- 
cilitating the  functioning  of 
antisocial  predatory  and  para- 
sitic instincts;  (10)  the  strike- 
inducing  institutions  of  group 
industries,  based  upon  the 
hunger-slavery  idea  of  employer 
and  employee  organized  for  the 
greatest  human  efficiency  in  out- 
put of  products  for  purely  pri- 
vate profit.  To  replace  these 
undesirable  factors  in  our  civili- 
zation, the  author  substitutes  a 
healthier  and  more  philanthropic 
conception  for  each  one.  .  .  . 
'In  other  words.  Technocracy.' 
It  may  easily  be  seen  that  he  is 
no  friend  of  a  financial  system 
whereby  a  privileged  few  are 
enabled  to  'clean  up'  huge  sums 


without  rendering  any  return  for 
such  undeserved  gains. 

Above  all  the  propositions  of 
natural  social  law,  Mr.  Smyth 
stresses  the  importance  of  the 
family  as  'the  basis  of  any  so- 
ciety.' He  claims  that  'to  deny 
that  we  can  control  our  social 
and  economic  environment  is  to 
deny  that  man,  in  his  social  re- 
lations, has  a  will  of  his  own,' 
and  that  'the  social  problem  does 
not  offer  a  tithe  of  the  real  diffi- 
culties that  presented  themselves 
to  pioneers  in  a  dozen  fields,  from 
steam  to  radio.'  He  is  satisfied 
that  'at  the  foundation  of  our 
economic  and  monetary  system 
there  exists  some  serious  basic 
fallacy  ;  that  the  sudden  rise  of 
commercialism  is  bringing  to  the 
surface  the  effects  of  this  fal- 
lacy. The  defects  of  the  system 
are  becoming  daily  more  appar- 
ent. Faced  with  bankruptcy,  we 
will  ultimately,  through  neces- 
sity, take  the  needed  steps  to 
correct  these  defects.  Why 
shouldn't  we  tackle  the  job  now,' 
he  asks,  'rather  than  to  wait  until 
the  entire  structure  tumbles 
about  our  ears  ?' 

The  originator  of  Technocracy 
suggested  no  definite  plan  for 
putting  its  philosophy  into  prac- 
tice ;  nor  did  he  propose  the  sub- 
stitution of  ergs,  joules  or  cal- 
ories for  pay-checks  and  nego- 
tiable currency.  He  contented 
himself  with  pointing  out  the 
weaknesses  of  the  existing  sys- 
tem— haphazard  and  precarious 
in  operation — and  proposed  to 
replace  it  by  a  more  scientific 
arrangement,  consciously  di- 
rected towards  the  attainment  of 
a  'national  objective'  consonant 
with  the  tenets  of  democracy. 
'An  army  is  officered  by  military 
specialists,'  he  says ;  'business 
organization  is  officered  by  busi- 
ness specialists ;  an  industrial 
democracy — a  democracy  of 
technical  industries — should  be 
officered  by  technical  specialists 
.  .  .  not  a  mechanistic  scheme  of 
production  engineering,  but  a 
vital  principle  and  a  philosophy 
of  social  organization  which 
would  permit  free  citizens  of  a 
free  land  to  self-consciously 
order  their  own  lives  and  con- 
trol the  destiny  of  their  nation.' 
In  short,  it  is  a  plea  that  those 
vv^ho  direct  the  complex  opera- 
tions of  government,  of  produc- 
tion and  distril)ution,  should  be 
trained  specialists,  instead  of 
ambitious  politicians. 

In  August,  1932  it  was  an- 


nounced that  a  group  of  scien- 
tists and  engineers  had  been 
working  at  Columbia  University 
since  1920  on  an  'Energy  Survey 
of  North  America,'  under  the 
direction  of  Mr.  Howard  Scott. 
It  was  asserted  in  the  press  that 
the  theories  underlying  this  sur- 
vey were  largely  based  upon  the 
writings  of  the  late  Thorstein 
Veblen  of  New  York  and  Dr. 
Soddy  of  England.  Critics 
speedily  attacked  this  revised 
version  of  Technocracy  and  dis- 
puted the  figures  and  graphs 
when  some  were  published  in 
November,  1932.  A  heated  de- 
bate arose  in  the  newspaper  and 
periodical  press ;  books  and 
pamphlets  appeared,  also  re- 
views devoted  to  Technocracy. 
Statistics  flew  back  and  forth ; 
visions  were  painted  of  a  na- 
tion governed  by  'robots'  and 
monster  machinery ;  every  indi- 
vidual was  reduced  to  a  cog  in 
the  great  dynamo  of  Techno- 
cratic government.  The  scheme 
was  described  as  'Communism' 
or  'Socialism,'  while  Edward 
Bellamy's  Looking  Backward  of 
the  'eighties  was  regarded  as  the 
harbinger  of  'The  Machine  Age.' 
After  three  months  of  hectic  life 
the  word  Technocracy  almost 
disappeared  from  the  jour- 
nals. The  simple  propositions  of 
Smyth  became  so  involved  and 
expanded  that  they  were  as  diffi- 
cult to  grasp  as  the  theory  of 
relativity. 

'In  appropriating  the  word 
'Technocracy'  as  the  name  for 
their  association,'  Smyth  wrote, 
'they  have  so  confused  its  mean- 
ing that  the  people  in  the  Eastern 
States  are  getting  an  entirely  er- 
roneous impression  regarding  its 
true  meaning.  This  error  is 
emphasized  by  the  fact  that  they 
dub  themselves  'Technocrats.'  I 
carefully  avoided  using  the  word 
Technocrat,  for  this  word  would 
carry  the  connotation  that  we 
were  to  be  ruled  by  a  group  of 
scientists,  economists,  engineers 
and  industrialists.  .  .  .  They 
have  taken  the  name,  but  not  the 
democratic  spirit  of  Technocracy. 
Hence  they  have  developed  a 
mechanistic  system  adapted  to 
mechanical  robots  and  expect  to 
apply  this  system  to  the  social 
affairs  of  free  men.  ...  A 
technograph  is  most  notable  for 
what  it  cannot  show.  ...  It 
was  not  robots  I  had  in  mind ; 
it  was  men,  free  men  of  whom  I 
was  thinking  when  I  coined  the 
word  Technocracy.' 


Tecumseh 

of  the  branches.  Moderately  rich 
soil  and  plenty  of  water  in  sum- 
mer are  required.  The  common 
trumpet  flower  {T.  radicans)^  is 
a  hardy  North  American  species. 
It  reaches  a  height  of  over  twenty 
feet,  bearing  terminal  corymbs 
of  scarlet  flowers.  The  Australian 
wonga-wonga  vine  {T.  australis) 
also  belongs  to  this  genus. 

Tecumseh.  (1.)  Vil.,  Lenawee 
CO.,  Mich.,  52  m.  w.s.w.  of  De- 
troit, on  the  Raisin  R.,  and  on 
the  Det.,  Tol.  and  Iron.,  the 
Det.,  Tol.  and  Mil.,  and  the  L. 
Shore  and  Mich.  S.  R.  Rs.  Shops 
of  the  Detroit,  Toledo  and  Iron- 
ton  R.  R.  are  situated  here  and 
there  are  manufactories  of  wire 
fence,  iron  products,  clay-work- 
ing machinery,  mail  boxes,  stoves, 
lumber,  flour,  macaroni,  paper, 
doors,  engines,  etc.  Grain,  cel- 
ery, and  fruit,  especially  peaches, 
are  grown  in  the  district,  and 
horses  _  and  cattle  are  raised. 
There  is  a  public  library.  The  old 
Peninsular  Building,  erected  in 
1827,  is  a  feature  of  the  place. 
Tecumseh  was  settled  and  mcor- 
porated  as  a  village  in  1824. 
Pop.  (1910)  2,332.  (3.)  City, 
Neb.,  CO.  seat  of  Johnson  co.,  41 
m.  s.E.  by  s.  of  Lincoln,  on  the 
Nemaha  R.,  and  on  the  Chi., 
Burl,  and  Quin.  R.  R.  It  manu- 
factures flour  and  is  situated  in  a 
productive  agricultural  region. 
Pop.  (1910)  1,748. 

Tecumseh  (Tecumthe,  or  Te- 
CUMTHA)  {c.  1775-1813).  Cele- 
brated Indian  chief,  born  near  the 
site  of  what  is  now  Springfield,  O. 
His  father  was  a  Shawnee  and  his 
mother  a  Creek  or  Cherokee,  who 
had  been  adopted  into  the  Shaw- 
nee tribe.  In  common  with  most 
Indians  he  felt  a  bitter  disUke 
toward  the  whites,  and  when 
about  thirty  years  old,  with  his 
brother,  Ellskwatawa,  better 
known  as  '  the  Prophet, '  he 
evolved  a  plan  for  an  Indian  con- 
federation against  the  whites.  In 
this  work  he  was  assisted  by 
English  agents;  and,  thanks  to 
his  splendid  talents  for  leadership 
and  to  the  hostility  felt  by  the 
Indians  toward  the  whites,  he 
succeeded  in  gaining  many  con- 
verts to  his  views.  About  1808  he 
established  a  village  near  where 
Tippecanoe  creek  empties  into 
the  Wabash,  and  there  proceeded 
to  carry  into  practice  his  theory 
that  the  Indians  should  return  to 
their  early  primitive  condition  and 
abstain  from  whiskey  and  other 
practices  introduced  by  the  whites. 
About  1811  he  made  a  visit  to  the 
southern  Indians,  and  while  there 
kindled  sparks  that  in  1813  were 
to  burst  into  a  flame.  In  his  ab- 
sence his  followers  were  defeated 
on  November  7,  1811,  by  Gen. 
W.  H.  Harrison  in  the  battle  of 
Tippecanoe.  When  the  War  of 
1812  came,  he  joined  the  British 
forces,  assisted  in  the  capture  of 


643 

Detroit,  in  the  siege  of  Fort 
Meigs,  and  in  various  other  opera- 
tions, and  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  the  Thames  while  op- 
posing the  mounted  Kentuckians 
under  Col.  Richard  M.  Johnson. 
Of  all  the  Indian  chiefs  concerning 
whom  we  have  any  reliable  ac- 
counts, Tecumseh  was  certainly 
one  of  the  ablest,  if  not  the  ablest. 
The  importance  of  the  part  he 
played  m  assisting  the  British 
could  scarcely  be  overestimated. 
In  fact,  some  historians  are  of  the 
opinion  that  if  it  had  not  been  for 
him  the  Americans  would  have 
been  able  to  conquer  Canada. 
He  also  appears  to  have  been 
more  humane  than  most  Indians. 
His  Life  has  been  written  by  Drake 
(1841)  and  by  Eggleston  (1778). 

Te  Deum  Laudamus  ('We 
praise  Thee,  O  God').  The  author 
of  this  very  beautiful  hymn  is 
unknown,  though  an  ancient  tra- 
dition ascribes  it  to  St.  Ambrose 
and  St.  Augustine.  An  old  Galil- 
ean psalter  ascribes  it  to  Nicetius 
of  Treves;  also  Hilary  of  Poitiers 
has  been  mentioned,  and  many 
others.  It  is  probably  of  later 
origin  than  all  these  traditions 
claim.  The  earliest  allusions  to 
the  hymn  are  in  the  rule  of  Cae- 
sarius,  bishop  of  Aries  (c.  527). 
In  morning  prayer  in  the  Pro- 
testant Episcopal  Church  and 
Church  of  England  the  Te  Deum 
occurs  after  the  lesson  from  the 
Old  Testament,  with  the  Bene- 
dicite  as  an  alternative.  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  office  it  is  used 
on  Sundays  and  certain  festivals, 
and  forms  part  of  the  daily  matins 
of  the  breviary. 

Teddington,  vil.  and  residen- 
tial dist.  on  the  Thames,  Middle- 
sex, England,  at  head  of  tidal 
flow,  3  m.  s.w.  of  Richmond. 
Bushey  Park,  with  the  national 
physical  laboratory  (1902),  is  ad- 
jacent.   Pop.  (1911)  17,840. 

Tees,  riv.,  England,  rises  on 
Crossfell,  Cumberland,  and  flows 
mainly  east,  separating  Durham 
from  York.  In  its  upper  course 
are  the  waterfalls  or  Caldron 
Snout  and  High  Force,  and  below 
Middlesbrough  it  forms  a  wide 
estuary.   Length,  75  m. 

Teeth  are  calicified  structures 
arising  from  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  mouth  in  verte- 
brates, and  are  strictly  homolo- 
gous with  the  so-called  skin-teeth 
or  dermal  dent'"les  of  elasmo- 
branch  fishes.  _  By  extension  the 
term  'tooth'  is  also  applied  to 
hard  structures  found  in  inverte- 
brates, as  the  grinding  organs 
in  the  gizzard  of  the  crayfish 
and  the  hard  processes  on  the 
radula  of  molluscs.  Teeth  arise 
from  papillae  of  the  mouth  epi- 
thelium, and  are  primitively 
more  or  less  conical  structures. 
A  typical  tooth  consists  of  the  fol- 
lowing parts:  Externally  there 
is  a  layer  of  enamel,  which  arises 


Teeth 

from  the  outer  layer  of  the  em- 
bryo, and  is  an  exceedingly  hard 
substance,  containing  but  little 
organic  matter.  Beneath  the 
enamel  lies  the  dentine  or  ivory 
of  the  tooth,  which  arises  from 
the  middle  layer  of  the  embryo, 
and  is  not  so  hard  as  the  enamel. 
Dentine  is  a  substance  analo- 
gous to  bone,  and  is  penetrated 
throughout  by  a  series  of  fine 
canals,  which  open  into  the  cen- 
tral cavity  of  the  tooth — the  pulp 
cavity.  Within  the  pulp  cavity 
lies  the  pulp,  consisting  of  fine 
blood-vessels  and  nerve  fibrils. 
In  some  teeth  the  pulp  cavity  is 
widely  open  below,  while  in  other 
cases  the  fully  formed  tooth  be- 
comes narrowed  below,  so  that 
the  pulp  is  constricted.  Such  a 
tooth  is  said  to  be  rooted,  the  nar- 
rowed-region  being  the  root  or 
fang,,  which  penetrates  into  the 
gum.  The  otner  type  of  tooth  is 
rootless,  and  teeth  of  this  type 
continue  to  grow  throughout  life. 
Teeth  frequently  display  also  a 
third  layer,  known  as  cement. 
This,  when  present,  is  the  most 
external  layer  of  the  tooth,  and 
is  frequently  confined  to  the  basal 
region. 

Teeth  are  absent  in  cyclostomes, 
but  are  typically  present  in  fishes. 
In  fishes,  as  in  most  vertebrates 
except  mammals,  the  teeth  are 
usually  only  used  for  seizing  and 
biting  the  food,  not  for  purposes 
of  mastication.  They  are  fre- 
quently very  numerous,  and  are 
not  confined  to  the  jaws,  but 
occur  over  many  of  the  bones  of 
the  mouth.  They  are  usually  all 
alike — a  condition  described  as 
homodont.  There  is,  however,  no 
vertical  replacement  as  in  the 
familiar  case  of  mammals.  For 
example,  in  the  shark,  as  the  teeth 
are  worn  away  in  front  their 
place  is  taken  by  fresh  teeth, 
which  grow  forward  from  behind. 
In  fish  the  teeth  do  not  lose  their 
primitive  position  as  epidermal 
papillae,  and  have  no  intimate 
connection  with  the  bones  upon 
which  they  are  placed. 

In  living  amphibia  the  chief 
difference  from  fish  as  regards 
the  teeth  is  shown  in  the  reduc- 
tion in  number.  In  certain  fossil 
forms,  however,  the  teeth  attain 
a  great  complexity  owing  to  the 
way  in  which  the  enamel  layer  is 
infolded. 

In  reptiles  the  teeth  are  also 
relatively  few  in  number.  The 
most  noticeable  advance  is,  how- 
ever, the  method  of  insertion.  In 
reptiles  generally  the  teeth  are 
firmly  fused  to  the  bones  of  the 
jaw;  but  in  the  higher  forms 
they  are  placed  in  sockets,  after  a 
fashion  similar  to  that  which  pre- 
vails in  mammals.  (For  the  pe- 
culiar fangs  of  snakes,  see  that 
article.)  In  certain  fossil  reptiles 
the  beginnings  of  the  conditions 
peculiar  to  the   mammals  have 


Teeth 


644 


Teeth 


been  observed.  In  all  living  birds 
teeth  are  absent,  but  some  fossil 
birds  had  teeth  of  a  reptilian  type. 

It  is  in  mammals  that  the  teeth 
invariably  show  a  more  or  less 
perfect  adaptation  to  the  animal's 


in  the  young  ornithorhynchus, 
and  are  there  simple.  In  the 
marsupials  the  teeth  show  a  gen- 
eral resemblance  to  those  -  of  the 
placentals;  but  the  number  and 
the  succession  are  different,  and 


(incisors)  are  adapted  for  biting — 
i.e.  cutting— the  food;  the  next 
tooth  to  the  incisors  at  each  side 
is  the  canine  or  dog  tooth,  and 
is  usually  a  weapon,  as  in  the  car- 
nivores, or  a  sexual  ornament  and 
weapon  combined,  as  in  some  un- 
gulates {e.g.  pig).  Finally,  there 
IS  a  series  of  cheek  teeth,  whose 
function  is  the  mastication  of 
the  food.  Generally  speaking, 
they  have  broad  crushmg  sur- 
faces in  herbivorous  mammals, 
and  cutting  edges  in  carnivorous 
ones,  for  these  bolt  their  meat 
in  relatively  large  pieces.  The 
cheek  teeth  are  the  most  com- 
plex. The  second  peculiarity  is 
the  reduction  in  number.  The 
teeth  in  mammals  are  entirely 
confined  to  the  bones  of  the  jaw 
— i.e.  there  are  no  teeth  on  the 
roof  of  the  mouth,  and  the 
number  is  always  fixed  for  the 
species.  Further,  in  placentals 
in  general  the  maximum  number 
is  forty-four,  though  there  are 
some  placental  mammals  in  which 
this  number  is  greatly  exceeded. 
The  third  notable  peculiarity  of 
the  mammalian  dentition  is  that 
there  are  two  sets  of  teeth,  known 
respectively  as  the  milk  and  adult 
dentition.  The  members  of  the 
adult  dentition  vertically  replace 
the  members  of  the  milk  dentition; 
but  *he  adult  set  always  contains 
mor^,  teeth  than  the  milk  set. 
Some  mammals  show  traces  of 
more  than  two  sets. 

The  different  kinds  of  teeth  in 
a  mammal  are  defined  as  fol- 
lows. The  teeth  borne  on  the 
premaxillary  bone  are  incisors,  as 
are  also  the  corresponding  teeth 
of  the  lower  jaw.  The  maximum 
number  of  incisors  in  a  placental 
is  three  at  each  side  above  and 
below.  The  tooth  immediately 
behind  the  suture  between  the 
maxillary  and  premaxillary  bones 
is  the  canine,  and  the  lower  canine 
bites  in  front  of  the  upper.  There 
is  never  more  than  one  canine  at 
each  side  in  each  jaw.  The  pre- 
molars are  those  cheek  teeth 
which  replace  the  milk  molars 
of  the  young  animal.  These 
teeth  are  called  'bicuspids'  in 
human  anatomy.  Though  only 
two  bicuspids  are  present  in  man, 
yet  four  at  each  side,  above  and 
below,  is  the  typical  number  for 
a  placental.  Behind  the  pre- 
molars lie  the  molars,  which  have 
no  milk  predecessors;  the  typical 
number  of  these  is  three.  It  is 
convenient  to  sum  up  the  number 
of  teeth  in  a  mammal  in  what  is 
known  as  a  dental  formula.  The 
following  is  the  dental  formula 

of  the  pigr-g     f^i  c,  pm., 
m.  =  44.    The  upper  row  of 

figures  indicates  the  teeth  of  the 
upper  jaw,  and  the  lower  those  of 
the  lower  jaw. 

Man^  like  his  near  allies,  has 
a  relatively  unspecialized  type  of 


UPPER  JAW  n 


mm 

,        LOWER  JAW  V 


Teeth. 

1.  Dentition  of  man.  2.  Of  hyena.  3.  Of  pip.  4.  Of  Patagonian  cavy.  5.  Section  of 
skull  of  Indian  elephant,  showing  dentition  of  right  side.  6.  Crown  of  upper  molar  of 
horse,  showing  enamel  folds.  7.  Grinding  surface  of  molar  of  African  elephant,  with 
enamel  folds.  8.  Single  tooth  of  blue  shark.  9.  Longitudinal  section  of  human  tooth. 
I,  Incisors ;  c,  canines ;  p,  premolars :  M,  molai's.  a,  enamel ;  b,  dentine ;  c,  cement 
Icrusta  petrosa) ;  d,  pulp  cavity. 


diet  and  mode  of  life.  Mammals 
are  largely  classified  by  the  char- 
acters of  their  teeth.  All  general 
statements  regarding  the  teeth 
of  mammals  must,  however,  be 
regarded  as  referring  primarily 
to  the  placental  mammals.  In 
monotremes  mammalian  teeth  are 
present,  so  far  as  is  known,  only 


cannot  be  readily  referred  to  the 
same  type. 

The  first  notable  peculiarity  of 
the  teeth  of  marnmals  is  their 
want  of  uniformity:  they  are 
heterodont  instead  of  homodont. 
With  the  difference  of  shape 
comes  a  well-marked  difference 
of  function.    The  anterior  teeth 


Teething 


645 


Tegner 


dentition,  adapted  for  a  mixed 
diet.  Owing  to  the  shortening 
of  the  jaw  which  has  taken  place 
in  all  civilized  races,  the  teeth 
are  crowded  together,  especially 
in  the  lower  jaw.  In  conse- 
quence there  is  little  room  for 
the  third  molar,  the  so-called 
wisdom  tooth,  which  should  cut 
the  gum  at  maturity;  and  this 
tooth  often  remains  rudimentary, 
and  does  not  cut  the  gum  at  all. 
In  many  other  cases  its  develop- 
ment produces  discomfort  of 
such  a  nature  that  its  removal 
becomes  imperative.  See  Den- 
tistry. 

Consult  Hyatt's  The  Teeth  and 
Their  Care  (1906);  Bell's  Our 
Teeth:  How  to  Take  Care  of 
Them  (1907),  and  Popular  Essays 
on  the  Care  of  the  Teeth  (1911); 
The  Teeth  and  Their  Care  (On- 
tario Agricultural  College  Bulle- 
tin i8i,  1910). 

Teething,  of  children.  While 
the  period  of  cutting  the  teeth  is 
frequently  associated  with  some 
disturbance  of  health,  a  great 
many  ailments,  from  thrush  to 
convulsions,  are  wrongly  attrib- 
uted to  teething,  and  therefore 
fail  to  receive  proper  treatment. 
The  eruption  of  the  teeth,  how- 
ever, is  often  accompanied  by 
slight  feverishness  which  may 
induce  respiratory  and  aliment- 
ary catarrhs,  neglect  of  which 
may  lead  to  more  serious 
trouble.  But  in  healthy  chil- 
dren some  irritation  of  the  gums, 
slight  fretfulness,  and  transient 
sleeplessness  are  the  principal 
disturbing  symptoms  of  teething; 
and  teething  powders  and  mix- 
tures are  unnecessary,  and  often 
positively  harmful.  Equally 
unreasonable  is  indiscriminate 
gujn  lancing. 

The  following  table  shows  the 
order  in  which  the  milk  teeth 
(20  in  number)  usually  appear, 
with  the  average  age  of  the  child 
at  the  time  of  their  appearance 
through  the  gums  (the  earlier 
periods  may  vary  by  two  or 
three  months) : 

r>^  +  1  T^„:<,«,=  J  2  lower  .  6  months 
Central  Incisors  j  2  upper.  7  ;; 

Lateral  Inciaors  ]  |  j^^^^^/ ;  !! 

First  Molars  (4)  12 

Canines  (4)  18 

Second  Molars  (4)  .   .  .  .24  " 

See  Child. 

Teetotalism.  See  Temper- 
ance. 

Tefft,  Benjamin  Franklin 
(1813-8.5),  American  clergyman, 
was  born  in  Floyd,  N.  Y.,  and 
was  graduated  (1835)  at  Wes- 
leyan.  He  was  professor  of 
Greek  and  Hebrew  in  the  present 
De  Pauw  University  from  1843 
to  1846,  and  in  1846  became 
editor  of  the  Cincinnati  Metho- 

VOL.  XL— 45. 


dist  Book  Concern.  He  edited 
the  Ladies'  Repository  (1846-52); 
was  president  of  Genesee  College, 
Lima,  N.  Y.  (1851-4);  and  was 
U.  S.  consul  and  acting  minister 
at  Stockholm,  Sweden  (1861-4). 
From  1873  to  1878  he  edited 
the  Northern  Border,  at  Bangor. 
Some  of  his  books  are  The 
Shoulder  -  Knot  (1850);  Method- 
ism Successful  (1860);  The  Pres- 
ent Crisis  (1861). 

Tegea,  an  ancient  city  of  Ar- 
cadia, Greece.  Its  foundation 
was  traditionally  ascribed  to 
King  Aleus;  while  another  king, 
Echemus,  figures  prominently  in 
the  legends  relating  to  the  Hera- 
clid  invasion.  Sparta  had  long 
striven  to  conquer  it,  and  in  550 
B.C.  succeeded.  The  Tegeans 
took  an  active  part  in  the  war 
against  the  Persians,  and  at  the 
Battle  of  Plataea  were  the  first 
to  enter  the  enemy's  camp.  In 
473  B.C.  Argos  and  Arcadian 
cities  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  Tegea  against  Sparta;  but 
the  former  met  defeat,  and  after 
a  time  Tegea  also  submitted. 
After  the  defeat  of  the  Spartans 
at  the  Battle  of  Leuctra,  in  371 
B.C.,  Tegea  joined  the  rest  of 
Arcadia  in  becoming  independ- 
ent. In  222  B.C.  it  entered  the 
Achaean  League,  and  with  the 
others  of  that  confederacy  was 
conquered  by  Rome  in  146  B.C. 

The  subsequent  history  of  the 
city  is  for  the  most  part  obscure. 
It  ceased  to  exist  as  a  Greek  city 
after  the  Gothic  invasion  of  395 

A.  D.,  and  later  the  Franks  built 
the  fortress  of  Nikli  on  its  site. 
The  foundations  of  the  city  wall 
have  been  discovered,  and  many 
bronze  and  terra-cotta  objects  re- 
covered in  recent  excavations. 
Here  was  a  magnificent  temple 
of  Athene,  built  by  Scopas  in  394 

B.  C. 

Tegernsee,  charming  mountain 
lake  resort,  between  the  Isar 
and  the  Inn,  Upper  Bavaria, 
at  an  altitude  of  2,400  feet;  27 
miles  (Gmund  station)  southeast 
of  Munich.  The  lake  is  about 
4  miles  in  length  and  1  mile  in 
breadth,  and  is  surrounded  by 
handsome  villas  of  summer  resi- 
dents. Its  waters  discharge 
through  the  Mangfall  into  the 
Inn. 

The  village  of  Tegernsee,  sit- 
uated on  the  east  side  of  the  lake, 
has  a  ducal  castle,  which  was 
formerly  a  Benedictine  monas- 
tery, an  ophthalmic  hospital, 
and  a  church  dating  from  the 
fifteenth  century. 

Te  getme  I  er,  William  B. 
(1816^l'>\*:nglish  naturalist  and 
journalist,  was  born  in  Coin- 
brook,  Buckinghamshire.  H  e 
was  educated  at  the  University 
College,  London,  and  afterward 


studied  medicine.  Becoming 
interested  in  Darwin's  work,  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
variation  in  animals,  and  made 
many  important  observations, 
in  part  embodied  in  Darwin's 
Origin  and  Variation.  He  was 
for  some  time  lecturer  to  the 
Zoological  Society,  and  was  on 
the  staff  of  the  Field  for  over 
forty-five  years.  In  addition  to 
a  series  of  books  on  practical 
poultry  raising,  his  publications 
include:  The  Homing  Pigeon 
(1872);  Cranes  (1881);  Horses, 
Zebras,  and  Mule  Breeding  (with 
C.  L.  Sutherland,  189.5);  The 
House  Sparrow  (1899);  Pheas- 
ants (revised  edition,  1910). 

Tegetthoff,  Wilhelm  Baron 
VON  (1827-71),  Austrian  admiral, 
was  born  in  Marburg,  Styria. 
He  took  part  (1848)  in  the  block- 
ade of  Venice.  In  command  of 
the  Austrian  squadron,  he  gave 
battle  successfully  to  the  Danes 
at  Helgoland  in  1864.  In  the 
War  of  1866,  at  the  head  of  the 
Austrian  fleet,  he  defeated  the 
larger  Italian  fleet  off  Lissa.  He 
was  sent  to  Mexico  to  obtain 
the  body  of  Maximilian  from  the 
government  (1867). 

Tegner,  Esaias  (1782-1846), 
Swedish  poet,  was  born  in  Kyr- 
kerud,  Vermland.  In  1802  he 
became  lecturer  in  philosophy  at 
Lund  University.  In  1811  he 
wrote  the  fervidly  patriotic  ode 
Svea,  which  was  crowned  by  the 
Academy,  and  marked  a  turning 
point  in  Swedish  literature.  In 
1812,  after  becoming  professor 
of  Greek,  he  was  ordained.  Hith- 
erto he  had  remained  neutral  dur- 
ing the  contest  between  the  classi- 
cal and  the  romantic  school  in 
Sweden;  but  the  violence  of  the 
latter  now  moved  him  energeti- 
cally to  protest  against  their  intol- 
erant obscurantism,  and  his  new 
poems  powerfully  contributed  to 
the  dissolution  of  'Phosphorism' 
in  Sweden.  In  1820  appeared  his 
religious  idyll,  Nattvardsbarnen; 
in  1822  the  poetical  romance. 
Axel  (Eng.  trans.);  and  in  1825, 
Frithiof  s  Saga  (Eng.  trans.), 
which  established  his  reputation 
as  one  of  the  greatest  of  Sweden's 
poets.  In  1824  he  was  made 
tishop  of  Vexio.  In  his  declin- 
ing years  he  suffered  from  mel- 
ancholia, and  was  for  a  time  un- 
der restraint. 

In  all  his  writings  Tegner  took 
a  way  of  his  own,  equally  remote 
from  French  classicism  and  Ger- 
man romanticism.  His  lively 
wit,  glowing  fancy,  and  genuine 
humor,  well  controlled  by  a  severe 
self-criticism,  which  aimed  at 
and  attained  absolute  formal 
perfection,  made  him  one  of  the 
most  commanding  figures  in 
Scandinavian  literature.    As  a 


Tegucigalpa 


645  A 


Teheran 


critic,  also,  he  did  excellent  work. 
The  best  translation  of  the 
Frithiofs  Saga  is  by  Longfellow, 
who  also  translated  Natlvards- 
barnen  {The  Children  of  the 
Lord's  Supper) .  Consult  his  Col- 
lected Works;  Bottiger's  Tegner's 
Lefnad;  B  r  a  n  d  e  s'  E.  Tegner; 
Erdman's  Esaias  Tegner. 

Tegucigalpa,  city,  capital  of 
Honduras  and  of  Tegucigalpa 
province,  about  95  miles  north- 
east of  San  Salvador,  on  the 
Choluteca  River.  It  is  situated 
on  a  table  land  at  an  elevation  of 
about  3,225  feet.  Silver  mining 
is  the  chief  industry  of  the  neigh- 
borhood, some  of  the  mines  being 


Nicaraguan  invaders.  Pop. 
(1911)  22,137. 

Tehama.    See  Arabia. 

Teheran  (Tehran),  city,  cap- 
ital of  Persia,  and  of  the  province 
of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  a 
fertile  table  land,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  about  4,000  feet;  65  miles 
south  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  the 
snow-capped  range  of  the  El- 
burg  Mountains  lying  between. 
The  city  is  surrounded  by  a 
castellated  wall  11  miles  long, 
and  encircled  by  a  moat.  In 
1869  it  was  enlarged  and  partially 
rebuilt  by  Nasiru'ddin.  There 
are  a  dozen  gateways  into  the 
city,  some  of  them  ornamented 


chief  object  of  interest  is  the 
Palace,  which  is  situated  in  the 
centre  of  the  city,  and  which, 
with  its  gardens,  has  an  area  of 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  en- 
closed by  high  walls.  It  con- 
tains a  museum  in  which  is  ex- 
hibited a  collection  of  priceless 
jewels,  among  them  the  famous 
gold  globe  with  the  several  coun- 
tries inset  with  jewels,  valued  at 
$4,000,000;  the  great  diamond, 
Darya-i-Nur  (Sea  of  Light) ;  and 
the  celebrated  jika,  or  diamond 
aigrette,  worn  by  the  Shah  on 
state  occasions.  A  magnificent 
throne,  made  partly  from  the 
broken  remains  of  the  '  Peacock  ' 


Teheran 


very  old.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and 
sugar  cane  is  grown  on  a  large 
scale.  Noteworthy  features  of 
the  city  are  the  Cathedral,  the 
finest  edifice  in  the  country.  Na- 
tional University,  and  a  semi- 
nary for  women.  There  are  two 
flouring  mills,  a  sugar  refinery, 
rum  distillery,  two  breweries,  and 
a  soap  and  candle  works.  Most 
of  the  houses  are  in  bungalow 
style,  and  built  round  a  central 
court;  the  windows,  for  the  most 
part,  are  without  glass.  The 
city  is  connected  by  a  bridge 
with  its  chief  suburb,  Con- 
cepcion.  In  1910  the  govern- 
ment instituted  a  course  of  in- 
struction for  school  children  in 
the  art  of  weaving  Panama  hats. 
Amapala  is  the  port  of  Teguci- 
galpa, and  the  exports  are  chiefly 
mineral  products.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth century  Tegucigalpa  was 
an  Aztec  city.  In  1880  it  was 
made  the  capital  of  Honduras. 
In  1907  it  was  occupied  by  the 


, — Cannon  Square. 

in  colors.  These  gates  are  closed 
at  night.  A  large  part  of  the 
city  consists  of  mud  houses,  and 
even  the  better  houses  of  the 
wealthy  class  are  surrounded 
with  high  mud  walls.  Most  of 
the  streets  are  narrow,  and  many 
are  unpaved.  In  contrast  are 
the  few  avenues  which  have  been 
recently  laid  out,  these  being 
broad  and  straight.  The  finest 
is  the  Boulevard  des  Ambassa- 
deurs,  lined  with  poplars,  on 
which  are  located  the  various 
foreign  legations. 

There  are  some  fine  parks  and 
squares,  many  mosques  of  recent 
date,  bazaars,  and  caravansaries. 
The  principal  mosque  is  that 
called  Masjed  i  Sipabsalar,  which 
was  built  by  Mirza  Husain,  at 
that  time  grand  vizier,  in  the  new 
part  of  the  city.  There  is  a  large 
circular  theatre,  covered  with  an 
awning,  for  the  representation  of 
the  '  Passion  Play  '  during  the 
festival  of   Muharram.  The 


throne,  formerly  at  Delhi,  stands 
in  the  same  room.  Among  the 
principal  institutions  are  King's 
College  and  the  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute. Within  and  without  the 
city  are  beautiful  gardens  main- 
tained by  irrigation;  and  the 
only  railway  in  Persia  runs 
out  through  them  (5K  miles) 
to  the  royal  mosque  of  Shah- 
Abdul-Azim,  wherein  Nasr-ed- 
Din  Shah  was  assassinated  in 
1896. 

Teheran  has  no  industrial  im- 
portance, but  is  a  centre  for  a  large 
caravan  trade.  The  population 
in  winter  is  about  275,000,  but 
during  the  hot  summer  nearly 
one-third  of  the  people  go  to  the 
mountains.  The  water  supply 
of  the  city  is  ample,  amounting 
to  921,000  gallons  per  hour  all 
the  year  round;  but  the  distribu- 
tion is  unequal.  There  are  only 
a  few  European  residents. 

Although  an  ancient  city, 
Teheran  was  of  small  importance 


Tehii 


645B 


Telautograph 


until  1788,  when  Agha  Moham- 
med Khan  made  it  his  capital. 

Tehri  (or  Garhwal),  native 
state,  India,  a  political  depend- 
ency of  the  United  Provinces. 
It  borders  on  Tibet,  and  lies  amid 
the  Himalayas,  and  is  an  elevated 
and  rugged  region.  Rice,  millet, 
wheat,  and  some  tea  are  pro- 
duced. The  forests,  leased  by  the 
British  government,  contain 
many  valuable  woods.  Tehri 
was  created  by  the  British  after 
the  Nepal  War  (1815).  Area, 
4,180  square  miles.  Pop.  (1921) 
318,414. 

Tehuantepec,  an  isthmus  of 
Mexico,  between  the  Gulf  of 
Tehuantepec,  an  arm  of  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Campeche,  an  arm  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.'  It  is  125  miles  in 
breadth  at  its  narrowest  part, 
and  is  traversed  by  the  Sierra 
Madre,  which  here  subsides  to  a 
plateau  only  730  feet  above  sea 
level.  The  narrowest  part  of  the 
Isthmus  lies  partly  in  the  state  of 
Vera  Cruz  (on  the  north)  and 
partly  in  Oaxaca  (on  the  south). 
The  soil  produces  extensive  and 
varied  crops.  The  forests  con- 
tain valuable  hardwoods.  The 
cHmate  is  hot,  except  upon  the 
heights. 

Interest  in  the  Isthmus  centres 
mainly  in  the  Tehuantepec  Na- 
tional Railway,  which  has  be- 
come one  of  the  important  com- 
mercial routes  of  the  world.  The 
main  line  of  this  road  runs  from 
Puerto  Mexico  (Coatzacoalcos) 
on  the  Atlantic  to  Salina  Cruz  on 
the  Pacific,  a  distance  of  189 
miles,  and  there  are  branches  to 
San  Juan  Evangelista,  to  the 
north,  and  to  Minatitlan  to  the 
south.  At  Santa  Lucrecia  con- 
nection is  made  with  the  Vera 
Cruz  and  Isthmus  Railway  for 
Cordoba  and  Mexico  City  and 
for  Tierra  Blanca  and  Vera  Cruz. 
At  Gamboa  connection  is  made 
with  the  Pan-American  Railway 
running  through  the  State  of 
Chiapas  south  to  the  Guatemalan 
border. 

The  port  of  Puerto  Mexico  is 
the  Atlantic  terminus  of  the  rail- 
road. The  Coatzacoalcos  River 
forms  a  natural  harbor  of  un- 
limited capacity,  with  an  aver- 
age depth  to  the  town  of  50  feet. 
After  years  of  fruitless  planning 
by  private  companies,  the  Mexi- 
can Government  took  up  the 
work  of  building  the  railway, 
which  was  completed  in  1907, 
with  extensive  harbor  improve- 
ments. Vessels  of  30  feet  draught 
may  dock  and  have  their  cargoes 
unloaded  by  electric  machinery 
upon  a  train,  and  the  cargo  may 
be  transported  to  the  other  side 
of  the  Isthmus  and  reloaded — 
all  in  96  hours,  a  saving  of  four 
days  over  the  Panama  route  for 
freight. 

The  Pan-American  Railway 
was  completed  in  1909,  and  its 
main  length  (1930)  was  284  miles, 


from  Gamboa  on  the  Tehuan- 
tepec National  to  the  Guate- 
malan Railway  system.  South 
and  east  of  the  Isthmus  on  the 
Gulf  side  are  the  States  of  Ta- 
basco, Campeche,  and  Yucatan. 

Tehuantepec,  river  port,  Oax- 
aca, Mexico,  on  the  Tehuantepec 
River;  about  15  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  19  miles  northwest 
of  Salina  Cruz.  There  is  trade 
in  indigo  and  cochineal,  and  tex- 
tiles of  silk  and  cotton.  The 
population,  mostly  Indians,  num- 
bers about  10,000." 

Tehuantepec  Winds  are  strong 
winds,  analogous  to  the  mistral 
and  bora  (qq.v.),  experienced  on 
the  Pacific  side  of  Central  Amer- 
ica. They  blow  from  the  north- 
east and  north-northeast  on  the 
coasts  of  Nicaragua  and  Guate- 
mala. They  are  also  known  as 
Papagayo  winds.  The  name 
Tehuantepec  is  derived  from  the 
districts  where  the  winds  orig- 
inate. 

Tehuelches,  the  aborigines  of 
Patagonia,  whose  range  extended 
originally  from  the  Rio  Negro 
into  the  eastern  parts  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego.  They  were  noted  for 
their  tall  stature,  which,  how- 
ever, appears  to  have  been  ex- 
aggerated by  the  early  writers. 
The  Tehuelches,  who  are  now  re- 
duced to  a  few  nomad  groups 
scattered  along  the  eastern  foot 
of  the  Cordilleras,  speak  a  stock 
language  entirely  distinct  from 
those  of  the  neighboring  Puelches 
and  Araucanians  (qq.  v.).  All 
are  true  nomads,  subsisting  on 
fruits,  herbs,  and  game,  chiefly 
the  guanaco  and  rhea,  which  are 
captured  with  the  bola  and  lasso. 

Teignmouth,  seaport  and 
bathing  resort,  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Devonshire,  England, 
and  on  the  English  Channel,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Teign;  12  miles 
southeast  of  Exeter.  There  are 
some  fine  churches,  portions  of 
which  are  Norman.  St.  Mi- 
chael's Church  dates  back  to 
1044.  The  Den  is  a  promenade 
fronting  the  sea,  and  a  long 
bridge  connects  with  Shaldon, 
across  the  Teign.  There  is  a 
good  harbor.  Yacht  building  is 
carried  on;  and  there  are  fisheries 
of  herring,  salmon,  and  mackerel. 
Pop.  (1921)  10,970. 

Teignmouth,  John  Shore, 
Lord  (1751-1834),  governor- 
general  of  India,  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  the  East  India  Company 
in  1769  as  a  cadet.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  general  committee 
of  revenue,  and  of  the  Supreme 
Council,  and  was  associated  with 
Lord  Cornwallis  in  many  schemes 
of  reform.  From  1793  to  1797  he 
was  governor-general  of  India, 
receiving  on  his  retirement  the 
title  of  Lord  Teignmouth. 

Teinds,  in  Scotland,  are  tithes. 
A  tenth  part  of  the  produce  of 
lands  was  early  claimed  by  the 
clergy  as  their  right,  and  grad- 
ually came  to  be,  by  law,  appro- 


priated to  their  maintenance. 
Under  arrangements  made  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  i.,  and  ratified 
by  Acts  of  1633  and  1690,  teinds 
which  were  formerly  levied  in 
kind  came  to  be  regarded  as  a 
fixed  burden  on  land,  subject  to 
be  redeemed  or  purchased  by  the 
owner  of  the  land,  and  when  un- 
redeemed to  be  payable  accord- 
ing to  a  fixed  valuation.  After 
the  Reformation,  the  reformed 
clergy  only  obtained  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  teinds;  but  the  sti- 
pends of  the  parochial  clergy  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland  are  still 
payable  out  of  them,  and  unex- 
hausted teinds  afford  a  fund  from 
which  ministers'  stipends  may  be 
augmented. 

Teiresias.   See  Tiresias. 

Tejada.  See  Lerdo  de  Te- 
jada. 

Tejon  Series.  The  Eocene  of 
the  Pacific  Coast  is  represented 
by  a  series  of  mostly  marine 
clostic  strata,  best  known  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  great  valley 
of  California.  In  the  middle 
part  of  the  Coast  range  the  Tejon 
series  is  more  than  4,000  feet 
thick.  The  series  is  separated 
from  the  Cretaceous  Chico  beds 
below  by  an  interval  marked  by 
an  unconformity  at  most  places. 

Teliax,  town,  state  of  Yucatan, 
Mexico,  50  miles  by  rail  south- 
east of  Merida.   Pop.  25,000. 

Telceli,  Count  of.    See  To- 

KOLY. 

Telcir-dagh.   See  Rodosto. 

Telamon,  in  ancient  Greek 
legend,  a  son  of  ^acus  and 
brother  of  Peleus.  He  and  Pe- 
leus  slew  their  half-brother 
Phocus,  and  Telamon  had  to 
flee  from  ^gina  to  Salamis, 
where  he  married  the  daughter  of 
the  king,  and  afterward  became 
king  of  the  island.  He  took  part 
in  the  Calydonian  Hunt  and  the 
Argonautic  Expedition,  and  with 
Hercules  took  Troy  from  Laome- 
don.  He  was  father  of  Ajax,  and 
of  Teucer  and  Trambelus. 

Telautograph,  or  automatic 
reproducing  telegraph,  an  appa- 
ratus by  which  a  message  written 
or  a  sketch  made  with  a  stylus  in 
the  hand  of  the  transmitting 
operator  is  reproduced  identi- 
cally and  automatically  on  a  local 
or  'pilot'  receiver  and  simulta- 
neously on  a  distant  receiver  or  a 
number  of  such  receivers  con- 
nected to  the  transmitter  in 
multiple.  The  transmitter  is 
connected  to  the  receivers  by  two 
line  wires,  either  direct  or  through 
a  central  switching  station,  each 
telautograph  station  being  equip- 
ped with  a  'set'  of  transmitter 
and  receiver  associated  together 
to  form  a  complete  sending  and 
receiving  unit.  Incoming  mes- 
sages are  received  on  the  pilot 
receiver,  using  the  same  paper 
message  strip  upon  which  the 
outgoing  messages  are  recorded. 
The  operator  writes  with  a  stylus 
upon  a  metal  platen,  guiding  the 


Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telautograph 


646 


Telagraphone 


formation  of  the  written  char- 
acters by  watching  the  repro- 
duced motions  on  the  pilot  re- 
ceiver. The  motion  of  the  stylus 
is  resolved  by  a  system  of  levers 
into  component  rotary  motions 
which  are  used  to  control  and 
vary  the  currents  in  two  distinct 
electrical  circuits.  The  receivers 
each  contain  two  light  coils  of 
copper  wire,  movable  against  the 
action  of  springs,  in  a  strong 
electromagnetic  field.    These  are 


RECEIVER 


in  large  multi-station  intercom- 
municating systems,  as,  for  in- 
stance, to  provide  interdepart- 
mental communication  in  an 
hotel  or  banking  office.  It  is  also 
used  for  communication  between 
cities  and  between  different 
points  in  one  city.  Among  the 
hundreds  of  industries  using  the 
telautograph  are  banks,  hotels, 
railroads,  automobile  factories 
and  centralized  credit  organiza- 
tions. See  Telegraphy. 

To 
Distant 
Sta. 


Paper  Shifter 

— oo 


Res. 


PenlifterQQ       Vib.  Relay 

=  a 


Underplaten^3=a 
5wiTch  i  


Courtesy  of  Telautograph  Corp. 

Telautograph 


acted  upon  by  the  two  line  cur- 
rents from  the  transmitter,  and 
move  linearly  against  their 
springs  in  accordance  with  the 
variation  in  current  strength, 
actuating  at  the  same  time  a 
series  of  levers  to  communicate  a 
resultant  motion  to  the  recording 
pen,  which  is  an  exact  duplica- 
tion of  the  motion  of  the 
transmitting  stylus.  A  separate 
interrupted  current  is  superim- 
posed on  the  writing  lines  to  con- 
trol the  contacting  of  the  receiv- 
ing pens  with  their  respective 
paper  strips  in  unison  with  the 
pressure  of  the  stylus  on  the 
transmitting  platen. 

The  telautograph  is  now  UvSed 

Vol.  XI.— 31-0. 


Telav,  town,  Transcaucasian 
S.  F.  S.  R..,  Russia;  106  miles 
from  Tifiis.  It  was  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Kakhetia  until 
1797.  It  was  founded  in  893, 
and  was  destroyed  in  the  six- 
teenth century  by  the  Persians. 
It  stands  upon  a  height  (2,400 
feet)  whose  base  is  washed  by  the 
river  Thourdos-Kevi. 

Telegonus,  a  son  of  Circe  by 
Odysseus.  He  was  sent  by  her 
to  find  his  father,  and,  landing  in 
Ithaca,  was  attacked  as  a  pirate 
by  Odysseus  and  Telemachus. 
He  slew  Odysseus,  not  knowing 
who  he  was.  Then,  at  the  com- 
mand of  Athena,  he,  with  Telem- 
achus    and      Penelope,  took 


Odysseus'  body  to  be  buried  in 
Circe's  land,  /Easa.;  afterward  he 
married  Penelope.  He  was  said 
to  have  founded  Tusculum  and 
Praeneste  in  Italy. 

Telegony.  See  Heredity. 

Telegraph.  See  Telegraphy. 

Telegrapher's  Cramp.  See 
Writer's  Cramp. 

Telegraph,  Military.  The 
military  telegraph  follows  an 
army  in  the  field,  and  is  used  at 
the  front  in  order  to  keep  up 
communication  with  more  per- 
manent points  in  the  rear.  It  is 
often  the  sole  means  of  commu- 
nication, but  is  sometimes  used 
to  supplement  existing  lines. 

In  the  United  States  service 
the  military  telegraph  line  is 
constructed  and  operated  by  the 
Signal  Corps  troops,  one  com- 
pany of  which  is  attached  to  each 
army  division.  As  at  present 
organized,  the  company  has  100 
men,  32  of  whom  are  expert 
telegraphers.  They  are  all 
mounted,  or  ride  on  the  light 
wagons  carrying  the  material. 
This  consists  of  84  miles  of  wire, 
54  of  which  is  eleven-strand 
cable,  heavily  insulated;  16  buz- 
zers and  telephones  combined; 
and  2  wireless  'pack'  sets.  In 
operation,  the  cable  is  run  out 
upon  the  ground,  with  buzzers 
'cut  in'  wherever  desired.  The 
buzzer  will  often  work  over  a  con- 
nection so  poor  that  the  tele- 
phone is  silent.  The  30  miles  of 
light  buzzer  wire  carried  is  used 
for  extensions  or  branches,  ele- 
vated from  the  ground.  A  wire- 
less set  is  usually  carried  on  three 
mules.  It  can  be  unpacked  and 
set  up  in  twenty  minutes.  The 
electric  current  used  may  be  fur- 
nished by  a  storage  battery,  or 
oftener  by  a  hand  dynamo  oper- 
ated by  two  men. 

Telegraph  lines  constructed  in 
the  field  are  necessarily  of  a  tem- 
porary nature,  the  wires  being 
strung  along  on  trees,  bushes,  or 
improvised  poles  such  as  lances. 
See  Signal  Corps. 

Telegraphone.  This  device 
is,  in  principle,  a  development  of 
Alexander  Graham  Bell's  elec- 
tromagnetic telephone.  By  it 
speech  is  magnetically  recorded 
on  a  hard  steel  wire.  It  was 
patented  by  Valdemar  Poulson, 
a  Danish  physicist,  who  has 
made  important  advances  in 
wireless  telegraphy  and  teleph- 
ony. 

The  telegraphone  consists  es- 
sentially of  (1)  a  fine- wire  mag- 
net, the  counterpart  of  the  mag- 
net in  Bell's  telephone  receiver, 
and  (2)  an  arrangement  for  pass- 
ing a  long,  small,  hard  steel  wire 
past  the  pole  pieces  of  the  mag- 
net. This  magnet  winding  re- 
ceives the  oscillatory  currents 
from  a  small  hand  telephone  set, 
corresponding  to  the  vibrations 
of  the  transmitter  diaphragm  in 
response  to  the  sound  waves  im- 
pressed.   These  currents,  trav- 


Telegraph  Plant 


647 


Telegraphy 


ersing  the  recording  coil,  vary 
the  magnetization  of  the  coil 
therein,  and  also  of  the  steel  wire 
moving  past.  The  alterations  of 
magnetic  condition  persist  in  the 
wire  until  removed  by  the  im- 
position of  other  magnetic  forces, 
etc.  If,  after  receiving  a  record, 
the  wire  is  wound  back  on  the 
first  reel,  and  moved  forward 
again  past  the  recording-coil 
pole  pieces,  the  peculiar  mag- 
netic arrangements,  forming  the 
record,  will  change  the  magnetic 
field  in  the  recording  coil;  and, 
by  passing  through  a  telephone 
receiver  the  currents  induced  in 
the  winding  of  the  recording  coil, 
the  original  sounds  may  be  re- 
produced. 

The  machine  developed  in 
America  and  intended  for  office- 
dictation  service,  to  compete  with 
the  correspondence  phonograph, 
has  been  kept  as  automatic  as 
possible.  The  wire  is  wound  from 
one  reel  to  another,  the  reels  be- 
ing on  electric-motor-driven  spin- 
dles with  push-button  control  cir- 
cuits for  stop,  start,  reverse,  and 
listening.  A  rheostat  regulates 
the  speed  to  the  needs  of  various 
recording  or  repeating  work  in 
hand,  and  a  governor  holds  the 
speed  constant  at  any  setting, 
compensating  for  variations  in 
voltage,  etc. 

The  wire  records  may  be  pre- 
served, as  they  are  proof  against 
loss  of  the  message  except  by 
strong  outside  magnetism,  high 
temperature,  or  continued  severe 
mechanical  shocks.  If  it  is  de- 
sired to  use  the  same  wire  over 
again,  it  is  only  necessary  to  pass 
it  first  through  a  steady  magnetic 
field,  to  equalize  its  magnetic  con- 
dition before  receiving  the  new 
impression  of  the  recording  coil. 
This  little  auxiliary  or  clearing 
coil  is  mounted  alongside  the  re- 
cording coil,  and  is  furnished  with 
current  from  a  small  battery, 
without  attention  from  the  oper- 
ator other  than  his  pressing  a 
switch  after  the  machine  has  been 
set  for  recording. 

Telegraph  Plant,  a  common 
name  for  Desmodium  gyrans,  an 
Asiatic  herb  belonging  to  the  or- 
der Leguminosae.  It  bears  pan- 
icles of  purplish  flowers,  but  it  is 
chiefly  curious  by  reason  of  the 
property  possessed  by  its  small 
lateral  leaflets  of  moving  in  vari- 
ous directions  when  the  sun  is 
shining.  This  property  is  dis- 
cussed in  Darwin's  Power  of  Move- 
ment in  Plants. 

Telegraphy.  This  word  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  and 
means  'to  write  far  off.'  In  its 
earliest  and  broadest  sense  teleg- 
raphy is  the  art  of  transmitting 
intelligence  to  a  distant  point  by 
means  of  visual,  audible,  or 
electrical  signals  made  in  accord- 
ance with  a  prearranged  code. 
In  its  modern  sense  the  art  of 
telegraphy  is  usually  limited  to 
the  electrical  transmission  of  in- 


telligence in  which  the  letters 
forming  a  message  are  translated 
into  electrical  impulses  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  prearranged 
code  of  which  impulses  are  then 
sent  to  the  distant  receiving 
station  where  they  are  retrans- 
lated to  obtain  the  message. 

Perhaps  the  first  form  of  elec- 
tric telegraph  was  suggested  by  an 
anonymous  writer  in  Scots  Maga- 
zine, in  1753,  following  a  few 
years  after  the  announcement  by 
Stephen  Gray  and  Granville 
Wheeler  that  the  charge  of  a  Ley- 
den  jar  would  follow  along  an  in- 
sulated wire  and  indicate  its 
presence  by  an  electroscope  at 
the  far  end.  From  that  time  each 
step  forward  in  the  science  of 
electricity  was  marked  by  cor- 
responding progress  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  electric  tele- 
graph. 

Application  of  frictional  elec- 
tricity to  the  sending  of  signals 
was  suggested  by  both  Franklin 
and  Lesage,  but  the  first  actual 
telegraph  of  record  appears  to  be 
that  of  Lesage  at  Geneva  in  1774, 
using  24  wires  each  connected  to 
a  pith  ball  electroscope.  The 
earliest  suggestions  required  as 
many  wires  as  there  are  letters  in 
the  alphabet.  Lomond  in  1787 
proposed  an  arrangement  using  a 
single  brass  wire  and  a  pith  ball 
electroscope,  each  letter  being 
designated  by  a  certain  number 
of  divergencies. 

Ronalds  in  1816,  following  the 
earlier  unsuccessful  attempts  of 
Chappe  in  1790,  devised  a  single 
wire  telegraph  using  synchro- 
nously rotating  dials  operated  by 
clock  mechanism  and  a  spark 
discharge  of  a  Leyden  jar  to  in- 
dicate the  desired  letter. 

The  second  stage  in  telegraph 
development  followed  the  dis- 
coveries of  Galvani  and  Volta  of 
the  generation  and  detection  of 
electricity  by  chemical  means. 
Soemmering  in  1809  developed  a 
device  to  signal  by  decomposing 
water;  Coxe,  an  American,  sug-- 
gested  the  decomposition  of  salt 
solutions;  and  Robert  Smith, 
Bain,  Edward  Davy  and  Morse 
had  various  arrangements  for  re- 
cording messages  on  chemically 
prepared  tape. 

The  third  stage,  and  that  which 
finally  led  to  the  present  success- 
ful type  of  electromagnetic  tele- 
graph, had  its  beginning  in  the 
discovery  by  Oersted,  in  1820, 
that  an  ordinary  magnetic  needle, 
suspended  so  that  it  is  free  to 
swing,  will  be  deflected  from  its 
usual  position  whenever  it  is  in 
the  vicinity  of  a  closed  electric 
circuit,  a  fact  previously  discov- 
ered by  Romagnosi  in  1802,  but 
not  widely  known.  The  second 
fact  essential  to  electromagnetic 
telegraphy,  discovered  by  Arago 
and  by  Davy  independently  in 
1820,  was  that  while  there  is  a 
current  in  copper  wire  it  attracts 
iron  filings  and  is  capable  of  de- 


veloping magnetism  in  soft  iron. 
In  the  same  year  Ampere,  after 
experimenting  at  Laplace's  sug- 
gestion, confirmed  the  possibil- 
ity of  deflecting  a  magnetic  needle 
at  a  great  distance  from  the  bat- 
tery. Schilling  developed  what 
appears  to  be  the  first  practical 
magnetic  telegraph  by  using  five 
galvanometers,  each  provided 
with  an  independent  galvanic 
circuit.  He  gave  each  needle  a 
positive  and  a  negative  motion  by 
means  of  reversed  currents  and 
then  combined  two  or  more  of 
these  signals  to  produce  the  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet.  Schilling 
was  the  first  to  devise  an  alarm 
signal  which  was  sent  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  message. 

Signalling  at  any  great  distance 
by  means  of  electricity  was  un- 
successful until  the  formulation 
of  the  laws  of  electromagnetism 
about  1830,  which  was  done  in- 
dependently by  Faraday  in  Eng- 
land and  Joseph  Henry  in  Amer- 
ica. Henry,  who  was  a  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Albany  Acad- 
emy and  later  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  at  Princeton,  by  using 
an  electromagnet  with  a  great 
many  turns  of  silk-covered  wire 
wound  approximately  at  right 
angles  to  the  core,  and  a  battery 
of  12  to  24  cells,  produced  an 
electromagnetic  instrument  of 
sufficient  power  to  overcome  the 
difficulty  of  signalling  to  great 
distances. 

Then  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  pro- 
fessor of  fine  arts  in  the  New 
York  University,  designed  an  ink 
recording  machine  to  take  down 
the  current  impulses,  worked  out 
the  American  Morse  alphabet, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  Alfred 
Vail  arranged  a  complete  work- 
ing system  and  reduced  the  eff'ort 
and  time  necessary  to  send  and 
receive  a  telegraph  message.  It 
'was  only  after  several  years'  ef- 
fort that  he  was  able  to  get  the 
necessary  financial  support  for 
his  ideas,  but  in  1844,  following 
assistance  from  Congress,  a  tele- 
graph line  was  successfully  open- 
ed between  Washington  and 
Baltimore,  a  distance  of  about  40 
miles.  The  ink  recorder  was  later 
replaced  by  a  sounder,  and  this 
type  of  instrument,  together  with 
its  auxiliary  relays  and  apparatus, 
handles  a  large  proportion  of  the 
telegraph  messages  of  today. 

At  about  the  same  time  that 
these  developments  were  taking 
place  in  America,  Gauss  and 
Weber  were  experimenting  in  Eu- 
rope. Steinheil  claims  that  it  was 
Gauss  who  first  used  an  induced 
current  for  signalling  (following 
the  fundamental  discoveries  of 
Faraday  and  Henry),  and  it  was 
Weber  who  first  found  that  in- 
sulation was  necessary  only  at 
the  points  of  support  of  the  wire. 
Steinheil  continued  the  experi- 
ments of  Gauss  and  Weber  at 
their  request  and  added  the  fur- 
ther information,   in  1838,  that 


Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telegraphy 


647  A 


Telegraphy 


the  earth  could  be  used  to  form 
the  return  circuit.  Joseph  Henry 
in  America  had,  however,  antici- 
pated him  in  this  discovery  in  ex- 
periments at  Princeton  in  1835. 

In  England,  Sir  William  Cooke 
and  Sir  Charles  Wheatstone  had 
made  considerable  progress  with 
the  needle  system  and  introduced 
a  new  type  of  instrument  in  the 
ABC  or  step-by-step  indicator, 
in  which  a  needle  is  caused  to 
move  over  the  dial  having  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  and  to 
stop  at  the  desired  character. 
Breguet  in  France  carried  the  de- 
velopment of  this  type  still  fur- 
ther. Wheatstone  tried  to  evolve 
a  printer  with  partial  success. 
Royal  E.  House  of  Vermont,  in 
1846,  changed  the  mechanical  de- 
sign and  produced  a  printer 
which,  in  modified  form,  is  still  in 
use  as  the  stock  ticker.  In  1855 
David  E.  Hughes  of  Kentucky 
developed  a  printing  telegraph 
machine  which  is  still  used  to 
some  extent  in  Europe.  The 
Wheatstone  automatic  system  in 
its  final  form  consists  of  a  per- 
forator, an  automatic  transmit- 
ter, and  a  tape  recorder.  In  this 
system  the  original  Morse  inker 
was  modified  to  record  at  speeds 
of  100  or  more  words  a  minute. 

Not  content  with  having  a  sin- 
gle telegraph  working  on  the  sin- 
gle wire  with  the  earth  as  the  re- 
turn, inventors  next  turned  their 
attention  to  the  problem  of  send- 
ing and  receiving  a  message  at 
the  same  time  on  one  wire,  or 
'duplexing.'  J.  W.  Gintl  of  Vi- 
enna attempted  this  in  1853,  but 
it  was  an  American,  J.  B.  Stearns 
of  Boston,  who  produced  the  first 
commercially  successful  duplex 
telegraph  system,  about  1871. 
Another  scientist  of  Vienna,  Dr. 
J.  B.  Stark,  tried  to  solve  the 
problem  of  the  'quadruplex,' 
whereby  two  messages  might  be 
sent  and  two  received  on  the 
same  wire  at  the  same  time,  but 
it  remained  for  Edison,  about 
1874,  to  produce  a  really  work- 
able system,  which,  with  modifi- 
cations, is  still  in  use. 

In  1874  Emile  Baudot,  in 
France,  worked  out  a  five-unit 
code  upon  which  he  based  his 
study  and  development  of  a 
multiplex  printing  system,  which 
has  been  the  foundation  of  most 
modern  printing  systems. 

Systems  in  use  at  the  present 
time,  which  have  been  developed 
from  the  Wheatstone  and  the 
Baudot,  are  the  Creed,  the 
Siemens- Halske,  the  Murray, 
and,  most  widely  used  in  the 
United  States,  the  start-stop 
and  the  multiplex  printing  sys- 
tems manufactured  by  the  Tele- 
type Corporation. 

Submarine  telegraphy  was  first 
suggested  by  a  Spaniard  in  1795, 
but  the  first  working  cable  was 
that  of  Morse  (1842)  between 
Castle  Garden  -  and  Governor's 
Island,  New  York.     Owing  to 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


difficulties  in  anchoring,  this  suc- 
cumbed in  less  than  a  day.  Ezra 
Cornell,  founder  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, one  of  Morse's  assistants, 
then  laid  a  more  successful  cable 
from  New  York  to  Fort  Lee,  a 
distance  of  about  12  miles.  The 
discovery  of  gutta  percha  in  1842 
and  Siemens'  machine  to  apply 
it  to  wire  gave  cable  engineers 
much  better  facilities. 


Morse 
Code 


Continental 
Code 


K 
B 
C 
D 
E 
F 
G 
H 
I 
J 
K 
L 
M 
N 
O 
P 
Q 
R 
S 
T 
U 
V 

w 

X 
Y 

z 
& 
1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
0 

Fig.  1. — The  American  and  Conti- 
nental Morse  Alphabets 

As  a  means  of  shortening  the 
time  of  news  travel  between 
America  and  Europe,  F.  N.  Gis- 
borne  in  1852  obtained  conces- 
sions to  construct  a  combined 
cable  and  overland  system  from 
New  York  to  Newfoundland,  but 
was  obliged  to  give  up  the  project 
for  want  of  funds.  Cyrus  West 
Field,  a  retired  merchant  of 
means,  then  entered  upon  the 
work,  and  by  his  efforts  made 
possible  the  completion  (1856)  of 
the  New  York-Newfoundland 
line,  1,000  miles  on  the  way  to- 
ward England.  Field  became  in- 
terested, also,  in  the  laying  of  a 


transatlantic  cable,  and  on  Aug. 
17,  1858,  the  first  message  was 
vsent  over  the  completed  line. 
(See  Atlantic  Cable.) 

Telegraph  Codes. — The  princi- 
pal codes  or  systems  of  telegraph 
signals  now  in  use  are  the  Ameri- 
can and  Continental  Morse  for 
manual  operation  and  the  five- 
unit  'Baudot'  code  for  use  with 
printing  telegraphs. 

The  Morse  codes  are  made  up 
of  'dots,'  'dashes'  and  'spaces,' 
as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  the  dash  being 
normally  equal  in  duration  to 
three  dots.  The  American  Morse 
code  is  used  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  while  the  Conti- 
nental code  is  used  in  other  coun- 
tries. The  chief  distinction  is 
that  in  the  American  Morse  code 
spaced  letters  are  used.  It  is 
shorter  and  faster  than  the  Con- 
tinental code,  but  is  also  more 
liable  to  errors  in  transmission. 

In  the  five-unit  printing  tele- 
graph code,  each  letter  signal  is 
made  up  of  five  time  intervals  or 
units.  There  are  thirty-two  pos- 
sible signals  in  this  code.  By 
using  two  of  these  to  shift  the 
printing  mechanism  for  'upper 
case'  and  'lower  case'  characters, 
a  complete  alphabet,  ten  num- 
bers, and  all  necessary  punctua- 
tion marks  may  be  transmitted. 
The  code  arrangement  most 
commonly  employed  in  the 
United  States  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
As  all  letter  signals  are  of  equal 
duration,  and  as  mechanical 
methods  are  used  for  sending  and 
receiving,  no  spaces  are  required 
between  letters.  This  code  has 
an  advantage  over  the  Morse 
codes  in  that  its  signals  are 
shorter. 

Direct  Current  Telegraph  Sys- 
tems for  Open- Wire  Lines. — -The 

Closed  Circuit  Morse  System  is 
shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  electric 
current  is  supplied  by  battery 
(or  direct  current  generator)  at 
either  or  both  terminal  stations. 
It  flows  through  a  key  and  relay 
at  each  station,  returning  through 
the  ground  from  one  terminal 
station  to  the  other.  The  relay 
is  an  electromagnet,  wound  with 
many  turns  of  fine  wire  and  pro- 
vided with  a  light  armature, 
which  will  respond  to  the  com- 
paratively weak  line  current. 
Current  leakage  during  wet 
weather  will  cause  changes  in  the 
amount  of  current  in  the  line, 
but  the  relay  is  readily  adjust- 
able to  operate  under  these  con- 
ditions. A  contact  on  the  relay 
armature  controls  the  operation 
of  a  sounder,  the  energy  for  which 
is  furnished  by  a  local  battery. 
The  sounder  has  a  comparatively 
heavy  armature,  which  produces 
audible  clicks  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  each  current  impulse. 
On  short  lines  the  relay  may  be 
omitted,  a  'main  line'  sounder 
capable  of  being  operated  by  the 
line  current  being  used  instead. 
The  circuit  may  be  interrupted 


Telegraphy 


647  B 


Telegraphy 


by  means  of  the  Morse  key  at  any 
station  to  send  signals  to  operate 
the  relays  and  sounders  at  all 
stations.  Each  key  has  a  switch 
lever  which  closes  the  circuit 
when  the  key  is  not  in  use.  A 
number  of  stations  may  be  con- 
nected in  series  with  the  line,  and 
any  station  may  obtain  control 
of  the  circuit  by  opening  the  key 

1  2  3  4  5 


A 

D 
D 

o 
/ 

c 

D 

$ 

E 

3 

F 

• 

G 

& 

H 

£ 

1 

8 

J 

□ell 

K 

( 

L 

) 

M 

• 

N 

0 

9 

P 

0 

0 

1 

R 

4 

S 

> 

T 

5 

U 

7 

V 

t 

w 

2 

X 

/ 

Y 

6 

z 

M 

Idle 

Spa 

ce 

Car. 

Ret. 

Line 

Feed 

Fig.  2. — The  Five-Unit  Printing 
Telegraph  Code 

switch  lever  to  'break'  or  inter- 
rupt the  station  that  may  be 
sending. 

The  Open  Circuit  Morse  Sys- 
tem is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  This 
system  is  used  in  England  but 
the  closed  circuit  system  is  pre 
ferred  in  the  United  States. 

Duplexing  a  line  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  send  mes.sages  simul- 
taneously   in    both  directions. 


This  is  accomplished  by  arrang- 
ing the  circuit  so  that  the  receiv- 
ing relay  at  each  station  is  not 
affected  by  outgoing  signals  from 
that  station,  although  it  can 
be  actuated  by  signals  from  a 
distant  station.  Two  methods 
are  in  general  use,  known  as  the 
'Differential  Duplex'  and  'Bridge 
Duplex'  systems. 

The  Differential  Duplex  Sys- 
tem is  illustrated  in  Fig.  5.  The 
'differential  polar  relay'  used  in 
this  system  is  polarized  by  means 
of  a  permanent  magnet,  so  that 


relay  at  station  B,  operating  the 
relay  (and  sounder)  at  that  point. 
In  a  similar  manner,  signal  cur- 
rents from  the  batteries  at  station 
B  will  have  no  effect  on  the  dif- 
ferential relay  at  that  point,  but 
will  operate  the  relay  and  sounder 
at  station  A.  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, that  as  signals  sent  out  from 
each  station  operate  the  sounder 
only  at  the  other  station,  mes- 
sages may  be  sent  in  both  direc- 
tions at  the  same  time. 

In  the  Bridge  Duplex  System 
the    polar   relay   is  connected 


Fig.   3. — Closed  Circuit  Morse  System 


its  armature  will  operate  in  re- 
sponse to  the  direction  of  current 
through  its  windings.  It  has  two 
equal  windings  connected  to  op- 
pose each  other,  so  that  equal 
currents  transmitted  in  parallel 
through  both  windings  will  pro- 
duce no  magnetic  effect  on  the 
core  or  armature.  One  winding 
is  connected  over  the  line  wire  to 
the  distant  station,  and  the  other 
is  connected  to  ground  through 
an  'artificial  line'  composed  of 
resistance  coils  and  condensers 
so  proportioned  that  it  may  be 
made  electrically  equivalent  to 


across  a  'bridge  coil,'  forming  a 
circuit  similar  to  a  Wheatstone 
bridge.  The  outgoing  signals  di- 
vide equally  between  the  two 
windings  of  the  bridge  coil  and 
have  no  effect  on  the  polar  relay. 
On  the  other  hand,  part  of  the 
incoming  signals  pass  through 
the  relay  winding  and  operate  the 
relay  and  sounder.  Both  the 
bridge  and  differential  duplex  sys- 
tems are  used  extensively. 

The  Quadruplex  System  pro- 
vides for  simultaneously  sending 
two  messages  in  each  direction. 
One  set  of  signals  is  transmitted 


Ground 


Fig.  4. — Open  Circuit  Morse  System 


the  line  circuit.  Signals  are 
transmitted  by  switching  from 
a  positive  to  a  negative  battery 
by  means  of  a  'pole  changer' 
relay  controlled  by  a  Morse  key. 
If  the  artificial  line  is  properly 
adjusted  or  'balanced,'  the  sig- 
nalling currents  from  the  batter- 
ies at  station  A  will  divide  equally 
between  the  two  windings  of  the 
differential  relay  at  the  same  sta- 
tion and  will  have  no  effect  on  its 
armature.  The  current  through 
the  line  winding  will,  however, 
pass  over  the  line  circuit  and 
through  the  line  winding  of  the 


by  reversing  the  polarity  of  the 
line  battery,  and  the  second  set 
by  varying  the  strength  of  the 
current.  For  receiving,  a  polar 
rfelay  which  responds  only  to 
changes  in  the  direction  of  the 
current  is  used  for  one  set  of  sig- 
nals and  a  'neutral'  relay,  which 
responds  only  to  currents  of  in- 
creased strength  (irrespective  of 
their  direction),  is  used  for  re- 
ceiving the  second  set  of  signals. 
By  duplexing  the  line,  two  mes- 
sages may  be  transmitted  in  each 
direction  at  the  same  time,  or 
four  in  all.    This  system  is  difii- 

VOL.  XL— 31-0. 


Telegraphy 


647  C 


Telegraphy 


cult  to  operate  under  bad  weather 
conditions,  and  its  use  is,  there- 
fore, becoming  somewhat  re- 
stricted. 

Repeaters. — In  passing  over 
long  lines,  telegraph  signals  are 
weakened  and  distorted  by  the  re- 
sistance and  capacity  of  the  line 


indicate  the  line  circuit,  while 
the  light  lines  show  the  locking 
circuit.  This  is  a  'direct-point' 
repeater  in  which  the  signals  are 
repeated  by  the  armature  con- 
tact points  of  the  line  relays  with- 
out the  use  of  auxiliary  trans- 
mitters or  repeating  sounders. 


OifrerenLial 
Rolar 
Relay 


Pole 
Changer 


Line 
Battery 

"II 


iificial  Artificial  S — J     I  |  | 

"■■ne  Line  s^^^^ider 

Differential  Duplex  System 


wires  and  by  current  leakage, 
particularly  in  wet  weather.  Fur- 
ther distortion  may  also  be 
caused  by  currents  induced  from 
neighboring  telegraph  and  power 
circuits.  Very  long  lines,  there- 
fore, are  divided  into  shorter  sec- 
tions and  telegraph  repeaters  are 
provided  for  repeating  the  signals 
from  one  section  to  the  next. 

A  telegraph  repeater  consists 
essentially  of  two  relays,  each  re- 
sponding to  incoming  signals 
from  one  line  section  and  repeat- 
ing these  signals  directly  or  indi- 
rectly with  renewed  strength  to 
the  opposite  line  section.  The 
arrangement  must  be  such  that 
each  side  of  the  repeater  is  unaf- 
fected by  the  outgoing  signals  as 
repeated  through  the  other  side. 
This  latter  requirement  may  be 
taken  care  of  in  various  ways, 
and  as  a  result  a  number  of  re- 
peaters have  been  invented  and 
used.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Toye,  Milliken,  Niel- 
son,  Weiny,  Atkinson,  Ghegan, 
Horton,  d'Humy,  Maver-Gar- 
danier,  and  Clark. 

The  general  principles  of  single 
line  repeaters  for  closed  circuit 
operation  are  illustrated  in  the 
Athearn  Repealer,  shown  in  Fig. 
6.   In  this  figure  the  heavy  lines 


Each  relay  has  a  line  winding  and 
a  locking  winding;  and  when  op- 
erated, closes  two  pairs  of  con- 
tacts. One  relay  is  arranged  with 
its  line  winding  in  series  with  the 
'west'  line,  while  its  main  con- 
tacts are  arranged  to  open  and 
close  with  'east'  line;  the  line 
windings  of  the  other  relay  are 
in  series  with  the  east  line  and 


peat  signals  from  the  east  line 
into  the  west  line.  The  line  con- 
tacts of  the  west  relay  are  held 
closed  by  the  holding  magnet,  the 
shunt  on  this  magnet  having  been 
opened  when  the  east  repeating 
relay  opened  its  auxiliary  con- 
tacts. When  the  east  line  is 
closed,  the  armature  of  the  east 
relay  will  be  actuated,  closing 
both  pairs  of  contacts  of  this  re- 
lay. The  line  contacts  cause  cur- 
rent flow  through  the  line  magnet 
of  the  west  relay,  and  the  auxili- 
ary contacts  shunt  out  the  hold- 
ing magnet  of  the  west  relay. 
The  contacts  of  the  west  relay 
are,  therefore,  kept  closed  when 
the  contacts  of  the  east  relay  are 
either  open  or  closed,  provided 
the  distant  key  of  the  west  line 
remains  closed.  This  sequence  of 
operations  applies  as  well  to  the 
west  relay  when  signals  are  being 
repeated  from  the  west  line  into 
the  east  line. 

The  Duplex  Repeater  is  used 
for  joining  sections  of  a  duplexed 
line.  A  differential  duplex  'di- 
rect point'  repeater  is  shown  in 
Fig.  7.  This  repeater  meets  the 
requirements  for  a  telegraph  re- 
peater as  stated  above,  and  in 


Fig.  7. — Duplex  Repeater 


•West"  Line 


its  contacts  open  and  close  the 
west  line.  The  auxiliary  contacts 
of  each  relay  serve  to  shunt  the 
holding  magnet  of  the  other  relay. 

In  Fig.  6,  the  armature  of  the 
east  relay  is  shown  to  be  released, 
as  the  key  at  the  distant  end  of 
the  east  line  is  assumed  to  be 
open.   This  relay  is  ready  to  re- 

■  East"  Line 


xz: 


OWVWrO 


i 


Lockinq 
—  Battery 


]  fhm 


Auxil 
Conli 


•East* 
Relay 


Fig.  6. — Athearn  Repealer 


addition  will  repeat  signals  simul- 
taneously in  both  directions.  It 
consists  essentially  of  two  differ- 
ential polar  relays  and  two  arti- 
ficial lines.  The  armature  of  each 
relay  is  connected  to  the  'apex'  of 
the  windings  of  the  other.  Sig- 
nals from  the  west  line  will  actu- 
ate the  west  relay,  which  will  re- 
peat them  through  both  windings 
of  the  east  relay  to  the  east  line 
and  artificial  line.  The  differen- 
tial connection  and  duplex  bal- 
ance will  prevent  the  east  relay 
from  responding  to  these  signals. 
The  east  relay  will  function  in  a 
similar  manner  for  repeating  sig- 
nals from  east  to  west. 

The  regenerative  repeater  is 
frequently  employed  on  printing 
telegraph  circuits.  This  type  of 
repeater  not  only  amplifies  the 
signal  but  also  reshapes  and  re- 
times the  signals  which  have  been 
increased  or  decreased  in  dura- 
tion by  the  effect  of  the  line  cir- 
cuit, interfering  currents  or  other 
causes. 

One  type  of  regenerative  re- 
peater has  a  receiving  and  a 
transmitting  distributor  arm  both 
revolving  synchronously  with  the 


Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telegraphy 


647  D 


Telegraphy 


transmitting  distributor  arm  at 
the  transmitting  station.  The 
receiving  distributor  of  the  re- 
peater selects  only  that  portion  of 
the  received  signal  which  is  most 
likely  to  be  of  full  strength.  This 
fractional  part  of  the  signal  is 
used  to  set  relays  which  are  in 
turn  connected  at  the  proper 
time  to  the  outgoing  side  of  the 
line   by   the   transmitting  dis- 


group  of  inductance  coils  and 
condensers  connected  as  shown 
in  Fig.  9,  and  forms  in  effect  two 
electrical  'filters.'  The  lower  half 
of  the  composite  set,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration,  is  designed  to 
pass  the  low-frequency  telegraph 
signals  while  offering  a  high  im- 
pedance to  telephone  currents, 
whereas  the  upper  half  of  the 
composite  set  offers  a  high  imped- 


To              5  I 
Telephone  -r 

Line 
Wires 

L  To 
r  Telephone 

To  Telegraph 

To  Telegraph 

Fig.    8. — Simplexed  Telephone  Circuit 


tributor  arm.  This  ensures  per- 
fect signals  of  the  proper  length, 
magnitude  and  time  relationship 
being  sent  into  the  line  regardless 
of  distortion  in  the  received  sig- 
nal. Thus,  a  New  York-Chicago 
circuit  might  be  operated  with 
three  repeaters,  of  which  one 
would  be  a  regenerative  repeater, 
with  a  general  improvement  of  as 
much  as  15  per  cent,  over  a  cir- 
cuit lacking  the  regenerative  re- 
peater. 

Telegraphing  over  Open  Wire 
Telephone  Lines. — Direct  current 
telegraph  systems  may  be  oper- 
ated on  open  wire  lines  simul- 
taneously used  for  telephone 
purposes  by  either  simplexing  or 
compositing  these  lines.  In  the 
Simplex  System,  shown  in  Fig.  8, 
a  repeating  coil  or  transformer  is 
connected  in  each  end  of  the  tele- 
phone circuit.  A  connection  from 
the  centre  point  between  the  two 
line  windings  of  each  repeating 
coil  is  used  for  the  telegraph 
circuit.  If  the  repeating  coil 
windings  and  the  line  wires  are 
electrically  balanced,  the  tele- 
graph currents  will  divide  equally 
between  the  windings  and  will 
have  no  effect  on  the  telephone 
circuit.  The  telegraph  channel 
obtained  in  this  way  may  be  used 
for  either  single  or  duplex  opera- 
tion. It  has  the  disadvantage, 
however,  that  only  one  telegraph 
circuit  is  obtained  from  two  line 
wires,  and  it  prevents  the  use  of 
these  wires  for  forming  a  phan- 
tom telephonecircuit  (seeTELEPH- 

ONV). 

The  Composite  System  is  shown 
in  Fig.  9.  Manual  telegraph  sys- 
tems and  low-speed  printing  tele- 
graph systems  usually  operate  at 
speeds  of  from  10  to  25  dots  or 
cycles  per  second.  Telephone 
frequencies  range  from  about  200 
to  3000  cycles  per  second.  The 
composite  system  uses  this  dif- 
ference in  frequency  range  to 
separate  the  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone currents.    It  consists  of  a 


ance  to  telegraph  signals  but  will 
freely  pass  the  higher  frequency 
voice  currents.  The  two  line 
wires  used  with  this  system  may 
form  half  of  a  phantom  telephone 
circuit  which  should  be  connected 
as  shown  in  the  dotted  lines. 
With  this  arrangement  two  tele- 
graph circuits  are  obtained  from 
two  line  wires,  without  interfer- 
ing with  their  use  to  form  a  phan- 
tom telephone  circuit.  More  than 
600,000  miles  of  telegraph  circuits 
in  the  United  States  are  derived 
from  open  wire  telephone  circuits 
by  this  method. 


systems  that  led  to  his  invention 
of  the  telephone.  It  was  not  until 
after  the  development  of  the 
vacuum  tube  into  a  reliable  and 
stable  instrument  for  generating, 
amplifying,  and  rectifying  high- 
frequency  alternating  currents, 
however,  that  a  commercially 
operative  carrier  system  of  teleg- 
raphy was  developed. 

The  companies  of  the  Bell 
System  have  at  present  approxi- 
mately 400,000  miles  of  two-way 
carrier  telegraph  channels  in 
commercial  service  upon  their 
long  toll  lines. 

The  open  wire  carrier  current 
system  provides  from  each  pair  of 
wires  ten  additional  two-way  or 
twenty  one-way  telegraph  cir- 
cuits which  are  superimposed 
upon  the  regular  telephone  and 
the  direct  current  telegraph  cir- 
cuits. The  facilities  obtainable 
from  one  pair  of  wires  are,  there- 
fore, ten  two-way  or  twenty  one- 
way carrier  telegraph  circuits, 
two  two-way  or  four  one-way 
direct  current  telegraph  circuits, 
and  one  and  one-half  telephone 
circuits,  including  the  phantom. 

The  carrier  telegraph  messages 
are  superimposed  simultaneously 
on  a  single  electrical  circuit  by 
employing  a  separate  alternating 
current,  called  a  'carrier'  current, 
for  each  of  the  messages.  This 
carrier  current  is  made  to  vary 
in  accordance  with  the  variations 
of  current  representing  the  tele- 
graph message. 

In  order  to  separate  the  carrier 

 To  Phantom 

Telephone  Circuit 


To  Telegraph 


Set  Na2 


Fig.  9. — Composited  Telephone  Circuit 


open  Wire  Carrier  Current 
Telegraph  System. — By  using,  for 
the  telegraph,  alternating  cur- 
rents of  frequencies  higher  than 
3000  cycles  per  second,  additional 
telegraph  channels  may  be  ob- 
tained from  each  open-wire  tele- 
phone line.  Such  a  carrier 
telegraph  system,  developed  by 
the  Bell  Telephone  System,  is  de- 
scribed below. 

The  principles  underlying  such 
a  system  have  long  been  known, 
dating  back,  in  fact,  to  the  in- 
vention of  the  telephone  itself, 
for  it  was  some  of  Bell's  experi- 
ments with  the  vibrating  reed 
type    of    multiplex  telegraph 


currents  from  the  ordinary  tele- 
phone and  direct  current  tele- 
graph currents,  a  device  some- 
times called  a  high-frequency 
composite  set  is  used.  The  car- 
rier currents  vary  in  frequency 
from  about  3,000  to  10,000  cycles 
per  second,  while  the  direct  cur- 
rent telegraph  and  the  voice  cur- 
rents from  the  telephone  seldom 
exceed  3000  cycles.  This  high- 
frequency  filter  set  separates 
these  frequency  bands  and  allows 
the  currents  in  each  to  flow  to  the 
apparatus  it  is  desired  to  operate. 

The  different  frequencies  of 
alternating  currents  are  gener- 
ated by  individual  vacuum  tube 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telegraphy 


647  E 


Telegraphy 


oscillators.  The  signalling  cur- 
rent representing  the  message  to 
be  transmitted  over  the  line 
operates  a  'sending  relay'  which 
causes  successive  interruptions 
in  the  flow  of  high-frequency  cur- 
rent to  the  hne. 

At  the  receiving  end  the  cur- 
rents of  different  frequencies  are 
separated  from  each  other  by 
selective  or  tuned  circuits.  Each 
individual  alternating  current  is 
then  passed  through  an  amplifier 
to  increase  its  magnitude  and 
thence  to  a  vacuum  tube  rectifier 
where  it  is  changed  to  a  steady 
direct  current  which  operates  a 
sensitive  receiving  relay.  This 
receiving  relay  controls  the  cur- 
rent in  the  receiving  loop. 


consisting  of  twenty  different 
frequencies,  is  amplified  by  the 
use  of  a  single  vacuum  tube 
repeater.  Since  there  are  no 
moving  parts  in  this  type  of  re- 
peater, the  signals  are  repeated 
with  little  or  no  distortion  and 
with  practically  instantaneous 
speed.  In  this  way  very  long  and 
'fast'  telegraph  circuits  are  ob- 
tained. 

A  diagram  of  the  open  wire 
carrier  telegraph  circuit  is  shown 
in  Fig.  10. 

Telegraphing  over  Telephone 
Cables. — The  smaller  conductors 
(19  B.  &  S.  gauge)  used  in  toll 
telephone  cables  and  their  rela- 
tively greater  mutual  interfering 
effects  due  to  their  closer  prox- 


(1)  Instead  of  using  a  line  cir- 
cuit having  a  grounded  return 
and  obtaining  one  telegraph 
channel  per  line  conductor,  it 
uses  a  metallic  return  and  re- 
quires one  pair  of  line  conductors 
per  telegraph  channel. 

(2)  The  line  voltages  are  very 
much  lower  (usually  +34  volts 
instead  of  +  130  volts)  than  those 
used  on  open-wire  circuits,  the 
change  being  made  in  order  to 
reduce  interference  from  tele- 
graph circuits  into  telephone 
circuits  and  other  telegraph  cir- 
cuits. 

(3)  Due  to  the  reduction  of  the 
operating  voltages  and  the  use 
of  small  gauge  cable  conductors 
which  inherently  have  a  higher 


To  DiredCurrenlTeleqraph  Sets 


Sending  Tuned 
Circuit  Amplifier 


Oscillator 


Receiving 

Tuned  Circuit        Amplifier  Amplifier  Rectifier  Receiving  Relay 


Toother  receiving  Circuits 


Standard 
Composite  Set  Phantom  Coil 


Telephone  Circuit 


Half  of  Phantom 
Telephone  Circuit 


Fig.  10. — Carrier  Current  Telegraph  System 


The  terminal  apparatus  is  ar- 
ranged to  connect  to  other  tele- 
graph systems  of  the  same  or 
different  kind.  The  local  cir- 
cuits are  arranged  so  that  they 
may  be  used  for  'duplex'  or 
'single'  operation  as  desired.  The 
speed  and  quality  of  signal  trans- 
mission with  a  carrier  system  are 
very  satisfactory  even  on  ex- 
tremely long  circuits. 

A  decided  advantage  of  the 
carrier  system  is  to  be  found  in 
the  manner  in  which  the  signals 
may  be  repeated  on  long  circuits. 
At  an  intermediate  repeater  point 
where  no  telegraph  sets  are  to  be 
connected,  the  composite  wave, 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


imity  as  compared  with  the  con- 
ductors used  in  open  wire  tele- 
phone lines,  has  made  the  opera- 
tion over  telephone  cables  of  any 
of  the  previously  described  tele- 
graph systems  unsatisfactory  ex- 
cept for  very  short  distances.  A 
new  direct  current  telegraph 
system  was  therefore  developed 
to  permit  satisfactory  telegraph 
operation  over  cable  circuits 
simultaneously  used  for  teleph- 
ony. This  system,  in  common 
with  the  previously  described 
direct  current  telegraph  systems 
for  open  wire  telephone  lines, 
uses  composite  channels  but  dif- 
fers in  the  following  respects. 


resistance,  the  line  currents  are 
very  small.  This  necessitates  a 
very  sensitive  receiving  device 
and  a  new  polar  relay  has  been 
developed  for  this  purpose. 

The  terminal  equipment  con- 
sists of  two  parts,  the  line  com- 
posite set,  and  the  telegraph  re- 
peater proper.  The  composite 
set,  somewhat  similar  to  the  open 
wire  composite  set,  is  essentially  a 
filter  for  separating  the  telephone 
or  higher  frequency  channel  from 
the  direct  current  telegraph  chan- 
nel. Two  types  of  telegraph  re- 
peaters are  provided :  one  a  termi- 
nal type  repeater,  used  particu- 
larly in  making  connection  to  the 


Telegraphy 


647  F 


Telegraphy 


terminal  telegraph  set,  and  the 
other  a  'through'  type  repeater, 
for  repeating  directly  between 
two  line  sections.  A  photograph 
of  the  terminal  type  is  shown  in 
Fig.  11,  and  the  schematic  cir- 
cuit including  the  line  composite 
set  is  shown  in  Fig.  12. 

The  proper  functioning  of  this 
cable  system  depends  primarily 
upon  the  sensitive  receiving  re- 
lay which  has  been  developed  to 
operate  on  very  small  line  cur- 
rents. The  theory  of  this  relay 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  13. 

Features  of  this  relay  are  as 
follows : 

(1)  All  windings  are  on  a  single 
spool. 

(2)  The  armature  forms  the 
core  of  the  electromagnet. 

(3)  The  armature  is  mounted 
rigidly  at  one  end,  forming  a 
cantilever  beam  and  thereby 
eliminating  frictional  bearings. 

(4)  The  restoring  force  of  the 
armature  when  displaced  from 
its  neutral  position  is  opposed  by 
the  pull  caused  by  the  permanent 
magnet,  thereby  producing  an 
almost  balanced  armature  for  any 
position  between  its  two  limits 
of  travel. 

(5)  By  the  magnetic  bridge 
principle,  a  magnetic  circuit  of 
low  reluctance  is  provided  for  the 
operating  winding. 

One  of  the  chief  factors  in  gain- 
ing greater  sensitivity  of  the  re- 
ceiving relay  has  been  the  use  of 
a  local  circuit  invented  by  a  Dan- 
ish engineer,  Gulstad,  and  used 
first  in  connection  with  sub- 
marine cable  working.  The  fun- 
damental idea  is  to  provide  a  lo- 
cal circuit  which  will  assist  in 
moving  the  armature  from  one 
contact  to  the  other  at  the  time 
the  line  current  is  reversing  its 
direction  of  flow.  Electricity 
stored  in  a  condenser  is  caused 
to  flow  through  relay  windings  at 
the  proper  instant  to  quicken  the 
armature  movement  and  shorten 
the  time  interval  required  for 
moving  from  one  contact  to  the 
other. 

Voice-Frequency  Carrier  Tele- 
graph System  for  Use  on  Tele- 
phone Circuits. — The  previously 
described  carrier  telegraph  sys- 
tems employing  frequencies  above 
the  voice  range  for  use  on  open 
wire  telephone  lines  are  not  suit- 
able for  long  toll  cable  operation. 
In  order  to  permit  the  operation 
of  a  carrier  telegraph  system  on 
long  telephone  cable  circuits,  the 
voice-frequency  carrier  telegraph 
system  has  been  developed. 
While  this  system  does  not  per- 
mit the  simultaneous  use  of  the 
circuit  for  telephone  and  tele- 
graph operation,  it  does  provide 
12  telegraph  channels  occupying 
a  frequency  range  of  approxi- 
mately 300  to  2500  cycles  in 
place  of  a  single  telephone  chan- 
nel. The  principles  of  operation 
are  basically  the  same  as  those  of 
the  open  wire  carrier  telegraph 


Am.  Tel.  &  Tel.  Co. 

Fig.  11.— D.  C.  Telegraph  Equip- 
ment for  Use  with  Composited  Cable 
Circuits 


system.  At  present  there  are 
600,000  miles  of  this  type  of  car- 
rier system  in  use  in  the  United 
States.  Fig.  14  shows  part  of  the 
voice-frequency  carrier  telegraph 
installation  at  New  York. 

Submarine  Cables. — For  tele- 
graphing across  large  bodies  of 
water,  submarine  cables  are 
used.  These  consist  of  a  stranded 
copper  conductor,  insulated  with 
gutta-percha  and  protected  by 
wrappings  of  jute  and  steel  ar- 
mor wires.  The  high  electrical 
resistance  and  capacity  of  long 
cables  make  it  very  difficult  to 
signal  over  them  at  high  speeds. 
In  passing  through  such  cables, 
the  signals  are  greatly  weakened 
and  distorted,  so  that  special 
methods  of  operation  become 
necessary.  The  code  employed 
is  usually  the  Continental  Morse 
Code,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  except 
that  the  dashes  are  of  the  same 
duration  as  the  dots,  positive  im- 
pulses being  used  for  dots  and 
negative  for  dashes. 

Submarine  telegraph  cables, 
being  laid  on  the  ocean  bottom, 
are  well  protected  against  the 
effect  of  storms  and  other  terres- 
trial phenomena.  An  almost  un- 
precedented occurrence  took 
place  on  November  18,  1929, 
when  a  severe  earthquake,  which 
was  registered  on  most  of  the 
seismographs  of  the  world,  was 
the  cause  of  10  submarine  tele- 
graph cables  off  the  east  coast  of 
North  America  being  severed. 
Nearly  all  were  broken  at  more 
than  one  point.  Indicative  of  the 
provision  which  is  made  for  the 
rapid  repair  of  cables  is  the  fact 
that  the  cable  companies  were 
able  to  dispatch  eight  cable  re- 
pair ships  immediately  to  make 
the  necessary  repairs.  Also,  the 
duplicate  cables  and  alternate 
routes  of  the  cable  companies  were 
sufficient  so  that  international 
communications  were  not  affect- 
ed to  any  great  extent  even  by 
such  a  major  calamity  as  this. 

The  original  method  of  opera- 
tion over  long  submarine  cables 
employed  a  hand  key  for  sending, 
and  a  mirror  galvanometer  for 
receiving.  The  signals  were  read 
by  watching  the  motions  of  a 
spot  of  light  reflected  by  the  gal- 
vanometer mirror.  The  Kelvin 
siphon  recorder  (Fig.  15)  is  gener- 
ally used  for  this  purpose.  It 
has  a  coil  suspended  in  a  strong 
magnetic  field.  The  incoming 
signals  pass  through  this  coil, 
causing  it  to  oscillate  to  one  side 
or  the  other,  dependent  upon 
the  direction  of  the  current.  The 
motion  of  the  coil  is  transmitted 
by  means  of  two  fibres  to  the 
siphon,  which  consists  of  a  fine 
glass  tube.  To  overcome  the 
friction  which  would  take  place  if 
the  siphon  rubbed  on  the  paper 
tape,  the  siphon  is  kept  in  con- 
stant vibration  by  means  of  a 
small  electric  vibrator.  The  mes- 
sage is  thus  recorded  as  a  wavy 


Vol.  XL— 3I-0. 


Telegraphy 


647  G 


Telegraphy 


T 


Artificial 
Line 


To  Telephone 


Composite 
Set 


Receiving  Relay 


1  i 

Fig.  12. — Metallic  Telegraph  System 


line,  consisting  of  a  close  row  of 
ink  dots  on  the  moving  paper 
tape. 

Cables  are  usually  operated 
duplex  by  the  bridge  method. 
Two  large  condensers  of  40  or  50 
microfarads  capacity  are  em- 
ployed for  each  arm  of  the  bridge, 
while  the  siphon  recorder  is  con- 
nected across  the  bridge  arms. 
The  condensers  prevent  flow  of 
direct  current  due  to  earth  po- 
tentials. Great  accuracy  is  re- 
quired in  making  up  and  balanc- 
ing the  artificial  line.  An  induc- 
tance coil  is  sometimes  connected 
across  the  winding  of  the  siphon 
recorder  to  improve  the  wave 
shape  of  the  signals. 

For  sending,  a  perforator  and 
tape  transmitter  are  now  gener- 
ally used,  similar  to  those  em- 
ployed in  the  Wheatstone  system, 
except  that  they  are  modified  to 
transmit  cable  code.  To  increase 
the  speed  of  operation,  amplifiers 
or  magnifiers  are  sometimes  em- 
ployed. The  Heurtley  amplifier 
is  an  arrangement  connected  to 
a  siphon  recorder  by  means  of 
which  one  or  the  other  of  two 
very  fine  platinum  wires,  which 
are  normally  heated  by  local  cur- 
rent, may  be  moved  into  the  in- 
fluence of  a  blast  of  cool  air.  The 
cooling  effect  causes  a  change  of 
resistance.  These  wires  form  the 


two  arms  of  a  bridge,  across 
which  is  connected  a  siphon  re- 
corder. 

Selenium  amplifiers  or  magni- 
fiers consisting  generally  of  two 
pairs  of  selenium  cells  connected 
to  form  the  four  arms  of  a  Wheat- 
stone  bridge,  across  which  is  con- 
nected the  siphon  recorder,  are 
also  used.  The  selenium  cells  are 
acted  upon  by  means  of  light  re- 


flected from  a  mirror  galva- 
nometer connected  to  the  cable 
circuit. 

Various  forms  of  relays  have 
been  devised  and  used  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  the  operation 
of  submarine  cables.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  the 
Brown  drum  relay,  the  Orling 
jet  relay,  the  Muirhead  and  the 
Bruce  relays. 


manent  Magnet 


Windinqs 


Armature 


Pole- Piece  Yoke 


Contacts 

,  Fig.  13. — Theory  of  Sensitive  Polar  Relay 


CONTINUOUSLY  LOADED  SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPH  CABLES 


Date 

Length 

Speed 

Method  of 

Terminal  Points 

Laid 

n.  m. 

letters/min 

Operation 

Owner 

New  York — Horta  (Azores)  

1924 

2329 

1600 

Simplex 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Co. 

New  York — Bay   Roberts  (New- 

1926 

1344 

2500 

Simplex 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Co. 

Bay    Roberts    (Newfoundland) — 

Penzance  (England)  

1926 

2023 

2500 

Simplex 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Co. 

Horta  (Azores) — Emden  (Germany) 

1926 

1880 

1800 

Simplex 

German  Atlantic  Telegraph  Co. 

Bamfield  (Brit.  Col.) — Fanning  Is. 

1926 

3467 

1000 

Simplex 

Imperial    and  International 

Communications,  Ltd. 

Fanning  Island — Suva  (Fiji  Islands) 

1926 

2039 

1000+ 

Simplex 

Imperial    and  International 

Communications,  Ltd. 

Cocos  Island — Perth  (Australia)  

1926 

1750 

2100 

Simplex 

Eastern    Extension,  Austra- 

lasia &  China  Telegraph  Co. 

Bay    Roberts    (Newfoundland) — 

1600 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Co. 

1928 

1341 

(each  way) 

Duplex 

La  Panne  (Belgium) — Lisbon  (Por- 

Italian  Cable  Co. 

1930 

1425 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telegraphy 


647  H 


Telegraphy 


Loaded  Submarine  Telegraph 
Cables. — The  first  commercial 
application  of  a  revolutionary- 
development  in  submarine  cable 
telegraphy  was  made  in  1924, 
when  the  2300-mile  New  York- 


per  cent  over  that  of  the  corre- 
sponding cables  of  the  previous 
art.  A  thin  tape  of  highly  mag- 
netic material  called  permalloy 
is  spirally  wound  around  the  cop- 
per conductor  of  this  new  cable, 


cent  nickel  and  20  per  cent  iron. 
In  addition  to  its  utility  in  load- 
ing telegraph  cables,  permalloy 
has  many  applications  in  the 
communication  art.  The  table 
on  the  preceding  page  shows  the 


Am.  Telephone  &  Telegraph  Co. 

Fig. 


14. — Voice  Frequency  Carrier  Telegraph  Equipment 


Azores  permalloy  loaded  cable  of 
the  Western  Union  Telegraph 
Company  was  placed  in  service. 
On  this  cable  an  operating  speed 
of  over  1500  letters  per  minute 
was  obtained,  an  increase  in 
traffic  carrying  capacity  of  300 


thereby  increasing  its  inductance 
and,  consequently,  its  ability  to 
transmit  telegraph  signals  more 
rapidly.  Permalloy  is  a  develop- 
ment of  the  Bell  Telephone 
Laboratories  and  is  an  alloy  con- 
sisting of  approximately  80  per 


continuously  loaded  cables  of  the 
world  using  permalloy  or  similar 
loading  material. 

A  later  development  in  con- 
nection with  loaded  cables  has 
been  the  successful  duplex  opera- 
tion   by    the    Western  Union 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telegraphy 


648 


Telegraphy 


Telegraph  Company  of  its  New- 
foundland-Azores cable  at  speeds 
of  1600  letters  per  minute  in  each 
direction.  One  of  the  problems  to 
be  solved  in  duplexing  a  loaded 
cable  is  the  provision  of  an  arti- 
ficial line  which,  in  addition  to 
the  customary  matching  of  ca- 
pacity and  resistance,  must  also 
match  the  inductive  loading  of 
the  cable. 


Transmitters 


Sending 
Rings 


Transnnitters 


Siphon  Recorder 


The  higher  signalling  speeds 
obtainable  with  the  new  loaded 
cables  permit  the  use  of  multi- 
plex printing  telegraph  equip- 
ment. Vacuum  tube  amplifiers  in 
conjunction  with  'wave-shapers' 
are  also  being  used  at  the  ter- 
minals on  the  newer  cables  in 
place  of  the  old  mechanically 
operated  'magnifiers.' 

Automatic  and  Printing  Tele- 
graphs.— Automatic  and  printing 
telegraph  systems  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes,  as  follows: 

1.  Multiplex  Systems. 

2.  Start-Stop  Systems. 

3.  Other  Automatic  Systems. 
Any  of  these  systems  may  be 

operated  over  any  of  the  open- 
wire  or  cable  telegraph  circuits 
previously  described  except  that, 
in  general,  the  signals  are  trans- 
mitted at  higher  speeds  than  in 
the  ordinary  manual  or  Morse 
telegraph  system,  and  the  char- 


To  Line 


Printers 


Printers 


Fig.  16. — Multiplex  Printing  Telegraph  System 


acter  of  the  line  and  the  type  of 
relays  used  must  be  such  as  to 
be  capable  of  transmitting  and 
receiving  high  speed  signals  in  a 
satisfactory  manner. 

In  multiplex  printing  telegraph 
systems  means  are  provided  for 
automatically  switching  the  line 
circuit  to  several  sets  of  printing 


Printinq 
Relay 


Fig.  17. — Synchronizing  Circuit  for  Multiplex  System 
Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


telegraph  apparatus  in  rapid  suc- 
cession, thus  dividing  the  use  of 
the  line  and  providing  a  number 
of  independent  channels  of  com- 
munication. From  two  to  six 
channels  in  each  direction  are 
usually  obtained.  Modern  mul- 
tiplex printing  telegraph  systems 
all  employ  a  five-unit  code  similar 
to  that  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

The  fundamental  principle  of 
the  multiplex  is  shown  in  Fig.  16. 
A  'distributor'  is  provided  at 
each  end  of  the  line,  consisting 
essentially  of  two  metal  rings, 
one  of  which  is  divided  into  seg- 
ments. Contact  brushes  are 
arranged  to  rotate  in  synchro- 
nism over  these  rings.  Transmis- 
sion is  effected  by  means  of  a 
group  of  five  contacts  for  each 
'channel;'  these  being  controlled 
by  a  keyboard  or  by  a  perforated 
paper  tape.  Each  contact,  when 
actuated,  reverses  the  polarity  of 
the  battery  connected  to  the  cor- 
responding distributor  segment. 
When  the  brush  passes  over  this 
segment,  an  impulse  will  be 
transmitted  over  the  line  to  oper- 
ate the  corresponding  magnet  of 
the  receiving  printer  at  the  dis- 
tant end.  By  duplexing  the  line, 
messages  may  be  sent  simultane- 
ously in  both  directions. 

As  shown  in  Fig.  16,  the  re- 
ceiving segments  are  shorter  than 
the  sending  segments,  so  that 


Telegraphy 


649 


Telegraphy 


only  the  centre  portion  of  each 
impulse  or  'unit'  is  used  for  oper- 
ating the  corresponding  printer 
magnet.  As  a  result,  normal  vari- 
ations in  synchronism,  or  moder- 
ate amounts  of  distortion  in  the 
signals  will  not  cause  printed  er- 
rors. Means  are  provided  for  ad- 
justing or  orienting  either  the 
receiving  segments  or  brushes  to 
center  the  signals. 

The  Baudot  was  the  first  of  the 
modern  multiplex  systems.  It 
is  widely  used  in  France  and 
other  European  countries.  A 
small  keyboard  having  five  keys 
similar  to  piano  keys  is  pro- 
vided for  each  sending  channel. 
Each  key  operates  a  contact  con- 
nected to  one  distributor  seg- 
ment. The  code  is  memorized  by 
the  operator,  and  the  letter  com- 
binations are  set  up  on  the  key- 
board by  using  three  fingers  of 
the  right  hand  and  two  of  the 
left.  When  the  keys  are  de- 
pressed, they  are  automatically 
locked  while  the  brush  passes 


over  the  corresponding  five  seg- 
ments. An  electromagnet  mount- 
ed in  the  keyboard  is  then 
energized  from  a  segment  on  an 
additional  pair  of  rings  to  release 
the  keyboard.  This  magnet  also 
produces  an  audible  click  or 
'cadence'  signal,  which  notifies 
the  operator  that  the  keys  may 
be  depressed  for  setting  up  the 
next  character  combination. 

The  Baudot  printer  is  entirely 
mechanical  except  for  the  initial 
operation  of  the  five  selecting 
magnets.  It  has  a  continuously 
rotating  type  wheel  and  prints  on 
a  paper  tape.  A  mechanism  con- 
trolled by  the  selecting  magnets 
presses  the  tape  against  the  type 
wheel  at  the  proper  time  to  print 


the  selected  character.  The  tape 
is  cut  and  pasted  on  telegram 
blanks  for  delivery. 

Two  extra  sending  segments 
are  provided  for  maintaining 
synchronism.  At  one  end  of  the 
line,  these  are  connected  to  posi- 
tive and  negative  batteries,  re- 
spectively. At  the  other  end  of 
the  line  is  a  special  movable  seg- 
ment connected  to  a  correcting 
magnet.  If  the  orushes  are  in 
synchronism,  this  magnet  will 
not  be  operated.  The  normal 
speed  at  the  correcting  station  is 
adjusted,  however,  so  that  the 
brush  at  that  station  will  gradu- 
ally gain.  When  this  brush  gains 
sufficiently  so  that  it  makes  con- 
tact with  the  correcting  segment 
while  the  brush  at  the  other  sta- 
tion is  on  the  first  or  positive  cor- 
recting segment,  the  correcting 
magnet  will  be  actuated,  and  this 
will  cause  the  brush  at  the  correct- 
ing station  to  be  slightly  retarded. 

If  the  line  is  not  duplexed,  part 
of  the  distributor  may  be  used 


for  sending  in  each  direction. 
For  example,  with  a  quadruple 
distributor,  the  first  two  channels 
(10  segments)  can  be  used  for 
sending  in  one  direction  and  the 
last  two  for  sending  in  the  oppo- 
site direction,  providing  two 
channels  each  way.  In  such 
cases,  in  addition  to  the  two  cor- 
recting segments,  other  segments 
must  be  added  to  allow  for  the 
propagation  time  or  'lag'  in  the 
signals,  so  that  signals  sent  in  op- 
posite directions  will  not  overlap. 
By  duplexing  the  line,  the  carry- 
ing capacity  is  doubled.  A  quad- 
ruple-duplex would  give  four 
channels  in  each  direction  and 
eliminate  the  'propagation  seg- 
ments.' 


The  Baudot  distributor  is  usu- 
ally run  at  180  revolutions  per 
minute.  Assuming  6  characters 
per  word  (5  letters  and  1  space), 
this  equals  30  words  per  minute 
per  channel.  A  quadruple-duplex 
Baudot  will  transmit  120  words 
per  minute  in  each  direction  or 
240  total  words  per  minute;  it 
requires  eight  operators  at  each 
end  of  the  line. 

The  American  multiplex  sys- 
tem, manufactured  by  the  Tele- 
type Corp.,  was  developed  in  the 
research  laboratories  of  the  Bell 
Telephone  System  in  collabora- 
tion with  the  engineers  of  the 
Western  Union  Telegraph  Com- 
pany. It  is  based  on  the  funda- 
mental principles  proposed  by 
Donald  Murray,  but  differs  from 
his  system  in  detail.  This  sys- 
tem is  used  by  the  Western 
Union  Telegraph  Company  for 
handling  most  of  its  trunk  line 
business.  It  was  also  used  to  ad- 
vantage by  the  American  Ex- 
peditionary Forces  for  handling 
a  large  volume  of  traffic  in  France 
and  England  during  the  World 
War. 

In  this  system  messages  are 
first  prepared  as  perforations  in 
a  paper  tape  by  means  of  a  key- 
board perforator,  with  three 
rows  of  keys  arranged  somewhat 
according  to  standard  typewriter 
practice,  the  perforations  for  each 
character  being  made  across  the 
tape  and  spaced  10  characters  to 
the  inch.  From  the  perforator  the 
tape  passes  directly  into  an  auto- 
matic transmitter  which  has  five 
contact  levers  controlled  by  five 
selecting  pins.  The  positions  of 
the  contact  pins  are  determined 
by  the  perforations  in  the  tape, 
and  each  lever  is  connected  to  a 
segment  on  the  sending  ring  of 
the  distributor.  The  tape  is 
stepped  ahead  at  regular  inter- 
vals by  an  impulse  from  an  addi- 
tional segment  on  the  distributor. 
The  characters  in  the  message, 
which  are  thus  stored  temporarily 
in  the  tape,  are  sent  out  over  the 
line  at  a  uniform  speed.  In  this 
way  the  line  can  be  kept  working 
continually,  even  though  the 
operator  stops  occasionally. 

The  printers  used  with  this 
system  may  print  on  either  an 
8K"  wide  page  or  on  a  wide 
tape.  An  additional  feature  of  the 
system  is  the  'auto  control,'  a  de- 
vice connected  in  the  circuit  be- 
tween the  transmitter  and  the 
sending  ring  of  the  distributor. 
It  is  provided  with  a  sector  with 
five  finger  holes  and  is  so  ar- 
ranged that  when  operated  it 
stops  the  transmission  of  the 
message  and  sends  over  the  line 
the  necessary  signals  to  ring  a 
bell  at  the  distant  station.  Pro- 
vision is  made  for  sending  from 
one  to  five  rings  in  succession. 
The  auto  control  is  used  by  the 
receiving  operator  as  a  direct 
means  of  signalling  to  the  cor- 
responding sender  operator  at  the 


Fig.   18. — Multiplex  Distributor  Set 


Vol.  XI.— 31-0. 


Telegraphy 


649  A 


Telegraphy 


distant  station  in  case  it  becomes 
necessary  to  have  a  message  re- 
run or  re-punched  on  account  of 
errors,  or  as  a  signal  to  stop  send- 
ing in  case  of  trouble.  An  im- 
portant function  of  this  device 
is  that  it  may  be  operated  at  any 
time  during  the  transmission  of 
the  message  without  interfering 
with  the  printing  of  the  mes- 
sage. 

This  system  uses  a  method  of 
synchronizing  or  correcting  from 
the  actual  working  signals  in- 
stead of  employing  special  cor- 
recting signals,  such  as  are  used 
in  the  Baudot  and  Murray  sys- 
tems, with  a  resulting  saving  of 
line  time  and  increase  of  output. 
One  method  of  correcting  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  17.  The  distrib- 
utor brushes  are  driven  by  a 
special  type  of  synchronous  mo- 
tor, known  as  a  phonic  wheel 
motor,  which  is  operated  by  im- 
pulses from  a  special  tuning  fork. 
The  impulse  relay  is  so  arranged 
that  brief  current  impulses  are 
sent  to  the  common  correcting 
ring  whenever  the  line  relay  ar- 
mature moves  from  one  contact 
to  the  other.  These  impulses 
come  at  intervals  determined  by 
the  signals  transmitted  from  the 
distant  station.  The  correcting 
segments  are  connected  so  as  to 
operate  the  correcting  relay  in 
one  direction  if  the  correcting 
brush  is  ahead  of  the  received 
signals  and  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion if  it  lags  behind.  As  shown, 
the  correcting  relay  causes  a 
slight  change  in  the  speed  of  the 
driving  fork  by  varying  the  cur- 
rent through  the  fork  magnet. 
Another  method  commonly  used 
for  making  correction  is  to 
mechanically  retard  the  distrib- 
utor brushes  of  one  of  the  dis- 
tributors which  is  normally  run- 
ning slightly  faster  than  the 
other.  The  distributor  and  driv- 
ing fork  are  shown  in  Fig.  18. 

This  multiplex  system  has 
greatly  increased  the  amount  of 
traffic  per  operator,  as  well  as  the 
number  of  channels  which  can 
be  obtained  from  each  line  circuit. 
Speeds  as  high  as  60  to  70  six- 
character  words  per  minute  per 
channel  are  obtained.  Arrange- 
ments have  been  developed  for 
extending  or  'forking"  the  chan- 
nels from  a  multiplex  circuit  to 
any  distance  by  the  use  of  ap- 
paratus of  the  'start-stop'  type 
described  later. 

The  Siemens-Halske  high-speed 
automatic  printing  telegraph  sys- 
tem is  really  a  single  channel 
modified  Baudot  system.  It 
employs  the  5-unit  code  which  is 
sent  by  a  perforated  tape  travel- 
ling through  the  transmitter. 
The  receiver  is  synchronized  by 
the  received  pulses  and  prints  the 
letters  directly  on  a  tape  at  a 
speed  of  about  170  words  per 
minute. 

The  Teletype  start-stop  sys- 
tem   embodies    practically  the 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


same  features  as  the  multiplex 
system,  but  uses  a  distributor 
arm  driven  by  an  electric  motor 
whose  speed  is  regulated  by  a 
centrifugal  type  governor  in- 
stead of  the  phonic  wheel  motor- 
driven  arm  of  the  multiplex.  It 
operates  ordinarily  at  a  speed  of 
60  words  per  minute. 

The  brushes  of  this  distributor 
rotate  once  per  letter  transmitted 
and  are  momentarily  stopped  at 
the  end  of  each  revolution.  The 
stopping  and  starting  of  the 
brush  arms  automatically  syn- 
chronize the  machine  so  that  no 
other  correcting  equipment  is 
required.  The  five-unit  code  is 
used  for  controlling  the  letter 
selections,  with  two  additional 
'units'  for  controlling  the  starting 
and  stopping  of  the  brush  arms. 


These  machines  are  made  in 
compact  units  for  receiving  only, 
or  for  receiving  and  transmitting. 
The  transmitters  may  be  ar- 
ranged for  either  perforated 
tape  or  keyboard  operation. 
The  receivers  of  the  'page'  type 
usually  print  on  an  8K"  wide 
page,  while  the  receivers  of  the 
'tape'  type  print  on  a  wide 
tape.  A  Teletype  Corporation 
start-stop  set  arranged  for  page 
reception  and  keyboard  sending 
is  shown  in  Fig.  19. 

This  type  of  machine  may  be 
operated  either  'single'  or  'du- 
plex,' and  any  number  of  stations 
may  be  connected  to  the  same 
line  circuit.  What  is  sent  from 
one  station  will  be  recorded  at  all 
other  stations.  An  important 
feature  of  this  system  is  the 
method  by  which  any  station  can 
interrupt  the  sending  station  and 


obtain  control  of  the  circuit. 
This  is  accomplished  by  operat- 
ing a  'break  key,'  which  opens  the 
line  circuit,  automatically  stops 
the  sending  machine,  and  oper- 
ates a  signal  at  the  sending  sta- 
tion. 

The  Teletype  start-stop  sys- 
tem is  widely  used  in  the  United 
States  by  the  Western  Union,  the 
Bell  System,  the  Postal  Tele- 
graph and  others. 

Telegraph  service  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  may  be  divided  into 
two  major  classes,  public  message 
service  and  private  wire  service. 
In  the  former  class,  the  sender 
files  his  message  with  the  tele- 
graph company,  which  tele- 
graphs it  to  its  city  of  destina- 
tion, at  which  point  delivery  of 
the  message  is  made  by  the  com- 


pany to  the  addressee.  In  private 
wire  service,  the  customer  leases 
the  telegraph  station  and  line 
facilities  to  one  or  more  points  to 
which  he  desires  this  service  and 
he  usually  supplies  his  own  oper- 
ators. In  the  Bell  System's 
private  wire  service,  approxi- 
mately 40  per  cent  of  the  stations 
are  of  the  manually  operated 
Morse  type,  while  60  per  cent 
are  teletypewriters,  as  the  Tele- 
type start-stop  printers  are  called. 

Private  wire  service  is  usual- 
ly employed  by  organizations 
handling  a  relatively  large 
amount  of  telegraph  business 
where  direct  communication  is 
desirable,  such  as  brokers,  press 
associations,  airways,  police  de- 
partments, etc.  Switching  net- 
works have  been  designed  so  that 
any  one  of  a  group  of  stations 
may  'teletypewrite'  to  any  or  to 


Am.  Tel.  &  Tel.  Co. 

Fig.  19. — Page  Keyboard  Sending  and  Receiving  Teletypewriter 


Telegraphy 


649  B 


Telegraphy 


INSTATE  HEADQUARTERS 
•  ZONE  HEADQUARTERS 
O  STATE  AND  MUNICIPAL 


POLICE  STATIONS: 


1  NEWTON 

2  NETCONG 

3  MORRISTOWN 
A  WASHINGTON 

5  POMPTON  LAKE 

6  RAMSEY 

7  ALPINE 

8  PROSECUTOR'S  OFFICE 

9  BELLEVILLE 

10  NUTLEY 

11  CEDAR  GROVE 

12  NORTH  CALDWELL 

13  CALDWELL 

14  ESSEX  FELLS 

15  WEST  CALDWELL 

16  EAST  ORANGE 

17  ORANGE 

18  WEST  ORANGE 

19  LIVINGSTON 

20  IRVINGTON 

21  SOUTH  ORANGE 

22  MAPLEWOOO 

23  MILBURN 

24  METUCHEN 

25  SOMERVILLE 

26  FLEMINGTON 

27  LAMBERTVILLE 

28  PENNS  NECK 

29  HIGHTSTOWN 

30  COLUMBUS 

31  DELANCO 

32  NEW  EGYPT 

33  KEYPORT 

34  EATONTOWN 

35  TOMS  RIVER 

36  POINT  PLEASANT 

37  BERLIN 

38  VINELAND 

39  SWEDESBORO 

40  MALAGA 

4  1  DEERFIELD 

42  PORT  NORRIS 

43  CAPE  MAY  CH 

44  MAYS  LANDING 

45  AB5EC0N 

46  TUCKERTON 


NEW  YORK 

CITY  POLICE  MtoOTRi 


PHILADELPHIA 

OrriCE  PENN.  STAl-E  FOLIC 


Fig.  20. — New  Jersey  Stale  Police  Telelypewriler  System 


Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telegraphy  649  C  Teleology 


all  of  the  other  stations.  The  re- 
ceiving stations  may  be  so  ar- 
ranged that  it  is  not  necessary 
to  have  an  attendant  present 
during  the  reception  of  a  message. 

A  representative  police  tele- 
typewriter network  is  shown  in 
Fig.  20.  This  shows  the  location 
of  about  half  of  the  96  stations 
and  associated  wires  used  to  con- 
nect the  various  units  of  the  State 
and  municipal  police  systems  of 
New  Jersey. 

In  1930  the  Bell  System  alone 
had  approximately  10,000  tele- 
typewriters in  service. 

Statistics. — The  accompanying 
table  shows  the  mileage  of  tele- 
graph wire  involved  in  handling 
public  message  service  and  the 
annual  number  of  public  message 
telegrams  in  some  of  the  principal 
countries  of  the  world.  The  Bell 
System  in  1930  had  over  2,000,- 
000  telegraph  channel  miles  for 
the  handling  of  private  wire  tele- 
graph service  which  is  not  in- 
cluded in  the  following  table: 


By  the  end  of  1930  there  was  a 
total  of  about  400,000  statute 
miles  of  submarine  cable  in  serv- 
ice in  the  world. 

Bibliography.  —  Consult  the 
Journal  of  the  A.  I.  E.  E.;  for  the 
early  history  of  telegraphy  con- 
sult: J.  J.  Fahie,  A  History  of 
Electric  Telegraphy  to  the  Year 
1837;  Submarine  Telegraphy: 
H.  D.  Wilkinson,  Submarine 
Cable  Laying  and  Repairing; 
F.  J.  Brown,  The  Cable  and 
Wireless  Communications  of  the 
World;  H.  W.  Malcolm,  The 
Theory  of  the  Submarine  Tele- 
graph; I.  R.  E.  Proceedings, 
Dec,  1930,  by  Hobart  Mason, 
Advances  in  Transoceanic  Cable 
Technique;  for  general  telegraph 
problems,  consult  A.  E.  Stone's 
Textbook  of  Telegraphy;  E.  Haus- 
mann,  Telegraph  Engineering; 
T.  E.  Herbert,  Telegraphy;  H.  H. 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Harrison,  Printing  Telegraph 
Systems  and  Mechanisms. 

Telegraphy,  Wireless.  See 
Wireless  Telegraphy. 

Tel-el- A marna.  See  Tell- 
El-Amarna. 

Tel-el-Kebir.  See  Tell-el- 
Kebir. 

Telemachus,  te-lem'a-kus,  in 
ancient  Greek  legend,  son  of 
Ulysses  and  Penelope,  was  an 
infant  when  his  father  left  home 
to  join  in  the  war  against  Troy, 
but  during  the  latter's  twenty 
years'  absence  grew  into  man- 
hood. Under  the  guidance  of 
Athene,  who  had  assumed  the 
appearance  of  Mentor,  Telem- 
achus set  out  in  search  of  his 
long-lost  sire,  after  having  vainly 
endeavored  to  eject  his  mother's 
troublesome  suitors  from  the 
house.  Having  visited  Pylos 
and  Sparta,  Telemachus  re- 
turned home  to  Ithaca,  where  he 
found  his  father  in  the  guise  of  a 
beggar,  and  with  him  proceeded 
to  slay  the  suitors.  He  succeeded 


Odysseus  as  king  of  Ithaca.  Con- 
sult Homer's  Odyssey;  Fenelon's 
Les  A  ventures  de  Telemaque. 

Telem'eter.  See  Range 
Finders. 

Teleology,  te-li-ol'o-ji  or  tel-i-, 
signifies  by  derivation  'a  doc- 
trine of  ends,'  and  as  a  philo- 
sophical term  is  used  in  connec- 
tion with  two  special  problems: 
(1)  Is  the  conception  of  end  re- 
quired for  the  explanation  of 
organic  life  or  is  the  organism 
simply  a  very  complex  mecha- 
nism? (2)  Is  it  permissible  to  in- 
terpret the  world  as  a  whole  in 
terms  of  end  as  a  purposive  sys- 
tem? 

For  the  modern  form  of  these 
problems,  which  are  not  of  mod- 
ern date,  we  may  refer  to  Kant's 
Critique  of  Judgment.  His  an- 
swer to  the  first  is  rather  compli- 
cated and  difficult.    On  the  one 


hand,  he  is  convinced  that  living 
things  will  never  be  explained  on 
merely  mechanical  principles. 
The  organization  which  makes 
all  the  parts  of  a  living  thing  the 
expression  of  the  single  life  of  the 
whole  is  incapable  of  such  expla- 
nation. On  the  other  hand,  he 
had  already  shown,  in  his  anal- 
ysis of  the  principles  of  science,  in 
his  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  that 
all  that  happens,  every  event  in 
nature,  must  come  under  the  me- 
chanical law  of  cause  and  effect, 
and  it  is  impossible  to  except 
living  beings  from  the  range  of 
this  absolutely  universal  law  of 
experience.  His  somewhat  un- 
satisfactory solution  is  to  main- 
tain the  teleological  point  of  view 
as  indispensable  for  our  judg- 
ment, while  denying  to  it  any  ul- 
timate scientific  necessity  as  re- 
gards the  objects  themselves. 
That  is  to  say,  we  cannot  help 
looking  upon  living  things  as  if 
they  were  other  than  mere  mech- 
anisms; but  we  cannot  affirm  as  a 
proposition  of  science  that  they 
are  not  mechanisms,  nor  can  we 
withdraw  them  from  the  scope  of 
mechanical  law. 

The  answer  Kant  gives  to  the 
second  problem  is  similar  in 
method,  but  turns  on  the  differ- 
ence between  the  scientific  and 
the  ethical  point  of  view.  We 
cannot  help  thinking  of  the  world 
as  a  whole,  as  governed  by  the 
highest  end  we  know — viz.,  the 
moral  end.  On  the  other  hand, 
this  teleological,  or  more  defi- 
nitely theological,  conception  of 
the  world  remains  a  practical 
postulate  which  conveys  no  sci- 
entific knowledge  of  the  actual 
structure  of  the  world;  and  the 
attempted  argument  from  the 
actual  structure  of  the  world  to  a 
designing  mind  as  its  cause — the 
teleological  proof  of  the  existence 
of  God — is  condemned  by  Kant 
as  invalid. 

For  this  rather  tentative  recog- 
nition of  purpose  in  the  world,  as 
indicated  by  the  facts  of  organic 
life  and  by  the  demands  of  our 
moral  consciousness,  Kant's 
idealistic  successors,  and  espe- 
cially Hegel,  sought  to  substitute 
a  conception  of  the  world  as 
through  and  through  the  expres- 
sion of  mind  or  reason.  But  the 
problems  of  teleology  may  be 
said  to  stand  pretty  much  where 
Kant  left  them.  Henri  Bergson 
wrote:  'The  future  appears  as  ex- 
panding the  present:  it  was  not 
therefore  contained  in  the  pres- 
ent in  the  form  of  a  represented 
end.  And  yet,  once  realized,  it 
will  explain  the  present  as  much 
as  the  present  explains  it,  and 
even  more.'  See  Materialism; 
Theism. 

Consult  P.  Janet,  Final  Causes 
(1883);  Martineau,  Study  of  Re- 
ligion (1888);  Hobhouse,  L.  T., 
Development  and  Purpose  (1913); 
Lotze,  Metaphysic  (1884).  See 
also  Kant,  Immanuel. 


PUBLIC    MESSAGE  TELEGRAPH  STATISTICS  OF  THE  WORLD 


Thousands  of 

Thousands  of 

Miles  of 

Telegrams 

Telegraph  Wire 

Sent  in  Year 

Jan.  1,  1930 

1929 

208 

13.350t 

110* 

17,154 

47 

3,206 

109 

5,707t 

361 

15,680 

44 

5,376 

France  

520 

37,545 

Germany  

304 

30,200 

Great  Britain  and  No.  Ireland  

364** 

54,267 

Hungary  

51 

3.804 

Italy  

232 

31,561t 

Japan  

206** 

58.721 

59# 

6.000: 

84 

6,000 

Poland  

56 

5,823 

85  # 

19,483t 

51 

4.035 

Union  of  South  Africa  

40** 

5,984 

United  States  

2,300 

235,000 

t  Year  1928  **  March  31,  1930  *  June  30,  1929 

#  Partly  estimated         t  Year  1927 


Teleosaurus 


649  D 


Telephony 


Teleosaurus,  te-le-o-s6'rus  or 
tel-e-o-,  a  genus  of  fossil  croco- 
diles, the  remains  of  which  occur 
in  the  Lower  Jurassic  rocks.  Both 
surfaces  of  the  vertebrae  were 
slightly  concave,  the  hind  legs 
were  large  and  strong,  and  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  body  grad- 
ually tapered  into  the  long  and 
slender  jaws.  The  jaws  were 
armed  with  numerous  equal  and 
slender  teeth,  slightly  recurved. 

Teleos'teans,  or  Teleostei. 
See  Bony  Fishes. 

Telep'athy,  a  term  first  em- 
ployed by  the  members  of  the 
Society  for  Psychical  Research 
(q.  v.),  in  1882,  to  designate  'the 
communication  of  impressions  of 
any  kind  from  one  mind  to  an- 
other, independently  of  the  rec- 
ognized channels  of  sense.'  There 
are  several  theories  advanced  to 
explain  the  phenomenon  of  telep- 
athy. One  is  that  it  is  due  to 
ethereal  wave  action:  thought 
causes  motion  in  the  brain  cells 
of  one  participant,  and  this  mo- 


Telephone  Bells.  See  Elec-, 
TRIG  Bells. 

Telephony,  a  term  covering 
the  entire  art  of  speech  trans- 
mission by  means  of  the  electric 
speaking  telephone  and  the 
multitude  of  devices,  instru- 
mentalities, and  methods  which 
have  been  devised  and  developed 
for  use  in  connection  therewith. 
The  electric  speaking  telephone 
was  invented  by  Alexander  Gra- 
ham Bell  (q.  V.)  in  1875.  The 
principle  as  conceived  by  Bell  at 
that  time  was  embodied  in  a  pair 
of  crude  telephone  instruments 
connected  by  about  100  feet  of 
wire,  by  means  of  which  speech 
sounds  were  transmitted  from 
one  room  to  another  in  a  building 
in  Boston,  hearing  being  accom- 
plished only  with  the  greatest 
difficulty. 

In  contrast  to  this  primitive 
state  of  the  art  in  1875,  it  is  now 
possible  (1931),  in  the  United 
States  alone,  to  establish  not  only 
telephonic  communications  as  de- 


break'  electrical  currents,  they 
failed  to  transmit  intelligible 
speech.  The  work  of  a  German, 
named  Philipp  Reis,  one  of  the 
early  experimenters  with  a  'make- 
and-break'  current,  was  subse- 
quently brought  forward  in  an 
attack  upon  the  validity  of  Bell's 
patent,  but  in  this  connection 
the  U.  S.  Circuit  Court  said:  'A 
century  of  Reis  would  never  have 
produced  a  speaking  telephone 
by  mere  improvement  in  con- 
struction. .  .  .  Bell  discovered  a 
new  art — that  of  transmitting 
speech  by  electricity.' 

In  1874  Bell  and  Elisha  Gray 
were  striving  independently  to 
invent  a  musical  or  harmonic 
telegraph  which  would  enable 
several  telegraph  messages  to  be 
transmitted  simultaneously  over 
a  single  wire,  and  it  was  during 
the  course  of  this  work  that  Bell 
made  his  invention  of  the  tele- 
phone. Subsequently  Gray  vig- 
orously contested  priority  with 
Bell  in  the  courts,  but  the  deci- 


FiG.  1. — Photograph  of  Electrical  Undulations  in  a  Telephone  Circuit 


tion  is  imparted  to  the  surround- 
ing ether  in  the  form  of  waves 
which,  impinging  on  the  brain 
cells  of  the  other  participant,  give 
rise  to  a  thought  corresponding 
to  the  original.  Another  theory 
is  that  the  thought  is  not  really 
transmitted  but  is  read  clairvoy- 
antly  by  the  receiver;  still  an- 
other is  that  telepathy  takes  place 
in  the  subconscious  mind,  which 
is  in  communication  with  another 
subconscious  mind  by  means  of 
the  universal  mind  underlying 
all  things,  of  which  individual 
subconscious  minds  form  part. 
The  spiritualistic  theory  is  that 
an  external  spirit  conveys  the 
thoughts  from  one  mind  to  an- 
other. The  Society  for  Psychical 
Research  has  made  many  experi- 
ments to  establish  the  fact  of  the 
existence  of  telepathy  and  is  con- 
vinced that  it  does  exist  but  that 
much  remains  to  be  done  before 
it  can  be  satisfactorily  explained. 
Consult  Baggaly's  Telepathy 
Genuine  and  Fraudulent  (1918) . 


sired  between  practically  any 
two  of  the  more  than  twenty 
million  telephone  stations,  scat- 
tered from  Maine  to  California, 
but  also  to  connect  by  wire  lines 
with  telephones  in  Canada,  Cuba 
and  Mexico.  By  means  of 
transoceanic  telephone  circuits 
connection  can  be  had  to  all  of 
Europe  except  Russia,  to  a  large 
part  of  South  America,  to  Aus- 
tralia and  Northern  Africa.  In 
all,  practically  any  telephone  in 
the  United  States  can  be  con- 
nected with  any  one  of  32,200,000 
out  of  35,300,000  telephones  of 
the  world.  In  the  United  States 
an  average  of  over  eighty  million 
telephone  conversations  take 
place  daily. 

BelVs  Invention. — For  many 
years  previous  to  Bell's  inven- 
tion, numerous  scientists  and  in- 
ventors had  been  striving  to 
transmit  speech  electrically. 
They  succeeded  in  transmitting 
musical  sounds,  but  because  they 
were    dealing  with  'make-and- 


sion  was  against  him  as  was  also 
the  case  with  other  claimants, 
who  appeared  in  large  numbers. 

The  last  sentence  of  Bell's  pat- 
ent describes  concisely  the  prin- 
ciple underlying  the  successful 
operation  of  the  telephone: 

'The  method  of,  and  apparatus 
for,  transmitting  vocal  or  other 
sounds  telegraphically,  by  caus- 
ing electrical  undulations,  similar 
in  form  to  the  vibrations  of  the 
air  accompanying  the  said  vocal 
or  other  sounds.' 

When  words  are  spoken  into  a 
telephone  transmitter,  the  acous- 
tic waves  that  are  set  up  in  the 
air  by  the  voice  of  the  speaker 
are  transformed  by  the  transmit- 
ting instrument  into  electrical 
waves  of  the  same  shape  and  form 
as  the  acoustic  waves.  These 
electrical  waves  traverse  the  cir- 
cuit extending  from  the  trans- 
mitting station  to  the  receiving 
station,  where  they  are  re-trans- 
formed, by  means  of  the  receiv- 
ing   instrument,    into  acoustic 


Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telephony 


649  E 


Telephony 


Fig.  2. — BelVs  First  Telephone 
Due  to  its  structure  this  instrument  was  termed  the  'Gallows'  type. 


waves  which  convey  the  words 
to  the  ear  of  the  hstener.  Since 
Bell's  original  invention,  it  has 
become  possible  to  photograph 
the  electrical  undulations  in  a 
telephone  circuit.  Such  a  photo- 
graph is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  which 
reproduces  the  electrical  undula- 
tions set  up  by  the  words  'Bell 
Telephone.' 

Professor  Bell's  first  concep- 
tion of  the  speaking  telephone 
came  to  him  while  experimenting 
with  the  musical  or  harmonic 
telegraph.  While  holding  one  of 
his  harmonic  telegraph  receivers 
to  his  ear  he  was  astonished  to 
hear  the  twang  of  a  snapped 
spring.  Recognizing  the  unusual 
nature  of  this  phenomenon,  he 
investigated  the  matter  immedi- 
ately and  found  that  his  as- 
sistant, Thos.  A.  Watson,  in  an- 
other room,  had  snapped  the 
spring  of  one  of  the  telegraph 
transmitting  instruments  (which 
had  ceased  to  operate)  in  order  to 
set  it  in  vibration  again.  Pro- 
fessor Bell  recognized  that  the 
sound  of  the  snapped  spring  had 
been  transmitted  electrically  by 
means  of  the  minute  alternating 
current  generated  by  its  motion 
and  thus  was  the  principle  of  the 
telephone  revealed  to  him.  Bell's 
first  telephone  instrument  is 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  Over  a  short 
piece  of  wire  equipped  with  two 
of  these  instruments  he  talked  to 
Watson  who  heard  the  first  speech 
vSounds  transmitted  and  received 
by  telephone.  Immediately  the 
task  of  improving  the  instrument 
began;  and  several  forms  were 
devised  and  constructed  before 
the  opportunity  came  to  demon- 
strate the  invention  at  the  Cen- 
tennial Exposition,  held  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1876.  Figs.  .3  and  4 
show  the  types  of  instruments 


displayed  at  the  Exposition. 
While  the  fame  of  the  telephone 
spread  rapidly,  it  was  regarded 
for  a  considerable  time  merely  as 
a  scientific  toy  and  its  possibili- 
ties in  the  service  of  the  public 
were  quite  unsuspected. 

Telephone  Receiver.  —  Sev- 
eral typical  early  forms  of  tele- 
phone receiver  are  shown  in  Fig. 
5.  In  some  of  these  the  external 
covering  or  case  was  made  of 
wood.  After  these  early  forms, 
the  so-called  'hand  telephone' 
came  into  use,  and  was  the  type 
most  widely  used  prior  to  the 
year  1900.  This  consisted  of  a 
straight  permanent  magnet  of 
steel,  provided  at  one  end  with  a 
soft  iron  pole  piece  bearing,  con- 
centrically, a  wooden  spool  wound 
with  many  turns  of  fine  insulated 
copper  wire  through  which  the 
telephone  current  passed,  and,  by 


its  electromagnetic  action,  alter- 
nately reenforced  or  opposed  the 
attraction  of  the  permanent  mag- 
net which  was  exerted  upon  the 
circular  iron  diaphragm  placed 
opposite  the  pole  piece  and  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  a  tiny  air  gap. 
These  parts  were  contained  in  a 
shell  or  case  of  hard  rubber,  the 
diaphragm  being  retained  in  place 
by  a  cap,  also  of  hard  rubber, 
adapted  to  screw  upon  one  end  of 
the  case.  An  orifice  in  the  cap 
enabled  the  air  waves  set  up  by 
the  movement  of  the  diaphragm 
to  reach  the  ear  of  the  listener. 
This  receiver  was  of  the  single 
pole  type. 

About  1900,  experiments  ex- 
tending over  a  period  of  years 
culminated  in  the  development 
of  an  improved  form  of  receiver 
having  the  permanent  magnet 
bent  into  a  U  shape,  thus  en- 
abling two  pole  pieces  and  their 
windings  (the  latter  connected  in 
series)  to  be  used.  This  receiver, 
in  distinction  to  the  single  pole 
hand  telephone,  was  known  as 
the  bi-polar  type. 

A  still  further  improved  type 
of  receiver  was  placed  in  com- 
mercial service  about  1912 — the 
type  now  widely  used  in  the  Belt 
System  throughout  the  United 
States.  Its  structure  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  6,  on  which  the 
various  parts  are  so  marked  that 
they  can  readily  be  identified. 

In  addition  to  this  type  of  re- 
ceiver which  is  principally  used  at 
subscribers'  stations  with  a  desk 
stand  as  shown  in  Fig.  15,  a  modi- 
fied form  is  used  in  conjunction 
with  the  hand  telephone  set  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  16A.  There  are 
also  other  types  of  receivers  for 
special  purposes  such  as  those 
adapted  to  be  worn  upon  the 
head  by  switchboard  operators 
while  on  duty. 

Telephone  Transmitter. — 
In  1876,  Bell  transmitted  articu- 
late telephone  messages  by  means 
of  his  liquid  transmitter.  With 


Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telephony 


649  F 


Telephony 


Fig.  4. — Iron  Box  Receiver 
Professor  Bell  exhibited  this  instrument  before  the  judges  at  the  Centennial 
Exposition,  1876.    It  was  used  as  a  receiver,  the  transmitter  being  the  instru- 
ment shown  in  Fig.  3. 


this  transmitter  a  variation  in 
the  electrical  resistance  of  a  cir- 
cuit, corresponding  to  the  air 
waves  set  up  by  the  speaking 
voice,  was  produced  by  attaching 
to  a  horizontal  diaphragm  a  verti- 
cal metallic  rod  dipping  into  a 
conducting  liquid,  the  rod  and 
the  liquid  being  introduced  into  a 
circuit  containing  a  battery.  The 
resistance  of  the  circuit  was 
changed  as  the  movement  of  the 
diaphragm  caused  the  length  of 
the  rod  below  the  surface  of  the 
conducting  liquid  to  be  varied. 
This  type  of  transmitter  was, 
however,  not  adapted  for  practi- 
cal use,  and  for  several  years 
after  Bell's  invention  there  was 
no  separate  type  of  telephone 
transmitter,  but  it  was  necessary 
to  use  the  receiver  for  talking  as 
well  as  listening,  the  instrument 
being  put  to  the  mouth  and  to 
the  ear  alternately. 

An  important  forward  step 
was  taken  when  the  box  tele- 
phone was  designed  for  use  as  a 
transmitter,  a  separate  receiver 
being  used  for  listening,  and  the 
necessity  for  shifting  one  instru- 
ment from  the  mouth  to  the  ear 
was  overcome.  With  these  early 
transmitters,  operating  without 
a  battery  on  the  magneto  princi- 
ple, it  was  possible  to  talk  for 
distances  of  only  a  few  miles.  No 
electrical  current  was  employed 
except  the  minute  alternating 
current  generated  by  the  motion 
of  the  diaphragm  in  response  to 
the  speaker's  voice.  It  was  by 
means  of  the  principle  of  the 
microphone,  employing  variable 
resistance  contacts  in  a  battery 


Fig.  5. — Types  of  Telephone  Receiver 

A.  "Butter  Stamp"  receiver,  the  first  commercial  form  of  Bell  hand  telephone,  with  wooden  case.  This  instrument 
was  used  both  as  a  transmitter  and  receiver. 

B.  Later  commercial  form  of  wooden  case  receiver,  employing  binding  posts  for  connecting  the  cord, 
c.  First  commercial  form  of  rubber  case  receiver. 

D.  Hand  telephone  with  hard  rubber  case. 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telephony 


649  G 


Telephony 


circuit,  that  there  came  the  possi- 
bility of  important  improvements 
in  transmitters. 

In  1877,  Berliner  and  Edison, 
working  independently,  devised 
variable  resistance  transmitters. 
Berliner  used  metallic  contacts, 
while  Edison  employed  a  carbon 
disk  so  placed  between  two  metal 
plates  that  the  contact  resistance 
was  varied  by  the  movement  of 
the  diaphragm  actuated  by  the 


The  next  step  forward  was  the 
invention  of  Henry  Runnings,  an 
English  clergyman.  He  employed 
a  multitude  of  small  grains  of  pul- 
verized carbon,  contained  in  a 
shallow  chamber,  contact  being 
established  with  them  by  means 
of  a  metal  plate  at  one  end  and  a 
thin  platinum  diaphragm,  actu- 
ated by  the  voice,  at  the  other. 
The  use  of  granular  carbon  had 
the  effect  of  providing  many  vari- 


FiG.  6. — Bi-polar  Receiver 
Later  form;  cross-section. 


voice.  The  invention  of  an  im- 
proved form  of  microphone  trans- 
mitter, by  Francis  Blake,  in  1878, 
marked  an  important  step  for- 
ward. The  essential  parts  of  this 
transmitter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7, 
are,  wooden  box.  A,  with  orifice 
B  to  permit  acoustic  waves  to 
reach  iron  diaphragm  C,  the  per- 
iphery of  which  is  enclosed  within 
a  rubber  ring  D,  which  rests 
against  an  iron  mounting  frame 
E.  At  the  back  of  the  diaphragm, 
and  pressing  upon  it,  is  a  damp- 
ing spring  F,  to  reduce  the  vibra- 
tion of  the  diaphragm  at  its  nat- 
ural period.  A  light,  flexible 
spring  G,  resting  against  the 
diaphragm  C,  bears  a  platinum 
point  H,  which  makes  micro- 
phonic contact  with  a  disk  I  of 
hard  carbon,  set  in  a  metal  back- 
ing J,  borne  by  a  substantial 
spring  K.  The  parts  marked  L 
provide  means  for  adjusting  the 
pressure  upon  the  microphonic 
contact  between  the  carbon  disk 
I  and  the  platinum  point  H. 
This  variable  resistance  contact 
formed  part  of  the  transmitting 
circuit  which  contained  a  bat- 
tery. As  the  contact  resistance 
varied  with  the  movement  of  the 
diaphragm,  the  voice  waves  were 
thus  enabled  to  produce  similar 
electrical  waves  in  the  transmit- 
ting circuit.  For  many  years  this 
transmitter  remained  the  best 
type  known.  It  could  be  used 
successfully  with  the  lips  of  the 
speaker  several  inches  distant 
from  the  instrument,  and  the 
transmission  of  speech  was  clear, 
but  it  proved  difficult  to  main- 
tain the  platinum-carbon  contact 
in  satisfactory  adjustment. 

Vol.  XI.— 31-0. 


able  resistance  contacts  in  multi- 
ple instead  of  the  single  variable 
resistance  contact  of  the  Blake 
transmitter,  and  thereby  increas- 
ing its  power. 

Various  improvements  were 
made  in  Hunnings'  transmitter 
by  Bell  engineers,  but  it  was 
found  that,  owing  to  the  carbon 
granules  gradually  becoming 
packed  together,  the  effectiveness 
of  the  instrument  diminished  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  the 
course  of  an  extended  conversa- 
tion. 

In  1890,  A.  C.  White,  a  Bell 
System  research  specialist,  over- 
came this  objection  by  his  inven- 
tion of  the  solid  back  transmit- 
ter, which  possessed  all  the  ad- 
vantages arising  from  the  use  of 
granular  carbon  but  did  away 
with  many  of  the  defects  of  the 
instruments  then  in  use.  White's 
discovery  consisted  in  the  use  of 
a  relatively  small  amount  of 
granular  carbon  placed  in  a  cham- 
ber so  contrived  that  the  motion 
of  a  plate  or  electrode,  controlled 
by  the  diaphragm,  kept  the  gran- 
ules continually  stirred  to  a  suffi- 
cient extent  to  prevent  them  from 
forming  a  compact  mass.  In  this 
solid  back  transmitter,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  8,  granular  carbon  A  is 
contained  in  a  chamber  between 
two  disks  or  electrodes  of  hard 
carbon,  B  and  C.  Back  electrode 
B  is  held  firmly  in  place.  Front 
electrode  C  is  rigidly  attached  at 
its  centre  to  diaphragm  D,  and 
follows  it  back  and  forth  in  re- 
sponse to  the  acoustic  waves  set 
up  by  the  voice,  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  so  suspended  at  its 
periphery  as  to  be  capable  of 


moving  freely  through  a  limited 
distance.  This  freedom  of  mo- 
tion is  attained,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  granular  carbon  re- 
tained in  the  button,  by  making 
use  of  a  thin  ring  of  mica,  E,  to 
close  the  space  between  the  front 
electrode  and  the  walls  of  the 
chamber  or  button.  At  the  back 
of  the  diaphragm,  pressing  upon 
it  at  definite  points,  are  two 
damping  springs  (not  shown  in 
the  figure).  The  mica  ring  is 
made  from  a  special  grade  of 
mica  obtained  in  India,  and  must 
be  between  0.0015  and  0.0017 
inch  in  thickness  in  order  to  at- 
tain the  highest  standard  of 
transmission. 

Since  the  development  of  the 
solid  back  transmitter,  it  has 
been  adapted  to  work  on  common 
battery  circuits  and  almost  every 
detail  has  been  improved  as  the 
result  of  a  continuous  exhaustive 
investigation.  Among  these  im- 
provements is  an  arrangement 
for  damping  the  diaphragm  at  its 
centre,  shown  in  Fig.  9,  which  ob- 


Fig.  7. — Blake  Transmitter 
Cross-section  of  working  parts. 


Telephony 


649  H 


Telephony 


viates  the  necessity  for  maintain- 
ing the  button  and  diaphragm  in 
accurate  ahgnment  and  renders 
the  instrument  less  Hkely  to  get 
out  of  adjustment.  The  trans- 
mitter used  with  the  hand  tele- 
phone set  illustrated  in  Fig.  16A 
is  similar  in  principle  to  that 
shown  in  Fig.  9,  but  differs  con- 
siderably in  its  construction. 


cost  of  wires  in  the  cables  used 
so  effectively  in  cities  and  towns. 
The  improvement  in  long  dis- 
tance communication  to  a  point 
where  practically  any  distance 
necessary  can  be  covered  is 
mainly  due  to  increases  in  the 
efficiency  of  the  lines  themselves 
including  improvements  due  to 
loading  and  to  the  use  of  amplify- 
ing devices,  as  described  later. 

Induction  Coil. — With  the  ad- 
vent of  the  microphone  trans- 
mitter came  the  use  of  batteries. 


Fig.  8. — Solid  Back  Transmitter 
— Original  Form 
Diagrammatic     cross-section  of 
granular  button. 

In  addition  to  the  types  of 
transmitters  employed  at  sub- 
scribers' telephones,  there  are 
special  forms  for  switchboard 
operators,  for  linemen  and  for 
radio  broadcasting. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
while  the  modern  transmitter  de- 
livers much  more  acoustic  fre- 
quency power  to  the  line  than 
did  the  earlier  carbon  types  this 
added  power  has  been  used  pri- 
marily in  decreasing  the  size  and 


Fig.  10. — Induction  Coil 
Drawing  illustrating  structure. 

at  the  subscribers'  stations,  to 
provide  the  current  required  for 
operating  the  transmitter.  This, 
in  turn,  brought  about  the  use  of 
an  induction  coil  in  order  to  en- 
able each  transmitter  to  operate 
in  a  local  circuit.  The  structure 
of  a  typical  induction  coil  is 
shown  in  Fig.  10.  Around  a  core 
A,  consisting  of  a  group  of  small, 
soft  iron  wires,  is  wound  a  pri- 
mary winding  B  and,  separate 
from  it,  a  secondary  winding  C. 
Both  windings  are  of  insulated 
copper  wire. 

As  long  as  batteries  continued 
to  be  used  at  all  subscribers'  sta- 
tions, the  primary  winding  con- 
sisted of  comparatively  few  con- 
volutions of  relatively  large  wire, 
while  the  secondary  winding  con- 
sisted of  many  more  turns  of  con- 
siderably finer  wire.  The  pri- 
mary winding  of  the  induction 


t   Oam^'na,  Giving  S*mp*lcH)r 
As^mbly  and  P«rm«n«nc{!  Mj' 
with  Hiflh  Effieipncy 


Rigtd  G»UanUe(}  Sto«l  &r1dg« 


coil  was  placed  in  series  with  the 
transmitter  and  battery.  This 
local  circuit,  being  of  low  resist- 
ance, permitted  much  larger  fluc- 
tuations of  current,  due  to  varia- 
tions in  the  resistance  of  the 
transmitter,  than  would  have 
been  possible  had  the  induction 
coil  not  been  used,  and  the  trans- 
mitter current  compelled  to  tra- 
verse the  entire  line  circuit  ex- 
tending between  the  talking  and 
listening  stations.  As  the  sec- 
ondary winding  of  the  induction 
coil  was  connected  in  series  with 
the  line  and  the  receivers,  the 
coil  acted  as  a  transformer,  rais- 
ing the  voltage  and  diminishing 
the  current  in  the  line  and  there- 
by operating  to  minimize  energy 
losses.  When  the  common  bat- 
tery system  of  transmitter  cur- 
rent supply  made  local  batteries 
at  subscribers'  stations  in  the 
larger  exchanges  no  longer  neces- 
sary, it  remained  advantageous 
to  retain  the  induction  coils, 
but  their  design  was  radically 
changed.    On  farm  lines  and  in 


Fig.  9. — Solid  Back  Transmitter — Modern  Form 
Cross-section  showing  central  damping  features. 


Fig.  11. — Diagrammatic  Sketch 
illustrating  the  Principle  of  the 
Call  Bell  or  Ringer 

subscribers'  stations  in  the  smaller 
exchanges  where  it  is  still  advan- 
tageous to  use  local  batteries,  the 
original  induction  coil  principle 
with  improvements  in  design  is 
still  employed. 

Station  Signalling  Apparatus. 
— The  equipment  placed  at  a 
subscriber's  station  must  provide 
means  whereby,  when  he  desires 
to  talk  with  another  subscriber, 
he  may  signal  the  central  office 
and,  conversely,  when  some  other 
subscriber  desires  to  talk  with 
him,  he  may  be  signalled  from 
the  central  office.  Originally 
none  of  the  appliances  now  used 
for  telephonic  signalling  was 
known,  but  it  was  necessary  to 
use  telegraphic  signals  operated 
by  batteries.  Later  the  signal 
was  made  by  tapping  upon  the 
transmitter  diaphragm,  at  first 
by  hand,  and  then  by  a  hammer 
signal,  or  'thumper'  devised  by 
Watson.  The  first  form  of  tele- 
phone equipped  with  a  calling  de- 
vice, was  the  box  telephone  of 
1877.  A  fundamental  improve- 
ment, devised  by  Watson  in  1878, 
was  a  signalling  system  consisting 
of  a  small  magneto  generator, 
equipped  with  a  crank  to  be 
turned  by  hand,  the  alternating 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telephony 


650 


Telephony 


current  thus  produced  setting  in 
motion  the  armature  of  a  polar- 
ized electromagnet  to  which  was 
attached  a  hammer  so  placed  be- 
tween a  pair  of  tongs  as  to  strike 
them  alternately  in  rapid  succes- 
sion, when  operated. 


Fig.  12. — Early  Form  of  Wall 
Telephone  Set,  Equipped  with 
Automatic  Hook  Switch 


The  operation  of  the  call  bell 
or  ringer  can  be  seen  by  reference 
to  Fig.  11.  The  polarizing  effect 
of  the  permanent  magnet  on  the 
armature  and  cores  of  the  coils  is 
indicated  by  the  letters  in  the 
sketch.  When  alternating  cur- 
rent is  passed  through  the  wind- 
ings, however,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  magnetism  in  one  core  is  in- 
creased and  in  the  other  is  de- 
creased during  one  half  of  a  cycle, 
this  effect  being  reversed  during 
the  other  half  of  a  cycle  tending 
to  attract  the  pivoted  armature 
first  to  one  core  and  then  to  the 
other. 

The  magneto  generator,  im- 
proved from  time  to  time,  con- 


FiG.   13— Wall    Telephone  Set, 
Modern  Form 


tinned  to  be  used  as  the  means  of 
signalling  the  central  office  from 
the  subscriber's  station  until  the 
introduction  of  the  common  bat- 
tery system  made  its  use  no 
longer  necessary  in  the  larger  ex- 
changes.   In  improved  form,  it 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


still  finds  application  on  farm 
lines  and  in  small  exchanges. 
Power-driven  alternating  cur- 
rent generators  are  still  used  at 
central  offices  to  enable  subscrib- 
ers to  be  called.  Modified  and 
improved  forms  of  the  polarized 
call-bell  or  ringer  are  still  used  at 
subscribers'  stations.  Fig.  11. 

One  modification  used  on  many 
types  of  ringers  is  shown  by  the 
dotted  portion  of  Fig.  11,  where- 
by it  is  possible  to  pole  the  ringer 
so  that  it  will  not  respond  to 
pulses  of  a  certain  polarity  re- 
gardless of  their  magnitude,  and 
to  bias  it  so  that  it  will  not  re- 
spond to  pulses  of  the  opposite 
polarity  which  are  less  than  a 
certain  magnitude.  This  feature 
is  utilized  extensively  in  modern 
telephone  systems  for  several 
purposes:  to  prevent  false  opera- 
tion of  the  ringer  due  to  currents 
such  as  those  caused  by  removing 
the  receiver  from  the  hook  to  call 
the  central  office  or  by  dialing, 
and  to  provide  selectivity  with 
party  lines  rung  with  assymetri- 
cal  currents  of  the  superimposed 
ringing  type  for  four  party  selec- 
tive service. 

Telephone  Station  Sets. — The 
first  commercial  wall  telephone 
(August,  1877),  used  both  as  a 
transmitter  and  receiver,  was  of 
the  box  telephone  type.  With 
the  introduction  of  signalling 
systems  it  became  necessary  to 
provide  means  whereby,  when 
talking  was  not  going  on,  the  sig- 
nalling circuit  would  be  connec- 
ted to  the  line  and  the  talking 
circuit  disconnected,  and  also  so 
that,  when  talking  was  going  on, 
the  talking  circuit  would  be  con- 
nected with  the  line  and  the  sig- 
nalling circuit  disconnected. 

To  accomplish  this,  H.  L. 
Roosevelt  invented  a  mechanism 
consisting  of  a  rod,  or  bar,  hinged 
at  one  end,  so  as  to  admit  of  its 
movement  in  a  vertical  plane, 
and  shaped  at  the  other  end  into 
a  fork  or  hook  from  which  the  re- 
ceiver could  be  suspended.  When 
the  receiver  was  hung  upon  the 
end  of  this  hook-switch,  its 
weight  caused  the  switch  to  oc- 
cupy its  lowest  position,  but 
when  the  receiver  was  removed 
(in  order  to  talk)  a  spring  caused 
the  switch  automatically  to  rise 
to  its  highest  position.  Suitable 
electrical  contacts,  opened  or 
closed  according  to  the  position 
occupied  by  the  switch,  provided 
the  means  whereby  the  desired 
circuit  changes  could  be  made. 
Fig.  12  shows  an  early  form  of 
wall  telephone  set  equipped  with 
an  automatic  hook-switch,  and 
Fig.  13  shows  a  modern  form  of 
wall  set. 

Desk  stands  for  use  at  sub- 
scribers' stations  were  devised  as 
early  as  1886  and  have  been  con- 
tinuously improved.  In  these 
stands  an  improved  form  of  auto- 
matic hook-switch  holds  the  re- 
ceiver.  The  remaining  telephone 


station  apparatus  (induction  coil, 
call  bell  and  condenser)  is  con- 
tained in  a  separate  box,  usually 
mounted  inconspicuously  be- 
neath the  desk.  Fig.  14  shows 
an  early  form  of  desk  stand,  and 
Fig.  15  a  modern  form.  The 


Fig.    14. — Desk  Stand,  Early 
Form 


circuit  diagram  for  a  common 
battery  telephone  station  set  is 
shown  in  Fig.  16. 

The  hand  telephone  set  intro- 
duced several  years  ago  appears 
to  be  popular  with  the  telephone- 
using  public  and  hence  appears  to 
meet  its  ideas  of  a  convenient 
form  of  telephone.  On  July  1, 
1931,  there  were  in  the  Bell  Sys- 
tem approximately  2,250,000 
handsets,  which  is  over  14  per 
cent,  of  the  total  number  of  sub- 
scribers' stations. 


Fig.    15. — Desk  Stand,  Modern 
Form — Equipped  with  Dial 


Party  Lines. — For  many  years 
after  the  telephone  began  to  be 
used  in  commercial  service,  great 
difficulty  was  experienced  in  talk- 


Telephony 


651 


Telephony 


ing  when  several  stations  were 
connected  on  one  circuit,  consti- 
tuting what  is  known  as  a  party- 
line.  This  difficulty  was  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  wire  coils  of  the 
call-bells  were,  following  the  pre- 
vailing state  of  the  art,  connected 
into  the  circuit  in  series.  Even 
when  wound  with  the  minimum 
number  of  turns  consistent  with 
successful  ringing,  their  imped- 
ance to  voice  currents  was  so  high 
as  greatly  to  impair  the  trans- 

Induction 
Coil 


carried  on  over  an  outdoor  line, 
this  line  being  a  privately  owned 
telegraph  wire,  about  two  miles 
in  length,  extending  from  Boston 
to  Cambridgeport,  Mass.  The 
earliest  telephone  lines  were  sin- 
gle iron  wires  making  use  of  an 
earth  return,  i.e.,  'grounded.' 
Existing  telegraph  practice  was 
copied  and,  in  the  cities,  the  wires 
were  largely  run  on  house-tops 
or  carried  by  pole  lines  in  the 
streets. 


Switch  Hook 

Fig.  16. — Circuit  Used  at  Common  Battery  Telephone  Stations  Illus- 
trating the  Apparatus  and  Connections 


mission  of  speech.  Not  only  this, 
but  the  presence  of  these  call- 
bell  windings  in  the  line  unbal- 
anced the  metallic  circuit  and 
caused  to  be  heard  such  loud 
noises  that  from  this  cause  alone, 
speech  transmission  was  fre- 
quently rendered  difficult  or  even 
impossible. 

John  J.  Carty,  of  the  technical 
staff  of  the  Bell  System,  dis- 
covered, as  early  as  1889,  that  by 
bridging  these  call-bell  windings 
across  the  circuit  instead  of  con- 
necting them  in  series,  interfer- 
ence with  the  transmission  of 
speech  from  this  source  was  done 
away  with  and  disturbances  on 
the  line  were  prevented. 

Arrangements  have  since  been 
developed  whereby,  on  party 
lines  having  two,  and  in  some 
cases  four  stations,  the  bell  of 
any  desired  station  may  be  run 
without  operating  the  bells  at 
the  other  stations.  Various 
schemes  have  also  been  devised 
for  extending  selective  signalling 
to  a  greater  number  of  party  line 
stations,  but  these  schemes,  while 
theoretically  possible,  have  been 
found  to  possess  certain  practical 
disadvantages  that  limit  their 
usefulness. 

Telephone  Lines. — Telephone 
lines  fall  into  three  principal 
classes  according  to  the  use  made 
of  them.   These  classes  are: 

(a)  Subscribers'  lines,  which 
connect  telephone  stations  with 
a  central  office. 

(b)  Exchange  trunk  lines, 
which  connect  different  central 
offices  in  the  same  exchange  area. 

(c)  Toll  and  long  distance 
lines,  which  connect  exchange 
areas  in  different  cities  and 
towns,  a  special  toll  charge  being 
made  for  the  connection. 

It  was  in  October  1876  that  the 
first  sustained  conversation  was 


Hard-Drawn  Copper  Wire. — 
In  the  use  of  overhead  wires,  it 
was  found  that  the  iron  wires, 
which  had  proved  satisfactory  in 
telegraph  working,  were  not  so 
well  fitted  for  voice  transmission, 
so  that,  unless  something  better 
were  discovered,  the  range  of  the 
telephone  would  be  seriously  lim- 
ited. Copper  possessed  the  req- 
uisite electrical  properties,  but, 
when  made  into  wire  by  the  man- 
ufacturing methods  then  prac- 
tised, it  had  only  about  half  the 
tensile  strength  of  iron,  and  was 
too  weak  to  be  used  in  ordinary 
spans.  It  remained  for  Thomas 
B.  Doolittle,  in  1877,  to  carry  on 


a  series  of  experiments  in  the 
plants  of  the  wire  manufacturers 
which  led  to  the  production  of 
hard-drawn  copper  wire.  This 
wire,  without  appreciable  sacri- 
fice in  electrical  conductivity, 
possessed  tensile  strength  nearly 
double  that  of  the  copper  wire 
which  had  previously  been  pro- 
duced and  equivalent  to  that  of 
iron. 

Metallic  Circuits. — Another 
important  step  which  profoundly 
affected  the  development  of  the 
telephone  art  was  the  discovery 
by  Carty,  in  1883,  of  the  balanced 
metallic  circuit.  By  abandoning 
the  ground  return  in  favor  of  a 
second  wire  closely  parallelling  the 
first,  troubles  from  overhearing 
conversations  on  adjacent  lines 
and  disturbing  noises  from  near- 
by electric  wires  were  greatly  re- 
duced. The  success  of  the  metal- 
lic circuit  depended  upon  the  in- 
terchange in  position  of  the  wires 
of  the  circuit  at  certain  definite 
intervals,  each  point  at  which  the 
interchange  occurred  being  called 
a  'transposition.'  A  proper  co- 
ordination between  the  location 
of  transposition  points  in  circuits 
on  the  same  pole  line  was  found 
to  be  essential  to  successful 
working.  Fig.  17  shows  the 
method  of  transposing  a  pair  of 
line  wires.  Fig.  17A  is  a  trans- 
position diagram  for  5  circuits 
on  one  crossarm.  The  extension 
of  this  principle  to  cable  con- 
struction, by  the  use  of  pairs  of 
insulated  wires,  suitably  twisted 
together,  laid  the  foundation  for 
the  great  advances  that  have 
taken  place  in  this  branch  of  the 
art. 

Cable  Development. — As  early 
as  1880,  some  short  experimental 


Fig.  16 a.— Hand  Set  with  Dial 


Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telephony 


651 A 


Telephony- 


cables  having  wires  covered  with 
rubber  or  gutta-percha  were  laid 
in  a  trench  alongside  a  railroad 
track  in  Massachusetts,  and  in 
1882-3  several  cables  were  laid  in 
Boston,  the  longest  about  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile,  using  rubber  insu- 
lated copper  wires.  The  greatest 
number  of  wires  in  a  single  cable 
was  fifty.  Over  these  cables  con- 
versation was  successful  within 
short  limits,  but  where  they  were 
used  in  connection  with  lines 
reaching  the  suburbs,  the  voice 
became  indistinct.  Experiments 
followed  with  different  sizes  of 
wire  and  thicknesses  of  rubber 
but  the  sound  was  muffled  and  it 
was  easy  to  overhear  on  one  wire, 
by  induction,  conversations  car- 
ried on  over  other  wires.  The 
conclusion  was  clear  that  rubber 
or  gutta  percha — the  best  insu- 
lating materials  then  known — • 
were  unsuited  for  telephone  use. 
Cotton  impregnated  with  various 
moisture-proofing  compounds, 
was  then  used  as  an  insulating 
material,  the  finished  wires  being 
drawn  into  short  lengths  of  lead 
pipe.  Still  later  dry  paper,  her- 
metically sealed  in  a  lead  sheath, 
was  used,  and  this  has  remained 
the  best  type  of  insulating  ma- 
terial for  telephone  cables. 

After  a  brief  use  of  No.  18  A. 
W.  G.  soft  copper  wires,  a  change 
was  made  to  No.  19  gauge 
(0.0359  inch  diameter),  which 
continued  to  be  used  for  several 
years.  Subsequent  improve- 
ments have  enabled  still  smaller 
wires  to  be  used  and  cables  have 
been  developed  containing  an  in- 
creasingly larger  number  of  pairs 
of  these  small  wires.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  the  state  of  the 
art  of  cable  manufacture  at 
various  dates  with  respect  to  the 


size  of  wires  employed  and  the 
number  of  pairs  which  it  was 
possible  to  enclose  in  a  full  size 
sheath  (about  2^  inches  in  out- 
side diameter) . 


Progress   in   Cable   Design  and 
Manufacture 


Size  of  Wire 

Number 

Date 

A.  W.  G. 

of  Pairs 

1892... 

#19  (0.0359  inch) 

100 

1895... 

19 

120-150 

1896... 

19 

180-200 

1900-1. 

22  (0.0253  inch) 
19 

300-400 

1901... 

300 

1902... 

22 

600 

1912... 

22 

900 

1914... 

24  (0.0201  inch) 

1200 

1916... 

19 

450 

1928... 

26  (0.0159  inch) 

1800 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Cable  Manufacture. — The  in- 
sulating paper  is  manufactured 
from  materials  especially  selected 
for  their  mechanical,  chemical, 
and  electrical  properties,  and  is 
wrapped  in  the  form  of  a  narrow 
tape  spirally  about  each  wire. 
The  wires,  thus  insulated,  are 
twisted  together  in  pairs,  which 
are  then,  by  means  of  a  stranding 
machine,  assembled  into  a  core 


consisting  of  several  layers  of 
twisted  pairs  spiralled  in  reverse 
directions,  or  of  an  assembly  of 
units  each  consisting  of  51  or  101 
pairs.  Long  distance  and  other 
coarse  gauge  cables  are  stranded 
by  the  reversed  layer  method, 
whereas  fine  gauge  cables  are 
stranded  by  the  'unit'  method, 
an  example  being  1,818  pair  26 
gauge  cable  which  contains 
eighteen  101   pair  units.  The 


completed  core,  after  having  been 
kept  for  many  hours  in  a  partial 
vacuum,  in  an  oven  maintained 
at  a  definite  high  temperature  to 
remove  moisture,  is  finally  en- 
closed in  a  metallic  sheath  ap- 
plied continuously  by  a  lead 
press.  Fig.  18  (inset)  shows  in  a 
general  way  the  structure  of  a 
completed  cable. 

Cable  Sheath. — Cables  must 
possess  some  degree  of  flexibihty, 
so  that  they  may  be  coiled  on 
reels  for  transportation  and 
drawn  in  ducts.  Pure  lead  is 
unsuitable  for  cable  sheaths  for 
several  reasons,  among  which  is 
its  tendency  to  crystallize  and 
crack,  particularly  in  the  case  of 
cables  suspended  aerially  and 
hence  subject  to  protracted  vi- 
bration.   The  most  satisfactory 


sheath  material  is  an  alloy,  con- 
sisting of  about  99  per  cent,  lead 
and  1  per  cent,  antimony.  The 
manufacturing  plant  of  the  Bell 
System  (Western  Electric  Com- 
pany) in  1930  used,  in  cable  man- 
ufacture, enough  lead  to  fill  up- 
wards of  2,500  railroad  cars  of  40- 
tons'  capacity  each,  and  enough 
cable  was  made  in  that  year  (over 
80,000  miles)  to  reach  from  San 


Francisco  to  London,  via  New 
York  approximately  three  times. 

Use  of  Cable  in  Telephone 
Plant. — Underground  cables  are 
drawn  into  the  ducts  of  a  conduit 
system.  For  installing  the  cables 
and  to  permit  of  splicing  them, 
manholes  are  provided  at  inter- 
vals averaging,  as  a  rule,  from 
300  to  400  feet.  The  principal 
material  used  for  ducts  is  terra- 
cotta, although  creosoted  wood  is 
employed  to  some  extent. 

Where  underground  conduit 
construction  is  not  employed, 
cables  are  suspended  aerially 
from  suspension  strand  supported 
upon  poles,  the  cables  being 
drawn  through  metal  rings  which 
are  attached  to  the  strand  at  in- 
tervals of  from  16  to  20  inches, 
and  which  form  virtually  an 
aerial  conduit.  At  frequent  in- 
tervals, so  as  to  permit  of  con- 
nection to  the  wires  leading  to 
subscribers'  stations,  the  cable 
conductors  are  brought  out  to 
binding  posts  in  cable  terminal 
boxes  which  are  hermetically 
sealed  to  the  cable  sheath,  as 
moisture  would  ruin  the  paper- 
insulated  cable.  In  thickly-built 
up  localities,  cables  are  often 
attached  inconspicuously  to  the 
walls  of  buildings. 

Under  certain  conditions  ar- 
mored cable  is  buried  in  the 
earth  without  employing  conduit. 

Interurban  and  Toll  Entrance 
Cables. — Where  conditions  are 
such  as  to  warrant  placing  wires 
extending  from  one  city  to  an- 
other in  cable,^  and  also  where 
cable  is  employed  in  connection 


rfc  Indicates  a  transposition  to  be  cut  in  when  the  circuit  is  phanlomed  .  The  figure  at  each  phantom  trans- 

position indicates  the  type . 


Fig.  17A. — Transposition  Diagram  for  Five  Circuits  on  One  Crossarm 
Phantoms  on  pins  1-4  and  7-10. 


Fig.  18. — -Underground  Manhole  (view  from  the  centre  looking  toward  one  end),  Showing  the  Method  of 
Running  the  Cables  along  the  Walls  of  the  Manhole,  and  the  Racks  and  Hooks  Provided  to  Support  Them. 

The  designation  of  each  cable  is  indicated  by  a  metal  tag.  The  inset  shows  an  1,800  pair  cable  of  the  'multiple 
unit'  type.    The  eighteen  units  of  100  pairs  each  are  shown. 


Vol.  XI.— Page  651  B 


Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telephony 


651  C 


Telephony 


with  toll  and  long  distance  wires 
entering  urban  areas,  cable  con- 
ductors as  large  as  No.  16  and 
No..  13  A.  W.  G.  (and  in  some 
cases  even  No.  10)  have  been 
used.  Modern  development, 
however,  has  been  successfully 
directed  toward  using  smaller 
cable  conductors  and  improving 
the  efficiency  of  transmission  by 
the  use  of  loading  coils  which  may 
be  supplemented  by  repeaters. 
The  extent  to  which  these  devices 


Loading  is  a  practical  method 
for  increasing  the  efficiency  of 
telephone  lines  by  the  addition 
of  a  suitable  amount  of  series  in- 
ductance which  makes  it  possible 
to  transmit  the  energy  corre- 
sponding to  the  speech  sounds  at 
a  higher  line  potential  and  with  a 
lower  value  of  line  current  than 
would  be  possible  without  the 
added  line  inductance.  Ordi- 
narily, except  in  deep  sea  cables, 
the  loading  of  lines  is  accom- 


FiG.  19. — Iron  Cases,  each  Containing  200  Loading  Coils.  Left,  Perm- 
alloy Core  Coils,  Weight  726  Lbs.  Right,  Iron  Core  Coils.  Weight  1750  Lbs. 


have  permitted  the  range  of  tel- 
ephonic transmission  through 
cables  to  be  increased  will  be 
discussed  after  the  devices  them- 
selves have  been  described.  Un- 
der many  circumstances,  particu- 
larly through  country  districts, 
it  is  economical  to  install  inter- 
urban  cables  aerially  on  poles. 

Improvements  in  Transmission 
E fficiency. — Within  the  last  thirty 
years  two  important  means  for 
improving  the  transmission  effi- 
ciency of  telephone  circuits  have 
been  developed  and  introduced 
into  practice.  One  of  these  im- 
provements, termed  'loading.' 
reduces  losses  in  the  line  by  mak- 
ing the  circuit  a  better  conductor 
for  telephone  currents;  the  other, 
consisting  in  the  use  of  'ampli- 
fiers,' works  like  a  relay  by  bring- 
ing in,  at  intervals,  a  new  supply 
of  energy.  , 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


plished  by  inserting  at  periodic 
intervals  in  the  circuit,  special 
types  of  inductance  coils  having 
very  low  energy  losses. 

Coil  loading,  as  now  commer- 
cially applied  to  wires  in  tele- 
phone tables,  so  increases  the 
transmission  efficiency  that  the 
loaded  circuit  can  be  used  up  to 
approximately  four  times  the 
length  of  the  non-loaded  circuit. 
Prior  to  the  development  of  the 
telephone  repeater  to  its  present 
state  of  perfection,  loading  was 
applied  to  both  open  wire  and 
cable,  but  now  the  application  to 
open  wires  is  practically  aban- 
doned. To  accomplish,  without 
loading,  the  results  which  load- 
ing made  possible,  would  require 
cable  wires  ranging  up  to  eight 
times  as  heavy  as  those  used  in 
the  loaded  cables. 

The  French  telephone  engineer 


Vaschy  was  the  first  to  point  out 
explicitly  the  possibility  of  re- 
ducing the  losses  in  a  telephone 
line  by  increasing  the  series  in- 
ductance of  the  circuit,  and  he 
was  also  the  first  to  suggest  the 
use  of  inductance  coils.  Mean- 
while, Heaviside  developed  his 
classical  theory  of  electric  wave 
propagation,  leading  to  his  sug- 
gested use  of  low-loss  inductance 
coils  in  1893.  However,  the  early 
workers  did  not  develop  their 
ideas  of  using  inductance  coils 
far  enough  for  practical  results, 
largely  because  they  failed  to 
recognize  the  necessity  for  spac- 
ing the  inductance  coils  in  proper 
relation  to  the  speed  of  propa- 
gation of  the  electric  waves.  In 
1899,  the  solution  of  this  funda- 
mental spacing  problem  was 
worked  out  independently,  and 
almost  simultaneously,  by  Prof. 
M.  L  Pupin  and  Dr.  G.  A. 
Campbell,  and  basic  United 
States  patents  on  this  discovery 
were  issued  to  Prof.  Pupin  in 
June,  1900.  Their  work  demon- 
strated that  a  coil-loaded  line 
should  have  several  coils  per 
wave  length  in  order  to  be  equiv- 
alent to  a  line  having  the  same 
total  amount  of  inductance  uni- 
formly distributed,  and  estab- 
lished a  firm  foundation  on  which 
the  highly  developed  commercial 
art  of  coil  loading  is  based. 

To  make  coil  loading  commer- 
cially practicable,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  develop  improved  types 
of  inductance  coils  having  suffi- 
ciently low  energy  losses  and 
capable  of  being  manufactured  at 
low  costs.  These  requirements  in 
the  earlier  form  of  art  were  met 
by  using  toroidal  (ring-shaped) 
cores  composed  of  extremely  low 
permeability  iron  wire,  0.004  inch 
in  diameter,  thoroughly  insulated 
by  a  suitable  film  coating  to  re- 
duce eddy  current  losses. 

The  first  commercial  loading 
coils  had  two  windings  of  insu- 
lated copper  wire,  one  for  inser- 
tion in  each  side  of  the  line 
circuit.  In  1910,  the  practice 
was  commenced  of  phantoming 
loaded  circuits  and  loading  the 
superposed  phantom  circuits. 
This  involved  the  development 
of  improved  types  of  coils  having 
four  line  windings,  one  for  inser- 
tion in  each  line  wire  of  the 
phantom  circuit,  improved  two- 
winding  coils  being  used  on  the 
side  circuits.  In  order  to  avoid 
objectionable  speech  overhearing 
effects  between  the  phantom  cir- 
cuits and  their  side  circuits  it  was 
necessary  to  obtain  a  very  high 
degree  of  electrical  balance  in  the 
new  types  of  loading  coils  and  in 
the  phantomed  lines  and  cable 
circuits.  This  required  the  solu- 
tion of  many  difficult  problems 
in  the  design,  manufacture,  and 
installation  of  the  loading  coils 
and  the  lines. 

The  loading  coils  for  cable  cir- 
cuits  are   spaced   at  intervals 


Telephony 


651  D 


Telephony 


ranging  from  about  700  to  9,000 
feet,  the  inductance  and  spacing 
depending  upon  the  type  and 
grade  of  service  involved.  The 
loading  coils  are  generally  assem- 
bled in  lots  ranging  up  to  300, 
(900  maximum)  and  were  for- 
merly 'potted'  in  cast-iron  cases, 
the  terminals  of  the  coils  being 
brought  out  from  the  cases  in 
lead-covered  stub  cables  adapted 
for  splicing  to  the  cable  which  is 
to  be  loaded.  The  modern  prac- 
tice, however,  is  to  use  sheet-steel 
cases. 

About  1916,  there  was  devised 
an  improved  type  of  loading  coil 
core  which  consists  of  several  flat 
rings,  each  of  which  is  made  by 
compressing,  under  a  pressure  of 
about  200,000  pounds  per  inch, 
finely  powdered  iron  particles 
mixed  with  a  suitable  insulating- 
binding  material.  Besides  being 
as  good  as,  or  better  than,  the 
earlier  types  of  iron-wire  cores 
from  the  standpoint  of  electrical 
efficiency,  these  compressed 
powdered  iron  cores  have  advan- 
tages with  respect  to  magnetic 
stability  which  make  them  spe- 
cially valuable  for  use  in  loading 
circuits  operated  in  conjunction 
with  telephone  repeaters. 

A  recent  step  in  the  improve- 
ment and  reduction  in  cost  of  the 
loading  coil  is  the  direct  result  of 
a  fundamental  scientific  discov- 
ery on  the  part  of  the  Bell  Tele- 
phone Laboratories,  Inc.,  of  a 
material,  'permalloy,'  with  new 
and  unusual  magnetic  properties 
which  are  peculiarly  suited  to  the 
requirements  of  telephony.  The 
permalloy  used  in  loading  coils 
is  an  alloy  of  four-fifths  nickel 
and  one-fifth  iron,  specially  heat- 
treated.  After  continuous  experi- 
mental work  extending  over  sev- 
eral years,  the  laboratory  and 
manufacturing  experts  succeeded 
in  making  a  core  of  permalloy 
dust  which  permits  a  great  re- 
duction in  size  of  coils  for  both 
local  and  toll  use.  Not  only  has 
there  been  a  substantial  reduc- 
tion in  the  cost  of  the  coil  but  the 
reduction  in  size  permits  econo- 
mies of  potting  and  space  econo- 
mies in  manholes  which  are  ex- 
tremely important,  particularly 
in  thickly  settled  areas.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that,  while 
coils  of  this  new  type  are  used  in 
new  construction,  they  do  not 
make  necessary  the  replacement 
of  the  older  types  already  in  the 
plant  or  render  them  obsolete. 

The  use  of  telephone  repeaters 
on  loaded  circuits  introduced  new 
requirements  on  the  loading  sys- 
tems as  well  as  the  coils;  to  meet 
the  circuit  requirements  the  ve- 
locity of  transmission  has  been 
greatly  increased,  also  the  num- 
ber of  coils  per  wave  length.  The 
combined  use  of  repeaters  and 
loading  on  small  gauge  toll  cables 
for  long  distance  service  has  very 
substantially  increased  the  ex- 
tent of  the  application  of  coil 


loading.  Illustrative  of  this 
trend,  a  toll  cable  between  New 
York  and  Chicago  involves  the 
use  of  400,000  loading  coils  with 
all  circuits  fully  loaded.  At  the 
end  of  1930  there  were  over  5,- 
000,000  loading  coils  installed  on 
inter-city  toll  cables.  This  use  of 
coil  loading  on  repeatered  cable 
circuits  makes  it  possible  to  pro- 
vide a  high  standard  of  trans- 
mission at  a  much  lower  total 
service  cost  than  if  the  loading 
coils  were  not  used.  In  the  case 
of  open  wires,  however,  the  use  of 
improved  types  of  repeaters 
made  it  possible  to  secure  better 
transmission  results  on  non- 
loaded  lines  than  could  be  ob- 
tained for  the  same  total  cost  on 
repeatered  loaded  lines.  For  this 
reason,  the  use  of  loading  on 
open-wire  lines  was  abandoned  in 
favor  of  a  wider  use  of  repeaters. 


Fig.  20. — Vacuum  Tube  Repeater 
Bulb  Mounted  in  Socket 


On  the  other  hand,  on  account 
of  its  lower  costs  in  such  service, 
loading  has  a  very  extensive  field 
of  application  on  the  trunk  cables 
connecting  the  various  central 
offices  in  the  large  metropolitan 
areas  and  in  non-repeatered 
cables  reaching  from  city  to  sub- 
urban points.  In  the  United 
States,  approximately  1,900,000 
loading  coils  were  in  use  in  this 

y  type  of  service  at  the  beginning  of 

'l931. 

Repeaters  (Amplifiers). — The 
first  repeaters  used  were  of  a  me- 
chanical type,  the  working  parts 
of  a  receiver  and  transmitter  be- 
ing so  combined  in  one  instru- 
ment that  the  receiving  part  actu- 
ated the  transmitting  part,  thus 
enabling  an  incoming  telephone 
current  to  be  sent  forward  with 
renewed  energy  supplied  from  the 
repeater  battery.  It  was  found, 
however,  that  the  most  delicate 
apparatus  that  could  be  contrived 
(  had  so  much  inertia  in  its  mov- 


ing parts  that  distortion  of  the 
transmitted  speech  occurred,  be- 
coming particularly  noticeable  as 
the  number  of  repeaters  in  a  cir- 
cuit was  increased. 

The  three-electrode  vacuum 
tube,  invented  by  De  Forest  for 
wireless  telegraphy  purposes,  con- 
tained a  principle  which,  applied 
to  telephony,  offered  the  oppor- 
tunity of  utilizing  the  control  of 
a  stream  of  electrons  to  obtain  a 
substantially  distortionless  re- 
peater; and  after  a  great  amount 
of  development  work  a  satisfac- 
tory repeater  was  produced  which 
would  receive  the  minute  attenu- 
ated telephone  currents  and  send 
out  currents  of  substantially  the 
same  form  but  greatly  enlarged 
in  size.  The  vacuum  tube  re- 
peater element,  with  its  elec- 
trodes, is  shown  in  Fig.  20.  The 
manner  in  which  it  operates  may 
be  understood  from  the  circuit 
drawing.  Fig.  21. 

The  salient  parts  are  a  fila- 
ment, heated  by  battery  A  to  a 
point  where  it  glows,  like  an 
electric  lamp  filament,  but  is  not 
so  hot;  two  flat  pieces  of  metal 
parallel  to  and  a  short  distance 
away  from  the  filament,  termed 
'plates';  and  a  grid,  or  screen,  of 
fine  wires,  parallel  to  the  plates 
and  placed  between  the  plates 
and  the  filament.  The  bulb, 
which  contains  these  elements,  is 
exhausted  to  an  extremely  high 
vacuum.  The  heated  filament 
gives  off  electrons,  which  are 
negatively  charged.  Battery  B  is 
so  connected,  between  the  fila- 
ment and  the  plates,  as  to  make 
the  plates  electro  positive  to  the 
filament.  The  electrons  are  acted 
on  by  this  field  and  attracted  to 
the  plates.  This  transfer  of  elec- 
tric charges  represents  a  continu- 
ous current  flow,  the  circuit  be- 
ing completed  through  the  bat- 
tery, coils  and  wires.  The  stream 
of  electrons  passes  from  the  fila- 
ment to  the  plates  through  the 
grid.  The  grid  enables  the  flow 
of  electrons  to  be  controlled  in 
the  same  way  that  one  can  con- 
trol the  flow  of  water  through  a 
rubber  tube  by  compressing  the 
latter  more  or  less  between  the 
fingers.  This  control  is  exercised 
by  the  incoming  telephone  cur- 
rent which  passes  through  trans- 
former M  in  the  receiving  cir- 
cuit (which  includes  the  filament 
and  the  grid)  and  causes  the  grid 
to  vary  in  potential  with  respect 
to  the  filament.  This  varying 
potential  affects  the  electrostatic 
field  and,  like  a  valve,  controls 
the  passage  of  the  electrons  from 
the  filanient  to  the  plates.  In 
this  way  the  current  flowing  from 
the  filament  to  the  plates  is  va- 
ried in  accordance  with  the  in- 
coming telephonic  waves.  These 
variations  pass  out  over  the  line 
through  transformer  N.  in  the 
transmitting  circuit.  They  have 
the  same  shape  as  the  current  in 
\he  receiving  circuit  but  they 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telephony 


652 


Telephony 


have  greater  energy  coming  from 
battery  B. 

It  is  characteristic  of  re- 
peaters, as  well  as  loading  and 
other  subjects,  that  a  vast 
amount  of  work,  extending  into 
every  detail,  is  required  in  reduc- 
ing the  first  ideas  to  practise. 
The  successful  use  of  repeaters 
has  involved  the  careful  design 
of  much  auxiliary  apparatus, 
and  difficult  problems  of  balanc- 
ing the  repeater  in  the  circuit 
have  necessitated  careful  con- 
sideration of  the  complete  lines 
and  all  their  associated  appa- 
ratus. 


On  open  wire  lines,  repeaters 
are  employed  at  intervals  of  from 
150  to  350  miles.  On  cable  lines, 
the  distance  between  repeater 
stations  averages  from  40  to  50 
miles. 

Repeaters  have,  as  noted  in  the 
previous  section,  displaced  load- 
ing as  a  means  for  improving  the 
transmission  efficiency  of  long 
open  wire  circuits.  Long  cables, 
however,  if  not  properly  loaded, 
will  cause  unequal  attenuation  at 
the  different  frequencies  within 
the  voice  range  so  that,  without 
loading,  the  higher  frequency 
currents  would  be  greatly  attenu- 
ated in  proportion  to  the  lower, 
and  conversation  would  become 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  even 
with  sufficient  amplification  to 
give  suitable  volume.  In  the 
case  of  long  cables,  therefore, 
loading  coils  and  repeaters  are 
used  in  conjunction. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
telephone  circuits  have  become 
so  long,  both  geographically  and 
electrically,  that  echoes  which  are  • 
set  up  may  interfere  with  the  con- 
versation unless  suppressed.  The 
efTects  produced  are  very  similar 
to  those  with  sound  waves. 
Whenever  a  voice  wave  meets  an 
electrical  irregularity  in  a  cir- 
cuit, some  part  of  the  wave  is  re- 
flected, just  as  sound  waves  are 
reflected  from  a  building  or  the 
side  of  a  mountain.  This  re- 
flected wave  then  becomes  an 
echo.     In  telephone  circuits  of 


such  lengths  as  to  require  a  num- 
ber of  repeaters,  particularly  in 
the  long  cable  circuits  later  de- 
scribed, the  effects  may  become 
so  serious  as  to  justify  the  use  of 
so-called  echo  suppressors  in 
which  the  speech  current  oper- 
ates relays  which  block  the  echoes 
without  stopping  the  main  trans- 
mission. 

Extension  of  Transmission 
Limits:  Open  Wire. — New  York 
and  Boston  were  first  placed  in 
telephonic  communication  in 
1884.  By  1893  New  York  and 
Boston  were  talking  to  Chicago, 
and  one-half  of  the  people  in  the 


United  States  were  within  talk- 
ing distance  of  each  other.  Sev- 
eral years  later  Omaha  and  St. 
Louis  were  reached,  and  remained 
the  extreme  western  limits  until, 
in  1911,  by  means  of  loading  coils 
applied  to  the  heaviest  copper 
wires  in  use  (No.  8  B.  W.  G. 
0.165  inch  in  diameter),  tele- 
phone service  became  possible 
between  New  York  City  and 
Denver.  In  January,  1915,  the 
transcontinental  line  of  the  Bell 
System,  from  New  York  to  San 
Francisco,  3,400  miles  in  length, 
was  placed  in  commercial  service. 
The  original  line  employed  both 
loading  and  repeaters.  In  1920 
the  loading  coils  were  removed 
and  additional  telephone  re- 
peaters introduced,  this  change 
greatly  increasing  the  width  of 
the  'band'  of  frequencies  trans- 
mitted. 

Cable. — In  1906,  a  loaded  cable 
was  placed  in  operation  between 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  a 
distance  of  about  90  miles,  and 
in  1912,  cable  connection  between 
New  York  and  Washington  was 
established.  In  1914,  repeater 
developments  in  connection  with 
improvements  in  balancing  and 
loading  cable  circuits  enabled  sat- 
isfactory telephone  talks  to  be 
held  between  Boston  and  Wash- 
ington, a  distance  of  455  miles. 

During  1921,  the  toll  cable 
system  was  extended  from  Phila- 
delphia to  Pittsburgh  and  in  1925 
the    first    New  York-Chicago 


cable,  having  a  length  of  861 
miles,  was  completed. 

Since  that  time,  the  introduc- 
tion of  toll  telephone  cables  has 
gone  forward  rapidly. 

Improvements  render  it  tech- 
nically possible  to  talk  over  wires 
in  cables  more  than  3,000  miles  in 
length,  employing  wires  no  larger 
than  those  which,  forty  years  ago, 
caused  serious  interference  with 
transmission  when  used  in 
lengths  of  only  about  one  quarter 
of  a  mile. 

Comparative  freedom  from 
storm  damage  is  one  of  the  great 
advantages  of  toll  cable  over 
open  wires.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind,  however,  that  it  is  only 
in  the  more  thickly  populated 
sections  of  the  country  that  the 
number  of  circuits  along  a  given 
route  is  sufficient  to  justify  this 
development  of  toll  cable  facili- 
ties. For  routes  with  a  smaller 
number  of  circuits,  open  wires  to 
which  carrier  telephone  circuits 
may  be  applied  to  increase  the 
total  circuit  capacity  are  em- 
ployed. On  January  1,  1931 
there  were  in  the  United  States 
more  than  25,000  miles  of  toll 
cable  including  the  long  loaded 
intercity  cables  provided  with 
telephone  repeaters  together  with 
cable  used  for  short-haul  toll 
purposes. 

Submarine  Cable. — In  1921  the 
United  States  was  connected  with 
Cuba  by  means  of  three  telephone 
cables  joining  Key  West  with 
Havana.  These  cables  are  about 
115  miles  long  and  depths  of 
more  than  a  mile  are  reached  in 
some  places.  Each  of  these 
cables  is  composed  of  a  copper 
wire  wrapped  with  several  small 
copper  tapes,  and  is  continuously 
loaded  by  means  of  a  fine  iron 
wire  wrapping.  Over  this  comes 
a  covering  of  gutta  percha,  out- 
side of  which  is  wrapped  the 
copper  tape  which  constitutes 
the  return-to-ground  conductor. 
Over  each  of  these  cables  one 
telephone  and  two  telegraph 
messages  can  be  handled  simul- 
taneously. In  1931,  to  take  care 
of  the  growing  telephone  traffic 
between  United  States  and  Cuba, 
there  was  installed  a  new  cable  to 
supplement  those  already  re- 
ferred to.  The  new  cable  is  non- 
loaded  in  comparison  with  the 
continuous  loading  of  the  older 
type.  It  is  insulated  with  the 
new  'paragutta,'  developed  after 
extensive  research  in  the  Bell 
Telephone  Laboratories,  Inc. 
The  new  cable  transmits  a  range 
of  frequencies  up  to  about  30,000 
cycles  and  employs  telephone 
carrier  current  methods  which 
provide  three  telephone  circuits 
on  the  single  conductor  cable,  the 
same  number  as  is  divided  be- 
tween three  cables  of  the  older 
type. 

Radio.  For  telephone  com- 
munication by  radio  see  article 
Wireless  Telephony. 


Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telephony 


653 


Telephony 


Loud  Speaking  Telephones. — 

By  means  of  specially  designed 
transmitters  and  receivers  (the 
latter  provided  with  huge  pro- 
jectors) operating  in  conjunction 
with  amphfying  devices  of  high 
power,  it  has  been  made  possible 
to  magnify  the  energy  of  the 
voice  currents  billions  of  times, 
thus  affording  a  means  whereby 
public  speakers  can  address 
vastly  larger  audiences  than  was 
previously  possible.  On  Armistice 
Day,  Nov.  11,  1921,  with  the 
aid  of  this  apparatus,  the  words 
spoken  by  President  Harding  and 
others  at  the  burial  of  the  Un- 
known Soldier,  at  Arlington,  Va., 
were  heard  by  30,000  people  in 
New  York  City,  and  20,000  in 
San  Francisco.  In  its  time,  that 
was  an  achievement  which  has 
been  vastly  exceeded  since. 

Increasing  the  Number  of  Mes- 
sages over  a  Pair  of  Wires:  The 
Phantom  Circuit — Open  Wire. — ■ 
By  connecting  together  two  pairs 
of  open  wires,  making  use  of 
suitably  balanced  terminal  coils 
and  specially  devised  transposi- 
tions in  the  line  itself,  it  is  possi- 
ble to  carry  on  simultaneously 
and  without  mutual  interference, 
three  conversations;  one  over 
each  pairs  of  wires  in  the  ordinary 
manner  and  the  third  over  all 
four  wires,  the  two  wires  of  each 
pair,  in  multiple,  forming  one 
conductor  of  the  third  or  'phan- 
tom' circuit. 

First  proposed  in  the  United 
States  by  Carty,  in  1884,  the 
phantom  principle,  although 
yielding  some  results  under  fa- 
vorable conditions,  remained  for 
many  years  scarcely  more  than 
an  interesting  scientific  curiosity. 
It  was  not  until  about  1904  that 
advances  in  the  art  enabled  the 
phantom  principle  to  be  exten- 
sively applied.  Phantoming  is 
used  chiefly  for  toll  and  long  dis- 
tance lines.  It  is  not  applicable 
to  common  battery  subscribers' 
circuits.  Fig.  22  shows  the  use 
of  phantom  repeating  coils. 

The  Phantom  Circuit — Cable. — 
For  a  number  of  years  after  the 
phantoming  of  open  wires  be- 
came practicable,  the  phantom 
principle  could  not  be  applied  to 
wires  in  cables  owing  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  mutual  interference 
between  each  phantom  and  its 
side  circuits.  It  was  only  by 
specially  twisting  together  two 
pairs  to  form  a  quad,  and  by  re- 
fining every  part  of  the  manu- 
facturing process,  that  a  cable 
was  produced  sufficiently  well 
balanced  to  permit  good  phan- 
tom operation.  Quadded  cables 
are  now  in  extensive  use  in  the 
United  States,  principally  for  in- 
terurban  cables  and  for  bringing 
phantomed  open  wire  toll  lines 
into  large  centres  of  population. 
For  a  time  it  was  neither  possible 
to  phantom  loaded  lines  nor  to 
load  phantom  circuits.  It  was 
only  after  further  refinements  had 


been  made  in  the  electrical  bal- 
ancing of  the  coils  that  the  ad- 
vantages of  loading  could  be  ap- 
plied to  phantoms  (both  open 
wire  and  cable)  not  only  by  load- 
ing the  physical  circuits  consti- 
tuting the  phantom  but  also  the 
phantom  circuit  itself. 

Multiplex  Telephony. — Since 
the  beginning  of  the  arts  of  teleph- 
ony and  telegraphy,  numerous 
inventors  have  striven  to  devise 
methods  and  apparatus  for  trans- 
mitting a  plurality  of  messages 
over  a  single  circuit  at  the  same 
time;  but  it  was  not  until  1918 
that  research  engineers  of  the 
Bell  System  finally  put  into 
commercial  service,  between  Bal- 
timore and  Pittsburgh,  a  multi- 
plex system  whereby  four  tele- 
phone conversations  in  addition 
to  the  one  normally  had  (five  in 
all)  could  be  carried  on  over  one 
circuit  at  the  same  time.  By 
dropping  out  one  of  these  tele- 
phone conversations,  as  many  as 
10  simultaneous  telegraph  mes- 
sages might  be  substituted  for  it. 
The  successful  operation  of  this 
system  depended  on  the  ability 


ilar  to  the  type  employed  as  an 
amplifier.  It  is  primarily  an  ac- 
tion whereby  the  amplitude  of 
the  carrier  current  is  caused  to 
vary  in  response  to  the  amplitude 
of  the  voice  current.  An  action 
of  frequency  change  also  takes 
place  so  that  the  net  result  of  the 
operation  of  a  four  channel  carrier 
system  using  the  frequencies 
mentioned  above  is  to  cause  to  be 
transmitted  on  the  line  simul- 
taneously four  separate  bands 
of  frequencies,  within  limits  of 
8,000  to  10,000  cycles,  13,000  to 
15,000  cycles,  18,000  to  20,000  cy- 
cles, and  23,000  to  25,000  cycles 
respectively. 

Another  piece  of  electrical  ap- 
paratus, the  invention  of  which 
was  essential  to  the  success  of 
this  multiplex  system,  is  the 
band-pass  electrical  filter  of  G.  A. 
Campbell.  This  filter,  by  suit- 
able combinations  of  inductance 
and  capacity,  is  so  made  that  it 
will  be  electrically  transparent  to 
currents  within  certain  definite 
bands  of  frequencies  and  electri- 
cally opaque  to  currents  of  all 
frequencies  outside  that  range. 


Fig.  22. — Phantom  Circuit 
Method  of  connecting  phantom  repeating  coils  into  phantomed  lines. 


to  impart  to  the  undulations  of 
each  added  telephone  conversa- 
tion certain  characteristics  which 
permit  each  set  of  waves,  at  the 
receiving  end  of  the  line,  to  be 
directed  into  a  particular  chan- 
nel, from  which  the  other  sets  of 
waves  are  excluded. 

This  was  accomplished  by 
superimposing  the  characteris- 
tics of  each  of  the  added  sets  of 
telephone  waves  (the  frequency 
of  which  may  vary  from  200  to 
2,000  alternations  per  second) 
upon  a  separate  high-frequency 
current  which  is  called  a  carrier 
current.  In  a  particular  type  of 
system,  there  may  be  used  four 
carrier  currents  of  10,000,  15,000, 
20,000  and  25,000  alternations 
per  second.  These  carrier  cur- 
rents are  generated  by  means  of 
well  known  forms  of  vacuum  tube 
oscillators.  The  action  by  which 
the  voice  characteristics  are 
moulded  on  a  carrier  current  is 
known  as  modulation  and  is 
brought  about  by  the  use  of  a 
three-electrode  vacuum  tube  sim- 


At  the  receiving  end  of  the 
line  are  placed  filters  designed  to 
pass,  respectively,  frequency 
bands  of  8,000  to  10,000;  13,000 
to  15,000,  and  so  on  as  given 
above.  In  this  way  each  combi- 
nation of  telephone  current  with 
a  definite  high-frequency  current 
is  admitted  by  its  own  filter,  into 
a  separate  channel,  from  which 
other  frequency  bands  are  ex- 
cluded. 

The  next  step  is  to  annul  or 
cancel  the  high-frequency  or  car- 
rier currents,  which  have  now 
served  their  purpose,  leaving  each 
telephone  current  in  its  own  sep- 
arate channel  where,  connected 
with  an  ordinary  telephone  set, 
the  conversation  can  be  heard 
without  interference  from  or  with 
other  conversations.  This  action 
is  known  as  demodulation. 

Following  the  initial  type  de- 
scribed, improved  systems  per- 
mitting three  carrier  and  one 
voice  frequency  conversation 
have  been  developed  and  are  in 
wide  use.    These  systems  were 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telephony 


654 


Telephony 


not  practically  advantageous  on 
lines  of  less  than  about  150  miles 
in  length.  In  1928  there  was  in- 
troduced a  system  of  carrier 
telephony  which  is  applicable  to 
lines  well  below  100  miles. 


viously  limited  the  number  of 
carrier  channels  which  could  be 
superposed  on  one  open  wire  lead. 
Recently,  to  overcome  this  diffi- 
culty, a  new  form  of  open-wire 
construction  was  introduced  in 


to  eight  inches,  and  widening  the 
space  between  wires  of  adjacent 
pairs  to  16  inches. 

Switchboards:  Early  Forms. — 
Closely  following  the  invention 
of  the  telephone  came  the  de- 


By  CouTtesv  of  the  American  Telephone  &  Telegraph  Co. 

Fig.  23. — Bank  of  Vacuum  Tube  Repeaters  {2-wire). 


There  are  40  Repeaters  in  this  Group 


In  1930  about  160,000  channel 
miles  of  carrier  telephone  facili- 
ties were  added  to  those  already 
in  operation  in  the  United 
States,  making  a  total  of  approx- 
imately 505,000  channel  miles 
operating  at  the  end  of  1930. 

Cross-talk  between  carrier  sys- 
tems on  the  same  pole  lead  pre- 

VOL.  XL— 31-0. 


the  plant  of  the  Bell  System 
which  permits  using  a  larger  num- 
ber of  long-haul  carrier  telephone 
circuits.  This  new  method  in- 
volves abandoning  the  phantoms 
on  the  open-wire  pairs  on  which 
carrier  facilities  are  to  be  super- 
posed, reducing  the  spacing  be- 
tween these  pairs  from  12  inches 


mand  for  connecting  the  lines  of 
subscribers  desiring  to  talk  with 
one  another.  The  first  arrange- 
ment for  accomplishing  these 
connections  was  set  up  in  Boston, 
in  1877,  to  be  used  with  some 
burglar-alarm  wires.  Switching 
facilities  for  six  lines  were  pro- 
vided. 


Fig.  23. — Vacuum  Tube  Repeater. 
Front  view  of  repeater  sets  and  testing  equipment  for  six  2-\vire  circuits  of  open  wire  line. 


Fig.  24.— a  portio7i  of  the  Interior  of  a  Central  Office  Equipped  with  Panel  Machine  Switching  Apparatus, 


Telephony 


654 


Telephony 


Numerous  systems  of  this  kind 
are  now  in  operation,  although, 
until  further  development  shall 
have  been  made,  the  system  is 
not  practically  advantageous  on 
lines  less  than  about  250  miles  in 
length. 

Switchboards:  Early  Forms. — 
Closely  following  the  invention 
of  the  telephone  came  the  de- 
mand for  connecting  the  lines  of 
subscribers  desiring  to  talk  with 
one  another.  The  first  arrange- 
ment for  accomplishing  these 
connections  was  set  up  in  Boston, 
in  1877,  to  be  used  with  some 
burglar-alarm  wires.  Switching  fa- 
cilities for  six  lines  were  provided. 

An  improved  form  of  switch- 


the  operator  that  a  connection 
was  desired. 

The  spring-jack,  so  termed  from 
its  resemblance  to  a  jack-knife, 
was  a  piece  of  mechanism  con- 
nected to  the  subscriber's  line 
and  adapted  to  receive  a  plug 
which,  upon  its  insertion  Into  the 
spring-jack,  established  connec- 
tion between  the  plug  and  the 
subscribers'  line.  There  were  also 
flexible  conducting  cords,  each 
cord  connected  at  each  end  to  a 
plug.  By  inserting  one  plug  of  a 
cord  in  the  spring- jack  of  the  call- 
ing line  and  the  other  plug  in  the 
spring-jack  of  the  called  line,  con- 
nection between  the  lines  was  es- 
tablished. 


conversation,  the  magneto  gen- 
erator at  one  or  the  other  sub- 
scribers' stations  was  again  oper- 
ated, thus  conveying  to  the  oper- 
ator information  that  the  plugs  of 
the  connecting  cord  should  be 
withdrawn  from  the  spring- jacks 
into  which  they  had  been  in- 
serted. 

Transfer  Type. — As  the  tele- 
phone business  grew,  and  more 
and  more  lines  had  to  be  served  in 
one  central  office,  the  ability  of  a 
single  operator  to  handle  all  the 
connections  was  soon  exceeded. 
Separate  sections  of  switchboard, 
with  an  operator  before  each, 
were  then  lined  up  side  by  side. 

When  a  call  originated  at  one 


Fig.  25. — First  Telephone  Switchboard. 
This  switchboard  provided  facilities  for  eight  subscribers.    It  was  installed  for  commercial  service  at 

New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  January  1878. 


board,  installed  for  commercial 
service  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in 
January  1878,  is  shown  in  Fig.  25. 
This  board  was  operated  by  ro- 
tating metal  arms  into  contact 
with  metal  buttons  arranged 
around  the  circumferences  of  cir- 
cles, at  the  centres  of  which  the 
movable  arms  were  pivoted. 

An  important  improvement 
came  with  the  termination  of  each 
subscriber's  line  at  the  switch- 
board in  an  electro-magnetic  an- 
nunciator and  spring-jack.  When 
a  subscriber  operated  the  mag- 
neto generator  at  his  station,  by 
turning  the  crank,  it  caused  the 
shutter  of  the  annunciator,  con- 
nected with  his  line  at  the  switch- 
board, to  fall,  thus  indicating  to 
Vol.  XL— Oct.  '22. 


Further  improvements  con- 
sisted in  providing  each  connect- 
ing cord  circuit  with  listening  and 
ringing  keys  and  with  a  discon- 
nect signal.  When  the  operator 
pressed,  with  a  finger,  the  plunger 
of  a  listening  key,  her  head  tele- 
phone set  was  placed  in  connec- 
tion with  the  calling  subscriber  so 
that  the  latter  was  able  to  instruct 
the  operator  as  to  the  designation 
of  the  party  with  whom  he  de- 
sired to  talk.  By  means  of  a 
ringing  key,  alternating  current 
could  be  sent  out  over  the  line  of 
the  called  party  to  put  his  call- 
bell  in  operation. 

The  disconnect  signal,  also  of 
the  electro  magnetic  type,  gave 
indication  when,  at  the  end  of  a 


section  for  a  subscriber  whose  line 
was  terminated  at  another  sec- 
tion, the  operator  would  com- 
plete the  connection  by  reaching 
across,  from  one  section  to  the 
next,  with  one  of  the  connecting 
cords.  Soon,  however,  so  many 
sections  were  required  that  in 
many  cases  the  ability  of  the  op- 
erators to  complete  the  connec- 
tions by  reaching  across  was  ex- 
ceeded. This  required  the  pro- 
vision of  connecting  or  trunking 
circuits,  forming  part  of  the 
switchboard.  When  a  connection 
was  desired  with  a  subscriber 
whose  line  terminated  at  a  sec- 
tion of  the  switchboard  which 
could  not  be  reached  directly,  the 
operator  would  connect  the  call- 


Telephony 


655 


Telephony 


An  improved  form  of  switch- 
board, installed  for  commercial 
service  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in 
January  1878,  is  shown  in  Fig.  25. 
This  board  was  operated  by  ro- 
tating metal  arms  into  contact 
with  metal  buttons  arranged 
around  the  circumferences  of  cir- 
cles, at  the  centres  of  which  the 
movable  arms  were  pivoted. 

An  important  improvement 
came  with  the  termination  of 
each  subscriber's  Hne  at  the 
switchboard  in  an  electromag- 
netic annunciator  and  spring- 
jack.  When  a  subscriber  oper- 
ated the  magneto  generator  at  his 
station,  by  turning  the  crank,  it 
caused  the  shutter  of  the  annun- 
ciator, connected  with  his  line  at 


the  switchboard  to  fall,  thus  in- 
dicating to  the  operator  that  a 
connection  was  desired. 

The  spring- jack,  so  termed  from 
its  resemblance  to  a  jack-knife, 
was  a  piece  of  mechanism  con- 
nected to  the  subscriber's  line 
and  adapted  to  receive  a  plug 
which,  upon  its  invsertion  into  the 
spring-jack,  established  connec- 
tion between  the  plug  and  the 
subscriber's  line.  There  were 
also  flexible  conducting  cords, 
each  cord  connected  at  each  end 
to  a  plug.  By  inserting  one  plug 
of  a  cord  in  the  spring-jack  of  the 
calling  line  and  the  other  plug  in 
the  spring-jack  of  the  called  line, 
connection  between  the  lines  was 
established. 


Further  improvements  con- 
sisted in  providing  each  connect- 
ing cord  circuit  with  listening  and 
ringing  keys  and  with  a  discon- 
nect signal.  When  the  operator 
pressed,  with  a  finger,  the  plunger 
of  a  listening  key,  her  head  tele- 
phone set  was  placed  in  connec- 
tion with  the  calling  subscriber  so 
that  the  latter  was  able  to  in- 
struct the  operator  as  to  the 
designation  of  the  party  with 
whom  he  desired  to  talk.  By 
means  of  a  ringing  key,  alterna- 
ting current  could  be  sent  out 
over  the  line  of  the  called  party 
to  put  his  call-bell  in  operation. 

The  disconnect  signal,  also  of 
the  electromagnetic  type,  gave 
indication  when,  at  the  end  of  a 


conversation,  the  magneto  gen- 
erator at  one  or  the  other  sub- 
scribers' stations  was  again  oper- 
ated, thus  conveying  to  the 
operator  information  that  the 
plugs  of  the  connecting  cord 
should  be  withdrawn  from  the 
spring-jacks  into  which  they  had 
been  inserted. 

Transfer  Type. — As  the  tele- 
phone business  grew,  and  more 
and  more  lines  had  to  be  served  in 
one  central  office,  the  ability  of  a 
single  operator  to  handle  all  the 
connections  was  soon  exceeded. 
Separate  sections  of  switchboard, 
with  an  operator  before  each, 
were  then  lined  up  side  by  side. 

When  a  call  originated  at  one 
section  for  a  subscriber  whose  line 


was  terminated  at  another  sec- 
tion, the  operator  would  com- 
plete the  connection  by  reaching 
across,  from  one  section  to  the 
next,  with  one  of  the  connecting 
cords.  Soon,  however,  so  many 
sections  were  required  that  in 
many  cases  the  ability  of  the 
operators  to  complete  the  connec- 
tions by  reaching  across  was  ex- 
ceeded. This  required  the  pro- 
vision of  connecting  or  trunking 
circuits,  forming  part  of  the 
switchboard.  When  a  connection 
was  desired  with  a  subscriber 
whose  line  terminated  at  a  sec- 
tion of  the  sv  itchboard  which 
could  not  be  reached  directly,  the 
operator  would  connect  the  call- 
ing line  to  one  of  these  switch- 


board trunk  circuits,  and  would 
request  the  operator,  before  whom 
the  called  line  terminated,  to  con- 
nect that  line  to  the  same  trunk 
circuit.  At  first  the  request  was 
made  by  word  of  mouth  but,  as 
the  switchboard  and  the  number 
of  trunked  calls  grew,  this  led  to 
confusion  and  other  means  for 
conveying  the  information  were 
devised  and  used.  In  the  early 
days  all  subscribers  were  called 
by  name. 

Multiple  Type. — When  about 
2,000  lines  were  reached,  it  was 
found  that  the  transfer  type  of 
switchboard,  described  above, 
was  inadequate.  The  'multiple' 
principle,  invented  by  Firman, 
was  the  means  whereby  further 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


By  CouTtesy  of  the  American  Telephone  &  Telegraph  Co.  ■ 

Fig.  24. — Portion  of  an  Interior  of  a  Central  Office  Equipped  with  Panel  Dial  Apparatus 


Telephony 


656 


Telephony 


growth  became  possible.  With 
the  multiple  plan,  each  sub- 
scriber's line,  instead  of  being 
terminated  at  only  one  section 
of  the  switchboard,  was  carried 
through  the  entire  switchboard 
and  was  provided  so  liberally 
with  spring-jacks  that  every 
operator  had  access  to  every  sub- 
scriber's line.  While  this  prin- 
ciple removed  the  limitation  on 
growth,  it  introduced  a  new 
trouble  in  that  there  was  no 
means  of  preventing  an  operator 
from  connecting  a  third  party 
with  two  others  who  were  al- 
ready engaged  in  conversation. 
To  prevent  this,  C  E.  Scribner, 
who  was  foremost  in  the  develop- 


associated  with  a  given  line 
through  the  board  were  con- 
nected in  series.  This  was  a 
prolific  source  of  trouble,  as  dirt 
and  dust,  getting  into  any  spring- 
jack  contact,  might  cause  the 
electrical  circuit  to  be  broken  and 
throw  the  line  out  of  use.  This 
difficulty  was  overcome  by  con- 
necting the  spring-jacks  across 
the  two  sides  of  the  circuit 
through  the  switchboard  in  mul- 
tiple (bridged)  instead  of  in 
series,  as  formerly.  The  switch- 
board was  also  improved  by  sub- 
stituting, for  the  electromagnetic 
annunciator,  the  shutter  of  which 
had  to  be  restored  by  the  oper- 
ator by  hand,  an  improved  form 


the  operator  at  the  central  office 
could  be  signalled  merely  by 
closing  the  line  circuit  at  the 
subscriber's  station  by  removing 
the  receiver  from  the  hook- 
switch.  This  necessitated  the 
connection  of  the  subscribers'  call 
bells  or  ringers  in  series  with  a 
condenser  to  avoid  having  a  d-c. 
circuit  through  the  ringer  and 
still  permit  alternating  current  to 
operate  the  ringer  when  the  re- 
ceiver is  on  the  hook.  Closing 
the  line  circuit  in  this  manner 
caused  a  relay  at  the  switchboard 
to  be  operated  which,  in  turn, 
caused  a  tiny  electric  lamp  to 
glow.  This  signal  took  the  place 
of  the  former  electromagnetic 


Fig.  25. — First  Telephone  Switchboard 
This  switchboard  provided  facilities  for  eight  subscribers.    It  was  installed  for  commercial  service  at  New  Haven, 

Conn.,  in  January  1878. 


ment  of  the  multiple  board,  de- 
vised a  'busy  test'  to  indicate  to 
an  operator  whether  or  not  a  line 
with  which  a  connection  was  de- 
sired was  already  in  use.  Cir- 
cuits were  so  arranged  that,  if 
the  line  were  busy,  the  operator, 
by  touching  the  tip  of  a  plug  to 
the  sleeve  of  the  spring-jack  be- 
fore inserting  the  plug  into  the 
jack,  heard,  in  her  head  tele- 
phone, a  click,  which  was  the  sig- 
nal that  the  desired  line  was  al- 
ready connected  to  another. 
These  two  principles,  the  multiple 
and  the  busy  test,  in  one  form  or 
another,  have  persisted  in  all 
types  of  switchboard  up  to  the 
present  time. 

In  the  early  forms  of  multiple 
switchboard  all  the  spring-jacks 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


in  which  the  shutter  was  auto- 
matically restored  by  electrical 
means,  as  soon  as  the  operator 
inserted  an  answering  plug  in  a 
jack  of  the  calling  line. 

Common  Battery  Type. — One 
of  the  landmarks  in  switchboard 
progress  was  the  common  battery 
system,  originated  by  Carty. 
Scribner,  Hayes,  Stone  and  others 
contributed  to  its  development. 
With  this  system,  batteries  were 
no  longer  required  at  ea,ch  sub- 
scriber's station  to  actuate  the 
transmitter,  the  current  being 
sent  out  to  each  station,  over  the 
line  wires,  from  a  storage  battery 
at  the  central  office.  The  mag- 
neto generators  at  the  subscrib- 
ers' stations  were  also  done  away 
with,  since,  with  the  new  system, 


annunciator,  or  'drop,'  as  it  was 
called.  Fig.  27  shows  a  circuit 
diagram  of  a  common  battery 
switchboard. 

Lamp  signals  were  also  em- 
ployed as  disconnect  signals  in 
the  cord  circuits.  This  permitted 
the  operators  to  work  more  rapid- 
ly and  effectively,  without  the 
necessity  for  'listening  in'  to  as- 
certain if  the  conversation  was 
ended,  as  was  frequently  re- 
quired in  the  old  system,  due  to 
subscribers  neglecting  to  'ring 
off.' 

Trunking  Systems.  —  In  the 
early  days,  connections  between 
different  central  offices  in  the  same 
exchange  area  were  accomplished 
over  trunk  lines  operated  in  a 
manner  similar  to  subscribers' 


Telephony 


657 


Telephony 


lines.  When  an  operator  re- 
ceived a  call  from  a  subscriber  for 
a  subscriber  connected  to  another 
office,  she  made  connection  with 
a  trunk  line  extending  to  that 
office,  over  which  she  sent  ringing 
current  which  operated  a  signal 
at  the  distant  office.  This  was 
answered  by  an  operator  at  the 
latter  office  as  though  it  were  a 
call  from  a  subscriber,  and  the 
connection  was  then  completed. 


porarily  places  her  head  tele- 
phone set  in  connection  with  an 
order-wire  circuit  extending  to 
the  head  telephone  of  a  'B'  opera- 
tor in  the  distant  office.  Over  this 
order-wire  or  call  circuit,  the  'A' 
operator  gives  the  'B'  operator 
the  number  of  the  called  party, 
and  the  'B'  operator  gives  back 
to  the  'A'  operator  the  number 
of  a  trunk  circuit  which,  by  vis- 
ual inspection,  she  finds  is  not  in 


Fig.  26. — Simplified  Diagram  of  Modern  Common- Battery  System 

When  Subscriber  B  removes  his  receiver  from  the  hook,  current  flows 
through  the  circuit  from  battery  J,*  operating  line  relay  A  and  closing  the  cir- 
cuit through  C.  The  lighting  of  line  lamp  C  in  front  of  the  operator,  notifies 
her  that  the  subscriber  desires  to  make  a  call,  and  she  inserts  plug  E  in  jack  F. 
This  completes  the  sleeve  circuit  through  N  and  operates  cut-off  relay  D, 
opening  the  circuit  through  A  and  putting  out  C.  At  the  same  time,  the  talk- 
ing circuit  (indicated  by  heavy  lines)  is  completed  and  supervisory  relay  G  is 
operated,  shunting  supervisory  lamp  H  before  it  has  time  to  light.  The  oper- 
ator then  connects  subscriber  B  with  the  desired  party  by  means  of  the  other 
side  of  the  cord  circuit,  first  making  a  busy  test  to  determine  whether  or  not 
the  line  is  in  use.  M  shows  the  operator's  set  in  position  to  be  connected  for 
the  busy  test.  For  the  sake  of  clearness  the  ringing  keys  usually  employed  to 
call  the  subscriber  are  omitted  from  the  diagram,  also  details  of  subscriber 
station  set  and  operator's  telephone  set  including  tolling  key  in  cord  are  omitted. 
When  B  has  finished  his  conversation,  he  restores  his  receiver  to  the  hook, 
opening  the  talking  circuit  and  releasing  the  armature  of  G,  which  removes  the 
shunt  around  supervisory  lamp  H.  H  lights  and  notifies  the  operator  that  B 
has  completed  his  conversation. 

*  The  several  batteries  marked  J  are  actually  one  common  storage  battery. 


Improved  trunking  methods 
have  led  to  a  specialization  of  the 
operating  forces  into  'A'  oper- 
ators, who  answer  and  complete 
calls  from  subscribers,  and  'B' 
operators,  whose  only  function 
is  to  receive  and  complete  calls 
trunked  from  other  offices.  With 
the  'call  circuit'  method  of  opera- 
tion, in  almost  universal  use  un- 
til about  1926,  the  operation  was 
as  follows:  An  'A'  operator  re- 
ceiving, from  a  subscriber,  a  call 
for  a  subscriber  in  another  office, 
by  means  of  a  push  button  tem- 


use.  Simultaneously,  the  'A' 
operator  plugs  the  line  of  the 
calling  subscriber  into  a  jack  of 
the  trunk  line  thus  designated 
by  the  'B'  operator,  and  the  'B' 
operator,  picking  up  a  flexible 
cord  in  which  the  trunk  line  ter- 
minates before  her,  after  making 
the  usual  busy  test  inserts  its 
plug  in  a  multiple  jack  of  the 
called  line  if  the  line  is  free  and 
signals  the  called  party.  In 
many  modern  equipments  the 
signalling  of  the  called  party  is 
performed   automatically  when 


the  trunk  plug  is  inserted  in  the 
jack  of  the  called  party's  line, 
thus  reducing  the  labor  of  the 
'B'  operator.  With  this  system 
of  trunking,  the  supervision  of 
the  call  and  the  initiation  of  the 
disconnect  rest  with  the  'A' 
operator  in  the  same  manner  as 
though  the  connection  were  be- 
tween subscribers'  lines  both  con- 
nected with  her  own  office.  When 
the  'A'  operator  withdraws  the 
plug  from  the  trunk  jack,  the  dis- 
connect signal  is  automatically 
conveyed  by  the  operation  of  a 
lamp  to  the  'B'  operator. 

The  call  circuit  method  be- 
came increasingly  difficult  to 
operate  as  the  number  of  offices 
from.which  a  'B'  operator  received 
calls  was  increased.  Trunking 
operation  was  materially  im- 
proved by  the  use  of  the  'straight- 
forward' operating  method.  With 
this  plan  the  'A'  operator,  when 
she  receives  a  call,  tests  the 
trunks  to  the  desired  office  in  the 
multiple  before  her  as  she  would 
in  the  case  of  subscribers'  lines. 
An  idle  trunk  being  found,  she 
plugs  in  and  at  the  'B'  position 
this  trunk  is  connected  to  the 
'B'  operator's  headset.  The  'A' 
operator  passes  her  call  over  the 
trunk  and  the  'B'  operator  com- 
pletes it  by  plugging  the  trunk 
cord  into  the  subscriber's  jack 

Dial  Systems. — Throughout 
the  development  of  the  manually 
operated  switchboard,  briefly  de- 
scribed above,  the  tendency  was 
continually  in  the  direction  of 
performing  fewer  and  fewer  of 
the  essential  operations  by  hand, 
and  more  and  more  of  them  by 
improved  mechanical  devices, 
electromagnetically  controlled. 
In  the  type  of  common  battery 
switchboard  shown  in  Fig.  26,  a 
large  proportion  of  the  operating 
functions  are  performed  auto- 
matically. This  increase  in  auto- 
matically performed  operations 
has  been  carried  to  the  point,  in 
certain  types  of  switchboard, 
where  manual  operation  is  done 
away  with,  except  in  the  case  of 
certain  special  classes  of  calls, 
such  as  information,  toll,  and 
long  distance  calls. 

With  these  types  of  switch- 
board, originating  calls,  instead 
of  being  transmitted  verbally 
by  the  subscriber  to  an  operator, 
are  transmitted  electromechani- 
cally  to  the  central  office  switch- 
ing apparatus  by  means  of  cur- 
rent impulses,  controlled  by  a 
dial  attached  to  the  sub-station 
set  and  operated  by  the  sub- 
scriber. The  dial,  when  operated, 
sets  in  motion  the  switchboard 
selectors  and  other  apparatus, 
and  so  controls  them,  in  accor- 
dance with  the  combinations  of 
letters  and  digits  set  up  on  the 
dial  by  the  subscriber,  that  con- 
nection w^ith  the  desired  party  is 
automatically  accomplished.  The 
latest  form  of  dial  (Fig.  27)  is 
mounted  in  the  base  of  the  desk 

Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


TelephoDF 


657  A 


Telephony 


stand  or  hand  telephone  set. 
Two  principal  types  of  dial  sys- 
tems have  been  developed,  the 
'step-by-step'  type  and  the 
'panel'  type. 

The  step-by-step  type  of  equip- 
ment is  used  at  automatic  pri- 
vate branch  exchanges  and  for 
switchboards  in  the  smaller  cities. 
The  panel  type  of  equipment  is 
in  general  use  in  the  larger  cities 
of  the  United  States. 

The  type  of  selector  used  with 
the  step-by-step  equipment  con- 
sists essentially  of  a  series  of 
terminals,  arranged  in  horizontal 
layers  around  a  circular  arc,  and 
a  central  arm,  adapted  to  be 
raised  to  the  level  of  any  one  of 
the  layers  and  rotated,  at  that 
level,  so  as  to  make  contact  with 
the  proper  terminals. 

The  panel  type  derives  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  the  mul- 
tiple of  the  selectors  is  built  in 
panels.  When  a  subscriber 
places  a  call,  a  device  known  as  a 
'line  finder'  connects  itself  with 
the  line  of  the  calling  subscriber, 
thus  playing  a  part  corresponding 
to  the  'A'  operator's  answering 
cord  in  the  manual  switchboard. 
This  'line  finder'  works  in  con- 
nection with  a  district  selector. 
By  means  of  a  connecting  'link 
circuit'  it  selects  one  out  of  a 
group  of  idle  'senders,'  and  con- 
nects it  with  the  calling  sub- 
scriber's line.  This  'sender' 
mechanism  takes  the  place  of  the 
'A'  operator  at  the  manual 
board.  It  receives  and  tempo- 
rarily stores  up  the  electrical  im- 
pulses sent  over  the  line  by  the 
operation  of  the  dial  at  the  sub- 
scriber's station.  It  governs  the 
mechanism  which  sets  up  the 
connection,  after  which  it  is  re- 
leased and  becomes  ready  to  take 
up  another  call.  While  it  is  at 
work  it  causes  a  'district  selector' 
to  pick  out  a  trunk  to  the  de- 
sired group  of  lines  which  may 
be  in  the  same  office  or  in  another 
office.  This  district  selector  es- 
tablishes connection  with  an 
'incoming  selector,'  which,  still 
under  the  control  of  the  'sender,' 
picks  out  an  idle  'final  selector' 
capable  of  reaching  the  group  of 
500  lines  in  which  is  the  line  of 
the  called  party.  The  final  selec- 
tion of  the  desired  line  is  then 
accomplished  by  means  of  a  set 
of  brushes  adapted  to  be  moved 
vertically  in  front  of  a  multiple 
of  subscribers'  lines  built  up  ver- 
tically out  of  horizontal  strips  of 
metal  placed  one  on  top  of  the 
other  with  insulating  material 
between.  Five  sets  of  brushes 
are  attached  to  a  tube  adapted 
to  move  them  vertically  in  close 
proximity  to  the  bank  of  multiple 
strips.  The  proper  sot  of  brushes 
for  the  hundred  line  group  con- 
taining the  desired  line  is  first 
selected,  and  by  means  of  a  fric- 
tion clutch  so  arranged  as  to  en- 
gage a  shaft  that  rotates  contin- 
ually the  tube  is  then  raised  to 
Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


the  proper  position  to  bring 
these  brushes  into  engagement 
with  the  desired  line.  The  bell  of 
the  called  subscriber  is  rung 
automatically,  or  if  the  called 
subscriber's  line  is  already  in  use, 
an  audible  busy  tone  is  conveyed 
back  to  the  calling  subscriber. 
The  other  selectors  of  the  switch- 
ing train  and  their  banks  are 
similar  in  construction  and  oper- 
ation to  the  final  selector. 

To  indicate  the  wide  use  of 
dial  telephone  systems  in  the 
United  States,  on  December  31, 
1930  there  were  well  over  5,000,- 
000  telephones  operating  on  a 
dial  basis.  Of  these  678,721  were 
in  New  York  City,  operated  from 
a  total  of  61  central  offices. 

For  the  Bell  Companies  it  was 
expected  that  the  conversion  to 
dial  in  all  places  for  which  it  is 
suitable  would  be  completed 
within  eight  or  ten  years. 

Private  Branch  Exchanges. — 
The  term  'private  branch  ex- 
change' is  applied  to  switchboard, 


Fig.  27. — Dial  Used  at  Sub- 
scriber's Set.  This  Form  is  adapted 
for  Use  in  the  largest  Cities. 


usually  of  small  size,  located  on 
the  subscriber's  premises.  A 
sufficient  number  of  trunk  lines 
to  handle  the  traffic  are  used  to 
connect  the  private  branch  ex- 
change with  the  central  office 
switchboard. 

Statistics  of  telephones  and 
telephone  mileage  are  given  in 
the  accompanying  tables. 

The  Bell  System  in  the  United 
States  includes  over  20,000,000 
telephone  stations,  of  which  15,- 
600,000  are  owned  by  the  asso- 


Table  I.  Telephone  Wire  Mileage 
OF  the  World,  Jan.  1,  1930. 


United  States  

76,710,000 

4,476,213 

Mexico,  Central  America, 

W.  Indies  

725,138 

1,666,049 

Great  Britain  

8,390,000 

3,570,000 

12,845,000 

Rest  of  Europe  

11,421,829 

4,025,562 

773,380 

3,176,084 

Total  World  

127,779,255 

ciated  operating  companies  com- 
prising the  System  and  over 
4,400,000  byindependently  owned 
companies  for  which  the  System 
provides  long-distance  connec- 
tions. 

Of  the  total  world  percentage. 
United  States  leads  with  60.03; 
Canada,  3.50;  Great  Britain, 
6.57;  France,  2.79;  Germany, 
10.05.  Mileage  for  the  whole  of 
Europe  in  1930  was  36,226,829, 
or  28.35  per  cent  of  the  world 
total. 

The  15,600,000  Bell  owned  sta- 
tions (1930)  are  connected  to 
over  6,500  Bell  central  offices  by 
means  of  8,800,000  exchange  cir- 
cuits. The  average  of  nearly 
two  stations  per  exchange  cir- 
cuit is  due  to  party  lines,  ex- 
tension stations  and  private 
branch  exchanges.  The  principal 
central  offices  have  trunk  lines 
which  connect  such  offices  with 
each  of  the  other  central  offices 
in  the  city. 


Table  II    Number  of  Telephones 
IN  THE  World,  Jan.  1,  1930. 


Number  of 

Country 

1  elephones 

United  States  

20,068,023 

1,399,986 

Great  Briuin  

1,886,726 

1.056,034 

3,182  305 

865  516 

All  other  countries  

6,068,039 

Total  

34,526,629 

The  above  total  includes  ap- 
proximately 9,060,000  automatic 
or  dial  telephones,  of  which  more 
than  50  per  cent  were  in  the 
United  States  (Jan.  1,  1930). 

Bibliography. — J.  £.  Kings- 
bury, The  Telephone  and  Tele- 
phone Exchanges,  Their  Inven- 
tion and  Development  (1915);  C. 
M.  Jansky  and  D.  C.  Faber, 
Principles  of  the  Telephone  (1917) ; 
H.  N.  Casson,  History  of  the 
Telephone  (1917);  H.  H.  Harri- 
son, Elements  of  Telephone  Trans- 
mission (1927) ;  F.  L.  Rhodes,  Be- 
ginnings of  Telephony;  H.  J.  Van 
der  Bijl,  Thermionic  Vacuum 
Tube  and  its  Applications  (1920); 
J.  A.  Fleming,  Propagation  of 
Electric  Currents  in  Telephone 
and  Telegraph  Conductors  (1927); 
A.  B.  Smith,  Telephony,  Includ- 
ing Automatic  Switching  (1924); 
J.  G.  Mitchell,  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Telephony  (1923); 
American  Telephone  and  Tele- 
graph Company,  Things  Worth 
Knowing  About  the  Telephone 
(1928);  Bell  System  Technical 
Journal;  Bell  Telephone  Quar- 
terly; Electrical  Communication; 
Transactions  of  the  American 
Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers. 

Text  and  illustrations  by  cour- 
tesy of  the  American  Telephone 
and  Telegraph  Company. 


Telephony,WireIess. 


657  B 


Telephotography 


Telephony,    Wireless.  See 

Wireless  Telephony. 

Telephotography  is  the  elec- 
trical transmission  of  pictures 
over  telephone  and  telegraph 
lines,  or  by  radio.  Attempts  at 
electrical  picture  transmission 
were  begun  ninety  years  ago,  al- 
most immediately  after  Morse's 
success  in  telegraphy.  From  the 
beginning  all  efforts  were  directed 
towards  developing  the  process 
along  exactly  the  same  lines  as 
we  know  it  today;  that  is,  to 
obtain  an  electric  current  by 
means  of  a  tracer  responding  suc- 
cessively to  small  areas  of  the 
original   picture,   to  send  this 


The  first  known  investigator 
in  telephotography  was  Alex- 
ander Bain,  a  Scotsman,  who 
received  patents  on  his  work  in 
1841  and  1842.  In  his  system, 
the  original  picture  was  copied 
with  shellac  ink  on  tinfoil,  and 
was  then  brushed  over  on  each 
stroke  of  a  pendulum  to  which  an 
electrical  contact  point  was  at- 
tached. At  the  receiving  end  a 
similar  pendulum  brushed  a  sheet 
of  chemically  treated  paper,  dis- 
coloring it  when  current  flowed. 
Between  strokes,  original  and 
copy  were  moved  forward  a  line 
until  the  entire  area  had  been 
covered.    The  received  picture 


photo-engraver's  plate,  was  tra- 
versed by  a  moving  contact 
brush  or  by  a  stylus  attached  to  a 
special  form  of  telephone  trans- 
mitter. The  work  of  Amstutz  in 
the  United  States  and  of  Belin  in 
France  was  notable  in  this  field. 
In  instruments  using  the  seleni- 
um cell,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
original  picture  was  copied  on  a 
photographic  film  and  scanned 
by  a  beam  of  light,  which  after 
passing  through  the  film  was 
focused  on  a  selenium  cell  which 
emitted  a  current  varying  in 
response  to  the  intensity  of  the 
light  received.  Shelford  Bidwell 
and  Professor  Arthur  Korn  de- 


f?1  F 


ISSew  York  Sending  and  Receiving  Station  for  Telephotography 


fluctuating  electric  current  with- 
out distortion  over  the  communi- 
cation system,  and  to  employ  it 
at  the  receiving  station  to  put 
down  the  point  representations  in 
their  proper  places  on  the  record- 
ing sheet  and  thus  reconstruct 
the  picture.  Yet,  although  the 
broad  principles  were  recognized 
so  long  ago,  and  although  several 
early  devices  embodied  design 
features  of  permanent  value, 
commercial  application  has  come 
only  within  the  last  ten  years. 
First  there  had  to  be  perfection 
of  methods  for  the  faithful  trans- 
mission of  electrical  signals  to 
long  distances;  and  that  in  turn 
awaited  the  development  of 
special  apparatus  in  the  com- 
munication art,  which  has  been 
so  intensively  developed  within 
recent  time. 


was  made  up  of  white  lines,  cor- 
responding to  the  shellac  lines  of 
the  original,  on  a  dark  back- 
ground. Five  years  later  Bake- 
well  improved  Bain's  process  by 
mounting  the  tinfoil-shellac  origi- 
nal and  the  treated  recording 
sheet  on  revolving  cylinders  at 
their  respective  ends  of  the  cir- 
cuit, replacing  Bain's  pendulums 
by  styli  moving  down  the  length 
of  the  cylinders,  tracing  identical 
spiral  paths  on  original  and  copy. 
Later  investigators  followed  two 
general  lines  of  development: 
The  use  of  relief  pictures  for 
transmission,  and  the  use  of  the 
selenium  cell  as  a  translating 
element.  Using  the  first  method, 
instruments  were  developed 
wherein  the  picture  or  message  to 
be  transmitted,  copied  in  relief  on 
a  sheet  or  tablet  resembling  a 


veloped  the  most  successful  sys- 
tems employing  this  principle. 

Begun  by  the  work  of  Elster 
and  Geitel,  the  modern  photo- 
electric cell  (see  Vacuum  Tubes) 
was  developed,  and  has  now  re- 
placed both  the  selenium  cell  and 
the  relief  picture  method.  By  its 
immediate  and  accurate  response 
to  the  light  received  it  advanced 
the  photoelectric  method  of  send- 
ing until  that  has  supplanted  all 
other  procedures.  The  names  of 
the  workers  in  the  telephoto- 
graphic  field  during  the  present 
century  are  legion.  T.  Thome 
Baker  and  Captain  O.  Fulton 
have  separately  worked  towards 
the  development  of  the  art  for 
the  amateur;  C.  Francis  Jeninsk 
has  applied  the  lens  disc  to  pic- 
ture transmission;  H.  E.  Ives 
and  his  assistants  in  the  Bell 


Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telephotography 


657  C 


Telephotography 


telephone  system  have  achieved 
outstanding  perfection  in  the 
transmission  of  pictures  over 
telephone  channels;  H.  G.  Bar- 
tholomew and  M.  L.  D.  MacFar- 
lane  have  solved  the  problem  of 
cable  telephotography  by  their 
'Bartlane'  code  system;  and  the 
radio  facsimile  art  has  been 
developed  by  Dr.  Schroeder  and 
Professor  Karolus  of  the  Tele- 
funken  Co.  in  Germany,  C.  W. 
Wright  of  the  British  Marconi 
Co.,  and  R.  H.  Ranger  and  C.  J. 
Young  of  the  R.C.A.  group  in 
the  United  States.  Each  of  these 


ing  to  the  successive  changes  in 
light  intensity.  In  the  telephone 
system  this  'modulated'  current 
is  amplified  and  transmitted  over 
the  line,  actuating  at  the  receiv- 
ing end  a  specially  designed  form 
of  string  galvanometer  called  a 
'light  valve,'  which  controls  the 
intensity  of  a  beam  of  light  fall- 
ing on  a  moving  photographic 
film.  The  received  picture  thus 
consists  of  a  great  number  of  very 
fine  lines,  so  thin  in  the  lightest 
portions  of  the  picture  as  to  be 
virtually  invisible,  and  so  thick 
in  the  darkest  portions  as  to  over- 


^^^^^ 


Photograph  of  President  Coolidge,  Transmitted  by  Wireless  in  IQ24 
Better  results  are  now  being  obtained. 


investigators  has  had  his  special 
problems  inherent  in  the  type  of 
picture  service  he  wished  to 
develop,  and  thus  each  has  de- 
veloped a  different  type  of  appa- 
ratus, while  retaining  the  same 
basic  principles  of  operation. 

As  an  instance  of  such  parallel 
but  dissimilar  development  the 
American  Telephone  and  Tele- 
graph system  may  be  compared 
with  that  used  by  R.C.A.  Com- 
munications, Inc.  Both  of  these 
sy.stems  scan  the  picture  to  be 
transmitted  with  a  fine  beam  of 
light  which  is  then  impressed 
upon  a  photoelectric  cell,  thus 
obtaining  an  electric  current 
whose  intensity  is  varied  accord- 

VOL.  XL— 31-0. 


lap.  (In  the  later  development 
of  this  system  the  light  valve 
works  parallel  to  the  lines  scan- 
ned across  the  picture,  thus 
changing  the  amount  rather  than 
the  intensity  of  the  light  striking 
any  given  portion.) 

In  radio  communication,  on 
the  other  hand,  such  a  modulated 
current  cannot  be  transmitted 
with  any  great  hope  of  success, 
due  to  the  interfering  effect  of 
static  and  fading.  Accordingly, 
an  integrating  method  of  trans- 
mission has  been  developed.  The 
current  from  the  photoelectric 
cell  is  amplified  and  then  flows 
through  a  'dribbler'  circuit, 
where  it  is  translated  into  a  series 


of  dots  of  varying  length  and 
spacing.  In  this  'dribbler'  cir- 
cuit the  photocell  current,  fluc- 
tuating in  accordance  with  the 
picture  values,  controls  the  mark- 
ing and  spacing  lengths  of  an 
electronic  relay.  For  medium 
gray  portions  of  the  picture  this 
relay  operates  so  that  a  series  of 
short  current  pulses  or  dots  are 
produced,  separated  by  time  in- 
tervals equivalent  to  the  length 
of  the  pulses.  As  the  picture 
grows  lighter,  the  current  pulses 
remain  the  same  short  length, 
but  are  separated  by  greater  time 
intervals,  giving  light  dots  widely 
spaced  on  the  paper.  As  the 
picture  becomes  darker  than  a 
medium  gray,  the  current  pulses 
grow  longer,  the  spacing  intervals 
remaining  constant.  Only  full 
value  current  pulses  are  thus  put 
on  the  air,  and  accidental  varia- 
tions in  the  intensity  of  these 
pulses  are  immaterial,  as  it  is 
only  their  length  and  spacing 
which  develops  the  picture.  At 
the  receiving  end  of  the  circuit 
these  pulses  key  a  gaseous  dis- 
charge tube,  which  records  them 
on  photographic  film.  The  re- 
ceived picture  is  thus  a  collection 
of  miscellaneous  dots,  somewhat 
resembling  the  screened  halftone 
pictures  used  in  newspapers. 

Innumerable  variations  in 
scanning  methods  for  telepho- 
tography have  been  designed  and 
tested.  By  far  the  most  popular 
methods  have  been  modifications 
of  Bakewell's  machine;  that  is, 
some  sort  of  cylinder  mounted  in 
the  manner  of  a  lathe  and  carry- 
ing the  picture  to  be  sent,  the 
while  a  point  of  light  travels  down 
the  length  of  the  cylinder  so  that 
at  the  end  of  a  certain  time  the 
entire  picture  will  have  been 
traced.  It  is  immaterial  whether 
the  cylinder  or  the  point  of  light 
rotates.  Thus  in  one  interesting 
system  the  picture  (a  photo- 
graphic negative  film  in  this  case) 
is  advanced  slowly  by  means  of  a 
canvas  belt  down  the  length  of  a 
stationary  cylinder  around  which 
it  is  wrapped.  A  slit  is  cut  across 
the  center  of  the  cylinder  and  a 
beam  of  light  rotates  inside  the 
cylinder  and  comes  out  this  slit  to 
analyze  the  passing  picture.  In 
contradistinction  to  this  'drum' 
scanning,  various  reciprocating 
methods  have  been  developed, 
wherein  the  scanning  beams  or 
points  move  back  and  forth  hori- 
zontally across  the  picture, which 
is  advanced  forward  for  each 
successive  line.  All  these  meth- 
ods are  descendants  of  Bain's 
original  machine,  and  have  the 
advantage  of  working  for  con- 
tinuous paper  feed,  but  the  dis- 
advantage of  a  tendency  towards 
greater  error  in  registering  the 
received  pictures.  The  most  suc- 
cessful of  the  reciprocating  scan- 
ning mechanisms  makes  use  of  a 
spiral  rotating  on  one  side  of  the 
paper  and  a  bar,  energized  by  the 


Telephotography 


657  D 


Telephus 


picture  signal,  moving  to  and 
from  the  other  side  of  the  paper. 
The  point  at  which  the  spiral  and 
the  bar  pinch  the  paper  between 
them  moves  from  one  side  of  the 
sheet  to  the  other,  and  then 
starts  over  again  from  the  original 
side.  This  scanning  method  is 
used  in  the  carbon  paper  and 
electrochemical  types  of  photo- 
telegraphic  recorders  (see  below) . 

It  is  of  course  most  important 
that  the  scanning  mechanisms  at 
the  transmitting  and  receiving 
ends  of  the  phototelegraphic  sys- 
tem be  in  perfect  mutual  syn- 
chronism. Two  general  methods 
are  used  to  accomplish  this:  The 
receiver  and  transmitter  may  be 
advanced  simultaneously  for  suc- 
cessive scanning  lines  by  means 
of  signals  sent  from  transmitter 
to  receiver,  or  receiver  and  trans- 
mitter may  be  controlled  inde- 
pendently at  the  same  speed 
within  rigorous  limits  of  accu- 
racy. Here  again  special  operat- 
ing conditions  determine  the 
method  to  be  used.  In  telephone 
work,  where  a  great  number  of 
different  communication  chan- 
nels are  available,  the  signal 
method  of  synchronizing  may  be 
used,  to  save  the  cost  and  care  of 
the  elaborate  standard  frequency 
apparatus  necessary  for  inde- 
pendent synchronization.  In 
radio  work,  on  the  other  hand, 
since  ether  space  is  at  a  premium, 
the  latter  method  is  generally 
used.  Tuning  forks  accurate  to 
within  a  few  parts  in  a  million 
(0.00010%),  carefully  protected 
from  temperature  and  line  volt- 
age variations,  are  set  up  and 
used  to  control  various  modified 
types  of  synchronous  motors, 
which  in  turn  drive  the  scanning 
mechanism.  When  independent 
synchronizing  is  used  it  is  neces- 
sary to  'frame'  the  receiver  with 
the  transmitter  occasionally,  and 
also  to  adjust  the  tuning  forks 
with  respect  to  each  other  from 
time  to  time. 

Perhaps  the  most  difficult  part 
of  the  telephotographic  problem 
has  been  the  achievement  of  sat- 
isfactory recording  means. 
Photographic  methods,  that  is, 
those  in  which  elementary  areas 
of  photographic  paper  are  ex- 
posed to  light  in  varying  amounts 
corresponding  to  the  signals 
transmitted  by  the  photoelectric 
cells  at  the  sending  station,  have 
the  great  advantage  of  requiring 
no  mechanical  moving  parts,  and 
are  therefore  most  generally  used 
in  commercial  installations.  Be- 
sides the  gaseous  glow  tube  and 
'light  valve'  systems  already 
mentioned,  various  successful 
systems  have  made  use  of  the 
Kerr  cell  and  of  the  corona  dis- 
charge from  a  Tesla  coil  in  their 
recording  apparatus.  The  dis- 
advantage of  photographic  re- 
cording methods  is  that  they 
require  dark  room  or  box  opera- 
tion, with  no  knowledge  of  the 


actual  performance  until  the  ex- 
posure of  the  completed  picture 
is  accomplished  and  it  has  been 
developed.  Consequently  a  great 
amount  of  research  work  has 
been  done  on  various  visible 
methods  of  recording.  Both  hot 
air  streams  marking  chemically 
treated  heat  sensitive  paper  and 
ink  vapor  streams  marking  plain 
paper  have  been  used  on  com- 
mercial radio  facsimile  circuits 
with  some  success,  the  marking 
stream  in  each  case  being  keyed 
by  a  small  electrically  deflected 
vane  operated  by  the  incoming 
picture  signal.  Good  results 
have  also  been  achieved  with 
carbon  paper,  a  moving  stylus  or 
bar  being  used  to  record  through 
the  carbon  sheet  into  the  white 
paper  beneath,  and  with  chemi- 
cally treated  papers  of  various 
sorts. 

It  is  expedient  in  some  classes 
of  telephotographic  service  to  use 
an  intermediary  process  instead 
of  building  up  the  finished  pic- 
ture directly  from  the  current 
values  obtained  by  scanning  the 
original  picture.  The  picture 
densities  are  recorded  in  some 
predetermined  manner  on 
punched  tapes  or  other  records, 
and  the  record  is  duplicated  at 
the  receiving  end  by  means  of 
the  usual  telegraphic  printer  pro- 
cedure, and  finally  retranslated 
into  light  variations  and  so  re- 
corded. This  photo  system  is 
used  over  telegraph  lines  or 
cables,  since,  as  with  the  radio 
'dribbler'  system,  it  sends  only 
full  value  current  pulses,  and  any 
distortion  produced  by  the  line 
is  greatly  minimized  in  effect. 
Furthermore,  pictures  transmit- 
ted in  this  manner  may  be 
sandwiched  in  with  regular  tele- 
graph traffic  and  may  even  be 
handled  in  sections. 

Many  other  problems  besides 
those  discussed  above  have  had 
to  be  overcome  before  telepho- 
tography became  commercially 
practicable.  Undistorted  ampli- 
fication of  the  minute  electric 
currents  developed  in  the  photo- 
cells, for  instance,  presented 
almost  insuperable  difficulties. 
The  development  of  balanced  or 
'push-pull'  amplifiers,  noise-elim- 
inating devices  such  as  the  'C 
bias  light,  and  electrical  methods 
of  retouching  the  picture  values 
while  in  transit  from  transmitter 
to  receiver,  have  been  of  inesti- 
mable value,  as  have  been  also 
those  developments  tending  to 
improve  the  circuit  or  transmis- 
sion channel  between  sending  and 
receiving  stations.  Of  this  latter 
group  improvements  in  electric 
wave-filters,  in  side-band  trans- 
mission, in  echo-suppressors, 
phase-correctors,  and  shielding 
devices  have  contributed  the 
most  to  the  success  of  tele- 
photography. 

There  is  a  wide  network  of 
picture     transmission  circuits 


throughout  Europe,  England, 
the  United  States,  and  Japan,  all 
over  telephone  lines,  and  radio 
telephotographic  circuits  have 
been  operated  from  London  to 
New  York  since  May  1,  1926, 
and  since  at  San  Francisco  and 
Honolulu,  and  by  the  Telefunken 
Co.  between  Buenos  Aires  and 
Berlin.  The  average  time  re- 
quired to  transmit  a  picture, 
including  preparation  and  devel- 
opment at  each  end,  varies  from 
30  minutes  to  one  hour,  depend- 
ing on  the  size  and  difficulty  of 
the  subject.  The  manifold  uses 
to  which  this  commercial  picture 
service  is  being  put  constitute  a 
complete  justification  of  the 
many  years  of  concentrated 
effort  on  the  part  of  thousands  of 
investigators  which  were  re- 
quired to  bring  the  art  to  its 
present  practical  state.  News 
syndicates  transmit  photographs 
of  important  current  events; 
style  pictures  are  sent  from  de- 
signers and  importers  to  dealers 
and  manufacturers  in  distant 
parts  of  the  country;  advertise- 
ments are  sent,  giving  text  and 
typography  to  permit  simulta- 
neous publication  throughout  the 
country.  Material  in  foreign 
languages,  especially  the  oriental 
tongues  for  which  corresponding 
English  characters  are  not  avail- 
able, is  sent  quickly  and  unerr- 
ingly, without  the  delay,  loss  of 
exact  meaning,  and  chance  of 
error  inevitable  with  translation 
into  any  other  form  for  telegraph 
transmission  and  retranslation  at 
the  receiving  end.  Data  such  as 
technical  formulae,  financial 
statements,  signed  documents, 
fingerprints,  and  written  matter 
needed  for  legal  evidence  can  be 
sent  and  received  in  its  original 
form, photographically  freed  from 
the  possibility  of  error. 

New  uses  for  telephotography 
are  constantly  coming  up.  The 
transmission  of  daily  weather 
maps  to  airplanes,  dirigibles,  and 
ships  in  passage  is  an  instance  in 
point.  It  is  not  even  beyond  the 
bounds  of  probability  that  tele- 
photographic methods  may 
eventually  be  used  for  all  wire 
and  radio  telegraph  messages, 
thus  eliminating  the  human  ele- 
ment in  recording  incoming  sig- 
nals without  recourse  to  tele- 
graphic printer  methods. 

Bibliography.  —  T.  Thorne 
Baker,  Wireless  Pictures  and 
Television  (London,  1926);  D. 
von  Mihaly,  Das  Electrische 
Fernsehen  und  das  Telehor  (Ber- 
lin, 1926);  H.  E.  Ives.  Transmis- 
sion of  Pictures  over  Telephone 
Wires  (Bell  System  Technical 
Journal,  April,  1925);  R,  H. 
Ranger,  Photoradio  Developments 
Proc.  I.  R.  E.  (June.  1929). 

Telephus,  tel'i-fus.  son  of  Her- 
cules and  Auge.  Not  knowing 
his  parentage,  he  consulted  the 
Delphic  oracle,  which  sent  him  to 
Mysia,    where    he    found  his 


Vol.  XL— 31-0. 


Telescope 


658 


Telescope 


mother  and  succeeded  the  king, 
Teuthras,  on  the  throne.  When 
the  Greeks  came  to  besiege  Troy, 
he  resisted  their  landing,  and  was 
wounded  by  Achilles.  An  oracle 
told  him  that  his  wound  could 
only  be  cured  by  his  assailant;  so 
he  went  as  a  beggar  to  the  Greek 
camp,  and  was  cured  by  Achilles 
with  the  rust  of  his  spear.  He 
then  showed  the  Greeks  the  road 
to  Troy. 

Telescope,  an  optical  instru- 
ment by  which  remote  objects 
are  brought  apparently  nearer. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  telescope: 
in  one,  the  rays  from  the  object 
are  made  to  converge  by  refrac- 
tion; in  the  other,  by  reflection. 
The  refracting  telescope,  in- 
vented in  1608  by  Hans  Lipper- 
shey,  a  spectacle- maker  in  Mid- 
dleburg,  Holland,  was  em- 
ployed from  1609  in  celestial 
observations  by  Galileo,  Simon 
Marius,  and  Thomas  Harriot. 
As  originally  devised  it  was  a 
monocular  opera-glass,  composed 
of  a  convex  and  a  concave  lens 
fitted  at  opposite  ends  of  a  tube. 
In  its  modern  form  the  dioptric 
telescope,  described  by  Kepler  in 
1611,  was  first  constructed  by 
Father  Scheiner.  It  consists 
essentially  of  a  large  convex  lens 
of  long  focus,  and  a  smaller  con- 
vex lens  or  eye-piece  of  short 
focus,  with  which  the  real  image 
formed  in  the  focal  plane  of  the 
'objective'  is  magnified.  The 
two  are  fixed  at  a  distance  apart 
equal  (approximately)  to  the 
sum  of  their  focal  lengths,  the 
ratio  between  which  gives  the 
magnifying  power  of  the  com- 
bination. The  images  are  seen 
inverted,  and  they  are  also 
rendered  indistinct  by  the  effects 
of  spherical  and  chromatic  aber- 
ration. For  these  last  defects  a 
partial  remedy  was  provided  by 
the  use  of  'aerial  telescopes'  of 
inordinately  long  focus  and  desti- 
tute of  tubes.  Huygens  pre- 
sented one  of  123  feet  to  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  and 
Bradley  measured  the  diameter 
of  Venus,  Dec.  27,  1722,  with  a 
tubeless  instrument  212  feet  long. 

The  invention  of  achromatic 
lenses,  anticipated  without  being 
divulged  by  Chester  Moor  Hall 
of  Essex,  in  1733,  was  effectively 
realized  by  John  Dolland  in 
1758.  Owing  to  their  unequal 
refrangibilities,  the  colored  rays 
forming  white  light  come  each  to 
a  separate  focus  when  trans- 
mitted through  a  simple  convex 
lens.  They  yield,  accordingly,  a 
blurred  and  tinged  image.  Dol- 
land, however,  discovered  that 
one  kind  of  glass  can  be  made  to 
neutralize  the  dispersion  of  an- 
other kind,  while  leaving  a 
balance  of  refraction,  and  he 
constructed  object-glasses  of  a 
convex  crown  fitted  to  a  concave 
flint  lens,  by  which  the  main  part 
of  the  incident  light  was  brought 


to  a  common  focus.  Moreover, 
by  skilfully  compensating  the 
opposite  errors  due  to  the  curva- 
tures of  the  glass  surfaces,  he 
succeeded  in  correcting  spherical 
aberration  as  well,  and  thus,  in 
principle,  created  the  modern 
refractor.  The  labors  of  Guinand 
(1745-1824)  first  made  it  pos- 
sible to  procure  perfect  discs  of 
flint  glass  more  than  3K  inches 
in  diameter,  and  through  his  co- 
operation Fraunhofer  was  en- 
abled to  built  the  9K-inch  Dor- 
pat  equatorial  (mounted  1824). 
The  size  of  refractors  was  now 
continuously  augmented.  Two 
of  15  inches  were  sent  by  Merz 
and  Mahler,  Fraunhofer's  suc- 
cessors, to  Pulkova  and  Harvard 
College,  in  1840  and  1847  re- 
spectively. With  an  18  inch,  by 
Alvan  Clark  of  Cambridge,  the 
satellite  of  Sirius  was  discovered 
in  1862;  Cooke  of  York  con- 
structed a  25-inch  equatorial  for 
Mr.  Newell  in  1870;  Clark,  one 
of  26  inches  for  the  Naval  Obser- 
vatory, Washington,  in  1873; 
Grubb  of  Dublin  completed  the 
Vienna  27-inch  refractor  in  1881; 
and  those  mounted  at  Pulkova 
and  Nice  in  1885-6  had  each  an 
aperture  of  30  inches.  The 
superb  Lick,  36-inch,  was  finished 
by  Clark  in  1888;  that  of  40 
inches  for  the  Yerkes  Observa- 
tory, in  1897. 

The  achromatism  of  refractors 
is  imperfect,  and  the  outstand- 
ing color  or  'secondary  spectrum' 
becomes  more  troublesome  as 
aperture  is  increased.  Its  source 
is  the  chromatic  'irrationality' 
of  flint  and  crown  glass.  The 
various  colors  are  disproportion- 
ately deviated  by  the  two  media; 
consequently,  only  certain  se- 
lected rays  can  be  united  by  the 
compound  lenses  formed  with 
them,  the  remainder  showing 
as  an  obnoxious  halo  round  the 
image.  Experiments  are  being 
carried  out  with  a  view  to 
overcoming  this  difficulty.  Again, 
atmospheric  disturbances  impede 
the  performance  of  large  much 
more  than  of  small  refractors, 
while  the  percentage  of  incident 
light  absorbed  in  them  grows 
with  the  added  thickness  neces- 
sarily given  to  colossal  lenses. 
Great  telescopes,  on  the  other 
hand,  when  employed  under 
good  conditions,  possess  immense 
advantages  in  the  brilliant  lu- 
minosity of  the  images  afforded 
by  them,  and  in  their  enhanced 
powers  of  penetrating  space  and 
resolving  close  objects  like  double 
stars.  This  last  faculty  depends 
upon  the  circumstance  that  the 
size  of  stellar  diffraction  discs 
bears  an  inverse  relation  to 
aperture.  A  photographic  re- 
fractor has  the  object-glass  so 
corrected  as  to  unite  the  rays 
chemically  most  efficient.  It  is 
hence  useless  for  eye  observa- 
tions.   The  eighteen  telescopes 


with  which  the  international 
survey  of  the  heavens  is  being 
executed  are  of  this  type.  The 
largest  photographic  refractor, 
so  far  constructed,  is  the  Pots- 
dam, 32  inches.  This  is  followed 
by  the  30  inch  of  the  Allegheny 
Observatory  and  the  26  inch  of 
the  Yale  University  Observa- 
tory, temporarily  located,  for  the 
measurement  of  parallaxes  of 
southern  stars,  at  Johannesburg. 

Others  of  26  inch  and  24  inch 
are  mounted  at  Greenwich,  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Meudon, 
and  Arequipa  (in  Peru).  Visual 
telescopes  can  also  be  adapted 
for  photographic  employment  by 
placing  a  convex  crown  lens  in 
front  of  the  ordinary  objective. 

The  reflecting  telescope  is  of 
four  varieties  —  the  Gregorian, 
Cassegrainian,  Newtonian,  and 
Herschelian.  James  Gregory  de- 
scribed the  first  in  his  Optica 
Promola  (1663).  It  consists  of 
two  concave  mirrors  set  face  to 
face  on  the  axis  of  an  enclosing 
tube.  The  rays  from  the  object, 
brought  to  a  focus  by  the  princi- 
pal speculum,  are  thrown  back  by 
the  small  mirror  through  a  cen- 
tral perforation  in  the  large  one 
into  an  eye-piece  fixed  in  the 
aperture.  As  a  result,  objects 
are  viewed  erect,  and  in  the 
natural  direction.  To  obtain 
theoretically  perfect  images,  the 
primary  and  secondary  mirrors 
should  be,  the  one  a  paraboloid, 
the  other  an  ellipsoid  of  revolu- 
tion; but  these  arduous  condi- 
tions are  scarcely  realizable.  The 
famous  reflectors  made,  1732-68, 
by  James  Short  of  Edinburgh 
were  of  the  Gregorian  form.  It 
is  now  virtually  obsolete.  The 
Cassegrainian  was  a  modification 
of  it  introduced  by  Cassegrain  in 
1672.  The  second  reflection  takes 
place  here  from  a  convex  hyper- 
bolic surface,  whereby  the  ef- 
fective focal  length  of  the  in- 
strument is  likewise  materially 
lengthened. 

This  construction  was  em- 
ployed by  Thomas  Grubb  in  the  4- 
foot  Mel  borne  telescope  (1870). 
The  Newtonian  reflector,  in- 
vented and  exemplified  by  Isaac 
Newton  in  1668,  is  still  in 
general  use.  A  small  plane  mir- 
ror, set  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the 
axis  of  the  principal  speculum, 
reflects  the  rays  focussed  by  the 
latter  into  an  eye- piece  placed  at 
right  angles  to  and  near  the  top 
of  the  tube.  The  line  of  vision 
is,  accordingly,  perpendicular  to 
the  true  direction  of  the  object. 
The  first  specimen  of  the  Her- 
schelian or  'front  view'  reflector 
was  the  4-foot  telescope  built  by 
William  Herschel  at  Slough  in 
1789.  He  devised  it  for  the  pur- 
pose of  economizing  the  light 
wasted  by  a  second  reflection. 
One  speculum  only  is  employed, 
and  it  is  slightly  tilted  so  as  to 
form  images,  not  at  the  centre 

You  XI.-^ 


Telescope 


659 


Television 


but  at  the  upper  margin  of  the 
tube,  where  the  eye-piece  is  in- 
serted. The  observer  thus  stands 
looking  down  into  the  tube  with 
his  back  to  the  object.  Good 
definition  is  scarcely  compatible 
with  this  arrangement.  The  bor- 
ing of  a  hole  through  the  centre  of 
a  large  mirror  for  the  passage  of 
the  rays  to  the  Cassegrain  focus 
is  a  nerve-racking  process.  Mir- 
rors sometimes  fly  in  pieces  by 
the  releasing  of  strains  in  the 
glass.  The  72-inch  mirror  of 
the  Dominion  Astrophysical  Ob- 
servatory at  Victoria,  B.  C.  was 
successfully  bored  and  functions 
perfectly.  The  60-inch  and  the 
100-inch  mirrors  of  the  Mount 
Wilson  Observatory  are  not 
bored.  Instead,  the  light  is  re- 
flected to  the  side  of  the  tube  by 
a  plane  mirror  mounted  near  the 
large  mirror.  This  combination 
of  the  Cassegrain  and  Newtonian 
principles  is  effected,  in  the  100- 
inch  with  a  variety  of  mirrors, 
providing  a  large  range  in  mag- 
nification at  focal  lengths  rang- 
ing from  45  to  250  feet.  In  the 
last  arrangement  the  light  finally 
passes  down  through  the  polar 
axis  and  into  a  room  in  the  south 
pier.  The  image  of  the  sun,  at 
the  250-foot  focus  is  28  inches 
in  diameter. 

The  Rosse  reflector,  mounted 
as  a  Newtonian  at  Parsonstown 
in  1845,  long  held  the  premier- 
ship for  size.  The  mirror,  which 
is  6  feet  in  diameter,  is  of  specu- 
lum metal,  an  alloy  of  copper  and 
tin.  This  material  has,  however, 
been  superseded  since  about  1870 
by  silvered  glass,  suggested  as  a 
substitute  by  Steinheil  and  Fou- 
cault  in  1856-7.  A  glass  disk, 
worked  to  figure,  is  coated  by  a 
chemical  process  with  a  film  of 
metallic  silver,  which  is  extreme- 
ly brilliant  while  fresh,  and  can 
easily  be  renewed  when  tarnished. 
The  improvement  was  finely  il- 
lustrated in  Dr.  Common's  36- 
inch  Newtonian,  completed  in 
1879,  and  transferred  in  1895  to 
the  Lick  Observatory.  A  5-foot 
reflector,  constructed  by  him  on 
a  similar  plan,  was  purchased 
for  the  Harvard  College  Observa- 
tory in  1904. 

For  the  uses  of  exact  astron- 
omy, the  refractor  is  unrivalled. 
It  is  recommended  by  its  supe- 
rior stability,  definition,  and 
adaptability  to  all  forms  of  meas- 
uring apparatus.  Moreover,  in 
certain  branches  of  photographic 
investigation  requiring  an  exten- 
sive field  of  view,  such  as  the 
picturing  of  the  Milky  Way,  the 
combination  of  lenses  known  as 
a  'photographic  doublet'  is  alone 
available.  But  in  most  depart- 
ments of  astrophysical  research 
the  reflector  has  undeniable  pre- 
rogatives. It  is,  to  begin  with, 
perfectly  achromatic.    Light  of 


all  wave-lengths  is  concentrated 
by  mirrors  at  a  single  focus. 
This  is  of  peculiar  importance 
in  spectroscopy.  With  a  refrac- 
tor, each  prismatic  section  needs 
a  fresh  adjustment  of  the  focus. 
Glass  lenses,  too,  strongly  absorb 
short  wave-lengths,  so  that  ultra- 
viol  et  spectra  can  be  photo- 
graphed only  by  the  aid  of  re- 
flectors, in  some  cases,  with  the 
replacement  by  a  suitable  alloy 
for  silver,  which  exercises  an  in- 
convenient selective  absorption 
in  very  high  spectral  ranges.  For 
observations  of  colored  objects, 
and  in  thermal  measurements  of 
every  kind,  reflectors  are  unmis- 
takably preferable.  They  can, 
besides,  owing  to  their  achroma- 
tism, be  constructed  of  relatively 
short  focal  length.  The  ratio  of 
aperture  to  focus  or  'angular 
aperture'  is  an  element  of  pri- 
mary importance  in  celestial  pho- 
tography. It  rarely  exceeds  X2 
for  ordinary  objectives,  whereas 
it  may  be  raised  to  J4  for  mir- 
rors. There  results  a  stronger 
concentration  of  light,  and 
brighter  though  smaller  images 
readily  impressed  upon  sensitive 
plates.  The  attendant  disadvan- 
tage of  distortion  at  compara- 
tively short  distances  from  the 
centre  of  the  field  is  not  seriously 
prejudicial  to  certain  kinds  of 
work.  Again,  reflectors  are 
cheaper  to  build  and  to  mount 
than  refractors.  Further,  the 
natural  limit  set  to  the  size  of 
refractors  by  the  continually 
growing  percentage  of  incident 
light  lost  in  transmission  through 
their  lenses  does  not  apply  to  re- 
flectors. Reflective  power  per 
unit  of  area  is  the  same  for  large 
as  for  small  specula.  Finally,  the 
practical  possibilities  of  develop- 
ment are  in  their  favor.  Profes- 
sor Hale  considers  that  the  con- 
struction of  an  objective  5  feet 
in  diameter  would  strain  the  ut- 
most resources  of  the  glassmak- 
er's  and  optician's  art,  while  a 
mirror  over  8  feet  in  diameter  is 
already  in  sviccessful  operation. 

Lenses,  or  mirrors  of  long  fo- 
cus, fitted  with  slight  tubes,  and 
kept  in  a  fixed  horizontal  or  ver- 
tical position,  have  important  ad- 
vantages in  many  departments  of 
solar  investigation  ;  and  they  are 
necessarily  supplied  with  light  by 
means  of  a  coelostat  or  some  in- 
strument of  its  type,  as  in  the 
'Snow'  telescope  on  Mount  Wil- 
son, California. 

Telescopium,  tel-i-sko'pi-um, 
a  small  southern  constellation,  in- 
serted by  Lacaille  in  1752  be- 
tween Ara  and  Sagittarius. 

Television,  the  vision  of  dis- 
tant objects  accomplished  by 
the  intermediary  of  electricity. 
Nothing  in  the  field  of  applied 
science  is  receiving  as  much  con- 
centrated attention  these  days  as 


television.  Actual  transmission 
is  a  daily  matter,  but  as  yet  there 
has  been  no  great  'televisor'  in- 
terest, such  as  characterized  even 
the  earliest  days  of  sound  broad- 
casting. The  reasons  are  all  in- 
volved in  the  as  yet  much  greater 
complications. 

How  to  see  at  a  distance,  has 
long  been  planned  along  the  ex- 
act lines  by  means  of  which  it 
is  now  gradually  unfolding. 
Nipkow,  in  1884,  brought  out 
the  original  scanning  disk  which 
causes  the  view  to  be  scanned  by 
a  rapid  series  of  lines  traced 
across  its  width.  A  continuous 
repetition  of  this  line-by-line 
analysis  is  made  at  such  a  rapid 
rate  as  to  match  the  persistence 
of  vision  of  the  eye.  Twenty 
complete  pictures  (or  frames  in 
the  phraseology  of  motion  pic- 
tures) have  come  to  be  the  ac- 
cepted rate  of  such  repetition  to 
reduce  flickering  sufficiently. 

The  number  of  lines  traced 
across  the  view  determines  the 
fineness  of  the  detail  in  trans- 
mission. Present  compromise 
has  standardized  on  sixty  such 
lines  in  the  depth  of  the  picture. 
But  all  realize  that  this  is  far 
too  few  to  give  sufficient  detail 
for  anything  beyond  the  trans- 
mission of  a  face.  The  present 
limitations  are  in  practically 
every  link  in  the  transmission, 
but  with  the  intensive  effort  be- 
ing expended  on  each  such  fea- 
ture, this  number  of  lines  is  as- 
suredly going  to  increase.  De- 
velopment work  is  being  done 
with  twice  this  number.  The 
Bell  Laboratories  are  using  sev- 
enty-two lines  for  their  two  way 
'person  to  person'  transmission. 
Some  discouragement  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  slow  development 
of  television  in  the  light  of  the 
rapidity  with  which  other  arts 
advance  ;  but  when  it  is  realized 
that  it  has  been  on  its  way  almost 
fifty  years,  one  or  two  or  even 
ten  years  more  or  less  is  not  to 
be  despised,  particularly  in  view 
of  the  great  difficulties. 

Television  Transmission.— 
At  the  television  transmitter,  it  is 
necessary  to  set  up  a  means  of 
analysing  the  picture,  line  by 
line.  A  Nipkow  disk  is  the  sim- 
plest means  of  accomplishing  this 
which  is  yet  developed.  It  con- 
sists of  a  spiral  of  holes  drilled 
in  a  metal  plate.  These  holes 
are  accurately  drilled  a  distance 
apart,  corresponding  to  the  width 
of  the  view  to  be  scanned.  Each 
hole  is  drilled  slightly  nearer  the 
center  of  the  disk  by  an  amount 
equal  to  the  depth  of  the  line 
scanned.  Sixty  holes  give  sixty 
lines  to  be  scanned  in  one  revo- 
lution of  the  disk.  The  holes 
themselves  are  preferably  square, 
and  of  a  size  equal  to  the  width 
of  the  scanning  line.  Only  one 
Vol.  XL— 32-M. 


Television 


660 


Television 


hole  at  a  time  is  crossing  the 
frame  opening.  In  this  frame 
opening,  the  view  to  be  trans- 
mitted is  projected  by  a  lens  as 
in  a  camera.  A  regular  motion 
picture  set-up  of  high  quality 
lenses  and  focussing  arrange- 
ments may  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose of  projecting  the  view  on 
the  disk. 


such  television  are  at  least  six 
times  more  severe.  Furthermore, 
this  only  gives  an  amount  of  de- 
tail corresponding  to  what  would 
be  obtained  in  one  square  inch 
of  rather  coarse  newspaper  en- 
graving. It  hardly  does  for 
much  more  than  two  faces. 
Everyone  realizes  this,  and  the 
standard  is  extant,  not  because 


Fig.  1 


A  sensitive  photocell  is  placed 
behind  the  scanning  disk,  and  the 
light  and  dark  parts  of  the  view 
will  cause  more  or  less  light  to 
pass  through  the  particular  hole 
crossing  the  view,  and  this  light 
will  then  strike  the  photocell. 
The  photocell  therefore  has  the 
most  active  job  of  responding  to 
all  the  quick  changes  in  shade 
as  each  individual  hole  crosses 
the  frame.  This  means  that  it 
must  respond  to  changes  of  a 
width  equal  to  the  size  of  the 
hole  in  the  disk.  The  maximum 
change  from  one  such  unit  ele- 
ment to  the  next  would  be  if 
one  were  white  and  the  next 
were  black.  Therefore,  two 
such  units  represent  a  complete 
cycle  of  change,  so  the  maximum 
rapidity  of  change  is  one-half 
the  rate  at  which  unit  elements 
of  the  line  are  traversed.  This 
gives  a  measure  of  the  rate  at 
which  the  entire  picture  is  cov- 
ered. 

^  A  growing  standard  in  tele- 
vision is  as  stated  before,  sixty 
lines  in  depth  and  seventy-two 
hole  widths  to  make  the  width 
of  the  frame.  That  is,  the  height 
of  the  frame  is  to  the  width  as 
five  is  to  six,  or  as  more  often 
stated  1  is  to  1.2.  The  total 
number  of  such  picture  elements 
is  therefore  the  product  of  60 
and  72,  or  4,320  elements.  One- 
half  this  number  would  give  the 
rate  at  which  the  picture  ele- 
ments may  change  in  one  frame, 
i.e.,  2,160.  And  as  there  are 
twenty  frames  per  second,  there 
will  be  20  times  2,160  or  43,200 
possible  cycles  per  second  in 
such  television  transmission. 

When  it  is  realized  that  or- 
dinary broadcast  transmission 
only  uses  up  to  seven  thousand 
cycles  a  second,  it  is  seen  at 
once  that  the  requirements  for 
Vol.  XL— 32-M. 


it  is  the  most  to  be  hoped  for, 
but  because  the  art  most  decided- 
ly must  walk  or  even  crawl  first. 
Strenuous  efforts  are  now  being 
made  to  give  four  times  this  defi- 
nition but  some  of  the  difiiculties 
go  up  sixteenfold  when  this  is 
tried. 

•One  factor  decidedly  in  tele- 
vision's favor  is  that  movement 
of  objects  adds  complementary 
detail  from  one  picture  to  the 
next.  What  is  seen  in  one  frame 
is  carried  over  into  the  next 
where  it  may  be  entirely  missing. 
Another  favorable  factor  is  in- 
troduced by  simultaneous  sound 
and  television  transmission.  The 
very  complete  sound  transmis- 
sion builds  up  a  more  complete 
picture  in  the  mind  than  tele- 


grams.  But  a  reverse  of  this 
process  is  perhaps  the  present 
day  compromise  that  simplifies 
amplification  problems  somewhat. 
This  is  the  so-called  'flying  spot' 
method  of  transmission.  In  this 
case  the  transmission  is  done  in 
a  darkened  room,  with  large 
photocells  set  up  to  receive  light 
from  the  actual  subjects  in  the 
room.  But  the  light  for  these 
subjects  comes  from  just  such 
a  disk  as  has  just  been  described, 
and  a  strong  electric  light  be- 
hind the  disk  sends  out  a  spot 
of  light  which  flashes  across  the 
view  in  the  room,  line  after  line, 
down  the  subjects,  returning  to 
the  top  and  completing  an  analy- 
sis of  the  view  in  one  twentieth 
of  a  second.  Wherever  this  fly- 
ing spot  hits  a  light  part  of  the 
subject,  considerable  light  will 
be  reflected  to  the  photocells 
placed  near  the  subjects.  Where 
the  spot  hits  dark  portions,  only 
a  small  amount  of  light  will  be 
returned  to  the  photocells.  This 
then  gives  the  interpretive  values 
to  the  view  in  terms  of  light  on 
the  photocells. 

Motion  Picture  Transmis- 
sion, — Another  present-day  com- 
promise is  the  use  of  motion  pic- 
ture for  television  transmission. 
In  this  work,  the  holes  of  the 
Nipkow  disk  are  all  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  center  of  the  disk  ; 
so,  on  rotation,  one  hole  follows 
directly  behind  the  previous  at  a 
spacing  equal  to  the  width  of  the 
motion  picture  film  projection. 
The  analysis  of  line-on-line  down 
the  picture  is  then  readily  ac- 
complished by  moving  the  film 
downward  at  the  necessary  rate 
to  finish  an  individual  frame  of 
the  film  and  get  onto  the  next  in 
sixty  lines.     Very  strong  light 


vision  alone  could  ever  do.  It 
indicates  to  the  eye  what  to  ex- 
pect. 

Flying  Spot, — The  method  of 
picture  analysis  here  described 
is  what  is  generally  conceded  to 
be  the  ultimate  method,  where 
transmission  of  ordinary  scenes 
of  every  description  will  be  pos- 
sible, such  as  horse  racing, 
games,  and  other  outdoor  pro- 


FiG.  2 

may  be  used  behind  the  film  in 
this  process,  which  simplifies 
subsequent  amplification  of  the 
photocell  current.  Some  sug- 
gest that  this  may  even  be  the 
ultimate  form  of  television 
broadcast  in  which  picture 
and  sound  in  film  are  rushed 
in  a  matter  of  minutes  from 
the  source  to  the  television  sta- 
tion. 


Television 


660  A 


Television 


Fig.  3. — Scanning  with  'Flying  Spot'  of  light. 

1.  Concentrated  filament  lamp.  2.  Condensing  lens.  3.  Disk  revolving 
right  to  left.  4.  Start  of  spiral  row  of  holes  frame  width  apart  and 
each  slightly  nearer  edge  of  disk.  5.  Lens  projecting  beam  of  light 
on  to  face  in  semi-darkness.  Spot  of  light  moves  left  to  right  and 
downward,  due  to  movement  of  disk  with  holes.  6.  Photo-cells  picking 
up  variable  intensity  of  light  reflecting  from  light  and  dark  parts  of  face. 


Amplification. — In  either 

method  of  transmission,  the  next 
factor  is  the  amplification  of  the 
very  small  energies  delivered 
electrically  by  the  photocells  as 
measuring  the  light  intensities 
which  fall  on  them.  Fortunately, 
amplification  and  the  develop- 
ment of  photocells  have  pro- 
gressed tremendously  under  the 
impetus,  first,  of  radio  gener- 
ally, and  second,  for  the  talking 
picture  work.  The  most  inter- 
esting recent  development  in  the 
photocell  line  is  the  flashing  of 
a  very  thin  layer  of  caesium,  a 
coating  supposedly  but  one  to 
four  molecules  thick,  on  top  of 
the  silver  oxide  coating,  which 
is  the  sensitive  element  in  the 
photocell.  A  slight  amount  of 
argon  gas  increases  the  sensi- 
tivity of  such  cells  many  times  ; 
but  likewise  renders  them  a  little 
less  stable  than  the  straight 
vacuum  type  cell.  But  progress 
in  this  direction  is  steady  and 
sure.  The  remarkable  thing 
about  these  photocells  is  that 
they  respond  so  instantaneously 
to  light  changes,  43,200  times  a 
second  in  the  example  given 
above,  and  this  is  not  the  liniit. 
It,  however,  becomes  increasing- 
ly difficult  to  go  above  this  point, 
liot  so  much  in  the  photocell,  per- 
haps, as  in  the  amplification 
which  has  to  follow  the  photo- 
cell. This  indicates  one  of  the 
reasons  why  television  is  still 
walking. 

After  the  amplification,  the 
current  variations  control  the 
output  of  a  radio  transmitter  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  voice 
currents  do  the  broadcast  trans- 
mitter, with  again  the  great  dif- 
ference of  the  enhanced  rate  at 
which  it  must  do  it. 

Finally,  the  signals  get  out  on 
the  air.  To  transmit  such  a 
rapid  frequency  change  takes  a 
wide  band  in  the  radio  spectrum, 
at  least  six  times  that  normally 
used.  In  order  to  get  such  band 
width,  it  is  necessary  to  go  to 
high  radio  frer|uencies  as  the 
means  for  carrying  these  rapid 
changes.  It  is  perfectly  possible 
for  ordinary  broadcast  wave 
lengths  to  carry  such  a  frequency 
rate,  but  the  band  width  would 
wipe  out  too  many  present  sound 
channels.  It  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  go  to  the  lower  wave 
lengths — or  higher  kilocycle 
waves — both  to  get  more  space, 
and  to  get  an  even  better  chance 
to  handle  such  rapid  changes. 

Very  recent  tests  are  now  car- 
rying this  investigation  to  the 
unusually  high  radio  frequen- 
cies of  forty-five  million  cycles 
a  second.  The  difficulty  with 
such  extremely  short  and  rapid 
radio  waves  is  that  they  become 
most  erratic  at  any  distance.  But 
if  the  transmitter  can  virtually 


be  seen  by  the  receiving  antenna, 
they  work  much  more  reliably. 
This  explains  the  present  rush  to 
take  up  space  on  the  tops  of  the 
world's  tallest  buildings.  Al- 
ready a  most  complete  transmit- 
ter is  being  set  up  on  the  Empire 
State  Building.  Assuming  the 
visual  range  theory  to  be  correct, 
this  will  give  effective  transmis- 
sion some  twenty-five  miles  from 
the  Metropolitan  center. 

Television  Reception. — Tel- 
evising consists  in  translating  the 


electric  impulses  as  received  over 
a  radio  back  into  light  impulses. 
First  comes  the  tuning,  detec- 
tion and  amplification  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  with  usual 
broadcast  reception  except  that 
it  is  on  the  shorter  wave  lengths 
and  must  cover  a  much  wider 
band,  uniformly.  It  is  harder 
to  amplify  the  extremely  high 
and  extremely  low  frequencies 
than  the  middle  range  of  fre- 
quencies. Television  requires 
everything  from  twenty  cycles 
Vol.  XL— 32-M. 


Television 


660  B 


Television 


Fig.  4. — Looking  down  on  inverted  cone  of  glass  Cathode  Ray 
Televisor. 


1.  Tube  socket.  2.  Deflecting  vanes  to  move  electron  beam.  3.  Elec- 
tron beam,  invisible.  4.  Fluorescent  screen,  inside  glass  top,  giving 
luminous  green  glow  where  struck  by  invisible  electrons.  5.  Heated 
filament  at  base  of  tube,  source  of  electrons.  Strength  of  electron  beam 
and  therefore  brightness  of  luminous  trace  at  top,  is  controlled  by 
incoming  radio  signals.  Deflecting  vanes  make  spot  sweep  across  top, 
line  after  line,  left  to  right  and  downward,  complete  single  picture  in 
3^0  second. 


up  to  43,200  cycles  at  least. 
Various  arrangements  to  com- 
pensate for  the  falling  off  at  very 
high  frequencies  are  usual.  In 
any  event,  a  good  strong  electric 
signal  is  provided  to  actuate  the 
light  source.  Many  forms  of 
light  source  have  been  tried,  but 
they  all  seem  to  be  coming  down 
to  the  electric  arc  either  in  a 
gas  or  even  burning  right  out 
in  the  open,  as  in  the  old  type 
of  street  light.  The  Neon  tube 
is  the  simplest  form  of  gas  lamp, 
and  the  glow  of  this  pink  light 
is  readily  controlled  by  the  am- 
plified television  signals.  A  plate 
form  of  Neon  lamp  gives  a  fiat 
field  of  light.  If  this  fiat  field  is 
viewed  through  a  Nipkow  disk 
of  exactly  the  same  type  as  the 
transmitting  disk,  spots  of  light 
will  be  seen  to  flash  across  the 
field,  and  if  the  radio  signals  are 
rising  and  falling,  following  the 
transmitted  impulses,  the  eye 
will  see  a  replica  of  the  original 
picture  produced,  as  the  tracing 
dot  appears  to  be  light  or  dark. 

Unfortunately,  this  flat  plate 
Neon  is  not  at  all  brilliant,  so 
increasing  use  is  being  made  of 
a  'hot  cathode'  Neon  tube  which 
Vol.  XL— 32-M. 


gives  a  very  intense  spot  of  light. 
Then  the  Nipkow  disk  is  used 
to  project  this  spot  of  light  on 
a  screen.  For  this  purpose, 
lenses  are  used  instead  of  the 
individual  holes  in  the  disk. 
These  lenses  project  much  more 
light  from  the  crater  of  the  Neon 
tube.  A  picture,  ten  feet  by  ten 
feet,  has  been  produced  by  this 
process,  although  still  lacking 
somewhat  in  brilliance.  It  is  a 
marked  step  in  the  development 
of  the  art.  The  disk  equipment 
approaches  a  ton  in  weight  and 
has  forty-five  lenses,  each  two 
inches  in  diameter.  As  may  well 
be  supposed,  such  equipment  is 
not  exactly  suitable  for  the  home. 

Cathode  Ray, — Strenuous  ef- 
forts are  being  expended  to  get 
a  more  compact  and  less  me- 
chanical method  of  building  up 
the  picture  elements  to  a  com- 
pleted view  at  the  receiving  end. 
A  most  promising  lead  in  this 
direction  is  by  means  of  the 
cathode  ray  tube.  This  tube  has 
a  fluorescent  screen  at  its  far  end 
about  eight  inches  across.  A 
bright  green  spot  is  traced  on 
this  screen  by  the  projected  beam 
of  electrons  which  is  driven  to- 


wards this  screen  from  the  small 
filament  in  the  back  end  of  the 
tube.  This  beam  of  electrons  is 
deflected  vertically,  and  cross- 
wise, and  at  the  same  time  is 
controlled  in  intensity  electrical- 
ly. So  it  constitutes  a  scanning 
system  all  in  itself,  with  its  con- 
trols. The  difficulties  arise  in 
getting  all  the  controls  in  per- 
manent shape.  Vacuum  tubes 
have  the  unfortunate  tendency  to 
change  somewhat  with  use.  This 
change  is  quite  unnoticeable  in 
general  use  of  such  tubes,  but 
when  it  comes  to  the  niceties 
requisite  in  television,  such 
changes  have  to  be  completely 
compensated  and  controlled. 
The  advance  which  has  already 
been  made  in  these  directions  is 
a  great  tribute  to  the  skill  of  the 
engineers  concentrating  on  the 
problem. 

Synchronizing, — A  remain- 
ing most  important  link  in  tele- 
vision lies  in  maintaining  lock-step 
between  transmitting  and  receiv- 
ing scanning  systems  to  insure 
that  identical  parts  of  the  frame 
are  being  covered  at  each  end. 
Otherwise,  the  'televisionist'  will 
see  a  distorted  or  drifting  pic- 
ture. The  simplest  form  of  syn- 
chronizing this  action  is  to  use 
a  synchronous  motor  driven  from 
the  alternating  current  supply. 
Such  a  motor  stays  absolutely  in 
step  with  the  alternations  of  the 
supply  current ;  but  unfortunate- 
ly, the  power  supply  is  not  uni- 
versal. So  outside  the  confines 
of  a  particular  power  network, 
such  locking  fails.  Tuning  forks 
generating  alternating  current 
are  a  favorite  form  of  producing 
a  stable  alternating  current  fre- 
quency power  to  drive  a  small 
synchronous  motor.  And  now 
steps  are  progressing  nicely  to 
provide  a  black  (or  white)  sig- 
nal at  the  end  of  each  frame 
transmission,  which  will  be  re- 
ceived on  each  televisor  and 
automatically  bring  the  receiver 
into  step.  Such  synchronizing 
signals  would  obviously  be 
twenty  per  second,  corresponding 
to  the  number  of  frames  per  sec- 
ond. But  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  drive  which  is  relatively  quite 
stable  to  start  with,  so  that  the 
receiver  will  not  have  to  jump 
into  step  each  frame  ;  otherwise 
it  is  quite  as  apt  to  jump  out  as 
in.  These  developments  follow 
closely  along  the  lines  of  tele- 
photography and  radio  facsimile 
picture  transmission. 

Other  Methods, — There  are 
many  other  plans  suggested  for 
accomplishing  the  work,  but  they 
have  not  had  general  acceptance 
as  yet.  One  favorite  thought  is 
the  transmission  of  two  or  more 
sections  of  the  picture  at  the 
same  time.  For  such  a  purpose 
it  is  necessary  to  set  up  two  or 


Television 


661 


Teller 


more  complete  systems  of  course, 
with  certain  common  articles  of 
equipment  such  as  the  scanning 
disk.  But  one  great  drawback 
to  such  methods  has  been  main- 
taining anything  like  constancy 
between  the  different  systems  so 
used,  such  that  there  will  not  be 
resultant  streaks  in  the  picture. 
Separate  radio  channels  are  like- 
wise necessary  for  such  methods, 
and  here  again  the  problem  of 
maintaining  uniformity  is  tre- 
mendous. The  use  of  galva- 
nometer mirrors  has  been  sug- 


gested and  used  most  successful- 
ly by  Mihalay,  in  Budapest.  But 
it  seems  to  be  even  more  of  a 
tour  dc  force  than  these  other 
means.  Another  favorite  is  the 
revolving  mirror  scanner  of 
Weiller.  It  is  used  both  for 
transmission  and  reception  and 
delivers  much  more  light  than 
the  Nipkow  disk.  It  is  made  up 
of  a  lot  of  individual  small  flat 
mirrors  placed  on  a  drum.  Its 
disadvantage  lies  in  much  great- 
er necessary  weight  to  provide 
necessary  rigidity  to  the  mirror 
mountings. 

Scenes. — One  very  interesting 
possibility  that  may  give  great 
impetus  to  television  is  the  trans- 
mission of  more  suitable  sub- 
jects. While  the  hope  is  in 
everyone's  mind  that  television 
may  some  day  bring  the  motion 
picture  into  the  home  or  at  least 
theatre  from  a  central  transmis- 
sion point,  there  is  more  imme- 
diate possibility  of  making  use 
of  what  television  is  even  now 
able  to  do,  by  providing  it  with 
subject  matter  that  gets  the  pic- 
ture across  with  much  less  of  a 
rigorous  detail  requirement  than 
the  usual  scene  requires.  A 
shorthand,  it  might  be  termed, 
for  pictures.  A  flash,  for  ex- 
ample, is  certainly  all  that  any- 
one would  need  together  with  the 
audio  sound  of  a  pistol  to  give 
extreme  realism.  The  lighted 
cigar  which  William  Gillette 
made  famous  in  the  Sherlock 
Holmes  gas  house  scene  carries 
plenty  of  illusion.  Unit  elements 
4,320  would  certainly  provide 
the  means  for  getting  a  large 


amount  of  information  across, 
particularly  when  it  may  be 
changed  every  twentieth  of  a  sec- 
ond. It  may  require  an  organ- 
ization even  more  complete  than 
those  which  build  up  the  ani- 
mated cartoons  to  make  up  such 
special  television  broadcast  ma- 
terial. But  it  may  well  be  worth 
it.  When  it  is  accomplished  it 
will  mean  that  there  will  be  a 
meeting  between  what  science 
and  engineering  are  able  to  pro- 
vide, and  what  art  and  ingenuity 
are  able  to  capitalize. 


Bibliography. — C.  Crawley, 

From  Telegraphy  to  Television 
(London,  1931);  E.  H.  Felix, 
Television,  its  Methods  and  Uses 
(N.  Y.,  1931)  ;  H.  B.  Franklin, 
Sound  Motion  Pictures  (1930)  ; 
J.  A.  Moyer  and  J.  F.  Wostrel, 
Radio  Handbook  (1931).  Peri- 
odicals :  Television  (London, 
1928  to  date)  ;  Projection  En- 
gineering, Television,  Sound  and 
Liglu_  Projection,  Theatrical  En- 
gineering (New  York,  1929  to 
date). 

Tel'ford,  Thomas  (  1  75  7- 
1834),  Scottish  civil  engineer, 
was  born  in  Eskdale.  In  1787  he 
was  appointed  county  surveyor 
of  public  works  for  Shropshire, 
and  afterwards  engineer  for  the 
Ellesmere  Canal,  connecting  the 
Severn  with  the  Mersey.  His 
next  work  was  the  laying  out  of 
a  system  of  main  roads  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  over  900 
miles  in  all ;  the  improvement  of 
harbors  at  Wick,  Aberdeen,  Pe- 
terhead, Dundee,  and  Leith  ;  and 
the  construction  of  the  Caledo- 
nian Canal.  Other  undertakings 
of  his  are  the  Gota  Canal  in 
Sweden,  the  Menai  Suspension 
Bridge,  and  the  Clyde  Bridge  in 
Glasgow.  He  is  especially 
known  in  the  United  States  as 
the  inventor  of  the  Telford  pave- 
ment. 

Tell.    See  Algeria;  Tunis. 

Tell,  William,  hero  in  Swiss 
legend,  the  earliest  written  ver- 
sion of  which  dates  from  1470; 
the  next  is  in  a  chronicle  of  1482, 
by  Melchior  Russ,  and  a  con- 
temporary Tellenlied.  Thereaf- 
ter it  is  sanctioned  by  Tschudi, 


Stettler,  Huldrich  and  Miiller. 
In  brief,  the  myth  relates  that, 
refusing  reverence  to  the  ducal 
hat  of  Austria,  set  up  (1407)  in 
Altorf  market-place.  Tell  was 
sentenced  to  death  unless  he  shot 
an  apple  placed  on  his  son's  head. 
This  feat  he  accomplished,  but 
confessing  that  a  second  arrow 
was  kept  in  reserve  for  the 
Austrian  bailiff,  if  he  had  killed 
his  son.  Tell  was  seized  and  car- 
ried to  the  tyrant's  boat,  but  a 
storm  arising,  was  released  that 
he  might  act  as  pilot.  On  reach- 
ing shore  he  shot  his  enemy  and 
escaped.  This  shooting  of  the 
tyrant  was  the  signal  for  a  rising, 
resulting  in  Swiss  confederation. 
The  apple  story  is  of  wide  dif- 
fusion, appearing  in  an  earlier 
Danish  version,  and  figuring  in 
'Adam  Bell  and  Clym  of  the 
Clough'  in  Percy's  Reliques. 
The  legend  forms  the  subject  of 
Schiller's  drama  Wilhehn  Tell, 
and  Rossini's  opera  Guglielmo 
Tell. 

Tell  City,  city,  Indiana,  in 
Perry  County,  on  the  Ohio  River 
and  on  the  Southern  Railroad ; 
45  miles  southwest  of  Evans- 
ville.  Industries  include  the 
manufacture  of  furniture,  wood 
hames,  desks,  spokes  and  hubs, 
staves,  woollens,  iron  products, 
flour,  and  tobacco.  Within  five 
miles  of  the  city  is  the  place  on 
the  river  where  Abraham  Lin- 
coln conducted  his  ferry.  The 
home  of  Robert  Fulton  was  in 
the  immediate  vicinity.  Tell 
City  was  founded  and  incorpo- 
rated as  a  town  in  1858.  A  city 
charter  was  granted  in  1887. 
Pop.  (1920)  4,086;  (  1  930) 
4,873. 

Tell-el-Amarna,  tel'el-a-mar'- 
na,  ruined  city  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Nile,  Middle  Egypt,  be- 
tween Memphis  and  Thebes.  Ex- 
tensive excavations  have  been 
undertaken  by  the  German  Orient 
Society  and  by  Flinders  Petrie 
and  ruins  of  the  temple  and  pal- 
ace, founded  by  Amenophis  iv., 
some  three  hundred  clay  tablets 
with  cuneiform  inscriptions  con- 
taining Egyptian  correspondence 
with  Babylonia,  Assyria,  and 
other  Eastern  nations,  and  sev- 
eral groups  of  rock  tombs  have 
been  discovered. 

Tell-el-Kebir,  teKel-ka-ber'. 
village,  Egypt,  on  Freshwater 
Canal,  78  miles  southwest  of 
Port  Said.  It  was  the  scene  of 
Sir  Garnet  Wolseley's  victory 
over  Arabi  Pasha,  Sept.  13.  1882. 

Teller,  Henry  Moore  (1830- 
1914),  American  public  official, 
was  born  in  Granger.  N.  Y.  He 
was  educated  at  Alfred  Uni- 
versity, and  in  1856  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  He  settled  in  Colora- 
do in  1861.  was  a  major  general 
of  militia  during  the  Civil  War, 
United  States  senator  in  1876- 
VoL.  XL— 32-M. 


Fig.  5. 


1.  Scanning  disk  revolving  20  times  a  second  left  to  right.  2.  'Frame* 
adjustable.   3.  Flat-plate  neon  lamp,  worked  by  radio  signals. 


Tellez 


662 


Temperance 


82,  and  secretary  of  the  interior 
in  President  Arthur's  cabinet  in 
1882-85.  He  was  again  elected 
to  the  Senate  as  a  Republican  in 
1885  and  re-elected  in  1891,  but 
left  the  Republican  party  because 
of  the  money  issue  in  1896.  He 
was  re-elected  to  the  Senate  in 
1897  as  a  Silver  Republican  and 
in  1903  as  a  Democrat.  He  is 
the  author  of  the  'Teller'  resolu- 
tion, which  pledged  the  independ- 
ence of  Cuba. 

Tellez,  Gabriel.  See  Tirso 
DE  Molina. 

Tellicherry,  tel-i-cher'i,  sea- 
port town,  India,  in  Malabar  dis- 
trict, Madras  Presidency ;  43 
miles  northwest  of  Calicut.  The 
town  is  beautifully  situated  in  a 
group  of  wooded  hills  and  has  an 
old  fort.  Exports  include  coffee, 
cardamoms,  and  sandalwood. 
Pop.  (1921)  27,576. 

Tel-loh.    See  Babylonia. 

Telluride,  tel-u-rid,  town, 
Colorado,  county  seat  of  San 
Miguel  County,  on  the  Rio 
Grande  Southern  Railroad ;  47 
miles  northeast  of  Durango.  The 
region  is  good  grazing  land,  and 
gold,  silver,  and  lead  are  found 
in  the  neighborhood.  Mining  is 
the  leading  industry.  The  place 
was  first  settled  in  1881  and  in- 
corporated in  1883.  The  present 
charter  was  granted  in  1902. 
Pop.  (1910)  1,756;  (  1  920) 
1,618;  (1930)  512. 

Tellurium,  Te,  127.5,  is  a 
rare  semi-metallic  element  of  the 
sulphur  group,  and  is  chiefly 
found  as  a  gold  telluride,  and  in 
some  copper  ores.  It  is  of  gray- 
ish-white metallic  appearance,  of 
specific  gravity  6.2 ;  melts  at 
450°  c.  and  boils  at  1,390°  c.  It 
forms  tellurides  with  hydrogen 
and  the  metals  similar  to  the  sul- 
phides ;  but  the  tellurous  and 
telluric  acids,  HoTeOs  and 
H2Te04,  differ  from  the  corre- 
sponding sulphur  compounds  in 
being  only  very  feebly  acid. 

Tellus.    See  G^a. 

Telpherage,  a  system  of  trac- 
tion by  aerial  rope  or  wire 
way  used  for  the  conveyance  of 
minerals  over  rough  country,  in 
which  a  stout  steel  cable  sup- 
ported on  poles  forms  the  track. 
On  this  are  suspended  little  trol- 
leys with  the  wheels  running  on 
the  cable.  A  second  cable  con- 
veys current  to  the  trolley,  and 
the  lower  cable  acts  as  the  return 
conductor.  A  small  motor  drives 
the  trolley.  The  arrangement 
may  be  automatic,  but  sometimes 
the  train  is  large  enough  to  carry 
a  driver.  In  the  World  War  the 
Italian  army  developed  a  tel- 
pherage system  to  carry  guns, 
munitions  and  men  up  the  steep 
mountain  faces  of  their  battle 
front.  See  also  Electric  Trac- 
tion. 

Telugu,  tel'do-goo,  a  language 
Vol.  XL— 32-M. 


of  South  India,  spoken  by  about 
23,600,000  people,  who  are 
spread  from  Orissa  almost  down 
to  the  city  of  Madras.  It  is  also 
extensively  used  in  the  nizam's 
dominions  and  in  the  Central 
Provinces.  Telugu,  like  all  other 
languages  of  the  Dravidian  fam- 
ily, is  an  agglutinative  language, 
particles  being  'glued  on'  or  pre- 
fixed, suffixed,  or  infixed,  to 
words  or  roots  in  order  to  express 
grammatical  relation.  It  is  simi- 
lar in  many  respects  to  Tamil, 
but  peculiarities  in  inflection  and 
dialectic  changes  have  made  va- 
rious differences.  Consult 
Brown,  Telugu-English  Diction- 
ary ;  Morris,  Simplified  Gram- 
mar of  Telugu;  Arden,  Progres- 
sive Grammar  of  the  Telugu 
Language ;  Thurston,  Castes  and 
Tribes  of  Southern  India;  Cald- 
well, Comparative  Grammar  of 
the  Dravidian  or  South  Indian 
Family  of  Languages  (1913). 

Temax,  te-mash',  town,  Mex- 
ico, in  the  state  of  Yucatan,  55 
miles  northeast  of  Meridia.  Pop. 
18,000. 

Tembuland,  tem'boo-land, 
province.  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
Province,  South  Africa ;  area, 
3.339  square  miles.  Coal  mining 
is  the  chief  industry.  The 
capital  is  Umtata.  Pop.  (1921) 
234,988;  whites  (1926)  4,693. 

Tem'enos,  a  Greek  word 
meaning  an  enclosed  plot  of  land, 
and  in  its  particular  use  the 
sacred  precinct  devoted  to  a  god, 
which  in  earlier  times  contained 
nothing  more  than  a  sacred  grove 
or  an  image,  but  in  later  days 
usually  a  temple. 

Temesvar,  now  Timisioara, 
city,  Roumania  in  Temes 
County  ;  240  miles  northwest  of 
Bucharest.  It  is  the  see  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  and  a  Greek 
Orthodox  bishop.  Features  of 
interest  are  the  castle  founded  by 
Hunyady  in  1443,  the  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral,  founded  by 
Maria  Theresa  in  1736-57,  and 
a  memorial  column  to  its  de- 
fenders of  1849.  Industries 
include  cloth,  paper,  tobacco 
and  leather  manufactures,  and 
oil  refineries.  From  1552  to 
1716  it  was  held  by  the  Turks 
but  was  retaken  by  Prince  Eu- 
gene. It  successfully  resisted 
the  Hungarian  insurgents  in 
1849  and  at  the  close  of  the 
Great  War  became  a  part  of 
Roumania.    Pop.  (1928)  91.000. 

Tem'pe,  a  beautiful  valley 
in  northern  Thessaly,  Greece, 
between  Mount  Olympos  and 
Mount  Ossa,  through  which  the 
river  Peneus  flows  into  the  Gulf 
of  Saloniki.  From  earliest  times, 
because  of  its  scenic  beauty,  the 
name  has  been  proverbial  for  a 
picturesque  valley. 

Tem'pera,  in  art,  a  method  of 
painting  in  which  the  pigments 


are  mixed  with  chalk  or  clay  and 
diluted  with  weak  glue  or  size. 
It  is  used  chiefly  for  mural  deco- 
ration and  scene  painting.  An- 
cient tempera  painting  was 
probably  done  with  a  vehicle  in 
which  essential  oils  and  wax 
were  the  ingredients  or  were 
used  in  some  way  as  a  varnish. 
See  Fresco;  Mural  Decora- 
tion. 

Temperament,  in  music,  is 
a  term  applied  to  the  system 
of  compromise  adopted  in  the 
tuning  of  keyboard  instruments. 
In  natural  or  just  intonation, 
intervals  of  tones  are  not  all  of 
equal  size,  and  certain  notes 
when  sounded  simultaneously 
must  be  slightly  altered  from 
their  original  pitch  in  rejation 
to  the  tonic  in  order  to  produce 
perfect  concords.  Therefore, 
were  an  in.strument  of  fixed 
pitch  tuned  to  just  intonation  in 
any  one  key,  it  would  not  be 
absolutely  in  tune  in  all  chords 
in  that  key,  and  would  be  much 
less  in  tune  in  any  other  key ; 
but  by  tempering  all  the  inter- 
vals of  a  scale — with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  octave — so  as  to 
deviate  slightly  from  just  intona- 
tion, a  keyboard  instrument  can 
be  made  approximately  in  tune 
in  all  keys.  By  this  method — 
termed  'equal  temperament' — 
the  octave  is  divided  into  twelve 
semitones  of  practically  equal 
size,  and  this  system  of  tuning 
has  been  universally  adopted  for 
all  instruments  with  fixed  tones. 
Previous  to  this  the  meantone 
system,  limited  to  a  few  keys, 
was  used. 

Consult  Helmholtz,  Sensation 
of  Tone,  and  Engel,  Das  Mathe- 
matische  Harmonium. 

Temperament,  the  predomi- 
nant mental  and  physical  cast 
or  disposition  that  distinguishes 
one  person  from  another.  Each 
person  is  a  compromise  of  char- 
acteristics ;  but  the  artistic  may 
prevail  in  one,  the  scientific  in 
another,  the  philosophic  in  a 
third.  The  problem  of  tempera- 
ment forms  a  vital  part  of  the 
problem  of  the  original  nature  of 
man.  It  deals  with  the  question 
of  common  human  inheritances, 
and  the  capacities  and  impulses 
upon  which  environment  directs 
a  formative  effect,  and  is  becom- 
ing an  increasingly  important 
study  among  psychologists  and 
students  in  social  science. 

Temperance  and  the  Tem- 
perance Movement.  A  move- 
ment to  control  the  use  of 
intoxicating  liquor.  In  modern 
times  the  development  of  the 
temperance  movement  is  best 
illustrated  in  English-speaking 
countries,  especially  in  the 
United  States,  where  the  results 
have  been  more  noteworthy  than 
in  many  other  countries. 


Temperance 


663 


Temperi«nce 


In  England  in  1802  Dr.  Erasmus 
Darwin  and  Dr.  Thomas  Beddoes 
and  others  joined  in  the  move- 
ment against  spirits;  and  in  the 
United  States  in  1808  Dr.  Lyman 
Beecher  and  Dr.  B.  J.  Clark  vigor- 
ously denounced  the  growing 
evils  of  intemperance  and  began 
to  plan  for  their  suppression.  In 
the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  century 
temperance  societies  began  to  be 
formed  in  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  in  the  New  England 
states.  The  American  Temper- 
ance Society  was  founded  in  1826, 
and  within  four  years  similar 
societies  were  organized  in  Ire- 
land, England,  and  Scotland.  In 
1832  began  the  general  advocacy, 
among  temperance  workers,  of 
total  abstinence  from  all  kinds  of 
alcoholic  beverages.  In  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  its  pioneers 
were  Professor  Edgar  of  Belfast, 
John  Dunlop  of  Greenock,  Joseph 
Livesey  of  Preston,  and  William 
Collins  of  Glasgow.  On  May  24, 
1833,  the  first  national  temperance 
convention  in  the  United  States 
was  opened  in  Independence  Hall, 
Philadelphia.  It  was  a  remark- 
able gathering  in  its  personnel  and 
results.  There  were  in  attendance 
400  delegates  from  21  states,  and 
a  national  society  was  formed 
called  'The  United  States  Tem- 
perance Union.'  A  resolution  was 
passed  declaring  that  the  success 
of  the  temperance  cause  demanded 
the  recommendation  of  only  pure 
water  as  a  substitute  for  alcoholic 
drinks.  The  uncompromising 
character  of  the  movement  was 
indicated  thus  early,  and  in  1836 
another  national  convention  was 
held  at  Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y., 
where  a  pledge  of  total  abstinence 
from  all  intoxicants  was  adopted. 
This  widened  the  working  basis  so 
as  to  include  all  injurious  bever- 
ages. The  name  of  the  first 
national  society  was  changed  to 
'American  Temperance  Union,' 
which  in  1865  gave  way  to  the 
National  Temperance  Society  and 
Publication  House. 

Long  before  1860,  when  the 
Civil  War  arrested  temperance 
effort,  the  dominant  note  in  this 
country  was  total  abstinence 
through  prohibition  of  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  of  alcoholic 
liquors,  and  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  no  other  remedy  for 
the  evils  of  drunkenness  made 
substantial  headway  during  the 
19th  century.  In  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  total  abstinence, at  first 
by  means  of  the  pledge  and  after- 
ward by  prohibition,  was  likewise 
the  central  object  of  the  move- 
ment. When  in  1846  the  first 
World's  Temperance  Convention 
was  held  in  London,  the  reports 
from  all  parts  of  the  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  and  the  British 
colonies  indicated  that  the  move- 
ment had  laid  hold  of  earnest  and 
thoughtful  people.  The  304  dele- 


gates to  the  convention  included 
such  men  as  the  Rev.  Dr.  Lyman 
Beecher;  Elihu  Burritt,  'the 
learned  blacksmith';  William 
Lloyd  Garrison,  and  Frederick 
Douglass,  the  anti-slavery  advo- 
cates; and  prominent  among  the 
British  workers,  both  in  the  press 
and  on  the  platform,  were  Dr. 
F.  R.  Lees,  James  Silk  Bucking- 
ham, James  Teare,  Thomas 
Whittaker,  and  John  Cassell.  A 
network  of  societies  existed  in  this 
country,  as  well  as  in  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Canada,  the  common  aim 
of  which  was  entire  legal  suppres- 
sion of  the  drink  traffic.  Their  hope 
was  intensified  by  the  passing  of 
a  prohibitory  liquor  law  in  the 
state  Oi  Maine  in  1851.  (See  Pro- 
hibition.) The  United  Kingdom 
Alliance,  founded  in  1853,  was 
likewise  prohibitory  in  aim,  and 
mainly  through  its  efforts  Sunday- 
closing  acts  were  passed  in  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  and  Wales;  but  the 
concerted  action  and  great  strength 
of  the  liquor  interest  in  England, 
together  with  the  conservative 
attitude  of  the  upper  classes, 
arrested  the  movement  to  which 
the  Maine  law  had  given  encour- 
agement. 

Immediately  after  the  Civil 
War,  when  the  temperance  forces 
t«hat  had  been  dormant  in  this 
country  were  assembled  for  re- 
newed effort,  there  began  to  be  a 
serious  divergence  in  the  views  of 
American  and  British  workers 
against  the  evils  of  the  liquor 
traffic.  The  former  continued  to 
advocate  chiefly  prohibition,  ex- 
tremists forming  themselves  into  a 

Political  party.  (See  Prohibition 
ARTY.)  _  In  England  opinion 
became  divided,  and  although  a 
permissive  prohibitory  bill  was 
introduced  in  Parliament  in 
1864,  it  never  became  law,  and 
subsequent  bills  on  the  same  sub- 
ject proved  equally  unsuccessful. 
(See  Local  Option.)  In  Canada 
and  other  British  colonies  the  de- 
velopment of  the  temperance  move- 
ment, in  the  main,  followed  that 
of  the  United  States  and  England. 
The  idea  of  compensating  the  liquor 
interest  for  suppression  of  its  traffic 
never  had  any  considerable  support 
in  the  United  States,  but  in  Eng- 
land it  was  always  a  hindrance  to 
effective  legislation,  although  any 
attempt  to  provide  compensation 
out  of  the  public  funds  met  with 
strong  opposition. 

Moral  considerations  in  favor 
of  total  abstinence  have  been 
generally  supported  by  the 
teaching  in  public  schools,  by 
the  rules  of  great  corporations, 
especially  the  railway  companies, 
against  the  use  of  intoxicants  by 
their  employees,  and  by  the 
preference  given  by  life  insur- 
ance companies  and  benefit  so- 
cieties to  those  who  abstain  from 
alcoholic  beverages  of  all  kinds. 
Great  waves  of  enthusiasm,  aris- 


ing from  the  labors  of  Father 
Mathew,  John  B.  Gough,  and 
others  have  also  assisted  the  prog- 
ress of  the  movement,  and  the 
pohcy  of  Socialist  and  Labor 
organizations  embodies  in  their 
respective  principles  and  plat- 
forms decisive  requirements  in 
favor  of  temperance  and  total 
abstinence.  In  1899  the  Ameri- 
can Railway  Association,  con- 
trolling more  than  1,000,000 
workers,  adopted  a  standard  rule 
prohibiting  the  use  of  intoxicants 
by  employees  while  on  duty,  and 
making  t.heir  habitual  use,  or 
the  frequenting  of  places  where 
they  are  sold,  sufficient  cause 
for  dismissal.  All  the  states  now 
include  among  their  education 
laws  provision  for  +he  compul- 
sory teaching  of  hygiene  and 
temperance.  Temperance  so- 
cieties organized  by  the  different 
religious  denominations,  and  the 
influence  of  the  Women's  Chris- 
tian Temperance  Union  and 
similar  women's  organizations, 
strongly  aid  in  the  diffusion 
of  knowledge  on  temperance 
subjects  and  the  inculcation  of 
temperance  principles. 

Opposing  views  as  to  whether 
prohibition  is  best  adapted  to 
secure  the  complete  triumph  of 
temperance  principles  have  led 
to  different  theories  on  scientific 
temperance  reform  and  its  popu- 
lar application.  Broadly  speak- 
ing, the  repeal  of  several  state 
prohibitory  laws  has  turned  the 
attention  of  many  thoughtful 
temperance  workers  to  a  con- 
sideration of  other  methods,  es- 
pecially to  municipal  control, 
as  in  the  Gothenberg  Svstem 
(cj.v.),  and  its  various  adapta- 
tions. (See  Public-house  Trusts.) 
Others  propose  a  more  extensive 
application  of  the  principle  of 
guardianship,  such  as  is  already 
applied  to  imbeciles,  insane,  and 
incompetents  generally;  and  they 
would  provide  an  adequately 
responsible  person,  or  body  of 
persons,  who  shall  take  the 
wages,  income  or  property  of 
all  who  are  addicted  to  such 
inebriety  as  deprives  the  familj 
of  its  support  and  administer  it 
in  behalf  of  the  parties  concerned. 
In  the  United  States  high  license, 
as  in  Massachusetts,  and  an 
adaptation  of  the  Gothenberg 
plan,  as  in  South  Carolina,  have 
given  results  which  are  variously 
interpreted,  and  the  practice  of 
prohibitory  laws  is  questioned 
by  writers  who  point  out  that 
such  laws  wrongly  centre  re- 
sponsibility upon  the  seller  of 
intoxicants  instead  of  fairly  ap- 
portioning it  between  the  seller 
and  the  purchaser.  There  is  a 
ferment  of  opinion  upon  the 
whole  subject,  and  in  tne  large 
cities  suggestions  have  been  made 
that  some  features  of  the  English 
public-house  trusts  be  imitated. 


Temperature 

as  they  provide  for  a  combina- 
tion of  permissible  attractions, 
and  an  elimination  of  objection- 
able ones.  Thus  far  it  may  be 
said  that  no  plan  or  experience 
stands  out  with  a  universally 
convincing  prominence;  but  the 
general  trend  is  against  hasten- 
ing the  trial  of  expedients  which 
are  likely  to  react  against  indi- 
vidualism and  political  liberty. 
Judgment  in  accordance  with  the 
truth  that,  if  we  ought  to  bear 
one  another's  burdens,  we  must 
also  bear  our  own,  holds  the 
drunkard  guilty  with  the  liquor 
seller,  and  will  not  allow  either 
to  escape;  but  for  that  reason  it  is 
cautious  in  applying  legal  restric- 
tions. See  Valpy  French's  Nine- 
teen Centuries  o)  Drink  (1891);  The 
Temperance  Histories,  by  Burns 
(1889-90),  CouHng  (1862),  and 
Winskill  (1890-2);  Temperance  of 
All  Nations,  edited  by  Sterns 
(Papers  of  World's  Temperance 
Congress.  1893);  Twelfth  Annual 
Report  of  the  United  States  Com- 
missioner oj  Labor  (1897);  Cal- 
kins's  Social  Substitutes  for  the 
Saloon  (1901);  Billings's  Physio- 
logical Aspects  of  the  Liquor  Prob- 
lem (1903);  Koren's  Economic 
Aspects  of  the  Liquor  Problem 
(1899);  Wines  and  Koren's  The 
Liquor  Problem  in  Its  Legislative 
Aspects  (1897);  Burns's  Temper- 
ance in  the  Victorian  Age  (1897); 
Rowntree  and  Sherwell's  The 
Temperance  Problem  and  Social 
Reform  (1900);  Robinson  Souttar's 
Alcohol,  its  Place  and  Power  in 
Legislation  (1904);  F.  R.  Lee's 
Select  Works  (1884);  B.  W.  Rich- 
ardson's The  Action  of  Alcohol  on 
the  Mind  (1878),  and  Recent  Re- 
searches on  Alcohol  (1878);  Nor- 
man Kerr's  Inebriety  (1888)*  Sims 
Woodhead's  Recent  Researches  on 
the  Action  of  Alcohol  (1903); 
Lacey's  The  Case  for  Total  A  bsti- 
nence  (1890);  Barrett's  The  Truth 
about  Intoxicating  Drinks  (1899); 
W.  N.  Edwards's  Proving  Our 
Case  (1905);  T.  P.  Whittaker's 
The  Economic  Aspect  of  the  Drink 
Problem;  John  Burns's  Labor  and 
Drink — the  World's  Temperance 
Congress  Volume  (1900);  Tracts, 
Publications  and  files  of  papers  of 
the  National  Temperance  Society 
and  Publication  House,  the  Wom- 
en's Christian  Temperance  Union 
and  other  temperance  societies. 

Temperature,  in  physics,  is 
that  quality  of  bodies  which  de- 
pends upon  the  quantity  of  heat 
concentrated  in  them.  We  are, 
in  general,  able  to  decide  by  sen- 
sation that  one  body  is  hotter  or 
at  a  higher  temperature  than 
another,  or  by  its  shining  more 
or  less  brightly  when  in  the  dark 
that  it  is  at  a  very  high  tempera- 
ture. But  in  order  to  get  more 
exact  and  quantitative  ideas  of 
temperature  other  changes  in  the 
properties  of  bodies  must  be  stud- 
ied.   Of  these  the  change  in  size 


664 

is  most  commonly  made  use  of — 
most  substances,  whether  solid, 
liquid,  or  gas,  expanding  when 
heated-  and  in  the  case  of  a  gas, 
expanding  almost  exactly  propor- 
tionally to  the  temperature  over 
a  very  wide  range.  The  expan- 
sion of  a  liquid  such  as  mercury, 
though  not  so  closely  propor- 
tional to  temperature,  is,  how- 
ever, more  convenient  to  apply, 
so  that  most  thermometers  depend 
on  the  measurement  of  the  size 
of  the  particular  quantity  of  this 
substance  contained  in  them.  The 
change  of  state  of  substances,  as 
it  takes  place  at  definite  tempera- 
tures, is  also  employed  as  a  means 
of  measurement.  Thus  the  stand- 
ard unit  of  temperature  com- 
monly employed  is  the  range  be- 
tween the  melting-point  of  ice 
and  the  boiling-point  of  water, 
this  unit  being  divided  into  100° 
in  the  centigrade  and  180°  on  the 
Fahrenheit  scale.  Changes  on 
heating  in  the  electrical  resist- 
ance of  conductors,  of  electromo- 
tive force  at  the  junctions  of  dis- 
similar metals,  and  of  the  color 
and  intensity  of  light  emitted 
from  a  hot  body,  are  also  meas- 
ured to  determine  temperature. 
See  Thermometer  and  Pyrom- 
eter- also  Thermodynamics 
and  Gases  and  Vapors. 

Temperature,  in  meteorology, 
refers  to  the  condition  of  the  at- 
mosphere in  relation  to  heat  and 
cold.  Since  practically  all  of  our 
heat  coines  from  the  sun,  we  may 
expect  the  temperature  of  any 
locality  to  depend  primarily  upon 
the  season  of  the  year  and  distance 
from  the  equator.  But  modifying 
influences,  such  as  altitude,  the 
direction  of  the  prevailing  winds, 
and  the  extent,  proximity,  and 
relative  position  of  areas  of  land 
and  water,  prevent  a  simple  and 
regular  distribution  of  tempera- 
ture in  conforrnity  with  the  lati- 
tude, and  not  infrequently  bring 
to  places  several  degrees  apart 
climates  equally  mild  or  equally 
severe.  It  is  of  interest  in  this 
connection  to  compare  the  effect 
of  the  sun's  rays  upon  land  and 
water  surfaces  respectively.  When 
the  solar  radiation  falls  upon  soil, 
a  substance  of  low  specific  heat, 
it  is  partly  reflected,  but  is  mostly 
absorbed  near  the  surface,  is  dif- 
fused to  somewhat  greater  depths 
only  by  slow  conduction,  and  its 
heating  effect,  concentrated  in  the 
upper  layers,  quickly  raises  their 
temperature.  At  night  the  surface 
loses  its  heat  quickly  by  radia- 
tion into  space.  In  the  case  of  the 
ocean,  on  the  other  hand,  a  large 
part  of  the  incident  radiation  is 
reflected  from  the  surface;  the 
remainder  penetrates  to  consider- 
able depths,  and  is  still  further 
diffused  by  waves  and  currents. 
To  these  conditions,  tending  to 
prevent  any  rapid  change  in  tem- 
perature, must  be  added  the  high 


Temperature 

specific  heat  and  feeble  radiating 
power  of  water,  the  loss  of  heat  by 
evaporation,  and  the  convection 
currents  that  rise  if  the  surface 
becomes  colder  than  the  water 
below. 

Therefore  the  sea  is  heated  and 
cooled  much  less  than  the  land  in 
the  same  latitude,  and  shows  a 
much  smaller  range  of  tempera- 
ture, either  from  day  to  night  or 
from  summer  to  winter.  Land 
protected  by  vegetation  is  subject 
to  less  suddien  changes  than  bare, 
sandy,  or  rocky  surfaces. 

These  are  important  factors  in 
determining  the  temperature  of 
any  locality.  Equability  is  the 
characteristic  of  an  island  climate; 
the  interior  of  a  continent  shows 
greater  extremes  than  its  shores; 
and  a  windward  coast,  bathed  in 
air  that  takes  its  temperature 
from  a  broad  expanse  of  ocean,  is 
cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in 
the  cold  months  than  a  leeward 
coast  in  the  same  latitude.  In 
proof  of  this  we  have  but  to  com- 
pare Ireland  with  Labrador, 
France  with  Quebec,  or  northern  , 
Spain  with  New  England,  since 
the  prevailing  winds  in  those  lati- 
tudes are  from  the  west.  The 
difference  between  the  eastern  and 
western  coasts  of  the  United 
States  is  also  a  case  in  point.  The 
theory  once  held,  that  the  mild- 
ness of  western  Europe  may  be 
attributed  to  the  Gulf  Stream,  is 
now  recognized  as  untenable, 
since  that  current  loses  its  iden- 
tity in  the  surrounding  waters  long 
before  it  has  crossed  the  Atlantic. 

The  range  of  temperature — i.e. 
the  difference  between  the  highest 
and  lowest — is,  as  we  might  ex- 
pect, least  in  localities  subject  to 
oceanic  influences,  and  greatest  in 
the  interior  of  continents,  espe- 
cially in  arid  and  plateau  regions, 
whose  clear,  dry  atmosphere  is 
favorable  to  radiation.  In  the 
United  States  the  annual  absolute 
range  is  low  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  is  least  (59°)  at  Key  West, 
Fla.,  where  the  mercury  has  never 
risen  above  100°  nor  dropped 
below  49°.  Never  to  have  had  a 
temperature  below  the  freezing- 
point  is  a  distinction  that  Key 
West  shares  with  but  one  other 
Weather  Bureau  station,  San 
Diego,  Cal.,  whose  lowest  mini- 
mum is  just  32°.  The  absolute 
annual  range  in  this  country  is 
high  in  portions  of  the  upper  Mis- 
souri valley,  northwestern  New 
England,  and  the  lower  Lake 
region,  and  is  greatest  (163°)  at 
Havre,  Montana. 

In  considering  the  distribution 
of  temperature  as  influenced  by 
land  and  water,  we  have  tacitly 
assumed  that  the  air  receives  more 
heat  from  the  surface  on  which  it 
rests  than  from  the  direct  rays  of 
the  sun.  This  is,  indeed,  the  case, 
at  least  as  regards  the  lower 
strata.    Such  part  of  the  solai 


Temperature  Chart  of  the  World — July. 


Temperature 


666 


Templars 


radiation  as  is  not  lost  into  space 
by  reflection,  or  absorbed  by  the 
atmosphere  before  it  reaches  the 
earth,  heats  the  surface  of  the 
latter,  and  is  again  radiated,  but 
now  as  heat  of  a  different  quality 
from  the  solar  rays,  for  the  most 
part  of  longer  wave  length,  more 
readily  absorbed  by  the  atmos- 
phere, and  hence  of  greater  effect 
in  raising  its  temperature.  But  a 
probably  more  important  source 
of  heat  is  by  conduction  from  the 
hot  soil  to  the  air  in  contact  with  it. 
As  the  latter  is  heated  it  becomes 
specifically  lighter  and  rises  to 
give  place  to  the  colder  layers 
above,  being  cooled  adiabatically 
(that  is,  by  virtue  of  its  own  expan- 
sion, apart  from  any  heat  it  may 
lose  in  other  ways)  at  the  rate  of 
1.0°  Fahrenheit  for  every  300  feet 
of  ascent.  The  descending  air  is 
adiabatically  warmed  by  com- 
pression at  the  same  rate.  These 
convection  currents  continue  as 
long  as  the  earth  retains  its  excess 
of  temperature,  the  ascending  air 
rising  until  it  has  cooled  to  the  tem- 
perature of  its  surroundings,  and 
the  heat  taken  from  the  soil  may 
thus  be  diffused  through  a  consid- 
erable mass  of  atmosphere. 

It  follows,  as  a  general  rule,  that 
the  temperature  decreases  from 
the  earth  upward,  but  this  de- 
crease is  not  equal  to  the  adia- 
batic  rate  above  given.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  mean 
temperature  at  different  heights 
above  middle  Europe,  as  deter- 
mined from  a  great  number  of 
balloon  ascensions.  The  height 
is  given  in  kilometers  (1  km.  equals 
3,281  feet)  and  the  temperature 
in  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

1  2  3  4  5 

41°       32.9°     24.8°     15.4°      4.3°  ■ 


upper  levels  a  stratum  whose 
temperature  remains  nearly  con- 
stant throughout  the  twenty-four 
hours. 

The  highest  temperature  of 
official  record  in  the  United 
States  is  122°  in  Death  Valley, 
Cal.,  a  figure  that  has  been 
equalled  or  even  a  little  exceeded 
at  one  or  more  points  in  Arabia, 
Algeria,  Mesopotamia,  India, 
Australia,  and  the  Sahara.  Read- 
ings not  much  lower  are  also  re- 
ported from  southwestern  Arizona 
and  the  Colorado  Desert.  The 
extreme  minimum  in  this  country 
is  65°  below  zero  in  Montana 
(Jan.,  1888),  and  Werchoiansk,  in 
northeastern  Siberia,  with  a  tem- 
perature of  about  90°  below  zero, 
doubtless  breaks  the  world's 
vecord. 

The  accompanying  tempera- 
ture charts  show  conditions  over 
the  globe  for  January  and  July. 
Lines  called  isotherms,  or  Hnes  of 
equal  heat,  are  drawn  through 
points  whose  temperature  is  the 
same.  These  lines  are  drawn  for 
every  ten  degrees.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  they  are  much  more 
sinuous  over  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere in  middle  and  high  lati- 
tudes than  over  the  southern. 
This  is  due  to  the  uneven  manner 
in  which  land  and  water  are  dis- 
tributed and  to  the  influence  of 
the  ocean  currents.  South  of  the 
equator  there  is  comparatively 
little  land,  so  that  the  conserving 
influence  exerted  by  the  ocean  is 
strikingly  apparent.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  winter,  the  chilHng 
influence  of  radiation  over  the 
great  land  mass  of  the  Eurasian 
continent  is  a  marked  feature, 

6  7  8  9  10  km. 

•7.6°  -20.2°  -32.8°  -45.8°  -56.4° 


This  average  decrease  is  seldom 
found  in  any  given  instance.  It 
is  greater  in  summer  than  in  win- 
ter. At  still  greater  heights,  from 
11  to  14  kilometers,  balloon  ob- 
servations have  shown  that  there 
is  but  httle  change,  or  even  a 
slight  increase,  in  temperature. 

After  sunset  the  rapid  loss  of 
heat  by  radiation  brings  the  tem- 
perature of  the  ground  below  that 
of  the  superincumbent  air,  which 
is  in  turn  cooled  by  conduction 
and  radiation  to  .the  earth.  The 
convection  currents  of  the  day- 
time are  now  interrupted,  since 
the  strata  nearest  the  earth  are 
cooled  the  most  quickly,  and 
there  is  normally  a  gradual  noc- 
turnal increase  of  temperature 
with  altitude  up  to  a  moderate 
height;  on  the  average  for  the 
year  about  1,000  feet. 

The  highest  temperature  of  the 
day  occurs  about  3  p.  M.,  the 
lowest  about  .sunrise.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  two,  sometimes 
40°  or  more  at  the  earth's  .surface, 
diminishes  as  we  recede  from  its 
influence,  until  we  find  in  the 


resulting  in  an  exceedingly  low 
temperature  in  eastern  Siberia. 

See  Henry's  Climatology  of  the 
United  States,  U.  S.  Weather  Bu- 
reau Bulletin  Q  (1906);  Bar- 
tholomew's Physical  Atlas,  vol. 
3,  Atlas  of  Meteorology;  Hann's 
Lehrbuch  der  Meteorologie  (1908); 
Davis's  Elementary  Meteorology 
(1899);  also  many  papers  on 
Temperature  in  the  Monthly 
Weather  Review.  See  also  Heat; 
Thermodynamics. 

Templars,  a  military  order, 
founded  in  1119,  at  the  time 
of  the  crusades,  by  Hugues  de 
Payen  and  Godfrey  de  Saint  Ad- 
hemar,  with  seven  other  knights, 
taking  on  themselves  the  solemn 
vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and 
obedience,  and  undertaking  the 
defence  of  pilgrims  to  the  holy 
places  from  the  attacks  of  the 
Saracens.  By  Baldwin  ii.,  king 
of  Jerusalem,  they  were  granted 
quarters  in  his  palace,  built  on 
the  .site  of  the  Temple;  hence 
the  name  of  the  order.  The  rule 
of  the  order  was  severe  and  as- 
cetic.   It  was  drawn  up  for  them 


by  Bernard  of  Clairvaux.  All 
luxury  and  display,  even  in 
armor,  were  forbidden,  and  all 
worldly  pleasures,  even  hunting, 
were  prohibited.  At  first  none 
but  nobles  or  knights  were  ad- 
mitted, but  subordinate  mem- 
bers were  allowed  for  the  menial 
work  as  the  order  grew  great  and 
wealthy.  It  was  governed  by  a 
grand  master,  who  had  his  seat, 
first  at  Jerusalem  and  then  suc- 
cessively at  Antioch,  Acre,  the 
Pilgrim's  Castle  (near  Acre),  and 
lastly  at  Limasol  in  Cyprus. 
The  various  provinces  of  the 
order — Jerusalem,  Tripoli,  Anti- 
och, Portugal,  Castile  and  Leon, 
Aragon,  England,  France,  Aqui- 
taine,  Provence,  Germany,  Italy, 
and  Sicily — were  ruled  by  mas- 
ters, grand  priors,  and  com- 
manders. In  1172  the  Templars 
\vere  set  free  from  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  bishops  and  made  de- 
pendent on  the  pope  alone,  and 
were  allowed  to  confess  to  chap- 
lains of  their  own  order.  Their 
houses  had  the  right  of  sanctuary, 
and  their  property  was  exempt 
from  taxation  and  tithing,  and 
in  consequence  their  establish- 
ments were  frequently  used  as 
treasuries. 

The  active  history  of  the  Tem- 
plars is  the  history  of  the  crusades. 
To  them  rather  than  to  the 
miscellaneous  hordes  that  peri- 
odically swarmed  from  Europe 
was  due  the  long  stay  given  to 
the  infidel.  Twenty  thousand 
Templars  perished  in  the  attempt 
to  hold  the  holy  place  of  the 
Christian  religion  for  Christen- 
dom, and  most  of  their  grand 
masters  died  on  the  field  of  honor 
or  from  wounds  received  in  battle. 
They  helped  Richard  Coeur  de 
Lion  to  win  the  great  victory  at 
Arsuf  in  1191,  and  from  him  they 
purchased  the  island  of  Cyprus. 
In  the  13th  century  disaster  fol- 
lowed disaster,  till  in  1291  Acre, 
after  a  memorable  siege,  was 
taken  by  the  Saracens. 

At  last  the  enemies  whom  their 
arrogance  provoked  were  not  slow 
to  bring  against  them  charges  of 
licentiousness,  of  apostasy  from 
the  Christian  faith,  of  treachery 
to  the  crusaders,  of  oppression, 
and  of  extortion.  For  many  of 
these  charges  there  was  prob- 
ably some  foundation  in  indi- 
vidual cases;  but  the  order  it- 
self remained  Christian  and  or- 
thodox. Philip  of  France,  being 
in  an  impoverished  condition, 
cast  greedy  eyes  on  the  treas- 
ures possessed  by  the  Templars, 
and  directed  the  pope,  Clement  v., 
to  summon  the  grand  master  to 
appear  before  him.  The  grand 
master,  Jacques  de  Molay,  an- 
swered the  summons,  and  on  Oct. 
16,  1307,  he  and  140  Templars 
were  .seized,  and  were  thrown  into 
prison.    Torture  was  freely  used 


Temple 


KFP 


667 


Temple 


to  establish  evidence.  Many 
Templars  were  burned  to  death. 
Their  property  was  confiscated 
and  handed  over  to  their  bitter 
enemies,  the  Hospitallers,  with 
whom  they  had  been  at  open  war 
in  Palestine.  The  most  shame- 
less travesty  of  justice  took 
place  in  France.  In  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, and  Germany  the  Tem- 
plars were  found  innocent ;  and 
in  England,  where  it  required 
strong  pressure  from  the  pope  to 
have  them  examined  by  torture, 
the  charges  broke  down  or  were 
not  pressed. 

In  addition  to  its  possessions 
in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  the 
order  owned  numerous  lordships 
in  almost  every  country  of  Eu- 
rope— nine  thousand  manors,  ac- 
cording to  Matthew  of  Paris.  Of 
these  the  memory  still  survives 
in  many  place-names  incorporat- 
ing the  word  'Temple.'  The  an- 
nual income  drawn  from  Euro- 
pean sources  alone  is  estimated 
to  have  been  about  six  million 
pounds  sterling.  The  Templars, 
moreover,  possessed  many  privi- 
leges above  ordinary  Europeans. 
The  manifest  advantage  of  being 
a  member  of  the  order  or  one  of 
its  vassals  soon  led  to  abuses. 
Those  who  had  no  right  to  be 
so  regarded  fraudulently  erected 
Temple  crosses  upon  their  build- 
ings, and  claimed  the  Temple 
privileges.  The  recognition  as 
Templars  of  men  who  were  vm- 
der  the  ban  of  the  church,  or 
who  had  broken  the  laws  of  their 
country,  must  have  tended  great- 
ly to  increase  the  disfavor  with 
which  the  order  came  to  be  re- 
garded by  all  the  nations  of 
Europe,  but  the  main  cause  of 
their  overthrow  was  the  danger- 
ous position  which  they  occupied 
in  the  political  life  of  Europe. 

The  Knights  Templars  of 
Freemasonry,  though  a  compar- 
atively modern  institution,  repre- 
sent a  certain  phase  of  the  great 
historical  organization,  which 
was  to  some  extent  a  secret  fra- 
ternity. (See  Freemasonry). 
The  societies  of  modern  abstain- 
ers calling  themselves  'Good 
Templars'  have  no  historical  ba- 
sis. See  Addison's  Knights  Tem- 
plars (3d  ed.  1852)  ;  Secret  So- 
cieties of  the  Middle  Ages 
(1846);  Templaria  (1828-30); 
Froude's  Templars  (1886)  ;  and 
Schottmiiller's  Der  Untergang 
des  Templar-Ordcns  (2  vols. 
1887). 

Temple,  The,  a  former 
stronghold  of  the  Knights  Tem- 
plars in  Paris,  was  built  in  1212 
on  land  granted  by  King  Louis 
VII  of  France.  When  the  order 
was  suppressed  in  1312  the  for- 
tress was  first  used  as  a  royal 
treasury  and  later  as  a  prison. 
It  was  here  that  Louis  xvi, 
Marie  Antoinette,  their  two  chil- 
dren, and  Madame  Elizabeth,  the 


King's  sister,  were  taken  as  pris- 
oners in  August,  1792.  The 
King  went  from  the  Temple  to 
his  death  on  the  scaffold  Jan.  21, 
1793.  The  young  Dauphin  died 
here  as  the  result  of  the  brutal 
treatment  of  his  jailer.  The  last 
traces  of  the  grim  structure  were 
removed  in  1871  ;  its  site  is  now 
occupied  by  the  Marche  du  Tem- 
ple. 

Temple,  The,  a  former  lodge 
of  the  Knights  Templars  in  Lon- 
don, dates  from  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century.  It  is  now  rep- 
resented by  Temple  Church  and 
the  Inns  of  t,6urt,  known  as  the 
Inner  and  Middle  Temple,  stand- 
ing on  the  ancient  site  of  the 
original  building.  The  property 
reverted  to  the  crown  when  the 
order  was  suppressed  but  later 
passed  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John 
who  leased  it  to  law  students. 

Temple.  In  the  history  of 
Israel  three  buildings  of  differ- 
ent eras  bore  the  name  Temple. 
(1.)  Solomon's  Temple  was  one 
of  a  group  of  buildings  on 
Mount  Moriah  (or  Zion),  the 
modern  Haram-es-Sherif .  Its 
artificers  were  Tyrian  workmen, 
and  it  was  probably  constructed 
after  Phoenician  or  Syrian  mod- 
els. Its  various  materials  were 
dressed  before  they  were  brought 
to  the  site,  Araunah's  threshing 
floor.  The  main  building  was  an 
oblong  of  sixty  by  twenty  cubits, 
and  thirty  cubits  in  height  (in- 
terior measure).  Two-thirds  of 
this  space  was  separated  from 
the  remainder  by  a  partition  with 
curtained  door  :  the  former  was 
the  Holy  Place,  and  contained 
the  ten  golden  candlesticks  and 
the  altar  of  incense ;  while  the 
latter,  a  cube  of  twenty  cubits, 
was  the  Holy  of  Holies,  in  which 
was  the  ark  with  the  cherubim. 
At  the  eastern  end,  farthest  from 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  was  the 
porch  or  chief  entrance,  with 
two  pillars,  Jachin  and  Boaz, 
each  twenty-three  cubits  high. 
This  inner  temple  was  encased 
by  three  tiers  of  chambers,  above 
which  were  the  windows  of  the 
main  building,  serving  for  ven- 
tilation rather  than  light.  The 
ceiling  of  the  large  apartments 
was  supported  by  pillars  of  ce- 
dar. The  whole  was  surrounded 
by  an  inner  court,  containing  the 
altar  of  burnt  offering,  the  bra- 
zen sea,  and  the  brazen  lavers, 
and  was  bounded  by  a  palisade 
of  cedar  beams  upon  a  stone 
base,  and  by  a  great  court  which 
enclosed  not  only  the  temple  but 
the  other  royal  buildings.  The 
temple  was  pillaged  and  burned 
at  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  under 
Nebuchadnezzar  (588  B.C.),  hav- 
ing stood  for  some  418  years. 
(2.)  The  Temple  of  Zerubbabel 
was  founded  534  b.c,  then  com- 
pulsorily  abandoned  ;  resumed  in 
520,  it  was  completed  in  516.  It 


stood  on  the  site  of  the  former, 
but  was  inferior  both  in  magni- 
tude and  in  splendor.  It  had 
several  courts,  with  cloisters  or 
cells  for  the  priests.  Desecrated 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes  in  168 
B.C.,  it  was  repaired  by  Judas 
Maccabaeus  in  165.  Pompey 
damaged  it  in  63  B.C.,  and  Herod 
the  Great  inflicted  further  injury 
in  37  B.C.  (3.)  The  Temple  of 
Herod  was  begun  about  20  b.c, 
and  was  built  in  one  and  a  half 
years  ;  but  the  edifice  and  out- 
buildings seem  to  have  been  un- 
der the  workmen's  hands  till 
about  64  A.D.  (c/.  John  2:20). 
Herod  chose  a  site  adjoining  the 
older  building,  and  used  some  of 
its  materials.  This  is  the  tem- 
ple of  the  New  Testament,  asso- 
ciated with  Jesus  and  His  dis- 
ciples. It  was  destroyed  by  fire 
in  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  in  70 
A.D.  A  splendid  Mohammedan 
mosque  now  occupies  its  place. 
Ezekiel's  temple  (Ezek.  40-43) 
is  an  ideal  construction.  There 
was  also  a  temple  of  the  Samari- 
tans on  Mount  Gerizum.  See 
Josephus'  Antiquities,  xv,  11; 
Keil's  Biblical  Archaeology 
(trans.  1887)  ;  Benzinger's  Heh. 
Archdologie  (1894)  ;  Lewis' 
Holy  Places  of  Jerusalem 
(1880);  Edersheim's  Temple 
(1874);  Perrot  and  Chipiez's 
History  of  Art  in  Jiidea  (1890)  ; 
Schmidt's  Solomon's  Temple  in 
the  Light  of  Other  Oriental 
Temples  (1902). 

Temple,  city,  Texas,  Bell 
county,  on  the  Gulf,  Colorado, 
and  Santa  Fe  and  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  and  Texas  railroads  ;  69 
miles  N.N.E.  of  Austin.  Shops  of 
the  Gulf,  Colorado,  and  Santa 
Fe  Railroad  are  situated  here. 
There  are  cotton  gins  and  com- 
presses, cottonseed-oil  mills, 
flour  mills,  machine  shops,  a 
large  cold  storage  plant,  found- 
ries, and  bottling  works.  It  has 
a  Carnegie  library,  the  Gulf, 
Colorado,  and  Santa  Fe  Railroad 
Hospital,  the  King's  Daughters' 
Hospital,  Scott  and  White  Hos- 
pital, and  the  McClosky  General 
Hospital.  Here  is  the  Temple 
Army  Air  Port  of  about  1,000 
acres,  and  Camp  Hood  of  165,- 
000  acres.  The  first  settlement 
was  made  in  1881  and  the  city 
was  incorporated  in  1884.  Pop. 
(1930)  15,345  ;  (1940)  15.344. 

Temple,  Frederick  (1821- 
1902),  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
was  born  in  the  Ionian  Is.  At 
Oxford  he  took  a  'double  first,' 
and  became  fellow  and  tutor 
of  Balliol  College.  Temple  was 
appointed  principal  of  Kneller 
Hall,  Hounslow,  and  at  the  same 
time  an  inspector  of  schools.  In 
1858  he  accepted  the  headmas- 
tership  of  Rugby,  and  during 
this  period  proved  himseU  an 
ardent  partisan  of  Gladstone.  In 
1867  he  roused  fierce  opposition 


Temple 


KFP 


668 


Tench 


by  his  essay,  'The  Education  of 
the  World,'  published  in  Essays 
and  Reviews.  In  1869  he  became 
bishop  of  Exeter,  and  in  1885 
was  appointed  bishop  of  London. 
Temple,  in  1896,  succeeded  Ben- 
son as  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  proved  himself  a  forceful 
administrator.  See  Memoirs  of 
Archbishop  Temple,  ed.  by  E.  G. 
Sanford  (2  vols.  1906). 

Temple,  Sir  Richard  (1826- 
1902),  British  Indian  adminis- 
trator, entered  the  Bengal  civil 
service  (1846),  and  became  resi- 
dent at  Haidarabad,  finance  min- 
ister (1868),  and  governor-gen- 
eral of  Bombay  (1877-80).  Es- 
pecially notable  were  his  services 
in  the  famine  of  1874  and  dur- 
ing the  Afghan  War  (1878-80). 

Temple,  Richard  Grenville, 
Earl  (1711-79),  British_  states- 
man, figuring  in  his  time  as 
'Squire  Gawkey,'  was  brother  of 
George  Grenville,  and  brother- 
in-law  of  the  elder  Pitt.  First 
lord  of  the  Admiralty  (1756),  he 
was  (1757)  dismissed  by  George 
II,  who  held  him  in  aversion. 
He  assisted  Chatham  financially, 
but  quarrelled  with  him  in  1766 
over  the  Stamp  Act.  A  patron 
of  Wilkes,  he  has  been  held  to 
be  the  author  of  Junius's  Letters. 

Temple,  William  (1881- 
1944),  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, was  born  in  Exeter,  the 
son  of  Frederick  Temple  (q.  v.), 
also  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1896-1902),  and  was  educated 
at  Rugby  and  at  Balliol  College^^ 
Oxford.  He  became  a  deacon  in 
1908,  priest  in  1909.  and  was 
chaplain  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  1910-21.  His  ad- 
vancement was  steady  and  rapid, 
being  Canon  of  Westminster, 
1919-21  ;  Bishop  of  Manchester, 
1921-29;  and  Archbishop  of 
York,  1929-42,  in  the  latter  year 
succeeding  Cosmo  Gordon  Lang 
(q.  v.)  (Baron  Lang  of  Lam- 
beth) as  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. His  publications  include 
Church  and  Nation  (1915)  ; 
Plato  and  Christianity  (1916)  ; 
Issues  of  Faith  (1918)  ;  Fellow- 
ship with  God  (1920)  ;  The  Uni- 
versality of  Christ  (1921)  ; 
Christus  Veritas  (1924)  ;  Christ 
in  His  Church  (1925)  ;  Essays 
in  Christian  Politics  (1927)  ; 
Christianity  and  the  State 
(1928)  ;  Nature,  Man  and  God 
(1934)  ;  and  Readings  in  St. 
John's  Gospel  (1939). 

Temple,  Sir  William  (1628- 
99),  British  diplomatist,  born  at 
London ;  became  a  member  of 
the  Irish  Parliament  in  1660.  In 
1665  he  was  appointed  envoy  at 
Brussels.  His  most  famous  work 
was  the  negotiation  of  the  'Triple 
Alliance'  of  1668,  between  Eng- 
land, Holland,  and  Sweden,  by 
which  these  states  entered  into 
a  league  for  the  protection  of 
the   Spanish   Netherlands  from 


France.  Temple  was  afterwards 
appointed  ambassador  at  The 
Hague,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  the  period  (1671-4)  of  the 
Dutch  War,  remained  there  until 
1679,  during  this  time  negotiat- 
ing the  Treaty  of  Westminster, 
and  the  marriage  of  William  of 
Orange  with  the  Princess  Mary. 
Temple  passed  the  latter  years 
of  his  life  in  retirement  at  Sheen 
and  Moor  Park,  occupying  his 
time  with  essay-writing  and  gar- 
dening. His  essays  were  col- 
lected in  two  volumes  of  Mis- 
cellanea, the  latter  containing 
the  famous  essay  on  'Ancient 
and  Modern  Learning.'  He  pub- 
lished also  2  vols  of  Memoirs. 

Temple  Bar,  the  last  of  the 
old  City  of  London  barriers,  was 
pulled  down  (1878)  as  an  ob- 
struction to  traffic,  and  replaced 
by  a  monument  bearing  a  device 
giving  rise  to  the  nickname  of 
the  'griffin.'  Temple  Bar  was 
built  by  Wren  (1670).  The 
closing  of  its  gates  announced 
the  sovereign's  entry  into  the 
city.  It  was  re-erected  at  Theo- 
bald's Park,  near  Waltham 
Cross,  in  1888. 

Temple  College,  now  univer- 
sity, an  unsectarian  institution 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  opened  in 
1884  as  a  night  school  by  Dr. 
Russell  H.  Conwell.  In  1888  a 
college  charter  was  secured,  and 
in  1907  the  college  became  a  uni- 
versity. Schools  of  theology, 
law,  medicine,  pharmacy,  den- 
tistry, chiropody,  oral  hygiene, 
commerce,  music,  and  fine  arts, 
and  Garretson  and  Greatheart 
Hospitals,  and  Teachers  College, 
were  subsequently  added.  The 
institution  is  coeducational ;  it 
has  a  student  enrolment  of  over 
13,000;  and  a  library  of  211,503 
volumes.  A  notable  building 
program  has  been  carried  out 
since  1925,  including  a  sports 
stadium;  Mitten  Hall,  a  recrea- 
tion center  ;  and  the  Thomas  D. 
Sullivan  Memorial  Library. 

Temps,  Le,  the  leading  organ 
of  the  moderate  Republican  party 
in  France,  was  founded  in  1861 
by  Auguste  Nefiftzer,  who  con- 
ducted the  journal  until  1871. 
Liberal  in  politics,  the  paper 
opposed  the  second  empire  ;  but 
it  was  suspected  of  Orleanist 
sympathies.  On  the  fall  of  the 
empire  it  gave  its  support  to 
the  moderate  Republican  party, 
and  under  the  direction  of  M. 
Hebrard  (from  1871)  Le  Temps 
became  one  of  the  most  influen- 
tial papers  in  France. 

Tempsford,  village,  England, 
Bedfordshire,  9  miles  n.e.  of 
Bedford.  It  was  burned  by  the 
Danes  in  1010  a.d.  Near  the 
Ouse  is  an  ancient  intrenchment. 
probably  of  Danish  origin,  and 
another,  known  as  Gannock's 
Castle,  near  the  Ivel. 

Ten,   The   Councu.   of,  a 


magistracy  first  appointed  in 
1310  by  the  Venetians  to  act  as 
a  more  prompt  and  secret  ex- 
ecutive in  affairs  of  emergency 
than  could  the  larger  bodies  al- 
ready constituted.  It  gradually 
absorbed  all  private  and  urgent 
executive  business — foreign  pol- 
icy, censorship  of  morals,  and 
trial  of  state  cases.  Its  mysteri- 
ous secrecy  of  procedure  and  its 
ruthless  promptitude  made  it  a 
terror  to  all  offenders.  It  origi- 
nally consisted  of  seventeen 
members — ^the  doge,  his  six  coun- 
sellors, and  ten  annually  elected 
members.  In  the  16th  century  a 
giunta  of  prominent  members  of 
the  councils  of  state  was  added 
to  it,  and  its  jurisdiction  in  trea- 
son cases  was  delegated  to  three 
'inquisitors  of  state.' 

Tenacity,  in  strength  of  ma- 
terials, is  the  least  longitudinal 
pull  which  will  cause  a  bar  of 
unit  section  to  rupture.  It  is 
commonly  estimated  in  tons  per 
square  inch  or  kilograms  per 
square  centimeter.  Its  value 
varies  much  according  to  the  ma- 
terial, and  even  in  different  speci- 
mens of  the  same  material  the 
tenacity  has  different  values. 
This  can  be  ascertained  only  by 
direct  experiment.  See  Elas- 
ticity and  Strength  of  Mate- 
rials. 

Tenafly,  borough.  New  Jer- 
sey, Bergen  county,  on  the  Erie 
Railroad;  15  miles  N.  by  e.  of 
New  York  city,  six  miles  from 
the  George  Washington  Bridge. 
It  is  a  residential  place.  Here 
is  the  Mary  Fisher  Home  for  in- 
firm professional  people.  Bor- 
ough limits  include  about  1  ^2  m. 
of  the  Palisades.  Pop.  (1930) 
5,669;  (1940)  8,215. 

Tenants  in  Common.  Two 
or  more  persons  owning  definite 
undivided  interests  or  shares  in 
real  of  personal  property.  This 
form  of  tenancy  always  arises 
where  two  or  more  heirs  inherit 
property.  Under  the  early  com- 
mon law  a  conveyance  of  two  or 
more  persons  created  a  joint  ten- 
ancy, which  involved  the  doc- 
trine of  survivorship,  that  is, 
when  one  died  his  interest  passed 
to  his  co-tenants.  However,  by 
statute  in  many  states,  unless  the 
conveyance  expressly  describes 
the  estate  created  as  a  joint  ten- 
ancy, it  will  be  presumed  to  cre- 
ate a  tenancy  in  common.  Such 
tenants  may  bring  partition  at 
any  time,  and  on  the  death  of 
one  his  interest  descends  to  his 
heirs,  or  he  may  devise  it  by  will. 

Tenasserim,  a  division  of 
Lower  Burma,  an  elongated  strip 
of  land  lying  between  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  the  mountains  of  the 
Siamese  frontier.  Area,  37,614 
sq.  miles.    Pop.  1.872,666. 

Tench  (Tincavulgaris),  a  fresh- 
water fish  of  the  carp  family, 
found  all  over  Europe  in  stand- 


Tencln 


KFN 


669 


Ten  Kate 


ing  water,  especially  where  the 
bottom  is  muddy.  The  scales 
are  small  and  the  skin  thick; 
there  is  a  pair  of  barbules  ;  the 
lateral  line  is  complete,  and  the 
tail  -  fin  is  slightly  emarginate. 
Tench  always  keep  near  the  bot- 
tom, and  bury  themselves  in  the 


Tench. 


mud  on  the  approach  of  winter. 
They  are  exceedingly  prolific,  and 
are  sufficiently  hardy  to  tolerate 
transport.  Tench  attain  a  weight 
of  from  four  to  five  pounds. 

Tencin,  Madame  de,  or  more 
fully  Claudine  Alexandrine, 
Marquise  de  Tencin  (1681  - 
1749),  French  writer,  was  born 
at  Grenoble,  and  early  joined  a 
religious  community.  Finding 
this  not  to  her  taste,  she  went  to 
Paris  in  1714,  and  speedily  at- 
tracted attention  by  her  personal 
fascination  and  wit.  The  regent 
and  Cardinal  Dubois  were  among 
her  many  lovers.  Like  other 
women  of  the  day,  she  dabbled  in 
politics.  In  1726  she  was  in  the 
Bastille,  as  the  result  of  a  scan- 
dal. She  was  the  mother  of 
D'Alembert.  Her  salon  was 
very  popular,  and  she  was  au- 
thoress of  several  romances  {e.g. 
Memoires  du  Comte  des^  Cum- 
minges,  1735,  and  Le  Siege  de 
Calais.  1739).  Her  Correspon- 
dance  was  published  in  1790, 
and  Lettres  au  Due  de  Richelieu 
in  1806,  See  Barthelemy,  Me- 
moires Secrets  de  Madame  de 
Tencin  (1790). 

Tenda,  Col  de,  Alpine  pass 
(6,145  ft.),  between  the  snowy 
Alps  on  the  w.  and  the  snowless 
Apennines  on  the  e.  It  leads  from 
Cuneo  in  Piedmont  to  Tenda  at 
the  head  of  the  Roja  Valley,  and 
is  traversed  by  a  carriage  road, 
while  a  railway  tunnel  is  being 
pierced  beneath  it. 

Tender.  In  law,  an  offer  by  a 
person  to  pay  a  debt,  or  perform 
some  obligation,  as  to  convey 
property  or  deliver  goods.  The 
legal  effect  is  to  discharge  the 
obligor  from  any  of  the  conse- 
quences which  might  otherwise 
arise  from  non-payment  or  non- 
performance, although  generally 
it  does  not  terminate  the  obliga- 
tion. For  example,  if  the  amount 
of  a  debt  is  tendered  to  the  credi- 
tor, and  he  refuses  it^  he  cannot 
afterward  claim  interest  after 
the  date  of  tender.  Tender  must 
be  unconditional,  or  with  proper 


conditions,  and  if  in  money,  must 
be  in  coin  or  currency  known  as 
legal  tender.  Government  notes 
are  legal  tender  except  for  duties, 
etc.,  and  interest  on  public  debt; 
gold  and  silver  certificates  and 
national  bank  notes  are  legal  ten- 
der with  above  exceptions.  If 
the  dehyery  of  property  is  ten- 
dered, it  must  conform  to  the 
contract.  Tender  of  a  sum  de- 
manded in  an  action  will  stop 
costs  after  that  date  under  most 
practice  acts. 

Tendon  of  Achilles,  the  ten- 
don which  connects  the  heel  with 
the  calf  of  the  leg,  and  is  the 
principal  extensor  of  the  foot. 
It  is  so  called  because,  according 
to  fable,  the  mother  of  Achilles, 
when  she  dipped  him  in  the  river 
Styx  to  make  him  invulnerable, 
held  him  by  the  heel,  and  thus 
the  heel  was  the  only  part  of 
him  which  remained  vulnerable. 

Tendons,  in  anatomy,  are 
white,  glistening,  non  -  elastic 
cords,  or  bands,  composed  of 
white  fibrous  tissue,  the  fibrils  of 
which  are  parallel  and  firmly 
united  together.  They  are  almost 
devoid  of  blood  •  vessels  and 
nerves,  but  are  sometimes  pro- 
vided with  synovial  sheaths.  In 
certain  tendons  are  developed 
sesamoid  bones,  of  which  the 
knee-cap  is  an  example.  Ten- 
dons serve  as  connecting  bands 
between  muscles  and  the  struc- 
tures upon  which  the  muscles 
act.  They  are  liable  to  sprain, 
and  are  the  seat  of  inflammatory 
affections. 

Tendril,  the  name  given  to  leaf- 
stalks which  are  so  modified  as  to 
form  twisting  threads  whereby 
certain  plants  cling  to  other 
plants  or  to  supports.  In  some 
plants,  tendrils  are  formed  by 
the  abortion  of  the  leaf-blades; 
in  others,  by  the  extension  of  the 
leaf-stalks  beyond  the  blades; 
and  in  others,  oy  the  modification 
of  the  leaf-blades  themselves. 

Tenedos,  island  in  the  ^ge- 
an  Sea,  off  coast  of  Troas  in 
Asia  Minor,  under  Turkish  con- 
trol. It  was  the  station  of  the 
Greek  fleet  during  the  siege  of 
Troy. 

Tenement  House  Problem. 

See  Housing  of  City  Wage- 
earners. 

Tenerife,  or  Teneriffe,  Peak 
or  {Pico  de  Teyde),  a  dormant 
volcano,  island  of  Tenerife,  form- 
ing the  highest  summit  (12,180 
ft.)  in  the  Canary  Is.  The  sum- 
mit is  snow  clad.  The  last  out- 
break was  in  1798;  and  in  the 
year  following  Humboldt  and 
Bonpland  made  their  famous  as- 
cent. The  island  is  treated  under 
Canary  Islands.  See  C.  Piazzi 
Smyth's  Teneriffe  (1858). 

Teneriffe  Wines.  See  Canary 
Wine. 

Tengri  Khan.  See  Khan- 
Tengk-T. 


Tenlers,  David,  the  elder 
(1582-1649),  Flemish  genre  and 
landscape  painter,  was  born  at 
Antwerp,  and  studied  under 
Rubens.  His  works,  somewhat 
fantastic  in  tone,  as  suited  the 
taste  of  the  period,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Vienna,  Berlin, 
Dresden,  and  Darmstadt  galler- 
ies, and  two  examples,  A  Dutch 
Kitchen  and  Temptation  of 
Saint  Anthony,  are  in  the  Metro- 
politan Museum,  New  York. 

Teniers,  David,  the  younger 
(1610-90),  the  foremost  Flemish 
genre  painter  of  peasant  I'fe.  of 
the  alehouse  and  the  card-taole, 
son  of  David  Teniers  the  elder 
(1582-1649),  who  was  his  first 
master.  Influenced  by  Brouwer 
and  Rubens,  he  married  the 
latter's  ward,  daughter  of  Jan 
(Velvet)  Breughel.  He  was  ap- 
pointed painter  to  the  Arch- 
duke Leopold  -  William,  and  in 
1644  president  of  the  Antwerp 
Guild  of  Painters.  His  paint- 
ings— delicately  balanced,  har- 
monious in  color,  humorous,  mas- 
terly in  technique — are  well  rep- 
resented in  Buckingham  Palace 
and  the  National  Gallery.  Sev- 
eral of  his  paintings  are  in  the 
U.  S. — a  Marriage  Festival  and 
Judith  are  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum,  New  York,  while  his 
Parable  of  the  Laborer,  Incanta- 
tion Scene,  Village  Fete,  and 
several  others  are  in  the  rooms 
of  the  New  York  Historical  So- 
ciety. 

Tenison,  Thomas  (1636-1715), 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
born  at  Cottenham.  For  some 
years  a  parish  priest,  Tenison  be- 
came celebrated  for  his  able  re- 
ligious and  political  controver- 
sies, as  well  as  for  his  powerful 
preaching.  He  became  (1691) 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  four 
years  later  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. He  enjoyed  the  marked 
favor  of  William  and  Mary. 

Ten  Jurisdictions,  League  of 
the,  the  third  and  youngest  of 
the  Three  Leagues  of  Rhaetia  or 
the  Grisons,  Switzerland.  It  was 
formed  (June  8,  1436)  on  the 
death  of  Frederick,  last  count  of 
Toggenburg. 

Tenkasi,  tn.,  Tinnevelly  dist., 
Madras  Presidency,  India,  30  m. 
N.W.  of  Tinnevelly:  possesses  a 
temple  of  great  sanctity. 

Ten  Kate,  Jan  Jacob  Lode- 
wijK  (1819-89),  Dutch  man  of 
letters,  was  born  at  The  Hague. 
He  became  pastor  at  Middelburg 
and  Amsterdam  (1860).  As  a  poet 
he  produced  some  works  remark- 
able for  fancy  and  force.  Among 
these  are:  De  Schepping  (1866, 
Eng.  trans.  The  Creation,  by  Rev. 
D.  van  de  Pelt,  1888);  De  Pla- 
neeten  {The  Planets,  1869);  De 
Jaargetijden  {The  Seasons,lSll). 
He  made  felicitous  translations 
of  Tasso,  Andersen,  Dante,  Schil- 


Tennant 


KFN 


670 


Tennent 


ler,  Victor  Hugo,  Milton,  Tenny- 
son, and  Longfellow.  He  also 
translated  the  Gospel  Hymns  of 
Ira  D.  Sankey.     His  complete 


Tennemann,  Wilhelm  Gott- 
LTEB  (1761-1819),  German  his- 
torian of  philosophy,  was  born 
near  Weimar.  His  principal  work 


delphia  Presbytery  in  1725,  and 
was  ordained  pastor  at  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J.,  in  1726.  He  assisted 
George  Whitefield  in  his  evan- 


poetic  works  are  published  in 
12  vols.  (1890-1). 

Tennant,  William  (1784-1848), 
Scottish  poet,  was  born  a  cripple 
at  Anstruther,  in  Fifeshire.  He 
became  a  clerk,  and  later  school- 
master at  Dunino,  Lasswade, 
and  Dollar.  Tennant's  knowl- 
edge of  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and 
Persian  gained  for  him  the  chair 
of  Oriental  languages  at  St.  An- 
drews University  in  1834.  His 
Ansfer  Fair  introduced  to  Eng- 
land the  form  of  verse  used  by 
some  Italian  poets.  Among  his 
other  writings  are  Cardinal  Bea- 
ton (1823)  and  The  Thane  of 
Fife  (1822). 


Peak  of  Tenerife, 

is  Geschichie  der  Philosophic,  in 
11  vols.  (1798-1819),  written 
from  the  Kantian  standpoint.  He 
lectured  at  Jena  (from  1788), 
and  was  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Marburg  (1804).  He  trans- 
lated into  (German  the  philo- 
sophical works  of  Locke  and 
Hume. 

Tennent,  Gilbert  (1703-64), 
American  clergyman,  was  born  in 
Co.  Armagh,  Ireland,  and  emi- 
grated to  America  in  1818  with  his 
father,  William  Tennent,  after- 
ward president  of  the  'Log  Col- 
lege' for  ministerial  candidates  at 
Neshaminy,  Pa.  Gilbert  was 
licensed  to  preach  by  the  Phila- 


gelical  labors  in  this  country.  In 
1744  he  was  called  to  Philadelphia 
and  raised  funds  for  a  large 
church,  of  which  he  was  pastor 
until  his  death,  being  noted  for  his 
effective  sermons,  many  of  which 
were  published. 

Tennent,  Sir  James  Emerson 
(1804-69),  Irish  author  and  poH- 
tician,  born  at  Belfast.  In  1832 
he  was  elected  m.p.  for  Belfast, 
and  was  secretary  to  the  Indian 
Board  (1841-3),  the  Ceylon  gov- 
ernment (1845-50),  and  the 
Board  of  Trade  (1852-67).  He 
wrote  A  Treatise  on  the  Copy- 
right of  Designs  (1841),  and 
Ceylon  (1859;  5th  ed.  1860). 


APPENDIX  OF  PRONUNCIATION  TO 
NELSON'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


I.   EXPLANATORY  NOTE. 

In  the  vocabulary  of  this  Appendix  tiie  correct  pro- 
nunciation is  indicated  of  all  titles  which  present  any 
difficulty  in  that  respect.  Titles  are  omitted  when  the 
pronunciation  is  indicated  by  the  spelling  (as  abatement, 
Adams,  Aiken,  Bates,  etc.),  or  by  connection  with  titles 
given  in  the  Appendix. 

A  simple  system  of  respelling  is  adopted  based  upon 
the  usual  values  of  the  vowels  and  consonants  in  English; 
and  such  diacritical  marks  as  are  used  are  those  in  gen- 
eral use  in  school  text-books.  The  values  of  the  symbols 
used  are  given  in  the  accompanying  Key,  with  explana- 
tions of  the  way  to  pronounce  correctly  tlie  few  foreign 
sounds  which  are  not  fairly  well  represented  by  English 
sounds.  Except  as  otherwise  noted  in  the  Key,  the  let- 
ters used  in  respelling  are  to  be  given  their  ordinary  Eng- 
lish values.  Further  information  as  to  the  values  of  the 
letters  in  the  alphabets  of  foreign  languages  will  be  found 
in  the  article  on  PRONUNCIATION  in  the  Encyclopaedia. 

II.  KEY. 

a  as  in  fate,  rebate. 

a  aa  in  care,  mare,  or  as  ai  in  fair,  or  as  e  in  there. 

a  (unmarked)  as  in  fat,  am. 

a  as  in  arm,  father. 

k  as  in  ask. 

a  as  in  America. 

e  as  in  me,  evade. 

6  (unmarked)  as  in  met,  end. 

e  as  in  moment,  maker. 

I  as  in  ice,  mine. 

i  (unmarked)  as  in  fit,  it, 
0  as  in  old,  over,  obey. 

0  (unmarked)  as  in  odd,  not. 
6  as  in  nor,  or  as  a  in  fall, 

01  as  in  boil,  noise. 

Oo  as  in  boot,  fool,  or  as  u  in  rude, 
db  as  in  book,  or  as  u  in  full,  put. 

II  as  in  mule,  unite. 


u  (unmarked)  as  in  but,  up. 

fi  as  in  turn,  burn,  or  as  e  in  her,  or  as  i  in  fir; 
also  for  French  eu  and  for  German  0. 

ii  for  French  u  and  German  0.  This  sound  may 
be  imitated  by  pronouncing  e  as  in  Eng- 
lish me  and  at  the  same  time  firmly  round- 
ing the  lips  as  for  pronouncing  oo  in  fool. 

y  as  in  yet. 

ch  as  in  church. 

ch  as  in  German  ich.  This  is  the  front  palatal 
continuant,  and  is  pronounced  with  the 
blade  of  the  tongue  raised  almost  to  the 
hard  palate,  producing  a  sound  resembling 
a  strong  pronunciation  of  the  h  in  hew, 
or  the  sound  of  k  in  key  pronounced  with- 
out complete  stoppage  of  the  breath. 

g  as  in  eo,  girl. 

h  as  in  hit;  also  for  Spanish  g  before  e  and  i, 
and  for  other  foreign  sounds  which  are 
similar  strong  guttural  fricatives. 

hw  as  wh  in  when. 

K  as  c/i  in  Scotch  loch,  and  German  ach,  or  as  g  in 
German  tag,  berg.  This  is  the  back  pal- 
atal, or  guttural,  continuant,  and  is  pro- 
nounced with  the  tongue  raised  almost  to 
the  palate,  producing  a  sound  somewhat 
resembling  that  made  in  clearing  the 
throat, 

&  is  used  to  indicate  a  nasal  pronunciation  of 
the  preceding  vowel,  as  in  French  bon. 
The  nasal  vowels  are  pronounced  some- 
what as  if  blended  with  the  sound  of  nrj  in 
song,  pronounced  without  the  complete 
closure  for  the  g. 

th  as  in  thick,  though, 

TH  as  in  then,  thus, 

zh  as  z  in  azure,  or  as  s  in  measure. 

An  apostrophe  ['],  when  used,  denotes  an  almost 
complete  elision  of  the  vowel  which  it  re- 
places or  indicates  a  syllabic  consonant,  aa 
in  ta'k'n  (taken),  spaz'm  (spasm). 


Volume  XL — Sayana  to  Tenneman. 


Sayana,  sa'yo-na. 
Sayce,  sas. 
Sayers,  sarz. 
Sayreville,  sar'vil. 
Scabies,  ska'bi-gz. 
Scabious,  ska'bi-us. 
Scaevola,  eev'o-la. 
Sea  Fell,  sk6  fel. 
Scagliola,  skal-yo'ia. 
Scala,  ska'la. 
Scala  Santa,  aka'ia  san'ta. 
Scalchi,  skal'kg. 
Scaliger,  skal'i-j^r. 
Scallop,  skol'up. 
Scamander,  Bko-man'der. 
Scammony,  skam'O-ni. 


Scandalam  Magnatum, 

skan'da-lum  mag-na'- 
tum. 

Scanderbeg,  skan'der-beg, 
Scanderoon,  skan-de-roon'. 
Scandinavia,  skan-di-na'- 
vi-a. 

Scania,  ska'nl-a. 
Scaphoid  Bones,  skaf'oid. 
Scapula,  skap'u-la. 
Scarab,  skar'ab. 
Scarabaeus,  skar-a-be'us. 
Scarborough,  skar'bro  or 

skar'bur-u, 
Scarlatti,  skar-lat't5. 
Scarpa,  skar'pa. 
Scarpanto  skir'pan-to. 


Scarron,  ska-r6ft'. 
Scartazzini,  skar-tat-tse'- 
ne. 

Scattery,  skat'g-ri. 
Scaup,  sk6p, 
Scawfell,  sk6-fel'. 
Scepticism,  skep'ti-siz'm. 
Schadow,  sha'do. 
Schadow-Godenhaus,  go'- 

den-hous. 
Schafer,  sha'fer. 
SchalF,  shaf. 

Schaffhause  n,shaf-hou'- 

zm. 

Schftffle,  shef'le. 
Schalke,  sbal'ke. 
Schall,  shSJ 


Schamir,  sha'mSr. 
Schandorph,  shan'dorf, 
Scharf,  sharf. 
Scharnhorst,  sham'horst. 
Scharwenka,  shar-veng'. 
ka. 

Schassburg,  shes'bdbrjA. 
Schauffler,  shouf'ler. 
Schaumburg-Lippe, 

shoum'boorch  lip'e. 
Scheele,  sha'le  ;  Eng.  ptvn. 

shel. 
Scheffel,  shef'el 
Schelfer,  shef '<?r ;  Fr.  proru 

sha-far'. 
Schefller,  shef'lcjr. 
Scheideck,  shi'dek. 


671 


APPENDIX  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


Scheldt,  skelt. 
Schelling,  shel'ing. 
Schemnitz,  shem'nits. 
Schenck,  skengk. 
Schenectady,  ske-nek'ta- 
di. 

Schenkel,  shengk"!. 
Scherer,  J^.  she-rar';  Ger. 

eha'rer. 
Scherr,  sher. 
Scherzo,  skert'sO, 
Scheveningeiij  Bcha'ven- 

ing-^n. 

Schiavonne,  skya-vOn'na, 
Schiedam,  sc/ie-dam'. 
Schiehallion,  she-haFynn. 
Schiff,  shif. 
Schiller,  shil'gr. 
Schilling,  shil'ing. 
Schimmel,  sc/am'el. 
Schinkel,  shing'k'l. 
Schinus,  ski'nus. 
Schipka,  ship'ka. 
Schipperke,  ship'er-ke. 
Schism,  siz'm. 
Schists,  shists. 
Schizanthus,  ski-zan'thus. 
Schizomycetes,  skiz'o-mi- 
s5'tez. 

Schizophyta,  ski-zof'i-ta. 
Schlagintweit,  shla'gint- 
•  vlt. 

Schlatter,  shiat'er. 
Schlegel,  shla'g'l. 
Schleicher,  shlich'er. 
Schleiden,  shli'den, 
Schleiermacher,  shliVr- 

Schleswig,  schlaz'vicA. 
Schleswig-Holstein,  hor- 

stin. 
Schley,  sli. 
Schliemann,  shls'man. 
Schmalkaldic  League, 

ehmal-kal'dik. 
Schmauk,  shmouk. 
Schmerling,  shmer'ling. 
Schmidt,  shmito 
Schmiedel,  shme'd'l. 
Schmitz,  shmits. 
Schmucker,  shmuk'er, 
Schneekoppe,  shna'kop-e. 
Schneidemiihl,  slini'de- 

mtil. 

Schnitzer,  shnit'ser, 
Schnorr  von  Carolsfeld, 

Shnor'  fOn  ka'rOls-felt. 

Schoenfeld,  shfln'felt. 
ScholFer,  shfif'er. 
Schofield,  sko'feld. 
Scholasticism,  sko-las'ti- 

siz'm. 
Scholiast,  skO'li-ast. 
Scholten,  schQVten. 
Schomberg,  shom'bfirg; 

Ger.  pron.  shOm'berc^, 
Schomburgk,  shom'bflrk  ; 

Ger.  pron.  shOm'bdbrc/i. 
Schdnbein,  siifin'bln. 
Schdnberg,  shdn'berc^. 


Schonbrunn,  shun-brdbn'. 
Schonebeck,  shu'ne-bek. 
Schdnfeld,  shfm'felt. 
Schongauer,  shon'gou-er. 
Schonlein,  shun'lin. 
Schopenhauer,  eho'pm- 

hon-er. 
Schorl  Rock,  sborl. 
Schottische,  shot'ish. 
Schouler,  skoo'ler. 
Schrader,  shra'der. 
Schreckhorn,  shrek'hom. 
Schreiner,  shri'ner. 
Schreyer,  ehrivr. 
Schubart,  shoo'bart, 
Schubert,  ehoo'bert. 
Schuchardt,  shooK'art. 
Schulze-Delitzsch,  shobl'- 

ts^-da'lich 
Schumann,  shoo'mau. 
Schurer,  shii'rer. 
Schurman,  shdbr'man. 
Schurz,  shoorts. 
Schuyler,  ski'ler. 
Schwab,  shwab ;  Ger. 

pron.  shviip. 
Schwabe,  shva'be. 
Schwabisch-Hall,  shva'- 

bish-hal'. 
Schwann,  sUvan. 
Schwanthaler,  slivan'ta- 

ler. 

Schwarz,  shvarts. 
Schwarzburg-Rudol- 

Stadt,   shvarts' boo  rc7i- 

roo'dol-shtat. 
Schwarzburg-Sonders- 

hausen,  zOn'ders  -  hou - 

zen. 

Schwarzenberg,  shvarts'- 

en-berc^. 
Schwarzwald,  shvarts'- 

valt. 

Schwatka,  shwot'ka. 
Schwegler,  shva'gl(jr. 
Schweidnitz,  shvlt'nits. 
Schweinfurt,  ehvln'fdbrt. 
Schweinfurth,  8hvin'fot)rt. 
Schweinitz,  shwi'nits. 
Schwenkfeld,  shvengk'- 
felt. 

Schwerin,  shva-ren'. 
Schwind,  shvint. 
Schwyz,  shvits, 
Sciacca,  shak'ka. 
Sciatica,  si-at'i-ka. 
Scicli,  8he'kls. 
Scilla,  siVa. 

Scillitan  Martyrs,  sil'i- 

tan. 

Scilly  Islands,  sil'i. 
Scinde,  sind. 

Scintillation,  sin-ti-la'- 

shun. 
Scio,  sT'o. 

Scioppius,  etse-Op'i-o'6s. 
Scipio,  sip'i-O. 
Scire  Facias,  si'rS  fa'shi- 
as. 

Sciron,  si'rou. 


Scirpus,  sfir'pufl. 
Scirrhus,  ekir'us. 
Scitaminaceee,  si-tam-i- 

na'si-6. 
Scituate,  sit'u-at. 
Scleroderma,  skler-o-dflr'- 

ma  or  skle-rO-o 
Sclerosis,  skle-ro'sis. 
Sclerostomum,  sklg-ros'tn- 

nium. 

Sclerotia,  sklg-rO'shi-a. 
Sclerotic,  skl6-rot'ik. 
Scodra,  sko'dra. 
Scollard,  skol'ard. 
Scolopendrium,  Bkol-o- 

pen'dri-um. 
Scomberidae,  skom-ber'i 

de. 

Scone,  skon. 
Scopas,  sko'pas. 
Scoresby,  skorz'bi. 
Scoriae,  sko'ri-e. 
Scorification,  sko'ri-fi-ka' 

ehun. 
Scorpio,  sk6r'pi-0. 
Scorpion,  sk6r'pi-un. 
Scorzonera,  ekor-zo-ng'r  i. 
Scoter,  ?ko'ter. 
Scotia  Seminary,  sko'shi  a. 
Scotists,  sko'tists. 
Scot  of  Scotstarvet,  slwt 

stjir'vet. 
Scriblerus  Club,  skrib-le'- 

rus. 

Scribner,  skrib'n^r. 
Scribonia,  skri-bo'ni-a, 
Scroggs,  skrogz. 
Scrope,  skrop. 
Scrophulariaceae,  skrof'fi- 

la-ri-a'si-e. 
Scudery,  skii-da-rS'. 
Scudo,  skoo'do. 
Scutage,  sku'tej. 
Scutari,  skoo'ta-r5, 
Scutellaria,  sku-te-la'ri-o!. 
Scutum  Sobieski,  ska'tnm 

80-byes'ki. 
Scylax,  si'laks. 
Scylla  and  Charybdis, 

sil'a;  ka-rib'dis. 
Scyros,  sl'ros. 
Scytale,  sit'a-le. 
Scythia,  sith'i-a. 
Seaford,  sS'ferd. 
Seaforthia,  ee-fOrth'i-a. 
Seaham  Harbor,  eg'am. 
Seattle,  se-at'M. 
Sebastian,  se-bas'chan. 
Sebastiano  del  Fiombo, 

sa-bas-tya'nO  del  pyom'" 

bo. 

Sebastopol,  se-b&s'to-pOl . 

see  Sevastopol. 
Sebenico,  sa-ba'ng-ko. 
Sebillot,  sa-bs-yo'. 
Secale,  sS-ka'lS. 
Secant,  se'kant. 
Secchi,  sek'ks. 
SeckendoriF,  sek'en-dCrf. 
Seeker,  sek'cr. 


Secundarabad,  sg-kun'der- 

a-bad'. 
Sedaine,  se-dan'. 
Sedalia,  sS-da'li-a. 
Sedan,  se-dan';  Fr.  pwn. 

se-dan'. 
Seddon,  sed'un. 
Sederunt,  ss-dg'runt. 
Sedgley,  sej'li. 
Sedgmoor,  eej'moor. 
Sedgwick,  sej'wik. 
Sedum,  se'dum. 
Seebohm,  sg'bom. 
Seelye,  sel'i. 
Segautini,  sa-gan-t6'ng. 
Segesta,  se-ies'ta. 
Segesvar,  sheg'esh-var. 
Segovia,  sa-go'vi-a. 
Seguin,  sg-gen'. 
Segur,  sa-gur'. 
Seiche,  sash. 
Seidl,  si'd'l. 

Seidlitz  Powders,  sed'litB. 
Seignette's  Salt,  san-yets'. 
Seigniorage,  sen'yer-ij. 
Seine,  san. 

Seine-et-Marne,  -a-cuara'. 
Seine-et-Oise,  -a-waz  . 
Seine-Inferieure,  -an-fa,- 

ri-ur'. 
Seir,  se'er. 
Seisin,  se'zin. 
Seismology,  sls-mol'o-ji. 
Seiss,  sis. 
Seistan,  sas-tan'. 
Sejanus,  se-ja'nag. 
Selachoidei,  sel-a-koi'di-l. 
Selangor,  sa-lan-gor'. 
Selanik,  se-la-nek'. 
Selborne,  sel'bum. 
Selby,  sel'bi. 
Selene,  se-le'ng. 
Selenga,  sa-leng'ga. 
Selenite,  seVe-mt. 
Selenium,  se-lg'ni-um. 
Seleucia,  se,lu'shi-a. 
Seleucidae,  sg-lu'si-dg. 
Selfridge,  sel'frij. 
Seligman,  serig-man. 
Selim,  Bg'lim  or  se-lgm'. 
Selinus,  se-ll'nus. 
Seljuks,  sel'jooks. 
Selkirkshire,  sel'k^rk-sh^r . 
Sella,  sel'a. 
Sellar,  sel'ar. 
Selma,  sel'm«. 
Selous,  se-loos'  or  -loo'. 
Selwyn,  sel'win. 
Selymbria,  sg-lim'bri-a. 
Semaphore,  sem'a-fOr. 
Sembrich,  zem'bricA. 
Semecarpus,  sem-i-kar'- 
pus. 

Semele,  sem'e-lg. 
Semendria,  se-men'dfl-a: 

Servian  Smederevo, 

smed'e-re-vO. 
Seminoles,  eem'i-nolz. 
Semionovka.  sa'm6-o-n0r' 

ka. 


APPENDIX  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


673 


Semipalatinsk,  sa'me-pa- 

Ift-tyciisk'. 
Semi-Pelagians,  sem'i-po- 

la'ji-«nz. 
Semiramis,  s^e-mir'a  mis. 
Semiryechensk,sa-me- 

rech'eiisk. 
Semites,  eem'its. 
Semler,  zem'lgr. 
Semliki,  sem-le'ke. 
Semli n,  zem-len';  Hung. 

Zimony,  ze'inon-y". 
Semmering,  zem'er-ing. 
Semmes,  !?emz. 
Semnones,  Rem-nO'nez  or 

sem'no-nez. 
Semnopithecus,  sem'no-pi- 

the'kus. 
Semolina,  sem-o-le'na. 
Sempach,  zem'ptiK. 
Semper,  zem'per. 
Semper  vivum,  sem-pgr-vl'- 

vum. 

Sempronia,  sem-pro'ni-a. 
Scnancour,  sa-nan-koor'. 
Sendai,  sen'dT. 
Seneca,  sen'i-ka. 
Senecio,  ee-ne'shi-o. 
Senecu,  sa-na-koo'. 
Senefelder,  za'n^-fel-der. 
Senega,  sen'i-ga. 
Senegal,  sen-i-gol'. 
Senegambia,    sen  i-gam'- 
bi-a. 

Seneschal,  scn'e-shal. 
Senggora,  seug-go'ra. 
Senigallia,  sa-ng-gal'lya, 

or  Sinigaglia,  se-ne- 

gal'ya. 
Senility,  sS-nil'i-ti. 
Senlac,  sen'lak. 
Senlis,  san-les'. 
Senna,  sen'a. 
Sennaar,  sen-niir'. 
Sennacherib,  se-nak'er-ib. 
Senones,  sen'O-nez  or  se- 

nO'nez. 
Sens,  sans. 

Sensorium,  sen-so'ri-um. 
Seoni,  se-O'ni. 
Seoul,  se-ool'. 
Sepal,  sep'al  orse'pal. 
Sephardim,  se-far'dira. 
Sepharvaim,  sef-ar-va'im. 
Sepia,  se'pi-a. 
iSepoy,  85'poi  or  se-poi'. 
Septaria,  sep-ta'ri-r/. 
Septembrists,8ep-tem'- 
brints. 

Septennial  Act,  sep-ten'i- 

Septicaemia,sep-ti-so'ini-«. 
Septimer  Pass,  zep'tc  mer. 
Septuagesima,  sep'ta-«- 

jcs'i  met. 
Septuagint,  scp'tu-a-jint. 
Sepulchral   Mound,  se- 

piil'kml. 
Sepulveda,  sa-pool'^rS-THa. 
Sequani,  sek'wa-nl. 

Vol.  XL— 47. 


Sequestration,  sG-kwes- 

tiTi'sliiin. 
Sequin,  se'kwin  or  seU'in. 
Sequoia,  sO-kwoi'a. 
Sequoya,  sG-kwoi'a. 
Seraglio,  se-rjU'yO. 
Seraing,  se-ran'. 
Serampur,  eer-um-poor'. 
Serang,  sa-rang'. 
Serao,  sa-ra'O. 
Seraphim,  eer'«-fira. 
Seraphine,  ser'a-fen. 
•Serapion,  se-ra'pi-on. 
Serapis,  se-ra'pis, 
Serbs,  surbz. 
Serdobsk,  ser-d6psk'. 
Serein,  ee-ran'. 
Serenade,  ser-e-i.ad'. 
Seres  drihe.,  Mex.),  sa'ras, 

or  Seri,  sa're. 
Seres  (tn.  Turk.),  ser'es  or 

se-res'. 
Sereth,  ser-et'. 
Sergeant,  sar'jent. 
Sergeant-at-arms,8jir'jent. 
Sergei,  sar'gye-e. 
Sergei,  sar'gel. 
Sergipe,  ser-zhe'pa. 
Sergius,  sur'ji-us. 
Sericite,  ser'i-sit. 
Seriema,  ser-i-a'ma  or  eer- 

i-e'mrt, 
Seringapatam,  ser-ing'ga- 

pa-tam'. 
Seriphos.  se-ri'phos. 
Serjeanty,  sar'jen-ti. 
Serous  Fluids,  se'rus. 
Serpa  Pinto,  ser'pii  pen'- 

tdb. 

Serpens,  sfir'penz 
Serpentine,  sfir'pen-tin  or 
-ten. 

Serpukhov,  syer'pdb-kof. 
Serpula,  8ur'i)u-I«. 
Serra  do  Mar,  ser'rii  do 
miir'. 

Serrano  y  Dominguez, 

eer-ra'nO  e  do  mCn'gath. 
Sertorius,  eur-tO'ri  us. 
Sertularia,  sfir-tu-la'ri-o!. 
Serum,  se'rum. 
Servetus,  sur-ve'tus. 
Servia,  sur'vi-a. 
Servilius,  sur-vil'i-us. 
Servites,  sur'vits. 
Servius  TuUius,  sur'vi-us 

tnl'i-us. 
Sesame,  ees'a-ms. 
Sesamoid   Bones,  ses'a- 

moid. 

Sesamum,  ses'rt-mum. 
Sesostris,  se-sos'tris. 
Sessa  Aurunca,  ses'sa  ou- 

roong'kji. 
Sesterce,  ses'ters. 
Sestius,  ses'ti-ua  or  ses'- 

chi-us 
Sestos,  ses'tos. 
Sestri  Ponente,  ses'tre 

pO-nan'ta, 


Sete  Quedas,  sa'ta  ka'- 

diish.  • 
Seton,  sC'tun. 
Sette  Communi,  sct'ta 

korn-moo'no. 
Settembrini,  set-tem-brG'- 
nO. 

Setubal,  sa-too'bill. 
Sevastopol,  se-vas'to-pol ; 

livss.jnon.  syev-as-to'- 

pol-y\ 
Severn,  sevVrn. 
Severus,  se-vG'rus. 
Sevier,  se-vGr'. 
Sevigne,  de,  de  sa-vGn-ya'. 
Seville   (Spain),  eev'il  or 

se-vir. 
Sevlijevo,  sev-le'yev-O. 
Sevres,  sev'r'. 
Sewall,  sn'al. 
Seward,  su'ard, 
Sewell,  su'el. 
Sexagesima,  sek-sa-jes'i- 

ma. 

Sextans,  scks'tanz. 
Sextus  Empiricus  seks'- 

tus  em-pir'i-kus. 
Seychelles,  sa-shel'. 
Seymour,  se'mor. 
Seyne,  la,  la  san'. 
Sezze,  set'sa. 
Sfax,  sfaks. 
Sgambati,  egiim-ba'tG. 
Sganarelle,  sga-na-rel'. 
Sgraffito,  sgraf-fe'to. 
Shadrach  Case,  shii'drak. 
Shadrinsk,  sha'drensk. 
Shafroth,  shiifrot. 
Shaftesbury,  shafts'her-i. 
Shagreen,  ^ha-gren' 
Shah,  sha. 

Shahabad,  sha-ha-bad'. 
Shahaptins,  sha-hap'tinz. 
Shahapur,  sha-ha-poor'. 
Shah  Jahan,  sha  ja-han'. 
Shahj  ahanpur,  shii-j/^- 

han'poor. 
Shahnamah,  sha-na'ma. 
Shahpura,  sha-poo'ra. 
Shairp,  sharp. 
Shakespeare,  shaks'per, 
Shakopee,  shak'o-pG. 
Shallot,  sha-lot'. 
Shalmaneser,  shal-ma-nG'- 

zer. 

Shaloo,  sha-loo'. 
Shama,  shil'ma. 
Shamanism,  sha'man-iz'm. 
Shammai,  sham'i. 
Shamo,  ehii'mo'. 
Shamokin,  sha-mo'kin. 
Shamrock,  sham'rok. 
Shamyl,  sham'il  orsha'mil. 
Shanghai,  ehang-hi'. 
Shan  -  hai  -  kuan,  shiin'hi- 

kwiin'. 
Shanklin,  shangk'lin. 
Shannon,  t-han'un. 
Shans,  shanz. 
Shan-si,  shan'sg'. 


Shan  States,  shan. 
Shan-tung,  shan'tdbng'. 
Shapinshay,  shap'in-shii. 
Shari,  sha'rC. 
Sharon,  fhar'un. 
Sha-shih,  shii'HhG'. 
Shat-el- Arab,  shiit-el-ii'rab. 
Shatsk,  shiitsk. 
Shavli,  shav'lyG. 
Shawano,  sha-wa'no. 
Shawenegan  Falls,  sha- 

wen-e-gan'. 
Shaw-.Lefevre,  shO-le-fe'- 

ver. 

Shawnees,  sho'nGz. 
Sheba,  shG'ba. 
Sheboygan,  shG-boi'gan, 
Shechem,  she'kem. 
Shechinah,  she-ki'na, 
Sheerness,  sher-nes'. 
Shefford,  shef'erd. 
Shegaon,  sha-ga'On. 
Sheik,  shek. 
Sheil,  shGl. 

Shekarry,  shG-kar'i,  or 
Shikari,  shs-ka're. 

Shekel,  shek'"l. 

Shekinah,  she-Ui'na. 

Sheiburne,  shel'burn. 

Sheldrake,  shel'drak. 

Shellac,  shel-Iak'. 

Shellaburger,  sher«-bui  - 
ger. 

Shellala,  she-la'lo,  or  Shu- 

luhs,  shoo'looz. 
Shelley,  shel'i. 
Shelta,  shel'ta  ;  Sheldhru, 

shel'droo. 
Shemakha,  shem-a-Ka', 
Shemites,  shem'its. 
Shenandoah,  shen-an- 

dO'a. 

Shendamangalam,  shen- 

da-mang'grt-larn. 
Shen-si,  shen-sG'. 
Shenstone,  shen'stun. 
Shepstone,  shep'stun. 
Sheraton,  sher'a-tun. 
Sherbrooke,  shur'brdbk. 
Shere  Ali,  shGr  a'le. 
Sheridan,  sher'i-dan. 
Sherif,  she-ref. 
Sherkot,  sher'kot. 
Sherlock,  shur'lok, 
Sherman,  shur'man. 
Sherwood,  shur'wdbd. 
Sheyenne  River,  shi-en'. 
Shibboleth,  shib'o-leth. 
Shiel,  Loch,  Iok  shel'. 
Shigatse,  she-gat'sa. 
Shiites,  shG'its,  or  Shias, 

shG'az. 
Shikari,  she-ka're. 
Shikarpur,  shik-ar-po5r'. 
Shillaber,  shil'a-b^r. 
Shillelagh,  shi-la'la. 
Shilleto,  shil'e-to. 
Shiloh,  shi'lo. 
Shimonoseki,  shG'mo-no. 

sa'ke. 

11 


APPENDIX  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


Shinnecock  Hills,  shin'i- 
kok. 

Shintoism  shin'to-iz'm. 
Shipka  Pass,  ship'ka. 
Shipley,  ship'li, 
Shiraz,  she-raz'. 
Shire  {Riv.  A/.),  she'ra. 
Shirlaw,  shur'16. 
Shirley,  shur'li. 
Shishak,  shl'shak  or  shc'- 
shak. 

Shittim  Wood,  ehit'im. 
Shklov,  shkl6f. 
Shoa,  sbo'a. 

Shoeburyness,  shoo'ber-i- 
nes. 

Shogun,  sho'<xoon'. 
Shola,  sho'lii. 
Sholapur,  sho'la-pdbr. 
Shonts,  shonts. 
Shoreham,  shor'am. 
Shorey.  shor'i. 
Shoshone  Falls,  sho-sho'- 
ne. 

Shoshong,  ehO-shong'. 
Shovell,  shuv'el. 
Shoveller,  shuv'el-er. 
Shrady,  s^tira'di. 
Shreveport,  shrev'port. 
Shrewsbury,  shrooz'b^r-i 

or  shrOz'-. 
Shropshire,  shrop'sh^r. 
Shubrick,  shoo'brik. 
Shumla,  shdbm'la. 
Shun-tien-fu,  shoon'-tyeu'- 

foo'. 

Bhurtleff  College,  ehurt'- 
lef. 

Shusha,  shob-sha'. 
Shushwap,  shoo'shwap. 
Shuvaloff,  shdb-va'lof. 
Shuya,  shoo'ya. 
Shwan-pan,  shwan'pan. 
Shwedaung,  shwa-domig'. 
Sialagogue,  si-al'a-gog. 
Sialkot,  se-al-kot'. 
Siam,  si-am'. 
Siamese  gl-a-mez'or-mes' 
Siang-kiang,  se-ang'- 

kyang'. 
Siang-tan,  -tilu'. 
SiT,t6n,  sc-ii-ton'. 
Sibalon,  ss-ba-lon', 
Sibbald,  sib'ald. 
Siberia,  el-be'ri-a. 
Sibi,  se'be. 
Sibley,  sib'li. 
Sibonga,  sO-bong'a. 
Sibthorp,  sib'thOrp. 
Sibthorpia,  sib-thor'pi-a. 
Sibyl,  sib'il. 
Sicard,  se-kar'. 
Sicilian,  si-sil'i-an. 
Sicilies,  bis'i-liz. 
Sicily,  f^is'i-]i. 
Sickingen,  von,  fon  zik'- 

ing-eii. 
Sickles,  sik"lz. 
Sicyon,  Bisb'i-on. 
Siddhartha,  sid-dhilr'tha. 


Siddons,  sid'unz. 
Sidereal,  si-de'ri-al. 
Siderite,  sid'er-it. 
Siderostat,  sid'er-o-stat. 
Sideroxylon,  sid-er-ok'si- 
lon. 

Sidgwick  sij'wik. 
Sidi-bel-Abbes,  se-de'-bel- 

k-hes'. 
Sidlaw  Hills,  sid'16. 
Sidmouth,  eid'muth. 
Sid  on,    si'don  ;  modern, 

Saida,  sT'dil. 
Sidonius,  gl-do'ni-us. 
Siebold,  ze'bolt. 
Siedlce,  t^helt'se. 
Siegen,  zH'gen. 
Siegfried,  zeg'fret  or  s5g'- 

fred. 

Siemens,  ze'menz;  En(/., 

se'menz. 
Siena,  se-a'na  or  s6-en'a. 
Sienkiewicz,  shen-kya'- 

vich. 
Sienna,  si-en'a. 
Sierra,  Bi-er'm;  Span., 

syer'ra. 
Sierra  Leone,  si-er'ra  15- 

0'n5. 

Sierra  Madre,  syer'ra  ma'- 
dra. 

Sierra  Morena,  mO-ra'na. 
Sierra  Nevada,  ne-vii'da; 

Span,  jnon.,  na-vii'THa. 
Sierra  Nevada  de  Meri- 

da,  na-va'TFia  dtl  ma're- 
THa. 

Sieveking,  ?e've-king. 
Sievers,  ze'vers. 
Sieyes,  si-a-yee'. 
Sigel,  se'gel. 
Sigerson,  sij'er-sun. 
Sigfrid,  zeg'fret. 
Sigillaria,  sij-i-la'ri-a. 
Sigismund,  f^ij'is-mund; 

Ger.  pron.,  ze'gis-mdbiit. 
Sigmaringen,  zig'ma-ring- 

en. 

Sigma    Xi  Fraternity, 

sig'ma  zi  or  kse. 
Signia,  sig'ni-a;  modern, 

Segni,  san'ye. 
Signorelli,  sen-yo-rel'le. 
Sigourney,  sig'er-ni. 
Sigsbee,  sigz'be. 
Sigurdsson,  se'gdbrds-sOn. 
Sihun,  se-boon'. 
Sikandarabad  se-kun'd«- 

rii-bad'. 
Sikandra  Rao,  sg-kun'dra 

rii'D. 
Sikhs,  siks. 
Si-kiang,  se  kyang'. 
Sikkim,  sik'im. 
Sikrol,  se-kroi'. 
Siksika,  sik'si-ka. 
Silage.  sT'lej. 
Silao,  so-lii'O. 
Silay,  sc-li'.  , 
Silchester,  sil'ches-ter. 


Silene,  sl-lg'ne. 
Silenus,  si-le'nus. 
Silesia,  si-le'shi-a. 
Silesius,  si-le'shi-us. 
Silex,  si'leks. 
Silhouette,  sil-oo-et'. 
Silica,  sil'i-ka. 
Silicates,  sil'i-kats. 
Silicic  Acid,  si-lis'ik, 
Silicon,  sil'i-kon 
Silique,  si-lek'. 
Silistra,  si-lis'tra,  or  Silis- 

tria,  -tri-a. 
Silius,  eil'i-us. 
Siljan,  eel'yau. 
Silkeborg,  sil'ke-borcA. 
Sillery,  eil'«r-i. 
Silliman,  sil'i-man. 
Sillimanite,  -it. 
Silo,  sT'lo. 
Siloam,  si-lo'am. 
Silures,  sil'u-r5z. 
Silurian,  si-lu'ri-an. 
Siluridae,  si-Iu'ri-de. 
Silva,  sel'va. 
Silvanus,  sil-va'nus. 
Silverton,  sil'rer-t'n. 
Silvester,  sil-ves'ter. 
Silvestre,  sel-ves'tr'. 
Silvretta  Group,  eil-vret'a. 
Simbirsk,  sem-beri-k', 
Simcoe,  sim'ko. 
Simeon,  sim'i-un. 
Simeon  Stylites,  sti-li'tez. 
Simferopol,  sem-fer-o'- 

pm-y\ 
Simia,  sim'i-a. 
Simile,  sim'i-lg. 
Simla,  sim'la. 
Simnel,  sim'nel. 
Simois,  sim'5-is. 
Simon  {Jules),  se-m6n'. 
Simon  bar  Giora,  si'mun 

bar  jn'ra. 
Simonides,  si-mon'i-dez. 
Simon  Magus,  si'mun  ma'- 

gus. 

Simony,  pim'o-ni. 
Simoom,  si-moom'. 
Simplon  Pass,  sim'plon ; 

Fr.  pron.  san-plon'. 
Simrock,  zim'rok, 
Simson,  zim'son  or  sim'- 

sOn. 

Sinai,  si'nl  or  si'na-I. 
Sinaia,  sS-m'a. 
Sinaloa,  se-na-lO'a. 
Sinclair,  sin'klar  or  sin- 

klar'. 
Sindh,  pind. 
Sindia,  sin'di-a. 
Sindibad,  sin'di-bad. 
Sine,  sin. 

Sinecure,  sin'i-kur. 
Sines,  sinz. 

Si-ngan-fu,  se'-n'gan'-f  oo'. 
Singapore,  sing-ga-por'. 
Singara,  sen-ga'ra,  or  Sin- 
jar,  sin-jar'. 
Singbhum  sing-boom'. 


Singhalese,  sing-go-lSz'o/* 

-leg'. 

Sinigaglia,  sc-ne-gai'ya. 
Sinister,  sin'is-ter. 
Sinon,  sl'non. 
Sinope,  si-no'pg. 
Sinuessa,  sin-u-es'a. 
Sinus,  si'nus. 
Siout,  s6-oot'. 
Sioux,  soo. 
Siphnos,  Bif'nos. 
Siphon,  si'fon. 
Siphonophora,  sl-fo-no€'o- 
ra. 

Sipontum,  si-pon'tum. 
Sippara,  sip'a-ra. 
Sipunculus  sl-pung'kfl- 

Mis. 

Siquijor,  se-ke-hor'. 
Sirach,  si'rak. 
Sirajganj,  sg-raj-gunj'. 
Siraj  -  ud  -  Daula,  s6-raj'' 

ood-dou'la. 
Sirdar,  ser-dar'. 
Siren,  sl'ren. 
Sirenia,  sT-rg'ni-a. 
Sirhind,  eer-hind'. 
Sirius,  sir'i-us. 
Sirmium,  sur'mi-um. 
Sirocco,  si-rok'o. 
Sirsa,  sur'sa. 

Sismondi,  'eis-mon'di ;  Fr. 

pron.  s6s-m6n-de'. 
Sistine  Chapel,  sis'tea  or 

sis'tin. 

Sistova,  ses-to'va ;  Bulg. 

Svistov,  svish'tof. 
Sisyphus,  sis'i-fus. 
Sitapur,  se-ta'poor. 
Sitka,  sit'ka. 
Sittenfeld,  zit'en-felt. 
Siva,  f e'va  or  she'va. 
Sivaji,  se-va'je. 
Sivas,  sg-vae'. 
Sivori,  sg'vo-re. 
Siwah,  se'wa. 
Siwalik  Hills,  se-wa'lik. 
Sjaelland,  sbal'lan. 
Skager  Rack,  sga'gtr; 

commonly  skag'er. 
Skagway,  skag'wa. 
Skalds,  skaldz  or  skoldz. 
Skanda,  skan'da. 
Skaneateles,  skan-i-at'les. 
Skargird,  skar'gSrd. 
Skat,  skat. 
Skeat,  sket. 
Skelton,  skel'tun. 
Skene,  sken. 
Skerries,  sker'iz. 
Skerryvqre,  8ker-i-v0r|. 
Ski,  ske  or  she. 
Skiddaw,  skid'O. 
Skien,  shen. 
Skink,  skingk. 
Skirret,  skir'et. 
Skittagetan,  skit-a-g6't^n. 
Skittles,  skif'lz, 
SkobelefF,  sko'bel-yef. 
Skodra,  sko'did. 


APPENDIX  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


675 


Skopin,  pko-pin'. 
Skoplje,  skop"l-yg. 
Skoptsy,  skop'tsi. 
Skowhegan,  skou-he'gan. 
Skua,  skh'a. 

Skupshtiiia,skoop'?hte- 
iiii. 

Skutari,  skOo'ta-rG. 

Skvira,  skvS'ra. 

Skyros,  ske'ros,  or  Skyro, 

ske'rO. 
Sladen,  sWden. 
Slatina,  sUi-to'na. 
Slatington,  sla'tinj^-fn. 
Slatin  Pasha,  sla-ten'  pii- 

shil'. 

Slavonia,  sla-vO'ni-a. 
Slavs,  sl;ivz. 
Slavyansk,  sliiv-yiinsk'. 
Sleidanus,  sli-da'ndbs. 
Sleigh,  sla. 
Slicer,  sli's^r. 
Slickensides,  slik'^n-sldz. 
Sligo,  sli'go. 

Sliven,  sle'vm ;  Slivno, 

slev'nO. 
Sloane,  slon. 
Sljat,  slot. 

Slobodskoi,  slo-bot-skoi'. 
Slocum,  slo'kiiin. 
Sloe,  plo. 
Slonim,  slon'yem. 
Slough,  Bluf ;    (tn.  Eng.) 
slou. 

Slovaks,  slo-vaks'. 
Slovenes,  slo-venz'. 
Sloyd,  sloid. 
Sluis,  slois. 
Slutsk,  sldbtsk. 
Sm§,land,  ymol'an. 
Smalcald,  smarkOld. 
Smalley,  smol'i. 
Smeaton,  smc'tun. 
Smectymnuus,  smck-tim'- 

11U-U8. 

Smederevo,  smcd'er-ev-o. 
Smellie,  smel'i. 
Smerdis,  smnr  dis. 
Smerwick,  smfa'ik. 
Smetana,  sraa'til-na. 
Smew,  smu. 
Smichow,  sme'kof. 
Smilacina,  smi-la-si'ua. 
Smilax,  smi'laks. 
Smillie,  smi'li. 
Smintheus,  smin'thus. 
Smirke,  smurk. 
Smithsonian,  smith-so'ni- 
an. 

Smohalla,  smo-hal'a. 
Smolensk,  sinol-yenek'. 
Smollett,  smol'et. 
Smyrna,  smur'na, 
Smythe,  smith. 
Snellius,  eneri-dbs. 
Sniatyn,  shnyii'iin. 
Snohomish,  sno-ho'mish. 
Snoilsky,  snoil'ski. 
Snorri  Sturluson,  snor're 
utoor'ldb-sOu, 


Soane,  son. 
Sobieski,  Mi-bycs'ki 
Socage,  «(>k'cj. 
Socialism,  bO'sh«l-iz'm. 

Socinus,  su-Hl'niis. 
Sociology,  so-i>i-ol'o-ji. 
Socorro,  so-kor'ro. 
Socotra,  sO-ko'ira  or  sok'O- 
trrt. 

Socrates,  sok'm-tsz. 
Sdderhamn,  sud-er-hamn'. 
Sodium,  so'di-um. 
Sodom,  sod'um. 
Sodoma,  il,  el  sO-dO'mjl. 
Sodom   and  Gomorrah 

sod'um,  gO-mor'a. 
Sodor  and  Man,  so'dur. 
Soest,  zost. 
Sofala,  so-fii'la. 
Soffit,  sof'it. 
Sofia,  so'fe-yii. 
Sogdiana,  sog  di-a'na. 
Sogne  Fjord,  sog'na 

fyor(d). 
Sohar,  so-hiir'. 
Soignies,  swa-nye'. 
Soissons,  swa-son'. 
Sokoto,  so'ko-to. 
Solanaceae,  sol-a-na'si-e. 
Solan  Goose,  so'km. 
Solanum,  so-la'num. 
Soldering,  sod'er-ing. 
Solecism,  sol'i-siz'm, 
Solen,  !-o'len. 

Solenhofen  Stone,  so'leu- 

hO-fen. 
Solenoid,  sol'i-uoid. 
Solent,  so'leiit. 
Soleure,  so-lur'. 
Sol-fa,  sol-fa. 
Solfatara,  sol-fii-ta'ra. 
Solfeggio,  sol-fed'jo. 
Solferino,  suJ-la-re'uo. 
Soli,  SO' II. 

Solicitor,  so-lis'i-tfr. 
Solidago,  sol-i-dil'go. 
Solidus,  sori-du8. 
Solingen,  zo'iing-cn, 
Solis,  f-o-iOs'. 
Solis  y  Ribadeneira,  c  rc- 

bii-Tna-na'ril. 
Solitaire,  sol-i  tar'. 
Solmization,  sol-mi-za'- 

shun. 

Solmona,  sOl-raO'na. 
Solomon,  sd'o-mun, 
Solon,  so'loii. 
Solonovka,  so-lo-nOfkii. 
Solovetski,  so-lo-vet'ski. 
Solstice,  sol'stis. 
Solubility,  sol-u-bil'i-ti. 
Soluble,  solTi-b'l. 
Solutions,  sO-lu'shnns. 
Solvay,  sol'va. 
Solway    Firth,  sol'wa 
f  firth. 

Solyman,  sol'i-man,  or 
Suleiman,  soo  la-miia'. 
Soma,  so'ma. 
Somali,  so-ma'li. 


Somaliland,  -/and. 
Somatology,  sO-ma-toro- 
ji- 

Sombrerete,  sOm-bra-ra'- 
ta. 

Sombrero,  som-bra'rO. 
Somers,  sum'erz. 
Somerset,  sum'er-sct. 
Somersworth,  sum'erz- 

wurth. 
Somerville,  sum'er-vil. 
Somme,  som. 

Somnambulism,  som- 

nam'bu-liz'm. 
Somnath,  som-niit'. 
Somnus,  som'nus. 
Sonata,  so-na'ta. 
Sonchus,  son'kus. 
Sonderbund  "War,  zon'- 

der-boont. 
Sondershausen,  zon'd^rs- 

hou'Z^'D, 

Song-chin,  song-chin'. 
Songhay,  song-gi'. 
Song-koi,  song-koi'. 
Sonmiani,  son-me-a'ne. 
Sonnblick,  zon'blik. 
Sonnenschein,  son'en- 
shTn. 

Sonnino,  son-ne'no. 
Sonora,  so-no'ra. 
Sonpat,  son'put. 
Sonson,  son-son'. 
Sonsonate,  son-so-na'ta. 
Sontag,  zOn'taK. 
Sontai,  son-tl'. 
Sonthals,  sOn-talz'. 
Soochow,  soo'chou'. 
Soot,  soot  07'  soot. 
Sophia,  sO-fi'a. 
Sophists,  sof'ists. 
Sophocles,  sof'5-klez. 
Sophonisba,  so-fo-niz'ba. 
Sophron,  sO'fron. 
Soprano,  sO-pra'no.  ■ 
Sora,  eo'ra. 
Sorata,  so-ra'ta. 
Sorau,  so'rou. 
Sorb,  sorb. 
Sorbonne,  sOr-bon'. 
Sorcery,  s6r'ser-i. 
Sordello,  sor-del'lo. 
Sordes,  sOr'dcz. 
Sorel,  so-rel'. 
Soresina,  so-ra-se'na. 
Sorghum,  eor'gum. 
Sori,  so'ri. 
Soria,  sO're-a. 
Soricidae,  so-ris'i-de. 
Soro,  sor'u'. 
Sorocaba,  so-ro-ka'ba. 
Soroki,  so-rO'ki. 
Soron,  so-ron'. 
Sorrento,  sor-ren'to. 
Sorsogon,  s6r-s5-gOn'. 
Sortes  Virgilianae,  sor'tez 

vur-jil-i-a'ne. 
Soteriology,  so  te  ri  ol'o-ji. 
Sotheby's,  suTu'(^-biz. 
Sothern,  suTu'em. 


Sotteville-les-Rouen,  eot- 
vdl'-lc-roo-afi'. 

Soubise,  soo  bcz'. 

Soudan,  soo-diin'. 

Soufriere,  soo-frc-ar'. 

Soul,  Seoul,  Hu-o?5l',  or 
Han-Yang,  han'yiing'. 

Soulary,  soo-lA-rc'. 

Soule,  sool. 

Soult,  i^oolt. 

Sousa,  soo'za. 

South  Berwick,  bur'wik. 

Southcott,  soiith'kut. 

Southerne,  suTH'^^rn. 

Southey,  t^ouTii'i ;  in  Amer- 
ica often  pron.  suth'i. 

Southington,  suxH'ing-t'n. 

South  MacAlester,  mak- 

al'is-ter. 
Southwark,  suTn'rtrk. 
Southwell,  south'wel. 
Southwold,  soiitli'wold. 
Souvestre,  soo-ves'ti'. 
Souza  -  Botelho,  so'za-ho- 

tel'yo  or  soo-za'-bO-te-Jo'. 
Sovereign,  suv'er-in. 
Sowerby,  sou'er-bi. 
Soy,  soi. 
Soyer,  swa-ya'. 
Spa,  sp;i. 
Spadix,  spa'diks. 
Spagnoletto,  spa-nyo-let'- 

to. 

Spahi,  spa-hg'. 
Spahr,  spar. 
Spalato,  spa'la-to. 
Spalding,  spol'ding. 
Spallanzani,  spal-lan-dza'- 
ne. 

Spandau,  shpan'dou. 
Sparaxis,  spo-rak'sis. 
Sparta,  spiir'ta. 
Spartacus,  spar'ta-kus. 
Spartanburg,  spiir'tan. 
burg. 

Spasmodic,  spaz-mod'ik. 
Spathe,  sptiTH. 
Spathic,  spath'ik. 
Spectroheliograph,  spek'- 

trO-he'li-O-gnif. 
Spectroscopic  Binaries, 

spek-tro-skop'ik  bl'ua- 

riz. 

Spectrum  and  Spectro- 
scope, spek'trum,  spek'- 
trO-skOp. 

Speculum,  spck'u-lum. 

Speculum  Humanae  Sal- 
vationis,  bu-ma'ne  sal- 
va'shi-O'nis. 

Speiss,  spis. 

Spener,  shpa'ner. 

Spennymoor,  spen-i-moor'. 

Spermaceti,  spur-m«-set'i 
or  -se'ti. 

Spermatozoa,  ?pur-ma-to- 
zo'a. 

Spermophyta,  spur-mofi- 

ta. 

Sperrylite,  pper'i-lit. 


676 


APPENDIX  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


Speusippus,  spu-sip'us. 
Spey,  spa. 
Speyer,  spir. 
Spezia,  spet'si-ii. 
Sphaerosiderite,  sfe-ro- 

sid'er-Tt. 
Sphagnum,  sfag'num. 
Sphene,  sfcn. 
Sphenodon,  sfc'no-don. 
Sphenoid,  s^fe'noid. 
Sphere,  s^fer. 

Spherical  Aberration, 

sfer'i-k«l  ab-er-a'.shuu. 
Spherical  Harmonics, 

hjir-nion'iks. 
Spheroid,  sfo'ioid. 
Sphex,  sfeks. 
Sphincter  Muscles ,  sfing'- 

ter. 

Sphinx,  sfiiisks. 
Sphygmograph,  sfig'mo- 

graf. 
Spica,  spi'ka. 
Spicheren,  apich'er-en. 
Spiegel-eisen,  spc'gel- 

i-zen. 

Spielberg,  Klipol'bcrc/t. 
Spielhagen,  ^'llpG^ha-gen. 
Spielmann,  t*perman. 
Spigelia,  spl-je'li-a. 
Spikenard,  spik'nard. 
Spina  Bifida,  m'na  bifi- 
da. 

Spinach,  spin'ej. 
Spinazzola,  spc-nat'sO-la. 
Spinello,  spe-nel'lD. 
Spinet,  spiii'et, 
Spinifex,  spin'i-feks. 
Spinola,  spe-no'lii. 
Spinoza,  spi-no'za. 
Spinthariscope,  spin- 

thar'i-ekop. 
Spiraea,  spi-r5'«. 
Spiranthes,  spT-ran'thez. 
Spirifer,  spir'i-f^r. 
Spitalfields,  spit'al-fcldz. 
Spitz,  spits. 

Spitzbergen,  spits-biir'gen. 
Spitzka,  spiis'ka. 
Splenic  Fever,  splen'ik. 
Splugen,  shplu'gen. 
Spoiford,  spof'erd. 
Spohr,  shpor. 
Spokane,  spO-kan'. 
Spoleto,  spo-la'to. 
Spondee,  spon'de. 
Spondias,  spon'di-as. 
Sponsors,  spon'serz. 
Spontini,  spon-tC'ne. 
Sporadic,  spO-rad'ik, 
Sporer,  shpu'rer. 
Sporozoa,  spo-ro-zo'a. 
Spottiswoode,  spot'is- 
wdbd. 

Spottsylvania,  spot-sil- 

vfi'iii-a. 
Sprengel,  ahprcng'd. 
Sprenger,  shprcngVr. 
Spurgeon,  spur'jun. 
Spurzheim,  shpobrts'him. 


Sputum,  spu'tum. 
Spuyten  Duyvil,  spi't'n 
dl'v']. 

Squadron,  skwod'run. 
Squarcione,  skwiir-cho'na. 
Squier,  skwir. 
Squilla,  skwil'a. 
Squire,  skwir. 
Squirrel,  skwfn'el. 
Srinagar,  s^e-na-giir'. 
Srirangam,  sre-rung'gnm. 
Srivillipatur,  src'vil-i-pa- 
tuor'. 

Ssu-Mao,  Boo'-moti'. 
Staal,  stiil. 

Stabat  Mater,  eta'bat  ma'- 
ter  or  i^ta'bat  ma'ter. 

Stabiae,  sta'bi-e. 

Stability,  sta-bil'i-ti. 

Stachys,  sta'kis  o?'  stak'is. 

Stade,  shta'de. 

Stadholder,  stiit'hol-der. 

Stadium,  sta'di-um. 

Stael,  stiil. 

StafFa,  staf'ct. 

Stafford,  staf'erd. 

Stagirus,  sta-ji'rus. 

Stagnelius,  stag-nri'lo-dbs. 

Stahl,  .-lital. 

Stainer,  shti'ner. 

Stalactites  and  Stalag- 
mites, sta-lak'tlts,  sta- 
lag'inTts. 

Staley,  sta'li. 

Stambul,  stam-bool'. 

Stambulov,  stam-boo'lof. 

Stamens,  sta'menz. 

Stamford,  stam'ferd. 

Stanhope,  stan'up. 

Stanislau,  stii'nis-lou, 

Stanislaus,  stan'is-lOs. 

Stanley,  stan'li. 

Stannaries,  stan'a-riz. 

Stannic  Acid,  stan'ik. 

Stanyhurst,  stan'i-hiirst, 

Stapfer,  stap-fer', 

Staraya-Russa,  sta'ra-yil- 
roos'sji. 

Stara-Zagora,  sta'rii-za'- 
go-ra. 

Stargard,  shtar'giirt. 

Starii-Krim,  star'yi-krena'. 

Staro-Byelsk,  sta'ro- 
byelsk'. 

Starodub,  stii-ro-ddbp'. 

Starokonstantinov,  stii'- 
ro-kou-stiin-tye'iiOf. 

Stas,  stiis. 

Stassfurt,  sbtas'fdbrt. 
Statice,  stat'i-se. 
Statics,  stat'iks. 
Statira,  sta-tl'ra. 
Statistics,  sta-tis'tiks. 
Statins,  stii'shi-us. 
Statute,  stil-too'to. 
Staubbach,  shtoup'baK. 
Staunton,  etiin'tiiii. 
Staurolite,  stu'ro-lit. 
Stavanger,  stil'vang-er. 
Stavesacre,  stavz'a-kcr. 


Stavropol,  stii'vro-pol-y'. 
Stawell,  sto'el. 
Stearic  Acid,  ste-ar'ik. 
Stearin,  stc-'a-rin. 
Steatite,  ste'«-tit, 
Steatornis,  stc-a-tor'nis. 
Stecchetti,  stek-ket'tc. 
Steenstrup,  stan'strdbp. 
Steenwijk,  stan'vik. 
Stefan's  Law,  stef'«nz. 
Steinitz,  shti'nits. 
Steinmetz,  shtin'mets. 
Steinthal,  shtin'tiil. 
Stellaland,  stel'a-laud. 
Stellaria,  ste-la'n-a. 
Stellenbosch,  stelVn-bos. 
Stellerine,  stel'er-in  or 
-in. 

Stelvio  Pass,  stel'vi-O. 
Stenbock,  stan'bok. 
Stendal,  shten'dal. 
Stendhal,  stiin-d&l'. 
Steno,  Hta'nO. 
Stenson's  Duet,  sten'sunz. 
Stentor,  steu'tor. 
Stephanome,  stet'a-nom. 
Stephanotis,  etef-a-no'tis. 
Stephanus,  stef'a-nus. 
Stephens,  ste'venz. 
Stepney,  step'ni. 
Stepniak,  step'niiak. 
Stercorarius,  stur-ko-ni'- 
ri-us. 

Sterculiaceae,  stfii-kuli- 

a'si-e. 
Stere,  ster  or  star. 
Stereo-Chemistry,  stc'ri-o- 

or  ster'i-O-. 
Sterlitamak,  styer-lye-ta- 

miik'. 

Sternberg,  shtern'bcrcA. 
Sternberg,  sturn'burg. 
Sterne,  sturn. 
Sternhold,  sturn'hold. 
Sterrett,  ster'et. 
Stesichorus,  ste-eik'O-rus. 
Stethoscope,  steth'o-skop. 
Stetson,  stet's'n. 
Stettin,  sbte-ten'. 
Steuben,  stu'ben ;  Ger. 

pron.  shtoi'bgn;  (Co. 

N.  y.)  stu-ben'. 
Stewart,  stu'art. 
Steyn,  stm. 
Steyr,  shtTr. 
Stieler,  shte'kr. 
Stier,  ster. 
Stigand,  stlg'and. 
Stigmaria,  stig-ma'ri-a. 
Stilicho,  stil'i-ko. 
Stipa,  sti'pa. 
Stirbey,  ster'ba. 
Stjernhjelm,  styern'yelm. 
Stobaeus,  sto-be'us. 
Stockhausen,  Ger.in-on. 

tshtok'hoii-zen;  Fr.pron. 

stok-O-zan'. 
Stockholm,  stok'holm. 
Stockmar,  ehtok'miir. 
Stoddard,  stod'ard. 


Stoddert,  stod'ert. 
Stoicism,  sto'i-siz'm. 
Stoke  Poges,  stok  pogz  or 

pog'is. 
Stolberg,  slitOl'bercA. 
Stolp,  slitolp. 
Stomata,    sto'ma-ta  or 

8tom'a-ta. 
Stoneham,  stnn'am. 
Stonington,  ston'ing-t'n. 
Stonyhurst,  ston'i-hurst. 
Stornoway,  stor'no-wa. 
Storthing,  stor'ting. 
Stothard,  stoxii'ard. 
Stoughton,  sto'tuu. 
Stour,  stour  or  stoor. 
Strabismus,  stra-biz'mus. 
Strabo,  stra'bo. 
Strachan,  strOn. 
Strachey,  stra'chi. 
Stradella,  stra-del'a. 
Stradivari,  etra-de-va'r6. 
Strafford,  strat'erd. 
Strahlegg  Pass,  shtra'leg. 
Stralsund,  shtral'zdbnt. 
Stramonium,  stra-mo'ui- 

nm. 

Strauahan,  stran'a-han.^ 
Straparola,  stril-pa-ro'la.* 
Strasburger,  shtras'bdbr- 

gev. 

Strassburg,  ehtnis'bdbrc/i. 
Stratford-on-Avon,  a'von 
Strathaven,  strath-a'vcn ; 

locally  stra'v'n. 
Strathciyde,  strath-klid'. 
Strathcona  and  Mount 

Royal,  -ko'iia. 
Strathfieldsaye,  strath- 

feld'sa. 
Strathmore,  -mor'. 
Strathnairn,  -nam'. 
Stratiotes,  strat-i-o'tez. 
Stratigraphy,  stra-tig'- 

r«-fi. 
Strato,  stra'to. 
Stratton,  stiat'un.  , 
Stratum,  stra'tum. 
Stratus,  stra'tuB. 
Straubing,  shtrou'bing. 
Strauss,  shtrous. 
Streatham,  strct'am. 
Streator,  strc't^T. 
Strelitzia,  stre-lit'si-a. 
Strelitz,  shtra'lits. 
Strepsiptera,  strep-sip'- 

tev-a. 

Streptocarpus,    strep -to - 

kiir'pus. 
Striegau,  shtrc'gou. 
Strindberg,  strind'bar-y'. 
Strobel,  strO'bel. 
Stromboli,  strOm'bo-lS. 
Strombus,  strom'bns. 
Stromness,  strom-ness'. 
Stronsay,  stron'sa. 
Strontianite,stron'shMi-lt. 
Strontium,  stron'shi-um. 
Strophanthus,  strO-fan'- 

thus. 


APPENDIX  OP  PRONUNCIATION. 


677 


Strossmaysr,  shtros'ml-er. 
Strother,  etniTH'^r. 
Strcnd.  stroud. 
Struensee,  sbtroo'^n-za. 
Struma,  stroo'ma. 
Struve,  slitroo've. 
Strychnine,  strik'nin. 
Strychnos,  strik'nos. 
Stuh]  weissenburg,  efitool- 

vi'sen-bdbrc^. 
Stukeley,  stnk'li. 
Sturdza^  stwrd'zii. 
Sture,  stoo're. 
Sturluson,  ^tooi-'ldb-son. 
Sturm,  shtoorm. 
Sturm  und  Drang-,  o6nt 

driing. 
Sturt,  sturt. 
Stuttgart,  shtdbt'gart. 
Stuyvesant,  stT've-s«nt. 
Stylites,  sti-li'tez. 
Styptics,  stip'tiks. 
Styria,  stir'i-a. 
Styx,  stiks. 
Suabia,  swa'bi-a. 
Sualieli,  swil-ha'le. 
Suakin,  swii'ken. 
Suarez,  swa'rath. 
Subahdar,  soo'ba-dar. 
Subiaco,  soo-bc-a'ko. 
Succinic  Acid,  suk-sin'ik. 
Succubae,  f^uk'u-be. 
Su-ch.au,  soo'chou'. 
Suchet,  sii-sha', 
Sucre,  soo'kra. 
Sudan,  sdb-dan'. 
Sudd,  Slid. 

Sudermann,  zoo'der-man. 
Sudras,  yhoo'droz. 
Sue,  sii. 
Sueca,  swa'kii. 
Suetonius,  swe-to'ni-us. 
Suevi,  swe'vi. 
Suez,  soo-e//. 
Sufiism,  soo'fi-iz'm. 
Suhl,  zool. 
Suhni,  Koom, 
Suidas,  «u'i-das, 
Sui-fu,  swc'foo'. 
Sui  Juris,  su'I  joo'ris. 
Suir,  shoor. 
Suite,  swet. 
Suja,  soo'ya. 
Sukkur,  suk-kur . 
Sulairaan  Hills,  sdb-la'e- 
man. 

Suleiman  Pasha,  soo'la- 

man  pa-Bhii'. 
Sulina,  gob-lCnii. 
Suliotes,  soo'li-ots. 
Sully-Prudhomme,  sii-le'- 

prli-dom'. 
Sulphides,  Bul'fTdz  or -fidz. 
Sulphonal,  sul'fo-nal. 
Sultan  sul'tan. 
Sultanpur,  sul'tan-pdbr. 
Sulu,  sdb-loo'. 
Sulzer,  zoolt'ser. 
Sumach,  soo'mak  or 

shoo'-. 


Sumarokoff,  Koomii-rO'kOf . 
Sumatra,  soo  ma'tra. 
Sumbawa,  sdbm-ba'wil. 
Sumbul  sum'bnl. 
Sumir,  soo'mcr. 
Sumy,  soo'mc. 
Sunart,  soo'nart. 
Sunbury.  sim'be-ri. 
Sunda  Islands,  suii'd«. 
Sundarbans,  soon'dar- 
biinz. 

Sundsvall,  soons'vjil. 
Sungari,  so^on-ga-rc'. 
Sungei  Ujong,  soong-ga'e- 

oo-jong'. 
Sunium,  su'ni-um. 
Sunn,  snn. 
Sunnites,  pun'its. 
Suppe,  poop'a. 
Surabaya,  soo-ril-ba'ya. 
Surajah  Dowlah,  soo-rii'- 

ja  don'lrt. 
Surakarta,  soo'rii-kar'ta. 
Surat,  soo-nit'. 
Surbiton,  eur'bi-tun. 
Surette,  su-ret'. 
Suricate,  su'ri-kat. 
Surigao,  soo-rc-gii'o. 
Surinam  Toad,soo-rG-nam'. 
Surplice,  sur'plie. 
Surtees,  sur'tez. 
Surya,  sdbr'ya. 
Suryasiddhanta,  soor'ya- 

sed-han'tii. 
Sus  {tn.  Africa),  sooe. 
Susa,  soo'sa. 

Susquehanna,  sus-kwo- 

h;m'a. 
Susten  Pass,  soos'ten. 
Sutlej,  sut'lej. 
Sutras,  soo'triiz. 
Suttee,  sut'e. 
Sutures,  su'turz. 
Suvoroff,  sdb-vo'rof ,  or  Su- 

varoff,  sdb-va'rof. 
Suwalki,  soo-viirko. 
Suwanee,  su-w6'ne. 
Suzdal;  sooz'dal-y'. 
Suzerain,  su'ze-ran. 
Svastika,  svas'ti-k«. 
Sveaborg,  sva'a-bor-y'. 
Svearike,  svii'k-re'ke. 
Svendborg,  sven'bOriv. 
Svendsen,  sven'srn. 
Sverdrup,  svcr'droop. 
Svetchine,  svech-en'. 
Swabia,  swa'bi-ii. 
Swaheli,  swii-ha'le. 
Swami,  swii'mc. 
Swammerdam,  swam'er- 

dam. 

Swanetia,  swa-ne'shi-a. 
Swansea,  swon'zi. 
Swanwick,  swon'ik. 
Swastika,  swils'ti-ka. 
Swatow,  swil'tou. 
Swaziland;  swii'zi-land. 
Swedenborg,  swo'den- 

borg ;    Siv.  pron.  sva'- 

den-bOr-y'. 


Swetchine,  svoch-cn'. 

Swete,  swgt. 

Sweyn,  svan. 

Swilly,  Lough,  Iok  swil'i. 

Swindon,  swin'dun. 

Swinemunde,  svo'ne- 

miin'de. 
Swithin,  swiTii'in. 
Sybaris,  sib'a-ris. 
Sybel,  zc'bd. 
Sycophant,  sik'o-fant. 
Sydenham,  eid'm-am  or 

sid'nam. 
Syene,  sT-e'no. 
Syenite,  si'en-it. 
Sylhet,  sil-het'. 
Sylla,  tsilVt. 
Syllogism,  sil'O-jiz'm. 
Sylt,  silt. 

Sylviidae,  sil-vT'i-dc. 
Symbiosis,  sim-bi-D'sis. 
Syme,  sim. 

Symington,  sim'ing-t'n. 
Symmachus,  sim'a-kus. 
Symmes,  simz. 
Symonds,  sim'unz. 
Symons,  sim'unz. 
Symphoricarpos,  sim'fo- 

ri-kar'pus. 
Symplegades,  sim-plcg'a- 

dez. 

Syncline,  sing'klin. 
Syncope,  sin'ko-pe. 
Syncretism,  sin'kri- 
tiz'm. 

Synergism,  sin'er-jiz'm. 
Synesius,  si-iio'shl-us. 
Synthesis,  sin'thi-sis. 
Syntonin,  sin'to-nin. 
Syphax,  si'faks. 
Syra,  se'rii,  ' 
Sjrracuse,  sir'a-kus. 
Syr  Daria,  ser  diir'ya. 
Syrinx,  sir'ingks. 
Syrlin,  ser'len. 
Syros,  ei'ros. 
Syrtes,  sur'tez. 
Syrus,  sT'rus. 
Syssitia,  si-sish'i-a. 
Syzigy,  siz'i-ji. 
Syzran,  siz-riin'y'. 
Szabadka,  so'bot-ko. 
Szarvas,  sor'vosh. 
Szatmar-Nemeti,  sofmiir- 

na'nie-te. 
Sze-chuen,  se-chwen'. 
Szegedin,  segV-den. 
SzenteSi  sen'tesh. 
Szolnok,  sol'nok. 

Taalfe,  ta'fe. 

Taal,  till. 

Tabaco,  ta-vJl'ko. 

Tabard,  tab'ard. 

Tabari,  ta-ba'ie. 

Tabashir,  tab-a-shcr'. 

Tabes  Dorsalis,  ta'bez 
dor-ya'lis. 

Tableaux  Vivants,  ta- 
ble' ve-van'. 


Tabley,  tab'li. 
Taboo,  tA-boo'. 
Tabor,  ta'b<;r. 
Tabora,  tii-br/ra. 
Taborites,  ta'ber-lts. 
Tabriz,  ta  brCz'. 
Tacca,  tak'«. 
Tache,  ta-sha'. 
Ta-chien-lu,  ta'chen'loS*. 
Tachylite,  tak'i-lit. 
Tacitus,  tan'i-tus. 
Tacloban,  tak'lo-bac. 
Tacna,  tiik'nji. 
Tacoma,  t«-ko'xna. 
Tacsonia,  tak-so'ni-a. 
Tacubaya,  ta-koo-ba'ya. 
Tadmor,  tad'mor. 
Tael,  tal. 
Taenia,  te'ni-a. 
Tafilelt,  taf-i-lelt'. 
Taganrog,  tjig-an-roK'. 
Tagbilaian,  tag-be-la- 
nin'. 

Tagliacozzo,  tal'ya-kot'so. 
Taglioni,  tal-yO'nc. 
Tagus,  ta'gus. 
Tahiti,  ta'he-te  or  ta- 
he'te. 

Tahlequah,  ta-le-kwa'. 
Tahoe,  ta'ho  or  ta'ho. 
Tailfer,  tal'fer. 
Taillandier,  tii-yan-dya', 
Taille,  tl'y'. 
Taillefer,  ta-y'-far'. 
Tainan,  tl'nan'. 
Taiping  Rebellion,  ti'- 

ping'. 

Tai  -  yuan  -  fu,  ti'yoo-an'- 
foo'. 

Tajiks,  ta-zbcks'. 
Taj-Mahal,  tazhma-hal'. 
Takahira,  tii'ka-he'ra. 
Takla-makan-Desert, 

tak'la-ma-kan'. 
Takow,  ta'kou'. 
Taku  Forts,  ta'koo'. 
Talamancans,  tal-«-mang'- 

krtnz. 

Talavera  de  la  Reina, 

ta-la-va'ra  da  la  ra'e-na. 
Talbot,  tol'but. 
Talca,  tal'k«. 
Talcahuano,  tal-ka-wa'nO. 
Talegalla,  tal-i-gal'a. 
Tale-Sap,  ta-ln'siip'. 
Talfourd,  tol'ferd. 
Taliaferro,  tol'i-vsr. 
Talienwan,  ta-len'wan'. 
Taliesin,  tal'i-sin. 
Tali-fu,  ta-le'foo'. 
Talisman,  tal'is  mffn. 
Talladega,  tal-a-de'ga. 
Tallahassee,  tal-«-has'i. 
Tallapoosa,  tal-a-poo'sa. 
Tallemant   des  Reaux, 

tai-miin'  da  rii-O'. 
Talleyrand  de  Perigord, 

ta-la-raii'    de  pa-re- 

gOr'. 

Tallien,  ta-lyan'. 


678 


APPENDIX  OF  PRONUNCIATION 


Tallis,  tal'is. 
Tallmadge,  tal'mej. 
Talmud,  tal'mud. 
Talma,  tal-ma'. 
Talon,  i&-lon'. 
Talos,  ta'los. 
Talpidae.  lal'pi-de. 
Taltal,  tiil-tar. 
TaAUS,  tii'lus. 
Tamaqua,  tji-ma'kwa. 
Tamar,  ta'nuir. 
Tamatave,  ta-mii-til'va. 
Tamaulipas,  ta-mou-lc'- 
piis. 

Tambobong,  tam-bo'bont,'. 
Tambourine,  tam-bdb- 
ren'. 

Tambov,  tiim-bof. 
Tamerlane,  tam'er-lan. 
Tamil,  tii'mil. 
Tammerfors,  ta'mer- 
fors. 

Tammuz,  til'mooz. 
Tampico,  tiim-pe'ltO. 
Tamsui,  tiim'soo'e. 
Tamus,  tri'mus. 
Tana,  ta'na. 
Tanag-ers,  tan'a-jerz. 
Tanagra,  tan'a-gra. 
Tanais,  t.m'a-is. 
Tanaland,  ta'na-land. 
Tanana,  ta-na-na'. 
Tananarivo,  ta-na'nii-re'- 
vO. 

Tanauan,  til-nou-an'. 
Tanda,  tan'da. 
Tandy,  tan'di. 
Taney,  tO'ni. 
Tanga,  tang'gji. 
Tangail,  tan-gnl'. 
Tanganyika,  tan'gan-yc'- 
ka. 

Tanghin,  tang'gin. 
Tangier,  tan-jei'. 
Tanguts,  tiin-goote'. 
Tanis,  til'nis. 
Tanjay,  tiin-hi'. 
Tanjore,  tan-jor'. 
Tannahill,  tan'a-hil. 
Tannhauser,  tau'hoi-zer. 
Tansa,  tan'sii. 
Tansillo,  tan-scrio. 
Tansy,  tan'zi. 
Tantah,  tan'ta. 
Tantallon,  tan-tal'un. 
Tantalum.  tan'ta-Uim. 
Tantalus,  tan  ta-las. 
TantraSj  tan'triiz. 


Tantum  Ergo,  tan'tum 

frr'gO. 
Taoism,  tii'o-iz'm. 
Tapajos,  ta-pa-zhos'. 
Tapir,  ta'per. 
Tappan,  tap'an. 
Tappen,  tap'en. 
Tapti,  tiip'te. 
Tara  Fern,  til'ra, 
Tarai,  ta-ri'. 
Taranaki,  til'rii-Tiii'kg. 
Tarantism,  tar'an-tiz'm. 
Taranto,  tii-riin'to. 
Tarantula,  ta-ran'tu-la. 
Tarapaca,  til'ra-pii-ka', 
Tarare,  ta-riir'. 
Tarascans,  tii-ras'kanz. 

TaraSCOn,  ta-ra-skou'. 

Tarashcha,  la-riish'clia. 
Tarawera,  til'ni-wa'ra. 
Taraxacum,  ta-raks'a- 
kum. 

Tarazona,  ta-ra-tho'na, 
Tarbagatai,  tar-bii-ga-tl'. 
Tarbes,  tiirb. 

Tardigrada,  tar-di-gra'da. 
Tarentum,  ta-ren'tum. 
Tarifa,  ta-re'fa. 
Tarija,  tii-re'ha. 
Tarik,  tii'rek. 
Tarim,  ta-rcm'. 
Tarkington;  tjir'king-t'n. 
Tarlac,  tar'laiv. 
Tarlatan,  tiir'la-tun. 
Tarleton,  taii'tun. 
Tarn-et-Garonne,  tiirn'a- 

ga-ron'. 
Tarnopol,  tiir-no'pOl-y'. 
Tarnow,  tar'uof. 
Taro,  ta'ro. 
Tarpaulin,  tiir-po'Iin. 
Tarpeia,  tiir-jie'ya. 
Tarquinii,  tiir-kwin'i-i. 
Tarquins,  tar'kwinz. 
Tarragona,  tar-ra-gO'na. 
Tarrasa,  tiir-rii'sa. 
Tarshish,  tiir'shish. 
Tarsipes,  tai'si-pez. 
Tartaric  Acid,  tar-tar'ik. 
Tartarus,  tiir'ta-rus, 
Tartini,  tar-t5'ne. 
Tarudant,  til  rdb-dant'. 
Taschereau,  tash-rd'. 
Tasgaon,  tiis-goun', 
Tashi-Lama,  ta'she-Ul'mii. 
Tashkend,  tiish-kent'. 
Tasman,  tas'man, 
Tasmania,  laz-ma'ni-a. 


Tasso,  tiis'eo. 

Tassoni,  tas-sO'nS. 

Tatar-Bazardjik,  ta-tar'- 
ba-ziir-jek'. 

Tatian,  ta'shan. 

Tatius,  ta'shi-u8. 

Tatta,  tiit'ta. 

Tattersall,  iat'er-s61. 

Tau  Beta  Pi,  ton  bc'ta  (or 
ba'rr/)  pT. 

Tauchnitz,  touK'nits. 

Tauern  Alps,  tou'ern. 

Tauler,  tou'ler. 

Taung-ngu,  toung'n'goo'. 

Taunton,  tan'tim  or  ton- 
tun, 

Taunus  Mtc,  tou'noos. 
Taupo,  tou'po. 
Tauranga,  ton-rang'ga. 
Taurida,  lo'ri-da, 
Taurus,  tO'rus. 
Taussig,  to'sig. 
Tautog,  to'tog. 
Tavastehus,  ta-v;is't<?-hiis. 
Tavernier,  ta-var-nya'. 
Tavira,  ta-vo'ra. 
Tavoy,  ta-voi'. 
Taxidermy,  tak'f^i-dur- 
mi. 

Taxodium,  tak-sO'di-um. 
Tay,  ta'. 

Tayabas,  ta-yii'bas. 
Taytay,  ti-tr. 
Tayup,  tii-yoop'. 
Tazewell,  taz'wel. 
Tchad,  chad. 
4  Tchaikowsky,  cbi-kof'ski. 
Tchelyuskin,  chel-yoos'- 
kin. 

Tcherkesses,  cher-kes'ez. 
Tchernaiev,  cher-na'yef. 
Tchernigov,  cher-ne'gof. 
Tchernyshevsky,  cher-ni- 

shef'ski. 
Tchikhatchev,  che-Ka'- 

rhef. 

Tchuktches,  chook'cbcz. 
Teche,  Bayou,  bi'oo  tesh'. 
Tecoma,  te-kr/ma. 
Tecumseh,  tc-kum'seh, 
Te  Deum  Laudamus,  to 

de'um  16-da'mus. 
Tees,  tez. 
Tegea,  to'gc-a. 
Tegernsee,  ta'gem-za. 
Tegetmeier,  teg'et-mT-er. 
TegetthofF,  ta'get-hof. 
Tegner,  teng-ySr'. 


Tegucigalpa,  ta  gdb-se- 

gill'pa. 
Tehama,  ta-ha'ma. 
Teheran,  te-h'ran', 
Tehuantepec,  ta-wante- 

pek'. 

Tehuelches,  ta-wel'chaz, 
Teignmouth,  tin'muth. 
Tekir-dagh,  ta-kcr-diiK'. 
Telamon,  tcl'a-mon. 
Telautograph,  tel-6'to- 

graf. 
Telav,  tye-laf. 
Telegonus,  te-leg'o-nus. 
Telegony,  tc-leg'o-ui. 
Telemachus,  te-lem'a-kus. 
Telemeter,  te-lem'e-ter. 
Teleology,    tc-li-ol'o-ji  or 

tel-i-. 

Teleosaurus,  te-lc-O-sd'rus 

or  tel-C-0-. 
Teleosteans,  -os'ti-anz. 
Telephus,  tel'i-fuB. 
Telescopium,  tel-i-8ko'pi- 

nm. 

Tell-el-Amarna,  tel'-el-a- 

miir'na. 
Tell-el-Kebir,  tel'-el-ka- 

bOr'. 
Tellez,  tel'yath. 
Tellecherri,  iel-i-cher'i. 
Tel-loh,  tcl'lo'. 
Telluride,  tei'n-rld. 
Telshi,  tyel'she. 
Telugu,  tcl'oo-goo. 
Temax,  te-mash'. 
Tembuland,  tem'boo-land.. 
Temenos,  tem'^-nos. 
Temesvar,  tera'esh-var. 
Tempe,  tem'pe. 
Tempera,  tem'p^'-ra. 
Temps,  Le,  \e  tiifi'. 
Temuco,  ta-moo'ko. 
Tenafly,  ten'a-fll. 
Tenasserim,  te-nas'e-rim. 
Tencin,  tan-san'. 
Tenda,  ten'da. 
Tenedos,  ten'e-dos. 
Tenerife,  ten-e-rif. 
Tengri  Khan,  teng'grfe 

Kiin'. 

Teng-yueh,  teng'-yoo'eh. 
Teniers,  ten-yar';  Eroj. 

pron.  ten'yerz. 
Tenison,  ten'i-pun. 
Tenkasi,  ten-ka'se. 
Ten  Kate,  ten  ka'w. 
Tenneanan,  ten'e-man. 


no  IJELSON'S 
338  Perpetual 

Loose-leaf 
Encyclopaedia 

Directions  for  entering  this  loose-leaf  riaterial 
nto  three  holed  binders.  There  are  envelopes  for 
he  superseded  pages* 

All  of  the  sheets  to  be  entered  for  one  given 
rim©  are  in  one  complete  section*    The  first  page 
►f  each  section  has  a  list  of  the  renewal  pa^es  to 
►e  entered.    Also  the  date  and  season  will  appear 
ust  below  the  title.    The  pa^e  numbers  will  be 
isted  under  the  particular  volume  in  which  they  are 
'o  be  placed.    In  the  event  that  a  new  subject  is 
ntroduced  of  great  length,  a  section  of  teiaporary 
ia^-es  are  i-rinted  to  be  inserted  until  the  entire 
roiume  is  revised.    Directions  for  entering  these 
ienporary  pages  accompany  the  sect  ion- -such  as 
'Elections  in  the  United  States,  1940«  follow  page 
>72  in  volume  four.  ^ 

If  a  nevv  subject  or  iten  of  a  person  is  added,  the 
)a.^e  nunbers  will  be  added  to  for  specification  such 
is'pages  61,  6la,  6lb,  6lc,  then  62.    This  happens 
because  page  61  can  no  lon^r  hold  all  of  tha 
material  that  it  one  held.    There  are  aaay  sections 
In  the  twelve  voluraes  that  grow  in  just  this  laanner. 
3e  careful  when  inserting  pa^^es,  that  illustrations, 
colored  plates  and  maps  are  saved  from  the  old  paces 
md  olaced  in  their  proper  places  among  the  new  pages. 

The  second  pare  of  each  s^^oup  is  a  list  of  minor 
corrections  to  be  written  in  the  mrgin  by  pen  and 
Lnk#    This  is  tejmporary  until  new  pages  are  sent  to 
replace  the  superseded  ones.    Exaniple— In  volurael, 
oape  16,  appears  an  article  on  Abbot,  Mathan,  whose 
ieath  occurred  in  1941.    '^e  date  of  death  is  noted 
on  the  list  of  corrections  for  volune  1  and  the  reader 
aas  but  to  turn  to  page  indicated  and  write  the  correc 
tion  on  the  mrran. 

The  word  "superseded*^  should  be  written  or  stamped 
and  placed  in  tlie  envelopes  so  marked.    Also  super-v-^.;  - 
mtiS(  "^^^  direction  sheets  in  the  same  manner. 


